BPCS-183 e

BPCS-183
Emotional Intelligence
School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Swaraj Basu Dr. Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Swati Patra (Convener)
Director, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Professor of Psychology Professor of Psychology
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Former Emeritus Professor Course Coordinator
Discipline of Psychology Dr. Monika Misra Prof. Swati Patra
IGNOU, New Delhi Assistant Professor of Psychology Discipline of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU
Prof. Kamlesh Singh
Associate Professor Dr. Smita Gupta General Editor
School of Humanities & Assistant Professor of Psychology Prof. Swati Patra
Social Sciences, IIT, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Discipline of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block Unit Writers
Block I Introduction to Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Unit 1 Concept of Emotion Nitasha Singh Borah , Ph.D. Scholar, Discipline of Psychology,
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 2 Concept, Historical Development Nitasha Singh Borah , Ph.D. Scholar, Discipline of Psychology,
and Components of EI SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Block II Emotional Competencies
Unit 3 Components of Emotional Dr. Swati Mukherjee, Scientist ‘E’, DIPR (DRDO),
Competencies New Delhi
Block III Models of Emotional Intelligence
Unit 4 Models of Emotional Intelligence Nitasha Singh Borah , Ph.D. Scholar, Discipline of Psychology,
(EI) and Assessment SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Block IV Management of Emotions

Unit 5 Emotions, Self Control and Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU,
Assertiveness New Delhi
Unit 6 Emotions, Self Regard and Self Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU,
Actualization New Delhi
Unit 7 Strategies to Improve Emotional Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU ,
Intelligence New Delhi
Block V Applications of Emotional Intelligence
Unit 8 Applications of EI in Various Dr. Swati Mukherjee, Scientist ‘E’, DIPR (DRDO), New Delhi
Contexts
CourseEditors(Content, Format&Language) Cover design:
Units1-4&Unit 8 : Prof. Swati Patra, Discipline ofPsychology, SOSS,IGNOU, New Delhi Arvinder Chawla
Units 5, 6 & 7 : Prof. SuhasShetgovekar, Discipline ofPsychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Parida
Assistant Registrar ( Pub.) Section Officer (P)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
September, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN : 978-81-948104-1-4
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Course Contents
BPCS-183 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Block I Introduction To Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Unit 1 Concept of Emotion 9-22
Unit 2 Concept, Historical Development and Components of EI 23-38
Block II Emotional Competencies

Unit 3 Components of Emotional Competencies 41-58
Block III Models of Emotional Intelligence

Unit 4 Models of Emotional Intelligence (EI) andAssessment 61-81
Block IV Management of Emotions

Unit 5 Emotions, Self Control and Assertiveness 85-96
Unit 6 Emotions, Self Regard and SelfActualization 97-108
Unit 7 Strategies to Improve Emotional Intelligence 109-121
Block V Applications of Emotional Intelligence

Unit 8 Applications of EI inVarious Contexts 125-136
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
BPCS 183: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Course is in the Semester III of
BA Hons Psychology (BAPCH) and BA General Psychology (BAG). It is a Skill
based Course of 4 credits. The course will provide you an understanding of the
concept of emotional intelligence (EI) and the various models related to it. It will
focus on the key competencies of emotional intelligence. Further, the course will
explain the management of emotions and the strategies to improve emotional
intelligence. Awide range of applications of EI will also be highlighted.
The specific objectives of the course are as follows:
Objectives
1. To help students learn the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
2. To become acquainted with the models of EI and their assessment
3. To learn ways of managing emotions
4. To learn strategies to improve EI
5. To learn the applications of EI in various settings
Learning Outcome
At the end of this course, the learner will gain knowledge about the concept of
emotionalintelligence. The learner willbe able to explainthecomponents ofemotional
competencies. The learner will learn how to manage emotions and acquire different
strategies to improve emotional intelligence. S/he will be able to apply emotional
intelligence in different settings ranging from educational, personal to health and
workplace settings.
INTRODUCTION
BPCS 183 consists of five Blocks and a total of eight Units which you need to study
and complete during the six months duration of your third semester. You will have
continuous evaluation through assignment and a Term-End examination at the end
of each semester. Assignments are available on the IGNOU website. You can
download the assignments on www.ignou.ac.in > student support > downloads >
assignments. Refer to the instructional guidelines on the assignment for your
assignment preparation and submission. You can also refer to the previous year
question papers available under downloads to prepare for your term-end examination
(TEE).
You will need to go through the course material in this book presented in different
Blocks and Units to do your assignments and prepare successfully for the exam.
Each Unit is like a chapter written in a structured way. It contains Self Assessment
Questions (SAQs) in between the sections in the Unit so that you can check your
progress and go back to the content for more clarification. This will help make your
learning better. Further, there are Unit End questions also at the end of the Unit
that facilitates your overall understanding of the Unit. Key Words section highlights
the key words in the Unit that will help you recall the main terms and concepts
learned in the Unit. References section will help you refer to specific studies and
articles to gain more understanding of a particular point discussed in the Unit. At the
4 end of each Unit, you are also provided with Suggested readings for your further
understanding of the Unit. Thus, the various aspects of this Self Learning Material
(SLM) are designed to help you learn better. These features also ensure that the
teacher is built into the course materials to help minimize the gap or distance between
the learner and the teacher.
IGNOU follows a multi-pronged approach to teaching and learning. Thus there are
printed course materials, audio and video materials also. The soft copies of the
course materials are also available on the IGNOU website through egyankosh.
Interaction between the teacher and learner is also facilitated through Gyanvani
(interactive radio counseling), Gyan darshan (tele conference) and web conference.
Gyanvani is available on FM (105.6 channel). Gyandarshan is a television channel,
a must carry channel for all the cable operators. Information about Gyanvani and
Gyan darshan monthly schedule is available on the IGNOU website.
Webconferences are held by the Faculty of Discipline of Psychology and you will
get the information about the same fromyour Regional centre. You can make use of
all these features of learning at IGNOU to take your learning to a new higher level
and make it a truly enriching experience.
BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO BLOCKS AND UNITS
A brief outline of the Blocks and Units therein is given here for your reference
which you can go through before studying the Units in detail.
BLOCK I INTRODUCTION TO EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE (EI)
Block I – Introduction to Emotional Intelligence (EI) will introduce you
to the concept of emotional intelligence which has significant contributions in
all the fields of our life. The Block consists of two Units.
Unit 1 Concept of Emotion
It discusses the nature and characteristics of emotion. Components of emotion
are explained and various types of emotions are described. The Unit also
discusses the relationship between our emotions and thoughts and how these
affect our behavior.
Unit 2 Concept, historical development and components of EI
This Unit explains the meaning of emotional intelligence (EI) and traces the
historical development of EI. Further, it describes the components of emotional
intelligence.
BLOCK II EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

BLOCK II – Emotional Competencies focuses on the core competencies
included under emotional intelligence. They serve as the building blocks that help
improve our emotional intelligence. The Block consists of one Unit.
Unit 3 Components of Emotional Competencies
The Unit focuses on the components of EI namely self awareness, motivation,
empathy, self regulation and social skills. These skills help one to understand the
emotions of oneself and others and manage these also.
5
BLOCK III MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
BLOCK III – Models of Emotional Intelligence describes the various models
that explain the concept of emotional intelligence. This enables one to understand
how the term is conceptualized and explained. The Block consists of one Unit.
Unit 4 Models of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Assessment
The Unit highlights the various models of emotional intelligence to explain the concept
of EI. These models explain the understanding, using and managing of the emotion.
It also provides various methods of assessing EI.
BLOCK IV MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONS

BLOCK IV – Management of Emotions explains the importance of managing
our emotions and the steps to handle our emotions to become more effective and
successful in our life. The Block consists of three Units.
Unit 5 Emotions, Self Control and Assertiveness
This Unit focuses on two important parameters of self-control and assertiveness in
the context of handling emotions. It explains the meaning and importance of being in
control of one’s emotions and communicating in an assertive manner. Further, it
specifies various strategies to increase self control and assertiveness.
Unit 6 Emotions, Self Regard and SelfActualization
In this Unit, you learn about two more parameters that help you to understand and
manage your emotions. Further, you will also learn about the strategies to enhance
self-regard and self actualization.
Unit 7 Strategies to Improve Emotional Intelligence
Here, you will learn various strategies to improve your emotional intelligence. The
Unit specifically focuses on the strategies related to intrapersonal and interpersonal
aspects. Various activities are given to reinforce the use of each strategy by the
learners.
BLOCK V APPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
BLOCK V - Applications of Emotional Intelligence focuses on applying the
theoretical concept of EI to the practical contexts for the benefit of the stakeholders.
It translates the theoretical knowledge into the practical application which results in
improved efficiency, success and satisfaction. The Block consists of one Unit.
Unit 8 Applications of EI inVarious Contexts
This Unit will describe a wide arrayof contexts in which emotional intelligence can
be applied such as education, workplace and health sector. This highlights the
importance of EI and underlies the requirement of training and enhancing our EI for
better functioning, increased output, improved social relationships and satisfaction.
6
Block I - Introduction to Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Unit 1 Concept of Emotion 9-22

Unit 2 Concept, Historical Development and Components of EI 23-38
UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF EMOTION*
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Nature and Characteristics of Emotions
1.4 Components of Emotions
1.5 Types of Emotions
1.6 Relationship between Emotions, Thinking and Behaviour
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.11 Answers to Unit End Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important and fundamental aspects of the human experience is
our capacity to experience emotions. Without this, our existence would be uni-
dimensional and nowhere as rich and vibrant as it is. We experience joy and
pleasure when we achieve something, become sad when we lose, or get angry
or frustrated when things don’t turn out the way we want it. But what exactly is
this emotion, what does it consist of, how does it affect our thinking and other
aspects of our life? Defining emotions and agreeing upon a framework to understand
them is a challenging task. Complex concepts such as these lie somewhere at the
intersection of philosophy, psychology and neuroscience. Thus, there are numerous
theories and frameworks within which emotions can be understood. In this Unit,
we will focus on principles that are accepted across disciplines and are based on
current evidence from the scientific community.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 understand and describe the concept of emotion;
 explain the components that comprise emotion;
 list the different kinds of emotions;
 understand the linkage and relationship between emotion, thought and
behaviour.
*Nitasha Singh Borah , Ph.D. Scholar, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 9
Introduction to Emotional
Intelligence (EI) 1.3 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
EMOTIONS
What is an emotion? It appears too simplistic to the common people to define it.
Common emotions experienced are joy, happiness, anger, sadness, jealousy, love
and so on. We eat good food and feel contented. We see a good movie and feel
happy. We spend time with loved ones and feel loved. We lose a game and feel
sad.
Visualize yourself in the following situations:
 You have been standing in line to collect your admission form for over two
hours. Your turn is finally about to arrive after two others ahead of you when
the form disbursing staff member announces his lunch break and closes the
window.
 You are waiting backstage to begin your presentation to an auditorium full

of students and teachers.
 You are on your way to meet a very close friend after a gap of three years
during which they were living and studying abroad.
 Your favourite cricket or football team wins the world cup.

The above examples may serve as powerful reminders of intense emotions that
you might have experienced routinely. In fact, looking back on your day as you
read this Unit, you may be able to recognise that how you might have felt when
the day began, is different from how you are feeling now. By the time you finish
reading this, your emotion might have changed again. So what are these powerful,
shifting states?
Emotion is a complex chain of loosely connected events that begins with a stimulus
and includes feelings, psychological changes, impulses to action and specific goal-
directed behaviour (Plutchik, 2001).
Woodworth (1945) defines emotion as a stirred-up state of an organism that
appears as feelings to the individual himself and as a disturbed muscular and
glandular activity to an external observer.
Morris (1979) states that emotion is a complex affective experience that
involves diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed overtly in
characteristic behavior patterns.
Thus, emotions are experienced in response to a particular internal or external
event. A response of this kind involves physical arousal in the body- heart rate,
blood pressure, perspiration, release of hormones etc. Secondly, a motivation to
take action is activated- seeking things and activities that provide pleasure and
avoiding those that give rise to pain or unpleasantness. Thirdly, emotions arise out
of our sensations, perceptions and thoughts related to objects, persons and
situations. It depends on how do we perceive something, think about it and
interpret it. Fourthly, emotions vary in their intensity, for example, happiness can
be experienced as pleasant and contented at the lower end of the continuum
whereas excited and thrilled at the higher end of the continuum. Similarly being
irritated and upset are the milder forms of anger whereas furious and enraged are
high intensity anger feelings.
10
Emotions can be desirable or undesirable to an individual, depending on whether Concept of Emotion
the said event is perceived as ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ or performs an adaptive
function for an individual. They are responsible for driving a range of human
behaviours such as attacking, fleeing, self- defence, forming relationships,
reproducing etc. However, some of these functions may translate into negative
consequences such as ‘freezing’ on stage, intense expressions of anger, unwarranted
aggression etc. Regardless of whether the consequences are positive or negative,
emotions create significant impact when they arise and adapting to our environment
demands that we understand and express emotions appropriately.
Emotions are not the same as feelings, even though we may use both the terms
similarly. The term feeling is used to refer to a person’s private emotional experience
or self- perception of a specific emotion. When an event occurs, one first responds
automatically at a physical level even without awareness (emotion) and then registers
or evaluates this (feeling). For example, when one sees a snake nearby, their
heartbeat, breathing, perspiration (physiological arousal) might increase immediately,
causing the action of running away. Only later might one realise that the feeling
they experienced was fear. Feelings are created by emotions. Thus, although we
may use the terms emotion and feeling interchangeably in our daily lives, they
differ considerably from each other.
Another related concept is mood. While emotions last for short periods of time
and arise in response to a particular event, moods are of lower intensity, generally
last for longer periods of time, even days and may not necessarily be associated
with a certain, immediate event or cause. While emotions are directed at something
or someone (e.g. you are angry at your brother or you are frustrated about
waiting in line), moods can arise for no apparent reason, such as waking up
irritable one morning without anything unpleasant having occurred the previous
day. Nevertheless, moods are important because they too influence our actions.
For example, wanting to socialise more with friends when in a good mood and
avoiding social situations when feeling low over the weekend.
1.3.1 Functions of Emotions
Emotions matter. They provide information to us and serve certain purpose. They
became part of the human experience and have continued to remain so because
of the functions they perform. Each function is associated with a certain utility or
role.
Intrapersonal functions: This domain refers to the functions that emotions serve
within individuals. They help one guide behaviour and make decisions, so that we
can survive as well as function as human beings. For instance, they inform us
when to fight and when to leave a dangerous situation. Feeling respect for oneself
encourages one to care and look after oneself. Happiness promotes creative
thinking and expands our focus to allow new ideas and small details to be noticed
(Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Even mild sadness contributes to more realistic
thinking and improves judgment by encouraging us to scan information more
carefully and thoroughly (Kalat, 2017)
11
Introduction to Emotional Interpersonal functions: These functions are performed by emotions between
Intelligence (EI)
individuals. The act of expressing emotions serves as an indication or signal to
others about how one might feel about them or the relationship, what one’s
intentions might be and what one’s needs might be. Displaying a positive facial
expression such as a smile usually encourages other people to approach us.
Showing sadness may stimulate others to show empathy or sympathy. Emotional
expression is thus an important communication and relationship management tool.
In fact, as early as 1872, Darwin identified that emotional communication aids the
survival of the human species by enabling the reading of signs of impending
aggression in others or warning others of a threat by displaying fear (Nolen-
Hoeksema et al., 2009).
Social and cultural functions: This dimension has to do with how emotions
contribute to the construction and maintenance of societies and cultures. Emotions
such as trust often act as a social glue that keeps groups together. Cohesive
groups in turn form societies and evolve their own distinct cultures. On their part,
cultural codes inform individuals and groups about specific display rules that exist
for emotional expression. For example, men are often conditioned to only display
certain emotions such as anger and aggression, while showing “softer” emotions
such as sadness is discouraged in eastern cultures. Certain work places are driven
by unspoken rules about whether certain emotions such as affection are appropriate
for display in work related contexts.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Define emotion.
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2. What is the difference between emotion, feeling and mood?
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3. What are the interpersonal functions of emotions?
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1.4 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS

Emotions can be viewed as having five components.
1. Affective: also referred to as a conscious, subjective feeling. Individuals
monitor their internal, felt states and recognise what they are feeling.
2. Cognitive: involves describing or assigning meaning to the emotion. Thus,
12 thinking about a feeling is very different from the actual feeling. Individuals
try to understand the reason behind why something is happening and try to Concept of Emotion
judge how an event might impact them.
3. Physiologic: bodily reactions such as palms sweating upon feeling anxious.
4. Motivational: Going toward or away from an action or person. This
component is also referred to as action tendencies, which refers to
specific actions that the individual takes that may be voluntary or
involuntary. For example, moving one’s hand away from a hot pan is
an involuntary action, while going on an early morning run despite
feeling tired is a voluntary action. Each emotion may be associated with
a particular action tendency. Some of these are presented in Table 1.1
(Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009).
Table 1.1: Emotions and their Associated Action Tendencies
EMOTION ACTION TENDENCY
Anger Attack
Fear Escape
Disgust Expel
Guilt Make amends
Shame Disappear
Sadness Withdraw
Joy Play
Interest Explore
5. Expressive: Displaying emotions through facial expressions such as smiling,

crying, frowning or body movements such as throwing a vase when angry to
communicate emotions to others.
The interaction of these components explains how emotions work. Consider the
following scenario:
Jhanvi’s boss shouts at her in response to a recent report that she submitted
to him, which he says contained several errors and was not satisfactory. This
can be labelled as an experience for her. As he shouts, Jhanvi can feel that
the palms of her hands are becoming sweaty, her heartbeat becomes quicker
and she can feel a sinking sensation in her stomach. This is the
physiological reaction to the stimulus that she has just experienced. She
also finds herself thinking “What if I lose my job?”, “He is humiliating me
in front of others” or “ My work is not valued”. Jhanvi is now responding
cognitively. As her face turns red and her eyes tear up to express her
distress, we see the expressive component in play. Simultaneously, she might
recognise that she is feeling shame and anxiety as affect, giving rise to the
motivation or action urge to walk out of the office and run to the restroom
where she might have privacy to experience these emotions and compose
herself.
13
Introduction to Emotional With practice, you can become quite aware of these components as you encounter
Intelligence (EI)
situations, especially those that give rise to intense emotions within you. You can
try the following exercise to develop this skill.
Exercise 1
Step 1: Identify a situation in which you felt an intense emotion. Where were you,
what happened, who said or did what.
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Step 2: What sensations or changes did you notice in your body? In which parts
of your body did they occur?
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Step 3: What thoughts went through your mind? How did you explain what was
happening to yourself? Did you make any predictions about what would happen
next or in the future?
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Step 4: What was the name of the feeling that you experienced? Was there more
than one feeling? List all of them here.
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Step 5: If someone were to observe you in this situation, how would they describe
your facial expressions and body movements?
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Step 6: What did you do or say in response?
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14 ..................................................................................................................
Concept of Emotion
1.5 TYPES OF EMOTIONS
Emotions are also commonly classified as primary and secondary. Primary emotions
are those that are basic and universal in the sense that they are “hard- wired”,
automatic and experienced in all cultures and social contexts. They are thought to
have evolved so as to aid our survival as a species. Robert Plutchik (2003)
identified eight of these- fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy
and trust and represented them in the form of a colour wheel. Each of these
emotions vary in intensity and show up as layers. For example, the primary
emotion of fear may be called apprehension when it is at a very low intensity and
terror when it is at its highest intensity. The core emotion remains the same i.e.
fear.
Combinations and layers of primary emotions may give rise to more complex
emotions. These are called secondary emotions and may be culture specific.
These are represented in Fig. 1.1 below.
Fig 1.1: Plutchik’s Emotion Wheel
(Source: Wikicommons)
The colour families in the figure indicate similar emotions. Darker shades indicate
greater intensity. The spaces between emotions indicate combined emotions that
emergence from the merging of primary emotions. In the above representation,
contempt can be a combination of anger and disgust. Optimism can be seen as
the combination of serenity and interest. In addition, some emotions can exist as
opposites of each other: sadness is the opposite of joy, trust and disgust lie at
15
Introduction to Emotional opposing ends, as do fear and anger. The wheel above indicates that different
Intelligence (EI) emotion words can be used to express different intensities of the same family of
emotions. The emotions in the central circle of the wheel are at the highest level
of intensity; rage, vigilance, ecstasy, admiration, terror, amazement, grief, and
loathing. As one moves outwards in the wheel, the emotional intensity decreases-
anger is less intense than rage and annoyance is even milder.
Emotions do not remain static and can transition or evolve into others over time.
For example, one may be angry about a fight with a close family member at first.
Over a day, this can turn into sadness, even if nothing seemingly changes in the
situation.
You can practice identifying and labeling emotions through the following exercise.
Exercise 2:
Refer to Step 4 in Exercise 1. Using the colour wheel in Fig. 1.1, try and see if
you can find your emotion in the wheel. Maybe you find that another emotion
name fits your experienced feelings better than the one you originally selected.
i) What is the colour of your emotion?
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ii) Is it a primary emotion or a combination of others?
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iii) Are there any new words that you can find in the wheel that you may not
have used before?
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1. Distinguish between primary and secondary emotions.
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16 ............................................................................................................
2. Which component of emotions determines judgments, predictions and analysis Concept of Emotion
of thoughts?
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3. How does culture impact emotional expression?
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1.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONS,

THINKING AND BEHAVIOUR
Recall a recent time when you were feeling happy and content. What was
your view of the world during the time you were in this mood? Now try and
remember a time when you were feeling upset and angry at something. How
did you view the world during this time? It is likely that your perception of
the world (including the people in it) was different during both these phases
and influenced by whichever emotions were dominant at the time. Chances
are that you also behaved differently towards other people as a consequence.
Emotions, thinking and behaviour are inextricably linked. The relationship
between them can best be explained through contemporary models of emotion.
Referring to Fig. 1.2 below, one’s thoughts or interpretation of a situation
has a significant impact on the emotion one feels (Strongman, 2003). Imagine
that your friend suddenly shouts at you. This is an emotional stimulus and
encountering it may make you interpret or judge the outburst as “my friend
is angry with me” or “my friend is rude”. Depending on what you think
about the stimulus, you will experience a feeling. Subsequently, some form
of adaptive behaviour will follow. If your interpretation of the situation is
that is your friend is angry with you, you might feel confused and ask them
why they are angry. If you think that your friend is being rude, you might
experience anger and shout back at them too and thus your behaviour may
look very different.
Thoughts
Behaviour Emotions
Fig. 1.2: Relationship between Thoughts, Emotions and Behaviour 17

Introduction to Emotional This process of assigning meaning to an event and our reaction to it is called
Intelligence (EI) appraisal. A cognitive appraisal is, therefore an evaluation or interpretation of the
personal meaning of certain circumstances that results in an emotion (Nolen-
Hoeksema et al., 2009). Specific appraisals usually give rise to particular emotions
and influence their intensity and quality as well. For example, an appraisal of “I
desire something that someone else has”, goes along with the emotion of envy. “I
have been treated well by another” creates the experience of gratitude. Table 1.2
below presents a summary of some other appraisals and the emotions they create
(Coon et al., 2010).
Table 1.2: Appraisals and Emotions they give rise to
EMOTION APPRAISAL
Anger You have been slighted or demeaned
Anxiety You feel threatened
Sadness You have experienced a loss
Guilt You have broken a moral rule
Happiness You are moving toward a desired goal
Love You desire affection from another person
Hope You fear the worst but yearn for better
Compassion You are moved by someone’s suffering
Pride You are linked with a valued object or

accomplishment.
According to Gross (2001) and Deutschendorf (2009), changing one’s interpretation

of an event can prevent the experience of feeling drained and guard against
overwhelming emotions. For instance, in the above example, by changing your
appraisal to “she doesn’t mean it”, you could easily brush- off her behaviour and
get on with your day. Appraisals, therefore, have the power to impact our reactions
to the daily experiences of emotions, especially those that are unpleasant and
stressful. By changing our own appraisals, we may be able to protect ourselves
from stress and promote our well- being, even if we cannot control external
situations or other people. In addition, because of differences in how a situation
or event may be appraised, the same situation may give rise to different behaviour
on the part of individuals. Infact, the same person may also react differently to the
same situation at different times.
However, it is important to keep in mind that while emotions have the potential
to energise us to act, whether action is actually taken depends on more than just
emotions. Situational context, the object at which emotion is directed, anticipation
and judgment of possible consequences of actions and past experiences, culture
and gender all determine behavior (Baumeister, Vohs, DeWall, & Zhang, 2007).
For example, people from western cultures feel comfortable expressing anger
more openly than those from eastern cultures, where showing anger in the presence
of others is regarded in a more negative light because of the importance assigned
18
to maintenance of relationships (Coon et al., 2010). Gender differences Concept of Emotion
notwithstanding, men and women may be similar in their subjective experiences
of emotions but express them very differently due to the differences in how they
are conditioned to show their emotions (Fischer, 2000). Women are generally
more comfortable showing vulnerability through the expression of sadness while
men are raised not to cry easily and instead are more accepting and expressive
of anger and aggression.
1.7 LET US SUM UP

Emotions are complex states that are difficult to define but also fundamental to our
experiences. Without their existence, our individual, interpersonal and cultural
existence would be meaningless. Emotional complexity arises out of multiple
components that comprise emotional experience- subjective feelings, interpretations,
physiological/ bodily changes, action tendencies and expression. As human beings,
we share certain basic or primary emotions, while more complex, secondary
emotions may be learnt and expressed as combinations of primary emotions.
While emotions may ready us for action, they do not directly cause behaviour.
How we think about an emotional event determines which emotion is felt, what
action is taken and how the emotion is eventually expressed. These dynamics add
considerable richness to our individual and social lives and allow us to adapt to
situational demands. Understanding and changing our appraisal of an experience
can empower us to change our reactions and gain better control of our emotions.
1.8 KEY WORDS

Emotion : Emotion is a complex chain of loosely connected
events that begins with a stimulus and includes
feelings, psychological changes, impulses to
action and specific goal- directed behaviour
(Plutchik, 2001).
Feelings : The term feeling is used to refer to a person’s
private emotional experience or self- perception
of a specific emotion.
Moods : Moods are of lower intensity, generally last for
longer periods of time, even days and may not
necessarily be associated with a certain,
immediate event or cause.
Primary Emotions : Primary emotions are those that are basic and
universal in the sense that they are “hard- wired”,
automatic and experienced in all cultures and
social contexts.
Secondary Emotions : Combinations and layers of primary emotions
may give rise to more complex emotions. These
are called secondary emotions and may be
culture specific.
19
Intelligence (EI) 1.9 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
1. Emotion is defined as a complex chain of loosely connected events that
begins with a stimulus and includes feelings, psychological changes,
impulses to action and specific goal- directed behaviour (Plutchik, 2001).
2. Emotion Feeling Mood
Instant physical response Conscious awareness Can occur without
to a stimulus without of an emotion that an external
awareness arises in response to stimulus
a stimulus
Brief in duration Brief in duration Lasts over a
long period of time;
sometimes days
3. When emotions serve the purpose of communication between persons and
contribute to the initiation and management of relationships with others, they
are performing an interpersonal function. Emotional expressions provide vital
information about how one might feel towards another or what one intends
to do with reference to another person. For example, an expression of
disgust signals others to withdraw or stay away, while a smile is often
considered a social invitation.
1. Primary emotions are instinctive and universal among human beings. They
are also limited in number. Researchers have identified eight primary emotions:
fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy and trust. In contrast,
secondary emotions are learned and may not be shared across different
cultures or societies. They are formed by combining at least two primary
emotions. Unlike the very limited range of primary emotions, secondary
emotions are many. Plutchik identified as many as 24 secondary emotions
formed by mixing primary emotions.
2. Cognitive component of emotions determines judgments, predictions and
analysis of thoughts because it involves the process of assigning meaning to
an experienced emotion.
3. Culture exerts an impact on emotion expression by defining display rules
about which emotions are considered appropriate to be expressed in different
contexts and the manner in which they are to be expressed. For example,
eastern cultures encourage free expression of aggressive emotions such as
anger in men and label them as strong, to the exclusion of emotions such as
sadness. Similarly, crying may be considered weak and unmanly. Individualistic
societies such as western cultures value ambition and ruthlessness and associate
it with achievement, while collectivistic cultures value trust and consideration
for the group or community and may drive behaviour by reinforcing sacrifices
for others.
20
Concept of Emotion
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What are the different components of emotions? Explain with the help of an
example.
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary emotions.
3. Explain the relationship between emotions, thoughts and behavior.
4. What is cognitive appraisal? How is it useful?
5. In your opinion, are emotions disruptive or useful? Justify your answer.
1.11 ANSWERS TO UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Emotions have five main components:
Affective: subjective feelings
Cognitive: interpretation or thinking
Physiologic: bodily arousal
Motivational: capacity of emotions to direct one to or away from some
action
Expressive: displaying emotions through facial expressions or body
language.
2. PRIMARY EMOTIONS SECONDARY EMOTIONS
Basic, independent units Made up of two or more
primary emotions
Hard- wired and universal Not universal but culturally influenced
3. Emotions, thoughts and behaviour are connected to each other. When a
situational event occurs, individuals interpret or evaluate the situation
to make sense of it. This occurs in the form of thoughts. The kind of
thoughts one has about a situation, may determine what one feels or
experiences as an emotion. The felt emotion, in turn, has the potential to give
rise to some form of action directed towards the situation. This cycle may
continue with one’s reaction giving rise to further thoughts and emotions and
so on.
4. Cognitive appraisal refers to evaluation or interpretation of information received
about a particular environmental situation or state of the body. Appraisals are
useful because they enable us to make sense of our environment (especially
emotion producing events) and internal states. Specific emotions arise as a
result of specific appraisals. They also influence the intensity and quality of
emotions as well. It therefore follows that emotions can be changed by
altering our appraisals as well.
5. In and of themselves, emotions are neither entirely disruptive nor entirely
useful. The utility of emotions is determined by how an individual may
use them as important sources of information or become perturbed by
them because of his/ her own difficulties in managing or using them.
For example, fear has the useful function of alerting us to potential danger 21
Introduction to Emotional so that we may act to protect ourselves. However, when it arises when there
Intelligence (EI) is no real threat in the environment or is extremely intense when the threat
is very small in comparison, an inability to manage it may lead to adverse
consequences. For example, a fear of public speaking or group presentations
may lead to extensive preparations and indirectly lead to improvement in
performance quality but paralysing fear and an inability to manage it may also
hinder academic success or career growth.
1.12 REFERENCES
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., DeWall, C. N., & Zhang, L. (2007). How
emotion shapes behavior: Feedback, anticipation, and reflection, rather than
direct causation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 167–203.
Deutschendorf, H. (2009). The other kind of smart: Simple ways to boost
your emotional intelligence for greater personal effectiveness and success.
New York: AMACOM.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex
dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678–686. (12).
Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 214–219.
Kalat, J.W. (2017). Introduction to psychology. (11e.). Boston, MA: Cengage
Learning.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. and Wagenaar, W.
(2009). Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. 15th ed. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Plutchik, R. (2001). The nature of emotions. American Scientist, 89, 344-
350.
Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotions and life. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Assocation.
Strongman, K. T. (2003). The psychology of emotion: From everyday life to
theory (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Coon, D., Mitterer, J.O., Talbot, S., Vanchella, C. M. (2010). Introduction
to psychology: gateways to mind and behavior. Belmont, Calif. :
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
 Johnston, E., & Olson, L. (2015). The feeling brain: The biology and
psychology of emotions. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
 Morris, Charles G. (1979). Psychology: An Introduction. Prentice-Hall.
 Strongman, K. T. (2003). The psychology of emotion: From everyday
life to theory (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
 Woodworth, R.S. (1945). Psychology. London: Methuen
22
UNIT 2 CONCEPT, HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT AND
COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE*
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
2.3.1 Definition of Emotional Intelligence
2.3.2 What Emotional Intelligence ‘is’ and is ‘not’
2.4 Historical Development of Emotional Intelligence

2.5 Components of Emotional Intelligence
2.6 Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence: Relationship between IQ and EQ
2.7 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Key Words
2.13 References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Emotional intelligence (EI) reflects the current view in modern neuroscience wherein
emotions are framed as sources of useful data about our environment, rather than
hindrances or disruptors in rational thinking. Using emotions intelligently can provide
competitive advantage in a world where technical knowledge and “booksmarts”
may be in abundance, but the ability to deal with uncertainty, frustration, conflicts
and interpersonal relationships may be scarce. In a volatile, uncertain, complex
and ambiguous (VUCA) social reality, being attuned to one’s own and others’
emotions can help us tap into a unique kind of resource to navigate the world.
While many of us are already familiar with general or cognitive intelligence given
the emphasis placed on Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in academic and professional
contexts, emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept that is still under
development and research. This unit will introduce the construct and provide
context and background for its emergence. It will also examine why IQ is
not sufficient to ensure success in today’s world and why EI is receiving so much
attention across domains.
Intelligence (EI) 2.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the concept of emotional intelligence;
 Trace the historical developments that led to the formulation of the concept;
 Describe the components of emotional intelligence; and
 Distinguish between intelligence quotient and emotional quotient
2.3 CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Ashwin is a very sharp and technically gifted researcher. He has numerous
world- class research publications and is the star of his research and
development team. However, despite his excellent individual performance,
working with others in the team has always been a challenge for him. He
finds it easier to work in isolation because he feels awkward around his
teammates and is unable to initiate and carry out engaging conversations.
It is difficult for him to tell when someone is bored with what he is saying.
Two of his colleagues recently walked off after he commented on the
mediocrity of their work, even though his intention was to provide honest
feedback. They haven’t spoken to him since. Ashwin is also frequently confused
about why he feels so irritated and impatient in team discussions and is
barely able to hide his contempt for the ideas that usually emerge out of
these. He feels trapped and stuck in his current role and cannot see a way
out since most organisations today have moved to team- based work.
Based on the vignette above, what do you think is getting in the way of
Ashwin’s success? If your first thoughts upon reading about Ashwin’s situation
were related to his ability to recognise and manage his emotions and interact
appropriately with other people, you would be focusing on what we call
emotional intelligence.
The term emotional intelligence can be broken down into two concepts- emotions
and intelligence. If one is asked about emotions in general terms, the first responses
are likely to constitute a perspective on emotions that is inherently restrictive.
Most commonly, emotions are seen to make us inefficient, are a sign of weakness,
a distraction and obstacle to good judgment and decision making. The two
words in the term emotional intelligence can then be seen to contradict each other,
if viewed from this lens. However, modern neuroscience has served to debunk
these myths and highlighted several important functions that emotions serve. We
now know that emotions provide vital feedback and information about our world,
spark creativity, aid decision making, enhance reasoning and strengthen trust and
connection- all of which are crucial if we are to not just function but thrive as
human beings.
The adaptive function of emotions has been highlighted by Levenson (1994) as
follows:
“Emotions are short-lived psychological-physiological phenomena that
represent efficient modes of adaptation to changing environmental demands.
24 Psychologically, emotions alter attention, shift certain behaviors upward in
response hierarchies, and activate relevant associative networks in memory. Concept, Historical
Physiologically, emotions rapidly organize the responses of disparate biological Development and Components
of Emotional Intelligence
systems including facial expression, somatic muscular tone, voice tone,
autonomic nervous system activity, and endocrine activity to produce a
bodily milieu that is optimal for effective response. Emotions serve to establish
our position vis-à-vis our environment, pulling us toward certain people,
objects, actions and ideas, and pushing us away from others. Emotions also
serve as a repository for innate and learned influences, possessing certain
invariant features, and others that show considerable variation across
individuals, groups, and cultures”.
In fact, the word emotion itself derives from the Latin word “motere” or
“movere” meaning “to move” (Dozier, 1998), to stir up, to agitate or to
excite. Emotional intelligence leverages and expands on these ideas by
proposing that thinking (including memory, judgment, reasoning) and
emotions go together. Emotions assist thinking and thinking can be used to
analyse and regulate emotions. For example, anger signals the presence of
an obstacle and gives one energy to fight. Fear is a survival emotion that
protects from danger by taking our attention to possible threats. Trust flags
the presence of a sense of safety and motivates one to open up to connections.
Thus, while emotions may be seen to disrupt thinking in some situations,
they also signal where one’s attention needs to be directed in a given situation.
Some basic principles about emotions that are relevant to emotional
intelligence are :
1. Emotions are information and present useful data about our worlds.
2. Decisions must incorporate emotions in order to be effective and lead
to intended outcomes. For example, Reinhard & Schwartz (2012) have
found that people in a less positive or even negative mood perceive
truthful information more effectively than those in a positive mood.
3. We can try to ignore emotions but it doesn’t work, especially over long
periods of time. Suppressing and hiding emotions takes up valuable
mental energy that could have been directed at an important task and is
highly stressful when continued for long.
4. We can try to hide emotions but are not as good at it as we might think.
Most people are able to read tiny, fleeting changes in emotional
expressions and interpret them correctly, such as identifying a fake
smile by noticing the lack of movement of the eye muscles while smiling.
Given the above, dismissing or ignoring emotions may not be a realistic goal
if we are to function healthily. Instead, it may be worthwhile to consider
how we might use emotions intelligently so that they help us thrive.
2.3.1 Definition of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a set of emotional and social skills that influence
the way we perceive and express ourselves, develop and maintain social
relationships, cope with challenges, and use emotional information in an
effective and meaningful way. Several definitions of emotional intelligence have
been proposed over the years.
25
Introduction to Emotional One of the most popular definitions is “Emotional intelligence is the capacity for
Intelligence (EI) recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for
managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships” (Goleman, 1998).
This definition emphasises that knowledge about emotions can be used to make
sense of our internal and social worlds and arrive at decisions accordingly. Others
like Reuven Bar-On (2002) have emphasised the adaptive function by EI by
defining it as “an array of non-cognitive abilities, competencies and skills that
influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and
pressures”.
Salovey & Mayer (1990) initially defined emotional intelligence as a sub-set of
social intelligence - “ the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s
thinking and actions”. Later, this definition was revised to make it more
comprehensive. Mayer, Salovey & Caruso (2004) define it as “the capacity to
reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the
abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as
to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to
reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.”
This perspective emphasises the synthesis of emotions and intelligence and is
shared by other theoretical frameworks as well (Ciarocchi, Chan & Caputi,
2000; Roberts, Zeidner & Matthews, 2001).
Just as intelligence is quantified and measured through Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
emotional intelligence is indicated by Emotional Quotient or EQ. Bradberry &
Greaves (2009) consider EI as the ‘missing piece’ in conceptualising a complete,
whole person; personality and intelligence comprising the other two key
components. Over decades of research, it has been established that EI is a
distinct ability that does not share attributes with either personality or intelligence.
Having certain personality traits does not automatically predispose one to have
high or low emotional intelligence. For example, while extroverts may feel energised
by interacting with people and introverts share a preference for solitude, it does
not automatically imply that extroverts are more emotionally intelligent than introverts.
Similarly, having an ability to process information cognitively or intelligence, does
not indicate one’s level of EI. In addition, while personality and intelligence are
relatively stable and resistant to change after the age of 18-20 years, EI comprises
a dynamic component that has the potential to evolve and grow over time, as well
as with targeted interventions.
Glossop and Mitchell (2005) highlighted this as: “Emotional intelligence is learned.
Unlike IQ, which is essentially fixed within narrow parameters at birth, EQ can
be developed and enhanced. In other words, temperament is not destiny. Empathy
and the capacity to understand the emotions of others can be nurtured.” In fact,
several studies have shown that older participants tend to score higher on EI
measures and may indicate that EQ increases with age and maturation (Bar-On,
2000).
Thus, in order to consider ‘the whole person’, emotional intelligence must be
considered alongside personality and intelligence.
2.3.2 What Emotional Intelligence ‘is’ and is ‘not’
To have an accurate understanding of the concept of emotional intelligence, it is
important to draw clear distinctions between what it covers and refers to and
which aspects of it are untrue or inaccurate.
26
What emotional intelligence ‘is’: Concept, Historical
Development and Components
 Being aware of oneself of Emotional Intelligence
 Being able to manage emotions

 Being socially aware
 Ability to manage interpersonal relationships by using emotions
 A field of scientific study
What emotional intelligence is ‘not’:
 Ignoring or suppressing emotions
 Allowing emotions to dominate thinking and decision making
 A permanent trait
 An indicator of cognitive and academic intelligence
 A person’s aptitude or interest
 Avoidance of conflict
 Best predictor of success in life
Thus, emotional intelligence refers to the non-cognitive abilities of a person that
includes the ability to be aware of the emotions of oneself and others and also
to be able to manage these emotions. In common words, it can be said to denote
‘street smartness’ or the ‘common sense’ (Stein & Book, 2006). It is the practical
knowledge that one needs to have to be effective in any field even if the knowledge
acquired from the academic arena is average. As Aristotle has put it, “ Anyone
can become angry – that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the
right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way
– that is not within everybody’s power and is not easy. Hence, getting aware of
the emotions, and knowing proper ways to express emotions are crucial for
success in life.
1. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F):
i Human beings often succeed at suppressing negative
emotions such as anger and anxiety without any
impact on productivity.
ii) Decision making can be more effective if emotions are
not involved.
iii) Emotional intelligence means being devoid of emotions
and being able to think purely in a rational and
logical manner.
iv) Personality and intelligence are flexible and can
be modified over time.
27
Introduction to Emotional 2. Define emotional intelligence.
Intelligence (EI)
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. How is emotional intelligence measured?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The concept of emotional intelligence has its roots in early psychologists’
conceptualisation of intelligence. Thorndike in 1920 proposed that intelligence
is comprised of three distinct domains or classes: (i) Abstract, analytic or
verbal; (ii) Mechanical, performance and visuo-spatial; (iii) Social or practical.
Thorndike, thus, expanded on the traditional view of ‘intelligence’ as being
purely cognitive by identifying several other kinds of intelligences.
Specifically, his social/practical intelligence component indicates emotional
intelligence aspect. Howard Gardner (1983) further identified eight different
abilities: musical-rhythmic, visual-spatial, verbal- linguistic, bodily-
kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalistic.
Here, the intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences are related to aspects
of emotional intelligence. Another psychologist, Sternberg (1985) talked about
three types of intelligence such as analytical, creative and practical intelligence.
In all these notions of intelligence, we can see the building blocks of emotional
intelligence - social intelligence, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences,
and practical intelligence can all be said to reflect emotional intelligence
abilities.
Gardner’s description of personal intelligences- intra and interpersonal focuses
directly on feelings:
“The core capacity at work here is access to one’s own feeling life- one’s
range of affects or emotions: the capacity instantly to effect discriminations
among these feelings and, eventually, to label them, to enmesh them in
symbolic codes, to draw upon them as a means of understanding and guiding
one’s behaviour. In its most primitive form, the intrapersonal intelligence
amounts to little more than the capacity to distinguish a feeling of pleasure
from one of pain…At its most advanced level, intrapersonal knowledge allows
one to detect and to symbolise complex and highly differentiated sets of
feelings…..to attain a deep knowledge of…..feeling life”.
Salovey & Mayer are widely credited with first using the term ‘emotional
intelligence’ in 1990. However, they themselves acknowledge that the term
was used much earlier in passing in the 1960s in literary criticism and
psychiatry and eventually in a dissertation by Payne in 1986 (Mayer, Salovey
& Caruso, 2004). The construct remained largely unknown until it attained
28
popularity when Daniel Goleman published his book on the subject in 1995 Concept, Historical
and argued that ‘people with the highest levels of intelligence (IQ) outperform Development and Components
those with average IQs just 20 percent of the time, while people with average
IQs outperform those with high IQs 70 percent of the time’. His assertion
that EI could predict job performance and success held intuitive appeal and
since then, the concept has become extremely mainstream and received
international attention among several domains such as mental health, business,
education etc.
2.5 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
Broadly, emotional intelligence can be viewed as having four interrelated
components:
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
Perceiving Understanding Managing Using

Emotions Emotions Emotions Emotions
Let us explain each of these components below.

1. Perceiving emotions: This is the basic ability to register and recognise
emotions in ourselves and other people. People who are high in emotional
intelligence are able to identify when they are experiencing a particular
emotion and able to use their vocabulary to label the feeling. For example,
experiencing the sensation of “butterflies in the stomach” and knowing
that they are feeling nervousness or anxiety. They are also sensitive to
other people’s emotions and are able to see when someone is feeling
angry, sad, happy or a range of other feelings by reading their facial
expressions and body language. This is a fundamental skill because
without recognising the experience of an emotion, it is very difficult to
understand it or change it in any way.
2. Understanding emotions: This component refers to using the specific
information that various emotions provide and knowing how that might
affect their behavior. As discussed earlier, each emotion conveys distinct
data to individuals about their environment and energizes one for action
in a particular direction. Emotionally intelligent people are able to
‘read’ this information and use it to guide their behaviour. For example,
understanding that one’s anger at their friend may be a result of
feeling unfairly treated by them. Understanding emotions in others is
similar- observing that a sibling is hanging their head low and has reduced
their interactions with others might indicate they are upset or sad about
something.
29
Introduction to Emotional The following descriptive statements about persons ‘X’ and ‘Y’ may help to
Intelligence (EI)
illustrate the above two components of perceiving and recognising emotions:
Example 1: “During challenging and difficult social situations, X is very
conscious of the pitch of his voice and hand gestures. He recognises
when the intensity of his anger is rising and makes the effort to behave
in an assertive way rather than give in to aggression”.
Example 2: “Y is usually unaware of being triggered by an unorganised
desk or a delayed project. He almost instantly responds with undue
aggression without realising what language or tone of voice he is using
with someone. He sounds very offensive at times”.
In the first example, being aware about one’s pitch and the bodily
gestures draws one’s attention to the intensity of the emotion one is
experiencing. This awareness then leads to appropriate action in the
individual. The second example points out the consequences when we
are not aware about how our emotions are linked to various factors.
This awareness of generation of emotions will give us a control over
how we respond to different situations.
3. Managing emotions: When one recognises their emotions quickly and
understands their meaning, it becomes relatively easier for them to
think about the next steps regarding how to change them. This applies
to the self as well as others. Recognising that one is feeling low and
wanting to change that emotion may encourage one to make plans to go
out for a movie or meet a friend they enjoy talking to or just talk to the
person over phone. A desire to reduce one’s anger may also lead to the
use of deep breathing and relaxation strategies to calm oneself down.
Similar tools may be used to help change emotions in others as well.
For example, saying sorry or apologising to an angry friend may reduce
anger or sadness. Listening to a sibling who is feeling sad may improve
their mood.
The following descriptive statements about persons ‘X’ and ‘Y’ may
help to clarify how this skill is observable:
Example 1: “X is a great example of patience and restraint when meetings
become heated up and emotionally- charged. While others are shouting
and calling others names around her, she responds by listening carefully
and responding with well - thought out points rather than reacting
impulsively”.
Example 2: “Y calls incessantly when I don’t answer the first time he
calls. He reacts out of panic and assumes the worst. Unanswered calls
are often accompanied by accusatory messages and rants that he later
regrets.”
Here in the above examples we can see that we can better manage the
emotions either in ourselves or in others when we become aware of the
emotions and the situation giving rise to such emotions.
4. Using emotions: The ability to use one’s emotions is more than just
dealing with or managing emotions. It involves the skill of leveraging
emotions to enhance our thinking, decision-making and relationships.
30
For example, concealing one’s nervousness about public speaking by using Concept, Historical
body language and hand gestures to show excitement instead so that the
audience is more engaged. Channelizing anger at perceived injustice towards
fighting for one’s legitimate rights is another example of using emotions and
has been used extensively to bring about social changes and reforms for
centuries.
The capacity to use emotions is illustrated by the following descriptions:
Example 1: “X has a very good capacity to initiate and maintain relationships.
She shows a lot of empathy and connects very quickly with people. Even
when she does not like someone, she finds a way to be cordial and professional
with them so that tasks succeed”.
Example 2: “Y is mistrusting and this shows when we interact with her. She
does not like including new friends in the group and is very possessive about
us. It can sometimes be suffocating to be around her”.
As can be seen from the examples above, people do not share identical
abilities in each of the above domains. One may be good at controlling their
own anger but not have the skills to calm another angry person. Similarly,
one may recognise own sadness but not possess well-developed strategies to
change or manage sadness. Developing these skills is a matter of practice
and sometimes requires structured coaching and experience.
1. List the four components of emotional intelligence.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Differentiate between the skills of understanding emotions and managing
emotions.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. Amish is a very good negotiator. He often displays high assertiveness to
increase positive outcomes for himself, even though does not consider himself
as an assertive person on the whole. This is an example of
........................................... component of emotional intelligence.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. 31
Intelligence (EI) 2.6 INTELLIGENCE AND EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE: RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN IQ AND EQ
When we use the word “intelligence”, usually we refer to cognitive intelligence or
academic intelligence. However, there are other types of intelligences also such as
social and emotional intelligence. The most well known and referenced definition
of intelligence is probably that of Wechsler’s - “intelligence is the aggregate or
global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with his environment” (1958). The highest level of cognitive mental
abilities is called general mental ability or ‘g’, which is thought to predict learnability
and performance across domains. ‘g’ is further classified into fluid and crystallised
forms of intelligence (Cattel,1971). Fluid intelligence is a measure of the abilities
of information processing and reasoning. Crystallized intelligence has to do with
acquiring, retaining and organising information and is different from information
processing. Furnham et al. (2007) have explained this with the help of an analogy.
If cognitive intelligence is a computer, fluid intelligence would be the information
processor (computer chip) while crystallised intelligence is analogous to the
information stored in memory (hard drive).
Sternberg, one of the pioneers in the field of intelligence stated its definition as
“Intelligence comprises the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as
shaping and selection of, different environments” (1997). In this regard, Wechsler
acknowledged that “individuals with identical IQs may differ very markedly in
regard to their effective ability to cope with the environment”(1940).
Later, Goleman (1995) famously claimed in his book that ‘emotional intelligence
can be as powerful, and at times more powerful, than IQ’ and in fact could be
the unnoticed factor that may explain why the smartest, and technically gifted
people may not necessarily be the most successful. Pfeiffer (2001) extended
Sternberg’s definition to emotional intelligence by proposing that it is also a type
of intelligence because acting ‘intelligently’ does not involve only successful
adaptation to the environment but also the act of moulding and changing it so that
one’s needs are met adequately.
Thus, viewing intelligence as a simple, one-dimensional construct that refers to an
ability to process information and thus predicts academic and career performance,
may be seen as a somewhat narrower framework. It does not take into account
the several other kinds of abilities that inform an individual’s capacity to adapt to
his or her environment and succeed across various domains. Emotional intelligence
is a kind of “hot intelligence”- part of a group of capabilities of dealing with
personally relevant information (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
As stated earlier, cognitive intelligence, measured via Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
and Emotional Intelligence measured through Emotional Quotient (EQ) are distinct
constructs. Having a high IQ does not automatically indicate a high EQ, while
having a high EQ may indicate a high or average IQ at least and predict success
at work better than IQ alone. While IQ can predict academic success, it may not
necessarily lead to success in life; whereas EQ predicts success and effectiveness
in life. Given the importance of emotional intelligence, it may be noted here that
unlike intelligence, emotional intelligence can be increased through training at any
age.
32
In a study by Mount (2006), EQ was found to be more than twice as predictive Concept, Historical
of business performance than purely cognitive intelligence and better
predictive of business performance than employee skill, knowledge and expertise.
While academic intellectual capacities are important, they are not enough on their
own. Many other studies have reported similar findings (Clarke, 2010; Godse
& Thingujam, 2010). More recently, researchers are moving to a more integrated
way to studying the impact of IQ and EQ. Since emotional intelligence is the sum
of two concepts- emotion and intelligence, it makes sense to study their combined
impact on performance and success. Kidwell et al., (2011) and Agnoli et al.,
(2012) have shown that emotional intelligence further enhances or boosts the
relationship between general intelligence and job performance, especially when
tasks are conducted in social contexts involving interaction and collaboration such
as customer service, team work etc. Thus, although cognitive and emotional
intelligences are different from each other, they also share a close relationship in
terms of operating together to influence performance and success.
IQ can therefore be considered a minimum requirement or “threshold competence”
(Emmerling & Goleman, 2003), for example, in getting into an academic institute
through an entrance exam or a job in an organization on the basis of degrees and
certifications attained. Success thereafter, is determined by many more varied
skills that must be built upon this. Emotional competence needs to supplement
intellectual competence. A sub-set of emotional intelligence, emotional competence
is defined as “a learned capability based on emotional intelligence that results in
outstanding performance at work” (Goleman, 1998). For example, one may have
adequate baseline emotional intelligence but will still need to learn the specific
competency of empathy to influence relationships with peers or superiors for
success. Goleman has proposed five emotional competencies such as Self
awareness, Motivation, Self-regulation, Empathy and Social skills. This
emotional competence framework is presented in greater detail in Unit 3.
2.7 BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The concept of emotional intelligence has become very popular and is steadily
gaining traction because of the many benefits it purports to offer to these
who have this capacity. Some of these benefits are:
1. Allows individuals to tap into not just thinking capacities, but also
leverage information and strengths that emotions bring.
2. Takes a realistic and practical view of emotions as opposed to traditional
notions that encourage leaving emotions out of certain contexts and
encourage unhealthy suppression.
3. Facilitates understanding of self and others, beyond superficial
information.
4. Encourages and enables empathy so that the quality of interpersonal
interactions improves.
5. Adds competitive advantage over just cognitive intelligence and technical
skills so that individuals are able to pursue excellence and success
using a range of intelligences.
6. Allows individuals more agency and control over which emotions they would
33
Introduction to Emotional like to experience more of and which ones they consider undesirable in a
Intelligence (EI) given situation and would like to switch from.
Thus the benefits of emotional intelligence have implications across a wide range
of our life from personal relationship to professional contexts and settings.
2.8 LET US SUM UP

Emotional intelligence has emerged as an exciting domain of study over the last
30 years or so, even though usage of the term and recognition of related skills
has been around for several decades. The term is composed of two units- emotion
and intelligence and arises out of the synthesis of these seemingly incompatible
domains. Emotions can influence thinking and in turn, thinking can be used to
make sense of and employ emotions effectively. It is now well established that the
abilities that comprise emotional intelligence and are concerned with recognising,
regulating and using emotions to drive effective decision-making are crucial to
adaptive functioning and optimal performance. There has been much debate about
its distinctiveness as a construct and mixed evidence for its exponential impact on
performance when compared with cognitive intelligence. However, when taken
together with cognitive intelligence, especially in social tasks, emotional intelligence
can boost the impact of the former and yield tangible results. The present Unit
explained the concept of emotional intelligence and highlighted the historical
development of the concept. Further, the different components of emotional
intelligence were explained.
2.9 KEY WORDS

Emotional Intelligence : Emotional intelligence is the capacity for
recognising our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves, and for
managing emotions well in ourselves and in
our relationships (Goleman, 1998).
Emotional Quotient : Emotional quotient or EQ is a measure of
2.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1. (i) F, (ii) F, (iii) F, (iv) F
2. Emotional intelligence is the capacity for recognising our own feelings
and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions
well in ourselves and in our relationships (Goleman, 1998).
3. Emotional intelligence is measured quantitatively through emotional
quotient (EQ).
1. The four components of emotional intelligence are perceiving emotions,
understanding emotions, managing emotions and using emotions.
34
2. Understanding emotions refers to using the specific information or data that Concept, Historical
various emotions provide and knowing how that might affect one’s behavior. Development and Components
For example, being aware about one’s pitch and the bodily gestures during
an anger episode draws one’s attention to the intensity of the emotion one
is experiencing. This awareness may then lead to appropriate action in the
individual.
3. Using emotions

1. Can the ability to recognise and regulate emotions be called an intelligence?
Why or why not?
2. Why is emotional intelligence considered important?
3. Why is the ability to understand emotions in self and others important?

1. The ability to recognise and regulate emotions can be considered as a type
of intelligence because it allows the use of thinking capacities to understand
and reason with emotional information. Moreover, the capacity to adapt to
changing environmental needs is one of the hallmarks of cognitive intelligence.
Emotional intelligence not only enables this process, it also brings the additional
advantage of helping an individual alter aspects of the environment to suit his/
her needs.
2. Emotional intelligence is considered important because it has the potential to
create a lot of impact for individuals and groups. It has been linked to
superior performance at work, especially in social contexts and when combined
with cognitive intelligence. The capacity to recognise and manage one’s
emotions allows individuals to not only understand themselves but also present
themselves in a certain way to the outside world. A higher than average
ability for social awareness can help individuals connect to others and build
bonds so that interpersonal relationships can be a source of personal fulfilment
and also be leveraged for superior teamwork.
3. The ability to understand self and others is fundamental to all other emotional
intelligence strengths. Recognising the experience of emotions and being able
to assign an identifying label to them brings clarity to the human experience.
Without recognising what emotion one might be feeling, it would be nearly
impossible to know which strategies would be helpful in managing it. For
example, the coping and responding strategies for anxiety and sadness are
different. Anxiety generally responds well to relaxation and calming strategies
while intense sadness is helped by engaging with activities and other people.
If a person to unable to understand whether they are feeling sad or anxious,
they would not be able to respond to the experienced emotion with an
appropriate emotion regulation strategy. Similarly, using the skills of observation
and listening, emotions in other people can also be identified. This is crucial
for two reasons- to experience empathy, without which genuine connection
with others is not possible and secondly, reading others’ emotions yields
important information about the most suitable way to respond to others.
35
Intelligence (EI) 2.13 REFERENCES
Agnoli S., Mancini G., Pozzoli T., Baldaro B., Russo P. M., Surcinelli P. (2012).
The interaction between emotional intelligence and cognitive ability in predicting
scholastic performance in school-aged children. Pers. Individ. Differ. 53, 660–
665.
Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional
Quotient Inventory (EQ-i). In R. Bar-On & J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of
emotional intelligence (pp. 363-388). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bar-On, R. (2002). EQ-I: Bar-On emotional quotient inventory technical manual.
Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Bradberry, J. & Greaves, J. (2009). Emotional intelligence 2.0. San Diego, CA:
TalentSmart.
Ciarocchi, J.V., Chan, A.Y., & Caputi, P. (2000). A critical evaluation of the
emotional intelligence concept. Personality and Individual differences, 28,
539- 561.
Clarke, N. Emotional intelligence and its relationship to transformational
leadership and key project manager competences. Project Management
Journal, 41(2), 5-20. 2010.
Dozier, R. W. (1998). Fear itself: the origin and nature of the powerful
emotion that shapes our lives and our world. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Emmerling, R.J. and Goleman, D. 2003. Emotional intelligence : issues and
common misunderstandings. [Online.] Available WWW:
www.eiconsortium.org/research/ei_issues_and_common_misunderstandings.
htm.
Furnham, A., Dissou, G; Sloan, P. & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2007).
Personality and intelligence in business people: A study of two personality
and two intelligence measures. Journal of Business and Psychology, 22, 99-
109.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.
New York: Basic Books
Gerald Mount, The role of emotional intelligence in developing international
business capability: EI provides traction. In V. Druskat, F. Sala & G. Mount
(Eds.), Linking Emotional Intelligence and Performance at Work (pp. 97-
124). Mahwah, N.J.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006.
Glossop, R. & Mitchell, A. (2005). Heart Smarts. The Vanier Institute of the
Family, Ottawa, Ontario.
Godse, A.S., & Thingujam, N.S. Perceived emotional intelligence and conflict
resolution styles among information technology professionals: Testing the
mediating role of personality. Singapore Management Review, 32(1), 69-83.
2010.
Goleman, Daniel (1995). Emotional Intelligence, Why it can matter more than IQ.
New York: Bantam Books.
36
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam. Concept, Historical
Kidwell B., Hardesty D. M., Murtha B. R., Sheng S. (2011). Emotional intelligence of Emotional Intelligence
in marketing exchanges. J. Market. 75, 78–95.
Levenson, R.W. (1994). Human emotion: A functional view. In: Ekman P, Davidson
RJ, editors. The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions. New York: Oxford.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory,
findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 60, 197–215.
Pfeiffer, S. (2001). Emotional Intelligence: Popular but Elusive Construct. Roeper
Review, 23(3), p. 138-42.
Reinhard, M.A & Schwarz, N. (2012). The influence of affective states on the
process of lie detection. J Exp Psychol Appl., 18(4): 377-89.
Roberts, R.D., Zeidner, M., & Matthews, G. (2001). Does emotional intelligence
meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions.
Emotion, 1, 196- 231.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, cognition
and personality, 9, 185- 211.
Stein, S. J., & Book, H. E. (2006). The EQ edge – the emotional intelligence and
your success (2nd ed.), Canada: Jossey-Bass (A Wiley Imprint), John Wiley.
Sternberg, R.J. (1997). The Concept of Intelligence and its Role in Lifelong
Learning and Success,” American Psychologist, Vol. 52, p. 1030-1037.
Thorndike, E.L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140,
227- 235.
Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence.
Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
Wechsler, D. (1940). Nonintellective factors in general intelligence.
Psychological Bulletin, 37,444–445.

Emmerling, R.J. and Goleman, D. 2003. Emotional intelligence : issues and
common misunderstandings. [Online.] Available WWW: www.eiconsortium.org/
research/ei_issues_and_common_misunderstandings. htm
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam.
Mangal S.K & Mangal S. (2015). Emotional Intelligence: Managing emotions to
win in life. Delhi: PHI Learning.
37
Block II - Emotional Competencies
Unit 3 Components of Emotional Competencies 41-58

UNIT 3 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL
COMPETENCIES*
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 What are Emotional Competencies
3.3.1 The Emotional Competence Model
3.4 The Emotional Competencies

3.4.1 Self-awareness
3.4.2 Self-regulation
3.4.3 Self-motivation
3.4.4 Social Awareness
3.4.5 Social Skills
3.5 Recognition and Understanding of Emotions in Oneself and Others

3.5.1 What does it mean to Identify and Understand Emotions?
3.5.2 Emotional Awareness in Oneself
3.5.3 Emotional Awareness in Others
3.6 Universality of Emotional Expression

3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key Words
3.11 References
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In our day-to-day life we interact with a variety of people for various reasons.
We are social animals and as a part of our social life we manage workplace
relationships, friendships and family relationships. Some of us are quite
good at managing relationships and as a result not only lead happy and
satisfied lives, but also thrive at workplace. While some others are not so
good at it, and often face discontentment and struggle. Have you ever
wondered, what differentiates these two sets of people? It is their emotional
competencies, or their skilfulness in applying their emotional intelligence in
managing their own emotions and of those around them. In the present Unit
* Dr. Swati Mukherjee, Scientist ‘E’, Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR), DRDO,
New Delhi 41
Emotional Competencies we will be discussing about emotional competencies, about identifying emotions
in oneself and in others, and about the universality of emotional expressions.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying the Unit, you will be able to:
 describe the concept of emotional competencies;
 explain the components of emotional competencies;
 differentiate between emotional intelligence and emotional competencies;
 describe the skills involved in identifying and understanding emotions in oneself
and others; and
 describe about the universality of emotional expressions.
3.3 WHAT ARE EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES?

Emotional competence is a core construct that has been shown to explain success
both at the level of individual employees and the organization. According to
Goleman (1998), emotional competence is a learned ability which is based on
emotional intelligence, and has a positive influence on the performance of employees
at work. Goleman also asserts that emotionally intelligent individuals are better at
learning and demonstrating emotional competencies that lead to enhanced
satisfaction, better quality of life and happiness.
The concept of emotional competence (EC) is better understood in relation to the
concept of emotional intelligence (EI). Emotional intelligence is defined as “the
ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between
different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information
to guide thinking and behaviour” (Salovey & Mayer, 2004). There are three main
approaches to the study of EI: the trait model, the ability model, and the competency
model.
3.3.1 The Emotional Competence Model

The model of emotional competence was given by Goleman (1995). It focuses
on behaviours that lead to performance. This model conceptualizes emotional
intelligence as a large range of dispositions and competences ranging from
individual traits to learned abilities. Goleman has categorized these
competencies into five categories. Each of the category is further divided
into multiple elements, that shall be described in subsequent section. These
categories are: (1) self-awareness; (2) motivation; (3) self-regulation; (4)
social awareness and empathy and (5) social skills (Goleman, 1998). The
following Box 3.1 lists the five competencies given by Goleman.
Other scholars have conceptualized emotional competence as comprising of
three basic components. These are:
(a) The expression of emotions,
(b) The understanding of emotions and
(c) The experience of emotions
42
We shall elaborate upon the emotional competence Components of Emotional
Box 3.1 Competencies
framework using Goleman’s conceptualization.
Before we proceed to elaborate upon each of The 5 Components of
these competencies in detail, it is pertinent to delve EC
a bit upon the concept of ‘competence’ in general.  Self-awareness
Competence has been defined as “the description
of learning outcomes, meaning what can a person  Motivation
know or prove to have learned as a result of a  Self-regulation
learning process” (Oberst et al., 2009, p. 253). It  Social awareness
is a general term that refers to the quality of and Empathy
performance of an individual on a specific task
(Black & Ornelles, 2001). Sternberg and  Social skills
colleagues (2000) have distinguished between
and competence by highlighting that while competence refers to the set of abilities
intelligence involved in solving personal and professional problems, intelligence
involves the subcomponents of these abilities, in the form of thinking and
understanding. In this sense, it is appropriate to assume that emotional competence
is concerned with performance on emotion related tasks, while emotional
intelligence is the underlying ability that facilitates it. Goleman (1998) has emphasized
that emotional intelligence is at the root of emotional competencies, but it is not
enough to ensure performance excellence. Emotional intelligence is an indicator of
the potential, the individual still needs to work upon this to develop his/her emotional
competencies. It might be said that emotional competence is a higher ability
indicative of performance excellence. Also, emotional intelligence is the underlying
foundation for emotional competence, and emotional competence is an expression
of emotional intelligence.
1. What are the five emotional competencies given by Goleman?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. How is emotional intelligence different from emotional competence?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3.4 THE EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

The domain of emotional competence can be divided into two broad areas:
Personal Competence and Social Competence. Personal competence is based
on an individual’s recognition of his/her own emotions, ability to appropriately
express emotions and the ability to maintain emotional control and adapt. It forms
the basis for social competence. The components that fall in the area of personal 43
Emotional Competencies competence are: (1) Self-awareness, (2) Motivation, and (3) Self-regulation. Social
competence refers to an individual’s ability to appropriately recognize emotions in
others and respond in an appropriate manner. The components that fall in the area
of social competence are: (4) Social awareness and empathy, and (5) Social
skills. This description is based upon the categorization given by The Consortium
for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations EI Framework
(www.eiconsortium. org).
3.4.1 Self-awareness
Self-awareness in the context of emotional competence implies an awareness of
one’s emotional state, including the possibility of acknowledging experience of
multiple emotions simultaneously. At more mature levels, emotional self awareness
also implies acknowledging that one might not be consciously aware of one’s
feelings because of unconscious dynamics or selective inattention (Saarni, 2000).
Self awareness is the basic competence that serves as the root for other
competencies to develop. Three sub-components of self-awareness and the
behavioural descriptions of each of these sub-components is described as below
in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Sub-components of Self-awareness
Sr. Sub-Component Behavioural Description (People with
No. this competence ….)
1. Emotional • Know which emotions they are feeling and

Awareness: why
Recognizing one’s • Realize the links between their feelings
emotions and their and what they think, do, and say
effect on self • Recognize how their feelings affect their
performance
• Have a guiding awareness of their values and
goals
2. Accurate Self • Are aware of their strengths and

Assessment: weaknesses
Knowing one’s • Are reflective in learning from experiences
strengths and limits
• Are open to candid feedback, new
perspectives, continuous learning, and self-
development
• Are able to show a sense of humor and
perspective about themselves
3. Self Confidence: • Present themselves with self-assurance

Being sure of • Can voice views that are unpopular and
self-worth and be assertive for what is right
capabilities
• Are decisive, able to make sound decisions
despite uncertainties and pressures
44
3.4.2 Self-regulation Components of Emotional
Competencies
Self-regulation implies being able to manage and regulate one’s emotional experience
as well as expression, so that one is able to maintain and enhance one’s functionality
and effectiveness in relationships or at work. Self-regulation is a crucial competence
for ensuring smooth functioning in social contexts and for performance effectiveness
at work. Five sub-components of self-regulation and their behavioural descriptions
are described in the following Table 3.2:
Table 3.2: Sub-components of Self-regulation
1. Self-control: • Manage their impulsive feelings and

Managing distressing emotions well
disruptive
• Stay composed, positive, and unflappable
emotions and
even in trying moments
impulses
• Think clearly and stay focused under
pressure
2. Trustworthiness: • Act ethically and are above reproach

Maintaining
• Build trust through their reliability and
standards of
authenticity
honesty and
integrity • Admit their own mistakes and confront
unethical actions in others
• Take tough, principled stands even if they
are unpopular
3. Conscientiousness: • Meet commitments and keep promises

Taking
responsibility for • Hold themselves accountable for meeting
personal their objectives
performance • Are organized and careful in their work
4. Adaptability: • Smoothly handle multiple demands,

Flexibility in shifting priorities, and rapid change
handling change
• Adapt their responses and tactics to fit
fluid circumstances
• Are flexible in how they see events
5. Innovativeness: • Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety

Being open to of sources
and comfortable • Entertain original solutions to problems
with novel ideas
and new • Generate new ideas
information • Take fresh perspectives and risks in their
thinking
45
Emotional Competencies 3.4.3 Self-motivation
Self-motivation in the context of emotional competence implies keeping oneself
motivated and driven towards the goal by effectively managing the experience and
expression of emotions. Sustaining motivation by regulating emotions in the face
of failure or even success is a crucial skill of emotional competence. Four sub-
components of self-motivation and their behavioural descriptions are described in
the following Table No. 3.3:
Table 3.3: Sub-components of Self-motivation
1. Achievement drive: • Are results-oriented, with a high drive to

Striving to meet their objectives and standards
improve or meet a
standard of • Set challenging goals and take calculated
excellence. risks
• Pursue information to reduce uncertainty
and find ways to do better
• Learn how to improve their performance
2. Commitment: • Readily make personal or group sacrifices

Aligning with the to meet a larger organizational goal
goals of the group
• Find a sense of purpose in the larger
or organization
mission
• Use the group’s core values in making
decisions and clarifying choices
• Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill
the group’s mission
3. Initiative: • Are ready to seize opportunities

Readiness to act
on opportunities • Pursue goals beyond what is required or
expected of them
• Cut through red tape and bend the rules
when necessary to get the job done
• Mobilize others through unusual,
enterprising efforts
4. Optimism: • Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles

Persistence in and setbacks
pursuing goals
• Operate from hope of success rather than
despite obstacles
fear of failure
and setbacks.
• See setbacks as due to manageable
circumstance rather than a personal flaw
46
Self Assessment Questions 2 Components of Emotional
Competencies
1. List the personal emotional competencies.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the four sub-components of self-motivation?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3.4.4 Social Awareness
Social awareness as a component of emotional competence implies awareness of
feelings and emotions of other individuals and groups. It is a crucial component
for developing effective and empathetic relationships and work jointly towards
attainment of group goals. Five sub-components of social awareness and their
behavioural descriptions are described in the following Table No. 3.4:
Table 3.4: Sub-components of Social Awareness
1. Empathy:
. Sensing • Are attentive to emotional cues and listen
other’s feeling and well
perspective and
taking active • Show sensitivity and understand others’
interest in their perspectives
concerns • Help out based on understanding others’
needs and feelings
• Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting
others’ needs.
2. Service orientation: • Understand others’ needs and match them

Anticipating, to how they can be helped
recognizing, and
• Seek ways to increase others’ satisfaction
meeting others’
level with the service being provided
needs.
• Gladly offer appropriate assistance
• Grasp others’ perspective, acting as a
trusted advisor
3. Developing others: • Acknowledge and reward people’s

Sensing what st rengths, accomplishment s, and
others need in development
order to develop,
and bolstering their • Offer useful feedback and identify people’s
abilities. needs for development 47
Emotional Competencies
• Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer
assignments that challenge and grow an
individual’s skills.
4. Leveraging • Respect and relate well to people from varied

diversity: backgrounds
Cultivating
opportunities • Understand diverse worldviews and are
through diverse sensitive to group differences
people. • See diversity as opportunity, creating an
environment where diverse people can
thrive
• Challenge bias and intolerance
5. Political awareness: • Accurately read key power relationships

Reading emotional
currents and power • Detect crucial social networks
relationships within
• Understand the forces that shape views
the group
and actions of clients, customers, or
competitors
• Accurat ely read sit uations and
organizational and external realities
3.4.5 Social Skills

Social skills denote an ability to interact with others in a socially acceptable
manner, at the same time ensuring personal, mutual or others’ benefit as an
outcome of the interaction. Eight sub-components of social skill and their
behavioural descriptions are described in the following Table No. 3.5:
Table 3.5: Sub-components of Social Skill
1. Influence: • Are skilled at persuasion

Wielding effective
tactics for • Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the
persuasion. listener
• Use complex strategies like indirect
influence to build consensus and support
• Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively
make a point
2. Communication: • Are effective in give-and-take, registering

Sending clear emotional cues in attuning their message
andconvincing
messages • Deal with difficult issues straight forwardly
• Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and
welcome sharing of information fully
48
• Foster open communication and stay Components of Emotional
Competencies
receptive to bad news as well as good
3. Leadership: • Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared

Inspiring and vision and mission
guiding groups and
people • Step forward to lead as needed, regardless
of position
• Guide the performance of others while
holding them accountable
• Lead by example
4. Change catalyst: • Recognize the need for change and remove

Initiating or barriers
managing change
• Challenge the status quo to acknowledge
the need for change
• Champion the change and enlist others in
its pursuit
• Model the change expected of others
5. Conflict • Handle difficult people and tense

management: situations with diplomacy and tact
Negotiating and
resolving • Spot potent ial conflict , bring
disagreements disagreements into the open, and help
deescalate
• Encourage debate and open discussion
• Orchestrate win-win solutions
6. Building bonds: • Cultivate and maintain extensive informal

Nurturing networks
instrumental
• Seek out relationships that are mutually
relationships
beneficial
• Build rapport and keep others in the loop
• Make and maintain personal friendships
among work associates
7. Collaboration and • Recognize the need for change and remove

cooperation: barriers
Working with
• Challenge the status quo to acknowledge
others toward
the need for change
shared goals
• Champion the change and enlist others in
its pursuit
• Model the change expected of others
49
Emotional Competencies
8. Team capabilities: • Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness,
Creating group and cooperation
synergy in
pursuing • Draw all members into active and enthusiastic
collective goals participation
• Build team identity, esprit de corps, and
commitment
• Protect the group and its reputation
• Share credit

1. List the social emotional competencies.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
2. What are the sub-components of social skill?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
3.5 RECOGNITION AND UNDERSTANDING OF

EMOTIONS IN ONESELF AND OTHERS
3.5.1 What does it mean to identify and understand emotions?
Identifying emotions is one of the core skills of being emotionally intelligent.
Accurately identifying emotions in oneself and in others around us is a
crucial skill for understanding what is happening in our internal world and
in our social world. Emotions contain data and signal us about important
events. Emotions are not random, chaotic events, rather occur due to some
factors and help us in making decisions and keep us motivated. Accurate
identification of emotions is not only critical to success and happiness, but
in certain circumstances, to the very survival of an individual.
3.5.2 Emotional Awareness in Oneself

Identifying and understanding emotions in others begins by developing
emotional awareness in oneself. Identifying one’s own emotions is also
essential for effectively managing one’s emotions. Emotional awareness in
oneself consists of a number of skills, such as:
 Identifying emotions
 Labelling the emotion being experienced
50
 Describing or expressing the emotion being experienced Components of Emotional
Competencies
Emotion identification skill is an essential component of emotional competence.
The construct can be better understood by contrasting it with ‘alexithymia’ (a
disorder characterised by a deficit in the ability to identify and describe one’s
emotions and externally oriented thinking). Alexithymia stands in absolute contrast
with emotion identification skill and is characterised by dysfunction in emotional
awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Emotion identification
skill, in contrast is marked by an awareness of experienced emotion, appropriate
identification and labelling and appropriate expression of the same. For developing
emotional awareness it is essential to pay attention to one’s feelings, rather than
ignoring them or expressing them impulsively. It is important that one pays attention
to one’s feelings and think about them before expressing the emotion. Some
questions that help one in getting clarity about the emotional experiences might be:
 What is this feeling?
 What is this feeling telling me about this situation?
 Why is this feeling happening now?
It is important to learn the connection between the life situations and the emotions
one is experiencing, as most often situations give rise to the emotions. One can
pay attention to the following that will help one in identifying the emotion being
experienced, such as:
 A physical or bodily reaction to an emotion (for example, blushing when
feeling embarrassed; dry mouth when feeling anxious).
 A bodily response pattern on certain occasions (for example, feeling jittery
prior to the start of examination).
 Paying attention to the emotion being expressed through body movements,
posture or tone of voice may also provide clarity about the emotion being
expressed.
Researchers believe that the emotion identification skill develops as a result of the
relationship of the child with the primary caregiver. This relationship forms the
base for future emotional skills, ability to access appropriate social support and
expectations for future social relationships. Research has shown the emotion
identification skill to be associated with positive adjustment and decreased distress.
Emotion identification and articulation skill is also crucial for maintenance of
meaningful interpersonal relationships. Emotion identification skill plays an important
role during adolescence and enables the individual to successfully navigate through
transition to adulthood by assisting formation of meaningful social relationships,
and by enabling successful management of emotional difficulties. To say it briefly,
ability to identify and manage one’s emotions paves the path for personal wellbeing.
For ensuring our social wellbeing, however, something more is needed.
1. What do you mean by emotion identification skill?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................... 51
Emotional Competencies 2. What is alexithymia?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
3. Describe the skills involved in developing emotional awareness for oneself.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
3.5.3 Emotional Awareness in Others

Akin to personal emotional awareness, an awareness of emotions being experienced
and expressed by others around us is a crucial skill leading to social well-being.
The inability or unwillingness to pay attention to others’ emotions often leads to
miscommunications and conflict, whereas accurately identifying others’ emotions
and attuning one’s own response accordingly leads to better communication and
collaboration. Emotional awareness in others involves three interdependent skills:
 Emotion perception
 Emotion recognition
 Emotion interpretation
Emotion perception is the ability to identify emotions in others. How emotion is
experienced and interpreted depends on how it is perceived. Emotional awareness
about others entails making accurate decisions about another’s subjective
experience by interpreting their physical changes through sensory systems and
inferring the implicit meaning of these observed changes. Emotions can be expressed
verbally or non-verbally or through a combination of both. The verbal channel of
communication is composed of the spoken words as well as other vocal features
of the speech like rate, pitch and loudness of the voice. These non-verbal aspects
of the voice and temporal characteristics of speech are called ‘paralanguage’.
Other non-verbal channels include facial expression, kinetic (gesture, posture,
movement of the body) and proximal (physical distance during face to face
interaction) behaviours.
Emotions can be perceived visually, or through sound (e.g. tone and pitch of
voice), smell and bodily sensations. There are various modes of perceiving emotions
in others. Visual system is usually the primary mode through which we detect cues
for inferring the emotional state of the person we are interacting with. Visual cues
to emotion perception are dependent of two primary sources of information:
(i) Facial expressions and gestures, and
(ii) Bodily posture
Facial expressions can convey the intensity as well as the pleasantness or
unpleasantness of the individual emotional state. Emotional information is
gathered through the visual system, and then interpreted by the cognitive system
in order to garner an appropriate response.
52
Another mode of emotion identification is provided by the auditory system, which Components of Emotional
provides inputs in the form of voices and various sounds from the environment. Competencies
The prosodic parameters (pitch, duration, loudness, voice quality of voice) provide
cues to the listener about the emotional content of the message being communicated
by the speaker. Progressively sophisticated methods are now being utilized by the
researchers for understanding emotional content of voice messages by manipulating
these prosodic characteristics of voice.
A secondary, yet important mode of emotion perception is through aromas
perceived through the olfactory system. Research shows that aromas and
scents have a potent effect in eliciting emotions. The emotion elicited by
odours, both pleasant and unpleasant, affects the same physiological correlates
of emotion seen with other sensory mechanisms.
It is important to remember that the sensory inputs received through various
channels need to be interpreted only in the context of the situation and the
cultural factors. The cognitive interpretation usually takes into account the
context and the cultural factors while inferring the emotions being expressed
by another person, but a conscious awareness of these factors enhances the
emotion perception. Although the basic emotions have been found to be
universal across cultures, the facial expression and perception of emotion is
conditioned by the values, etiquettes and quality of social interactions in a
particular culture. For example, in the Western cultures that value overt
expressions of emotions, emotional information is primarily obtained from
viewing the features of the mouth, which is the most expressive part of the
face. However, in Eastern cultures, where overt emotional expression is less
common, emotional information is more often obtained from viewing the
upper region of the face, primarily the eyes.
1. What are the skills required for developing emotional awareness for
others?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2. What are the different modes for identifying emotions in others?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
53
Emotional Competencies 3. What is paralanguage?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
3.6 UNIVERSALITY OF EMOTIONAL

EXPRESSION
Universality of emotional expressions has been noted by scholars and
researchers since long. Darwin claimed in his book ‘The expression of the
emotions in man and animals’ published in 1872 that facial expressions of
emotion are universal, not learned differently in each culture. More recently
Paul Ekman and his colleagues have experimentally established the universal
existence of 7 basic emotions. In the experimental protocol used by Ekman
and later by many other psychologists, the test subjects were provided with
photos of faces expressing certain emotions and were asked to identify the
emotion from the given list of emotions. These universal emotions and their
physical symbolizations are listed in the Table 3.6 below
Table 3.6: Basic Emotions
Emotion Symbolised by…
1. Joy or happiness Raising of the mouth corners (an obvious smile)

and tightening of the eyelids
2. Surprise Eyebrows arching, eyes opening wide and

exposing more white, with the jaw dropping
slightly
3. Sadness Lowering of the mouth corners, the

eyebrows descending to the inner corners
and the eyelids drooping
4. Anger Eyebrows lowering, lips pressing firmly and

eyes bulging
5. Disgust The upper lip raising, nose bridge wrinkling

and cheeks raising
6. Fear The upper eyelids raising, eyes opening and

the lips stretching horizontally
7. Contempt half of the upper lip tightening up using the

risorius muscle and often the head is tilted
slightly back.
(Source: adapted from https://www.kairos.com/blog/the-universally-recognized-

facial-expressions-of-emotion).
Universality of the emotion of ‘contempt’ has been disputed, as it is a combination
54 of anger and disgust and not a basic emotion. Recent research has used high
speed cameras and other advanced technologies to capture the microexpressions Components of Emotional
of emotions. Micro expressions are very quick facial expressions involuntarily Competencies
made by people in particular circumstances. Micro-expressions of emotions are
beyond voluntary control and provide a potent cue to the emotion being experienced
by the other person, even when he/ she is not willing to reveal the true emotion.
The basic emotions also vary in the extent of elaboration and categorical labels.
The Tahitian language includes 46 labels for the English word anger. When asked
to label freely, the North American subjects produced 40 different responses for
the facial expression of anger and 81 different responses for the facial expression
of contempt. In a different study, the Greek subjects had 7 different labels for
the sad expression and 6 different labels for the surprise expression. The Japanese
produced varied emotional labels for the facial expressions of happiness (10
labels), anger (8 labels), and disgust (6 labels). The ancient Chinese literature cites
seven emotions, viz., joy, anger, sadness, fear, love, dislike, and liking. The ancient
Indian literature identifies eight such emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, wonder,
anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In the western literature, certain emotions like
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are uniformly treated as basic to
human beings. Such emotions as surprise, contempt, shame, guilt, and anticipation
are not accepted as basic to all.
In conclusion, it can be said that there are certain basic emotions that are universally
expressed and understood, and there are certain culture specific emotions too.
Also, all emotional experiences and expressions are governed by culture specific
display rules, that determine the extent and intensity of an emotional expression.
1. List the seven basic emotions.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2. What are micro-expressions?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt about three major topics: (i) Emotional competencies,
(ii) Recognizing emotions in self and others, and (iii) Universality of emotional
expressions. We have discussed the five emotional competencies as given by
Goleman, and have described their components in detail. We have understood
that these competencies can be divided into two major domains- personal
competencies and social competencies. We have also learnt the difference between
emotional intelligence and emotional competence. In the next section, we discussed
about the skills required for recognising and understanding emotions in oneself
and also in others. We learnt why is it important to develop the skills of emotion
recognition. The last section of the unit dealt with the basic emotions and the
55
Emotional Competencies universality of expressions for these emotions. We learnt that though universal the
expressions of emotions are regulated by cultural display rules.
3.8 KEY WORDS

Emotional competence : A set of skills that allows and facilitates use
of emotional intelligence (awareness and
management of emotions in self and others)
for goal attainment and interpersonal harmony.
Alexithymia : A disorder characterised by a deficit in the

ability to identify and describe one’s
emotions and externally oriented thinking.
Alexithymia is characterised by dysfunction in
emotional awareness, social attachment, and
interpersonal relating.
Basic emotions : Emotions that are universally expressed and

understood.
Emotion recognition : A crucial skill for understanding emotions in

others. It means being able to appropriately
identify the emotion being expressed by
others.
Cultural display rules : Culturally learnt rules that regulate the

appropriateness of expressed emotions.

QUESTIONS
1. The five emotional competencies are Self-awareness, Motivation, Self-

regulation, Social awareness, Empathy and Social skills.
2. Emotional competence is concerned with performance on emotion related

tasks, while emotional intelligence is the underlying ability that facilitates it.
1. Personal emotional competencies are Self awareness, Motivation and Self-

regulation
2. The four sub-componets of self-motivation are Achievement drive,

Commitment, Initiative and Optimism
1. Social competencies are Social awareness, Empathy and Social skills
2. Sub-components of social skill are- influence, Communication, Leadership,

Change catalyst, Conflict management, Building bonds, Collaboration and
56
cooperation, Team capabilities.
Self Assessment Questions 4 Components of Emotional
Competencies
1. Emotion identification skill is an essential component of emotional competence.
It is marked by an awareness of experienced emotion, appropriate
identification and labelling and appropriate expression of the same.
2. Alexithymia is a disorder characterised by a deficit in the ability to identify

and describe one’s emotions and externally oriented thinking. Alexithymia is
characterised by dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and
interpersonal relating.
3. Skills required for developing emotional awareness in oneself involves three
skills such as identifying emotions, labelling the emotion being experienced,
and describing or expressing the emotion being experienced.
1. Emotional awareness in others involves three interdependent skills:
Emotion perception, Emotion recognition, Emotion interpretation
2. Various modes of identifying emotions in others are-through the visual system,
through the auditory system, and through the olfactory system.
3. The non-verbal aspects of the voice and temporal characteristics of speech
are called ‘paralanguage’.
1. The seven basic emotions are- Joy, Surprise, Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Fear
and Contempt
2. Micro expressions are very quick facial expressions involuntarily made by
people in particular circumstances. Micro-expressions of emotions are beyond
voluntary control and provide a potent cue to the emotion being experienced
by the other person, even when he/ she is not willing to reveal the true
emotion.

1. Contrast alexithymia with emotion identification skill.
2. Is emotional expression culture dependent? Discuss.
3. Discuss the meaning, importance and components of self-regulation.
4. Describe in detail the various modes of perceiving emotions in others.
3.11 REFERENCES
Black, R. S., & Ornelles, C. (2001). Assessment of social competence and social
networks for transition. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 26(4), 23-39
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam
Books. 57
Emotional Competencies Oberst, U., Gallifa, J., Farriols, N., & Villaregut, A. (2009). Training Emotional
and Social Competences in Higher Education: The Seminar Methodology. Higher
Education in Europe, 34, 3-4.
Saarni, C. (2000). Emotional competence: A developmental perspective. In R.
Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence:
Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in
the workplace (p. 68–91). Jossey-Bass.
Sternberg, R. J., Forsythe, G. B., Hedlund, J., Horvath, J. A., Wagner, R. K.,
Williams, W. M., Snook, S. A., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2000). Practical
intelligence in everyday life. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bar- On R. & Parker J.D.A. (2000). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence
(Eds.), San Francisco, California: Jossey Bros.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than
IQ. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York:
Bantam Books.
Mangal S.K & Mangal S. (2015). Emotional Intelligence: Managing emotions
to win in life. Delhi: PHI Learning.
58
Block III - Models of Emotional Intelligence
Unit 4 Models of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Assessment 61-81

UNIT 4 MODELS OF EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE (EI) AND
ASSESSMENT*
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence
4.3.1 Assessment Tools based on the Ability Model of EI
4.4 Trait Model of Emotional Intelligence

4.4.1 Assessment Tools based on the Trait Model of EI
4.5 Genos Model of Emotional Intelligence

4.5.1 Assessment Tools based on the Genos Model of EI
4.6 Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence

4.6.1 Bar-On Model of EI
4.6.1.1 Assessment Tools based on Bar On Model of EI
4.6.2 Performance Model of EI
4.6.2.1 Assessment Tools based on Performance Model of EI
4.7 Let Us Sum Up

4.8 Key Words
4.12 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The field of emotional intelligence (EI) is comprised of several theories and models
that attempt to explain the interrelated concepts therein and propose assessment
measures so that they can be mapped. This diversity of frameworks allows for
multiple perspectives on the issue and covers a very broad array of skills, abilities
and traits. What is common among these theories/models is that they acknowledge
the role and importance of recognizing, regulating and leveraging emotions in
order to be more effective in their personal and professional lives. The models
help us to conceptualize emotional intelligence to develop a comprehensive
understanding about it. Consequently, it facilitates proper assessment of the concept
that has implications for implementing strategies to improve emotional intelligence
in individuals. The present Unit discusses the most important of these frameworks
and how they have proposed to assess emotional intelligence.
Models of Emotional Intelligence
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the most popular frameworks of emotional intelligence;
 differentiate between models; and
 discuss various methods of assessing emotional intelligence.
4.3 ABILITY MODEL OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
The ability model is a four- branch framework of emotional intelligence put forth
by Mayer, Salovey & Caruso (2004). Mayer & Salover, in fact, first coined the
term ‘emotional intelligence’ in 1990. The four-branch model emerged from the
need to define emotional intelligence in terms of an ability, rather than a trait or
characteristic. The researchers theorise that there are two types of broad
intelligences- hot and cool. Cool intelligence are those that pertain to knowledge
that is not personal but is rather intellectual such as verbal-propositional intelligence,
math abilities, and visual-spatial intelligence. Hot intelligences are personal because
they have to do with processing personal information pertaining to “social
acceptance, identity coherence, and emotional well-being”. Mayer, Caruso &
Salovey (2016) argue that while recurrent failures to process information related
to these areas can lead to “psychic pain”, effective reasoning about feelings and
social information can improve people’s coping capacities and functioning. In their
view, emotional intelligence is a type of broad, hot intelligence.
The EI model of Mayer, Salovey and Caruso defines emotional intelligence as

“the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist
thought, to understand emotions and emotional meanings, and to reflectively regulate
emotions in ways that promote emotional and intellectual growth.” According to
this model, individuals vary in their ability to (i) process information of an emotional
nature and (ii) relate emotional processing to a wider cognition (Mangal & Mangal,
2015). Thus the ability model emphasizes on the emotional information - knowing
and regulating the emotions, and at the same time the role of reasoning and other
cognitive functioning in the accurate processing of this emotional information.
It is a step- wise developmental model of EI from childhood to adulthood,

proceeding from basic to more complex tasks involving increasing complex skills.
The four branches/tiers comprise:
62
(EI) andAssessment
Figure 4.1: The Four Branches of the Ability Model of EI
 Branch 1- Emotional Perception refers to the ability to identify emotions

in faces and pictures. It involves recognising of emotions expressed through
facial expressions and body language and is the most basic and early
developing branch. It helps the individual to perceive, apprise and express
emotions in oneself and others. This helps in providing appropriate input to
the cognitive system in the next tier.
 Branch 2- Emotional Facilitation refers to the capacity of emotions to

assist and aid thinking so that an individual can act in a planned manner. It
refers to the ability of facilitating thought with emotional inputs. Here emotional
information are used to enhance, adjust and prioritize thinking, and facilitate
judgement and decision.
 Branch 3- Emotional Understanding is about analysing and making sense

of emotions by labelling them and differentiating among them. It refers to the
ability to understand the emotions, and the dynamics in their inter-relationship.
Thus it involves abstract processing of the emotional information.
 Branch 4- Emotional Management is the most complex and distinct from

the others and focuses on utilising emotions to optimise reactions to one’s
environment such as reframing and changing appraisals to regulate emotions.
It includes the ability to manage emotions to help in personal and inter-
personal effectiveness.
This four-branch model has undergone several revisions and the updated version
is presented below (the changes from the original model are highlighted in the
notes below the Table):
63
Models of Emotional Intelligence Table 4.1: Updates and Modifications to the Four- Branch Model of EI
(Adapted from Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2016)
Branch Type of Reasoning
Perceiving emotion Identify deceptive or dishonest emotional

expressionsb
• Discriminate accurate vs. inaccurate
emotional expressionsb
• Understand how emotions are displayed
depending on context and culture
• Express emotions accurately when
desired
• Perceive emotional content in the
environment, visual arts, and musicb
• Perceive emotions in other people
through their vocal cues, facial
expression, language, and behaviorb
• Identify emotions in one’s own
physical states, feelings, and thoughts
Facilitating thought Select problems based on how one’s

using emotiond ongoing emotional state might facilitate
cognition
• Leverage mood swings to generate
different cognitive perspectives
• Prioritize thinking by directing
attention according to present feeling
• Generate emotions as a means to
relate to experiences of another
personc
• Generate emotions as an aid to
judgment and memory
Understanding emotions Recognize cultural differences in the

evaluation of emotionsc
• Understand how a person might feel in
the future or under certain conditions
(affective forecasting)c
• Recognize likely transitions among
emotions such as from anger to
satisfaction
• Understand complex and mixed
emotions
64
• Differentiate between moods and (EI) andAssessment
emotionsc
• Appraise the situations that are likely to
elicit emotionsc
• Determine the antecedents, meanings,
and consequences of emotions
• Label emotions and recognize relations
among them
Managing emotions Effectively manage others’ emotions to
achieve a desired outcomeb
• Effect ively manage one’s own
emotions to achieve a desired
outcomeb
• Evaluate strategies to maintain,
reduce, or intensify an emotional
responseb
• Monitor emotional reactions to
determine their reasonableness
• Engage with emotions if they are
helpful; disengage if not
• Stay open to pleasant and unpleasant
feelings, as needed, and to the
information they convey
Note. aThe bullet-points are based on Mayer and Salovey (1997) except as
indicated in superscripts b and c. Within a row, the bulleted items are ordered
approximately from simplest to most complex, bottom to top. The four-branch
model depicts the problem-solving areas of emotional intelligence and is not
intended to correspond to the factor structure of the area.
bAn ability from the original model was divided into two or more separate abilities.
cA new ability was added.
dNote that the Branch 2 abilities can be further divided into the areas of generating
emotions to facilitate thought (the bottom two bulleted items) and tailoring
thinking to emotion (the top three bulleted items).
Thus, the updated model refines the abilities that comprised the original model,
while also adding several others. It reflects the current state of thinking as far as
the ability model of emotional intelligence is concerned.
4.3.1 Assessment Tools based on the Ability Model of EI

Unlike other self- report measures which rely on individuals’ own perception of
their skills and thus, may be prone to biases, emotional intelligence under the four
65
Models of Emotional Intelligence branch model is measured as other mental abilities would be- by assessing
performance in a testing situation. For example, instead of asking an individual to
report whether they have the ability to recognise facial expressions in others, such
a test would present facial expressions in the form of images and ask individuals
to identify the emotion expressed by the image. The Mayer, Salovey, Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is one such test embodying the ability
model. It was initially normed on a sample of 5000 men and women and is
designed for persons aged 17 years and above.
The MSCEIT has 141 items and eight tasks; two each for every branch in this
model. To assess one’s ability on Branch 1, sample tasks include examining facial
expressions to identify emotions or in a more abstract task, identifying the emotions
conveyed by images such as landscapes and designs. Branch 2 would be assessed
by identifying sensations and associating emotions with particular types of tasks
such as planning a birthday party. One’s ability on Branch 3 is evaluated by tasks
that encourage an individual to know about increasing or decreasing intensity of
emotions or transformation of one emotion into another such as frustration into
anger. Lastly, performance Branch 4 is gauged by having an individual respond
to scenarios with how they would regulate emotions in a particular context. The
sub scales of MSCEIT are detailed below:
1. Emotional Perception (Faces & Pictures tests): These measure the ability to
perceive emotions in oneself and others as well as in objects, art, stories and
the like.
2. Emotional Facilitation (Facilitation & Synesthesia tests): Assess the ability to

generate, use, and feel emotion as necessary to communicate feelings, or
employ them in other mental processes.
3. Understanding Emotion (Changes & Blends tests): Measures the ability to

understand emotional information, how emotions combine and progress
through relationship transitions, and to reason about such meanings.
4. Managing Emotion (Management & Relationships tests): Assess the ability to

be open to feelings, to modulate them in oneself and others so as to promote
personal understanding and growth.
The tool takes approximately 30- 45 minutes to complete. Like in IQ tests,

questions have a right or wrong answer and are scored accordingly to differentiate
between individuals who have a particular ability and those who do not. MSCEIT
provides 15 main scores: Total EI score, two Area scores, four Branch scores,
and eight Task scores. In addition to these 15 scores, there are three Supplemental
scores (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002).
The findings can then be used to predict an individuals’ emotional and psychological
well- being, satisfaction and quality of interpersonal relationships.
66
Self Assessment Questions 1 Models of Emotional Intelligence
(EI) andAssessment
1. What is the central assumption of the ability model of EI?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Which is the most basic and early to develop branch of EI according to the
ability model? Which is the most complex?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. What abilities constitute the second and third branches of the model?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. How is EI measured within the ability model?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4.4 TRAIT MODEL OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
The trait model of emotional intelligence takes a view that may be considered
opposite to the one propounded by the ability model above - that emotional
intelligence is not a real intelligence and therefore cannot be measured as an
ability, because emotions are subjective in nature (Petrides et al., 2004;
Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2007). Trait emotional intelligence under
this model is thought to be situated within personality frameworks and is
defined as “a constellation of emotional self - perceptions located at the
lower levels of personality hierarchies (Petrides, Pita et al., 2007). Petrides
terms this as trait emotional self- efficacy. This means that emotions are
subjective and emotional intelligence is quite simply, an individual’s own
perception of his/ her own ability to work with emotions. Taking this further, he
asserts that there is no standard profile of an emotionally intelligent person because
certain traits are adaptive, functional and useful in some situations, while the same
traits may hamper individuals in other contexts. For example, being reserved
would be useful in a job role that demands research in isolation but may not
be suited to a job role that expects social interaction and agreeableness, such
as customer service.
Thus the trait model of EI focuses on particular personality traits helpful in
perceiving and regulating emotions. It emphasizes the emotional self-perceptions
67
Models of Emotional Intelligence and emotional traits in one’s personality as playing a significant role in one’s
4.4.1 Assessment Tools based on the Trait Model of EI

Trait emotional intelligence is assessed using measures of self-reporting such as
inventories and questionnaires. One such measure is Trait Emotional Intelligence
Questionnaire (TEIQue) developed by Petrides and his associates. The latest
version of the full form of the instrument comprises 153 items, providing scores
on 15 facets, 4 factors, and a global trait EI. The 15 facets or personality traits
include adaptability, assertiveness, empathy, impulsiveness, optimism, self-
motivation, emotional self-perception, emotion regulation, expression of emotions,
self-esteem, happiness, social awareness, stress management, management of
others’ emotions, and relationships.
The questionnaire has been translated into 15 languages. A 30- item short version
of the questionnaire- TEIQue – short form is also available and includes two items
from each of the 15 facets of the TEIQue. Multiple other versions make the tool
quite versatile in assessing trait EI by 360 degree ratings, as well as adolescent
and child forms being separately available.
4.5 GENOS MODEL OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
Genos EI was originally conceptualized by Ben Palmer and Con Stough at
Swinburne University as a specific need was felt to design a model that
meets the unique and specific needs of business leaders, human resource
professionals and occupational psychologists to identify employees for
learning and development at the workplace Palmer, Stough, Harmer & Gignac
(2009). The model has six core emotional intelligence competencies (indicated
in the centre column of Fig. 4.2 below):
Fig. 4.2: Genos Model of Emotional Intelligence

68 (Source: https://www.genosinternational.com/emotional-intelligence/)
The above model is organised to reflect the role of emotional intelligence Models of Emotional Intelligence
competencies listed below in giving rise to either productive or unproductive (EI) andAssessment
states:
1. Emotional self-awareness: being aware of the way one feels as well as the
impact one’s feelings can have on decisions, behaviour and performance.
2. Emotional awareness of others: perceiving, understanding and acknowledging
the way others feel so as to demonstrate empathy.
3. Authenticity: openly, honestly and effectively expressing oneself, being
transparent and keeping commitments.
4. Emotional reasoning: considering and using your one’s and others’
feelings decision making, integrating with facts and technical information
as well as communicating this process to others
5. Self- management: managing one’s own mood and emotions, time and
behaviour, even in high pressure and demanding contexts.
6. Positive influence: creating positive and healthy work environment by
impacting others’ feelings through problem solving, feedback and
support.
These core skills help people demonstrate productive being states such as
being present, empathetic, genuine, expansive, resilient and empowering, as
opposed to the unproductive being states of disconnected, insensitive,
untrustworthy, limited, temperamental and indifferent. The obtained profile
comprises areas of strengths as well as ‘‘opportunities for development’’.
Each participant receives a Development Report which contains suggestions
for further improvement so that results can be used to improve performance.
Two abbreviated versions of the tool are also available: a 31-item Concise
version and a 14-item Short version.
4.5.1 Assessment Tools based on the Genos Model of EI

The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) is the primary tool
for assessing emotional intelligence within the Genos framework. It was
originally published as the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test
(SUIET; Palmer & Stough, 2001) and later revised to the current version. It
is especially designed for workplace contexts to facilitate human resource
functions such as identifying learning and development areas, employee
selection and identifying potential for excellence. Interestingly, Palmer,
Stough, Harmer & Gignac (2009) assert that Genos EI does not measure
emotional intelligence “per-se” but instead is an indicator of how well individuals
show emotionally intelligent behaviour which is thought, in turn, to serve as an
indicator of EI. The tool is a behaviour-based assessment with 70 items that
source ratings on emotionally intelligent workplace behaviour from reporters who
have the opportunity to observe a person frequently. Thus, more than one rater
can provide the assessment. The tool is available in self, 180 degree and 260
degree formats. It is suitable for individuals between the ages of 17 and 75 and
takes only about 10 minutes to complete. Participants or other raters involved in
assessing an individual are asked to indicate how often an individual’s behaviour
is shown, on a five- point rating scale from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always).
The items concern a range of different positive emotions such as satisfaction,
69
Models of Emotional Intelligence enthusiasm, optimism, excitement, engagement, motivation, and feeling valued to
several negative emotions like anxiety, anger, stressed, annoyed, frustrated,
disappointed, upset and impatient.
1. What is the central assumption of the Trait model of EI?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. What is the difference between the Trait and Ability models of EI?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. Explain the Genos model of EI.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. How is EI measured within the trait model?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
5. How is EI measured within the Genos model?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4.6 MIXED MODELS OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
Mixed models of emotional intelligence are those that combine the construct
with personality characteristics. This is communicated most prominently
through the work of Goleman, illustrated by the following statement: “There
is an old-fashioned word for the body of skills that emotional intelligence
represents: character” (Goleman, 1995). The mixed model considers both
abilities/skills and personality traits in explaining and measuring emotional
intelligence. Thus, the assessment of EI involves self report or performance measures
70 or both.
Two models are generally thought to fall under the mixed model of emotional Models of Emotional Intelligence
intelligence - Bar-On’s Model and Goleman’s Performance Model. (EI) andAssessment
4.6.1 Bar-On Model of EI

Bar-On is acknowledged to have coined the term “emotional quotient” as a
measure of emotional intelligence in his doctoral dissertation, just as intelligence
quotient is the measure of cognitive intelligence (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003).
Reuven Bar-On (2002) emphasised the adaptive function of EI by defining it as
“an array of non-cognitive abilities, competencies and skills that influence one’s
ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures”. Emotional
intelligence in his view allows individuals to function well and maintain well-being
by adapting in a certain way to his/ her environment. More specifically, these
abilities are:
1. Awareness of, understanding, and expression of oneself
2. Awareness of, understanding and relating to others
3. Dealing with strong emotions and controlling one’s impulses
4. Adapting to change and solving problems of a personal or social nature
The five main domains in this model are intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills,
adaptability, stress management, and general mood (Bar-On, 1997). These, in
turn, are comprised of specific abilities organised as follows:
Fig. 4.3: Bar-On’s Model of Emotional Intelligence
(Source: http://www.cakitches.com/books/reuven-bar-on.html)
The major areas or skills that the model maps are:
I. Intrapersonal Skills
 Emotional self-awareness: being aware of and understanding one’s own

emotions.
71
Models of Emotional Intelligence  Assertiveness: expressing one’s feelings non- aggressively or non- passively.
 Self-Regard: being aware of, understanding and accepting oneself
 Self- Actualization: setting and achieving goals to fulfil one’s potential

Independence: being self-reliant as opposed to emotional dependency on
others
II. Interpersonal Skills
 Interpersonal relationships: establishing and maintaining mutually satisfying
relationships
 Social responsibility: identifying with and feeling part of one’s social groups,
as well as acting to support them.
 Empathy: being aware of and understanding how others feel

III. Adaptability Scales
 Problem solving: generating effective solutions to interpersonal and

intrapersonal problems.
 Reality testing: keeping emotions in touch with reality and facts
 Flexibility: coping with and adapting to changes in the environment
IV. Stress-Management Scales
 Stress tolerance: managing one’s emotions effectively and constructively.
 Impulse control: effectively controlling emotions and thinking through before

taking action.
V. General Mood
 Happiness: feeling content with oneself, others and life in general

 Optimism: having a positive outlook on life
4.6.1.1 Assessment Tools based on Bar on Model of EI
Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) is based on the Bar-On model of
EI. The original EQ-i is a 133- item self-report measure that assesses overall
emotional intelligence and sub- skills as described above. It is normed for individuals
aged 17 and older and comprises descriptive sentences that an individual rates on
a 5 point scale ranging from “very seldom or not true of me” (1) to “very often
true of me or true of me” (5). The questionnaire takes approximately 30 minutes
to complete. Average to above average scores on the EQ-i suggest that the
respondent is likely to be effective in emotional and social functioning. On the
other hand, low scores indicate an inability to be effective in performing well and
the possible existence of emotional, social and/or behavioral problems. Significantly
low scores on stress tolerance, impulse control, social responsibility, reality testing
and problem solving scales indicate serious challenges in coping and possible
maladaptive behavior. It must be noted that since its initial publication, the Bar-
On EQ-i has been revised and updates to EQ-i 2.0 in 2011 and also includes a
separate multi- rater 360-degree measure which asks persons who know the
individual to be assessed (such as supervisors, co- workers, family members,
72
friends etc.) to rate his/ behaviour on various items. A youth version- EQ-i:YV is Models of Emotional Intelligence
also available as a self-report instrument to measure emotionally and socially (EI) andAssessment
intelligent behavior in children and adolescents from 7 to 17 years of age.
4.6.2 Performance Model of EI
Goleman’s initial model (Goleman, 1998) consisted of five dimensions of emotional
intelligence categorised broadly into personal competencies that relate to recognising
and managing emotions in self; and social competencies that have to do with
recognising and managing emotions in others. Personal competencies comprise
of Self awareness, Self regulation, and Motivation; whereas Social competencies
include Empathy and Social skills.
Subsequently, the model was expanded and re-structured further by creating a
matrix format with four quadrants- Self awareness, Self management, Social
awareness and Relationship management (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000)
(see Fig 4.4).
Fig. 4.4: Goleman’s EI Model
(Source: https://www.physio-pedia.com/Emotional_Intelligence)
The model above has 4 quadrants created by intersections between self and
social awareness, as well as regulation. As we are aware, recognition/ awareness
and regulation/ management of emotions are two key emotional intelligence abilities.
Having these capacities, however, does not necessarily mean that all competencies
or skills that these underlie, are also possessed by us. These need to be acquired.
For example, having social awareness means that one has the underlying capacity
to recognise emotions in others. This does not, however, automatically mean that
a person also has empathy or organisational awareness. These are emotional
competencies that need to be acquired through additional experience or training,
although having social awareness does mean that skill acquisition in this area will
be easier. In this way, each of the domains of self- awareness, social awareness,
self- regulation and relationship management serve as the foundations for the
specific competencies contained in each of the quadrants, that have to be learned
(Goleman, 2001). Mastering these is thought to result in improved performance
at work. The description of each cluster is presented in Table 4bT below:
73
Models of Emotional Intelligence Table 4.2: Clusters & Competencies in Performance Model of EI
CLUSTER DESCRIPTION
Self Awareness Knowing one’s internal states, preferences,

resources, and intuitions.
 Emotional awareness Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects
 Accurate self- assessment Knowing one’s strengths and limits
 Self- confidence A strong sense of one’s self-worth and

capabilities
Self- Management Refers to managing ones’ internal states,

impulses, and resources.
 Emotional Self-Control Keeping disruptive emotions and

impulses in check
 Transparency Maintaining integrity, acting congruently

with one’s values
 Adaptability Flexibility in handling change
 Achievement Striving to improve or meeting a standard

of excellence
 Initiative Readiness to act on opportunities
 Optimism Persistence in pursuing goals despite

obstacles and setbacks
Social Awareness Refers to how people handle relationships

and awareness of others’ feelings, needs,
and concerns.
 Empathy Sensing others’ feelings and perspectives,

and taking an active interest in their concerns
 Organizational awareness Reading a group’s emotional currents and

power relationships
 Service orientation Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting

customers’ needs
Relationship Management Concerns the skill or adeptness at inducing

desirable responses in others.
 Developing Others Sensing others’ development needs and

bolstering their abilities
74
 Inspirational Leadership Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups (EI) andAssessment
 Change Catalyst Initiating or managing change
 Influence Wielding effective tactics for persuasion
 Conflict Management Negotiating and resolving disagreements
 Teamwork & Working with others toward shared goals.

Collaboration Creating group synergy in
This model is unique, in that while other EI models discuss emotional intelligence
abilities in general terms across domains such as well being and adaptation, the
performance model specifically targets performance at work, with emphasis on
leadership competencies. This makes for its focused contribution to analysing and
optimising workplace productivity and outcomes. Recent reviews have shown
that the importance of emotional competencies increases as an individual climbs
higher up the corporate ladder (Goleman, 2002).
4.6.2.1 Assessment Tools based on Performance Model of EI
The primary tool for assessing emotional competencies under this model is the
Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) developed by Daniel Goleman and Richard
Boyatzis. The current version of the tool is ECI- 2.0. The tool assesses 18
competencies, organized into the four quadrants outlined by the performance
model described above: self awareness, social awareness, self management, and
relationship management. While the original ECI had a 7 point scale, the current
version- ECI 2.0 has a new 6 point scale, behaviorally anchored as: 1=Never,
2=Rarely, 3=Sometimes, 4=Often, 5=Consistently, and 6=Don’t know; depending
on one’s observation of the frequency with which the person being assessed
demonstrates the behavior or nature of the item. The score reported for a
competency indicates ‘the competency level that is most characteristic of the
participant’s day-to-day work behaviors based on the feedback of others’.
Feedback from the report may be used for developing the desired competencies
through training, mentoring and feedback.
1. What is the central assumption of the mixed models of EI?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 75
Models of Emotional Intelligence 2. What is the difference between Bar-On’s model and Performance model of
EI?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. How is E.I measured within Bar-On’s model?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Explain the quadrants of the Performance model of EI.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. How is EI measured within the Performance model?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.7 LET US SUM UP

There are three primary frameworks into which models of emotional intelligence
may be categorised. These are (a) Ability models that equate emotional intelligence
with mental abilities and assess them through tools that categorise responses into
right and wrong, much like IQ tests; (b) Competency or Mixed models that refer
to emotional intelligence skills as learned abilities based on specific underlying
emotional intelligence capabilities or traits; and lastly, (c) Trait models that propose
that emotional intelligence abilities are similar to personality traits rather than
abilities and adopt personality test- like measures to assess them. Each model has
something distinctive to offer, while retaining commonalities of retaining a focus on
recognising, processing and using emotions. Various models of EI tend to be
complimentary rather than contradictory (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000) and
Goleman (2001) acknowledges that the diversity in EI approaches may reflect the
“robustness” of the field. Assessment of emotional intelligence based on the various
models was also described.
4.8 KEY WORDS

Ability model of EI : The ability model of EI by Mayer, Salovey
and Caruso defines emotional intelligence
as “the ability to perceive emotions, to
access and generate emotions so as to
76
assist thought, to understand emotions and Models of Emotional Intelligence
emotional meanings, and to reflectively (EI) andAssessment
regulate emotions in ways that promote
emotional and intellectual growth.”
Trait Model of EI : Trait emotional intelligence under this model
is thought to be situated within personality
frameworks and is defined as “a constellation
of emotional self - perceptions located at the
lower levels of personality hierarchies
(Petrides, Pita et al., 2007).
Mixed Model of EI : The mixed model considers both abilities/skills
and personality traits in explaining and
measuring emotional intelligence, e.g., Bar-
On’s EI Model and Goleman’s Performance
Model of EI
Genos Model of EI : It is a model of EI developed by Palmer,
Stough, Harmer & Gignac (2009) that is
applied in the workplace context
Self Awareness : It refers to knowing one’s internal states,
preferences, resources, and intuitions.
Self Management : It refers to managing ones’ internal states,
impulses, and resources.
Social Awareness : It refers to how people handle relationships
and awareness of others’ feelings, needs,
and concerns.
Relationship Management : It refers to the skill or adeptness at inducing
desirable responses in others.

QUESTIONS
1. The central assumption of the ability model of emotional intelligence is that

the construct is not a personality trait but an ability such as intelligence. It
proposed that EI is a type of hot intelligence because it is concerned with
processing emotional information related to the self and one’s social identity.
2. The most basic branch is emotional perception. The most complex is emotional
management.
3. The second branch is emotional facilitation which refers to the capacity of

emotions to assist and aid thinking so that one can make decisions and act
in a planned manner. Branch 3 is called emotional understanding and is
concerned with analysing and making sense of emotions by labelling them
and differentiating among different emotions.
77
Models of Emotional Intelligence 4. Within the ability model, E.I is assessed using the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso,
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Unlike self- report tools, questions
in this test have a right or wrong answer and are scored accordingly to yield
scores which differentiate between individuals who have a particular ability
and those who do not.
1. The central assumption of the trait model is that because emotions are highly
subjective in nature, emotional intelligence cannot be considered an ability
but a personal characteristic which refers to an individual’s own perception
of his/ her own ability to work with emotions.
2. The primary difference between the two models is that while the ability
model considers EI as a type of ability or a real intelligence, the trait model
assumes that emotional intelligence is a subjective perception or one’s own
self- efficacy regarding the ability to identify and use emotions. The former
model considers that individuals with high or low EI can be assessed and
identified. The trait model on the other hand suggests that a typical profile
of an emotionally intelligent person is not possible to identify as emotions are
dynamic and considered with regard to context.
3. The Genos model was developed to meet the specific training and development
needs of organizations, which were seen to not have been met by other EI
models because of their broad and generic approach. The model identifies
six core emotional intelligence competencies- Emotional self-awareness,
Emotional awareness of others, Authenticity, Emotional reasoning, Self-
management and Positive influence. The competencies can give rise to either
productive or unproductive emotional states at the workplace. For example,
a person who is low in ‘authenticity’ will come across as untrustworthy, while
one who is high on the competency will be genuine. An untrustworthy
person has the potential to impact team relationships and performance
adversely, while one who is genuine can be said to possess the qualities of
a team player and leader.
4. Within the trait model, EI is measured using a self- report tool called Trait
Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire or TEIQue.
5. EI is measured via the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)
under the Genos model.
1. The central assumption is the mixed models of EI is that it is best represented
as a combination of abilities and personal characteristics.
2. Bar- On’s model discusses emotional intelligence in a general context of well
being and adaptation, while the performance model has been created with
specific reference to the impact of emotional intelligence on workplace
performance.
3. Bar- On’s model uses EQ-i, a 133- item self-report measure to assess EI.
78
4. The Performance Model represents emotional intelligence as a set of Models of Emotional Intelligence
(EI) andAssessment
competencies organised in the format of a matrix with four quadrants created
by the intersection between self and social awareness, as well as regulation.
This yields 4 underlying EI capacities- Self awareness, Self management,
Social awareness and Relationship management. Each quadrant in turn has
specific competencies within it. Possessing an underlying capacity in emotional
intelligence is necessary to develop a particular competency. However, it is
not sufficient in itself. For example, having a high level of social awareness
makes it possible to acquire the competence in empathy. However, additional
training in empathy skills would still be required for this to exert a significant
impact on performance.
5. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) is used to measure EI within the
Performance Model of emotional intelligence.

1. What are the most prominent theories within the domain of emotional
intelligence? What are the commonalities and differences among them?
2. Which EI theories have been especially tailored to workplace contexts?
3. Match the central premises listed below with the theories that hold
them:
a. E.I is essentially a 1. Performance Model
personality characteristic.
b. E.I is a hot intelligence 2. Trait Model
c. One as aspect of E.I is its 3. Ability Model
personality characteristic.
d. E.I comprises learned 4. Mixed Model
competencies

1. The most prominent EI theories with commonalities and differences
are:
 Ability model
 Genos model
 Trait model
 Mixed models such as Bar- On’s and Goleman’s Performance Model
2. The Genos model and Performance model are both distinctive from
other models in having been conceptualised for application to workplace
contexts.
3. a- 2; b- 3; c- 4; d- 1
79
4.12 REFERENCES
Bar-On, R. (1997). The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of
Emotional Intelligence. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Boyatzis, Q.E., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K.S. (2000). Clustering competence in
emotional intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI).
In R. Bar-On and J.D. Parker (Eds.) Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ciarrochi, J.V., Chan, A.Y.C., & Caputi, P. (2000). A critical evaluation of the
emotional intelligence construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 539-
561
Emmerling, R.J. and Goleman, D. (2003). Emotional intelligence : issues and
research/ei_issues_and_common_misunderstandings.htm.
Goleman, D. (2001). An EI-based theory of performance. In C. Cherniss & D.
Goleman (Eds). The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure,
and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups and organisations. (pp.
27-44). New York: Jossey Bass.
Matthews , G. , Zeidner , M. , & Roberts , R. D.( 2007). Emotional intelligence:
Consensus, controversies, and questions . In G. Matthews , M. Zeidner , & R.
D. Roberts(Eds.), The science of emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns
(pp. 3 – 46). Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of emotional
intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290–300.
Palmer, B. and Stough, C. (2001). Workplace SUEIT: Swinburne University EI
Test – Technical Manual, Organisational Psychology Research Unit, Swinburne
University, Hawthorn.
Palmer, B. R., Stough, C., Harmer, R., & Gignac, G. (2009). The Genos Emotional
Intelligence Inventory: A measure designed specifically for workplace applications.
In C. Stough, D. H. Saklofske, & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The Springer series
on human exceptionality. Assessing emotional intelligence: Theory, research,
and applications (p. 103–116). Springer Science + Business Media.
Petrides , K. V., Frederickson , N., & Furnham, A.( 2004 ). The role of trait
emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behaviour at school
. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 277 – 293.
Petrides , K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki , F.( 2007 ). The location of trait
emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of
80 Psychology, 98, 273 – 289.
4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS (EI) andAssessment

Emmerling, R.J. and Goleman, D. (2003). Emotional intelligence : issues and
research/ei_issues_and_common_misunderstandings.htm.
Goleman, D. (2001). An EI-based theory of performance. In C. Cherniss & D.
Goleman (Eds). The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure,
and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups and organisations. (pp.
27-44). New York: Jossey Bass.
Mangal, S.K., & Mangal, S. (2015). Emotional intelligence: managing emotions
to win in life. Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of emotional
intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290–300.
Petrides , K. V., Pita , R., & Kokkinaki, F.( 2007 ). The location of trait
emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of Psychology,
98, 273 – 289.
81
Block IV - Management of Emotions
Unit 5 Emotions, Self Control and Assertiveness 85-96

Unit 6 Emotions, Self Regard and Self Actualization 97-108
Unit 7 Strategies to Improve Emotional Intelligence 109-121
UNIT 5 EMOTIONS, SELF-CONTROL
AND ASSERTIVENESS*
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Emotions and Self-control
5.3.1 Meaning and Importance of Self-control
5.3.2 Strategies to Develop Self-control
5.4 Emotions and Assertiveness

5.4.1 Meaning and Importance of Assertiveness
5.4.2 Strategies to Develop Assertiveness
5.5 Let Us Sum Up

5.6 Key Words
5.9 References
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A woman was living with her baby in a remote village. She had no one else
with her. However, she had a pet mongoose with her which she was very
fond of. The mongoose also liked the baby and was always around. The
woman used to go to the well at a distance from her house to fetch water
everyday. She would often request an elderly woman in her neighborhood to
keep a watch over her baby while she was gone. One day, there was no one.
So she left the baby alone and went to bring water thinking that she will
come back quickly. When she was away, a snake came into the house from
the backyard and went near the baby sleeping on the cot in the open area
of the house. The mongoose who was nearby got alerted and put up a fierce
fight with the snake. The snake also injured the mongoose severely and there
was blood around. Though the mongoose killed the snake. After some time
the woman returned hurriedly. As soon as she entered the main door, she
was shocked to see the mongoose lying with blood-smeared mouth at the
entrance. Immediately she feared that it had killed her baby and enraged,
she dropped the pot filled with water on the already injured mongoose and
it died instantly. Then she rushed inside the house to see her baby where she
found him sleeping peacefully and a dead snake near the baby’s cot. She
realized her mistake immediately but it was too late. She cried a lot on
losing her favourite pet who had put up a fight to save her baby.
*Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 85

Management of Emotions What comes to your mind with regard to the behaviour of the woman on seeing
the mongoose with blood on its mouth? It can be said that the woman dropped
the heavy pot on the mongoose in a fit of rage. The emotions overpowered the
woman and she could not think in the moment. Intense emotions led the woman
to behave the way she did without realizing a grave mistake she was going to
commit. Had the woman paused and thought about the baby first and gone to see
her, things would have been different.
You must have come across many situations in your life where you got carried
away by your emotions, be it positive or negative emotions. For instance, when
there is an argument with your friend or sibling, you may say things that you would
not otherwise. Similarly, in the excitement of going out first time on a trip with
friends, you may do things that may not have good consequence. So it is crucial
to get in touch with our emotions in the first place, identify and recognize it. This
will enable us to control our emotions so that we can think of proper ways of
behaving.
Thus, being emotionally intelligent is important. Emotional intelligence as we have
discussed in Unit 2, is an ability to be aware about our emotions and manage
them. It is also understanding the emotions of others and learning to deal with
them effectively. Mainly, we can describe emotional intelligence as consisting of
intra-personal intelligence and inter-personal intelligence (refer Fig. 5.1). Intra
personal intelligence consists of Self-awareness and Self-management. Inter personal
intelligence includes Social awareness and Relationship management.
Emotional
Intelligence
Intra-personal Inter-personal
Intelligence Intelligence
Self- Self- Social Relationship

Awareness Management Awareness Management
Fig. 5.1: Components of Emotional Intelligence
In the present Unit and the next, we will focus on the intra-personal intelligence.
This is the first thing that one needs to start with which includes self-awareness
and self-management – knowing about oneself and managing one’s emotions.
Understanding of others and the world around you starts with understanding your
own self. Self-understanding is the first step. As the Mother, the spiritual guru and
founder of Auroville and Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Puducherry, India remarks,
“First learn to know yourself perfectly and then to control yourself perfectly.” (Sri
Aurobindo Ashram Trust, 2001).
86
Self-awareness, as the term indicates, refers to knowing about oneself. It is Emotions, Self Control and
getting connected to one’s emotions in the moment. As Stein and Book Assertiveness
(2006, p.57) put it, emotional self-awareness is the ability to recognize your
feelings, differentiate between them, know why you are feeling these feelings,
and recognize the impact your feelings have on others around you.
However, just knowing how you are feeling and how it is affecting others around
you are not enough. You also need to learn how to manage it so that you become
effective. Thus, self-management is an important component of emotional intelligence.
Intra-personal management or self-management refers to how do you handle
your emotions, what strategies you adopt so that you become more effective in
your interaction and dealings with other people and in different situations. It
consists of different skills such as emotional self-control, assertiveness, self-
regard and self-actualization. In this Unit we will focus on the first two whereas
the latter two will be discussed in Unit 6.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
Thus, after going through this Unit, you would be able to:
 know the meaning of self-control;
 understand the importance of self-control in our life;
 learn the strategies to develop and improve self-control;
 know the meaning of assertiveness;
 understand the importance of assertiveness in our life; and
 learn the strategies to develop assertiveness
5.3 EMOTIONS AND SELF-CONTROL

Emotions are pervasive in all domains of our life. In fact, it can be called as the
building blocks of our relationship, actions and success. Emotions make us who
we are. Hence, we need to focus on our emotions - how do we recognize them,
engage with them, express them and control them – which will make our life
effective and happy. We need to first identify the emotions that we are experiencing,
recognize how these are affecting our performance, our relationship and behavior.
Once we do this, we would be in a position to bring in changes in our
communication and behavior so that to create a positive impact. Emotional abilities
impact our life in diverse spheres. They not only affect our personal life but also
our workplace and other aspects. Recognizing the emotions, understanding them
and managing them in an effective way affects our development, satisfaction,
performance and relationships. Studies have found that emotional abilities predict
life-satisfaction in an indirect way (Salami, 2011; Koydemir & Schutz, 2012).
If we take the analogy of Freud’s iceberg, we can say that the upper part of
iceberg floating on the water represents our Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – as
reflected in our performance, decision-making, behavior and success. The
crucial question here is what makes this possible. It is our Emotional Intelligence
(EQ) that plays a significant role here. The submerged part of the iceberg under
water represents our EQ – which is reflected in being aware about one’s emotions,
87
Management of Emotions recognizing others’emotions, having social skills, empathy, controlling one’s emotions
and managing of emotions in others. Thus, management of emotions is very crucial
in order to achieve success and happiness in life. In this regard, self-control is one
of the important skills in intra-personal management of emotions.
Now, let us know in detail the meaning of self-control and how it plays an
important role in managing emotions.
5.3.1 Meaning and Importance of Self-control

Self-control, as the term indicates, refers to be in control of oneself. This
means, mainly to be able to control one’s emotions in the moment. It is
being aware of one’s emotions and putting a check on them so that one does
not burst out as a result of one’s emotions, but is able to assess the situation
and others around, and then decide the course of action. Thus emotional
self-control helps in restraining oneself and reducing impulsivity. Stein and
Book (2006, p.204) have defined emotional self-control as “a capacity for
identifying one’s angry and aggressive impulses, being composed and putting
the brakes on angry, aggressive, hostile and irresponsible behavior.”
Thus, self-control enables us to be composed, understand our emotions and

not act on an impulse. Self-control is required not only in situations of anger
or aggression, but also in situations exhibiting intense joy, pleasure or
excitement also. In the latter case also, we sometimes get so excited that our
language and actions may affect others negatively, e.g., blurting out some
insensible remarks about somebody. Thus, in both the scenarios whether we
are experiencing positive or negative emotions, exercising self-control is
very important. In Indian scriptures we have the term ‘Sthitapragyan’ that
means one is calm and composed both in happy and sad times, thus referring
to self-control. In ancient Indian Mythology, we have examples of sages also
like Maharishi Durbasha who was known for his extreme instant anger
because of which he himself also has faced troubles many times.
Mersino (2007, p.52) defines self-control as “the ability to control our

emotions so that they do not control us. It includes techniques that help us
to regulate our emotions, to identify and prevent emotional triggers, and to
identify and prevent thinking that can lead to emotional breakdowns.” Thus,
emotional self-control is the ability to control or regulate our emotions to
achieve desirable outcomes. It is an ability which uses understanding about
one’s emotions to deal with situations in a better way. When we are in the
grip of emotions, we cannot think clearly. Using technique of self-control,
we can pause, understand our emotions and its impact; and then accordingly
think clearly and take actions. Learning to control oneself helps us to face
any kind of situation without getting disturbed or distressed. Like water on
the lotus petal does not stay, similarly, one stays composed and does not get
affected by emotions.
Another definition by Mangal and Mangal (2015) states, “emotional self-

control is an ability or skill belonging to the intra-personal management of
one’s EI that helps him to exercise desirable control over his emotions and
provide a shield against the evil consequences of impulsive actions, emotional
storms and breakdowns for enabling him to get along well with his self and others
and attain desired success in his life.”
88
Thus, analyzing all the above definitions, we can arrive at the following main points Emotions, Self Control and
about emotional self-control. Assertiveness
 Emotional self-control is an ability and skill of emotional intelligence (EI)

 It relates to intrapersonal management component of EI
 It involves controlling or regulating or managing one’s emotions
 Pre-requisite for self-control is awareness about one’s own emotions
 Together with self awareness, managing oneself through self- control are said
to be the gateway to EI
 Self awareness and self management are two crucial first things in developing
EI
 Self-control involves learning to manage distressing and disruptive emotions
 It puts a check on such emotions, thus avoiding impulsive behavior and
actions
 It allows for thinking about the situation, thereby enabling to take wise
decisions and appropriate steps
 Self-control thus aids in self growth, managing ourselves well and brings
success and achievement
 It also helps facilitate proper interpersonal relationship and communication
Thus an effective management of one’s emotions, both positive and negative, can
lead one onto growth, adjustment, good relations, achievement and success. As
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2002) point out, management of emotions refers to
the ability to successfully regulate one’s emotions such as stress, impulses and
motivation, thoughts and behaviours in different situations. Controlling of one’s
emotions or self-control activates one’s thinking, reasoning, analysis aspect that
help one to put things in proper context and perspective. As the saying goes,
‘look before you leap’. It always helps if instead of acting on an impulse, we
pause, look, plan and then take a move.
5.3.2 Strategies to Develop Self-control

As we discussed above, self-control is a very fundamental and crucial skill to
learn to achieve a balanced state of mind. It also helps one to take an informed
decision. That is, equipped with the awareness of one’s emotions, one can take
stock of the situation and take desirable steps as per the requirements of the
situation. Self-control as a part of self-regulation involves the ability to deliberately
regulate one’s emotions, thoughts and actions. It encompasses skills such as
emotion regulation, control, and perseverance.
One of the strategies for self-regulation is self-distancing. It can help in controlling
one’s emotions. Self-distancing refers to the mental distance or psychological
distance deliberately created by an individual between the self and a stimulus by
having the individual think about their thoughts, feelings or actions from an outsider’s
perspective (Kross & Ayduk, 2011). Taking a distanced perspective helps adults
focus on ‘why’ they are feeling what they are feeling instead of focusing on the
negative emotions themselves and results in better coping when recalling these
past negative emotions (Nigg, 2017). Three types of distancing conditions can be
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Management of Emotions created by using visual imagery or language or media characters: (i) visualizing the
event/past negative emotions through their own eyes or using first person speech
(non- distanced); (ii) visualizing or telling from an outsider’s perspective using
third-person speech (self-distanced); and (iii) using a media character like superman,
batman, barbie etc. (exemplar). The first two conditions, non-distanced and self-
distanced conditions are used in case of adults whereas all the three can be used
in case of children, thus allowing them a greater degree of distance evidenced
through the imagined character. Various studies (Kross & Ayduk, 2017; Kross &
Ayduk, 2011; Nook, Schleider, & Somerville, 2017; and Dolcos & Albarracin,
2014) have reported higher task performance, better executive function,
perseverance and improved ability to delay in gratification when taking a self-
distanced perspective through either a third-person or exemplar condition than in
the no distance condition, i.e., self-immersed condition.
Mangal and Mangal (2015) have indicated three stages in the development of
self-control.
1. Awareness about the present emotional state
The first step required in the development of self-control is to be aware about

one’s emotional state. One needs to focus attention on the emotions one is
experiencing at the moment, for instance, what are these emotions, nature of
these emotions, positive or negative emotions, intensity of the emotions,
duration and pattern of the emotions. Many a times by the time we become
aware of our emotions, the action has already been done. This may lead to
ineffective actions and decisions. Thus, to be connected with one’s emotions,
one needs to be mindful about the present moment experiences and emotions.
This emotional self awareness can be developed through different ways: (a)
knowing about emotions, their nature, types and how they impact; (b) paying
attention to the physical manifestations of the emotions; physiological changes
like rapid heart beat, fast breathing, sweating, increased blood pressure,
facial changes, laughing, smiling, feeling relaxed etc.; (c) meditation practices
will help focus your attention inward on your inner self and understand
yourself; (d) scanning the body for physical changes and the thought process
to find out what thoughts are going on; (e) scanning others also with regard
to changes in their body language and behavior due to our own emotional
state.
2. Determining underlying causes responsible for the present emotional

state
When we focus on the emotional state we are experiencing, the next

step is to find out why we are experiencing these. It is like going
backward or retracing the steps back to find out what caused the emotions.
3. Adopting measures for getting control of the emotional state
Once we know the reasons for our emotions, we are in a better position to
control these. There are several ways that help us in emotional self-control:
(a) take an immediate pause within yourself and outside yourself also, e.g.,
deep breathing, relaxation techniques, doing yoga and exercise, listening to
music, talking to friends/family; (b) adopting an internal locus of control and
not blaming the external factors as responsible for the emotional state of the
90
individual; (c) having a positive attitude, hope and optimism; (d) planning Emotions, Self Control and
beforehand that helps you to anticipate the likely impact of your emotions Assertiveness
and modify your behavior accordingly.
The above strategies can thus be followed in order to develop effective self-
control.
1. .......................................... is pre-requisite for emotional self-control.
2. Being able to control one’s emotions prevents us from acting on ............ .
3. .......................................... locus of control will help us in getting control

of our emotional state.
4. We can find the underlying causes responsible for our present emotional
state by going .......................................... to find the causes.
5. Scanning the body for physical manifestations of the emotions will help us
in developing .......................................... .
5.4 EMOTIONS AND ASSERTIVENESS

Assertiveness is another skill which has a very important role in connection with
our emotions. In many situations, we hesitate to express our emotions for the fear
of being understood wrong or apprehension that others will get angry or hurt, or
it may not be taken in a positive light. We also do not express our emotions to
avoid our weaknesses or limitations, for the fear and shame of looking inferior
before others, or appearing incapable before others. All these results in suppressing
of our emotions and if we engage in suppression most of the time, it may result
in depression. For example, Nita is a class 8th girl who is always teased by her
classmates as she is fat. She feels very upset and sad and this has affected her
self esteem. All this affects negatively her studies as well as her participating in
different school activities. The requirement here is being assertive in expressing
one’s emotions. This will help Nita to be firm and stand up for herself and at the
same time make others realize the situation.
So, let us now discuss what do we mean by assertiveness and how it can be
developed as it has a significant impact on the way we manage our emotions.
5.4.1 Meaning and Importance of Assertiveness
Assertiveness means to assert one’s rights, to speak up for oneself what one
thinks and feels. Thus it refers to exercising one’s right to be respected.
However, this is done in such a manner that it does not disregard the right of other
person to be respected. As Stein and Book (2006) state, assertiveness refers to
the skill of “being able to disagree with others without resorting to emotional
sabotage or subterfuge, and being able to walk a fine line, defending their wishes
while, at the same time, respecting another person’s point of view and being
sensitive to their needs.”
Further, assertiveness is also described as standing up for yourself without violating
the rights of others, getting what you want using fair and reasonable means (Dutt, 91
Management of Emotions 2012). Thus, assertiveness is an ability or interpersonal skill where you can as the
saying goes, ‘have the cake and eat it too’. That is, you can state your thoughts
and desires and position firmly and clearly without offending anyone or making
others feel bad or hurt in anyway.
This ability to consider and understand the emotions of oneself as well as others
so as to take care of both while communicating leads to effective interpersonal
interaction. Thus it can be said to include the following main points:
 Assertiveness is an important interpersonal skill related to emotional intelligence.
 It consists of five C’s – Clear, Concise, Confidence, Courage and Controlled.
The message is conveyed in a concise manner and clearly with courage,
confidence and in a calm controlled manner.
 It respects the need of oneself as well as the need of others. It exemplifies
the principle of ‘Live and Let Live’. Thus, both are happy and without
stress.
 Assertive people can fight for their rights and at the same time able to
care for others also so as not to hurt their feelings or beliefs.
 They are able to express themselves without any anxiety, nervousness
or boasting.
 They exhibit appropriate control over their impulses and emotions.
Thus, we can see that assertive behavior can help us communicate well with
others and achieve success in life. In this context, you may note that
assertiveness can be described as being on a continuum with passiveness on
one end and aggressiveness on the other end. Many a times, assertiveness
is confused as being aggressive though it is not. Passive behavior is a non-
assertive way of communication that is characterized by shyness, anxiousness,
fear and submissiveness. Such people lack confidence and feel inferior, and
put others’ needs and requirements at the forefront while neglecting or
relegating their own needs, desires, thoughts and feelings. On the other
hand, aggressive behavior puts one’s own needs on the top and does not
consider the rights of others. Such people do not consider the feelings and
thoughts of other people. The middle path, being assertive, is an effective
way of communication that takes care of the need to fulfill one’s own wishes,
consider one’s emotions, and also recognize the needs and rights of other
people. One is able to show assertiveness when one understands own emotions
and other’s emotions too and accordingly takes care of both with an aim to
achieve the main objective. Such people will have self regard and build
harmonious relationship with others. Since they exhibit a cool and calm stance,
without getting agitated, it has positive impact on their physical and mental health
also.
5.4.2 Strategies to Develop Assertiveness

Assertiveness is an emotional competency that can be developed so as to
successfully manage one’s emotions and have a positive impact on others
for success in life. Here one is able to express one’s own thoughts, opinions,
feelings and wishes honestly without any fear, hesitation or aggression because
one is considerate of the rights of the other person also. This crucial ability can
92 be developed through different ways:
1. Being aware of one’s emotions is the first thing in the process of developing Emotions, Self Control and
Assertiveness
assertiveness. In the example of Nita given earlier, she needed to be aware
about what emotions and feelings she was feeling and what she wanted for
her. If I don’t know what are my feelings and wishes, then what would I
stand up for?
2. Being aware of other’s emotions is the next step that is required on the
way to be assertive. One cannot grow or achieve happiness by ignoring,
humiliating or putting down others. One needs to give equal respect to
the needs and desires of others also. This will help people to accept
your stand without getting antagonized or showing resentment. Thus
assertiveness involves striking a balance between the needs of self and
others.
3. Taking care/focusing on the C’s of assertiveness. Be clear about what
do you want, say it confidently and maintain a controlled manner
throughout. Thus one needs to know what one aims at in a given
situation. Further, one needs to observe one’s verbal as well as non-
verbal language to be aware of what one is communicating to others.
In order to be acceptable to others, one also needs to practice saying
things in a confident and calm manner without getting emotional or
agitated. Exercising control over one’s emotions will also help one to
think clearly leading to constructive steps.
4. Practice your assertive dialogue. Assertiveness is a way of
communication that may not develop overnight. So one needs to practice
how to say assertively without hurting others.
5. Being mindful. One needs to be mindful of one’s emotions, feelings
and behaviours. This will help in knowing what exactly one wants and
how to express the things before others.
1. The three C’s of assertiveness are ..................................................................,
.......................................... and .......................................... .
2. Assertive people tend to think only of their rights and wishes. (True/False)
3. Assertive people always disagree with others. (True/False)
4. If assertiveness is described on a continuum, what will be there on both the
ends?
5.5 LET US SUM UP

In the present Unit, we focused on two important aspects or skills related to
intrapersonal management of emotions, self-control and assertiveness. Meaning
and importance of these in the context of managing one’s emotions effectively
were discussed. Thus, emotional self control is the first step or can be described
as the gateway to achieving emotional competence. Assertiveness which ensures
the rights of the self as well as the other person, thereby facilitating healthy
interpersonal communication and success was differentiated from passiveness and
aggressiveness. Various strategies to develop and improve self-control and assertive
behavior were described.
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Management of Emotions
5.6 KEY WORDS
Self-control : It refers to exercising control over one’s emotions by paying
attention to one’s emotions and its’ impact on self and
others.
Assertiveness : It refers to expressing one’s needs, views, thoughts and

feelings clearly, confidently and calmly while taking care of
the feelings and rights of others.

QUESTIONS
1. awareness of emotions
2. impulse
3. internal
4. backward
5. emotional self-awareness.
1. clear, confident and controlled
2. False
3. False
4. passiveness and aggressiveness

1. Discuss the meaning and importance of emotional self-control in the success
and achievement of people covering personal, social and professional life.
2. Describe the different ways to develop assertive communication.
3. Explain the role of assertiveness in managing one’s emotions.
4. Differentiate between assertiveness, passiveness and aggressiveness with

suitable examples.
5. What are the strategies to develop and improve emotional self control?
94
Emotions, Self Control and
5.9 REFERENCES Assertiveness
Dolcos, S. & Albarracin, D. (2014). The inner speech of behavioral regulation:

intentions and task performance strengthen when you talk to yourself as a You.
Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 44, 636-642.
Dutt, R. (2012). And the lion smiled at the rabbit: manage emotions to win. New
Delhi: Wisdom Tree Publishers.
Koydemir, S. & Schutz, A. (2012). Emotional intelligence predicts components

of subjective well-being beyond personality: A two country study using self and
informant reports. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7 (2), 107-118.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.647050
Kross, E. & Ayduk, O. (2011). Making meaning out of negative experiences by

self-distancing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20 (3), 187-191.
Kross, E. & Ayduk, O. (2017). Self-distancing: Theory, research and current

directions. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 81-136.

Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2002). Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Toronto, Ontario: Multi-Health Systems Inc.
Mersino, A. C. (2007). Emotional intelligence for project managers. New York:

amacom (American Management Association).
Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation,

self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity,
risk-taking and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 361-383.
Nook, E. C., Schleider, J. L., & Somerville, L. H. (2017). A linguistic signature

of psychological distancing in emotion regulation. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 146 (3), 337-346.
Salami, S. (2011). Personality and psychological well-being of adolescents: the

moderating role of emotional intelligence. Social Behaviour and Personality, 39
(6), 785-794. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2011.39.6.785
Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust (2001). Our many selves: practical yogic psychology.
Selectins from the works of Dri Aurobindo and the Mother. Pondicherry: Sri
Aurobindo Ashram Publication Department.
Stein, S. J., & Book, H. E. (2006). The EQ edge – the emotional intelligence and
your success (2nd ed.), Canada: Jossey-Bass (A Wiley Imprint), John Wiley.
95
1. Goleman D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Book.
2. Goleman D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam

Book.
3. Singh D. (2003). Emotional Intelligence at Work (2nd ed.). New Delhi:

Response Books.
4. Singh D. (2015). Emotional Intelligence at Work: A professional guide, (4th

ed.). New Delhi: Sage Response Books.
5. Mangal S.K & Mangal S. (2015). Emotional Intelligence: Managing emotions

6. Bhattacharya M.S. & Sengupta N. (2007). Emotional Intelligence: Myth or

reality. New Delhi: Excel Books.
7. Bar- On R. & Parker J.D.A. (2000). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence

96
UNIT 6 EMOTIONS, SELF-REGARD AND
SELF-ACTUALIZATION*
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Meaning and Importance of Self-regard
6.4 Strategies to Develop Self-regard
6.5 Meaning and Importance of Self-actualization
6.6 Strategies to Develop Self-actualization
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Key Words
6.11 References
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Rishabh is 28 years old. He is bright and has a good educational background
having secured high ranks throughout his academic career. However, he
could not get into a good career and had to join a low paying and not that
attractive job. He often compares himself with others of his class and age
and feels depressed. He has been a very good basket ball player, singer as
well as interested in robotics. But now he does not engage in any of these.
He feels that life has been unfair to him and feels very low of himself. He
finds it difficult to look forward with hope and aspirations.
One thing that Rishabh is clearly lacking is a sense of appreciation and respect
for oneself. Unless one feels good about oneself, one will not have the basic
ingredient to look forward to in life. This respect or regard for oneself – known
as self-regard – is an important concept when we discuss about emotions and
their management. One needs to have self-regard or respect for one’s skills,
abilities and strengths, for who one is with whatever capacities or limitations. This
self-regard is important in managing the emotions felt by one. In the previous Unit
(Unit 5), we discussed about emotional self-control and assertiveness as two
important skills in managing one’s emotions. In this Unit, we will discuss two more
abilities such as self-regard and self-actualization that play a role in intra personal
management of emotions.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you would be able to:
 know the meaning of self-regard;
 discuss the importance of self-regard in our life;
*Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 97

Management of Emotions  learn the strategies to develop self-regard;
 know the meaning of self-actualization;
 explain the importance of self-actualization in our life; and
 learn ways to develop self-actualization.
6.3 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF SELF-

REGARD
Self-regard, in simple words, refers to the respect or regard that you have for
yourself as a whole. When we say as a whole, it not only includes the
positive qualities, strengths, abilities and skills that you have, but also the
negative aspects, limitations and weaknesses or shortcomings that you have.
So, it is viewing yourself in totality and respecting yourself for what you are.
You not only celebrate your good aspects or positive things that you have,
but also acknowledge the negative aspects and rather than criticize yourself,
blame self or others, or be disheartened about it, you accept these and make
conscious efforts to improve on those.
Now, to be able to respect yourself, you first need to understand yourself.
Thus, the pre-requisites for self-regard are self-awareness, accurate self-
assessment, self-confidence, and self-control. One needs to know and
understand one’s positive and negative qualities, and assess these accurately
without any boasting or blaming/complaint. Further, one needs to accept
oneself and be confident of the way they are. However, it is not being
arrogant or aggressive, but showing assertiveness. Thus, a person with self-
regard will exhibit self-awareness, emotional self-control, self-confidence,
self-assurance and self-worth. There is a feeling of adequacy, security and
well-being. They feel satisfied with their self, are optimistic, well-adjusted
and see themselves as being worthwhile.
Two main aspects of self-regard can be said to be (a) positive attitude (that
includes accepting the limitations or negative points and working to improve
them, and simultaneously being aware of the positive points without feeling
superior or being arrogant about these), and (b) sense of worthiness (includes
feeling adequate, capable, assured, and of value and significance).
Refer to the Figure 6.1 below.
Fig. 6.1: Aspects of Self-regard

98
Let us now see a few definitions of self-regard below. Emotions, Self Regard and
Self Actualization
 Hewitt (2009) states self-esteem (or self-regard) is a term used in psychology
to reflect a person’s overall emotional evaluation of his or her own worth.
It is a judgement of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem
encompasses beliefs (e.g., ‘I am competent’ or ‘I am worthy’) and emotions
such as triumph, despair, pride and shame.
 Branden (1969) considers self-regard or self-esteem as the sum of self-
confidence (a feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of
personal worth).
 Olsen, Breckler & Wiggins (2008) describe self-esteem (or self-regard)
as a disposition that a person has which represents his own judgement
of his own worthiness.
 Mangal & Mangal (2015) define self-regard as a unique ability,
disposition or component of one’s EI that may help him in (i) getting
necessary awareness and making proper evaluative judgement about the
strengths and weaknesses of the self, (ii) having necessary confidence
in the functioning of the self, and (iii) respecting and valuing the self by
accepting it in its existing form with all of its limitations and strengths.
Thus, self-regard refers to paying regard or respect to oneself. It does not depend
upon the approval or assurance from others. It does not depend on any external
factors such as age, gender, class, caste or race. For instance, it may not be that
a person from high caste or high social class or living in metro city or bunglows
will have more or less self-regard as compared to the person from low caste,
class, or living in rural area. Self-regard depends entirely on how do we evaluate
ourselves, what worth we assign to ourselves with full cognizance of all our
strengths and limitations.
Self-regard is similar to self-esteem but it differs from self-concept. Self-concept
refers to what do we think about ourselves, what our self comprises of or includes.
In other words, we can describe self-concept in terms of its aspects or components.
Self-esteem, on the other hand, refers to the evaluative component, how do we
evaluate ourselves, positively and negatively. Thus, it is the value that we assign
to our self. Self-regard refers to paying respect or regard to our self with full
awareness of all our positive and negative qualities. It can also be termed as self-
worth denoting the feeling of worthiness about one self. Thus, in comparison to
the term self-concept, other terms such as self-esteem, self-regard, self-respect
and self-worth are used synonymously.
Regard or respect for one self contributes a lot in our personal and professional
success. For instance, Rey, Extremera & Pena (2011) have pointed out that
self-esteem acts as a mediator between emotional abilities people have and
their life satisfaction. Another study (Ruvalcaba-Romero, Fernandez-Berrocal,
Salazar-Estrada, & Gallegos-Guajardo, 2017) has tried to identify the
mediation function of the variables of self-esteem, positive emotions,
interpersonal relationships, and social support between emotional intelligence
and life satisfaction. It was found that self-esteem, positive emotions, and
interpersonal relationships together are those that contribute with 50% of the
variance for life satisfaction.
99
Self-esteem or self-regard also helps in effective interpersonal communication as
such people understand their own thoughts, emotions in a proper way. Since they
evaluate themselves with regard to their positive and negative aspects, they are
in a better position to reflect on themselves which guides them how to function
and conduct themselves in different spheres. They believe in their capacity and
consider themselves as able to deal with situations. However, they do not have
feelings of superiority; nor do they feel inferior with regard to their negative
aspects. Self-regard is about self-acceptance and self-respect. This foundational
ground makes it possible for the person to grow and branch out and have a
positive impact on one self as well as others. In the process, it contributes to
psychological health and well-being.
6.4 STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP SELF-REGARD

Self-regard is a crucial skill that has implications for emotional intelligence as it
helps manage our emotions successfully. Two approaches can be discussed below
related to the development of self-regard (Mangal & Mangal, 2015).
1. Appropriate learning experiences in the developmental period
Self-regard is an acquired phenomenon. As the child is born, she/he starts
to develop the concept of ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘myself’, and form opinions, thoughts
and feelings about oneself. In this process, the experiences arising out from
parental practices, home environment, school environment and neighbourhood
affect the child in a significant way. It results in forming a positive and
negative attitude towards oneself.
Learning experiences during the developmental stage affect the child’s all
round development in physical, social, emotional, moral and spiritual aspects.
Parents need to follow a parenting style that nurtures the child. The child
needs to feel accepted, listened to, and cared for at home as well as at
school since they spent a lot of time in these two places. The kind of
behavior, feedback and expectations received from significant others impact
the social and emotional development of the child to a great extent. Hence,
parents, teachers, family members, peer play a crucial role in generating
appropriate learning experiences that shapes the development of respect for
the self in the child.
2. Development of different attributes of self-regard
As we have seen earlier, self-regard includes different pre-requisites such as
self-awareness, self-concept, self-acceptance, self-control, self-confidence
and self-respect. These can be called the different attributes of self-regard
which are necessary to achieve self-regard.
The first thing required is self-awareness or knowing about oneself. One
needs to know one’s thoughts, feelings, strengths and weaknesses. It includes
accurate assessment of oneself on different aspects and evaluating on different
criteria. All these leads to development of understanding about the self.
Self-concept is the sum total of the self-awareness and self-assessment by the
individual. It includes what all the individual thinks she/he is having – the abilities,
skills, thinking, emotional and behavioural patterns etc. It is the totality of the
individual including both positive and negative aspects, and contributes to who the
100 individual is in a total sense.
Self-acceptance is also an important attribute of self-regard. Unless one accepts Emotions, Self Regard and
Self Actualization
oneself with an open mind, one cannot have respect and regard for oneself. So
accepting one self for whatever positive and negative qualities one has paves the
way for respecting oneself.
Self-control ensures that one is able to control one’s emotions, generating feelings
of adequacy and control. This creates a positive impact on the person and creates
respect for oneself.
Self-confidence emerges out of accepting oneself for what one is, in totality.
When one is at ease with oneself, feels comfortable in one’s skin, one has regard
for oneself.
Development of all the above ultimately leads to respect or regard for oneself.
One becomes optimistic, hopeful, and achieves success and well-being
because of all these attributes in self-regard. Hence efforts can be made on
creating learning experiences around these in early developmental years to
facilitate the development of self-regard.
1. What are the pre-requisites of self-regard?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Differentiate between self-concept and self-esteem.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Explain self-acceptance.
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6.5 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF SELF-

ACTUALIZATION
We all know the story of Thomas Alva Edison, the famous scientist, whose zeal
for experimentation made him the great scientist that he is. It reflected his incessant
desire to fulfill his innermost desire and potentialities that he had within him.
Similar was the case with Lata Mangeshkar, the famous playback singer whose
passion for singing along with her determination and eagerness for it despite the
initial odds took her to the pinnacle of glory who had become a legend in her own
lifetime. She had sung thousands of songs in 36 languages and dialects including
Russian, Swahili and Latin in a career spanning over seven decades.
101
Management of Emotions All these examples point out the ability or attribute of self-actualization. Here we
will discuss about the meaning of self-actualization, it’s role in emotional intelligence,
how it is important for success in life, and strategies for development of self-
actualization.
Each individual has their own potential, strengths, talents and inner desires. The
success and happiness of the individual are influenced by an understanding of
these and taking steps to realize this inner self with its full potential. Maslow
(1954) has used the term self-actualization as a higher order psychological need
that people strive towards once the lower order needs are satisfied for them. He
has proposed a need hierarchy model (see Fig. 6.2) to explain the hierarchical
structure of human needs. The model in the form of a pyramid structure presents
the lower order needs at the bottom proceeding to higher order needs towards
the top.
Fig. 6.2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The physiological needs at the bottom are the most basic needs that are required
to be satisfied first before one thinks of other needs. Similarly, one can think of
self-esteem needs only when all the other lower level needs are satisfied. Self-
actualization is the highest need that depends on the satisfaction of all other needs
below it and going beyond it. It represents fulfilling all one’s desires, capacities,
potentials etc. For this, one needs first to gain a complete understanding of
oneself, assessing oneself accurately, controlling one’s emotions, putting confidence
on oneself, having respect and regard for oneself, and an intense desire or drive
to work towards achieving one’s goals and realizing one’s potentials.
102
However, it may be pointed out here that Maslow’s theory has also been criticized Emotions, Self Regard and
on the ground that we do have evidence for the fact that people may strive Self Actualization
towards higher needs even in the absence of satisfaction of lower level needs.
Thus, we can see examples of famous painters/artists or writers who excelled
despite their poverty and deficiency in basic resources. So, it may not always be
a hierarchical order of satisfaction of needs.
As Maslow (1954) puts it, “what a man can be, he must be. He must be true
to his own nature. This need we may call self-actualization…..it is the desire
to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is
capable of becoming.” Thus, self-actualization can be described as self-fulfillment,
to fulfill the potentials what the individual is capable of achieving.
Carl Rogers (1961) also talks about self-actualization in the context of a fully
functioning person. Such a person continuously works towards self-actualization,
i.e., towards achieving their full potential.
This sense/meaning is reflected in the definition of self-actualization as given by

Collins English Dictionary (2009) which describes self-actualization as “the
process of establishing oneself as a whole person, able to develop one’s abilities
and to understand oneself.” Thus it is seeing and understanding oneself in a
comprehensive manner rather than a fragmented understanding.
Stein and Book (2006) refer to self-actualization as an ongoing, dynamic process

of striving toward the maximum development of your abilities and talents, of
persistently trying to do your best and to improve yourself in general.
Mangal & Mangal (2015) define self-actualization ‘as a component of one’s EI

representing his need, urge and desire for developing and becoming what he is
able or capable of becoming in tune of his own potential, talent and creativity lying
with him directed towards his self-satisfaction, real happiness and success in life.’
The Mother, the spiritual guru and founder of Auroville and Sri Aurobindo Ashram
in Puducherry, India (Sri Aurobindo Ashram 2001) says that one must become
aware of what is the highest in oneself, what is most true, most universal and
eternal in one’s consciousness. Here, the Mother is not limited to self-actualization,
but goes beyond it to a higher level of transcendence, i.e., going beyond oneself,
becoming selfless, and engaged in the service of mankind.
Analyzing all these definitions we may note the following:
 Self-actualization reflects one’s drive to fulfill one’s potential
 It reflects one’s persistence to continue on the path of one’s goal or desires.
 It underlies one’s basic desire to understand oneself fully.
 It views oneself as a whole person, a fully functioning person, achieving what

one is capable of achieving or realizing.
 It emphasizes the individual’s innate tendency to be the best possible version

of oneself that one can be.
 It indicates the highest level of self-growth by reaching one’s actual self with
the realization of the potentials within the individual. 103
Management of Emotions  It involves awareness, acceptance, appreciation, regard, empathy, flexibility,
and creativity that help the individual in the process of connecting with one’s
inner self and actualizing their potential.
 It gives rise to real success and happiness by being honest and authentic to
one’s true self.
 It aims at realizing the highest in one’s consciousness, thus it goes beyond

oneself and beyond self-actualization and characterized by selflessness.
Thus. we can see that self-actualization can contribute towards being emotionally
intelligent that will make the individual self-aware and self-sufficient and also foster
healthy relationships with self and others. It will thus lead to effective intrapersonal
and interpersonal management skills.
6.6 STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP SELF-

ACTUALIZATION
Self-actualization is a process and it is dynamic in the sense that a lot of factors
influence it in addition to the satisfaction of lower level needs as proposed in
Maslow’s theory of needs. However, once the basic needs are satisfied, and the
individual progresses to achieving the higher level psychological needs, self-
actualization comes across as a highest goal for the individual. Although, in the
revised theory, Maslow talked about a sixth need, i.e., the need for transcendence,
many people may not fulfill this need for self-actualization also. Various steps and
strategies can help the individual progress in the path of actualization of oneself.
These are described below.
1. Awareness about oneself
The first step on the path of self-actualization starts with a detailed and
complete awareness about oneself. One needs to understand one’s strengths
as well as weaknesses, aspirations and apprehensions, goals and hurdles/
obstacles, desires and dis-likings etc. so that one can evaluate oneself properly.
2. Complete acceptance of oneself
The next step after knowing about oneself is to develop a complete acceptance
for what one is. While highlighting the positive aspects, one need not avoid
or feel ashamed about one’s negative aspects. One should be equally
accepting of both positive and negative side.
3. Controlling of one’s emotions
This plays a crucial role as unless the person learns to have emotional self-
control, one will not be able to develop acceptance of oneself in totality
including the negative aspects of oneself. Controlling here does not mean
suppression, but management of emotions so that you understand the nature
and reason of your emotions and can take steps to manage these triggers of
your emotional output. One needs to overcome many hurdles/obstacles when
trying to actualize oneself, i.e., fulfill the inner potentials, giving rise to the
need for managing one’s emotions. Hence it is imperative that we learn to
104
manage our emotions so that it facilitates our progress on the path of self- Emotions, Self Regard and
actualization. Self Actualization
4. Decide your goals and show perseverance

Once you know about yourself and accept all the aspects of yourself, and
has learned to manage your emotions, you need to set your goals towards
actualization of your potentials. This will help one to live a complete and
authentic life in touch with one’s true self. The inner potential needs to be
reflected in the formulation of the meaning and purpose of one’s life. Goal
setting should be accompanied by perseverance to achieve it despite whatever
obstacles may come. Thus, it requires that determination, persistence,
resilience, problem-solving, decision-making, creativity, self-confidence be
developed in the person.
5. Looking for opportunities
A positive mindset always attracts opportunities and opens up ways towards
realizing one’s goals. Hence, one needs to cultivate a positive attitude, optimism
and looking with hope towards future however adverse the situation may be.
Here, the person can also look upto others such as family, teachers, peers
and other significant people around, or sources of knowledge to take inspiration
and see things in perspective.
6. Cultivating a proper mindset
The ultimate truth of life is that we do not compete against each other, but
we compete with ourselves. In the absence of this, the world is marred by
conflicts, disturbances and unhappiness. If we aim at realizing the full potential
that is there within each one of us, and get support from others around, then
there will not be any scope for competition and challenges. Since each one
of us is unique in our development, context and experiences, it can never be
a comparison and competition with others, but it should always be a
competition with the self. You are testing yourself that you are growing,
improving, making yourself better and transforming yourself
Self-actualization is the highest need that human being strives to fulfill. We may
note here that once the person is able to live the purpose of his/her life, it does
not mean that self-actualization stops. Rather, the process of self-actualization is
dynamic and it is never ending. Once the person reaches the set goals, there is
always a scope to develop further and go still higher level in life. Thus, it is not
static.
1. According to Maslow, ‘what a man can be, he ________ be.
2. Self-actualization refers to fulfillment of the higher level
material needs. (True/False)
3. How does Rogers describe self-actualization?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
105
6.7 LET US SUM UP
In the present Unit, we discussed two more components, namely, self-regard and
self-actualization that help in the process of intrapersonal management of emotions,
and thus contribute towards the development of emotional intelligence. In the
earlier Unit, you have learnt about self-control and assertiveness as factors crucial
for emotional intelligence. Here, we discussed the meaning of self-regard and self-
actualization and the various attributes involved in these. Finally, different strategies
and ways were described that help in the process of development of self-regard
and self-actualization in human beings.
6.8 KEY WORDS

Self-regard : Self-regard refers to paying respect or regard to our
self with full awareness of all our positive and negative
qualities.
Self-actualization : Self-actualization can be described as self-fulfillment, to

fulfill the potentials that the individual is capable of
achieving.

QUESTIONS
1. The pre-requisites for self-regard are self-awareness, accurate self-assessment,

self-confidence, and self-control.
2. Self-concept refers to what do we think about ourselves, what our self

comprises of or includes. In other words, we can describe self-concept in
terms of its aspects or components. Self-esteem, on the other hand, refers
to the evaluative component, how do we evaluate ourselves, positively and
negatively.
3. Self-acceptance is an important attribute of self-regard. It refers to accepting

oneself with an open mind, When one accepts one self for whatever positive
and negative qualities one has, it paves the way for having respect and
regard for oneself.
1. must
2. False
3. Rogers (1961) describes self-actualization in the context of a fully functioning

person. Such a person continuously works towards self-actualization, i.e.,
towards achieving their full potential.
106
Emotions, Self Regard and
6.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS Self Actualization
1. Discuss the meaning of self-regard and how it is important for emotional

intelligence?
2. Discuss various factors that will facilitate the development of self-regard in

oneself.
3. Explain the meaning of self-actualization as proposed by Maslow.
4. Describe the various factors that one needs to take into account to facilitate
the process of actualizing oneself.
6.11 REFERENCES
Branden, N. (1987). Honouring the self: personal integrity and the heroic potentials
of human nature, Los Angeles: Jeremy Tarcher Inc.
Collins English Dictionary- Complete & Unabridged, 10th ed. (2009). London:
Harper Collins Publishers.
Hewitt, J.P. (2009). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University

Press.

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.
Olsen, J.M., Breckler, S.J., & Wiggins, E.C. (2008). Social psychology alive,
Canada: Nelson.
Rey, Extremera & Pena (2011). Perceived emotional intelligence, self-esteem and
life satisfaction in adolescents. Psychosocial Intervention, 20 (2), 227-234.
Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: a therapist view of psychotherapy.

Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 350-51
Ruvalcaba-Romero, N.A., Fernandez-Berrocal, P., Salazar-Estrada, J.G., &

Gallegos-Guajardo, J. (2017). Positive emotions, self-esteem, interpersonal
relationships and social support as mediators between emotional intelligence and
life satisfaction. Journal of Behaviour, Health and Social Issues, 9, 1-6
Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust (2001). Our many selves: practical yogic psychology.
Selections from the works of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother. Pondicherry: Sri
Aurobindo Ashram Publication Department.
Stein, S. J., & Book, H. E. (2006, p.57). The EQ edge – the emotional intelligence
and your success (2nd ed.), Canada: Jossey-Bass (A Wiley Imprint), John Wiley.
107
2. Goleman D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam

Book.
3. Singh D. (2003). Emotional Intelligence at Work (2nd ed.). New Delhi:

Response Books.
4. Singh D. (2015). Emotional Intelligence at Work: A professional guide, (4th

ed.). New Delhi: Sage Response Books.
5. Mangal S.K & Mangal S. (2015). Emotional Intelligence: Managing emotions

6. Bhattacharya M.S. & Sengupta N. (2007). Emotional Intelligence: Myth or

reality. New Delhi: Excel Books.
7. Bar- On R. & Parker J.D.A. (2000). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence

108
UNIT 7 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
(EI)*
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in Success and Happiness
7.3.1 Can EI be Learned
7.4 Strategies to Improve Emotional Intelligence (EI)

7.4.1 Strategies related to Intrapersonal Aspect
7.4.2 Strategies related to Interpersonal Aspect
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Key Words
7.9 References
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Our emotions hold the key to our life’s success and happiness. The emotions that
we experience affect our own health, relationship with others, work performance,
achievement and life satisfaction. But are we really aware of the nature and
degree of the impact of our emotions? Emotions can make or mar a situation.
They are in reality a powerhouse whose effective use will lead us on the path to
success and happiness. As we have learned in the previous Units, emotions when
combined with the rational thinking part of our brain can work wonders. Instead
of being guided only by thoughts or only by emotions, there is a need to put the
head and the heart together to be effective in different aspects of our life. Head
represents our intelligence and heart represents our emotions. Thus, emotional
intelligence as the term suggests is being intelligent about our emotions and how
these impact us and others.
As Goleman has said, “Our emotions have a mind of their own, one which
can hold views quite independently of our rational mind. Hence it is necessary
that the two are integrated so that one can manage the emotions in an effective
way and be able to take proper decisions, solve problems, reduce conflicts,
handle stress, cope properly and enhance one’s well-being.
* Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 109
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit, you would be able to:
 learn the importance of emotional intelligence.
 know the strategies to improve emotional intelligence.
7.3 ROLE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

IN SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS
Society has always emphasized academic intelligence. Children learn various
subjects and this facilitates the development of their cognitive abilities However,
the overemphasis on securing high marks/scores in examination has led to the
neglect of the development of affective aspects. As we know, for a wholesome
growth of children and their effective functioning, there needs to be an all round
development covering the cognitive, physical as well as affective and social aspects.
You may have seen instances where despite having great academic performance,
people have not been successful and happy in life. Or people have earned material
success, but they have relationship failures and stressful life.
Nisha has been a bright girl and was very good in studies, always securing
the highest in the class. She was also a great karate player and had won
competitions at school level. She finished her school and joined a reputed
college away from her city. So she had to stay in the hostel there sharing the
room with another girl Kirti. Being good in studies, Nisha could impress her
classmates and they wanted to be friends with her. However, over a few
months, Nisha started having problems with her roommate Kirti in the hostel
over small things. Kirti had complaints of Nisha not being sensitive to her
needs and doing things her way. Gradually, it proceeded from small arguments
to bitter fights that were noticed by the college authorities.
What do we see here in the above example? It reflects that though Nisha was
very good in studies - academic intelligence, she was not able to pay attention to
the emotional aspects in her relationship with her roommate Kirti that resulted in
arguments. We need to be able to know our own emotions and also understand
the emotions of others around us. Further, we need to learn to manage our
emotions also in an effective manner. Thus, the four main aspects of emotional
intelligence are Self-awareness, Self-regulation, Empathy and Relationship
management. You have learned about these components in detail in Unit 3.
Emotional intelligence can make our personal as well as professional life more
effective. Being good in the language of emotions along with cognitive abilities will
make us successful as well as happy in life. Hence the importance of emotional
skills cannot be overemphasized. Whatever we do, be it study, pursue a goal,
interact with someone, carry out an activity, play with friends, perform in a team
or lead a group, our emotions play an important role to make us effective in the
situation. An emotionally intelligent person displays the following characteristics:
110  Understands one’s own emotions in the situation.

 Knows how does one feel in mind and body. Strategies to Improve
 Know the triggers leading to a particular emotion.
 Able to manage one’s emotions properly and express them effectively.
 Sensitive to the emotions of other person.
 Understands the requirement of the situation.
 Thinks from alternative perspectives.
 Takes a solution-oriented approach instead of focusing on the problem only.
 Is flexible and open to new ideas.
 Listens attentively and understands the body language of others.
 Engages in effective communication and interpersonal interaction.
 Able to think through the situation, are not impulsive.
 Engage in mindful practices.
Thus, emotional intelligence helps in understanding oneself as well as others– it

involves knowing, controlling and expressing one’s emotions effectively in life. The
ability to motivate oneself and understand others’ emotions also facilitate one’s
functioning and makes one effective. It contributes to our success and happiness
in a positive way.
7.3.1 Can EI be Learned

Given the importance of EI in our success and well-being, it is pertinent to ask
‘can emotional intelligence be increased?’ It may be noted that unlike intelligence
quotient (IQ), EI can be gained and improved at any point in life (Goleman,
2014). This gives us a great scope to make our life successful and happy. One
can follow a three-fold approach in the direction of learning of one’s emotional
intelligence. First is assessment of one’s EI level. Unless one knows the level of
EI, how will one improve? In Unit 4, you have learned about different assessment
to find out one’s emotional quotient, the measure of emotional intelligence. Second
is finding out which aspects of EI needs more attention out of self-awareness,
self-regulation, empathy, motivation or social skills. The assessment will provide
you information on specific components. And third is receiving proper feedback
and training in the area that needs to be addressed.
As we know, intelligence is assessed through intelligence quotient (IQ) whereas

emotional intelligence is expressed in terms of Emotional Quotient (EQ). Let us
remember that IQ is not equal to EQ. They are different. While IQ includes the
cognitive abilities – thinking, reasoning, language, logical, analytical, decision,
judgement, problem solving; EQ combines these skills with the emotional skills
and the emotional language – empathy, self-control, accurate self-assessment,
interpersonal skills, sensitive to the needs and requirements of the situation,
thoughtfulness, assertiveness and optimism. These skills can be learned at any
stage of life.
111
7.4 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE (EI)
As the training provided in the school and education context helps us to develop
the cognitive aspects, similarly training can also be provided to develop and
improve the affective /emotional aspect of our development. Besides professional/
structured training, different strategies can also be used by the individuals themselves
to improve emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence involves both intrapersonal
aspects – self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation; and interpersonal aspects
– empathy and social skills. Hence we can discuss the strategies under these two
categories:
(i) strategies related to intrapersonal aspect
(ii) strategies related to interpersonal aspect
The first one relates to the factors within the individual whereas the second one
relates to the factors operating in the relationship of the individual to the social
context.
7.4.1 Strategies related to Intrapersonal Aspect

(i) Focusing on the aspects of emotions
One of the first thing one needs to do to improve emotional intelligence is
to focus on one’s emotions. One needs to understand the nature of emotions,
their meaning and relevance in the particular context. What does the emotion
tell us, how does it impact others, what does it lead to, how it is helping
us or hindering? One needs to understand all these so that one can control
the emotions and manage these for a better outcome. Any emotion has
three components - cognitive, affective and conative. Cognitive refers to
what are my thoughts; affective is what do I feel, what are the physiological
and bodily changes related to this feeling; and conative refers to what do
I do, my actions and behaviours in the particular moment or situation.
Activity: Your boss gives harsh and negative comments on your project
work in a meeting; Or you get the news that there is riot in the city
where your parents live. In both these situations, reflect and write
down what thinking comes to you? What are the feelings experienced
by you? How does your body react to this? What actions will you
take?
(ii) Being aware of yourself
Knowing about the nature and aspects of emotions as described in the
previous point will help you to be aware about your own self. Being
aware of yourself consists of two parts – awareness of one’s emotions
and accurate self-assessment.
Emotional self-awareness will help you to get in touch with your
emotions with regard to its three aspects. How do you think, feel and
behave when you are sad or in a joyous mood or irritated and so on.
This will also help you to know how the emotions affect others also.
Getting to know the origin of our emotions will also help us be aware
112 of our emotions and take control of these. Mersino (2007) talks about
retracing our steps to determine why we are feeling in a certain way. This Strategies to Improve
process of back tracking will help us arrive at the point/situation responsible
for our current mood. One can also use the scanning techniques (Mangal
& Mangal, 2015) to develop emotional self-awareness which involves
scanning of the self and scanning of the others. In scanning of the self, you
can pay attention to how do I behave?, am I feeling sad, irritated, worried,
scared, challenged etc.; what is happening inside my body?, rapid heart
beat, irregular or fast breathing, feeling choked, feeling tense in the stomach,
feeling weak; what thoughts are coming to my mind?, what are my beliefs,
values etc?. Scanning of the others includes active listening, attending to
what others are saying, noticing their body language, observing their facial
expressions, eye contact, mannerisms, their feelings, their actions etc.
Accurate self-assessment will also help you in truly knowing yourself. Being
aware of one’s emotions help one to assess oneself. Besides this focus on
finding out your strengths, weaknesses, desires, aspirations, interests, fears,
anxieties, value system, goals that will give a comprehensive picture about
yourself. Reflect on yourself in different situations and experiences, take
feedback from others – all these will help in proper self-assessment and
enhance our awareness and understanding about ourselves.
Activity: Think of a situation/occasion where you have felt very happy
or had positive good feelings or an event where you had negative
feelings, felt sad or angry or worried and anxious. Use the back tracking
and scanning techniques and write down your observations.
(iii) Being assertive
Assertiveness helps in being confident and clearly communicating to the
other person what you want to communicate. This is possible when you are
clear about your objectives and the future relationship with the other person
or the situation. This takes place in an atmosphere of ensuring the rights
of both the parties where no one feels disrespected or devalued. You have
learned about assertiveness in Unit 5 which you can refer to for a quick
reference.
Being assertive includes the what, how and why of communicating. You are
clear about what to say or convey, how to convey and why to convey. The
mode of expression throughout the communication is calm, confident and
respect.
Activity: Think of a situation you have been avoiding or feel anxious
about, eg., in the earlier example of Nisha and Kirti having problems
being roommates in the hostel, how can Kirti be assertive in the
situation? Similarly you can think of a situation in your context and
write down the what, how and why of communicating. Practice by
role playing how will you convey this with respect, sensitivity, calm
and confidence, and then actually convey it. Remember that assertive
communication requires practice and it depends on the context as well
as preparation and an accurate self-assessment.
(iv) Cognitive restructuring
Cognitive restructuring refers to becoming aware of one’s thoughts and
changing the way you think about a situation. Changing the perspective can 113
Management of Emotions open up new possibilities and get you through the problem. One needs to
avoid various cognitive distortions, i.e., irrational or maladaptive thoughts.
These include among others overthinking or ruminating about the problem;
negative predictions about a situation; negativity bias – seeing only the
negative things; all or none thinking – if I don’t get into a particular college,
I am not worthy; should and musts – I should get all A’s in my exam;
catastrophizing – thinking of any unpleasant or negative event as a
catastrophe.
Activity: Think of any situation in your current life that is a cause of

worry and stress for you. Catch hold of your thoughts regarding the
situation. Are the thoughts being helpful and positive or they lead to
more worries and stress? Are they continuing the problem instead of
arriving at a solution? What are the unhelpful automatic thoughts
going on in your mind? Write down and reflect on this.
(v) Being mindful
Being aware about out state of mind helps us to develop self- control and
regulate our emotional expression. Stress occurs when we are not mindful
of our thoughts and feelings, and jump to conclusions and react in a haste.
Hence, it is important to check our thoughts and feelings and respond
mindfully. When we are under stressful situations and experiencing intense
emotions, it activates amygdala, the part of our brain responsible for our
feelings and emotions, also called our emotional brain. This together with
hippocampus which is the seat of our memories and past experiences
influence our decision and action in the situation. Goleman calls this emotional
hijacking as amygdala hijacks or bypasses the higher cortical functioning
which results in emotionally reactive behaviours. Mindfulness practice through
focus on breathing trains our attentional capacity in the present moment.
Hence we are able to be aware of the emotions in the moment and engage
our higher cognitive functioning to decide appropriate response in the
situation.
Activity: Engage in mindfulness by practicing it regularly. Choose a

time of the day you can sit for sometime undisturbed. Sit comfortably,
relax your body and focus on your breathing as you are inhaling and
exhaling. Do not try to change it, just notice, be aware the way you
are inhaling and exhaling - be it fast, slow, irregular, with sound of
breathing or no sound. If other thoughts and events are coming to
mind, just notice it and then gently bring your attention back to the
breath.
(vi) Being resilient
Resilience is the ability to face an adversity or a difficult situation, overcome

it and bounce back to life again. It represents a strengths approach to life
having a positive outlook and never say die attitude. Being resilient involves
facing the adversity and coming out of it with renewed vigour. When you
are resilient, you are in control of your emotions, self-confident and have
a positive attitude. This helps in dealing with stress and facilitates mental
well-being. It also reflects an internal locus of control, that is attributing the
personal outcome not to the chance or external factors like fate, family,
114 situations etc. but relating it to one’s own effort, attitude and motivation.
Activity: Think of a current adverse situation or suffering in your life. Strategies to Improve
What is your approach and mindset towards this? Write about it and Emotional Intelligence
reflect on how you can show more resilient traits in the situation?
(vii) Coping strategies

Coping strategies used by the individuals can be emotion-focused or
problem-focused coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Emotion-focused
coping aims at addressing the emotional responses of the individual
especially when the situation is not under one’s control. It employs
methods such as distracting oneself from the problem situation,
emotional disclosure (Pennebaker, 1995), journaling (Cheng, Tsui &
Lam, 2015), cognitive reappraisal (Lazarus & Alfert, 1964), meditation
and prayer, and use of substances and alcohol. Such coping aims at
managing the expressed emotions only and does not address the root
cause of the problem or stressful situation. Whereas, problem focused
coping involves addressing the problem itself and usually occurs in
people having internal locus of control. It addresses the cause of the
problem and uses problem solving and time management strategies.
Although emotion-focused strategies are often less effective than using
problem-focused methods in relation to health outcomes (Penley,
Tomaka & Weibe, 2012), use of the strategies depend on the control
over the situations and the stressors, nature of the problem and the
situational context. When individuals have control over the sources of
stress, problem –focused coping is more effective.
Activity: Notice and recall the different situations and events in your
life earlier and at present. Reflect what kind of coping strategy you
have used or are using now. Were/Are these strategies effective?
(viii) Developing positive attitude
What is the framework of our mind? Is it oriented towards positive or
negative thinking? Do we see opportunities in every situation or we
complaint about the negative situations/happenings in our life? A
positive attitude comprises of having positive thoughts, positive feelings
and taking positive actions. Being aware of your emotions, having a
proper perspective and being flexible will help one to develop a positive
attitude and inculcate an optimistic outlook. Being optimistic is not
just having positive thoughts only, but it involves a proper self-
assessment, self-acceptance, acceptance of the situation, being flexible,
being realistic, creativity, problem solving ability, motivating oneself,
perseverance and a constructive approach. Developing a proper
perspective towards the problem/difficulty is a crucial thing. It helps
you in consciously finding out or looking for the good in any situation.
As the saying goes, “learn to surf in the waves”. Two things that
matter here is using a language of affirmation and developing an internal
locus of control. One needs to take responsibility and use self talks
that are not constraining, rather affirming in nature.
Activity: Think of a situation/event where you have faced problem or
suffered. How did you deal with this difficulty? Were you optimistic or
had negative thoughts and anxieties related to the situation? Write
down your thoughts, emotions and behavior during that situation. 115
Management of Emotions How different could you have behaved that time? Or if you are facing
a difficult scenario at present in your life, practice having a positive
attitude; observe yourself what you are saying to yourself, how are
you motivating and how are you looking at the situation.
1. Mention the three components of emotions.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2. What is retracing or back tracking?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
3. What is emotion focused coping?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
4. What is negativity bias?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
7.4.2 Strategies related to Interpersonal Aspect

(i) Developing empathy
Empathy as we know refers to putting ourselves in the shoes of others and
to understand the things from their point of view. It basically refers to the
cognitive ability of thinking from the other person’s perspective and recognize
their feelings and emotions. Thus, it involves being sensitive to the thoughts
and feelings of other persons and not imposing our beliefs and assumptions
on them. Empathy differs from sympathy which predominantly relates to the
expression of one’s emotional feelings congruent to the other person. For
example, crying when the other person is in pain and crying also; using first
person language, ‘I am really sorry to hear about your loss’. On the other
hand, empathy focuses on the other person and uses statements like, ‘you
must be feeling very angry about it’. While the importance of sympathy
cannot be denied, empathy is required to develop emotional intelligence
and establish an effective interpersonal relationship, leading to mutual trust
and closeness. Empathy is also not about being nice and saying nice things
only, or doing as others want you to do. Rather it involves visualizing the
situation from the other person’s perspective, showing genuine interest in
116 the other person, using empathetic statements and actions.
Activity: Think of any past situation or a present situation where you Strategies to Improve
needed to interact with someone in a difficult or stressful situation.
Write down what statements you had used in the past or would be
using in the present. Does it show sympathy or empathy?
(ii) Developing effective communication skills
When we talk about improving our emotional intelligence skill, an important
skill related to the interpersonal arena is listening skill. The basic block of
any effective communication is active listening skills. It means you are paying
attention to not only what the other person is saying (verbal language), but
also their non-verbal language or body language – their eye-contact, facial
expression, gestures, body postures etc. One needs to listen first and then
respond rather than reacting on an impulsive manner. Further, one is also
required to be self aware of one’s own emotions, thoughts, intentions and
goals in any communication.
As pointed by Friedemann Schulz von Thun (1981) in his Four-Sides
model of communication, every message has four facets to it. It is like
we use different ears while communicating with others.
 Fact: What I inform about (data, facts, statements).
 Self-revealing: What I reveal about myself (information about the
sender).
 Relationship: What I think about you (information about how we get
along).
 Appeal: What I want to make you do (an attempt to influence the
receiver).
(Source: Birgit Ohlin, 7 ways to improve communication in relationships,
2019, www.positivepsychology.com)
In any communication there is a sender and a receiver, and the underlying
emphasis given by each of them to the four facets can create a barrier to
effective communication. Hence it is important to understand that what we
hear may not be what the other person was trying to get across.
Activity: Observe yourself consciously when you are in any interaction,
be it with family members, friends, colleagues or your boss. Are you
really listening or you are thinking of what to say when they are
talking?; what is their body language?; how is the tone, pitch of
voice; hand movements etc.?; what are they trying to convey? Further,
analyze the communication using the four facets of communication
given above. As a receiver, which ear are you using – factual ear, self-
revealing ear, relationship ear or appeal ear?
(iii) Enhancing decision making and problem solving ability
Problem solving as a component of one’s emotional intelligence can be
defined as “the ability to identify and define problems as well as generate
and implement potentially effective solutions” (Steven and Book, 2006:
163). An emotionally intelligent person has the capacity to take understand
the problem in the context, take appropriate decisions and come up with
adequate solutions. The following measures can help one to enhance decision
117
Management of Emotions making and problem solving ability: (a) knowing about the problem in detail
such as the nature (identifying, labeling and describing it), aspects, duration,
frequency of the problem, and it’s impact on individual’s life, (b) knowing
about oneself in terms of interests, abilities, strengths, weaknesses, emotions,
goals, beliefs, values etc., (c) knowing about the reality or the context in
which the problem has occurred, (d) developing the ability for self-regulation,
(e) cultivating optimistic thinking, (f) enhancing one’s creative thinking, and
(g) learning various problem-solving strategies such as algorithms and heuristic
techniques.
Activity: Think about a problem that you are facing now that you need
to solve. Apply the measures described above for effective decision
making and problem solving.
(iv) Developing conflict management skill
Conflict arises when one party feels that her/his interests are not being met
or are ignored, threatened, suppressed and are not valued. As a result, one
may become aggressive in ensuring one’s interests or become submissive
to the other person out of fear or feeling of inferiority and withdraw and
avoid. The outcome becomes unproductive and gives rise to hostility. One
way of conflict management is to communicate things in an assertive manner,
expressing what one wants and at the same time considering the rights of
other person. Thus, there needs to be respect and acceptance both for
oneself and the other person. It is a win-win situation for both the parties
involved in a conflict. Here as well, self awareness, understanding the conflict
in detail, and focusing on the context are important steps in conflict
management.
Activity: Take a situation of conflict that you are facing at present
related to any aspect of your life. Analyze the matter of conflict, develop
self-awareness, understand the style of communication – avoidance,
aggressive, passive, submissive, fearful, or assertive. Think how can
you make it a win-win situation for both the parties involved in the
conflict.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. What is empathy?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
2. What is active listening?
............................................................................................................
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118 ............................................................................................................
3. Which kind of communication will help in a conflicting situation? Strategies to Improve
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
7.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, you learned about different strategies for improving emotional
intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a skill that can be developed and enhanced
at any stage of life by anyone. It plays a significant role in the success and
happiness in one’s life as it combines the intellect with the emotional skills. The
strategies for improving emotional intelligence can be described under (a) strategies
related to intrapersonal aspect (knowing aspects of emotions, self-awareness,
assertiveness, mindfulness, coping strategies, positive attitude and resilience) and;
(b) strategies related to interpersonal aspect (developing empathy, communication
skills, decision making and problem solving skill, conflict management skill). Earlier
(in Units 5 and 6), you learned about self-control, assertiveness, self-regard and
self-actualization. Along with an understanding of these concepts, the strategies
described in this Unit will help you to develop and enhance your emotional
intelligence which will usher in more success and happiness in your life.
7.6 KEY WORDS

Empathy : refers to the cognitive ability of thinking from the
other person’s perspective and recognize their
feelings and emotions.
Cognitive restructuring : Cognitive restructuring refers to becoming aware
of one’s thoughts and changing the way you think
about a situation.
Emotion focused coping : Emotion-focused coping aims at addressing the
emotional responses of the individual especially
when the situation is not under one’s control.
Problem focused coping : Problem focused coping involves addressing the
problem itself and usually occurs in people having
internal locus of control.
Resilience : Resilience is the ability to face an adversity or a
difficult situation, overcome it and bounce back
to life again.
Assertiveness : Assertiveness includes the what, how and why of
communicating. One is clear about what to say
or convey, how to convey and why to convey.
The mode of expression throughout the
communication is calm, confident and respect.
119
QUESTIONS
1. Emotion has three components - cognitive, affective and conative.
2. Retracing, also known as back tracking refers to retracing our steps or going
back to determine why we are feeling in a certain way. This process will help
us arrive at the point/situation responsible for our current mood.
3. Emotion-focused coping aims at addressing the emotional responses of the
individual especially when the situation is not under one’s control. It employs
methods such as distracting oneself from the problem situation, emotional
disclosure, journaling, cognitive reappraisal, meditation and prayer, and use
of substances and alcohol.
4. Negativity bias refers to seeing only the negative things in a particular situation/
event/happening.
1. Empathy refers to the cognitive ability of thinking from the other person’s
perspective and recognize their feelings and emotions.
2. Active listening refers to paying attention to not only what the other
person is saying (verbal language), but also their non-verbal language
or body language – their eye-contact, facial expression, gestures, body
postures etc.
3. Assertive communication

1. Explain the role of emotional self-awareness and accurate self-assessment
in the development of emotional intelligence.
2. Explain the four sides model of communication.
3. Discuss empathy as a tool to improve emotional intelligence.
4. Elaborate on the importance of optimism in enhancing one’s EI.
5. How mindfulness can improve our EI?
7.9 REFERENCES
Cheng, S. T., Tsui, P. K., & Lam, J. H. (2015). Improving mental health in
health care practitioners: Randomized controlled trial of a gratitude
intervention. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 83(1), 177.
Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally
altering cognitive appraisal. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
69(2), 195.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Springer.
120
Penley, J. A., Tomaka, J., & Wiebe, J. S. (2002). The association of coping to Strategies to Improve
physical and psychological health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Emotional Intelligence
behavioural medicine, 25(6), 551-603.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1995). Emotion, disclosure, & health. American Psychological
Association.
Schulz von Thun, F. (1981). Miteinander reden 1 – Störungen und Klärungen.
Allgemeine Psychologie der Kommunikation. Reinbek Rowohlt. (Source: Birgit
Ohlin, 2019, 7 ways to improve communication in relationships,
www.positivepsychology.com)
Stein, S. J., & Book, H. E. (2006, p.163). The EQ edge – the emotional
intelligence and your success (2nd ed.), Canada: Jossey-Bass (A Wiley Imprint),
John Wiley.

2. Mangal S.K & Mangal S. (2015). Emotional Intelligence: Managing
emotions to win in life. Delhi: PHI Learning.
121
Block V -Applications of Emotional Intelligence
Unit 8 Applications of EI in Various Contexts 125-136

UNIT 8 APPLICATIONS OF EI IN
VARIOUS CONTEXTS*
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Significance of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
8.4 Application of EI in Educational Settings
8.4.1 Fostering Emotional Intelligence in the Students
8.4.2 Fostering Schools as Emotionally Intelligent Communities
8.5 Application of EI at the workplace

8.6 Application of EI for Health, Mental Health and Well-being
8.7 Applicatio of EI in Interpersonal Relationships and Managing Conflicts
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Key Words
8.12 References
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The construct of emotional intelligence (EI) has gained much significance, not only
in academic and management domains, but also it has started gaining importance
in various other fields such as sports, military, police and other set ups. The main
elements of emotional intelligence – self awareness, motivation, self-management,
empathy and relationship management – basically are the skills that help us to
understand and manage ourselves effectively in different situations. Further these
skills also enable us to understand others around us and manage our relationships
in different contexts in an effective manner. Thus the EI skills facilitate our effective
functioning and adjustment in this world. Emotionally intelligent individuals are able
to manage stress, understand things from different perspectives, have a positive
attitude, resilient enough to deal with problems or crisis, adopt effective coping
strategies and value themselves and others.
Thus such people are an asset in any kind of situation or settings who can help
achieve the goals as well as contribute to an atmosphere of balance and harmony.
In the present Unit we will discuss about different areas where EI has made
significant impact. We will learn about the impact and applications of EI mainly
in the domains of education, workplace, health, mental health and well-being, and
in managing conflicts.
* Dr. Swati Mukherjee, Scientist ‘E’ , Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR),
DRDO, New Delhi 125
Applications of Emotional
Intelligence 8.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying the Unit, you would be able to:
 know the significance of emotional intelligence (EI) in various contexts;
 describe the application of EI in educational settings;
 describe the application of EI in workplace;
 describe the application of EI in health, mental health and wellbeing; and
 describe the application of EI in interpersonal relationships and managing
conflicts.
8.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE (EI)
We know that emotional intelligence broadly means having an awareness
and understanding of one’s own emotions and also of those around you. It
also means making use of this understanding for effectively managing our
own emotions and for nurturing relationships in a positive manner. Emotional
intelligence has the potential to influence our behaviour and its outcomes in
myriad of fields, be it our social relationships or professional performance.
An emotionally intelligent person is able to understand and mange his/her
emotions better, and also foster good interpersonal relationships. Let us see
an example. There are two individuals working as sales managers in a
company. On a particular day, both of them get scolded by their superior
officer for not meeting their targets and for not being able to satisfy the
customers. Sales manager ‘A’ who has higher emotional intelligence, is able
to understand the frustration she feels on being scolded. she feels angered
by the boss’s behaviour, but is able to understand the mistakes she had
made. As a result, she is able to manage her anger and channelize it in a
constructive manner for improving her performance in the future. Her
improved performance and amicable way of dealing with the boss results in
better performance appraisals and a likely promotion. On the other hand, the
sales manager ‘B’ who is lower on emotional intelligence, despite being
competent on professional aspects of the job, is not able to make use of his
professional skills as he is too consumed by his anger towards the boss. He
keeps ruminating and is unable to focus on anything else. Even after reaching
home he keeps brooding and snaps at his children and wife. His behaviour
towards the boss also changes, and he fails to learn from the mistakes. As
a result, he loses chances of professional growth and also spoils his workplace
relationships.
Thus, it can be seen that knowing and managing one’s emotions contributes
to our satisfaction and success to a great extent. The importance of emotional
intelligence has been realized in various domains since it became popular
after Daniel Goleman published his seminal book ‘Emotional Intelligence’
in 1995. It has been recognized that emotion intelligence is absolutely essential
for good decision making, sustaining motivation, taking purposive action
and to strive for excellence in various areas of life. Emotional intelligence
not only affects performance in school and on work, it also has a deeper impact
126
on life by influencing the way we handle our interpersonal relationships, manage Applications of EI in
conflicts with our partners, family members and co-workers. An overall impact of Various Contexts
emotional intelligence has also been seen in influencing health outcomes for
individuals, and also on feelings of well-being and mental health. In the following
sections we discuss applications and impacts of emotional intelligence in the domains
of education, work, health, mental health and well-being, and in managing
interpersonal relationships and conflict.
8.4 APPLICATION OF EI IN EDUCATIONAL

SETTINGS
As Plato said centuries ago, all learning has an emotional base. It is
increasingly being realised that emotional development not only leads to
better academic performance, but also better social competence and overall
development of the student. Schools are learning communities, where the
teachers and the students interact within an environment of knowledge sharing
and sustained development of the youngsters as productive members of the
society. Goal of education is not only to gain knowledge, but also to assimilate
and integrate it within yourself, so that you are able to contribute towards
the growth and wellbeing of the community. Emotional intelligence is a
major contributor towards this goal of education. We discuss implications of
EI at three levels within the education sector, viz. students, teachers, and the
school organisation.
8.4.1 Fostering Emotional Intelligence in Students

Emotional intelligence has been found to predict better academic performance
and social skills (Shanwal, 2004). Also, studies have indicated strong
relationship between students’ emotional intelligence and their classroom
behaviour. Emotionally intelligent children demonstrate high skill in managing
one’s emotion, demonstrate a sense of subjective well-being and show
adaptive resilience in the face of future stressful circumstances (Saarni, 2000).
On the other hand, those low in these skills may not be able to develop good
interpersonal relationship with their peers, and may also be prone to
aggression. In the contemporary times, when the students are not only facing
increasing pressure for excelling academically, but also feel pressured to
meet and keep up with the standards set up by peer groups and the virtual
world, the importance of being emotionally intelligent and fostering emotional
competence cannot be overemphasised.
School education systems in the Western countries have been focusing on
providing structured support to students for social and emotional learning
for past few years. Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) is one such umbrella
term that is used to cover a variety of education programmes and curricula
that focus upon processes through which individuals learn and apply a set
of social, emotional, behavioural and character skills required to succeed in
schooling, workplace, relationships and citizenship (Jones & Doolittle, 2017).
The SEL framework emphasises four areas: Skills, Context, Development
and Outcome. The SEL skills are divided into three domains: (i) Cognitive
regulation, (ii) Emotional processes, and (iii) Interpersonal skills. These skills
affect the short term and long term outcomes related to academic achievements,
interpersonal adjustments and mental health and well-being for the students. The
127
Applications of Emotional SEL framework also takes into consideration the context of learning as the context
Intelligence
has significant impact on the learning outcomes. The fostering of SEL skills is
impacted by immediate environment (e.g. familial environment, peer group, school
culture etc.) or the distal environment (e.g. cultural and political context). The
following diagram (Figure 8.1: adapted from Jones & Bouffard, 2012) provides
an illustration of the SEL framework.
Teachers’ Skills and Socio-emotional Competence
 School/ Emotional Short term and long

Classroom Social
Processes term developmental
context Skills
outcomes/ impact
 Effective for the student
SEL  Attention
implement- Cognitive
 Academic
ation Regulation
achievement
 Positive
behaviour
 Social skills
 Mental health
Community context, Policies, Cultural context
Fig. 8.1: A framework for SEL (Adapted from Jones & Bouffard, 2012)
The above figure shows the interplay of intrapersonal, interpersonal and
system level factors in fostering emotional intelligence in educational settings.
As is evident, it is not only the student who needs facilitation in developing
emotional competence, but the teachers and the overall ethos of the school
and the larger context also need to be facilitative. In the next section we
discuss the significance of nurturing schools as emotionally intelligent
systems.
8.4.2 Fostering Schools as Emotionally Intelligent

Communities
School is a learning community. It is a place where transfer of knowledge
takes place not only through formal channels, but also through numerous
informal channels and activities. Fostering schools as emotionally intelligent
community is to create an environment which makes all stakeholders
(students, parents, teachers and the school administrators) feel safe, supported,
appreciated and connected. Research shows that perceiving, understanding
and using emotions is a skill that can be taught and learned. Integrating the
Social Emotional Learning (SEL) programs at the systemic level has proven
beneficial in nurturing emotional intelligence not only among the students
but also among the teachers, and in the larger school environment. Integrating the
SEL programs into school requires training in emotional intelligence skills for
teachers as well as the administrators, followed by relevant support services
128
(Brackett, Alster, Wolfe, Katulak & Fale, 2007). These researchers emphasise Applications of EI in
that SEL programs integration at school level must focus on: Various Contexts
 Teaching children to apply social-emotional skills both in and out of school

 Building connections to schools by creating a caring and engaging learning
environment.
 Providing developmentally and culturally appropriate instruction
 Enhancing school performance by addressing the cognitive, affective and
social dimensions of learning
 Encouraging school-family partnerships
 Including continuous evaluation and improvement.
1. The impact of EI can be seen at which three levels in an education setting?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What is SEL framework?
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8.5 APPLICATION OF EI AT THE WORKPLACE

Interpersonal competencies and social skills are crucial assets for achieving success
at work. With the increasing complexity of tasks, collaborations across countries
and cultures and increasing business negotiations, emotional intelligence has been
recognised as the central pillar of professional success. Two main components of
EI that contribute majorly to success at work are empathy and social skill
(Rosenthal, 1977). Empathy is the ability to identify others’ emotions and it shapes
the way we perceive another person or an event. Empathy not only facilitates
interpersonal collaboration, it also reduces the propensity for prejudice, aggression,
and violence (Bridgeman, 1981; Feshbach & Feshbach, 1982). Effective use of
the social skills is the second component that leads to success at work. Social
skills considered important at the workplace primarily concern with managing
interpersonal interaction, resolving conflicts, and negotiation. Effective
communication, collaboration with others, cooperative efforts to achieve targets,
and effective team making abilities are also essential part of social skills (Jones,
George, & Hill, 2000).
The following table (Table 8.1, adapted from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/
mental-health/emotional-intelligence-at-work.htm) describes the four components
of EI and their application at the workplace.
129
Applications of Emotional Table 8.1: EI in action at Workplace
Intelligence
Component Description Application
1. Self- The ability to recognize Can you quickly sense

awareness your emotions and their that something is not as
impact while using gut it seems during business
feelings to guide your meetings or when
decisions. negotiating something?
Usually called
“intuition,” this
instinctual knowledge is
based on emotional
intelligence.
2. Self- The ability to control your Can you manage your

management emotions and behaviour emotions, so that they
and adapt to changing don’t interfere with your
circumstances. ability to function,
rather facilitate you in
decision making? Do
you know when you
need help, and can you
ask for it?
3. Social The ability to sense, Can you tell when

awareness understand, and react to somebody becomes upset
the emotions of others and because of your actions?
to feel comfortable socially Are you able to see the
discomfort through the
other person’s smile?
4. Relationship The ability to inspire, Can you remain calm

management influence, and connect to and focused even when
others and to manage upset or when another
conflict. person is distressed?
Can you defuse conflict
with humour or by listen
convincingly to another’s
point of view?
Source: Adapted from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/emotional-

intelligence-at-work.htm

1. Briefly describe the four components of EI and their impact at workplace.
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130
Applications of EI in
8.6 APPLICATION OF EI FOR HEALTH, Various Contexts
MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
In the face of the evidence that EI can potentially contribute towards day-to-day
functioning in various domains, a large body of research has accumulated that
claims beneficial impact of EI on health, mental health and well-being. The
proponents of EI have claimed that through fostering more constructive and
harmonious relationships with other people in society, greater wellbeing and
happiness can be achieved, conferring a distinct advantage in everyday life
(Goleman, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Researchers suggest that emotionally
intelligent individuals who are better skilled at understanding and managing emotions,
and thus capable of more adaptive responding as compared to their counterparts
with lower EI, are also healthier than them (Zeidner, Matthews & Roberts, 2012).
In the recent decades the health and illness patterns have undergone a change in
most of the societies. Unhealthy lifestyle, chronic stress and complexities associated
with health behaviours have given rise to novel health issues and chronic illnesses.
Contemporary biopsychosocial models of disease construe health and illness as
an amalgam of biological, psychological, and social factors. Recently the role of
emotions in the health processes has also been emphasised. Given this
conceptualization, EI may serve as a protective factor for healthy outcomes. The
following table (Table 8.2, adapted from Zeidner, Matthews & Roberts, 2012)
lists the mediating variables that explain the protective role played by EI in ensuring
physical health.
Table 8.2: Mediating Variables of EI and Positive Health Outcomes
Mediating Variables
 Greater use of proactive self-care health practices
 More efficient self-regulation towards health-related behaviours
 Fewer unhealthy habits (smoking, drinking, drugs, etc.)
 Better interactions with health care professionals
 More frequent task-oriented coping to deal with health problems
 Greater social support resources that can be relied upon in times of

stress or illness.
 Positive emotions and related positive effects of the immune system
A major conceptual pathway that links EI to positive health outcomes passes

through the construct of well-being. Both mental health professionals and
the primary health workers focus on restoring and promoting sense of
wellbeing in the individual. Two kinds of well-being have been recognized
by the researchers - hedonic or subjective well-being and eudaimonic or
psychological well-being. Hedonic well-being involves the realization of
happiness, pleasure attainment and pain avoidance, while eudaimonic well-
being refers to the fulfilment or actualization of one’s full potential (Ryan & Deci,
2001). Eudaimonic or psychological well-being emphasizes personal growth, 131
Applications of Emotional mastery, life purpose and meaning (Ryff & Singer, 2008), and has been associated
Intelligence
with indices of physical and mental health (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and is relevant
to prevention and health promotion. Literature pertaining to health outcomes of EI
show that EI influences well-being by fostering adaptive methods of coping with
social challenges, social stress and interpersonal conflicts; promoting the
development of supportive social networks; decreasing negative and increasing
positive emotions; and enhancing emotional regulation. EI is also conceptually
related to the PWB focus on personal growth and self-actualization (Zeidner et
al., 2012). Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills that are essential components of
EI contribute to positive relationships with others and the capacity for mastery
over one’s environment that allow for personal growth, a sense of meaning in life,
and self-actualization (Zeidner & Olnick-Shemesh, 2010; Friedman & Kern, 2014).
1. Name the types of well-being given by scholars.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the mediating factors leading to positive health outcomes due to
EI?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
8.7 APPLICATION OF EI IN INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS AND MANAGING
CONFLICTS
Conflict has been defined as “a process in which one party perceives that its
interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party” (Wall &
Callister, 1995). Conflicts can arise in any environment, be it home and
family, among friends or in work place relationships. People use different
strategies and behavioural styles to deal with and resolve conflicts. The
behavioural patterns that individuals employ to deal with conflicts or the
conflict management styles (Moberg, 2001) have been differentiated on two
dimensions, concern for self and concern for others (Blake & Mouton, 1964;
Rahim & Bonoma, 1979). Concern for self refers to the degree to which
individual attempts to satisfy his or her concern. Concern for others refers
to the degree to which individual attempts to satisfy concern of others.
Based on these two dimensions five styles of handling conflict have been
identified, viz. integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding and compromising.
The following figure (Figure 8.2: Conflict management styles, adapted from
Umana, Ogar, & Djobissie, 2019) explains the five styles of conflict
132 management in a concise manner.
Various Contexts
Competing Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding Accommodating
Fig. 8.2: Conflict Management Styles (Adapted from Umana, Ogar, & Djobissie, 2019)
EI is an important component for effectively managing conflicts. The essential

skills of EI, recognizing and managing one’s own emotions as well as emotions
of others enhance the capability of an individual to manage conflicts. EI helps in
dealing with interpersonal issues and conflicts in a more constructive manner,
resulting in a better choice of conflict management skills. Usage of constructive
styles in turn helps foster better social relationships, and reduces probability of
further conflict.
1. What is conflict?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the five styles of conflict management?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
8.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you learnt about the significance of EI I various domains of day-to-
day life, We discussed applications of EI in education and at work. We also learnt
the significance of EI in ensuring physical and mental health and well-being. We
also learnt the dynamics of managing conflicts and how EI can be of assistance
in fostering interpersonal relationships.
8.9 KEYWORDS
SEL : Social emotional Learning framework, a system
for promoting emotionally intelligent learning among
students and for fostering emotionally intelligent
schools. 133
Applications of Emotional Hedonic wellbeing : Involves the realization of happiness, pleasure
Intelligence
attainment and pain avoidance
Eudaimonic well-being : refers to the fulfilment or actualization of one’s full
potential
Conflict : A process in which one party perceives that its
interests are being opposed or negatively affected
by another party.

QUESTIONS
1. The impact of EI can be seen at three levels, viz students, teachers and the
school management.
2. SEL or social emotional Learning framework is a system for promoting
emotionally intelligent learning among students and for fostering emotionally
intelligent schools.
1. The four components of EI are self awareness, self management, social
awareness and relationship management. An individual with high EI functions
with awareness of his own and others emotions. With better understanding
and management of emotions he is able to develop health workplace
relationships, thereby enhancing his chances of success.
1. The types of well-being given by scholars are Hedonic and Eudaimonic.
2. The mediating factors leading to positive health outcomes due to EI are as
follows
 Greater use of proactive self-care health practices
 More efficient self-regulation towards health-related behaviours
 Fewer unhealthy habits (smoking, drinking, drugs, etc.)
 Better interactions with health care professionals
 More frequent task-oriented coping to deal with health problems
 Greater social support resources that can be relied upon in times of
stress or illness.
 Positive emotions and related positive effects of the immune system
1. Conflict has been defined as “a process in which one party perceives that
its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party” (Wall
& Callister, 1995).
2. The five styles of conflict management are- integrating, obliging, dominating,
134 avoiding and compromising.
8.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS Various Contexts
1. Briefly describe the SEL framework. How does it facilitate use of EI in

educational settings?
2. How does EI facilitate better productivity at workplace?
3. How does EI help in ensuring better health of the individual?
4. How is EI helpful in fostering better interpersonal relationships?
8.12 REFERENCES
Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf.
Brackett, M. A., Alster, B., Wolfe, C. J., Katulak, N., & Fale, E. (2007).
Creating an emotionally intelligent school district: A skill–based approach.
In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be
emotionally intelligent (pp. 123-137). ABC-Clio, LLC.
Bridgeman, D. (1981). Enhanced role-taking through cooperative interdependence:
A field study. Child Development, 52, 1231–1238.
Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (2000). The j”whatk” and j”whyk” of goal pursuits:
human needs the self- determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 11 227–268.
Feshbach, N. D., & Feshbach, S. (1982). Empathy training and the regulation of
aggression: Potentialities and limitations. Academic Psychological Bulletin, 4,
399–413.
Friedman H. S., Kern M. L. (2014). Personality, well-Being, and Health. Annual
Review of Psychology. 65, 719–742.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam.
Jones, G. R., George, J. M., & Hill, C. W. I. (2000). Contemporary Management,
Boston: Irwin McGraw Hill.
Jones, S. M. & Doolittle, E. J. (2017). Social and Emotional Learning: Introducing
the Issue. The future of children, 27(1), 3-12.
Jones, S. M & Bouffard, S. M. (2012). Social emotional learning in schools:
From program to strategies. Sharing child and youth development knowledge,
26 (4), Society for research in child development. Retrieved from https://
files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED540203.pdf
Moberg, J. P. (2001). Linking conflict strategy to the fivefactor model:
Theoretical and empirical foundations. The International Journal of Conflict
Management, 12(1), 47-68.
Rahim, M. A., & Bonoma, T. V. (1979). Managing organizational
conflict: A model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychological Reports, 44(3c),
1323- 1344.
Rosenthal, R. (1977). The PONS test measuring sensitivity to nonverbal cues. In
P. McReynolds (Ed), Advances In Psychological Assessment (pp. 357-370).
San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
135
Applications of Emotional Ryan R. M., Deci E. L. (2001). ”To be happy or to be self-fulfilled: a review
Intelligence of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being,” in Annual Review
of Psychology Vol. 52 ed. Fiske S., editor. (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews;)
141–166.
Ryff C. D., Singer B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are:
A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. J. Happiness Stud. 9,
13–39.
Saarni, C. (2000). Emotional competence: A developmental perspective. In R.
Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence:
Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in
the workplace (p. 68–91). Jossey-Bass.
Salovey, P & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition
and Personality, 9, 185-211.
Shanwal, V. K. (2004). Emotional Intelligence: The Indian scenario. Delhi: Indian
Publishers Distributors.
Umana,E. A., Ogar, C. A. & Djobissie, I. C. (2019). Tools for Stimulating
Collaborative Behaviour among Organizational Members: Evidence from
Godfather Investments Ltd, Calabar. IOSR Journal of Business and
Management, 21 (7), 14-24.
Wall, J. A. Jr., & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and its management.
Journal of Management, 21(3), 513-556
Zeidner M., Matthews G., Roberts R. D. (2012). The emotional intelligence,
health, and well-being nexus: what have we learned and what have we
missed? Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being, 4, 1–30.
Zeidner M., Olnick-Shemesh D. (2010). Emotional intelligence and subjective
well-being revisited. Personal. Individ. Differ. 48, 431–435.

Emmerling, R. J., Shanwal, V. K., & Mandal, M. K. (2008). Emotional intelligence:
Theoretical and cultural perspectives. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. h t t p : / /
www.eiconsortium.org/index.html
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School of Social Sciences

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block IV Management of Emotions

Block II Emotional Competencies

Block III Models of Emotional Intelligence

Block IV Management of Emotions

Block V Applications of Emotional Intelligence

BLOCK I INTRODUCTION TO EMOTIONAL

BLOCK II EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

BLOCK IV MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONS

BLOCK V APPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONAL

Unit 1 Concept of Emotion 9-22

 You are waiting backstage to begin your presentation to an auditorium full

 Your favourite cricket or football team wins the world cup.

1.3.1 Functions of Emotions

1.4 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS

5. Expressive: Displaying emotions through facial expressions such as smiling,

Fig 1.1: Plutchik’s Emotion Wheel

1.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONS,

Fig. 1.2: Relationship between Thoughts, Emotions and Behaviour 17

Anger You have been slighted or demeaned

Anxiety You feel threatened

Sadness You have experienced a loss

Guilt You have broken a moral rule

Happiness You are moving toward a desired goal

Love You desire affection from another person

Hope You fear the worst but yearn for better

Compassion You are moved by someone’s suffering

Pride You are linked with a valued object or

According to Gross (2001) and Deutschendorf (2009), changing one’s interpretation

1.7 LET US SUM UP

1.8 KEY WORDS

1.11 ANSWERS TO UNIT END QUESTIONS

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.4 Historical Development of Emotional Intelligence

2.3 CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

2.3.1 Definition of Emotional Intelligence

 Being able to manage emotions

2.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

2.5 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL

Perceiving Understanding Managing Using

Let us explain each of these components below.

2.7 BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

2.8 LET US SUM UP

2.9 KEY WORDS

2.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

2.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

2.12 ANSWERS TO UNIT END QUESTIONS

2.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Unit 3 Components of Emotional Competencies 41-58

3.4 The Emotional Competencies

3.4.4 Social Awareness

3.4.5 Social Skills

3.5 Recognition and Understanding of Emotions in Oneself and Others

3.5.2 Emotional Awareness in Oneself

3.5.3 Emotional Awareness in Others

3.6 Universality of Emotional Expression

3.3 WHAT ARE EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES?