‘SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

AT KARAN NAGAR JAMMU’

Dissertation Report For The Course

MASTER’S DEGREE PROGRAMME FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCES (PSESDC401)

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the

degree of

Master’s of Science in Environmental Sciences

By

SAIMA KOSSER (Roll No: 27-ENV-17,

Semester: 4)

Department of Enironmental Sciences

University of Jammu

1
 Certificate of Approval

This is to certify that the work entitled “Solid Waste Management at

KARAN NAGAR JAMMU” submitted by Saima Kosser (27-ENV-17) has been
carried out under my supervision in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Masters Degree In Science (M.Sc.) at University of Jammu and this work has
not been submitted elsewhere for any other academic degree to the best of my
knowledge.

Sri. Dr. Raj Kumar Rampal

Professor
Department of Environmental Sciences.
University of Jammu

Date :05-06-2019
Place : Karan Nagar,Jammu
 CONTENTS

S.No. Title
1 Acknowledgement

2 Abstract

3 Introduction

Classification of Solid Waste

4
Important Highlights of SWM Rules,2016
5
Status of MSW in J&K (2015-16)
6
Suggestive/Indicative Guidelines
7
Effects of Waste and Poor Waste Disposal on the Environment
8
Methods of Handling Solid Waste
9
Salvage and Recovery of Solid Waste
10
Process of Solid Waste Management
11
Objectives of Solid Waste Management
12
Considerations for Solid Waste Management
13
Deficiencies Associated with Solid Waste Management System
14 (SWM)
Recycling of Waste Materials
15
Need for Proper Waste Management Programme
16
17 Analysis of Waste Generation at Karan Nagar

18 Results and Discussion

19 Conclusion

20 References
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude and indebtedness to Sri. Dr. Raj

Kumar Rampal. Professor Department of Environmental Sciences,University
of Jammu, for introducing the present topic and for his inspiring guidance ,
constructive criticism and valuable suggestions throughout this work.

I would also express my gratitude to all the Faculty members of Department

of Environmental Sciences,University of Jammu, for their guidance and the
support they have provided me.
 ABSTRACT

Rapid urbanization in modern societies has led to increased human

population and activities in Jammu city leading to the production of very large
amount of solid waste.The status of solid waste of the city, generating large
amount of solid waste should be reviewed timely. The present study is
conducted with regards to the status of solid waste generated in the Karan Nagar
Area of Jammu City. In Jammu city, the total solid waste generated is around
368 tonnes a day with per capital generation rate of 450 gm. There are 453
collection points and the waste is transported to a dumping site at Bhagwati
Nagar. The solid waste generation sources are mainly domestic waste, road
sweeping,commercial waste, industrial waste, biomedical waste, garden waste,
slaughter house waste and other solid waste. All solid waste is collected from
door to door and send it to a common storage and treatment site. Apart from the
municipal solid waste the biomedical waste management is done separately.
Certain private enterprises collect, transport and separate the biomedical waste
from the registered Corporation, Government, private hospitals and dispensaries
through closed vehicles.Jammu City is rapidly developing in industrial sector,
thus the waste generation has also increased to a large extent. So considering the
overall situation or the status of the solid waste in the Jammu city, it can be
stated that there is need for more appropriate measures to adopt and manage the
solid waste as compared to the daily generation of waste.

This present study is to investigate the problems and prospects of solid

waste in the Karan Nagar area of Jammu City. The investigation includes the
methods of practices associated with sources, quantity generated, collection,
transportation, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste in Jammu City. In
this work, it is intended to collect the data using questionnaire, field visit, and
interaction with inhabitants.
1.0. Introduction

Solid waste is being produced since the beginning of civilization. Solid

waste (SW) is the material that no longer has any value to the person who is
responsible for it and is not intended to be discharged through a pipe. During
the early period, solid wastes were conveniently and unobtrusively disposed
off as the density of population was low with large open land space. Rapid
urbanization has led to increased human population in the cities. It is generated
by domestic, commercial, industrial, healthcare, agricultural and mineral
extraction activities in street and public places. It has led to production of very
large amount of municipal solid wastes. The natural environment however, has
a limited capacity to assimilate these wastes resulting in environmental
pollution, erosion and degradation of natural ecosystem. This municipal solid
waste normally termed as “garbage” is an inevitable byproduct of human
activity which is disposed through dumping.
The collection, transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes
involve a large expenditure but receive scant attention (Bhide, 1983). Solid
waste management is becoming a major public health and environmental
concern problem in urban areas of developing countries.
The solid waste generated from the industrial sector are heterogeneous
ranging from inert inorganic as those produced in mining to organics from
those producing basic consumer product, and may include even hazardous
waste as in nuclear industry.
The disposal of municipal solid waste is one of the more serious and
controversial urban issues facing local governments in the United States, and
indeed most technologically developed countries (Cheremisinoff, 2005).
Municipal solid waste comprises every day items, such as product packings,
grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers,
appliances, paint, batteries, and other consumer related product forms. The
composition depends upon number of factors such as lifestyles of population,
their relative standards of living, general consumer pattern and the level of
technological advancement of particular countries(Cheremisinoff, 2005). The
Municipal solid waste generation, composition and its impact is difficult to
predict and can have an ambiguous overall effect.
The situation in India particularly in the capital cities is severe. In
general solid waste management is given a very low priority and as a result,
very limited funds are provided for solid waste management by the
government. Solid waste management practices still differ widely through out
the world in Japan burns more than 70 % of the solid waste, while more than
84% of American waste goes into landfills. Unfortunately, both methods
contribute to increased pollution .Jammu city is growing very fast with its
population as well as industries .This increase is leading to production of large
quantity of solid waste and that has to be managed properly
2.0. Methods of Handling Solid Waste:
The physical nature of a waste may determine its handling characteristics.
The following are common handling methods:
(i) Solids, semi-solids, some wet materials, sticky, or tarry substances may be
handled by front- end loaders or buckets.
(ii) Viscous liquids may be pumped by special pumps.
(iii) Liquids are handled by normal pumping equipment.
(iv) Packages may be handled in cartons, and
(v) Some materials are handled in fiber-pack drums.

2.1. Solid Waste Shredders:

Such machines can convert rubbish into a form more easily and economically
handled for processing. Hammer mills in one adaptation or another, are the
most commonly used size reduction machines.
2.2. Compactors:

Such machines can compact refuse. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders exert

forces as high as 50 tons and reduce the original volume of refuse by 60 to
80%.
2.3. Incineration Equipment:
Solid and chemical wastes are often disposed of with the help of incinerators.
Incinerators can be classified on the basis of burner chamber or fuel bed.
2.4. Common Practices for Solid Waste Disposal:
In most solid waste disposal methods, the main aim is to treat the refuse in
such a way as to render it safe and sterile so that upon returning it to the
environment, it will not pollute the air, water or land.

There are presently only three disposal methods which are practical for
most industrial applications:
(1) Haulaway loose:
Waste is removed from plant for disposal by means such as landfill,
incineration etc. Hauling away means exporting the refuse as loose material.

(2) Haulaway Compacted:

If the amount of refuse is large, refuse is compacted and then disposed off. It is
a very popular waste disposal method for industrial installations.

(3) On site Incineration:

On site incineration is generally accepted as a good method for disposing of

solid wastes. Industrial waste is burned efficiently and economically without
polluting the air.

3.0. Salvage and Recovery of Solid Waste:

Many experts feel that the only lasting solution for the solid waste disposal
problem lies in recycling and reuse of wastes (Fig. 33.3).
3.1. Waste processing has the following advantages:
(i) Added revenue.
(ii) Less waste to be disposed of.
(iii) Less transportation costs of waste.
(iv) Processed residue waste is put into a form which makes it suitable for land
reclamation.
3.2. Steps involved in salvaging and recovery:
(i) Receiving the raw industrial waste and conveying it to a salvage-separation
area.
(ii) Separating the salvageable materials from waste materials to be further
processed.
Ferrous and nonferrous materials can be separated using magnets, cardboard
and paper products can also be removed and placed onto the paper salvage
conveyor for entry into the paper processing system.
(iii) Unsalvaged waste residue is conveyed to the main pulverizer unit,

(iv) Compaction system is employed to compact the pulverized residue for

disposal

4.0. Process of Solid Waste Management:

(a) Solid Waste Utilisation:
A developing country cannot afford wastage. By proper utilisation of solid
waste a developing country like India can avail of many advantages, for
instance.

(a) Waste utilisation directly or indirectly contributes to economic development.

(b) Waste utilisation generate employment opportunities.

(c) United solid wastes create environmental hazards by spreading diseases and
causing air and water pollution.

(d) Waste utilisation helps to generate many useful products which are the basic
necessities of life.

4.1. Resources recovery or waste utilisation is achieved by three techniques:

1. Reuse i.e. a given material has multiple uses.

2. Reclamation i.e. a component of the waste is recovered for use in a manner

different from its original use.

3. Recycling i.e. isolating the material from which a given product was made
and reintroducing it into the production cycle for production of the same
product.

(b) Recycling and Reuse of Solid Wastes:

Recycling and reuse of the waste helps to reduce the problem of waste disposal.
Resource recovery is a method to run wastes into resource recovering usable
products- both materials and energy. As the disposal cost are expected to rise
continuously due to increase in land price, and pollution controls, resource
recovery is becoming more common and finding more favour.

About 70% by weight of municipal solids waste from domestic and commercial
areas is combustible. But still only a small percentage of the resources is being
recovered.

In some municipal solid waste processing facilities, the combustibles are

separated from the non-combustibles. The combustibles are then shredded and
burnt in utility boilers or industrial boilers as a primary fuel or as a
supplementary to fossil fuel. This type of solid waste processing operation is
known as a refuse derived fuel (RDF) system, RDF is used to supplement other
fuel sources in a ratio of 20% RDF to 80% soils fuels.
It was reported that 29 RDF systems were operated in USA for power
generation as early as in 1983. Processing 1250 to 18,000 tonnes of waste per
week. Incineration and RDF technology seem to be competitive in cost. The
plastic scrap or waste should be collected from the consumers or intercepted on
its way from consumers to the municipal refuse site.

5.0. Objectives of Solid Waste Management:

The principal objectives of solid waste management to control, collect, treat,

utilize and dispose of the solid wastes in an economical manner consistent with
the protection of public health.

6.0.Considerations for Solid Waste Management:

The major considerations of concern with solid waste management apart from
the economics are:

(A) Public health,

(B) Waste separation for recycling, and

(C) Energy recovery.

A. Public Health:
Under warm and moist conditions, and particularly with the help of vectors
(carries) like water, air, food, rodents, mosquitoes and flies, organic solid wastes
are ideal breeding places for pathogenic organisms.

Potentially hazardous substances like solvent and pesticide cans, medical wastes
and asbestos debris present in solid wastes, air pollution from gaseous and
particulate emissions from land fill sites and municipal incinerators, etc., also
present some additional environmental concerns related to solid waste disposal.

Further, the solid waste management strategies should also take into account the
possible deterioration of ground water quality because of land filling of solid
wastes, residues from incinerators and leachates from the decomposing refuse.
B. Waste Separation for Recovery and Recycling:
Recovery and recycling of some of the resources in solid wastes, although a
very appealing idea is rather difficult in practice. Expensive materials such as
some metals are found to be economical to recycle by industries. Returnable
bottles and refundable cans may be recycled from municipal wastes.

Separation of wastes at source is warranted and feasible only when the

reclaimed materials find reasonable market. However, this concept of waste
separation at source is receiving increasing attention in some developed
countries due to the dwindling landfill capacity, economic incentives, improving
markets for the reclaimed materials, environmental concerns and political will.

C. Energy Recovery:
Recovery of energy from municipal solid wastes can be achieved by the
following two ways:

(i) Solid wastes can be burnt directly in incinerators or converted to more

efficient “refuse-derived fuel” (RDF). Pyrolysis and anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter in solid wastes are the other method’s available for recovering
the fuel value of solid wastes.

(ii) Reuse of the recovered materials from solid wastes is the other principal
mode of energy conservation. Obviously, mining and manufacture of ferrous
and nonferrous metals starting from mining of the ores is so energy intensive
that reuse of these metals is certainly justified from the stand point of energy
conservation.

7.0. Deficiencies Associated with Solid Waste Management System

(SWM):

(i) Rapidly Increasing Areas to be Served and Quantity of Waste:

The solid waste quantities generated in urban centres are increasing due to rise
in the population and increase in the per capita waste generation rate. The
increasing solid waste quantities and the areas to be served strain the existing
SWM system.

(ii) Inadequate Resources:

While allocating resources including finance, SWM is assigned with a low
priority resulting in inadequate provision of funds. Often there is a common
budget for collection and treatment of sewage and SWM and the later receives a
minor share of the funds. The inadequacy of human resource is mainly due to
the absence of suitably trained staff.
(iii) Inappropriate Technology:
The equipment and machinery presently used in the system are usually that
which have been developed for general purpose or that which have been
adopted from other industry. This results in underutilization of existing
resources and lowering of the efficiency.

A few attempts have been made to borrow the technology developed in other
countries like highly mechanised compost plants, incinerator-cum-power plants,
compactor vehicles etc. However, these attempts have met with little success,
since, the solid waste characteristics and local conditions in India are much
different from those for which the technology is developed.

(iv) Disproportionately High Cost of Manpower:

Mostly out of the total expenditure, around 90% is accounted for manpower of
which major portion is utilised for collection. Since citizens tend to throw the
waste on the adjoining road and outside the bin, the work of the collection staff
is increased. Hence, the cost of collection increases considerably.

(v) Societal and Management Apathy:

The operational efficiency of SWM depends on the active participation of both
the municipal agency and the citizens. Since the social status of SWM is low,
there is a strong apathy towards it, which can be seen from the uncollected
waste in many areas and the deterioration of aesthetic and environmental quality
at the uncontrolled disposal sites.

(vi) Low Efficiency of the System:

The SWM system is unplanned and is operated in an unscientific way. Neither
the work norms are specified nor the work of collection staff appropriately
supervised. The vehicles are poorly maintained and no schedule is observed for
preventive maintenance.

Due to shortage of financial resources, the vehicles are often used beyond their
economical life resulting in inefficient operation. Further, there is no
coordination of activities between different component of the system. The
cumulative effect of all these factors is an inefficient SWM system.

8.0.Recycling of Waste Materials:

8.1. Crushing of materials.

Thermal deposition of waste organic in the form of gas and oil getting food
sources as livestock from organic waste.
8.2. Melting plastic and moulding

Melting blast furnace slag for making artificial jewellery converting waste in
solid fuel.

Compositing garbage and using as manure

Utilizing refuse for land fill

8.3.Materials products made from waste:

Water work silt

Red mud from Aluminium industries

Sugar factories waste

Agricultural waste: Paper, paper board, coconut, arece-nut, cashew-nut, fly-ash.

A tonne of solid waste processed by pyrolysis is believed to yield an energy

equivalent of one barrel of oil. The city of Baltimore reportedly operated
commercial scale facility in 1975 to produce 4.8 million pound of steam daily
from the low-BTU gas generated by pyrolysis of municipal solid waste.

Thus saving of 357,000 barrels of oil annually was accomplished, in addition to

the revenue earned from ferrous metals sorted out and the sale of glassy
aggregate for use in cone race manufacture and street paving. Economic
viability of full-scale commercial pyrolysis facility has still not been proved
beyond doubt. The advantage of pyrolysis is that it produces a more generally
useful and transportable form of energy.
ss

9.0Need for Proper Waste Management Programme:

For an effective implementation of proper waste management programme, it is
necessary to have holistic approach to tackle the issue. This would mean
undertaking public awareness campaign, setting up of organized collection
chain of plastics waste, incinerators or recycling units.

Instead of launching campaigns like “Ban Plastics” or “Use No Plastics” we

must educate the people to propagate the avoidance of wrong littering habits
among the public. We must have campaigns on “Ban Littering” and “Punish the
Litterer”.

In any of these campaigns or establishment of disposal systems, the

involvement of Government, industry and public is very important. In this
context, it would be worthwhile considering the establishment of model cities
for waste disposal system in major plastics consumption zones.

This system must encompass waste disposal, collection, segregation, processing

and recycling, besides public awareness campaigns on wrong waste disposal
habits and compliance to scientific disposal systems. The plastics industry must
debate this concept to give it a final shape. These cities would act as models for
others to emulate. We can also take a cue from the Western world on
mechanised handling and disposal systems.

Another aspect which demands attention is establishing a centre for product

development for recycled products and scientific waste management system,
which can be a nodal institution for recycling and reusability of plastics.
Because once we show the way to the people in the industry how they can
profitably establish a unit for making different products out of waste, the
magnitude of this problem can be reduced to a great extent. Polymer
manufacturers including GAIL can extend their support to the industry in this
regard.

Another important issue that is to be addressed by this industry is the bio-

degradability of plastics. This is going to be a real challenge to the scientific
community and any breakthrough in this area would be a real boon to the plastic
industry.

It is appropriate here to quote an interesting fact from a study report published

by International Energy Agency, Paris on carbon di-oxide emission. According
to this study, the per capita CO, emission is 0.91 MT in India. It is 20.46 MT in
USA and surprisingly it is the highest at 63.11 MT in Qatar, a small country.

The world average is 3.88 MT. definitely, we are far ahead, compared to other
countries. There is tremendous scope to preserve our environment if we
undertake scientifically planned preventive actions. The issue of environment
has to be addressed with the right perspective by bringing in professionalism in
our Environment Management Strategies. It demands as much attention as our
business.

10.0. Resources Conservation and Recovery:

Many materials, such as steel scrap, which have been recycled for years are
even more attractive with the increased cost of energy because greater power
and fuel usage is required to produce virgin steel from the recycle scrap
materials.

Recovery is Necessary:
1. For Reuse (conservation):
Direct reuse of the recovery by some treatment process that would convert it
back into initial form.

Example:

The scrap automobile buses where scrap automobile is almost recycled to the
basic metals from which it was made.

2. For Heat:

This might involve the recovery of heat from fossil fuel, generating systems,
such as boilers furnace and ovens etc.

3. For other Purposes:

Waste material changed in character and is useful because of some reprocessing.

Metal Recovery:
It is possible to improve the separation of metallic wastes in a plant and also
possible to reprocess with in the plant.

Ferrous Metal:

Separation of this material is easy because they are easily magnetically

separated. The recycling of a ferrous material from a manufacturing facility is
relatively straight forward since a company manufacturing equipment made of
steel will have steel scrap for sell.

The material is put through a crusher where size reduction tends to make the
particles more uniform. Large pieces of metal if malleable are normally sorted
out on the feeder ahead of the crusher or put through an impact type crusher.
The material is send to grinder and clean, free from nonmetallic waste, metal is
found. It is then screened and finished high grade metallic product is found.
By recovering and recycling two important objectives are achieved:

(1) A valuable resource has been made available for reuse,

(2) A valuable space in a landfill.

11.0.Management of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries:

Protection of the health and environment through the proper management of

municipal solid wastes is beginning to gain importance in economically
Developing Countries (DCs). Uncontrolled and improper management and
disposal of municipal solid wastes and contaminated water sources are major
threats to public health and environmental quality in DCs.

Although these threats are very real, pollution control and environmental
improvement have been relegated historically to a low status in many DCs,
while governmental policies emphasized industrial development.

Recently, however, environmental quality in most DCs has deteriorated to a

level at which it can no longer be ignored. The result has been a substantial
concern and intensification to efforts to find and apply means of reversing the
deterioration and of raising environmental quality to an acceptable level.

Environmental degradation is especially serious and evident in the larger cities

and their surrounding metropolitan areas. These areas have become
overcrowded in the extreme, mostly due to the influx of migrants from the rural
areas to the metropolitan centers.
This migration has taken place at a rate such that the capacity of municipalities
to provide even the most basic of services is greatly exceeded. The problem is
compounded by the fact that most of these cities have expanded their
boundaries in an uncontrolled manner.

The explosive growth of the affected cities usually is characterized by the

development of human settlements in the outskirts of the cities, as well as
within the city boundaries in vacant lots, abandoned buildings, and similar
areas. In the human settlement of these cities, water supply services are not
available, and sewage and solid waste collection are nonexistent. Typically
roads are unpaved and narrow, and accessibility for organized solid waste
collection is difficult.

Basically, the typical situation in large municipalities of developing countries is

one in which available resources (human, financial, etc.) are not sufficient to
provide adequate municipal services to the mainstream of the population, or to
those residing in human settlements.

Recently, the risks to the public health and to the environment in large
metropolitan areas has become intolerable. Public officials recognize the risks
and the close relation between pollution control and public health.
Consequently, governments, in cooperation with some international lending
institutions, have started to take steps to implement some measures of pollution
control related to solid waste management.

11.1. Data Collection and Planning:

Two problems in particular are associated with data collection and planning in
DCs: the lack of locally available trained personnel and the need for relevant
data.

(i) Lack of Locally Available Trained Personnel:

Most universities and other education institution in DCs fail to offer curricula in
solid waste management. This neglect results in a serious lack of trained human
resources necessary for the planning and implementation waste management
system. Consequently, DCs often times solicit and rely on the services of
advisors from industrialized countries.

External advice will be of little utility unless the advisors are aware of the
substantial differences in the social, cultural, financial, and environmental
conditions and in the waste characteristics between DCs and those of the native
country of the advisors. The reason is obvious— the conditions and waste
characteristics are significantly different.
The result is that alternatives and technologies that are acceptable and practical
in an industrialized country are seldom directly applicable to conditions in a
developing country. Either the technologies must be modified, usually
substantially, or they may in fact be completely incompatible. Efforts to directly
transfer technology and practice from an industrialized nation to a DC usually
do not meet with success and frequently fail miserably.

Such efforts generally are the result of a lack of understanding of the local
conditions in DCs. An understanding of the conditions requires the collection of
certain key data as well as a knowledge of the social, cultural, financial, and
environmental conditions prior to the preparation of a plan of action.

(ii) Need for Basic Solid Waste Data:

Some of the required basic data are those that deal with quantity, composition,
and characteristics of the waste generated in the developing country. In addition,
information should be collected on current waste management practices in the
DC, e.g., storage, collection, final disposal, availability of equipment,
maintenance procedures, availability of human resources, budget, and sources
of revenue. Preferably, these data should be collected by experienced and
trained personnel.

If there is not sufficient time for collecting data in the field, then the data should
be obtained from reliable sources and should be critically evaluated. A critical
evaluation of data is extremely important because it enables a determination of
the accuracy of the information and subsequently justifies any needed
modification to the data as a consequence of the evaluation.

The characterization of the waste is an important element in the development of

a realistic and sustainable solid waste management program. One reason is that
successful management and processing of wastes depends on the types and
composition of the material.

Waste generation rates and composition vary substantially among developing

countries as illustrated by the data in Table 5.1. Wide variation are apparent
from observation of the data in the table, for example, the percentages of paper,
glasses; plastics/rubber/leather; and ceramics/dust/stones.
The substantial putrescible content of the wastes in DCs (22% to 75%) results in
moisture contents and bulk densities of waste that are significantly greater than
those encountered in most industrialised countries.

The bulk density of residential wastes in DCs varies from 11 to 24 I b/ft3. The
average density of wet organic matter ranges from 30 to 35 1 b/ft3. Because
bulk density is very sensitive to moisture content, care must be exercised in the
collection and reporting of data concerning bulk density.

The desired level of detail regarding waste composition depends upon the type
of treatment system to be used in processing the waste and the method of final
disposition.

For example, in a developing country, the preparation of a waste management

plan in which land filling would be the primary means of final disposal would
depend mostly upon information on types (domestic, commercial, industrial,
etc.) and quantities of waste to be disposed. A cursory knowledge of the
composition of the waste would be sufficient.

On the other hand, a waste management plan in which resource recovery and
recycling are key components would be greatly dependent upon detailed
information regarding the characteristics of the waste (e.g. composition, bulk
density and moisture content), as well as quantities.

11.2.Storage, Collection and Transport:

Although the utilization of data obtained in one region or country and

application of the data to other regions or countries is technically inappropriate,
some important similarities are evident in activities pertaining to storage,
collection, and transport of solid waste.

The generalities presented are based on observations made by the authors in the
course of studies carried out by them in several DCs in Asia, Africa, Central and
South American, and in the Caribbean, as well as observations by others in
various DCs. Since all observation pertain to DCs, no further reference to that
fact is made in the discussion.

a).Storage Containers:

Containers used for storage of solid wastes are of many shapes and sizes, and
are fabricated from a variety of materials. The type and applicability of the
containers generally reflect the economic status of its user (i.e., the waste
generator).

Types of containers include newspaper wraps, baskets, cardboard boxes, plastic

bags, and metal or rigid plastic containers. The wide variety of container types
and shapes commonly encountered within a community creates difficulty in
establishing and operating an efficient solid waste collection system.

Several cities make use of communal containers (bins). The containers generally
are constructed of metal, concrete, or a combination of the two. Communal
containers may reduce the cost of waste collection, and can minimize problems
associated with lack of storage space on site.

However, some problems are inherent in the use of such communal

containers, including:

1. Depending upon the type of communal container, removal and transfer of the
wastes from the container to the collection or transport vehicle may be difficult
and time consuming.

2. If the bins are not emptied on a regular basis, the contents may be set on fire
or illegal dumps may be established at the location.

3. Scavengers and animals may have access to the waste in the containers.

In human settlements, it is common practice to use two problems in particular

are associated with data collection and planning in DCs: the lack of locally
available trained personnel and the need for relevant data.

b). Collection and Transport:

A broad assortment of methods and equipment is used for the collection of

wastes. The methods range from labor intensive to fully mechanized. Types of
equipment and vehicles extend from simple hand-drawn wagons or bins to
modern waste collection vehicles.

The typical collection crew consists of three or four workers, although crews of
as few as two or as many as eight have been observed. In some instances, the
crew may be augmented by unauthorized individuals who take part in the
collection activity in order to scavenge materials from the wastes. The usual
situation is that the collection activity is characterized by excessive handling
and use of inefficient methods.

Compactor trucks, both of the rear and front loading variety, are found in many
countries. Unfortunately, the use of such trucks is becoming increasingly
popular, despite the fact that generally little, if any, additional compaction
occurs in the vehicle because the loose wastes have a high bulk density.
Furthermore, some complex features and consequences are associated with the
use of compaction vehicles some of which may not be evident or considered at
the time that vehicle is purchased.

They are:

1. The need to adequately match compaction chamber to the truck chassis.

2. The possibility of the weight of the truck (and its load of waste) exceeding
the bearing capacity of roadways.

3. Inaccessibility of the vehicle to remote areas and narrow streets.

4. The requirement for adequate facilities and trained personnel to conduct

complex repairs and preventive maintenance, particularly of the hydraulic
system; and

5. The need for a readily-available source of spare parts to maintain the

regularity of the collection service.

Although preventive maintenance is necessary to maintain a collection fleet in

proper operating condition, neglect of preventive maintenance is a common
situation in DCs. Maintenance generally takes place only after a catastrophic
failure of the vehicle or its equipment. A carefully planned maintenance
program minimizes catastrophic failures and prolongs the life of the equipment.

A maintenance program is of significant importance since collection and

transport account for a large portion of the total cost of the waste management
system. Due to lack of maintenance programs, those responsible for dispatching
the vehicles to their respective routes commonly are not aware of the exact
number of vehicles at their disposal of a given day.

Frequency of collection varies from daily to monthly. In some cases, waste

collection is provided only on special occasions, such as during cleaning
campaigns.

Collection routes very rarely are firmly established. On the contrary, a common
practice is to leave the decision for the route to the discretion of the driver.
Therefore, it is not unusual for a truck to arrive at the disposal site only partially
loaded due to inefficient routing.

Usually, after it has been loaded to capacity of the collection route has been
covered, the loaded collection vehicle is driven directly to the disposal site. In
some cases, an indirect route is taken to the disposal site in order to have an
opportunity to discharge a part of, or even the entire, load for use as animal feed
or for recovery (salvage) of materials that have some monetary value.
11.3. Resource Recovery:
In this discussion, the term “resource recovery” is applied to the reclamation of
resources (materials) discarded as wastes, and to the institutional arrangements
leading to resource recovery (e.g., scavenging, governmentally or industrially
operated enterprises). Scavenging is recovery of materials by entities not
sanctioned officially by the government.

The following three factors generally contribute to the practice of resource

recovery in DCs:

1. Materials and Energy Conservation:

Shortage of raw materials essential to local industries, lack of affordability or

production capacity for items that can be remedied by recovery of useable
materials from wastes, and shortage or expense of energy.

2. Economics:

Underdeveloped economy of the country.

3. Conservation of Soil Resources:

Local soils that are of poor quality or are being rapidly deprived to organic
matter. Two of the beneficial characteristics that make resource recovery an
advisable policy for developing countries are that it generally catalyzes the
development of organized, systematic waste management and that it reduces the
amount of wastes requiring disposal.

In addition, resource recovery provides a livelihood for a relatively large

number of individuals in the lower economic sector. Finally, some of the
revenue obtained from the sale of the materials can be used to defray a part of
the cost of waste management, if the system is properly planned implemented,
and administered.

1. Materials and Energy Conservation

Most DCs are lacking in one or more of the primary (raw) materials (e.g., iron
ore, bauxite, or petroleum) which are important for economic development. The
importance and relevance of this situation is that if a satisfactory substitute
cannot be found, the complete depletion of a raw material marks the termination
of all manufacturing and usage based upon that material.

Furthermore, even though potential substitutes may exist, the may lack an
important property or characteristic. For example, they may not be as durable,
or they may not possess suitable thermal properties. Even a suitable substitute is
subject to eventual depletion. For example, plastics are manufactured primarily
from depletable fossil fuels.

In many cases, the establishment of a resource recovery program can postpone

depletion or contribute to industrialized development by supplying secondary
materials to existing or new manufacturing industries. Materials that can be (and
are) recovered from solid waste and recycled into primary manufacturing
industries include some of those listed in Table 5.1, namely paper, metals
(especially aluminum and steel cans), and plastics.

Energy recovery can be practiced using one of two methods. One method is to
recover and recycle materials that can be substituted for those that require a
substantial amount of energy to process and manufacture into consumer
products (i.e., energy-intensive material). The second method is to convert the
chemical energy of waste into a usable form (e.g., through bio-gasification,
thermal conversion, etc.)

2. Economics:

The economy plays a key role in all aspects of resource recovery. Since the
economic situation in most DCs leaves them with little capital for the
importation of primary (raw) materials, one alternative is to conserve primary
materials by recovering and recycling materials manufactured from them.

This approach is worth consideration and implementation despite some reports

that indicate that recycling a material would be more costly than importing it.
Careful analysis of such reports shows that in most DCs, the findings and
conclusions are based on questionable assumptions and on a short-term outlook
rather than on a long-term horizon.

3. Conservation of Soil Resources:

The majority of developing countries have a strong dependence on agriculture

for subsistence as well as economic growth. Consequently, conservation and
restoration of soil quality and maintenance of soil productivity are important
concerns.
Two of the main causes of loss in the quality, and therefore productivity, of soil
are erosion and inadequate organic matter content. Erosion removes the top,
productive layers of the soil and leaves an exposed layer that is basically devoid
of plant nutrients. In addition, the structure of the exposed layer is such that it
impedes plant growth and is resistant to tilling.

The organic matter in the soil provides plant nutrients and imparts a wide range
of well- known, desirable characteristics to soil. However, since organic matter
is transformed continually when cultivated, it must be periodically replenished.

The organic matter in solid waste, after having been adequately recovered and
converted, can serve as a replacement for the lost organic matter in soil.
Putrescible material such as food preparation residues and market waste, which
are prevalent in the solid waste of most DCs as indicated in Table 1, are readily
convertible to soil amendment (through composing/or example), although this is
not a common practice in DCs.

11.4. Implementation of Resource Recovery:

Resource recovery from solid waste can be implemented at two levels:

Level 1:

Manual recovery by individuals (scavengers) prior to collection, to treatment, or

to disposal of the solid waste.

Level 2:

A combination of manual and mechanized recovery conducted on a relatively

large scale and according to a governmentally sanctioned plan of operation.

The term “scavenging” usually is applied to the first of the two levels of
recovery. The second level is typically termed, “conventional resource
recovery”.

11.5.Scavenging:

Level 1:

Scavenging is well established in DCs. In fact, it is so well entrenched that

attempts made to abolish the practice in a few DCs have been met with strong
resistance. Some scavengers are referred to as “itinerant” because they roam the
streets looking for items that can be re-used. Other scavengers limit their
activities to the collection of one or two materials (e.g., paper, metal objects).
Generally, scavengers have an arrangement with a “middle-man”. The middle-
man is an individual who : 1) has the contacts with the end-users; 2) can
package and sell the quantities of materials desired by users; and 3) provides the
scavengers with compensation and perhaps a collection vehicle (e.g., a cart or
tricycle). In some locations, the solid waste collection crew conducts its
collection activities as well as some scavenging of materials.

Generally, the family and social backgrounds of scavengers are such that
scavenging is the only option available to them to earn a living. In many cases,
scavengers have two choices-scavenge or starve. The work of a scavenger is
arduous and has little reward.

Scavengers can work up to 12 hours each day in order to earn money sufficient
only to survive. In addition, scavengers often live at or in the vicinity of the
final disposal site, (dump site) under unhealthy conditions.

Acceptance of scavenging by modern society varies from complete rejection to

indifference. However, in most developing countries, scavenging is an
important element in the economic survival of a number of industries (e.g., pulp
and paper mills). Despite its detraction, plausible reasons exist for allowance
and maintenance of scavenging.

Based on some studies conducted by the authors, scavenging should not be

banned without providing alternative means of supporting the displaced
scavengers and without taking the necessary steps to avoid, or at-least reduce,
any adverse impacts on industrial activity and the economy.

11.6. Mechanized Resource Recovery:

Level 2:

Complex, mechanically-intensive resource recovering facilities require a well-

trained work force and sophisticated control systems, requirements that
generally do not conform to the situation in DCs. Thus, it is disconcerting and
unfortunate to observe the trend among some of the larger cities in developing
countries that are attempting to implement complex resource recovering
technologies.

These technologies are usually transplants from industrialized countries; that is,
they are direct transfers of technology. Unfortunately, these directly transferred
technologies generally cannot succeed without modifications based on the waste
characteristics of DCs, extensive maintenance programs, and ready access to
capital for spare parts, among other requisites.

Examples of some directly-transferred technologies include incineration system,

refuse- derived fuel systems, and in-vessel compositing. The degree of success
of incineration systems is highly dependent on the dry, combustible content of
the solid waste. Such content is fatally low in many developing countries, where
the waste has a high moisture content, and supplemental fuel would be requires
to sustain combustion.

Hopes for successful implementation of complex, highly mechanized systems

for compositing almost inevitably are dashed by the failure of the composite
system to perform adequately (due to low yields and high operating costs) and
by unrealistic expectations with regard to markets and prices for the finished
composite.

Some of the more important conclusions that can be drawn from the record of
unsuccessful attempts at direct transfer of resource recovery technology to
developing countries are the following:

1. Complex and maintenance-intensive resource recovery operations generally

are not feasible in developing countries (at least until the level of expertise and
waste characteristics indicate that more complex technological solutions are
worthy of consideration).

2. Waste reduction, source separation, recycling, and the use of processes which
use a combination of manual and minimal mechanical segregation are feasible
approaches.

3. The capacity and willingness to pay for the construction, operation, and
maintenance of a particular technology should be among the first issues
addressed when considering implementation of a complex resource recovery
system.

11.7. Final Disposition:

Most municipal solid wastes generated in developing countries are disposed in
open dumps. Most of the open dumps lack of the proper equipment and trained
personnel necessary for conducting the operation in a manner such that the
public health and the environment are protected. There are very few modern
sanitary landfills in developing countries, and most of them “sanitary” only in
name.

Since few resources usually are devoted to final disposal, the operation of the
dump sites simply consists of discharging the wastes-and spreading them upon
the land in a uncontrolled fashion and without modern construction methods
(e.g. small working face, bottom liner and leachate control system, and landfill
gas control system).

11.8. Costs:
The poor and inadequate management of municipal solid wastes in developing
countries leads to relatively high costs for the services provided. It has been
demonstrated that the costs associated with waste management can account for
as much as 30% to 50% of the entire municipal budget.

In addition, in some cases, it is apparent that the management of solid waste is

frequently used to meet political objectives. For example, a substantial labour
force for waste management beyond the size that normally would be required
may be approved to gain political favour.

Since the monetary expenditure for providing the service involved in waste
management is high, the municipality generally must subsidize a large
percentage of the cost. Waste generators seldom pay service fees.

Finally, key reasons for the inordinately high cost of solid waste management in
developing countries are lacking a shortage of trained personnel and the absence
of adequate and comprehensive planning.
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12.0. Analysis of waste generation at Karan Nagar Jammu:

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal,
managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to
materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken
to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste
management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on
delaying the rate of consumption of natural resources. All wastes materials,
whether they are solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive fall within the domain of
waste management. It is observed that in the college campus, there are no
proper waste management systems. There is no separation of degradable and
non-biodegradable materials like plastic .These materials are dumped together
in the open space. Plastic materials are being burnt in the open space without
using proper incineration techniques, which may cause various health and
ecological problems.I can see a lot of solid wastes dumped at different places
around the area.
Sorting and Weighing of Material Categories
The sample of solid wastes collected from households weighed between
500g-1500g.The materials were classified into nine categories namely; plastics,
metals, papers, textiles, organics, inert waste, glasses, and woods. Each sorted
material category was weighed independently and the data recorded in the data
sheet. The process of sorting and weighing in households was carried three
times in a week
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Results and Discussion
Figure 2 presents the solid waste composition at the High Income Households.
The results show that, the dominant materials category in the waste is the
organic waste (Biodegradeable Waste) which makes an average of 57%. This
category of solid waste contributed by the daily food remains from the family
meals, the fruits peels, vegetables, grasses and plant trimmings from gardens.
Almost similar status was obtained from the solid waste in Low Income
Houses where the organic waste contributed by 56% as shown in Figure 3. The
slight difference in composition between the two Income Houses is accounted
for by the fact that, the waste in households are well handled as 84% of the
households use bags to store their solid waste, 14.6% use bins with proper
covers and only 1.4% use bins without proper covers. Proper handling reduces
the possibility of some solid waste being scattered by wind or scavenged by
animals such as dogs and birds. At the Low Income Houses collection points,
waste are collected in skip buckets, in open piles or built enclosures. Such
points are just left open allowing roaming dogs and vultures to scavenge,
taking away some of the disposed organic waste

Figure 1: Percentage Composition of Solid Waste from High

Income Household
 Woods and metals also showed a fall in average percentage
composition between the waste in High and Low income households as
indicated in figure 3

Figure 3: Percentage Composition of Solid Waste from Low Income

Households

The results, also, show that about 9% of solid waste generated at the
household level is largely plastic bags and bottles. This is largely caused by
the lifestyles whereas most of the people in urban areas like Karan Nagar
Jammu use packed products such as juice, cooking oils, soft drinks, tomato
and tooth paste, compared to rural areas. Plastic bags are widely used by retail
consumers in carrying commodities from shops. These bags are cheaply
obtained by customers from shops such that majority of them do not reuse as
the result are mostly used once and disposed off. In Low Income households
the percentage composition of plastics is (11%) higher than in High Income
households. This might be contributed by the fact that, in Low Income
households, solid waste not only come from households but also comes from
commercial places like shops. Although plastic materials are being scavenged
and taken to industries for recycling, the scavengers collect only plastic bottles
used for parking water, juice or soft drinks. Plastic bags are not scavenged for
recycling making plastic among materials categories with high percentage
composition in solid waste found in urban areas as indicated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Percentage Composition by Material Category from

Household(High Income) and Low Income(Secondary collection points)

Inert materials are also making low percentage composition (3%) in

High Income household as construction and demolition take place very
sporadically, moreover, construction and demolition waste are considered
useful in ground leveling particularly in the eroded areas. However, the
percentage composition of inert waste in Low Income Households appears
higher (4%) than in High Income household as there are many sources
contributing to that amount. The e-waste makes at least low proportion of
about (2%) in solid waste from High Income and Low Income Households.
Previously the generation of e-waste materials in Karan Nagar area was very
low.Availability of e-waste indicates a wide use of e-products in the Area
resulting to the production of the identified waste. This makes an alert to all
stakeholders in solid waste management to think about having sustainable
ways of handling these e-wastes which normally have even traces of
hazardous materials.

Conclusion

The study about solid waste composition in High,Low and Middle

Income Households indicated that Biodegradeable (organic waste) is the major
component with a proportion size of about 56% or 57% in solid waste from
High and Low Income Households respectively. Other material components
include the paper (12% / 13%), plastic (9% / 11%), textile (6% / 8%), inert
waste (3% / 4%), glass waste (4% / 3%), wood waste (4% / 1%) e-waste (2% /
2%) and metal (3% / 2%). The slight variation in percentage composition
between the solid waste from High and Low Income Households implies that,
the system of solid waste management has no effect on the composition of the
solid waste. Also the generated solid waste are not sorted or subjected to any
treatment strategy at the household level. As large percentage of solid waste
composition in High and Low Income Households accounted for by organic,
plastic, and papers, it would be wealth while to encourage and officiate
recycling and compositing. This will not only reduce the amount of solid
waste disposed to the landfill, but also a strategy to recovery resource from the
waste like organic fertilizer and other useful products
15.0.