(Structure and Bonding Bioinorganic Chemistry - (1990)

72
Structure and Bonding

Bioinorganic Chemistry
Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

The series Structure and Bonding publishes critical reviews on topics of research concerned
with chemical structure and bonding. The scope of the series spans the entire Periodic Table. It
focuses attention on new and developing areas of modern structural and theoretical chemistry
such as nanostructures, molecular electronics, designed molecular solids, surfaces, metal
clusters and supramolecular structures. Physical and spectroscopic techniques used to
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extent that the focus is on the scientiﬁc results obtained and not on specialist information
concerning the techniques themselves. Issues associated with the development of bonding
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As a rule, contributions are specially commissioned. The editors and publishers will, however,
always be pleased to receive suggestions and supplementary information. Papers are accepted
for Structure and Bonding in English.
In references Structure and Bonding is abbreviated Struct Bond and is cited as a journal.
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ISSN 0081-5993 (Print)

ISSN 1616-8550 (Online)
ISBN-13 978-3-540-51574-6
DOI 10.1007/BFb0058194
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990

Gigapedia Edition
Printed in Germany
Table of Contents
Crown Thioether Chemistry

S. R. Cooper, S. C. Rawle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hybridization Schemes for Co-ordination and Organometallic

Compounds
D. M. P. Mingos, L. Zhenyang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The 1H N M R Parameters of Magnetically Coupled

Dimers - The Fe2S z Proteins as an Example
L. Banci, I. Bertini, C. Luchinat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Probing Metalloproteins by Voltammetry

F. A. Armstrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Author Index Volumes 1-72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Stephen R. Cooper* and Simon C. Rawle
Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QR, United Kingdom
The synthetic, structural, and coordination chemistry of crown thioethers with both transition and
p-block metal ions is reviewed comprehensively through December 1988. Emphasis falls upon the
electronic structures and redox properties induced in metal ions by coordination to crown thioethers.
Examples include stabilization of mononuclear Rh(II), Pt(III), and low-spin octahedral Co(II). A sub-
sidiary theme concerns the influence of ligand conformation in determining both the binding efficacy
and the qualitative coordination chemistry associated with a given crown thioether. The review
concludes with a view toward potential future applications of crown thioethers in catalysis, in sequestra-
tion or biological delivery of heavy metal ions, and in fundamental studies directed toward rational
design of ligands.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Scope of the Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 x-Acidity, d-orbital Participation, and Charge Neutralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Properties of Crown Thioethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Synthesis of Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Ligand Conformations; Implications for Binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Ethyl-linked Crown Thioethers, i.e. (SCH2CH2) n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 9S3 ( n = 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.2 12S4 ( n = 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 1 5 S 5 ( n = 5 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.4 18S6 ( n = 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Crown Thioethers Containing Propyl Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 14S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Me414S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 12S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ............ 19
3 Coordination Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Tridentate Crown Thioethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.1 9S3 - First-row Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Structure and Bonding 72

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990
2 S . R . C o o p e r a n d S. C. R a w l e
3.1.2 9S3 - S e c o n d - r o w M e t a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Molybdenum ..................................................... 30
Ruthenium ...................................................... 30
Rhodium ........................................................ 32
Palladium ....................................................... 34
Cadmium ....................................................... 35
Silver ..................................................... '. . . . . . 35
3.1.3 9 S 3 - T h i r d - r o w Metals ............................................ 36
Rhenium ........................................................ 36
Platinum ......................................................... 36
Gold ........................................................... 37
Mercury ........................................................ 38
Lead ........................................................... 39
3.1.4 12S3 - F i r s t - R o w Metals ........................................... 40
Nickel .......................................................... 40
Copper ......................................................... 41
3.1.5 12S3 - S e c o n d - R o w M e t a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Ruthenium ...................................................... 41
Rhodium ........................................................ 42
3.2 Hexadentate Crown Thioethers ............................................ 43
3.2.1 18S6- First-row Metals ............................................ 44
Nickel .......................................................... 44
Cobalt .......................................................... 45
Copper ......................................................... 45
3.2.2 18S6- Second- and Third-row Metals ................................. 47
Molybdenum ..................................................... 47
Rhodium ........................................................ 47
Palladium ....................................................... 48
Platinum ........................................................ 48
Lanthanides ..................................................... 48
3.3 Other Hexadentate Ligands ............................................... 49
3.3.1 24S6 ........................................................... 49
3.3.2 2 0 S 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Tetradentate Ligands .................................................... 49
3.4.1 14S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.2 F i r s t - r o w M e t a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Cobalt .......................................................... 50
Nickel .......................................................... 51
Copper .......................................................... 52
3.4.3 14S4 S e c o n d - a n d T h i r d - R o w M e t a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Molybdenum ..................................................... 54
Ruthenium ...................................................... 54
Rhodium ........................................................ 55
Palladium ....................................................... 57
Mercury ........................................................ 57
3.4.4 14S4-Miscellaneous Complexes ..................................... 59
3.4.5 16S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Copper ......................................................... 60
Molybdenum ..................................................... 61
Mercury ........................................................ 63
3.4.6 O t h e r T e t r a d e n t a t e C r o w n T h i o e t h e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5 P e n t a d e n t a t e C r o w n T h i o e t h e r s - 15S5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6 Miscellaneous Ligands ................................................... 65
Conclusions ............................................................... 65
Applications and Future Directions ............................................. 66
References and Notes ........................................................ 68

1 Introduction
1.1 Scope of the Review

This review covers the synthesis, conformation, and coordination chemistry of
crown thioethers, with particular emphasis on 1,4,7-trithiacyclononane (9S3),
1,5,9-trithiacyclododecane (12S3), 1,4,8,11-tetrathiacyclotetradecane (14S4), and
1,4,7,10,13,16-hexathiacyclooctadecane (18S6) (Fig. 1). It incorporates results
on other crown thioethers such as 1,4,7,10-tetrathiacyclododecane (12S4),
1,4,7,10,13-pentathiacyclopentadecane (15S5), and 1,5,9,13,17,21-hexathiacyclotet-
racosane (24S6). The review discusses the molecular and electronic structures of the
complexes, including their kinetic and redox properties, as well as the structural
features of the free ligands. Coverage of the literature is complete through
December 1988.
We confine attention to macrocyclic polythioethers that contain at least three
sulfur atoms within the macrocyclic ring and have at least two methylene units
between S atoms (i.e., excluding dithioacetals). The review discusses neither
sulfur-containing cyclophanes nor their metal complexes.
For several reasons we further restrict consideration to those compounds that
comprise solely thioethers as donor groups. First, complexes of such compounds
most clearly evince the electronic consequences of thioether coordination. Second,
homogeneity of donor group simplifies analysis of conformation. Such studies
provide the trends and general principles for interpretation of the coordination
chemistry of mixed donor macrocycles. Third, the surge of research effort in
all-thioether macrocycles has yielded sufficient information to permit detailed
comparisons between complexes of closely related ligands; inclusion of
mixed-donor macrocycles contributes little to such discussion.
We name the crown thioethers non-systematically by an extension of the crown
nomenclature introduced by Pedersen [1]. Thus 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexathiacyclo-
octadecane is called hexathia-18-crown-6. This name is often further abbreviated to
s_/s
9S3 12S3 14S4
~S S S S S
Fig. 1. Crown thioethers discussed in this review 18 S 6 2 4S 6

4 s.R. Cooperand S. C. Rawle
18S6, where the numbers denote the ring size and number of sulfur atoms,
respectively. This nomenclature rarely leads to ambiguity since most crown
thioethers used as ligands feature the most symmetric possible disposition of donor
atoms.
1.2 Motivation
Over the last 15 years reviews have dealt separately with the coordinative proper-
ties of thioethers [2], the synthesis of macrocyclic sulfides [3], and with macro-
cyclic compounds in general, including macrocyclic thioethers [4]. Since then, the
growing use of crown thioethers has generated the need for a review confining itself
to this more circumscribed area. Interest in these ligands has burgeoned in recent
years, fuelled by four considerations: 1) the possible analogy between the co-
ordination chemistry of thioethers and phosphines, 2) the relevance of thioether
coordination to the blue copper proteins, 3) synthetic improvements that made
crown thioethers readily available, and 4) the increasing availability of X-ray
diffraction facilities, a vital tool for this field.
The first of these considerations, the potential parallel between thioethers and
phosphines, suggests that thioethers might have extensive and industrially useful
coordination chemistry. This possibility spurred earlier efforts to examine the
complexes of macrocyclic thioethers [5, 6].
Another source of interest came from biochemistry. Research on the blue
copper proteins revealed unusual electronic properties (redox potential and kin-
etics, EPR and optical behavior) that were suspected of arising from interaction of
the copper ion with a thioether group from methionine [7]. While crystallographic
studies established a weak interaction (Cu ... S 2.9 ,~) [8, 9, 10], its influence on the
electronic properties of the Cu site is now considered questionable. Nevertheless,
the controversy regarding the blue copper proteins, like the analogy to phosphines,
served to focus attention on the broad issue of how thioether coordination affects
the electronic structure of transition metal ions. Homoleptic thioether complexes
provide the best way of assessing these consequences, since no other groups
obscure the effect of thioether coordination.
Despite this interest in crown thioethers, arduous synthetic routes to the
ligands impeded extensive investigation of their chemistry until recently. However,
advances in synthetic methodology in the last five years has opened the door to
work on the coordination chemistry of these ligands. This is particularly true of
9S3, the first synthesis of which proceeded in such low yield (0.04%) as to preclude
further study [11].
Fruitful exploration of crown thioether coordination chemistry also had to
await the routine availability of X-ray diffraction facilities. The paramagnetism of
many crown thioether complexes vitiates the utility of NMR, while uninformative
charge transfer bands dominate their optical spectra. Hence X-ray diffraction has
proven indispensable to the development of crown thioether chemistry; it provides
one of the few ways of determining the ligand denticity, as well as the coordination
geometry and stereochemistry at the metal. More fundamentally, however, the
issues raised by these complexes often focus on metrical features and ligand
Crown ThioetherChemistry 5
conformations. These can only be studied by diffraction methods. Analysis of

compression or dilation of the metal ion coordination sphere (i.e. M-L distances),
of the ligand conformation, and of coordination mode all demand structural
characterization.
Crown thioethers prompt attempts to impose poly(thioether) coordination
upon metal ions, even those for which few thioether complexes were previously
known. As a class, simple thioethers (e.g. Me2S ) are not particularly good ligands
for both electronic and steric reasons. Thioethers exhibit weaker o-donor and
n-acceptor ability than, for example, phosphines. Consequently they also show less
binding affinity. In addition, the appreciable bulk of their terminal alkyl groups
further hinders complexation. This latter factor is partially circumvented in acyclic
polythioethers, and such ligands display respectable chelate effects.
Complexes of crown thioethers are usually considerably more stable even
than those of comparable acyclic ligands. This enhanced stability (the macrocyclic
effect [12], although not all complexes of macrocyclic thioethers manifest one
[13, t4]) makes synthetically tractable the often otherwise impossible imposi-
tion of the oligo(thioether) environment. For this reason, the growing attention
given to crown thioethers has spurred a blossoming of thioether coordination
chemistry generally. These macrocyclic ligands thereby provide entry into new
chemistry, since corresponding complexes of simple thioethers often defy synthesis
[15]. Indeed, their use has yielded the first examples of homoleptic thioether
complexes (i.e., those in which the coordination sphere comprises solely thioethers)
of numerous elements. The development of such excellent ligands as 9S3 also
encourages use of thioethers as coligands in, for example, catalytic applications and
cluster chemistry.
In addition, crown-type ligands can also alter the properties of a metal ion by,
e.g. constricting or dilating its coordination sphere (the macrocyclic constriction
effect [ 16, 17, 18]). Both through imposition of an unusual environment - compris-
ing predominantly or exclusively thioether coordination - and through manipula-
tion of that environment, coordination complexes of crown thioethers often exhibit
unusual properties and reactivities. Crown thioether complexes are an ideal system
in which to study the effect on optical and redox properties of geometric deforma-
tions of the coordination sphere.
The development of both organometallic and bioinorganic chemistry focused
attention on the reactivity of metal complexes. This arose in two contexts:
(i) practical industrial applications and (ii)fundamental comprehension of how,
e.g. metalloenzymes and metal-containing redox proteins function. Such interest
naturally spurs attempts to control the reactivity of metal ions. Experimentally
accessible parameters include coordination number, stereochemistry, redox poten-
tial, and steric accessibility of the metal ion. These properties of metal ions may, in
principle, be manipulated by ligand design.
Crown thioethers such as 9S3 and 18S6 commonly enforce six-coordination
even in some cases where lower coordination numbers might have been expected.
In addition, through use of different crown thioethers it is possible to study how
compression/dilation of the M(SR2) 6 coordination sphere affects, e.g. redox poten-
tials and hyperfine splittings. Thus crown thioethers provide an excellent means
not only of imposing a high-symmetry homoleptic thioether environment, but also
6 S.R. Cooperand S. C. Rawle
one that is well-suited to study the effect of systematic geometric deformations on

the properties of metal ions.
In summary, while a considerable number of thioether complexes have been
studied, their low stabilities have frustrated attempts at a systematic survey of
thioether coordination chemistry. The use of crown thioethers solves this stability
problem. Incorporation of the thioether groups into a macrocycle often-but not
always [13]- greatly increases the stability of the resulting complexes compared to
those of corresponding linear multidentate thioethers, and particularly those of
dimethyl sulfide. In contrast to thioethers, phosphines presently constitute a ligand
class of central importance in the chemistry of low-valent transition metals, which
in turn have found extensive applications in homogeneous catalysis. It is important
to bear in mind, however, that only 25 years ago phosphines were widely con-
sidered to have sparse coordination chemistry. In some respects the co-
ordination chemistry of thioethers is now in a similar state of development to that
of phosphines before their importance came to be appreciated, initially largely
through the work of Chatt and coworkers.
1.3 rt-Acidity, d-orbital Participation, and Charge Neutral&ation

Coordination to thioethers typically stabilizes the lower oxidation states of metal
ions, and, where relevant, the lower spin states as well. These recurring themes
derive largely from two characteristics of thioether ligands: their re-acidity, and
their failure to neutralize positive charge effectively.
Several lines of evidence impute appreciable rr-acidity to thioethers. Infrared
studies of substituted metal carbonyl complexes show that trans thioethers increase
the CO stretching frequency more than pyridine or an aliphatic amines, but less
than phosphines [2, 19, 20, 21]. To the extent that such changes derive from
differences in n-backbonding, these results indicate n-acidity intermediate between
that of amines and that of phosphines.
Magnetic properties further support n-acidity. Quantitatively, g values reflect
n-effects because deviations from ge (the free electron value) arise from unquenched
orbital angular momentum (from circulation of the t2g electrons). Delocalization of
d electrons into 7t* levels on the ligand diminishes the unquenched orbital angular
momentum (as measured by k, the orbital reduction factor), and thereby Ag. For
example, in copper(II) complexes of thioether ligands, g values deviate from 2 by
little compared to those of harder ligands such as OH 2 or NH 3 [22].
Stabilization of low-spin states indicates n-interaction in a more dramatic
fashion. Delocalization of tzg electron density into ligand orbitals of n* symmetry
(with respect to the M-S bond) diminishes electron-electron repulsion and thereby
reduces the spin pairing energy. As a consequence, complexes of thioethers, like
those of phosphines, typically assume the low-spin state.
Nephelauxetic ("cloud expanding") effects of thioethers point to the same
conclusion. Like g values, nephetauxetic ratios (]3, where ]3 = Bcomplex/Bfreeion, and
B is the second Racah parameter) measure the delocalizing effect of the ligands.
Thus smaller nephelauxetic ratios indicate greater delocalization. In this respect
Crown Thioether Chemistry 7
thioethers consistently exceed aquo and amine ligands. For example, 13 for
[Ni(SR2)6] 2÷ complexes averages approximately 0.7; in corresponding amine
complexes 13~> 0.9 [23]. The difference in 13 manifests the greater ability of
thioethers to delocalize metal d electron density, a reflection of n-acceptance. This
occurs despite the presence of a putative residual lone pair (sp3 hybrid) on
a coordinated thioether.
Reactivity trends also reflect the n-acidity of thioethers. For example,
cis-[Ru(14S4)(NOz)z] resists thermal decomposition to the corresponding nitro-
syl [24]. This inertness contrasts with the reactivity of the corresponding amine
complex, cis-[Ru(14N4)(NOz)2], which decomposes readily. Similar observations
obtain for decomposition of cis-[RuL(N3)2] to cis-[RuL(N2)2] (L = 14S4, 14N4).
This difference arises from delocalization of tzg electron density onto the thioether
ligands, with concomitant reduction in reactivity of the coordinated - NO 2 and
- N 3 groups [24].
Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) provides further evidence for n-acidity. The
ionization energies obtained from PES directly reflect n-delocalization, since the
energy of the H O M O (t2,) depends critically on the overlap with ligand n* orbitals.
PES studies of [Cr(CO)sL ] (L = SMe2, PEt3) indicate that thioethers and phos-
phines place roughly comparable amounts of electronic charge on the metal; both
do so more than CO. This is consistent with corresponding degrees of n-acidity
[25]. This conclusion agrees with that obtained from a structural study of
[Cr(CO)4 (dto)] (where dto = 3,6-dithiaoctane). Comparison of M-C distances in
[Cr(CO)4(L)] (L = dto and 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane) suggested that the
thioether ligand exert slightly less n-acidity [26].
Finally, redox potentials of thioether complexes also indicate the n-acidity of
the ligands. Coordination to thioethers invariably raises redox potentials relative
to those of analogous aquo or amine complexes. Thus electrochemical studies of
[M(bpy)2L2] n+ complexes (M = Ru, Os) with L = amine, thioether, and phos-
phine ligands) [27] show that thioethers exceed amines in stabilizing the low
(n -- 2) oxidation state, but fall short of phosphines. Part of this increment stems
from the limited ability of thioethers to neutralize charge through or-donation.
Nevertheless, n-acceptance probably contributes significantly as well.
Historically, the n-acidity of second-row donor ligands has been attributed to
the participation of d orbitals in backbonding from the metal to the ligand. This
explanation has attracted considerable skepticism; calculations indiate that the
d orbitals lie too high in energy to interact significantly with metal ions [28, 29].
Metal-phosphorus and P-C (or P-O) bond lengths in redox pairs suggest that the
C-P o* bond (which has n-symmetry with respect to the M - P bond) of phosphines
plays a central role in n-acidity [30]. This explanation neatly reconciles the
experimental observations of M - P n-interaction (as evidenced by trends in, e.g.,
vco of substituted metal carbonyls) with the theoretical results. It also dovetails with
the observed increase in C-P distance, the magnitude of which correlates with the
usual measures of n-acidity. The same argument clearly obtains for thioethers also.
Charge neutralization - or rather the lack of it - also plays an important role
in thioether coordination chemistry. Because of their low o-donor ability,
thioethers generally fail to displace anions from the coordination spheres of metals.
Instead, cations tenaciously retain coordinated anions (as in, e.g. [(NbC15)2 (14S4)]
[31, 32, 33], [CuClz(12S32) ] [34], and [(14S4)(HGC12)2] [35]). Coordination of
"non-coordinating" anions such as CF3SO3 and C104 occurs with surprising
frequency in thioether coordination chemistry. This role becomes even more
important in complexes of crown thioethers, where thioethers dominate the co-
ordination sphere. Rorabacher and his coworkers [36, 37] have documented the
considerable affinity (even in aqueous solution) of Cu(II) crown thioether com-
plexes for such seemingly innocuous anions as ClOg, BF2, and CF3SO 3 . Consist-
ent with the charge neutralization argument, perchlorate interacts more strongly
with Cu(II)-thioether complexes than it does with the Cu(II) aquo ion [36].
Charge neutralization also affects the redox properties of thioether complexes.
It contributes to the marked stabilization of lower oxidation states found in all
cases. Thioether complexes of metal ions in high oxidation states may approach the
boundaries of the electroneutrality principle. Apart from any n-acidity of the
ligands, simple electrostatic considerations suggest that poor charge neutralization
by the ligands disfavors higher oxidation states.
These arguments raise the question of whether 7t-effects need be considered at
all. Clearly, however, charge neutralization fails to account for the stabilization of
low spin Fe(II) and Co(II) ions in their crown thioether complexes. Similarly, it
does not account for the small Ag values of thioether complexes, or the high
nephelauxetic influence of the ligands. Thus, in summary, n-acceptance and the
accumulation of cationic charge combine to generate the characteristic electronic
properties of thioether complexes. Last, molecular orbital calculations support the
ability of thioethers to serve as n-acceptors [38, 39].
1.4 History
Crown thioether chemistry dates from 1886, when Mansfeld reported the synthesis
of 9S3 [40]. To determine whether ring sizes greater than six could be prepared (!)
he allowed ethylene bromide to react with sodium sulfide. From this reaction he
isolated a product that differed in properties from p-dithiane; he suggested it might
be 9S3 (Table 4). A similar procedure with 1,3-dibromopropane led to a compound
tentatively proposed to be 12S3.
In 1920 Ray published the first of a series of papers on 9S3 [41, 42, 43]. He
reported that preparation of ethanedithiol (by reaction of ethylene bromide with
potassium hydrosulfide) leaves behind 9S3 after distillation (Table 4). In contem-
poraneous work Bennett [44] and coworkers [45] used mixed melting point and
cryoscopic molecular weight determination to show that Ray's product was in fact
p-dithiane, not 9S3. In a similarly convincing fashion they also disproved
Mansfeld's earlier claim for 9S3. Tucker and Reid [46] were also unable to repeat
Ray's work.
Meadow and Reid [47] subsequently (1934) found that reaction of dithiolates
with dihalides in ethanol produces small amounts ( < 2%) of cyclic compounds in
addition to copious quantities of polymer (Table 4). Using this route they prepared
the first samples of 18S6 and 16S4. Meadow and Reid also cast doubt on Ray's
work on cyclic polythioethers.
Investigation of crown thioethers then lay dormant for 35 years, to be revived in
1969 by Rosen and Busch, who studied the coordination chemistry of 14S4 [48].
They prepared the ligand in 7.5% yield [49] (subsequently increased to 55%
through use of high dilution methods [50]) from the reaction of 1,4,8,11-tet-
rathiaundecane with 1,3-dibromopropane. Analogous synthetic schemes afforded
12S3, 12S4, and 13S4 in yields Of 3, 4, and 16% (Table 4) [51].
In the same year Black and McLean reported preliminary work [52] (subse-
quently followed by a full paper [53]) on the synthesis of 18S6 in 31% yield from
the reaction sodium 3-thiapentane-l,5-dithiolate with ethylene bromide in EtOH
(Table 4). This surprisingly high yield has not been repeated; instead two labor-
atories have independently obtained an 8% yield from this reaction [54].
Advances in synthetic methodology, however, now afford crown thioethers in
high yield. Ochrymowycz and coworkers laid the basis for this development with
their pioneering work on the synthesis of crown thioethers [55]. Their exploratory
synthetic work revealed that reaction of sodium 3-thiapentane-l,5-dithiolate with
bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide (mustard gas) gives 18S6 in 32.8% yield (Table 4).
In 1980 Buter and Kellogg further improved yields by introducing the use of
cesium carbonate to mediate formation of macrocyclic rings [56, 57]. Application
of this procedure to thiacrown synthesis greatly diminishes the extent of polymer
formation, with concomitant increase in yield of the desired macrocyclic products.
Use of Cs2CO3--but not, e.g. Na2CO 3 or KzCO3--promotes the high dilution
cyclization of ~, c0-dithiols with ~t, c0-dihalides to give crown thioethers in high yield
(typically/> 75%). As a result of these various synthetic improvements, crown
thioethers are now readily available (Table 4) [58, 59].
The success of Buter and Kellogg's procedure focuses attention on how cesium
carbonate fosters the formation of macrocyclic rings. Template effects clearly play
no role: even reactants that lack potential donor groups for Cs + readily yield
macrocyclic products. For example, reaction of 1,10-dimercaptodecane with
1,5-dibromopentane gives the cyclic dithia compound (1,7-dithiacycloheptadecane)
in 90% yield [-57]. Recent 133Cs NMR work [60] confirms the earlier suggestion
[61] that the Cs + ion promotes cyclization by ion-pairing only weakly (if at all)
with RS-. This weak ion pairing (which follows from the low charge/radius ratio of
Cs +) generates exceptionally nucleophilic thiolate anions. High reactivity ensures
low concentrations of unreacted starting material, and thereby fosters high dilution
conditions~ This in turn favors the desired intramolecular reaction.
Despite the very early claims for its preparation, 9S3 eluded synthesis until
1977, when Ochrymowycz and coworkers prepared it in heartbreakingly low yield
(0.04%) from the reaction of ethylene chloride with sodium 3-thiapentane-l,5-
dithiolate in EtOH (Table 4) [11]. Subsequently, Glass and coworkers [62]
improved the yield to 4.4% through use of BzMeaN + -OMe to deprotonate
3-thiapentane-1,5-dithiol for reaction with ethylene chloride (Table 4). Application
of the cesium carbonate procedure (for the same reactants in DMF) affords 9S3 in
50% yield [59]. Sublimation of ligand from the crude reaction mixture greatly facil-
itates the isolation of what historically has been the most elusive of all the crown
10 S.R. Cooper and S. C. Rawle
thioethers. In another approach, Sellmann and Zapf [63, 64] recently published an
ingenious synthesis of 9S3 based upon the mediation of a Mo(CO)3 template.
Reaction of [Mo(CO)3((SCHzCH2)2S)3 ] (prepared from [Mo(CO)3(MeCN)3 ]
and 3-thia-pentane-l,5-dithiol) with ethylene bromide couples the two thiolate
termini to yield 9S3 in 60% yield. This sequence is in principle catalytic, since
addition of more dithiol liberates the 9S3 and regenerates the starting material.
Another method was used by Fujihara et al. [65], who synthesized function-
alized propyl-linked crown thioethers from a dithiospiropentane (a masked
(MeSCH2)zC(CH2I)2) equivalent.
Unlike the corresponding oxa-crowns, crown thiothers with fused benzo rings
have seen relatively little work. Klar and coworkers [66] prepared the hexa-
methoxy derivative of tribenzo-9S3 by a modified Adams-Ferretti reaction between
1,2-dibromo-4,5-dimethoxybenzene with 1,2-dimercapto-4,5-dimethoxybenzene
(Table 4). A variant of this procedure also affords the corresponding 12S4 analogue
with four fused benzo units [67].
Sellmann and coworkers prepared dibenzo-hexathia-18-crown-6 on a metal
template [68, 69]. Two stepwise alkylations of [Fe(benzene-l,2-dithiolate)2(CO)2 ]
with S(CHzCH2Br)2 in THF (the first of which gives [Fe(2,3,11,12-dibenzo-
1,4,7,10,13-pentathiatridecane)(CO)]2-), followed by treatment with HC1 (to
extract the Fe(II) ion) gives dibenzo-18S6 in 68% yield. A similar procedure gives
dibenzo-15S5 in 20% yield.
1.5 Properties of Crown Thioethers

Crown thioethers occur as colorless crystalline solids, odor-free when pure. Their
lack of odor results from their low vapor pressure; of the common ligands only 9S3
sublimes readily. Most crown thioethers melt near 100°C; 12S4 is unusual in
melting at over 200°C. They dissolve readily in acetone, dimethylformamide,
dimethylsulfoxide, ethylacetate, dichloromethane, chloroform, toluene, dioxane,
and THF, to a lesser extent in diethyl ether, and to a still lesser extent in pentane,
methanol, or water. They can be purified most easily by recrystallization from, e.g.
hexane/acetone or chloroform; in the case of 9S3 vacuum sublimation provides an
especially convenient means of purification. The purification of crown thioethers
by high-performance liquid chromatography [70], and their analysis by mass
spectrometry has been described [71].
As ligands crown thioethers present both advantages and disadvantages. Their
advantages include their ready availability (owing to facile synthetic routes; they
are also now sold commercially [72]). More importantly, certain of them es-
pecially 9S3 - coordinate avidly to a wide variety of transition and main group
metal ions. Consequently they should find wide use as auxiliary ligands in synthetic
inorganic chemistry. In addition, the free ligands lack chirality, unlike correspond-
ing cyclic tertiary phosphines. Last, crown thioethers do not participate in protic
equilibria, and do not undergo oxidation by air (cf. alkyl phosphines) under normal
conditions.
Their disadvantages center mostly on their relatively low G-donor ability.

Accordingly, they generally fail to displace anions from metal ion coordination
spheres. This property limits use of, e.g., metal halides as starting materials.
(Abstraction of halide from the metal ion with, e.g., Ag(I), must precede addition of
the crown thioether, since Ag(I) itself has great affinity for thioether coordination.)
In addition, like phosphines, thioethers react with strong oxidants (e.g., MnO2,
H 2 0 2, HNO3), yielding sulfoxides, sulfones, or even sulfonic acids. For this reason
crystallization of their complexes as perchlorate salts poses a severe explosion
hazard [73, 74, 75]; CF3SO 3 or BF2 counterions usually crystallize well, and
provide safe alternatives.
1.6 Synthesis of Complexes

As indicated above, because of both their inability to neutralize positive charge and
their weak or-donor properties, thioethers usually fail to displace anions from the
coordination spheres of metal ions. In addition, they often compete poorly with
good donor solvents- most notably water. Most syntheses have followed the
synthetic methods developed by Rosen and Busch [49, 51]. Useful solvents include
CH3NO 2, CH3CN, acetone, and ethanol and non-oxidizing acidic media such as
Ac20. Metal-solvato complexes (e.g. I-Ru(Me2SO)6] 2 +, [Ni(EtOH)6] 2 ÷ ) of poorly
cordinating anions (e.g. BF2, CFaSO3, picrate) have proven the most generally
useful starting materials. Once prepared, some crown thioether complexes (e.g.,
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ ) either thermodynamically or kinetically resist attack by water.
2 Ligand Conformations; Implications for Binding
Conformational analysis of crown thioethers builds upon the pioneering of Dale

and coworkers [76] on analogous oxocrowns. Ligand strain expresses itself pri-
marily in torsional angles; the small force constants for torsion lead to shallow
potential wells compared with, e.g. those for bond length or bond angle changes.
Dale [77] pointed out that by trading strain into torsional changes, molecules
optimize their conformations in the energetically cheapest way. Deviations of
torsional angles from the optimum values of 60 ° (gauche) or 180° (anti) therefore
provide a sensitive measure of the strain inherent in the molecule.
For oxocrowns, information on conformation comes from both X-ray diffrac-
tion and 13C N M R studies. Unfortunately, for thiacrowns 13C NMR provides little
insight into ligand conformation [76, 78]. Consequently X-ray diffraction has
played a crucial role in the study of thiacrown conformations. Reasoning from such
solid state data to behavior in solution must, of course, be conducted with caution.
Comparison of oxa- and thia-crowns reveals some interesting contrasts. In the
free state, most crown thioethers adopt peculiar "inside-out" conformations in
which the S atoms point out the ring, In their important work on 14S4, DeSimone
and Glick [79] termed this arrangement of hetero atoms "exodentate", as opposed
to the endodentate orientation commonly found in oxa- and aza-crowns. This
difference in ring conformation originates in the conformational preferences of the
constituent bonds, and it has important ramifications for coordination chemistry.
Exodentate S atoms necessitate extensive conformational rearrangement before
chelation can occur; in effect, the ligand must turn "right-side-in", with a corre-
sponding enthalpic cost. As a consequence, the greater the number of exodentate
S atoms, the weaker the tendency to chelation and the stronger the tendency to
bridge two or more metal ions.
Thiacrowns commonly manifest these exodentate conformations because C-
S-C-C units (i.e., C-S bonds) slightly prefer gauche placement, whereas S-C-C-S
fragments strongly prefer the anti conformation. [80]. These preferences originate
at least in part from the differences in 1,4-interactions at C-S and C-C bonds
(Fig. 2). In ethyl-linked crown thioethers, (SCH~CHz)n, n > 3), the conformational
preferences of both C-S and C-C bonds act in concert to generate "bracket"
S-C-C-S-C-C-S units, in which the central S atom marks a corner (Fig. 2). Such
bracket units form the. fundamental building block of crown thioethers. For
example, 12S4 results from fusion of two such units at the S atoms.
2.1 Ethyl-linked Crown Thioethers, i.e. ( S C H e C H 2 ) n
2.1.1 9S3 (n = 3)
In the solid state, 9S3 crystallizes with imposed C3-symmetry (Fig. 3) [81]. Unlike
other crown thioethers, all of its S atoms point into the central cavity. This
anomaly presumably results from the severe ring (Baeyer) strain associated with
a nine-membered ring. The resulting endodentate conformation closely resembles
that required for chelation to a metal ion. Coordination slightly diminishes the
torsional angles at the C-C bonds; in the free ligand, higher values of these
torsional angles minimize S ' " S repulsions [82]. In fact, the correspondence
between the conformation of the ligand in the free and bound state probably
accounts for the extraordinary ligating ability of 9S3.
Fusion of three aromatic residues to 9S3, as in (MeO)6-tribenzo-9S3, necessar-
ily constrains the macrocycle conformationally. Klar and coworkers identified
three likely conformations - termed "crown", "saddle", and "pseudo-saddle" - de-
fined by the position of the phenylene moieties with respect to the plane of the three
S atoms [83]. In the crown conformation, all three phenylene units lies on the same
side of the Sa plane. In the saddle conformation, one phenylene ring lies in the S 3
_jH C S ............. S S~C~C~S

;/ \ / ,
C
I Fig. 2. 1,4 interactions at C - C - $ 4 2 and
C S C~C C SMS-C-S units in gauche placement
I (left); a bracket unit, the recurring struc-
SLIGHTLY REPULSIVE S
ATTRACTIVE tural motif of ethyl-linked thiacrowns
plane and the other two lie on opposite sides of it. Last, the pseudo saddle
conformation differs from the saddle form in a "flattening" to give a twofold axis
relating two phenylene units. X-ray crystallography shows that in the solid state
(MeO)6-tribenzo-9S3 assumes the saddle conformation [84] (cf. the corresponding
03 macrocycle, which adopts the pseudo-saddle conformation) [83].
2.1.2 12S4 (n = 4)
In the solid state, 12S4 adopts a quadrangular structure (derived from the parent
cycloalkane) with all four S atoms exodentate (Fig. 3) [80, 85]. In principle, two
conformations for 12S4 are consistent with the quadrangular structure of the
parent cycloalkane. In the conformation actually adopted the S atoms assume
corner positions (cf. 1204); thus chelation to a metal ion necessitates a particularly
radical - and therefore energetically costly - conformational rearrangement.
As in the 9S3 case, fusion of aromatic residues to each ethylene linkage grossly
perturbs the ring conformation. In (MeO)s-tetrabenzo-12S4 two phenylene rings
lie in the S4 plane; the others lie perpendicular to it on opposite sides, to yield
a centrosymmetric structure [67]. Unlike unsubstituted 12S4, where all C-S bonds
exhibit gauche placement, in the benzo4-12S4 analogue half of the C-S bonds
adopt anti placement.
2.1.3 15S5 (n = 5)
15S5 [80] adopts a structure derived from that of 12S4. The structure of 15S5
(Fig. 3; Table 1) results from the "prying open" of 12S4 at one corner and the
insertion of another CH2CH2S unit. Examination of the resulting structure clearly
reveals its relation to 12S4. In another perspective 15S5 results from fusion of two
12S4~ 15S5
18S6
Fig. 3. Structures of ethyl-linked thiacrowns in the free state
bracket units at one end, and their linkage at the other end by a CH2CHzS
sequence. This leads to an exodentate orientation for all five S atoms.
2.1.4 I8S6 (n = 6)
Like 15S5, 18S6 [80, 86] can be derived from 12S4 (Fig. 3; Table 1). Union of two
bracket units through CHzCHgS linkages results in the observed structure. Unlike
12S4 and 15S5, however, 18S6 does not have solely exodentate S atoms; two of the
six adopt endodentate orientations. Nevertheless, all the C-S bonds are 9auche,
and four of the six S-C-C S units are anti, in agreement with the conformational
approach based on 1,4-interactions.
Inclusion of two fused benzo groups causes dibenzo-18S6 to differ conforma-
tionally from the unsubstituted parent compound [69]. All six donor a t o m s -
indeed, the entire ligand except for the benzo groups - lies esSentially in a plane
(Table 1). The benzo groups lie centrosymmetrically disposed on opposite sides of
the S6 plane at an angle of 83 ° (cf. dibenzo-1806, 124°). The two non-benzo
S atoms adopt anti placements about their bonds to the adjacent carbon atoms;
they also assume an exodentate orientation with respect to the crown cavity.
2.2 Crown Thioethers Containing Propyl Linkages
The conformational preferences discussed above express themselves more clearly in

ethyl-linked crown thioethers than in analogous propyMinked ones. In fact,
propyMinked crown thioethers have thus far resisted simple predictive general-
ization. In part this failure reflects the paucity of structural data from which
a pattern might emerge. In any case the conformational preferences of
propyl-linked ligands will be less clearcut than those of ethyl-linked ones. To two
types of linkages (C-C-S-C and S-C-C S) with cooperating conformational
influences, propyl-linked crowns add a third potentially conflicting one
(C-C-C-S). Any conflicts that arise may well preclude simple analysis or generaliz-
ation. In particular, completely propyl-linked crown thioethers lack the impetus of
strongly anti preferring S-C-C-S units in determination of their conformations.
These cases are determined solely by weak 9auche preferences, which may easily be
overturned by, e.g., packing interactions.
2.2.1 14S4
Like 12S4, 14S4 adopts a quadrangular structure derived from the parent hydro-
carbon, cyclotetradecane. The four S atoms occur at corners of the quadrangle (i.e.,
in exodentate orientation) (Fig. 4; Table 1) [79]. This structural feature doubtless
contributes to the lack of a macrocyclic effect for 14S4 noted by Smith and
Margerum [13]. The structure of 14S4 conceptually derives from fusion of two
SCH2CHzSCHzCHzCHzS "homo-bracket" units. ("Homo-bracket" implies inclu-
Fig. 4. Structures of free 14S4,

6,6,13,13-Me4-14S4, and 12S3
Table 1. Crown Thioethers: Crystal Structure Determinations
Complex Ideal. M-S, A Remarks Ref.

geom. a
9S3
[Mn(9S3)(CO)a] + Oh 2.338(5) 2.321(3) Mn-Cav e 1.824 A [94]
2.327(4) 2.341(4)
2.314(4) 2.321(4)
[Fe(9S3)2] 2÷ Oh 2.251(1) 2.241(1) 2.259(1) l.s. [96]
[Fe(9S3)(9S3(O))] 2+ Oh 2.260(1) 2.250(1) cation 1 disord.; F e - S = O [74]
2.263(1) 2,258(1) cation 2 est. 2.16 A,;
[Co(9S3)2.] 2+ Oh 2.356(6) 2,240(7) 2.367(5) l.s. [62. 102]
[Ni(9S3)2] 2+ Oh 2.377(1) 2,380(1) 2.400(1) [62]
[Cu(9S3)2] z+ Oh 2.419(3) 2,426(3) 2.459(3) [62]
[Zn(9S3)2] 2+ Oh 2.491(3) 2,497(3) 2.494(3) [119]
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ Oh 2.344(1) 2,338(1) 2.336(1) [12o]
Oh 2.344(1) 2.331(1) 2.339(1) [120]
Oh 2,327(1) 2.336(1) 2.333(1) [122]
[Pd(9S3)2] 2+ D4h 2.333(2) 2.318(2)(eq) anhyd.; quasi-O h [106, 136]
2.957(2)(ax)
D4h 2.309(1) 2.314(1)(eq) hyd,; quasi-O h [106]
3.005(1)(ax)
cis-[PdBr2(9S3)] D4h 2.275(2) 2.257(2)(eq) [106]
3.125(1)(ax)
cis-[PdCl2(9S3)] D4h 2.267(2) 2.2456(2) Pd-Claw 2.33 [137]
[Pt(9S3)2] 2+ Cgv 2.25-2.30(eq) [107]
2.88-2.93(ax)
[PtM%(9S3)] + Oh 2.411(3) 2.405(3) 2.405(3) P t - C w 2.08 A. [139]
[Hg(9S3)z] 2÷ Oh 2.723(2) 2.713(2) 2.649(2) [141]
[Pb(9S3)2] 2+ Dgd 3.129(5) 3.084(4) 3.015(2) Pb-OC10 3 2.72(2) [119]
[Co(9S3)2] 3+ Oh 2.258(1) 2.253(1) 2.249(1) [102]
[Cu2(9S3)3] z+ Ta 2.231(1) 2.302(2) [117]
2.325(2) 2.323(1)
2.244(1) 2.336(1)
2.302(1) 2.329(1)
[Ag(9S3)2] + Oh 2.753(1) 2.727(2) [114-116]
2.696(2)
[Ag3(9S3)3] 3+ Td 2.724(2) 2.595(4) 2.613(4) 2.480(2) [115]
[Ag(9S3)Cl] Ta 2.618(1) 2.599(1) 2.598(1) [1163
[Cu(9S3)I] Td 2.331(1) 2.343(1) 2.329(1) Cu-I 2.490(1) [115]
[Rh(9S3)2] 3+ Oh 2.331(2) 2.345(3) 2.348(3) [128-1313
[Pd(9S3)233+ Oh 2.545(2) 2.356(1) 2.369(2) [1323
(Continued)
Table 1. (continued)
Complex Ideal. M-S, A, Remarks Ref.

geom.a
[Rh(9S3)(COD)] + C~ 2.452(1)2.448(1) 2.308(1) Rh-C 2.098(2) [130]

2.108(2) 2.197(2) 2.217(2)
[Mo(9S3)(CO)3] Oh 2.512(6)2.504(6) 2.543(7) [82]
[AuCI(gS3)]x D4h 2.270(3) Au~CI 2.267(3) [141]
Au..'Au 3.310
[Ru(benzo-9S3)(CO)Br2] O h 2.300(4)2.306(4) 2.426(4) Ru-Braw 2.54 [126]
Ru-C 2.023(20)
[PtCl2(benzo3-gs3)] C,v 2.246(5)2.245(5) Pt-CI 2.33 [140]
2.859(5)
[Rh(NO3)3(benzo3-9S3)] O h 2.2274(3) Rh-O 2.064(9) [134]
[CuBr(benz%-9S3)] Td 2.322(5)2.332(5) 2.323(4) Cu-Br 2.311(3) [118]
18S6
[Ni(18S6)] 2+ Oh 2.397(1)2.389(1) 2.377(1) [23, 148]
[Co(18S6)] 2+ Oh 2.251(1)2.479(1) 2.292(1) 1.s.; J-T dist. [98, 99]
[Cu(18S6)]2~ D4h 2.323(1)2.402(1) 2.635(1) J-T dist. [93]
[Cu(18S6)] + Td 2.253(2)2.358(2) 2.360(2) [93]
[Cu2(MeCN)2(18S6)] 2+ Ta 2.32 2.34 233
Cu-N 1.94 ,A [150]
[Pt(18S6)] 2+ D4h 2.298(2)2.295(2)(eq) 2 semi-coord S [108]
3.380(3)(ax)
[Pd(18S6)] 2+ Dgh 2.311(1)Z307(2)(eq) 2 semi-coord S [108]
3.273(2)(ax)
[AgBr(18S6)] + TO 2.514(1)2.571(1) 2.636(1) Ag-Br 2.636(1) [116]
[CuCI(18S6)] + Td 2.296(2)2.331(l) 2.376(2) Cu-Cl 2.306(2) [153]
[(Cp*RhC1)2(18S6)] Car 2.377(1)2.365(1) Rh-CI 2.387(1) [157]
Rh-C,ve 2.173
20S6
[(Rh(COD))z(20S6)] 2+ Oh 2.462(1)2.482(1) 2.320(1) [133]
24S6
[Ni(24S6)12+ Oh 2.413(1)2.444(1) 2.437(1) [159]
12S3
[Ni(12S3)2] 2+ Oh 2.409(1)2.420(2) 2.434(2) [23]
[Ru(12S3)2] 2+ Oh 2.3772(4)2.3676(4) 2.3736(4) [1211
[Rh(12S3)2] 3+ Oh 2.363(4)2.355(3) 2.360(3) [143]
2.356(4) 2.350(4) 2.354(4)
[Ag(12S3)(O3SCF3)]} x Yd 2.463(2)2.477(2) 2.621(2) Ag-O 2.482(6) [116]
{[CuC12(12S3)]}x U4h 2.447(1)3.050(1) exo; Cu-C1 2.20 [34]
bridging Cu
[Cu2(12S3)312+ Ta 2.275(6)2.281(5) 2.281(5) 12S3-bridged [1171
2.347(4) 2.246(5) 2.278(4)
2.258(5) 2.343(4)
15S5
[Cu(15S5)] 2+ C4v 2.331(2)2.315(2) 2.289(2) Cu 0.41 ,~. above [191]
2.338(2) 2.398(2) S, plane
[Cu(15S5)1 + Td 2.338(5)2.243(5) 2.317(5) [1911
Complex Ideal. M-S,/k Remarks Ref.

geom. a
14S4
[Ni(14S4)] 2+ D4h 2.177(1)2.175(1) anti [166]
[Cu(14S4)] 2+ D,h 2.308(1)2.297(1) anti [89, 152, 171]
Cu-OC10 3 2.65
{[Cu(14S4)] +}x Td 2.260(4)2.338(4) 2.327(4) [151, 152]
2.342(3)
[(NBC15)2(14S4) ] Oh 2.713(8) Nb-CI ve 2.30 [31-33]
[Ru(14S4)C12] C2v 2.262(1)2.333(1) folded; Ru-CI [163]
2.471(1)
{[Rh(14S4)]} 2+ D4h 2.261(3)2.264(6) syn [182]
2.261(3) 2.264(6) R h ' " Rh 3.314
[Hg(14S4XOHz)] 2+ C4v 2.58(4)2.51(5) syn; Hg-O 2.35 [35]
2.60(5) 2.71(4) Hg 0.48 A > S4
[(HGC12)2(14S4)] 2+ Ta 2.580(2)2.699(2) exo L; Hg-CI [35]
2.407(3) 2.419(3) 2.42, 2.41
[HgI2(14S4)] 2+ Td 2.75 exo; Hg-I 2.65 [156]
2.67
[Pd(14S4)] 2+ D,h 2.23-2.33 syn [129]
Miscellaneous
[Cu(12S4XOHz)] z+ C4v 2.34(1)2.30(1) Cu 0.58 A [89]
2.37(1) 2.32(1) above S4
Cu-O 2.11(2)
[AIMe3(12S4)] D3h 2.718(3)3.052(3) A1-Cave 1.95 [85]
[CuCI((MeO)8 benzo 4- C4~ 2.395(5)2.511(5) 2.644(7) Cu-C1 2.181(5) [190]
12S4)] 2.722(7)
[Cu(13S4)(OH2)] 2+ C4v 2.334(4)2.333(1) syn; Cu 0.38 ,~ [89]
above $4
2.310(5) 2.330(5) Cu-O 2.14(1)
(mol 2)
2.321(4) 2.333(4) syn; Cu 0.37 A [89]
above $4
2.213(5) 2.322(5) Cu-O 2.16(2)
[Cu(1554)(OC103)2] 2+ D4h 2.323(3)2.313(3) Cu-O 2.53(1) [89]
[Ag(benzo- 15S4)] 2+ C4v -- dimeric; CN = 5 [206]
16S4
[Cu(16S4)(OCIO3)2] 2+ D,,h 2.331(1) 2.387(2) Cu-O 2.482(5) [89]
sym-[Mo 2 (SH)2- Oh 2.320(1) 2.483(2) Mo-SH 2.471(2) [185]
(16S4)2] 2+ 2.537(2) 2.461(2) Mo-SR2-Mo
[(OEt)Mo(16S4)-O- Oh EtOMO-Save 2.48 Mo-Ob, 1.76 [185, 186]
Mo(O)(16S4)] 3+ O = M o - S w 2.46 Mo-Ob, 2.14
M o = O 1.76
[MoO(SH)(16S4)] + Oh 2.48 ave Mo-SH 2.49 [185]
Mo = O1.67
[Hg(16S4)(OC103)- C1b 2.563(5) 2.587(6) Hg-O(C3v ) 2.76 [189]
(O2C102)2)] 2.605(6) 2.663(5) 2.76(2) Hg-O(Czv ) 3.08, 3.26
[Mo(CO)2(Me s- Oh 2.434(2) 2.439(2) trans isomer; [187]
16S4)] + 2.432(2) 2.438(2) Mo C 1.99
(Continued)
Table 1, (continued)
Complex Ideal. M-S, ~, Remarks Ref.
geom?
[Mo(N)2(Me8-16S4)] + Oh 2.424(2)2.428(2) trans isomer; [188]

2/419(2) 2.424(2)
Free Ligands
9S3 3 endoS [81]
12S4 4 exo S, at corners [80, 85]
15S5 5 exo [80]
18S6 2 endo, 4 exo S [80, 86]
14S4 4 exo S, at corners [79]
12S3 1S at corner [34]
(MeO)6benzo3-9S3 saddle form [84]
(MeO)sbenzo4-12S4 four exo [67]
" Note: the idealized geometry refers to the symmetry of the coordination sphere, irrespective of the
identity of the donor atoms comprising it.
b This complex approaches D4h symmetry if the asymmetricallybound bidentate and monodentate
C10~- groups in the axial positions are ignored.
sion of an extra methylene group in one side; in this case the extra methylene group
does not disturb the S - C - C - S - C - C - S bracket motifs.
2.2.2 Me414S4
As discussed above, the preferred conformations at C-S and C - O bonds differ in

part because of their different 1,4-interactions, Replacement of one - C H 2 - with
- C M e z- should generate 1,4-repulsions at gauche C-S bonds analogous to those
experienced by gauche C - O bonds. Synthesis and X-ray diffraction studies of
6,6,13,13-tetramethyl-14S4 [87] bear out this expectation (Fig. 4; Table 1) [86].
Introduction of the methyl groups grossly changes the conformation from that of
the parent ligand to one resembling that of the oxa analogue, 1404. This con-
formation more closely resembles that required for ion binding, with the S atoms
approaching endodentate orientation.
2.2.3 12S3
Structurally, 12S3 sets in opposition the conflicting priorities of a quadrangular

structure on one hand and gauche placement at the C-S bonds on the other.
A quadrangular structure (like that of 12S4 and the parent alkane, cyclododecane)
would require two anti C-S bonds. On the other hand, gauche placement at all of
the C-S bonds necessitates a non-quadrangular structure. Crystallography reveals
that 12S3 adopts the former (Fig. 4; Table 1) [-34], consistent with relaxation of the
gauche preference of C-S bonds in propyl-linked thiacrowns in the absence of the
cooperative anti preference of any S - C - C - S units. Examination of molecular
models suggests that a structure with all C-S bonds in gauche conformations
would suffer intolerable H • • • H contacts.
2.3 Conclusions
In crown thioethers the heteroatoms often adopt exodentate orientations, in

contrast with the endodentate heteroatoms of analogous oxa- and aza-crowns.
This reversal comes at least in part from the difference in C-E bond length (E = S
vs. E = O, NH). Its impact on the stability of crown thioether complexes qualitat-
ively determines which crown thioethers have extensive coordination chemistry. In
addition, the reversal of conformational preferences between thia- and first-row (N,
O) crowns vitiates simple reasoning from one to the other. For example, compar-
ison of 14N4 with the seemingly analogous 14S4 exchanges a ligand aided by
conformational effects for one hindered by them (quite apart from the electronic
differences between the donor groups).
3 Coordination Chemistry [88]
A recurrent theme in the coordination chemistry of crown thioethers concerns the

interplay between conformational preferences of the ligands and their coordinative
behavior. In particular, the structures of complexes result from a compromise
between the conformational preferences of the ligands and the electronic require-
ments of the metal ion. Crown thioethers such as 12S4 show a diminished propen-
sity for chelation because of the exodentate orientation of the S atoms in the free
ligand. Exodentate structures reflect the antipathy of most crown thioethers to
chelation. As a consequence, complexes with incomplete chelation by the ligand
form a substantial fraction of this review.
Indeed, exodentate rings typify free thiacrowns. This conformational feature
considerably influences their coordination chemistry. Because of it many thia-
crowns display low affinity for chelation of a single metal ion. Instead they bind in
a mono- or bidentate fashion, which often leads to dimeric or oligomeric structures.
Examples include [(NbC15)2(14S4)] [31-33], [CuClz(12S3)] x [34],
[Ag(O3SCF3)-(12S3)] x [116], [Cu(L)(OC103)2] (L = 15S4 [89], 16S4 [89]), and
[(HGC12)2(14S4)] [35], each of which is discussed later.
These compounds share two common characteristics. First, in conformation
the bound ligand differs little from the free form; chelation through all of the
S atoms, on the other hand, would require a gross change [90]. Second, each
complex retains at least one anion in the coordination sphere. Owing to their weak
~-donor properties thioethers generally fail to displace strongly held counterions
such as halides. However, even such poorly coordinating anions as triflate, per-
chlorate [36], and tetrafluoroborate [37] interact strongly with thioether com-
plexes - sometimes in preference to additional thioether ligands. Association with
such a variety of poorly coordinating anions (of varying ability to form bonds)
suggests that electrostatic interaction dominates bond formation in this
association.
This observation in turn highlights the importance of charge neutralization in
thioether coordination chemistry. Thioethers fail to neutralize charge on metal ions
very well. Poor charge neutralization contributes to the high redox potentials
typically found for thioether complexes. Charge neutralization assumes even
greater importance in solvents that solvate anions poorly (e.g. CH3CN and
CH3NO 2 [91], both of which are commonly used in crown thioether chemistry), or
low dielectric constant.
Even in water, however, charge separation is a problem. Rorabacher et al. have
shown that Cu(II) thioether complexes associate significantly with ClOg and other
anions in aqueous solution [36, 37]. Furthermore, ions such as perchlorate interact
more strongly with Cu(II) thioether complexes than they do with the aquo ion itself
[36]. This buttresses the suggestion that Cu(II) coordinated to thioethers appar-
ently has a greater positive charge than it does coordinated to water, which
parallels the much higher redox potential.
Such coordination with "non-coordinating" anions appears not only in solu-
tion but also in the crystal structures of crown thioether'complexes. Although
perchlorate has long been considered the archetypal non-coordinating anion,
ClOg coordination occurs surprisingly often among thioether complexes. The
Cu(II) complexes of 14S4, 15S4, and 16S4 [89] all show axially coordinate ClOg,
as does the bis(2,5-dithiahexane) complex of Co(II) [92]. This recurring observa-
tion doubtless reflects the failure of thioethers to neutralize positive charge on the
metal ion either electrostatically through possessing a negative charge itself, or
covalently through c~- or n-electron donation.
Charge neutralization is not the whole story, however. Several lines of evidence
show that thioethers do exert considerable n-acidity. First, CO stretching frequen-
cies in substituted metal carbonyls increase on introduction of thioethers. Second,
complexes of thioethers show smaller g anisotropy than do those of other, harder
ligands such as amines and water [93]. This diminution of Ag reflects greater
quenching of orbital angular momentum by thioethers, presumably by greater
acceptance of metal t2g electron density. Third, despite their relatively weak ligand
field strength, thioethers often form low-spin complexes. As in their influence on
g anisotropy, they do this by accepting tgg electron density into orbitals of
rr*-symmetry (with respect to the metal center). By delocalizing the t2g electron
density thioethers reduce electron-electron interactions and thereby reduce the
spin pairing energy.
Thus the electronic consequences of thioether coordination result from the
interplay of both charge neutralization as well as rc-acidity. The magnitude of these
effects depends on the number of thioethers in the coordination sphere. This is
particularly important for charge neutralization effects, which clearly will be most
pronounced in the absence of anionic auxiliary ligands.
3.1 Tridentate Crown Thioethers
3.1.1 9s3 - First-row Metals
Among crown thioethers 9S3 is unique in retaining its conformation on binding to

a trigonal face of a metal. In effect, the enthalpic price for arranging the donor
atoms for coordination is paid in the synthesis of the ligand. This retention of
conformation confers unique stability on chelating 9S3 complexes. Owing to its

powerful chelating ability 9S3 provides a unique opportunity to study the effects of
polythioether coordination on a wide variety of metal ions. Consequently, despite
being until recently the most difficult crown thioether to synthesize, 9S3 is now the
most extensively studied.
3.1.1.1 Chromium
Comparison of the optical spectrum of [Cr(9S3)2] 3+ with those of other Cr(III)
complexes shows that 9S3 generates a smaller ligand field splitting than compar-
able amine complexes (e.g., [Cr(9N3)2] 3+) [94]. This compound represents one of
the first homoleptic thioether complexes of Cr; it was prepared by heating
Cr(C104) 3 with 9S3 in the absence of a solvent. This extremely hazardous pro-
cedure cannot be recommended. The compound was characterized by elemental
analysis and optical spectroscopy (Table 3).
Reaction of CrC13" 6H20 (in MeCN) or [CrC13(THF)3] (in dioxane) with 9S3
gives [Cr(9S3)C13] as sparingly soluble blue-violet microcrystals [94]. Stirring of
this complex with triflic acid results in replacement of chloride with triflate.
Infrared spectroscopy establishes coordination of the triflate residues in the
blue-green [Cr(9S3)(triflate)3] complex, but no structural data are available.
3.1.1.2 Manganese
Reaction of [Mn(CO)sX] (X = C1, Br, I) with 9S3 in D M F gives the facially-
coordinated [Mn(CO)3(9S3)]X as air- and water-stable yellow crystals (Eq. la)
[95]. The complex crystallizes with three crystallographically independent cations
per unit cell; each cation has mirror symmetry. Carbon atoms in the 9S3 chain
disorder to accommodate the mirror symmetry. Kinetic studies show that displace-
ment of CO is zeroth-order in 9S3, consistent with a limiting dissociative mechan-
ism in which loss of CO cis to X is the rate determining step. Upon treatment with
5 M HC1 [Mn(CO)3(9S3)] + expels one CO to give [Mn(CO)2(9S3)C1 ] (Eq. lb),
while treatment with NOBF 4 oxidatively removes one CO to afford
[Mn(CO)z(OH2)(9S3)] (Eq. lc).
DMF
[Mn(CO)sX ] + 9S3 , [Mn(CO)3(9S3)] + (la)
(X = C1, Br, I)
5 M HCI
[Mn(CO)3 (9S3)] + , [Mn(CO)2(9S3)C1 ] (lb)
[Mn(CO)3(9S3) ]+ + NOBF 4 , [Mn(CO)2(9S3)C1] (lc)
3.1.1.3 Iron
Iron(III) perchlorate with excess 9S3 (which serves as reductant as well as ligand;
Eq. 2a) readily affords the pink cation [Fe (9S3)2 ]2+ (which can also be made from
~
-"-. -....
- i n. /~,ja--1
S. - .S
n.,.
.'.Fe. ~Co.
~L.~n.,. ~<1©\ ~<1 -./\

"
~s,,,j t...,s,,j
n= 3,2 n= 3,2,1
S... " ..S
S S
OC" "CO ""fi¢2
CO 9 $3 """""'/ ~<1.>\
L...,s,,,j
J
~ -q2÷
S. : .S
~Cu.
tjs,,./
~L,~~
Fig. 5. First-row complexes of 9S3
F e ( C 1 0 4 ) 2 . 6 H 2 0 ) (Fig. 5) [74, 96]. Surprisingly, in view of the relatively weak

ligand field strength of thioethers [97], this octahedral complex contains a low-spin
FeS 6 core (Table 5).
MeOH
[Fe(OH2)6] a + + excess 9S3 , [Fe(9S3)2] 2 + (2a)
MeOH
[Fe (9S3)2 ] 2 + + o x i d a n t , [Fe (9S3)2 ] 3 + (2b)
(oxidant = electrode, PbO2)
[Fe(9S3)2] 2+ + 82 O 2 - , [Fe(9S3)(9S3(O))] 2 + (2c)
MeOH
[Fe(OH2)6]C13 + 9S3 ~ [Fe(9S3)C13] (20)
Electrochemically [Fe(9S3)2] 2+ shows a reversible one-electron oxidation at

a highly oxidizing potential (Table 2). Oxidation of [Fe(9S3)2] 2+ either by P b O 2
Table 2. Crown Thioether Complexes: Redox Potentials
Couple Ef / V Remarks Ref.
9S3
[Fe(9S3)z] 3+/2+ + 0.98 vs Fc+/°; rev; MeCN [96]
[Co(9S3)2] 3+/2+ - 0.013 vs Fc+/°; rev; MeCN [96, 102]
+ 0.680 vs SHE; rev; MeCN z [99]
+ 0.573 vs SHE; rev; MeCN [100]
[Co(9S3)2] 2+/+ - 0.86 vs Fc+/°; rev; MeCN [96, 102]
- 0.21 vs SHE; rev; MeNO 2 [99]
- 0.292 vs SHE; rev; MeCN [100]
[Ni(9S3)2] 3+/2+ + 0.97 vs Fc+/°; quasi-rev; MeCN [96]
[Cu(9S3)2] 2+/+ + 0.61 vs SCE; rev; CH3NO 2 [93]
[Ru(9S3)2] 3+/2+ + 1.99 vs SHE; quasi-rev; MeCN [120, 121]
+ 1.41 vs Fc+/°; quasi-rev; MeCN [106]
[Pd(9S3)2] 3+/2+ + 0.605 vs Fc+/°; quasi-rev; MeCN [132, 136]
[Pt(9S3)2] 3+/z+ + 0.388 vs Fc+/°; quasi-rev; MeCN [107]
[Ag(9S3)2] 2+/+ + 1.10 vs SCE; quasi-rev; CH3NO 2 [114, 116]
[Rh(9S3)2] 3+/2+ - 0.309 vs SCE; rev; CHaNO 2 [128]
- 0.71 vs Fc+/°; MeCN [131]
[Rh(9S3)2] 2+/+ - 0.721 vs SCE; quasi-rev; CHaNO 2 [128, 131]
- 1.08 vs Fc+/°; MeCN [131]
18S6
[Co(18S6)] 3+/2+ + 0.844 vs SHE; rev; CHaNO 2 [98, 99]
[Cu(18S6)] 2+/+ + 0.72 vs SCE; rev; MeNO 2 [93]
12S3
[Ru(12S3)2] 3+/2+ + 1.81 vs SHE; quasi-rev; MeCN [7]
[Rh(12S3)2] 3+/2+ - 0.177 vs SCE; quasi-rev; CH3NO 2 [130]
[Rh(12S3)2] 2+/+ - 0.420 vs SCE; irrev; CHaNO 2 [130]
[Cu(12S3),] 2+/+ + 0.789 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
14S4
[Cu(14S4)] 2+/+ + 0.689 vs SHE; 80% MeOH/20% H20 [143]
+ 0.60 H20 [170]
cis_[Ru(14S4)Cl2 ] +/o + 0.852 vs SHE; aq. HC1; rev. [24]
cis.[Ru(14S4)CI2 ] +/o + 0.230 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis.[Ru(14S4)(N3)2 ] +/o + 0.104 vs Ag*/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis_[Ru(14S4)Br2 ] +/o + 0.304 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis_[Ru(14S4)(NCS)2] +/o + 0.522 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; quasirev; [24]
cis-[Ru(14S4)ON02)2] +/° ~ + 0.868 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; irrev. [24]
cis-[Rh(14S4)C12] 3+/+ - 0.72 vs Ag+/AgCl; MeCN [6]
Miscellaneous
[Cu(12S4)]2 +/+ + 0.723 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
+ 0.64 vs SHE; H20 [170]
[Cu(13S4)] 2+/+ + 0.674 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
+ 0.52 vs SHE; H20 [143]
[Cu(15S4)] 2+/+ + 0.785 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
+ 0.64 vs SHE; H20 [143]
[Cu(16S4)] 2+/+ + 0.798 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
+ 0.69 vs SHE; H20 [143]
(Continued)
Couple Ef/V Remarks Ref.

[Cu(15S5)] 2+/+ + 0.855 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
+ 0.70 vs SHE; H20 [170]
[Cu(20S6)] 2+/+ + 0.805 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
[Cu(21S6)] 2+/* + 0.852 vs SHE; 80% aq. MeOH [143]
cis-[Ru(13S4)C12] +/° + 0.918 vs SHE; aq. HCI; rev. [24]
cis-[Ru(13S4)(N3)z] +/° + 0.130 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis-[Ru(!3S4)Cl2] +/° + 0.274 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis-[Ru(13S4)Br2] +/° + 0.334 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; rev. [24]
cis-[Ru(13S4)(NCS)z] +/° ,~ + 0.334 vs Ag+/°; MeCN; irrev. [24]
[Mo2(SH)2(16S4)2] 2+ --0.95 vs SCE; MeCN; quasi:rev. [185]
[Mo202(16S4)2(OEt)] a+ ~ - 0.7 vs SCE; MeCN; irrev. [185]
[MoO(SH)(16S4)] + ~ - 0.7 vs SCE; MeCN; irrev. [185]
trans-[MoBrz(Mes-16S4)] 3+i2+ + 1.21 vs SCE; MeCN; quasi-rev. [187]
trans-[MoBrz(Mes-16S4)] 2+/+ - 0.15 vs SCE; MeCN; quasi-rev. [187]
trans-[MoC12(Mes-16S4)] 3+/2+ + 1.19 vs SCE; MeCN; quasi-rev. [187]
trans-[MoClz(Mes-16S4)] 2+/+ - 0.28 vs SCE; MeCN; quasi-rev. [187]
[Co(24S6)] 3+/2+ + 0.894 vs SHE; quasi-rev; MeNO z c
c Rawle, S. C.; Cooper, S. R.; unpublished work
or by electrochemical means affords the highly reactive, low-spin (Table 5) green

Fe(III) complex (Eq. 2b). M 6 s s b a u e r results [74] establish the metal (rather than
the ligand) as the site of this oxidation. They further show that the low-spin t2g [5]
ion undergoes appreciable static Jahn-Teller distortion at r o o m temperature.
In curious contrast, however, oxidation with $2 O 2 - instead of PbO2 results in
oxygen a t o m transfer to a thioether group rather than oxidation of the metal ion
(Eq. 2c) (cf. the analogous reaction of Sz O 2 - with [Co(9S3)2] 2 +, which yields the
Co(III) complex [74]). The product of this reaction, [Fe(9S3)(9S30)] 2 +, contains
an S-bonded sulfoxide and five thioether groups coodinated to a low-spin Fe(II)
[74]. Despite crystallographic disorder, structural methods clearly show that
oxidation to the sulfoxide shortens the Fe-S distance (by 0.09 A; Table 2) [74].
Replacement of 9S3 with its monosulfoxide increases Ef (Fe(III/II)) considerably.
3.1.1.4 Cobalt
T r e a t m e n t of [ C o ( O H 2 ) 6 ] (BF4) 2 with 9S3 in absolute ethanol affords
[Co(9S3)2 ] (BF4) z as purple crystals (Eq. 3a). Structural work revealed short C o - S
bonds [62] that were suggested [98], and subsequently shown [96, 99, 100], to
arise from a low-spin configuration at the Co(II) ion. In agreement with this
low-spin d 7 formulation, [Co(9S3)2] 2+ (2Eg in Oh) exhibits a substantial axial
Jahn-Teller compression (0.12 A). This compression contrasts with the m o r e usual
Jahn-Teller axial elongation found in [Co(ttn)2] 2 + [99], and [Co(18S6)] 2 + [98,
99]. These complexes are a m o n g the few proven examples of low-spin octahedral
Co(II) complexes [101].

EtOH
[Co(OHz)6] 2+ + 29S3 , [Co(983)2] z+ (3a)
H20 or MeCN
[Co(9S3)2] 2+ + oxidant , [Co(9S3)z] 3+ (3b)
(oxidant = electrode, 82 O 2 - , NOBF4)

MeCN
[Co(9S3)2] z + + e- , [,Co(9S3)2 ] + (3c)
In [-Co(983)2] 2+ 9S3 not only stabilizes the low-spin state, but also the low ( 2 + )
oxidation state (with respect to 3 + ). Electrochemistry of [,Co(9S3)2] z+ reveals
oxidation to the Co(III)form at an unusually high potential [-99, 100]. Surprisingly,
a second reversible wave corresponding to the Co(II/I) couple also occurs [99, 100,
102]. Comparison of the cobalt(II) complexes of 9S3 and 9N3 underscores the
stabilization of the lower oxidation state by the crown thioether. Although these
two ligands exert comparable ligand field strength, Ef for [Co(L)2] n+ (n = 3, 2;
L = 9S3) exceeds that for the L = 9N3 [103] complex by over 800 mV. In practical
terms, the air-sensitivity of the amine complex contrasts with the need for powerful
oxidants (e.g. Br2) to oxidize the thioether analogue.
EPR spectroscopy suggests that part of this stabilization arises from n-delocal-
ization, g values in [-Co(9S3)2] 2+ (Table 5) deviate little from ge, a reflection of
appreciable delocalization of metal electron density onto the ligands [22, 99].
Oxidation of [,Co(983)2] 2+ by either electrochemical or chemical ($2 O2- or
NOBF4) means gives the orange Co(III) complex (Eq. 3b) [102]. This cation
contains an octahedral CoS6 core with Co-Save = 2.25 ~ (Table 1), in agreement
with distances found in the isoelectronic [Fe(9S3)2] 2+ cation (Fe-Save = 2.25 ,~).
Thus neither the difference in charge nor the marked decrease in ionic radius (0.75
vs 0.68 A for low-spin Fe(II) and Co(III), respectively) [104] significantly influence
the metal-thioether bond lengths. Perhaps a greater covalent contribution for the
Fe(II) complex swamps both charge and ionic radius considerations.
Both the high potential of the [,Co(9S3)2] n+ (n = 3, 2) couple [96, 99, 102], and
its electrochemical reversibility derive in large measure from the n-acidity of the
hexakis-thioether donor set. Electron transfer entails no spin state change
(t6g 6 1
t2g eg ) between the two low-spin species. Two factors should promote rapid
electron transfer. First, the extensive delocalization of metal electron density over
the ligands (shown by the EPR data) increases accessibility to outer sphere electron
transfer. Second, the minimal reorganization of the metal ion coordination spheres
(inferred from the crystal structures) implies a small Franck-Condon barrier.
Consistent with this discussion and the electrochemical results, stopped flow
measurements show that [Co(9S3)2] n+ (n = 3,2) exhibits much more rapid elec-
tron self-exchange (105-fold) than corresponding aza compounds
(1.3 x 104 M - 1s- 1 vs 0.19 M - 1 s- 1). Subsequent remeasurement of rate by NMR
methods yielded a value of 1.6 x 105 M - 1 s- 1 [105].
[Co(9S3)21 z + also undergoes an intriguing reduction (electrochemically revers-

ible) to a green Co(I) species (Eq. 3c; Table 2). So far this complex has eluded
isolation and structural characterization. Possible structural models of this d s
species include the isoelectronic cations [Ni(9S3)2] z+ (octahedral) [621,
[Pd(9S3)z] 2+ (quasi-octahedral) [,1061, [Pt(9S3)2] 2+ (square pyramidal) [107] or
[M(18S6)] 2+ (M = Pd, Pt) (square planar) [108].
3.1.1.5 Nickel
Interaction of [,Ni(OH2)612+ with 9S3 in ethanol affords the octahedral brick red
[Ni(9S3)212+ cation (Eq. 4a) [62]. Nickel-sulfur distances (Table 1) [62] fall well
short (0.06 A) of the sum of ionic radii [2, 104]. Such short Ni-S distances
(compared to Ni(II) complexes of acyclic thioethers) [109, 110] stem from compres-
sion induced by the macrocyclic nature of the ligand (the macrocyclic constriction
effect) [16, 17, 18].
[,Ni(OH2)6] 2+ + 29S3 , [,Ni(9S3)212+ (4a)
[Ni(9S3)212 + , [Ni(9S3)213 + + e- (4b)
Nickel(II) provides an ideal case for evaluation of the ligand field properties of
thioethers. In the high-spin [96] (Table 5) [Ni(9S3)2] 2+ cation 9S3 exerts a ligand
field strength comparable with that of 9N3 (A(9S3) 1265cm -1 [96]; A(9N3)
1250 cm-1 [,1111; Table 3). Consistent with the greater 7t-acidity of thioethers, the
two ligands differ more widely in nephelauxetic ratio, which measures the "cloud
expanding" capability of the ligand (13(9S3) 0.66; [3(9N3) 0.90) [,1111. In agreement
with the structural results, the macrocyclic constriction effect [16, 17, 18] in-
crements the effective ligand field by approximately 10% (compared with other
hexakis(thioether) complexes). The cyclic triamine ligand 9N3 shows similar be-
havior [,112].
Electrochemical investigation of [Ni(9S3)2 ]2+ shows a reversible one-electron
oxidation process at a high redox potential, (Eq. 4b) [96]. The nature of this
oxidized species - in particular the location of the electron hole - has not yet been
elucidated.
3.1.1.6 Copper
Addition of [Cu(On2)6] (BF4) z to a solution of 9S3 in e~hanol gives the bis(9S3)
complex of Cu(II) (Eq. 5a). Unlike the corresponding Co(II) complex, the brown
[Cu(9S3)212÷ (d 9, 2E~ in Oh) cation shows minimal Jahn-Teller distortion (Cu-S
o
range over 0.04 A) [621. Nevertheless, the sum of Cu-S bond lengths compares
closely with that of [Cu(18S6)12 +, a case that shows clear-cut Jahn-Teller elonga-
tion [,931. This lack of apparent distortion could arise from the operation of: 1)
dynamic Jahn-Teller distortion, or 2) static Jahn-Teller distortion coupled with
a positional disorder of the cations. On either a time- or space-average (respect-
ively) no distortion would be apparent. (A third possibility, that 9S3 lacks sufficient
Table 3. Crown Thioether Complexes: Optical Data
Complex Color a kmax(e) Comments Ref.
9S3
nm(M - 1cm- 1)
[Cr(9S3)2] a÷ pink 509685 diffuse reflect. [94]
[Cr(9S3)(triflate)3 ] bl-gr 715(sh)635475 diffuse reflect. [94]
457(sh)
[Cr(9S3)C13] bl-vi 778(sh)734(sh) 690 diffuse reflect. [94]
516(sh) 493
[Mn(CO)3(9S3)] + yel 346(2400) acetone [94]
[Fe(9S3)2] 1+ vi 523(53) 395(52) [96]
[C0(9S3)2] 2+ vi 730(11) 480(92) [62,102]
338(6600) 264(6500)
[Ni(9S3)2] 2+ red 784(27) 527(26) [62]
325(14000)
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ yel 338(172)292(195) [120, 122]
[Pd(9S3)2] 2+ gr 615(55) [106, 136]
[Pd(9S3) 2] a + or 475(3000) [136]
[Pt(9S3)2] 2+ yel 432(95) [107]
[Pt(9S3)2] 3+ or 401(3500) [107]
[Co(9S3)2] 3+ or 458(100) 333(89) [102]
[Fe(9S3)2] 3+ gr 634(700) 587(sh) 498(sh) [74]
458(520) 340(7600)
[Fe(9S3)(9S3(O))] 2÷ or-br 465(123)374(96) 268(16000) [74]
18S6
[Ni(18S6)] 2+ pink 815(23)520(27) [148]
24S6
[Ni(24S6)] 2+ bl-gr 905(100)590(70) [23]
12S3
[Ni(12S3)2] 2+ bl 890(25) 570(34) [23, 511
[Ru(12S3)2] 2+ yel 348(210)312(290) [121]
15S5
[Cu(15S5)] 2+ bl 414(6200)565( .~ 2000) [170]
14S4
[Ni(14S4)] 2+ red 495(263)417(97.5) CHaNO 2 [49]
[Ni(14S4)C12]2+ red 1080(sh, 25) trans?; CHaNO 2 [49]
940(48)
610(28)
[Ni(14S4)Br2] 2+ red lll0(sh, 16) 940(48) CHaNO2; trans? [49]
610(53)
[Ni(14S4)I2] z+ red 700(sh, 58) 540(315) CHaNO2; in equil [49]
[Ni(14S4)(NCS)2)] 2÷ red 1010(sh, 34) 915(54) CH3NO2; trans? [49]
570(28)
[Cu(14S4)] 2÷ bl 390(8200)570(1900) [170]
cis-[Co(14S4)C12] + red-br 533(654)420340 CHaNO 2 [50]
cis-[Co(14S4)Brz] + red-br 550(640)310 CHaNO 2 [50]
trans-[Co(14S4)I2] + bl 640(820) 470(3420) CH3NO 2 [50]
(Continued)
Complex Color a Lmax(~) Comments Ref.
cis-[ Co(14S4)(NCS)2 ] + red-br 540(840) 420 CH3NO 2 [-50]

cis-[ Co(14S4)(ox)2 ] + red 528(579) CHaNO 2 [50]
cis-[Co(14S4)(N02)2] + or 470(814) CHaNO 2 [-50]
cis-[Rh(14S4)C12] + yel 350(2270) 320(sh) H20 [50]
252(26950)
cis-[,Rh(14S4)Br 2] + yel 370(2180) 245(24150) H20 [50]
cis-[Rh (14S4)I2 ] + yel 405(2460) 320(8500) H20 [-50]
245(22550)
cis-[Ru(14S4)C1 z ] yel 430(sh. 125) 360(1010) CH3CN [180]
298(1090) 246(sh, 3550)
cis-[Ru(14S4)C12 ] + red 560(932) 485(sh, 740) HC1 [180]
424(1350) 350(sh, 1620)
323(2050)
16S4
[Cu(16S4)(OCIO3)2 ] bl 440(6100) 603(800) [170]
[Mo(SH)2(16S4)212 + or 470(3700) 285(21600) bridging 16S4 [185]
[Mo202(16S4)2(OEt)] 3+ bl 610(6950) 240(16800) ~t-O and M o = O [185]
[MoO(SH)(16S4)] + red-br 625(200) 505(400) Mo-SH, Mo = O [185]
fac-[MoCl3(M%-16S4)] or 453(160) 290(2800) CHC1 a [-187]
750(25)
[,MoBr2(Me s"16S4)] or 320(5900) 495(45) CHC13 [187]
[M oCl 2(Me s - 16S4)] yel 334(4200) 457(33) CHCI 3 [187]
Miscellaneous
[Cu(12S4)(OH2)] 2 + bl 387(6900) 675(2000) [170]
[Cu(13S4)(OH2)] 2+ bl 390(6100) 625(1800) [170]
[Cu (15S4) (OC10 a)2 ] bl 414(8000) 565(1100) [170]
cis-[,Rh(benzo-15S4)C12] + yel 350(1935) 255(20300) benzo-15S4; H20 [50]
[Ni(benzo- 15S4)] 2+ red 510(273) 450(sh, 1 4 2 ) benzo-15S4; [50]
CH3NO 2
cis-[Ru(benzo-15S4)Cl2] yel 440(sh, 72) 362(984) CH3CN [180]
284(sh, 1660)
[Ni 2(28S8)] 4 + red 502(210) 440 low-spin; [192]
sq. pl.;
MeNO2
[Niz(NCS)4(28S8)] bl-gr 1010(44) 910(57) high-spin; [192]
590(47) MeNOz
a bl = blue; vi = violet; yel = yellow; gr = green; or = orange; br = brown
flexibility to p e r m i t d i s t o r t i o n , can be d i s c o u n t e d in light of the 0.12 ,A d i s t o r t i o n

f o u n d in [ C o ( 9 S 3 ) 2 ] z+ [62].) L o w t e m p e r a t u r e E P R m e a s u r e m e n t s [22, 113]
reveal t h a t the d i s t o r t i o n can be frozen out, a n d t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h the p r e s e n c e of
d y n a m i c J a h n - T e l l e r d i s t o r t i o n at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .
EtOH
[ C o ( O H 2 ) 6 ] 2 + q- 2 9S3 ~ [Cu(9S3) 2 ]2 + (5a)
MeCN
[Cu(9S3)2] / + + e- , [Cu(9S3)2] + (5b)
MeOH
[Cu(MeCN)4 ] (BF4) + 9S3 , [Cuz(9S3)3] z+ (5c)
M e O H or M e C N
[,Cu(MeCN)41 (C104) + 9S3 , [-Cu3 (9S3)3] 2+ (5d)
MeOH
CuI + 9S3 ~[CuI(9S3)] (5e)
Electrochemical studies on rCu(9S3)2] 2+ show reversible reduction to the

colorless Cu(I) complex (Table 2; Eq. 5b) [93, 96]. Three obvious structures can be
envisaged for [Cu(9S3)21 +, which has so far eluded structural characterization.
Like the Cu(II) complex, [,Cu(9S3)2] 2+ could be six-coordinate ([3 + 3] coordina-
tion). This unlikely (c.f. [,Cu(18S6)] + below) possibility cannot be dismissed in light
of six-coordination in the congeneric complex lag (9S3)2 ] + [,114, 115, 116]. Altern-
atively, tetrahedral coordination could arise from slippage of one 9S3 ring with
respect to the other (tridentate) one to coordinate in a monodentate fashion
([-3 + 1] coordination). Tetrahedral coordination could also be effected by slippage
of the two rings such that each coordinates in bidentate fashion ([2 + 2] co-
ordination),
A case can be made for each of the three possibilities, [-3 + 3], [-3 + 1] and
[-2 + 21 coordination. Investigation of other group Ib complexes of 9S3 has
recently revealed examples of [-3 + 3] coordination ([-Ag(9S3)2] + [-114-116]) while
the dimeric [-Cu2(9S3)3]2+ exhibits [-3 + 1] coordination (Fig. 5; Table 1) 1-117].
The closest approach to I-2 + 2] coordination occurs in [Pd(9S3)2] 2+ [1061,
[,PdBr2(9S3)] [,106] and [Pt(9S3)2] 2+ [,107], each of which contains an effectively
bidentate 9S3. On balance, [-3 + 1] coordination appears most likely in view of
[Cu2(9S3)3] 2+, in which two {Cu(9S3)) uni.ts, each containing a tridentate unit,
coordinates to one S atom from a third 9S3 (Fig. 6; Table 1) [,116]. This complex
contains two Cu moieties each displaying [3 + 1] coordination; it results from
reaction of [-Cu(MeCN)4 ] (BF4) with two equivalents of 9S3 in MeOH (Eq. 5c); use
of the hexafluorophosphate salt under identical conditions yields instead
[-Cu(9S3):](PF6) [116]. Structurally the coordination sphere around Cu consists of
three S atoms from a chelating 9S3, and a fourth, considerably shorter bond to the
capping S atom from the bridging 9S3 (Table 1). A similar reaction carried out
instead with the perchlorate salt of [-Cu(MeCN)4 ] + yields [-Cu.(9S3)n] "+ [-115].
While the extent of oligomerization is unknown, this compound probably has
a structure like that of the congeneric [Ag3(9S3)3] 3+ cation [,115].
Reaction of 9S3 with CuI yields [,(9S3)CuI] (Eq. 5e), in which 9S3 chelates Cu(I)
to yield a complex of tetrahedral microsymmetry (Fig. 5; Table 1) [,115]. The
limited bite of 9S3 enforces a trigonal distortion of the CuSaI coordination sphere
that decreases /__S Cu-S (all ~ 90 °) and increases LS-Cu-I (all /> 118°) from
tetrahedral values. Similar behavior occurs in the analogous tribenzo 9S3 ligand
(MeO)6-tribenzo-9S3 (L). In [-CuBr(L)] [118] the macrocycle adopts the "crown"
conformation to give a molecule with a conical appearance. The presence of the
three fused benzo rings causes some of the torsional angles at comparable single
bonds to differ substantially from those in 9S3 itself.
3.1.1.7 Zinc
As a class a ion, Zn(II) normally prefers oxygen coordination over sulfur. In
addition, Zn(II) often adopts tetrahedral rather than octahedral coordination.
Nevertheless, in acetonitrile solution Zn(C104) 2 reacts with 2 equivalents of 9S3 to
give the colorless centrosymmetric [Zn(9S3)2] 2+ cation as its perchlorate salt
(Fig. 5; Table 1) [119]. This octahedral complex contains the first example of
a structurally characterized ZnS 6 core; most Zn complexes of sulfur-based ligands
assume tetrahedral geometry. In common with other first-row complexes of this
ligand, the limited bite of 9S3 necessitates a slight trigonal elongation of the
coordination sphere, which increases non-chelating S-Zn-S angles over chelating
ones.
MeCN
[Zn(OH2)6] 2 + + 2 9S3 , [Zn(9S3)2] 2+ (6)
3.1.2 9S3 - Second-row Metals
3.1.2.l Molybdenum
Reaction of [Mo(CO)3 (MeCN)3] with 9S3 gives [Mo(CO)3(9S3)] as pale yellow
crystals (Eq. 7) [82]. Structurally the complex consists of the expected octahedral
coordination sphere (twist angle 26.5(9)°) in which 9S3 coordinates facially (Fig. 6;
Table 1). Molybdenum-carbon distances fall 0.1 ~, short of those in [Mo(CO)6],
which reflects the weaker ~-acceptor capability of thioethers than CO. Similar
indications come from Vco, which decreases by 200cm-a on going from the
hexacarbonyl to [Mo(CO)3(9S3)]. Conformationally coordination primarily
changes torsional angles at the S-C C-S units (from 58 ° in free 9S3 to 48 ° in the
complex). This change in torsional angle directs the lone pairs on the sulfur atoms
to a common locus on the idealized threefold axis of the ligand [82].
MeCN
[Mo(CO)a(MeCN)3 ] + 9S3 , [Mo(CO)3 (9S3)] (7)
3.1.2.2 Ruthenium
Two synthetic methods yield the oxidatively and hydrolytically robust cation
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ [120, 12t, 122]. Crystallography reveals a regular octahedral cation
(as expected for low-spin d6) (Fig. 6; Table 1) in which 9S3 adopts its usual
conformation.
This complex not only resists oxidation, but also hydrolysis. Despite the
relatively weak coordination generally offered by thioethers, [Ru(9S3)212+ can be
recrystallized from boiling water. While the resistance to hydrolysis certainly
derives from kinetic as well as possibly thermodynamic factors, the alacrity with
which Ru(II) coordinates to a variety of thioethers suggests that particular affinity
attends this interaction. Electrochemical studies support this generalization. The
highly oxidizing potential of the quasi-reversible [Ru(9S3)z] 3 +/2 + couple (Table 2)
reflects strong stabilization of Ru(II) with respect to Ru(III). As in the congeneric
iron system, this oxidation could be either predominantly metal- or ligand-

centered. Preparative electrochemical oxidation of [Ru(9S3)2] 2+ yields a bright
blue solution [123], but no compound has yet been isolated. These (III/II) poten-
tials exceed those in comparable amine complexes (e.g. [Ru(9N3)2] "+ [124] by
approximately 1.5 V. This comparison is particularly apt in light of the similarity in
ligand field splitting between the two classes of compounds, and it illustrates the
ability of thioethers to stabilize lower oxidation states.
MeOH
[Ru(DMSO)6] 2 + + 2 9S3 , [Ru(9S3)2] 2 + (8a)
Ag + excess 9S3
"RuCI 3 .xH20" ~ , [Ru(9S3)2] 2+ (8b)
MeOH
MeOH
[RuC12(benzene)] 2 + excess 9S3 , [Ru(9S3)2] 2+ (8c)
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ , [Ru(9S3)2] 3+ + e- (8d)
Me2SO
"RUG13 "x H20" + 9S3 , [Ru(9S3)(Me2SO)2CI] + (8e)
MeNO/
[Ru(MezSO)4C12] + 9S3 , [Ru(9S3)(Me2SO)CI2] (8f)
DMF
[Ru(L)(CO)] + S(CH2CH2Br)2 ~[Ru(benzo-9S3)(CO)Br2] (8g)
DMF
[Ru(L)(CO)] + BrCH2CH2Br ~[Ru(benzo-9S3)(CO)Br2] (8h)
Treatment of RuC13.2H20 with 9S3 in Me2SO, followed by NaPF 6, affords

[Ru(9S3)(MezSO)2C1 ] (PF6) (Eq. 8e) [122], while use of [Ru(MezSO)4Clz] and
MeNO 2 gives instead [Ru(9S3)(MezSO)C12] (Eq. 8f) [125].
Another type of synthetic approach was taken by Sellmann and his coworkers
[126]. Extending their work on template cyclizations, they prepared [Ru(benzo-
9S3)(CO)Br:] by reaction in hot D M F of [Ru(L)(CO)] (L = 2,3,11,12-
dibenzo-l,4,7,10,13-pentathiatridecane dianion) either with S(CHzCHzBr)z (a
mustard gas analogue) (Eq. 8g) or with ethylene bromide (Eq. 8h). During this
reaction C-S bond fission occurs, presumably by alkylation of the thioether linkage
followed by cleavage of the sulfonium salt (a mechanism first proposed by Bennett
[127]). Coordination to the metal ion apparently favors formation of the
nine-membered ring in preference to the 18-membered one. Use of the aprotie
highly ionizing DMF, particularly as elevated temperatures, favors intermediate
formation of sulfonium salts over simple alkylation.
Structurally [Ru(benzo-9S3)(CO)Brz] consists of a facially coordinated benzo:
9S3 with the benzo group approximately perpendicular to the S 3 plane (Table 1).
In its conformation the 9S3 ring closely resembles analogous complexes of the
unsubstituted ligand. Owing to the trans influence of CO the unique Ru-S~....
distance exceeds the other two by over 0.1 A (Table 1)i
-. . .' S... "...5
q3\ tq3\
t s,,.j
--~ n+
n: 3,2 II= 3, 2, 1
n= 3,2
/
s. .,i/
Fig. 6. Second row complexes of 9S3
3.1.2.3 Rhodium
Reaction of RhC13"xH20 with silver triflate in MeOH followed by 9S3 affords
[Rh(9S3)2] 3+ (Eq. 10a), in which a Rh(III) ion nestles between two tridentate 9S3
rings ([3 + 3] coordination) (Fig. 6; Table 1) [-128, 129, 130, 131]. The RhS 6
coordination sphere closely approaches octahedral symmetry, as expected from the
high ligand field stabilization energy associated with a low-spin d 6 ion.
Metal-sulfur distances compare closely with those in the isoelectronic
[Ru(9S3)2] 2+ cation (Table 1). Thus, as in the congeneric Co(III) and Fe(II)
complexes, the difference in charge exerts minimal effect on the coordination
spheres.
Ag + 9S3
RhC13"xH20 , , [ R h ( 9 S 3 ) 2 ] 3+ (lOa)
MeOH
MeNO2
[ R h ( 9 S 3 ) 2 ] 3+ + e - [Rh(9S3)2] 2 + (lOb)
MeNO2
[Rh(9S3)2] 2+ + e- [Rh(9S3)2 ] + (10c)
toluene
[RhCI(COD)] 2 + 9S3 , [Rh(9S3)(COD)] + (lOd)
s,.... : / s
Mej-'i t`` "'Me
Me
S..... : / S
OC" "CO
CO
9S3
f n=3,2
/
s ,--]z÷
S.... i .S
o3cuo [Pb'. 0C103 ~Hg..
I L/\
S'~ "'S
Fig. 7. Third row complexesof 9S3
Electrochemistry demonstrates the remarkable existence of a reasonably long-

lived monomeric Rh(II) species. Cyclic voltammetry shows that [Rh(9S3)2] 3+
undergoes reduction in two quasi-reversible one-electron processes rather than one
two-electron process (Table 2) [128-130] (cf. the one-electron redox processes of
the congeneric [Co(9S3)2] "+ (n = 3, 2, 1) couples) [128, 131]. Controlled potential
coulometry confirms the one-electron nature of both redox processes, and thus
buttresses the existence of Rh(II) as a discrete monomeric species of appreciable
lifetime (hours).
While this intriguing Rh(II) complex has thus far eluded structural character-
ization, EPR studies suggest an axially elongated structure. At 77 K electrochem-
ically generated solutions of the straw-colored [Rh(9S3)/] z,+ cation yield rhombic
spectra (Table 5) with small l°3Rh hyperfine splitting on gl. As in the isoelectronic
Co(II) complex, the g value pattern (gl, gz > 2; g3 ~ 2) is consistent with axial
elongation of this Jahn-Teller active ion to give a dz2 ground state. Consonant with
this assignment, the crystal structure of the isoelectronic [Pd(9S3)2] 3+ cation
reveals an axially elongated MS 6 coordination sphere [132].
By similar reasoning, the structurally uncharacterized Rh(I) complex probably
resembles one of the isoelectronic d s complexes [M(9S3)=] 1+ (M = Pd [106],
Pt [107]), which display quasi-octahedral and square pyramidal geometry,
respectively.
Reaction of [RhCI(COD)] 2 with 9S3 gives [Rh(9S3)(COD)] + (Eq. 10d), in

which a tridentate 9S3 caps a square pyramidal {Rh(COD)} + unit (Table 1) [,130]
that structurally resembles [{Rh(COD)}2(20S6)] 2+ [133]. In [,Rh(benzo 3-
9S3)(NO3)3] [134] Rh(III) coordinates to a tridentate macrocycle in the conical
"crown" conformation, and to three monodentate N O 3 groups to yield a complex
with crystallographically-imposed threefold symmetry. The unique Rh-S distance
falls well short (0.11 A) of that found in [Rh(9S3)2] 3+ [128, 129].
Use of Rh(II) carboxylates as starting materials upon reaction with 9S3 yields
apparently polymeric adducts with 3:2 stoichiometry (i.e., [{Rhz(OzCR)4}3
(9S3)2]n) in which each S atom of the macrocycte is thought to bind to a different
Rh ion [135].
3.1.2.4 Palladium
While 9S3 promotes trigonal coordination, Pd(II) with few exceptions adopts
square planar coordination. Thus the interaction of these two species sets their
stereochemical preferences in opposition. Reaction of Pd(II) acetate (or
Kz[PdC14] ) with 9S3 in methanol gives [,Pd(9S3)2] 2+ (which as the PF6 salt
crystallizes in blue hydrated and green anhydrous forms) [106, 136]. Note that this
reaction constitutes a rare example of halide displacement by a crown thioether. In
both forms 9S3 coordinates in a tridentate fashion to yield a quasi-octahedral
coordination sphere. Bond lengths to the axial S atoms (Pd-Saxial > 2.95 ,~) sub-
stantially exceed those in the equatorial plane (by 0.63 ,~), and thereby establish
that these donors only "semi-coordinate" (Fig. 6; Table 1). In addition, the apical
S atoms lie appreciably ( ~ 6 °) offthe normal to the PdSeq plane. It is not clear why
the two 9S3 molecules do not each coordinate in a bidentate fashion (as one 9S3
does in [Pt(9S3)2] 2+ [,107]) to yield simple square planar coordination. Oxidation
of [,Pd(9S3)z] 2+ either chemically (with, e.g. 70% HC104) or electrochemically
gives the red [Pd(9S3)2] 3+ cation [,136]. EPR spectroscopy indicates the metal as
the site of oxidation, as demonstrated by both the anisotropy of the g values and
the presence of l°SPd hyperfine coupling (Table 5). The curious oxidation by
perchloric acid underscores the potential hazard associated with this "inert" anion.
MeOH
Pd(OAc)2 + excess 9S3 , [Pd(9S3)/] 2 + (lla)
[Pd(9S3)232+ , [Pd(9S3)233+ + e- (llb)

9S3 Br -
Pd(OAc)2 ~ ~ cis-[,PdBr2(9S3)] (1 lc)
MeOH
K2[PdCI4] + 9S3 ~ cis-[PdCl2(9S3)] (lld)
Structurally [Pd(9S3)2] 3+ consists of a centrosymmetric tetragonally elon-

gated six-coordinate complex, as expected for this Jahn-Teller active (low-spin d7)
ion (Fig. 6) [132]. Axial Pd-S distances exceed equatorial ones by 0.18 ,~ (Table 1).
Oxidation of [Pd(9S3)/] 1+ shortens the axial Pd-S distance by over 0.4,~,
but equatorial ones by only 0.04A. In its electrochemical behavior the
[Pd(9S3)2] 3+/2+ couple (Table 2) [136] resembles the isoelectronic

[Rh(9S3)2] 2+/+ complexes. No evidence has yet been found for Pd(IV), which
would complete the series analogous to the isoelectronic Rh(III), (II) and (I)
complexes.
Addition of NaBr to a solution containing Pd(OAc)2 and 9S3 in methanol gives
the orange-brown [PdBr2(9S3)] complex (Eq. 1lc), in which Pd(II) interacts with
two halide ions and a tridentate 9S3 to yield square pyramidal coordination (Fig. 6;
Table 1) [106]. As in the bis(9S3) complex, the coordination sphere contains
a semi-coordinated S atom in the apical position [106]. The chloride analogue
[137] has a similar structure.
3.1.2.5 Cadmium
Interaction of Cd(II) perchlorate with 9S3 in MeCN gives [Cd (9S3)2 ] 2 + [ 1 4 2 ] . No
structural data have yet been published, although it has been used as a diamagnetic
host lattice for EPR studies on the analogous Cu(II) complex [113]. Use of CdX 2
salts (X = CI, NO3) in a similar procedure gives complexes of [Cd(9S3)X2]
stoichiometry, which have been characterized by elemental analysis and vibra-
tional spectroscopy [142].
3.1.2.6 Silver
The well-known affinity of Ag(I) for thioether coordination results in rich co-
ordination chemistry for this ion with 9S3. Reaction of Ag(triflate) with two
equivalents of 9S3 in methanol yields [Ag(9S3)/] + (Eq. 12a). Despite the propen-
sity of Ag(I) for linear and tetrahedral coordination, structural work [114-116]
reveals a six-coordinate Ag(I) complex (Fig. 6; Table 1). The spherical symmetry of
this d 1° ion and the attendant malleability of its coordination sphere facilitates
attainment of six-coordination. The limited bite of 9S3, however, necessitates
substantial trigonal elongation of the octahedron (e.g. chelating S-Ag-S angles
average 80°).
MeOH
Ag + + 29S3 , [Ag(9S3)2] + (12a)
MeOH
[Ag(9S3)2] + , [Ag(9S3)2] 2+ + e- (12b)
MeOH
Ag + + 9S3 ~ [Ag3(9S3)3] 3+ (12c)
MeOH
AgC1 + 9S3 , [-AgCI(9S3)] (lZd)
Metal-ligand bond lengths in [Ag(9S3)2 ] + show the danger of reasoning too

closely from ionic radii. Silver-sulfur distances (average 2.72 A; Table 1) fall well
short of those expected from the sum of ionic radii (2.99 A) [104]. This difference
reflects appreciable covalency in the Ag-S interaction as well as (to a lesser extent)
conformational constraints imposed by 9S3. Clearly arguments from ionic radii
must be viewed with caution, particularly for interactions between thioethers and
transition metals in the second or third rows, or those in lower oxidation states.
Imposition of a hexakis(thioether) environment results in surprising redox
behavior. Electrochemical studies reveal a quasi-reversible one-electron oxidation
at + 1.30 V vs SHE [114-116]. Electrochemical or chemical (Ce(IV)) oxidation of
[Ag(9S3)2 ] + affords an unstable paramagnetic blue species of unknown structure.
Besides increasing the electron density at the metal ion (because of the high
coordination number), coordination to 9S3 may promote this oxidation by binding
tightly. Oxidation may decrement the stability of the complex, but not so much
that the oxidized form cannot exist in solution.
Reaction of Ag(I) perchlorate with less than two equivalents of 9S3 affords
a complex that crystallizes as the cyclic trimer [Ag3(9S3)3] 3+ (Eq. 12c) (Fig. 6;
Table 1). This compound features crystallographically-imposed threefold sym-
metry between the three {Ag(9S3)} units. In each unit 9S3 acts as a tridentate
ligand to one Ag ÷ ion; with one S atom also bridging to another, to complete
idealized tetrahedral [3 + 1] Coordination about each Ag(I) ion [115].
Despite its affinity for silver(l), 9S3 fails to displace halide ions from the metal.
Reaction of AgC1 with 9S3 in MeOH affords the colorless, sparingly soluble
complex [AgCI(9S3)]; conductivity studies indicate that the complex does not
dissociate in CH3NO 2 [116]. Here 9S3 caps an AgC1 unit to yield a four-coordi-
nate complex that strongly resembles the closely related complex [CuI(9S3)] [ 115].
The resulting AgS3C1 coordination sphere deviates from idealized tetrahedral
geometry (c.f. Cu(9S3)I) [115] largely through a substantial trigonal stretching
( / S - A g - C I 129°). The reduction in coordination number from [Ag(9S3)2] + to
[Ag(9S3)C1] decreases Ag-S distances (by 0.12 A) and chelating S-Ag-S angles (by
4.5°). in contrast to this discrete complex, reaction of AgBr with 18S6 affords an
oligomer with a network structure (vide infra).
3.1.3 9 S 3 - Third-row M e t a l s
3.1.3.1 Rhenium
In [Re(9S3)(CO)3 ] +, prepared by reaction of [Re(CO)sBr] with 9S3, three facially
bound CO groups and a tridentate 9S3 offer octahedral coordination to the metal
ion (Fig. 7; Table 1) [138]. The kinetic inertness of this complex has frustrated
attempts to replace the remaining carbonyl ligands with 9S3.
3.1.3.2 Platinum
Reaction of PtC12 or K2PtC1 ~ with 9S3 affords the green [Pt(9S3)2] 2÷ cation
(Eq. 13a) [107]. Two crystallographically distinct cations occupy the asymmetric
unit. Both contain a square pyramidal coordination sphere that comprises one
tridentate and one bidentate 9S3; the two cations differ primarily in their Pt--Sapica~
distances. Distances to the semi-coordinated S atom from the tridentate ligand
differ appreciably: 2.88 and 2.92 A (Fig. 7; Table 1). In both cases, also, the sixth
S atom (from the bidentate 9S3) fails to bind ( P t " " S 4.04,~) because this
macrocycle adopts an unusual conformation in which the remaining donor points
away from the metal ion. As in the Pd(II) analogue, the Pt--Sax vector deviates from
normality with the PtSeq plane by approximately 5°. This presumably reflects the
limited bite of 9S3. Structurally both [M(9S3)2] 2+ (M = P d , Pt) cations reflect
a compromise: axial coordination somewhat stabilizes the complex electronically,
but it necessitates a small conformational change in the ligand. Oxidation of
[-Pt(9S3)2] 2+ yields the red mononuclear species [Pt(9S3)2] 3 +, where the modest
reversibility of this process presumably reflects substantial structural rearrange-
ment. The syntheses of cis-[,PtC12(9S3)] and cis-[,Pt(PPh3)2(9S3)] 2+ have also
been described [,136]. These compounds presumably have structures analogous to
that of [,PdBr2(9S3)] [106].
K2PtC14 + 9S3 ~ [,Pt(9S3)2] 2+ (13a)

[Pt(9S3)2] 2+ , [Pt(9S3)2] 3+ + e- (13b)
CHCI3
[,PtC1M%] 4 + 9S3 , [PtMe3(9S3)] + (13c)
The utility of 9S3 as a capping ligand in organometallic chemistry has recently

been exploited in the synthesis of [,Pt(9S3)Me3] +. This colorless diamagnetic
complex was prepared by reaction of [-PtC1Me3] 4 with 9S3 (Eq. 13c), and it
contains an idealized octahedral coordination sphere (Fig. 7; Table 1) [,139]. This
synthesis represents a rare example of halide displacement by a thioether ligand. In
this case such displacement probably occurs because the three strongly c~-donating
methyl groups mitigate the poor charge neutralization offered by thioethers.
In [PtC12((MeO)6-tribenzo-9S3)] a macrocycle in the crown conformation
envelops a square pyramidal PtS3C12 core (Table 1) [140]. The complex resembles
a square planar PtC12S2 coordination sphere with addition of the third S atom in
an apical position. The Pt-S distance to this apical atom (2.86 ,&) greatly exceeds
that of the two equatorial S atoms (2.24 A). This 0.62 A elongation reflects the
tenuous nature of the Pt-Sapieal interaction. Because of steric constraints imposed
by the ligand the apical S atom lies appreciably ( ~ 10°) offthe pseudo-fourfold axis
of the molecule. Here the rigidity introduced by fusion of three phenylene groups
further exacerbates the difficulty of coordination of the third S atom.
3.1.3.3 Gold
In aqueous acetone 9S3 reacts with [AuCl(thiodiglycol)] to give {[AuCI(9S3)]}x
[,141]. This oligomeric compound features square planar coordination at the Au
atoms. Each Au binds to one S atom from a 9S3 molecule, which must twist into
a strained conformation ([225] in the nomenclature of Dale) [-76]. Trans to this
S atom lies the C1-. Bonds to two trans Au atoms completes the AuSC1Au2
coordination sphere about any given Au ion, and results in a nearly linear infinite
polymer. N M R studies in solution indicate interaction of the Au ion with three
S atoms that are equivalent on the NMR time scale (at least down to 240 K).
3.1.3.4 M e r c u r y
9S3 a v i d l y b i n d s H g ( I I ) to yield [ H g ( 9 S 3 ) 2 ] 2+ (Eq. 14), which, like the isoelectronic

Ag(I) a n a l o g u e , deviates f r o m o c t a h e d r a l g e o m e t r y p r i n c i p a l l y t h r o u g h t r i g o n a l
e l o n g a t i o n : c h e l a t i n g S - H g - S angles a v e r a g e 82 °, while n o n - c h e l a t i n g ones average
98°(Fig. 7; T a b l e 1) [142]. T h i s c o m p l e x p a r t i c u l a r l y highlights the d a n g e r of
u n c r i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of ionic radii: Hg-Save (2.70 A) here falls s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e l o w
the s u m of ionic radii (2.86 A) [104].
MeOH
Hg(CF3SO3) 2 + 29S3 , [Hg(9S3)2] 2 + (14)
Table 4. Synthetic Studies of Crown Thioethers
Liganda Route Conditions Yield Year Ref.
9S3b BrCH2CH2Br + Na2S EtOH -- 1886 [40]

9S3c BrCH2CH2Br + KSH EtOH -- 1920 [41]
9S3 Na2(SCH2CH2)2S + CICH2CH2CI EtOH; < 5° 0.04% 1977 [11]
9S3 (NBzMe3)2(SCH2CH2)2S MeOH; 65° 4.4 1983 [62]
+ C1(CH 2)2CI
9S3 [Mo(CO)~(L)] + BrCH2CH2Br MeCN; 25° 60 1984 [63, 64]
(L = S(CH2CH2S)2
9S3 Cs2S(CH2CH2S) 2 + CICH2CH2C1 DMF; 100° 50 1987 [59]
benzo-9S3 [Ru(CO)(L)] + S(CH2CH2Br)2 DMF; 140° 45d 1988 1-126]
(benzo)3-9S3 1,2-Br2-4,5-(MeO)2C6H3 + CuzO; DMA 70 1979 [66]
1,2-(SH)2-4,5-(MeO)2C6H3 165°
12S3e Br(CH2)3Br + HSCH2CH2SH EtOH -- 1886 [40]
12S3 Na2(S(CH2)3)2S + Br(CH2)aBr EtOH;,78 ° 3 1970 [51]
12S4 Na2(S(CH2)2S(CH2)2 + Br(CH2)2Br EtOH; 78° 4 1970 [51]
12S4 S(CH2CH2CI)2 + Na2(SCH2CH2)2S) n-BuOH; 6.3 1974 [55]
< 25°
12S4 Cs2(S(CH2)2S(CH2))2 + BrCH2CHBr DMF; 50° 88, 1981 [57]
(benzo)4- [2,4,5-Br(MeO)2C6H2 ]2 S Cu20;-DMA 20 1985 [67]
12S4 [2,4,5-HS(MeO)2C6H2 ] S 165°
13S4 Na2(S(CH2)2S(CH2)2 + Br(CH2)2Br EtOH; 78° 16 1970 [51]
13S4 Cs2(S'(CH2)2S(CH2)2 + Br(CH2)aBr DMF; 50° 72 1981 [57]
14S4 Na2(SCH2CH2S) + Br(CH2)3Br EtOH; 25° 1 1933 [46]
14S4 Na2(S(CH2)2S(CHz)2 + Br(CH2)aBr EtOH; 78° 7.5 1969 [49]
14S4 Na2(S(CH2)2S(CH2)2 + Br(CH2)aBr EtOH; 78° 55 1974 [50]
high dil.
14S4 Na2 (SCH2CH2CH2S) + n-BuOH; 25° 22.1 1974 [55]
CH2(CH2S(CH2)2CI)2
14S4 Cs 2(S(CH 2)2S(CH2))zCH2 DMF; 50° 76 1981 [57]
+ Br(CH2)3Br
benzo-14S4 Cs2(S(CH2)2S(CH2))2 + DMF; 50° 69 1981 [57]
1,2-(BrCHz)2C6H4
benzo-15S4 Na2 (S(CHz)2S(CH2))2CH2 + EtOH; 78° 38 1969 [49]
1,2-(BrCH2)zC6H4
benzo-15S4 Cs2(S(CH2)2S(CH2))2CH2 + DMF; 50° 85 1981 [57]
1,2-(BrCH2)2C6H4
15S5 Na2(SCH2CH2).2S + n-BuOH; 60° 11 1974 [55]
(CH2S(CH2)2CI)2
Ligand a Route Conditions Yield Year Ref.
16S4 Br(CH2)3Br + Naz(S(CH2)3S) EtOH; 25° 1.0 1934 [47]

16S4 Naz(S(CH2)3S) + Br(CHz)3Br 1 : 1 EtOH/ 6.2 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
18S4 Br(CH2)4Br + Na2(S(CH2)3S) EtOH; 25° 1.8 1934 [47]
18S6 BrCH2CH2Br + Na2(SCH2CH2S) EtOH; 25° 1.7 1934 [47]
18S6 BrCH2 CH2Br + Na2 (SCH2 CH2)2S EtOH; 70° 31 1969 [52, 53]
18S6 S(CH2CH2C1)2 + Na2(SCH2CH2)2S n-BuOH; < 25 ° 32.8 1974 [55]
18S6 Na2(SCH2CH2)2S + BrCH2CH2Br n-BuOH; < 25° 8.1 1974 [55]
18S6 Na2(SCH2CH2S) + S(CH2CH2CI)2 n-BuOH; < 25 ° 21.7 1974 [55]
(benzo)2- [Fe(L)2(CO)2] + S(CH2CH2Br)2 THF; 80° 68f 1986 [68, 69]
18S6 (L = 1,2-(SH)2C6H4)
20S4 Na2(S(CH2)4S) + Br(CH2)4Br 1 : 1 EtOH/ 3.9 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
21S6 Na 2(S(CH 2)2SCHE)2CH2 n-BuOH; 25° 9.7 1974 [55]
+ ((CH2)S(CH2)3C1)2
22S4 Br(CH2)6Br + Naz(S(CH2)3S) EtOH; 25° 1.1 1934 [47]
24S4 Na2(S(CH2)sS) + Br(CH2)sBr 1 : 1 EtOH/ 5.3 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
24S6 Na2(S(CH2)3S) + Br(CH2)aBr 1 : 1 EtOH/ 7.3 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
28S4 Na2(S(CH2)6S) + Br(CH2)6Br 1 : 1 EtOH/ 3.9 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
36S6 Na2(S(CH2)sS) + Br(CH2)sBr 1 : 1 EtOH/ 6.8 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
42S6 Na 2(S(CH2)6S) + Br(CH2)6Br 1 : 1 EtOH/ 3.2 1974 [55]
n-BuOH; 15°
'~ For structures of ligands see Figure 1; Systematic names: benzo4-12S4 (2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-
octamethoxy-10,15,20-tetrathiatetrabenzo[a, d, g, j]cyclododecine); benzoz-18S6 (2,3,11,12-dibenzo-
1,4,7,10,13,16-hexathiacyclo-octadeca-2,11-diene)
b Later shown to be incorrect. See references 44 and 45
° Later shown to be incorrect. See references 44, 45, 47 and 11
d As metal complex
Not verified
f After two alkylations of complex with S(CHzCHzBr)2.
3.1.3.5 L e a d
U n l i k e its m e r c u r y ( I I ) a n a l o g u e , the P b ( I I ) c o m p l e x o f 9S3 d o e s n o t a s s u m e

o c t a h e d r a l c o o r d i n a t i o n . I n s t e a d , r e a c t i o n of P b ( C 1 0 4 ) 2 w i t h 2 e q u i v a l e n t s of
l i g a n d in C H 3 C N affords [ P b ( 9 S 3 ) 2 ( O C 1 0 3 ) 2 ] (Eq. 15) [119]. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n
reveals a d i s t o r t e d s q u a r e a n t i p r i s m a t i c g e o m e t r y , w i t h c o o r d i n a t i o n o f six S a t o m s
and two O atoms from two tridentate ligands and two monodentate perchlorate
g r o u p s ( T a b l e 1). I n the e i g h t - c o o r d i n a t e P b S 6 0 z c o o r d i n a t i o n s p h e r e the p a r t i c u -
larly l o n g P b - S d i s t a n c e s ( T a b l e 1) reflect the w e a k n e s s o f the P b • • • S i n t e r a c t i o n .
MeCN
P b ( C I 0 4 ) 2 + 2 9S3 , [Pb(9S3)2(OC103)2] (15)
3.1.4 12S3 - First-Row Metals
3.1.4.1 Nickel
In 1970 Rosen and Busch [51] reported the synthesis of [Ni(12S3)z] 2+ from the
reaction of Ni(BF4)z'6HzO with 12S3 in MeNOz/Ac20 ) (Eq. 16). In the blue
high-spin [Ni(12S3)2] 2+ cation (Table 3; Table 5) [49, 51] Ni(II) ion coordinates
to six thioether groups in an essentially regular octahedral fashiOn (Fig. 8) [23]. As
Table 5. Crown Thioether Complexes: Magnetic Data
Complex pl g(A) Comments Ref.
9S3
[Cr(9S3)Cls] 4.13 293 K [94]
[Cr(9S3Xtriflate)3 ] 3.95 293 K [94]
[Fe(9S3)2] 3+ 2.46 2.09 ixB 110 K [74]
[Co(9S3)2] z+ 1.82 gll 2.136 g 2.07 [99-100, 102]
All 0.698 A ± 0.241 x 10-4cm -1
[Ni(9S3)z] 2+ 3.05 [23, 62, 96]
[Pd(9S3)213+ -- gll 2.008 g± 2.04 [62, 102]
All 0.5 G, A± 20 G
[Pt(9S3)2 ]3+ gll "1.98 g± 2.044 [107]
18S6
[Ni(18S6)] 2 + 2.77 298 K [233
[Co(18S6)] 2+ 1.81 gx 2.044 gy 2.121 298 K [98, 99]
gz 2.135
[MOC13(18S6)] 3.44 [155]
[(MOC13)2(18S6)(THF)3 ] 3.46 [155]
[(MOOC13)2(18S6)] 1.70 1.954 300 K; giso [154]
[(MOC14)2(18S6)] 2.31 300 K [154]
12S3
[Ni(12S3)2] 2+ 3.19 [23]
14S4
[Ni(14S4)CI2]Z + 3.04 [50]
[Ni(14S4)Br2 ] z+ 3.18 [50]
[Ni(14S4)I2] z + 3.10 [50]
[Ni(14S4)(NCS) 212+ 3.11 [50]
[(MOOC13)2 (14S4)(THF)z ] 1.66 [154]
[MOOC13(14S4)]; 15 1.65 1.954 giso [154]
[(MOC14)2(14S4)] 2.32 154
[MOC14(14S4)] 2.21 154
Miscellaneous
[Niz(NCS)4(28S8)] 3.08 [192]
16S4
[MoBr 2(Me8-16S4)] 3.1 CHC13 [187]
[MoCI z(Me 8-16S4)] 3.1 CHCls [187]
fac-[MoC1 s (Me 8-16S4)] 3.9 CHC13 [187]
1 At room temperature unless otherwise noted

a consequence of the larger ring size Ni-Save increases by 0.05 A from that in the
corresponding 9S3 complex (Table 1).
Ni(HOAc)6 + 12S3 , [Ni(12S3)2] 2+ (16)
Conformational effects manifest themselves in the solution chemistry of this
complex. Substantial rearrangement - with its attendant cost in enthalpy - must
occur for 12S3 to function as a tridentate ligand. Hence conformational factors
clearly disfavor coordination. Contact with even traces of water immediately
hydrolyzes the complex (to yield the hexaaquo ion and free ligand) [23]. By con-
trast the 9S3 a n a l o g u e - where ligand conformational preferences favor co-
ordination - withstands recrystallization from boiling water [23].
Optical studies of Ni(II) complexes [Ni(L)2] 2+ (L = 9S3, 12S3; Table 3) show
that the increase in average Ni-S bond length decreases the ligand field splitting by
approximately 10% [23].
3.1.4.2 Copper
Addition of 12S3 to Cu(II) in aqueous MeOH forms a complex (or mixture of
complexes) with an exceptionally high reduction potential (Table 2) [143]. In view
of the water sensitivity of other first-row [M(12S3)2] z+ cations, this as yet un-
characterized complex probably does not contain 12S3 bound in a tridentate
fashion.
aq MeOH
Cu(II) + 12S3 , [Cu(12S3)(OH2)x] z+ ? (17a)
THF
CuC12 q- 12S3 ~ [CuCI/(12S3)/] (17b)
[Cu(MeCN)4] + + 12S3 , [Cuz(12S3)3] 2-+ (17c)
Treatment of 12S3 with CuC12 in T H F yields [CUC12(12S3)1 ] as a red-brown

crystalline precipitate [34]. It contains a centrosymmetric CuC12S 2 unit that
bridges monodentate 12S3 rings, each of which essentially retains the conformation
of the free ligand (Fig. 8). Surprisingly, the CuC12 moiety binds a sulfur atom in
a side rather than the one in the more protruding corner position.
With Cu(I), 12S3 affords [Cu2(12S3)3] 2+, where the cation features a central
12S3 (in the free ligand conformation) donating one S atom to each of two
{Cu(12S3)} + units (Fig. 8) [1173. Within each {Cu(12S3)} + unit 12S3 coordinates
in a tridentate fashion to complete an approximately tetrahedral CuS 4 co-
ordination sphere.
3.1.5 12S3 - Second-Row Metals
3.1.5.1 Ruthenium
Synthesis of [-Ru(12S3) 2]1+ proceeds analogously to that of the 9S3 analogue (Eq.
18a) to yield an octahedral complex structurally similar to [Ni(t2S3)2] 2+ (Fig. 8;
S~Cu--S
I
• | ,.
_ f . : Ru
•
f n:3,2
12S.3
In"
CFaSOa~'
~SA~g ~f.:
Rh•
s ~ ~ __S..Ag ~.s. ~ n =3,2,1
Fig. 8. Complexesof 12S3
Table 1) [121]. Unlike [Ni(12S3)2] 2+, however, the Ru(II) complex resists attack
by water; indeed, it can be recrystallized from it. As in the case of the 9S3 complex,
this difference probably reflects thermodynamic factors as well as the obvious
kinetic ones. Ruthenium-sulfur bond lengths exceed those in [Ru(9S3)/] 1+ by
approximately 0.03 ,~, comparable with the difference found in the corresponding
Ni(II) complexes (Table 1) [121].
MeOH
[Ru(Me/SO)6] 2+ + 212S3 , [Ru(12S3)2] 2+ (18a)
[Ru(12S3)/] 2+ ~ [Ru(12S3)2] 3+ + e- (18b)

Optical spectroscopic studies on the d 6 species [Ru(12S3)2] z+ (Table 3) yield
a value of A, the ligand field splitting, 29570 cm- 1, little different from that of the
9S3 analogue (30760 cm-1). Despite the close similarity in electronic spectra, the
two complexes differ appreciably in their electrochemical behavior. Cyclic voltam-
metry shows a quasi-reversible one-electron wave for the [Ru(12S3)2] 3+/2 + couple
[121], at a potential 230 mV less oxidizing than in [Ru(9S3)2] 2+ (Eq. 18b; Table 2).
3.1.5.2 Rhodium
As discussed earlier, synthesis of homoleptic Rh(III) complexes from the commer-
cially available "RhC13-xH20'' requires prior removal of the halide ions by
treatment with Ag(triflate). Reaction of the resulting rhodium triflate solution with
12S3 affords [Rh(12S3)2] 3+ (Eq. 19a) [130]. Structural characterization confirms
the presence of an octahedral coordination sphere (Fig. 8; Table 1) in which Rh-S
distances only slightly exceed (by 0.01 A) those in the 9S3 analogue (Table 1).
Disorder in the chelate groups precludes detailed discussion of the ligand con-
formation.
Ag + 12S3
"RhC13 ' x H 2 0 " , , [Rh(12S3)2] 3 + (19a)
MeOH
[Rh(12S3)233+ + e- , [Rh(12S3)2] 2+ (19b)
[Rh(12S3)232+ + e- , [Rh(12S3)23 + (19c)
The most interesting aspect of [Rh(i2s3)2] 3+ concerns its electrochemistry.

Cyclic voltammetry of [Rh(L)2] 3+ (L = 12S3) reveals reversible behavior for the
3 + / 2 + wave (Eq. 19b) but not for the 2 + / + process (Eq. 19c) (cf. the L = 9S3
complex [128]) (Table 2). Compared to [Rh(9S3)/] "+ both the 3 + / 2 + and
particularly the 2 +/1 + waves of [Rh(12S3)/] "+ system shift to more oxidizing
potentials. Consequently, for the reaction Kcomp(the comproportionation constant)
for [Rh(12S3)2] 2+ falls short of that of [Rh(9S3)2] 2+ by three orders of
magnitude.
[RhL2] 3+ + [RhL2] + , 2 [ R h L 2 ] 2+ Kcomp
3.2 H e x a d e n t a t e Crown Thioethers
Black and McLean pointed out that a hexadentate ligand can yield either of two
isomeric octahedral complexes of meso or racemic stereochemistry (Fig. 9) [52, 53].
These differ primarily in that the former consists entirely of facially coordinating
tridentate loops; the latter comprises two meridional loops (i.e., those in which
three adjacent donor atoms, as well as the metal ion, lie in a plane). In all
encapsulated complexes reported to date, 18S6 coordinates in the centrosymmetric
meso form. This behavior contrasts with the racemic coordination found for
corresponding hexaaza macro-cycles [144~147].
This difference apparently arises at least in part from the differing propensity of
the two ligands to adopt 9auche placement at the C-heteroatom bonds [80, 86]. In
Fig. 9. meso and rac isomers of an [M(18S6)] "+

complex meso rae
the meso isomer all 12 of the C-E bonds assume gauche placement, whereas in the
isomeric racemic structure, only eight of the 12 do so. Since aza macrocycles
preferentially assume anti placement at the C-N atom bonds, the stereochemical
difference found for complexes of 18S6 and 18N6 parallels the conformational
preferences of the component carbon-heteroatom bonds [145, 147].
3.2.1 18S6 - First-row Metals
3.2.1.1 Nickel
In the picrate salt of [Ni(18S6)] 2+ the ligand envelops a high-spin Ni(II) ion to
yield an octahedral N i S 6 coordination sphere (Fig. 10; Table 1) [23, 148]. This
complex was first prepared by Black and McLean [52, 53] by reaction of nickel(II)
picrate with 18S6 in acetone (Eq. 21a); it also results from interaction of nickel(II)
trifluoroacetate with the ligand in nitromethane containing trifluoracetic anhyd-
ride (Eq. 21b). As a whole the complex possesses meso stereochemistry, consonant
with centrosymmetric structure. All six MSCHzCH2S five-membered chelate rings
S,...Cu" ,,
n=3,2
/ F s''''cu \
~.-.-s" \ /
?.
Rh
i2 .
/
s I\1 t s,:'~} ~ ...c,
/
CH~
Fig. 10. Complexes of 18S6

adopt "lel" orientation, in which the CH2CH 2 linkages lie parallel to the pseudo
threefold axis of the molecule (as opposed to the "ob" or transverse orientation).
Ni(picrate)z + 18S6 - , [Ni(18S6)](picrate)/ (21a)

MeNO2/(CF3CO)2 0
Ni(CF3COO)2 + 18S6 , [Ni(18S6)] 2 + (21b)
As in the analogous bis(9S3) complex, coordination to the ethyl-linked macro-

cycle entails appreciable compression of the M-L bond lengths (the "macrocyclic
constriction effect" [16-18]) (Ni-Save = 2.39 A; cf. the sum of covalent radii
(2.44 ,~)) [2]. Electronic spectroscopy reflects the compression in the molecular
structure: the ligand field splitting in [Ni(18S6)] 2÷ exceeds those in propyl-linked
or open-chain analogues by approximately 10% [23].
3.2.1.2 Cobalt
A reaction path analogous to that used for Ni(II) affords the [Co(18S6)] 2+ cation
(Eq. 22a) (Fig. 10; Table 1), where 18S6 wraps around the metal ion in an all facial
fashion to yield the m e s o isomer. Several lines of evidences indicate adoption of the
low-spin (2Eg) state. These include observation of a pronounced Jahn-Teller axial
elongation (0.21 ~,) as well as Co-S distances consistent with the ionic radius of the
low-spin ion [104]. Magnetic susceptibility measurements confirm the low-spin
formulation (Table 5) [98, 99]. EPR g values (gll approx. 2, g~_ > 2; Table 5)
establish the existence of a dz2 ground state (consistent with axial elongation of
a low-spin six-coordinate d 7 system).
MeCN/aeetone
Co(picrate)2 + 18S6 , [Co(18S6)] 2 ÷ (22a)
[Co(18S6)] 2+ , [Co(18S6)] 3+ + e- (22b)
In view of the compression seen for the Ni(II) complex, the low-spin state of
[Co(18S6)] z+ (and [Co(9S3)2] 2+ ) might be attributed to macrocyclic constriction
of the metal ion. Subsequent investigation showed that [Co(ttn)2)] z+ (where
ttn = 2,5,8-trithianonane)is also low-spin [99]. Thus the low-spin state in
[Co(18S6)] 2÷ derives from the electronic consequences of thioether coordination,
and not from macrocyclic constriction of the metal ion.
Cyclic voltammetric measurements reveal a reversible one-electron oxidation
process (Eq. 22b; Table 2) [99]. Unlike the 9S3 analogue [98, 99, 102],
[Co(18S6)] z÷ exhibits no reversible reduction to the Co(l) oxidation state.
3.2.1.3 Copper
Like its isostructural Co (II) analogue, the octahedral [Cu(18S6)] 2 + cation exhibits
a pronounced Jahn-Teller distortion (Ad(Cu-S) > 0.2 ,~; Fig. 10; Table 1) [93].
This compound results from the reaction of Cu(II) salts (e.g. picrate [93], BF4)
with the ligand in MeNO2 (Eq. 23a).
MEN02
Cu(II) + 18S6 , [Cu(18S6)] 2+ (23a)
MeCN
[Cu(MeCN)4] + + 18S6 , [Cu(18S6)] + (23b)
MeNO2
[Cu(18S6)] 2+ + e- , [Cu(18S6)] + (23c)
CH2C12/MeCN
2[Cu(MeCN)4 ] + + 18S6 , [Cu2(MeCN)2(18S6)] 2 + (23d)
CuCI + 18S6 , [CuCI(18S6)] x (23e)
Reduction of [Cu(18S6)] 2+ (or reaction of 18S6 with [Cu(MeCN)4](BF4) )

yields [Cu(18S6)] + (Fig. 10; Eq. 23b, c), in which Cu(i) coordinates tetrahedrally
with four thioether groups from one 18S6 molecule (Table 1) [93]. The other two
S atoms remain free. In light of the severely distorted coordination sphere
(/_S-Cu-S = 138°), this complex can also be described as derived from a diag-
onally coordinated Cu(I) ion by addition of two thioether groups [93]. Similar
results have been reported by Rorabacher et al. for the Cu(I) complexes of a variety
of crown thioethers [149]. An electrochemically reversible process interrelates the
Cu(II) and Cu(I) complexes (Table 2; Eq. 23b). As in the numerous [CuLl 2+/+
couples of tetradentate thioether ligands [ 149], the high reduction potential reflects
the ability of thioethers to stabilize low oxidation states.
Lower ligand :metal stoichiometry affords [(Cu(MeCN)2(18S6)] 2+ (Eq. 23d)
[150], where 18S6 encompasses two {CuMeCN} units (Cu " • • Cu 4.25 A). Each
Cu(I) ion coordinates to three adjacent S atoms from 18S6, as well as an N atom
from MeCN. The resulting centrosymmetric coordination sphere deviates from
iealized tetrahedral geometry, with two chelating S-Cu-S angles near 90 °. Evid-
ently by virtue of its ethylene linkages 18S6 cannot easily span the coordination
sites of a tetrahedron. Rorabacher and coworkers have previously made this same
point for 14S4 [151, 152].
ConformationaUy, coordination to the {Cu(MeCN)} unit requires considerable
rearrangement from free 18S6 [80, 86]. Coordination to two {Cu(MeCN)} groups
requires half of the C-S bonds to change to anti placement, and all of the C-C
bonds to adopt gauche placement.
Bidentate and monodentate coordination coexist in [CuCI(18S6)] x [153] (and
also the isostructural [AgBr(18S6)]x). In both cases a given 18S6 molecule coordi-
nates to two MX units. To one it chelates in a bidentate fashion, and to the other as
a monodentate ligand. In the resulting oligomer 18S6 bridges M-X units to yield
a staircase-like network structure (Fig. 10; Table 1) [116]. In neither case does 18S6
succeed in displacing the halide: instead three S atoms combine with it to generate
a distorted tetrahedral MS3 X coordination sphere.
3.2.2 18S6- Second- and Third-row Metals
3.2.2.1 Molybdenum
Evidence for coordination between 18S6 and Mo in oxidation states 6+ to 3 +
(Eqs. 24a--e) does not, unfortunately, include structural data [154, 155]. Instead the
compounds were characterized by elemental analysis and magnetic measurements,
as well as infrared and mass spectroscopy. Addition of 18S6 suspended in EtEO to
a solution of [MOO2C12] in the same solvent gives [(MOO2C12)2(18S6)] as a
yellow powder (Eq. 24a). Reaction of [MoOC13(THF)E] or [MoC14] with 18S6 in
Et20 yields [,(MOOC13)2(18S6)] as green crystals (Eq. 24b), while use of
[MoC14(PrCN)2 ] gives brown crystals of [(MOC14)2(18S6)] (Eq. 24c).
Molybdenum(Ill) starting materials give similar products [,1551. Treatment of
[MoC13(THF)3] (or [MoC13(PrCN)3] ) in CH2C12 with excess 18S6 gives
[(MOC13)(18S6)] (Eq. 24d). Infrared spectroscopy of this compound suggests
meridional stereochemistry for the MoC13S 3 coordination sphere. One 18S6 was
suggested to bridge two {MoC13 } units by acting as a monodentate ligand to one,
and as a bidentate ligand to the other (as in [,AgCI(18S6)]x). In THF the same
reaction with [,MoC13(solv)a ] gives [(MoC13)2(18S6)(THF)] (Eq. 24e), for which
a similar bridging mode was postulated. Both compounds exhibit magnetic
moments/Mo near 3.5 tx~ (Table 5); hence M o . • • Mo exchange interaction is
weak or nonexistent.
Et20
[MOO2C12] + 2 18S6 , [(MoOzC12)2(18S6)] (24a)
Et20
[MoOC13(THF)2 ] + 2 18S6 , [(MOOC13)2(18S6)] (24b)
CH2C12
[MoC14(PrCN)2 + 18S6 , [(MOC14)2(18S6)] (24c)
CH2C12
[MoCl3(solv)3 + excess 18S6 , [MOC13(18S6)] (24d)
(solv = THF, PrCN)
[MoCI3(THF)3 + excess 18S6 , [(MoC13)/)(18S6)(THF)] (24e)
Each of these compounds apparently result from simple adduct formation

between 18S6 and the strongly Lewis acidic Mo centers. Structurally they probably
resemble discrete complexes such as [(HGC12)2(14S4)] [35], and [(NBC15)2(14S4)]
[31-33] or oligomers such as [HGI2(14S4)] 2÷ [156], where an exodentate ligand
coordinates to the Lewis acidic site through one or two donor atoms. In view of the
low solubility of these complexes oligomeric structures seem particularly likely.
3.2.2.2 Rhodium
In [(qS-MesCpRhC1)2.18S6] 2÷ 18S6 donates two S atoms to each of two
(qS-MesCpRhC1)+ units to give a binuclear cation (Table 1) [,157]. This orange
compound results from reaction of [Rh(rl4-CsCps)C12]2 with an equivalent of

18S6 in MeOH.
3.2.2.3 Palladium
As in the corresponding 9S3 complexes, the octahedral coordination offered by
18S6 conflicts with the preference of Pd(II) for square planar coordination. Reac-
tion of PdC12 with 18S6 affords the yellow-brown centrosymmetric [Pd(18S6)] 2+
cation (Fig. 10; Table 1) (Eq. 25) [136]. Note the unusual displacement of halide
from the metal coordination sphere. This complex consists of a square planar PdS 4
coordination sphere augmented by axial semi-coordination (d(Pd • • • S) 3.27 A)
with the two remaining S atoms (of. Pd-Seq 2.31 ,~). Owing to the constraints
conferred by the short ethylene linkages, the apical S atoms do not lie directly
above and below the Pd ion. Instead they lie approximately 15° off the axis that
would yield tetragonaUy elongated octahedral coordination.
CH2C12/MeCN
PdC12 + 18S6 ~ [Pd(18S6) 2 +] (25)
3.2.2.4 Platinum
With 18S6 platinum(II) yields [Pt(18S6)] 2+ [108-], which is isostructural and
otherwise essentially identical with its Pd(II) analogue (Fig. 10). The two differ
primarily in M-Sa, distances, which in the Pt complex exceed those in the Pd
analogue by about 0.1 A (Table 1).
Bond lengths to the equatorial S atoms exceed that to the apical thioether
(3.38 A) by over 1 ,~. As in the corresponding Pd(II) complex, the axial S atoms lie
off the tetragonal axis by approximately 15°. This angular distortion presumably
reflects the conflict between ligand conformational preferences and M-L bonding
in determining geometry. Ordinarily the former represents a much smaller ener-
getic term than the latter (as in, e.g. [Ni(18S6)] 2+) [148]; for Pd(II) and Pt(II),
however, where axial ligands bind at most weakly, conformational factors influence
the coordination geometry. This is particularly apparent in comparison with the
9S3 analogues, where the conformation of 9S3 imposes much shorter axial M-S
distances.
3.2.2.5 Lanthanides
In acetonitrile 18S6 fails to coordinate to lanthanide(III) perchlorates, but it does
so in CH2C12 to yield complexes of stoichiometry Ln[CIO4] 3" 18S6"H20
(Ln = Sm, Eu, Yb) [158]. Although no structural data are available, electronic
spectroscopic studies of these complexes establish interaction between Ln(III) and
18S6.
3.3 Other Hexadentate Ligands

3.3.1 24S6
Reaction of 24S6 with [Ni(EtOH)6] 2+ yields the turquoise complex [Ni(24S6)] z+

(Table 1) [23, 159]. Traces of moisture or donor solvents quickly decompose the
complex, which reflects the weakness of the long Ni-S bonds. Adoption of meridi-
onal stereochemistry here contrasts with the facial coordination in [M(18S6)] 1+
(M = Co, Ni, Cu).
Optical spectroscopy (Table 3) shows that 24S6 exerts a ligand field strength
approximately 10% smaller than that of 9S3 or 18S6. This difference arises from
the absence of a significant macrocyclic constriction effect for the larger ring ligand,
which gives Ni-S distances comparable with those observed for acyclic thioethers
[23, 159].
3.3.2 20S6
Treatment of [Rh(1,5-cyclooctadiene)C1]2 with AgPF 6 in acetone, followed

by addition of 20S6 (0.5 equiv per Rh), gives [{Rh(COD)}2(20S6)] (PF6) 2 as
red crystals (Table 1) [133]. The centrosymmetric cation comprises two
{Rh(rl4-COD)} + units that each bind to three adjacent S atoms of an inside-out
20S6 unit. Note the parallel to [{HgC12 }2(14S4)] [35], where coordination of two
metal ions to one macrocycle forces extension of the ligand to minimize M • • • M
repulsion.
Each five-coordinate Rh(I) ion binds to the three S atoms from an ethyl-linked
SCH2CH2SCH2CH2S run (rather than one that includes a propyl-linkage).
A strong trans influence lengthens the Rh-C bonds trans to one thioether group (by
0.11 A; approximately 22 times the esd) while shortening the relevant Rh-S dis-
tance (by 0.15 A). Neither hydrogenation of the COD groups nor treatment with
such good ligands as PPh 3 displace either ligand from this surprisingly stable
complex.
3.4 Tetradentate Ligands

3.4.1 14S4
Early work on 14S4 [49, 51,160] arose its similarity to cyclam (14N4). While 14S4
finds its natural constituency among square-planar metal ions, it also forms
octahedral [M(14S4)X2] n+ complexes of both cis and trans stereochemistry.
A macrocycle such as 14S4 can girdle a square-planar metal ion (or the
equatorial plane of an octahedral one) in two ways [161]. These are best described
by reference to the six-membered SCHzCHzCH/SM chelate rings, which bear an
obvious relation to the chair form of cyclohexane. In syn coordination the central
methylene groups of the two six-membered (SCHaCH2CH2SM) rings lie on the
same side of the MS 4 plane (Fig. 11). This leads to R, S, R, S stereochemistry at

the S atoms. In the centrosymmetric anti isomer they lie on opposite sides of the
equatorial plane (R, S, S, R stereochemistry).
Alternatively, syn and anti conformers can be designated by reference to the
relative positions of the lone pairs on sulfur. This approach suffers from reliance
upon classification of molecules by a property that is not directly observed.
Nevertheless, with this caveat in mind syn coordination corresponds to an "all up"
disposition of S lone pairs; anti implies an "up, up, down, down" arrangement
(Fig. 11).
Which coordination mode a complex adopts depends critically upon the size of
the metal ion [162]. Anti stereochemistry, with its concomitant inversion sym-
metry, requires the metal ion to lie in the plane of the four donor atoms. Only the
smaller metal ions can fit in this plane at normal M-S distances. Syn coordination
better accommodates larger metal ions, which can (and invariably do) lie out of the
S~ plane. It therefore predominates when the ionic radius of the metal exceeds the
optimum for the ligand cavity [162]. For example, [M(14S4)] 2+ complexes of
first-row metals uniformly adopt anti coordination (as do [M(14N4)] e+ complexes
[162]). On the other hand, syn stereochemistry occurs in, e.g. [Hg(14S4)(OH2)] 2 +
[35], where it arises from the attempt to circumscribe the large Hg(II) ion.
Six-coordinate complexes of 14S4 can have either cis or trans geometry. Those
with idealized D4h symmetry result from addition of two axial ligands to an anti
[M(14S4)] n+ complex. Steric repulsion impedes the corresponding process in a syn
complex, since the macrocyclic ligand restrict access to the sixth coordination site.
Accordingly, syn complexes accept at most one additional ligand (to achieve square
pyramidal coordination, as in [Hg(14S4)(OH/)] 2 +) [35].
Alternatively, addition of two ligands to an [M(14S4)] "+ unit can lead to cis
stereochemistry, where 14S4 folds to bind to three equatorial and one apical site.
Only two examples, cis-[RuCl2(14S4)] [163] and cis-[Hg(14S4) (picrate)2] [164],
are known thus far.
Both coordination mode and ring size affect the properties of the resulting
complexes. For example, in Cu(II) complexes of cyclic tetrathioethers the stability
constants decrease as the ring size increases from 14 to 18 [165]. Kinetic measure-
ments reveal that the difference arises almost entirely in the dissociation rate
constants.
3.4.2 First-row Metals
3.4.2.1 Cobalt
In 1974 Travis and Busch reported the preparation of the red-brown [Co (14S4)] 1÷
cation from interaction of 14S4 with [Co (MeCN)6 ] 2+ in nitromethane. The Co (II)
complex probably resembles [Co(dth)2(OC103) 2] (dth = 2,5-dithiahexane) [92],
in which two ClOg ions bind to the axial positions of a square-planar CoS 4 unit. In
light of the unusual properties of other Co-crown thioether complexes the elec-
tronic structures and electrochemical behavior of the [Co(14S4)] n÷ complexes
Fig. 11. Syn and anti stereoisomers of

anti syn an [M(14S4)] "+ complex
warrant further examination.

Ci'I3NO2
[Co(MeCN)6] z+ + 14S4 ~ [Co(14S4)] 2 + (26a)
02
[Co(14S4)] 2+ + 2 X - , cis-[Co(14S4)X2] ÷ (26b)
(X- = Br-, CI', NO2, NCS-, oxalate 2-)
02
[Co(14S4)] 2+ + 21- , cis-[Co(14S4)I2] + (26c)
(x- = I-)
Air oxidation of [Co(14S4)] 2+ in the presence of LiCl affords [Co(14S4)C12] +
[50], where cis stereochemistry is established by the facile substitution of C1- by
bidentate ligands (e.g. oxalate). Cis-[Co(14S4)X2] + (X- = Br-, CI-, NO2, NCS-,
oxalate 2-) and trans-[Co(14S4)X2] + ( X - = I - ) complexes [50] can be made
similarly. The cis complexes also result from substitution of X for C1- in
cis-[Co(14S4)C12] +. Cobalt complexes of benzo-15S4 behave similarly.
3.4.2.2 Nickel
Many donor solvents displace 14S4 from Ni(II). Accordingly Rosen and Busch
developed new synthetic methods that have since been widely used for preparation
of thioether complexes [49, 51]. Reaction of [Ni(HOAc)6] 2+ with 14S4 in MeNO 2
yields the red low-spin [Ni(14S4)] 2+ cation [3]. X-ray diffraction reveals
a square-planar NiS 4 coordination sphere (Table 1) with anti stereochemistry
[166]. 13CNMR studies show that in CD3NO 2 solution, however, this complex
exists as an approximately 50 : 50 equilibrium mixture of the anti and syn forms
[167], where the paramagnetic syn form coordinates a water molecule in the apical
position [35].
[Ni(HOAc)6] 2+ + 14S4 CHaNO2'[Ni(14S4)] 2+ (27)
Unlike the salts of non-coordinating anions (BF4 or ClOg), coordinating

anions such as CI-, Br-, I-, and NCS- give paramagnetic six-coordinate com-
plexes with S = 3/2 ground states (as shown by magnetic measurements; Table 5).
Conductivity measurements indicate that the NCS-, CI-, and Br- complexes
remain intact as nonelectrolytes in MeNO z solution, but that the I- complex
does not. Instead it participates in the coordinative equilibria
[Ni(14S4)I2] = [Ni(14S4)I] + + I- K 1
[Ni(14S4)I] + = [Ni(14S4)]2 + + I- K2
where K 1 = 6.3 x 1 0 - / M -1 and K z = 2.5 x 1 0 - 4 M - 1 [48, 50].

In solution [Ni(14S4)] 2+ displays relatively low stability. Addition of a
wide variety of ligands- including any solvent of significant donor ability-
immediately displaces the crown thioether. Unlike 14N4, 14S4 shows minimal
macrocyclic effect towards Ni(II) [13]. That is, the stability of [Ni(L)] 2÷
(L = 14S4) barely exceeds (180-fold) that of a complex with a comparable acyclic
tetrathioether ligand (cf. [Ni(14N4)] 2+, for which the macrocyclic effect exceeds
106) [13]. Margerum and Smith [13] emphasized the role of differential ligand
solvation (i.e., the loss of solvation of the free ligand on coordination) as the source
of this difference in behavior. Rorabacher and coworkers pointed out that while
solvation effects clearly play an important role for macrocyclic amines, they
minimally influence complexes of macrocyclic thioethers [37].
Schrauzer and coworkers found that reaction of norbornadiene with
[Ni(diphenyldithiolene)/], followed by treatment with ~,~'-dibromo-o-xylene re-
sults in formation of macrocyclic tetrathioether (template condensation). The
resulting paramagnetic complex of this unsaturated 14S4 analogue solvolyzes in
MeOH to give the free ligand [168, 169].
3.4.2.3 Copper
Rorabacher and coworkers have extensively studied the electronic and molecular
structures of Cu complexes with 14S4 and other tetrathioether ligands as models
for the Cu-methionine interaction in the blue copper protieins [149, 170].
In [Cu(14S4)(OC103)2] four sulfur atoms from 14S4 and two axially bound
monodentate perchlorate anions complete an octahedral coordination sphere
(Fig. 12; Table 1) [89, 171]. The resulting structure resembles that of [Co(2,5-
dithiahexane)2(OC103)2], in which a square planar cobalt(II) ion binds two
perchlorate anions [92]. Metal-sulfur distances on average substantially exceed
those in [Ni(14S4)] 2+ (2.30 vs 2.18A) (Table 1). As in the Ni(II) analogue,
[Cu(14S4)(OCIO3)2] adopts the centrosymmetric anti (R, S, S, R) conformation.
Since Cu(II) is smaller than Ni(II) [104], [Cu(14S4)] 2+ should be less prone to
adoption of syn stereochemistry.
Electrochemical reduction of [Cu(14S4)(OC103)1] [151, 1523 gives the
corresponding Cu(I) complex, which crystallizes as an oligomer. This structure
apparently results from the incompatibility of 14S4 with tetrahedral ion (at normal
M-S distances). Each Cu(I) ion achieves distorted tetrahedral coordination
through three S atoms from one ligand, and a fourth from an adjacent 14S4
(Fig. 12; Table 1). Bond angles at copper indicate that the unique S atom coordin-
ates with minimal strain (angles approximately 109°); on the other hand, those
between S atoms from the same ligand (one nearly 130°, another near 90°),
reflect the unsuitability of 14S4 for tetrahedral coordination [-172].
"" Co-.,
N,'7
×
-.... //
14S4
~"S*~,~ Cu'l J
\ 0C103
I
0C103
Fig. 12. Coordination complexes of 14S4 with first row metal ions
Measurements on complexation kinetics in a series of tetradentate crown

thioether complexes of Cu(II) indicate that second-bond formation probably
represents the rate-limiting step [173]. Formation rate constants vary in accord
with the change in difficulty of wrapping the ligand around the metal ion. Both the
ring-size and the macrocyclic effect manifest themselves in the final steps of
complexation; accordingly, their magnitudes tend to mirror those of the dissoci-
ation rate constants. Introduction of hydroxyl groups in the propyl chains slightly
slows the rate of complexation, apparently in part through steric effects [174].
Strain-energy calculations on [Cu(nS4)(OHz)2] 2+ complexes (n--12-16)
[175] parallel the experimental results: an increase in ligand strain energy decreases
both the stability constant and the dissociation rate constant (in a linear manner,
the origin of which is unclear). Comparison of the various complexes indicates that
the "strain-free" free energy of formation of a Cu(II)-tetrathioether complex
is -8.65(0.66)kcalmo1-1, and that the strain energy is surprisingly small:
2.9-5.5 kcal mol- 1.
Electrochemical measurements of the Cu(II/I) potentials with the nS4 ligands
(n = 12-16) indicate that the Cu(II) and Cu(I) species each exist in two different
conformational states [170]. Conformational rearrangement may either precede or
succeed electron transfer. Rorabacher and coworkers interpreted their results in
light of a "square" mechanistic scheme that neatly reconciles the sweep rate
dependence of the cyclic voltammograms with the requisite change in coordination
geometry at Cu. Kinetic studies on the electron transfer [149, 170, 176-177]
support this scheme; application of the Marcus cross relationship to reduction of
Cu(II) and oxidation of Cu(I) yields widely discrepant values, presumably because
of the different conformational states involved.
Spectroscopic work on [Cu (14S4)] 2+ (Table 3) revealed visible bands strongly
reminiscent of those in the blue copper proteins, and thereby stimulated investig-
ation of how thioethers affect the electronic structure of this ion [178]. Strong
LMCT bands characterize the visible spectrum of this and other thioether com-
plexes of Cu (II). Resonance Raman spctroscopy on [Cu(14S4)] 2 + and copper (II)
complexes of other crown thioethers extended the parallel with the blue copper
proteins, and assigned the Cu-S stretch to vibrations around 250 cm-1 [179].
3.4.3 14S4 Second- and Third-Row Metals

3.4.3.1 Molybdenum
Reaction of 14S4 with molybdenum halides and oxohalides affords a series of
crown thioether complexes of Mo(IV), (V), or (VI), depending on the molyb-
denum-containing starting material. Thus reaction of MoC14 with 1 or 2 equival-
ents of 14S4 in Et20 or CH2C12 gives the brown complexes [(MOC14),(14S4)] with
n = 1 or 2, respectively. A similar procedure affords the green adducts
[(MOOC13)(14S4)] and [(MoOCI3)2(14S4)(THF)2 ] from MoOC13, as well as the
yellow complex [MOO2C12(14S4)] from MoOzC12 [154]. In this last complex,
infrared studies indicate retention of the cis-dioxo structure of the starting material.
Et20 or CH2C12
[MOO2C12] + 14S4 ~ [MOO2C12(14S4)] (29a)
Et20 or CH2C12
[MoOC13(THF)2 ] + 14S4 , [(MoOCI3)z(14S4)(THF)]
(29b)
Et20-CFI2CI2
[MoC14] + 14S4 ~ [MOOC13(14S4)] (29c)
CH2C12
[MoC14(PrCN)2 ] + 14S4 , [(MoC14)~(14S4)] (n = 1, 2) (29d)
Regardless of the stoichiometry used no more than one MoO2C12 unit will
coordinate to a single 14S4. Presumably this is attributable to steric repulsion
between the cis-dioxo groups, since 2:1 adducts readily form with MoOCI 3 and
MoC14 [154]. Furthermore, [(MoOzC12)2(L)] forms for L = 18S6. Indeed, in this
case the converse situation obtains: only the 2 : 1 adduct forms, for reasons that are
not clear.
In the absence of crystallographic studies the structures of these compounds
remain a matter of speculation. Their low solubility suggests that these complexes
may have an oligomeric structure. As the products from the reaction of a crown
thioether with a highly Lewis acidic metal complex, these compounds are reminis-
cent of, e.g., the adducts of 14S4 with NbCI 5 .
3.4.3.2 Ruthenium
Reaction of 14S4 with K 2 [RuCIs(OH2) ] in 2-methoxyethanol yields orange crys-
tals of [Ru(14S4)C12], where reduction accompanies coordination (Eq. 30a) [180].
X-ray diffraction reveals a cis stereochemistry, in correction of an earlier assign-
ment (based upon infrared spectroscopy) to trans stereochemistry (Fig. 13; Table 1)
[163, 181]. Sulfur atoms trans to other S atoms exhibit considerably longer Ru-S
distances (0.1 J,) than those trans to CI. The ligand adopts a folded conformation
with both the RuSCH2CHzCH2S rings in chair conformations. Treatment of
the Ru(II) complex with HC10 4 in dilute HC1 oxidizes it to the corresponding
Ru(III) complex, [RUC12(14S4)] + (Eq. 30b), which presumably also has cis stereo-
chemistry.
2--metlaoxyethanol
K2[RuCIs(OHz)] + 14S4 ~ cis-[RuC12(14S4)] (30a)
cis-[RuC12(14S4)] + HC10 4 , cis-[RuC12(14S4)] + (30b)
Reactivity studies emphasize the important role of stereochemistry in cis- and
trans-[RuC12(14S4)] [231].
3.4.3.3 Rhodium
Preparation of the congeneric Rh(III) compounds proceeds from reaction of
rhodium trichloride or tribromide (dissolved in the minimum amount of hot water)
with an ethanolic solution containing excess ligand (Eq. 31a). Thus reaction of
rhodium trihalides with 14S4 in refluxing ethanol yields the yellow complex
[Rh(14S4)X2] + (Fig. 13) [6, 50]. As in the isoelectronic [Ru(14S4)C12] case,
infrared spectroscopy suggests cis stereochemistry for this complex. In view of the
difficulty of such assignments [20], however, this conclusion should be considered
tentative.
EtOH
"RhX a .nH20" + 14S4 (xs) , [RhX2(14S4)] ÷ (X = CI, Br) (31a)
[RhX2(14S4)] + + Y- , [RhY2(14S4)] + (Y = I, NO2) (31b)
[RHC12(14S4)] + + NaBH 4 , [Rh(14S4)] ÷ (31c)

toluene
[Rh(COD)2CI] 2 + 2 14S4 , [Rh(14S4)] + (31d)
[Rh(14S4)] + + CHzC12 , trans-[Rh(14S4)(CHzCl)(C1)] + (31e)
Subsequent ligand exchange of [Rh(14S4)Xz] + (X = CI, Br) with LiI or LiNO z

gives [-Rh(14S4)I2] + and [Rh(14S4)(NO2)z] +, respectively (Fig. 13; Eq. 31b).
Travis and Busch [50] emphasized the necessity of using refluxing solvent to avoid
formation of an intractable precipitate. Elemental analysis indicates the composi-
tion [Rh(14S4)XE]X, while infrared studies suggest the presence of Rh-C1-Rh
bridges.
Reduction of [Rh(14S4)C12] + with sodium borohydride yields the yellow
square-planar Rh(I) species [Rh(14S4)] +, of unknown stereochemistry (Eq. 31c;
Fig. 13; Table 1) [6]. A compound of the same stoichiometry, but different color
(red-brown) results from the reaction of 14S4 with [Rh(COD)2C1]/in toluene at
room temperature (Eq. 3 l d) [ 182]. In this latter complex Rh(I) lies 0.13 A out of the
S4 plane, consistent with adoption of syn stereochemistry. Interaction of the Rh(I)
"' n+
Cl
Cl.~,, I ~,.Ct n= 3,2
Ct~ib~Cl
s s
1 s .s
",S " 14S4 D
CI,,. Jb'" CI
c,,'1%
Cl
s
T .,OcI
Fig. 13. Coordination complexes of 14S4 with second row metal ions
ion with a neighboring RhS 4 unit further stabilizes syn stereochemistry. Despite the
stereochemistry, however, this complex has shorter M-S distances than those in
[Cu(14S4)] 2+, which exists as the more constrained anti isomer. This difference
presumably reflects the strength of the Rh-S bonds. As in [Ni(14S4)] 2 4, the syn
and anti isomers of [Rh(Me,~14S4)] ÷ both syn and anti stereoisomers have been
observed [1821.
[Rh(14S4)] ÷ reacts with BF3, SO2, NO r, 02, TCNE, and H ÷ [61, and it also
oxidatively adds such species MeI, benzyl bromide, and acetyl chloride [61, as well
as CH2C12 [1821. These products of oxidative addition presumably adopt trans
stereochemistry [6, 1821.
Yoshida and coworkers [182] have examined the coordination chemistry of
Rh(I) with 14S4 and with its tetramethyl analogue, Me4-14S4 (6,6,13,13-tetramethyl-
tetrathiacyclotetradecane). Reaction of ERh(COD)C1]2 with either ligand affords
the complexes [RhL] as their chloride salts. In the dimeric [Rh(14S4)] 2 ÷ cation the
two centrosymmetrically-related Rh lie above the S4 plane (by 0.13 ~.); both
R h . . . Rh (3.313(1) ,~) and R h . . . S (3.70-3.82 .~) intermolecular interactions
stabilize the dimeric structure [1821. The Me414S4 complex differs from the 14S4
parent in that it does not form an intermediate dimeric Rh(II) species on oxidation.
Interestingly, the red-brown syn conformer of [Rh(Me,14S4)] ÷ readily converts to
the yellow anti form in MeCN (but not in DMSO). No analogous anti conformer of
the parent compound [Rh(14S4)] ÷ has yet been observed.
Structural investigation of [Rh(14S4)]2C12 confirms deductions from 1H NMR

data that this complex (as well as its Me 414S4 analogue) assumes syn stereochem-
istry [182]. For the [Rh(M% 14S4)]22+, however, metathesis with NaBPh 4 results
in isomerization from the syn to the anti form (as shown by 1H NMR). Oxidative
addition of CH2C12 to [Rh(L)]CI (L = 14S4 or Me414S4 ) or [Rh(L)]BPh 4
(L = Me414S4 ) gives the corresponding trans-[RhCl(CH2C1)L ] complex. The
greater reactivity of Rh-thioether complexes toward CH2C12 compared with
Rh-phosphine and -isonitrile complexes was attributed to the lesser re-acidity of
thioethers. Conformational factors influence this reactivity: [Rh(Me414S4)]C1
(syn), in which the Rh ion protrudes from the S4 plane, attacks CH2C12 seven-fold
faster than [Rh(Me4-14S4)]BPh 4 (anti) [182] (although the counterion could play
a role).
3.4.3.4 Palladium
Treatment of K2[PdC14] with 14S4 in MeCN/CH2C12 affords [Pd(14S4)] 2÷ as
yellow crystals after recrystallization from water and metathesis to the hexa-
fluorophosphate salt (Eqs. 32a, b). X-ray diffraction confirms the expected
square-planar geometry of a cation with syn stereochemistry (Fig. 13; Table 1)
[129, 136].
MeCN/CH2C12
K 2[pdC14] + 14S4 ~ [PDC12(14S4)] (32a)
H20
[PdC12 (14S4)] ~ [Pd(14S4)] 2+ (32b)
3.4.3.5 Mercury
Reaction of 14S4 with Hg(II) salts gives different products depending on the nature
of the counterion. Indeed, the sweeping differences in coordination mode observed
with different counterions makes clear why X-ray diffraction studies have proven
indispensable for characterization of crown thioether complexes. In aqueous meth-
anol Hg(CIO4)2 with 14S4 yields [Hg(14S4)(OH2)] 2÷, in which 14S4 supplies
a basal plane of four thioethers to the square pyramidal coordination sphere (Eq.
33a). In this complex Hg(II) lies 0.48 A above the S4 plane, with an apical water
molecule completing the square pyramidal coordination sphere (Table 1; Fig. 14)
[35]. The large size of Hg(II) necessitates syn stereochemistry.
aq MeOH
Hg(C104) 2 + 14S4 , [Hg(14S4)(OH2)] 2+ (33a)
CH3NO2
HgClz + 14S4 , [(HgCIz)z(14S4)] (33b)
reflux
HgI 2 + 14S4 , [HgI2(14S4)] (33c)
Use of HgCI 2 instead of the perchlorate salt affords [(HGC12)2(14S4)] [35].

Here two HgCl 2 moieties coordinate to an exodentate 14S4, which chelates each
sNik -~ s
, i
Me
14S4
c~. /cl / NN• OH2 2+
cl/Hg~.cl
Fig. 14. Third-row and miscellaneous complexes of 14S4
Hg 2+ ion in a bidentate fashion through an SCH2CH2S unit. In the resulting

centrosymmetric 2 : 1 complex the Hg ions approach idealized tetrahedral micro-
symmetry (Fig. 14; Table 1). Conformationally 14S4 in this complex differs from the
free ligand primarily in the orientation of the C2 linkages, which adopt 9auche
placement (of. anti in free 14S4) to permit coordination to the Hg ion.
Unlike either the chloro or bromo analogues, [HgI 2(14S4)] [156] consists of an
oligomer with HgI 2 units bridging exodentate 14S4 ligands through diametrically
opposite S atoms. (The other two S atoms remain free.) Tetrahedral HgI2S 2 units
straddle adjacent exodentate ligands, each of which binds in a monodentate
fashion (Table 1). This contrasts with the discrete [(HGC12)2(14S4)] units found for
the chloro analogue. Presumably the larger halides generate unacceptable X • • • H
repulsions that obviate adoption of the chloro structure.
Mercury-sulfur distances in the iodo complex (2.75 ~,) considerably exceed
those in the chloro analogue (2.53 A); evidently the stronger Hg-X interaction for
X = I takes place at the expense of the Hg-S bonding. Angles at Hg further support
this inference: /__I-Hg-I opens from the tetrahedral value to 136° (with concomi-
tant closing of/__ S-Hg-S to 84°). Since all of the ligands are monodentate, bond
angles in this complex lack obvious constraints. Thus the large°/_ I-Hg-I angle
(which does not arise from I • • • I interaction: d(I • • • I) -- 4.94 A, cf. sum of van
der Waals radii, 4.30 ~,) suggests that coordination to the two thioether groups
only perturbs somewhat the strong linear I-Hg-I bonding of the HgI 2 precursor
(cf. [Cu(18S6)] +).
In yet another structural motif, use of Hg(picrate)2 instead of either a halide or
perchlorate anion yields a fourth structure. In cis-[Hg(14S4)(picrate)2] [164]
mercury accepts four S atoms from the macrocycle along with the two picrate
Table 6. Crown Thioethers: Stability Constant Determinations
Metal Ligand Conditions log K Ref.
Co(II) 9S3 MeCN log K 1 6.96 [100]

log K 2 7.00
Cu(II) 12S4 0.1 M HC104; 25 ° 3.48 [37, 170]
Cu(II) 13S4 0.1 M HCIO4; 25 ° 3.41 [37, 170]
Cu(II) 14S4 0.1 M HCIO4; 25 ° 4.34 [37, 170]
Cu(II) 15S4 0.1 M HCIO4; 25 ° 3.17 [37, 170]
Cu(II) 16S4 0.1 M HC104; 25 ° ~ 2.2 [37, 170]
Cu(II) 15S5 0.1 M HCIO4; 25 ° 4.07 [37, 170]
Hg(II) 13S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HCIO, ,~ 10.3 b
Hg(II) 14S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HCIO 4 9.55(4) [189] b
Hg(II) 15S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HC10 4 9.33(4) [189] b
Hg(II) 16S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HCIO 4 10.48(3) 1-189]b
Hg(II) 18S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HC10 4 8.88(2) [189] b
Hg(II) 20S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HC10 4 7.88(3) [189] b
Hg(II) 21S4 80% MeOH/0.1 M HC10 4 ~ 8.4 [189] b
Hg(II) u-20S6 80% MeOH/0.1 M HCIO~ ~ 13.6 b.
Hg(II) 21S6 80% MeOH/0.1 M HCIO 4 12.26(5) [230]
b Sokol, L. S. W. L.; Rorabacher, D. B.; personal communication.

c The ligand designated as "u-20S6" (where u stands for "unsymmetrical") has two propyl bridges
separated by a single ethyl bridge, with three other ethyl bridges completing the macrocycle.
phenolate O atoms. Owing to the weak stereochemical preferences of this d 1° ion,

the HgS40 z coordination sphere deviates substantially from octahedral symmetry:
for example, one cis / S - H g - S is 77°, while a trans /_S-Hg-S is 162° (Fig. 14;
Table 1). The two picrate groups lie parallel to each other, with /_ O-Hg-O 77 °. It
is not clear why this complex prefers cis octahedral stereochemistry over square
pyramidal (with an axial picrate) with the ligand in syn conformation.
3.4.4 14S4 - Miscellaneous Complexes
The lack of a substantial macrocyclic effect for 14S4 (and its weak binding affinities
generally) implies an antipathy to chelation. Part of the reluctance of 14S4 to
coordinate in a planar fashion probably results from the unfavorable conformation
necessary to do so. Compared to the free ligand, 14S4 in its planar complexes must
change conformation in every one of its 14 bonds. The enthalpic terms associated
with this change doubtless decrement the free energy of complexation. Nevertheless
non-chelated 14S4 complexes have so far been established only where the metal
offers fewer than four coordination sites.
Reaction of 14S4 with strongly Lewis acidic compounds leads to adducts in
which an exodentate 14S4 acts as a monodentate ligand. Addition of NbC15 to
14S4 in benzene affords the centrosymmetric adduct [(NBC15)2(14S4)] [31-33].
Here an exodentate 14S4 bridges two NbC15 units by acting as a monodentate
ligand to each. In this case adduct formation does not appreciably perturb the
conformation of the macrocycle from that observed in the free state. The NbC15S
coordination sphere closely approaches octahedral microsymmetry. Curiously, the
four equatorial C1 atoms bend toward the S atom; / S - N b - C 1 angles range from
80 to 85 °, despite four close contacts with the macrocyclic ring ( d ( C " ' C1)
3.31-3.70A). This "dishing" of the NbC14 plane occurs in conjunction with
a short Nb-Clax bond (2.25 A; Nb-Cleq average 2.32 A). This short distance may
arise from the poor c~-donor ability of the trans thioether group, which in turn may
necessitate closer approach of the axial chloride ion to compensate for the high
formal charge on the metal ion.
toluene
2(A1M%) 2 + 14S4 , [(AIMe3)4(14S4)] (34a)
benzene
2NbC15 + 14S4 , [(NBC15)2(14S4)] (34b)
Similarly, in [(A1Me3)4(14S4)] (prepared by reaction of (A1Me3)2 and 14S4 in

benzene) one AIMe 3 unit adds to each of the four S exodentate atoms of the ligand
(Fig. 14; Table l) [183]. The structures adopted by these compounds and others
such as [(HGC12)2(14S4)] probably represent a good model for the intermediate
formed in the first step of complexation by 14S4.
Partial chelation of 14S4 also occurs in [PtMe3(14S4)] +, which results from
reaction of 14S4 with [PtMe3] 4 in CHC1 a [139]. NMR measurements (both 1H
and laC-{ IH}) show that intramolecular rotation of the ligand exchanges the free
and bound S atoms with AG * = 56.79(2)kJmol-1 (Tco,~esoence= 333 K).
3.4.5 16S4
3.4.5.1 Copper
Solutions of [Cu(16S4)] 2+ in aqueous MeOH in the presence of ClOg afford
[Cu(16S4)(OC103)2], in which a centrosymmetric CuS 4 unit coordinates to two
axial monodentate C10~- anions [89]. Comparison with the analogous 14S4
complex, which also has anti stereochemistry, shows that the larger ring size dilates
the CuS 4 coordination sphere by 0.06 A (Table 1) [89, 152, 171]. Two of the Cu-S
considerably exceed the other two in length (0.05 A).
Stability constant determinations show that the axial Cu-OCIO3 interactions
are important in solution as well [36]. Perchlorate and other "non-coordinating"
anions such as BFg and CF3SO3 increase the formation constants of
Cu(II)-thioether complexes in aqueous solution [36, 37]. Gorewit and Musker had
previously noted that non-coordinating counterions give square planar Cu(II)
complexes, while potentially coordinating ones such as chloride apparently yield
binuclear complexes or simple adducts [184].
Electrochemical studies show that 16S4 yields the highest Cu(II/I) potential of
any tetradentate crown thioether nS4 (n = 12-16) [143, 170]. The high redox
potential of Cu complexes of large ring crown thioethers results both from the
ability of the propyl linkages to span the coordination sites of tetrahedral Cu(I) and
especially from the decreased ligand field in the Cu(II) complex.
3.4.5.2 Molybdenum
Treatment of 16S4 with Mo2(OAc)4 in the presence of CFsSO3H cleaves the
Mo-Mo quadruple bond to yield a variety of Mo(II) and Mo(IV)-containing
products [185]. DeSimone and co-workers isolated three of them and character-
ized them by structural and other means.
EtOH
[Mo2(CFaSO3)2(OH2)4] 2+ + 16S4 ~ sym-[MoU(SH)(16S4)]z2 +
(35a)
+ [MoW(OEt)(16S4)-O-Mo~V(O)(16S4)]3 + (35b)
+ [MoW(O)(SH)(16S4)] + (35c)
toluene
½{[MoBr2(CO),]}2 + Mes-16S4 , [MoBr2(Mes-16S4)] (35d)
THF
[MoBr2(Me8-16S4)] + CO + Na , [Mo(CO)2(Me8-16S4)] (35e)
toluene
½{[MOC12(CO),]}2 + Me8-16S4 , fac-[MoC13(Me8-16S4)] (35f)
CH2C12
fac-[MoC13(Me8-16S4)] + Zn [MoCI(Mes-16S4)] (35g)
Several curious features characterize the orange diamagnetic sym-

[Mo2(SH)I(16S4)z] z+ cation (Eq. 35a). First, in this centrosymmetric complex
each Mo(II) binds to a hydrosulfide (-SH) group, which apparently results from
cleavage of the ligand during the reaction. The absence of halide-containing
materials in the preparation militates against the more intuitively more appealing
possibility that the terminal group is in fact CI- instead of -SH. (X-ray diffraction
cannot easily distinguish between S and C1 because of their similar scattering
power for X-rays.) Nevertheless, in the absence of elemental analytical data the
possibility cannot be discounted entirely.
In addition to the terminal hydrosulfide group, sym-[Mo2(SH)2(16S4)2] 2÷ is
also unusual in possessing bridging thioether groups. Few other examples have
been reported. In each {Mo(16S4)} unit all four sulfur atoms coordinate to the
chelated Mo(II); in addition, one of them also coordinates to the Mo(II) ion in the
other {Mo(16S4)} unit. Thus each dimeric cation features a rectangular
M o . . . S . . . Mo " " S core. Surprisingly, bridging Mo-thioether distances are
much shorter (2.320 (1) and 2.380 (1) A) than non-bridging ones (average values
2.49 A). The ligands coordinate in syn fashion, in which diametrically opposite
six-membered Mo-S-CH2-CH2-CH2-S rings lie on the same side of the MS 4
plane.
The second product, the blue diamagnetic [(OEt)(16S4)Mo~V-O-MoW(O)
(16S4)] 3+ cation (Eq. 35b), contains two octahedral Mo(IV) ions bridged by an oxo
group (/_Mo-O-Mo 177°) [185, 186]. The two Mo ions lie out of their respective
S 4 planes (by 0.10 A and 0.30 ~, for the Mo(OEt) and Mo(O) fragments, res-
pectively) so as to increase the distance between them.
The third product, [MoW(O)(SH)(16S4)] + (Eq. 35c), contains a red-brown
diamagnetic mononuclear cation that apparently results from decomposition of
sym-[Mo2(SH)2(16S4)2] 2÷. Like its progenitor, it too contains a coordinated
hydrosulfide (-SH) group. As discussed above, this assignment must be viewed
with caution. Interaction with the trans oxo group (trans influence) slightly
lengthens the Mo-SH bond relative to that in the dimeric analogue.
In all three complexes the 16S4 units adopt syn stereochemistry. In the two
dimeric complexes excessive steric crowding probably precludes adoption of the
anti form. No such consideration constrains the ligand conformation in the
monomeric [MoW(O)(SH)(16S4)] + ion, however.
Of the three complexes only the first, sym-[Mo2(SH)2(16S4)2] 2+, shows even
moderately reversible cyclic voltammetric behavior (Table II); the other two
complexes show totally irreversible redox processes.
Yoshida and coworkers [187] found that reaction of [MoX2(CO)412 (X = Br)
with Mes-16S4 in refluxing toluene gives [MoBr/(Mes-16S4)] as paramagnetic
orange crystals (Eq. 36a). A similar reaction carried out with X = C1 does not give
the chloro analogue, but rather fac-[MoCl3(Mes-16S4)] (also paramagnetic and
orange) (Eq. 36b). The chloro analogue trans-[MoClz(Me8-16S4)] can be isolated
as paramagnetic yellow crystals following reduction of fac-[MoCl3(Me8-16S4)]
with Zn in CH2C12 (Eq. 36c). Reduction (chemically or electrochemically) of
trans-[MoBr2(16S4)] under an atmosphere of CO gives trans-[Mo(CO)2(16S4)],
as the syn stereoisomer (Eq. 36d). All of these compounds have high redox
potentials, consistent with the ubiquitous stabilization of lower oxidation states
observed for thioether complexes.
toluene
[MoBr2(CO)4] 2 + Me8-16S4 , trans-[MoBr2(Mes-16S4)] (36a)
toluene
[MOC12(CO)4] 2 + Mes-16S4 , fac-[MoC13(Me8-16S4)] (36b)
CH2C12
fac-[MoC13(Mea-16S4)] + Zn tr ans-[M oCl 2(Mes-16S4 )] (36c)
CO
trans.[MoBr2(Me8-16S4)] + 2e- .... , trans-[Mo(CO)z(Me8-16S4)]
(36d)
N2
trans-[MoBr2(Me8-16S4)] + Na/Hg , trans-[Mo(N2)2(Me8-16S4)]
(36e)
benzene
trans.[Mo(Nz)2(Me8-16S4)] + MeBr )
trans-[Mo(N2Me 2)(Mes-16S4)3 ÷ (36f)

In an exciting recent development Yoshida and coworkers have also found
that a Mo(0)-crown thioether complex binds N 2 [1881. Reduction of trans-
[MoBr2(Mes-16S4)] with 40% Na amalgam under N 2 gives trans-[Mo(N2) 2-
(Me 8-16S4)] as orange red crystals (Eq. 36e). This nearly octahedral complex of syn
stereochemistry features the four S atoms in equatorial positions and two axially
end-on bound N 2 molecules (Table 1). Molybdenum-sulfur distances are unex-
pectedly short (compared to other Mo(0)-thioether complexes), presumably be-
cause of the limited size of the macrocyclic ring. Perhaps as an additional conse-
quence of this cation-cavity size mismatch the Mo atom moves out of the $4
toward the C atoms (i.e., toward the more congested side of the molecule) by 0.1 ~.
Both experimental and theoeretical evidence indicates lesser re-acidity (or
greater re-donor ability) of the thioether ligand compared to phosphines. Cyclic
voltammetric measurements on the irreversible Mo(I/0) couple are consistent with
greater electron richness for Mo in this complex than in analogous phosphine
complexes. Further evidence supporting this contention comes from the lower VNN
frequencies compared to phosphine analogues. MO calculations indicate that
Me8-16S4 acts as a p~ donor toward the metal center. Last, trans-[Mo(N2) 2
(Me8-16S4)] reacts readily with MeBr to afford the dimethylhydrazido complex
trans-[Mo(NzMez)(Me8-16S4)] + as brown crystals (Eq. 36f). This facile alkyla-
tion clearly indicates relative electron richness of the Mo center- and conse-
quently of the coordinated N2 molecules - in the parent compound.
3.4.3.5 Mercury
In [Hg(16S4)(C104)2], unlike [Hg(14S4)(OH2)] 2+ [35], Hg(II) lies in the S4 plane
(Table 1). Four S atoms from the macrocycle, as well as one monodentate and one
bidentate ClOg ion, combine to complete seven-coordination about Hg (cf. the
five-coordinate 14S4 analogue) [189]. The ligand assumes syn conformation to
generate a puckered S4 coordination sphere.
16S4 shows greater affinity for Hg(II) (and HgMe ÷ ) than 14S4, but not as great
as that of open chain tetradentate ligands [14]. The superiority of 16S4 over 14S4
as a ligand for Hg(II) contrasts with the situation for first-row transition metal
ions. This contrast arises from the ring size and flexibility of 16S4, which enables it
to chelate the large Hg(II) ion more easily. Acyclic ligands enjoy even more
conformational freedom than 16S4, and consequently accommodate the large
Hg(II) ion still more effectively.
3.4.6 Other Tetradentate Crown Thioethers
In the series [Cu(nS4)] 2+ (n = 12-16) plus [Cu(2,5-dithiahexane)2] 2+ Cu-S dis-

tances increase systematically. This trend reflects the conformational mobility
associated with successive replacement of by propyl linkages [89].
In [CuCl((MeO)abenzo4-12S4)] [190] (Table 1) four sulfur atoms from the
ligand form the base of a square pyramidal coordination sphere that is capped by
an apical CI ion. Two mutually cis S atoms bind more strong.ly than do the other
two, as reflected in the Cu-S distances (which differ by 0.2 A). "Doming" of the
CuS4C1 coordination sphere places the Cu ion 0.121 A above the S4 basal plane.
Two of the four phenylene units lie approximately in the idealized $4 plane, while
the other two lie below it, on the side opposite the Cu ion.
In their early work Rosen and Busch [49] prepared the diamagnetic square-
planar cation [Ni(benzo-15S4)] z+ as its tetrafluoroborate salt. They also isolated
Ni(II) complexes of 12S4 and 13S4 [51], for which conductivity studies and
elemental analysis suggest the presence of dimeric octahedral species
[Ni 2(nS4)3] 4+. The contrast with [Ni(14S4)] 2+ derives apparently from the in-
ability of 12S4 and 13S4 to encircle square-planar Ni(II).
Travis and Busch [50] prepared Co(III) complexes of benzo-15S4 by reaction
of Co(II) perchlorate with the ligand in MeNO2. Aerial oxidation of the product in
the presence of LiX (X- = CI-, Br- ) affords (green for X- = CI- ; green-brown for
X- = Br-) trans-[CoX2(benzo-15S4)] ÷ as its perchlorate salt. Note that the trans
stereochemistry of these complexes (which was assigned from their infrared and
electronic spectra) differs from that of the analogous 14S4 complexes, both
of which are cis (for X- = CI-, Br-). Reaction of rhodium(III) chloride with
benzo-15S4 in refluxing EtOH gives cis-[RhClz(benzo-15S4)]C1 as a bright yellow
crystals.
3.5 Pentadentate Crown Thioethers- 15S5
Relatively little work on this ligand has been reported. In future investigation of
reactivity this ligand may well take on considerable importance, since the sixth
coordination site is available for interaction with substrate molecules.
To assess the structural factors bearing on the Cu(II/I) self-exchange rate [170]
of the 15S5 complexes Rorabacher and coworkers examined the crystal structures
of the two halves of the couple [191]. [Cu(15S5)] 2÷ contains a square pyramidal
CuSs coordination sphere in which the Cu atom lies 0.41 ,~ above the mean plane
of the four equatorial S atoms. The apical S atom coordinates not along the
idealized C,~ axis, but rather 12.8° away. This distortion apparently results from the
inability of 15S5 to span the five coordination positions without strain. Strain
results from three factors: 1) the displacement of the Cu' atom from the equatorial
plane, 2) the shortness of the C2 linkages between S atoms, and 3) the greater
length of the apical Cu-S bond. The classes of complexes [M(15S5)] n÷ and
[M(18S6)] "÷ differ significantly in that the former necessarily contain a meridional
loop (i.e., one in which three adjacent S atoms lie in a plane containing the metal
ion), whereas the latter need not. Meridional coordination of one $3 loop further
tightens the ligating band constricting the metal ion, and thereby exacerbates the
difficulty of spanning the five coordination positions. As a further consequence of
this "tightness", the apical Cu-S distance exceeds the equatorial ones by only
0.08 A (cf. 0.27/k in [Cu(18S6)] 2+) [93].
Strain-energy calculations [175] show that [Cu(15S5)] 2+ deviates from the
simple pattern of the $4 ligands. This result parallels earlier experimental results,
which reveal anomalous results for both its stability constant and dissociation rate
constants with Cu(II) [36, 149]. As suggested earlier [37], this difference probably
arises from a more favorable entropic term for complexation, as well as the greater
enthalpic contribution from formation of an additional Cu-S bond.
In [Cu(15S5)] + [191] (Table 1) one S atom fails to coordinate (Cu-S 3.5 A),
which leads to a distorted tetrahedral CuS4 coordination sphere. Owing to the
constraints imposed by the ring, S-Cu-S angles deviate considerably from tetra-
hedral values. In general, S-Cu-S angles involving S atoms adjacent in the ring (i.e.,
S-C-C-S-Cu) fall short of 109°, while that in which another S atom intervenes
exceed the tetrahedral value. The greatest deviation (136 °) occurs for the S~Cu-S
angle involving the S atoms flanking the uncoordinated thioether group.
Resonance Raman measurements indicate that the S atoms in [Cu(15S5)] 2+
migrate rapidly between apical and equatorial positions [192]. Presumably the
strain evident in the ring pushes this complex well up the potential curve toward
the transition state for rearrangement, and thereby facilitates this stereochemical
scrambling.
3.6 Miscellaneous Ligands

Travis and Busch [192] isolated 28S8 as a by-product from the synthesis of 14S4.
This ligand coordinates to Ni(II) to yield the red low-spin [Niz(28S8)] z+ cation.
Addition of KNCS affords [Niz(NCS)4(28SS)] as a blue-green neutral complex
that contains high-spin octahedral Ni(II) (Table 3; Table 5). Both complexes react
with water with expulsion of the ligand. Reaction with [MCI4] 2- (M = Pd, Pt)
gives [M4C18(28S8)], where 28S8 functions as a bidentate ligand toward each
metal ion [-193].
Reaction of a,Q(-dibromo-o-xylene with ethane- or propanedithiol affords low
yields of dibenzo-16S4 and dibenzo-18S4 [194]. Complexes of these ligands with
PdBr 2 and PtBr 2 were prepared and characterized by elemental analysis.
4 Conclusions
Taken together, the work summarized here indicates that thioethers exhibit
a marked preference for the lower, "softer" oxidation states. Put another way, they
strongly stabilize lower oxidation and spin states of metal ions. They do so by
accepting electron density from the metal back into ~* orbitals on the thioether
that are of n symmetry with respect to the metal. This delocalization manifests itself
not only in the redox properties of thioether complexes, but also in their magnetic
and EPR behavior.
In addition to the intrinsic properties of thioethers as ligands, crown thioethers
often display peculiar effects caused by incorporation of the donor atoms into
a macrocyclic structure. These effects can be subdivided into two groups: 1) those
(such as macrocyclic constriction/dilation) that are common to all macrocycles,
66 s.R. Cooper and S. C. Rawle
and 2) those that derive from imposition of a coordination sphere dominated by

thioethers (irrespective of whether or not they are incorporated in a macrocycle).
The first group includes the compression of metal coordination spheres ob-
served in, e.g. [Ni(9S3)2] 2÷ and [Ni(18S6)] 2+. The second is in many respects
more interesting. Use of crown thioethers can afford complexes in which thioethers
dominate the coordination sphere. This may induce unusual chemistry not directly
because of the crown, but because of the number of thioether groups it imposes on
the metal ion. Nevertheless, because such coordination spheres are often unattain-
able without use of crown thioethers, it is appropriate to attribute the unusual
behavior to use of these ligands.
5 Applications and Future Directions
Much of the motivation for investigation of thioether coordination chemistry

comes from the potential parallel of these ligands to phosphines. Both phosphines
and thioethers possess large polarizable second-row elements as donor groups;
accordingly similarities in their chemistry are to be expected. This is an exciting
prospect in view of the extensive and industrially important coordination chem-
istry of phosphines. Despite early interest in the use of thioether-based systems for
catalytic hydrogenation of olefins [-5, 6], relatively little recent work has been
devoted to this application. In part this may be because of the reputation of
sulfur-containing compounds as "poisons" for catalysts. This impression springs
from use of bulk noble metal catalysts; it obviously lacks relevance to a sul-
fur-containing catalyst. The use of thioether-based catalytic systems clearly de-
serves more attention; crown thioethers represent an especially attractive means of
imposing and controlling thioether coordination. In this context, recent work by
Kellogg and coworkers 1-194, 195] on the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents
catalyzed by Ni(lI) complexes of chiral crown thioethers deserves special mention.
In addition to stabilizing lower oxidation states, crown thioethers can also be
used to manipulate the coordination geometry of a metal ion. The elegant work of
Rorabacher, Ochrymowycz, and coworkers demonstrates the use of closely related
crown thioethers to study how coordinative plasticity affects the thermodynamics
and kinetics of electron transfer [149, 170]. The same approach could be used with
equal profit on fundamental studies on the interrelation of ligand Conformation
and binding affinity. The importance of such studies transcends crown thioether
chemistry, which merely provides ideal systems in which to work out the requisite
concepts.
Design and synthesis of ligands for use in analysis (e.g. in sensors), sequestration
of toxic metal ions (in both industrial and clinical contexts), specific delivery of
metal ions in biological systems (e.g. for therapeutic or radioimaging purposes),
hydrometallurgy, and models for metalloenzymes demands fundamental insight
into the factors (e.g. ligand conformation, solvation) governing binding affinity.
Apart from any direct applications of crown thioethers in any of these areas,
investigation of why some of these ligands bind so much better than others will
provide information vital to rational design of ligands.
Crown thioethers present obvious opportunities as the basis for the extraction
of metal ions. Their preference for soft "b" metals makes them complementary to
many of the chelating agents (e.g. EDTA) currently in use. Sevdic and coworkers
have reported use of 14S4, 18S6, and 28S8 as extraetants for AgO) and Hg(II)
[196-201]. Similarly, Sekido and coworkers [202-212], and others [213-217],
have reported the use of thiacrowns for extraction of silver, copper, and mercury.
On the other hand, 14S4 and 16S4 bind MeHg + weakly, and without a macrocyclic
effect [14]. Moyer and coworkers have recently summarized progress in this field
[218].
The affinity of crown thioethers for heavy metals - and their antipathy to the
biologically important ions, such as Na +, Ca 2+, and Mg z+ -suits crown
thioethers particularly well for decorporation of toxic metal ions. Similarly, crown
thioethers may find potential use in the hydrometallurgical winning of precious
metals such as silver, gold, and platinum, or as the basis for ion-selective electrodes
[219]. Other potential applications [220] may arise from use of crown thioethers as
structural building blocks or capping members (e.g. {M(9S3)}) for synthesis of
metal cluster compounds.
Other applications involve the use of crown thioethers as binding groups in
ligands that incorporate other types of reactivity. Polythiametallocenophanes, for
example, couple the redox activity of the Cp2M (M = Fe [221,222], Ru [223-227])
group with the soft metal binding ability of the oligo thioether loop. Similarly,
incorporation of an azobenzene linkage into a thiacrown yields a ligand that binds
soft metal ions with an affinity that can be modulated by illumination [228].
A third possibility is the potential utility of crown thioethers supported on a poly-
meric backbone [229, 230]. Such second-generation ligands may prove useful in
the specific sequestration of Hg(II) from effluents, for example. Another application
centers on use of such chelating resins in the winning of precious metals such as
gold, silver, and the platinum metals. Yet another future application might lie in the
use of macrocyclic thioethers for chelation and biological delivery (through, e.g.
conjugation to monoclonal antibodies) of second- and third-row transition metal
radionuclides for either diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. The recent upswing in
activity in crown thioethers has laid the foundation for such future developments.
Several properties of crown thioethers commend them for these applications.
Their straightforward preparation by general routes, their chemical robustness and
inherent achirality (cf. macrocyclic phosphines) all facilitate practical applications of
these ligands. In addition, crown thioethers largely ameliorate the relatively weak
coordinative properties of acyclic thioethers. Last, crown thioethers neither solvate
strongly nor hydrogen bond (cf. amines), and thus greatly simplify calorimetric
studies of binding affinity.
Noteworthy by their virtual absence in this review are the lanthanides [158]
and actinides, whose crown thioether chemistry is as yet untouched. The propen-
sity of these ligands to stabilize low oxidation states if carried over to the lanthan-
ides engenders the possibility of synthesizing, e.g. complexes of divalent lanthanides
(e.g. Sm(II), Eu(II), Yb(II)). While the lanthanides and actinides as class a elements
(in their usual oxidation states) exhibit little affinity for soft class b ligands,
imposition of a soft coordination sphere may induce greater class b behavior in
them. Similarly, rich coordination chemistry for the lower-valent actinides (e.g.
U(III)) can be expected. This area represents an exciting frontier of research in
crown thioether chemistry.
Acknowledgements. We are grateful to the Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the American
Chemical Society, for support. We would also like to thank Drs. Dave Rorabacher, Karl Wieghardt,
Heinz-Josef K/ippers, Dieter Sellmann and Bruce Moyer for communication to us of unpublished work.
One of us (SRC) would also like to thank the Japan Industrial Technology Association for a summer
research fellowship, and especially Dr. Yohmei Okuno and the National Chemistry Laboratory for
Industry, Tsukuba, Japan, for their hospitality during which this review was prepared. We are also
grateful to Dr. Mike Mingos for his encouragement. This work was supported in part by the Petroleum
Research Fund (administered by the American Chemical Society) and by the U.S. Department of
Energy through DE-AC03-76SF00472.
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Hybridization Schemes for Co-ordination and
Organometallic Compounds
D. Michael P. Mingos and Lin Zhenyang
Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR,
United K i n g d o m
The important hybridization schemes for co-ordination and organometallic compounds have been
derived using a methodology based on a spherical harmonic expansion of the hybridized orbitals. For
spherical co-ordination compounds M L n it is possible to define a set of n hybrids which have their
maxima in the metaMigand directions and 9-n d orbitals or hybrids which have nodes along the
metaMigand bonds. The latter are important for rc-bonding to the ligands.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2 Equivalent Hybridized Orbitals in M L , C o m p o u n d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3 Inequivalent Hybridized Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1 Construction of Inequivalent Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2 Some Representative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4 Mixing Between Alternative Hybridization Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5 Hybrids in Non-Spherical Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.1 Spherical Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.1.1 General Nature of Valence Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.1.2 Site Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.3 Orientational Preferences for ~-Acceptor Ligands such as Ethylene . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.4 Square Antiprism and Dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Capped Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.1 Capped Tetrahedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2.2 Capped Octahedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2.3 Capped Trigonal Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Nido- and Arachno-Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.4 Anisotropic re-Bonding Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Structure and Bonding 72

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990
74 D.M.P. Mingosand L. Zhenyang
1 Introduction
The first quantum mechanical theory of the electron pair bond was developed by
Heitler and London for the hydrogen molecule [1]. Their valence bond method
retained a valuable connection with the classical localized electron pair bonding
description of the chemical bond proposed by Lewis. This valence bond approach
was developed and popularized by Pauling in the 1930s [2]. It proved to be
particularly effective for describing the stereochemistries of simple organic and
inorganic molecules, and in Pauling's hands these geometric conclusions were
brilliantly extended even to complex and biologically important molecules [3]. The
valence bond approach has lost some ground relative to the molecular orbital
method since the 1960s [4]. The magnetic and electronic properties of transition
metal complexes were not always satisfactorily accounted for using valence bond
theory and this led to a popularization of crystal and ligand field theories [5].
Similarly the application of valence bond theory to aromatic organic and highly
delocalized organometallic molecules such as ferrocene required either subtle
additional knowledge concerning details about the Hamiltonian integrals or the
consideration of a very large number of canonical forms. Interestingly, a recent
spin-coupled valence-bond treatment of the benzene molecule has led to the
conclusion that the Kekul6 description of the molecule may be more accurate than
a description in terms of the delocalized molecular orbitals [6].
Although much of the current thinking in co-ordination and organometallic
chemistry is couched in molecular orbital terms and geometric conclusions are
derived from Walsh type analyses [7], it is apparent that many of the conclusions
could also have been derived within a localized bonding framework. For example,
the isolobal relationships [8] between transition metal and main group fragments
can be derived using octahedral hybrids for M(CO), fragments and tetrahedral
hybrids for EH n fragments (M = a transition metal and E = a main group atom).
In addition the conformational preferences for M(CO)n(rl-polyene ) (n = 2,3,4)
with 18 and 16 valence electrons can be rationalized using a localized bonding
description [9]. The aim of this paper is to simplify the derivation of hybridization
schemes for transition metal complexes and thereby provide a link between the
valence bond and molecular orbital approaches. The fact that the qualitative
conclusions derived from both theories depend on the properties of spherical
harmonic functions to describe the angular properties of the wavefunctions ensures
a close correspondence between the two methodologies [10].
The hybridization scheme in valence bond theory is a very useful concept for
chemists since it permits a localized view of the bonding. The most general method
for generating hybridized orbitals is based on defining a bond wavefunction (a
linear combination of atomic orbitals) in a specific bond direction (usually the
z-axis direction). Then the second and subsequent hybrids are obtained by a rota-
tion transformation. Orthogonality conditions are then used to evaluate the hybrid
coefficients. These bond wavefunctions are defined as equivalent because they differ
from one another only by a rotation. Generally, the first bond wavefunction is
Hybridization Schemesfor Co-ordination and Organometallic Compounds 75
defined as [11]:
as + bpz + cd~2
along the bonding direction. This is the only s-p-d combination with cylindrical
symmetry about the bond, and is referred to as a cylindrical bond function.
In 1932 Hultgren [12] demonstrated that no more than six equivalent cylin-
drical bond functions could be defined which are mutually orthogonal for s, p and
d valence orbitals. Therefore for 7, 8 and 9 co-ordinate complexes which occur
commonly in transition metal chemistry the methodology described above is not
applicable. Pauling has described how the directional character of the generalized
hybrid orbitals can be utilized to discuss the bond angles in these high co-
ordination number compounds [13-17]. Since the metal-ligand bonds in co-
ordination compounds are not always symmetry equivalent, e.g. in trigonal bipyr-
amidal and pentagonal bipyramidal complexes, the equatorial and axial bonds
cannot be transformed by symmetry operations of the Dnh (n = 3 or 5) point
groups, this provides an additional difficulty for qualitative valence bond theory. In
1940 Kimball [18] defined the range of alternative hybridization possibilities for
co-ordination compounds using group theoretical principles, but his methodology
did not provide a chemical basis for defining the optimum hybridization possibil-
ities. In 1960, Murrell [19] developed a general method for constructing the best
hybrids based on the principle of maximum overlap. However this method has not
been widely applied. In the 1970s, Pauling developed a method for maximizing the
bond strengths of hybridized orbitals which do not necessarily have cylindrical
symmetry [13-17]. He applied the results to high coordination number complexes
and metal-metal bonded compounds [13-17]. The history of important develop-
ments in the theory of hybrid bond orbitals and its application to valence-bond
theory have been reviewed by Herman [10] and most recently by Yang [20]. The
methodologies developed previously were either based on the maximizing bond
strengths [17, 21] or overlap with the ligands [19].
In this paper, an alternative general methodology based on the spherical
harmonic expansion of hybridized orbitals is developed to generate hybridized
orbitals for most of the situations commonly encountered in co-ordination and
main group chemistry. The method developed in this paper is based on the
transformation properties of hybrids and the atomic orbitals from which they are
derived. The angular information is slightly different from those obtained by
Pauling and his co-workers, because a different criterion for evaluating tke best
hybrids is used.
2 Equivalent Hybridized Orbitals in MLn Compounds
In the majority of coordination compounds, MLn, the ligands, L, are distributed

evenly on the surface of a spherical shell. Consequently the hybridized orbitals
76 D.M.P. Mingos and L. Zhenyang
forming the M L bonds in the bonding directions are equivalent to each other. The
hyl, h y 2 , . . . , hyn are assigned to represent the n hybrids in the spherical M L n
compounds. The s y m m e t r y - a d a p t e d linear combinations of these hyi hybrids can
be expressed in terms of the following spherical h a r m o n i c expansion:
~lm(hy) = N ' ~ Clm(0i, qbi)hyi (1)
i
1=0,1,2 ....
m = 0,1c, ls,2c,2s . . . .
where 0 i and qbi represent the bonding directions in the spherical polar coordinates
and N' is a normalizing constant, and C~m is the modified spherical harmonic
wavefunction, C~m = [4rc/(21 + 1)]l/2ylm. The modified functions are given in
Table 1. The linear combinations ~lm(hy) can be labelled analogously to atomic
wavefunctions, i.e. 1 = 0, m = 0, s; 1 = 1, m = 0, Pz; etc. In a perfectly spherical
situation, S(hy), P(hy), D(hy) . . . . . etc., belong to different irreducible representa-
tions. C o m p a r i n g them with the s, p, d . . . . atomic orbitals on the central atom,
there is a one-to-one m a p p i n g between ~lm(hy) from Eq. (1) and qblm of the central
atom. Since the hyi is a linear combination of atomic orbitals on the central atom,
the spherical harmonic expansion in Eq. (1) has the following i m p o r t a n t implica-
tion: the atomic orbitals (s, p, d . . . . ) on the central a t o m can be expanded as
a linear c o m b i n a t i o n of hybridized orbitals in terms of spherical h a r m o n i c func-
tions. This becomes highly significant when we want to generate the hybridized
orbitals. F o r example, for a tetrahedral molecule, CH4(1), the following equations
[11
Table 1. Polar forms of the modified spherical harmonic functions
Clm Polar form Clm Polar form
Coo 1 C3o 1/2(5 cos30 - 3 cos 0)

C,o cosO C3' (3/8)1/2sin 0(5 cos 2 0 - 1)cos (~
C] 1 sin 0cos dp C31 (3/8)1/2sin 0(5 cos20 - l) sin
C~ 1 sin 0 sin dp C~2 (15/4)l/Zcos 0 sin20 cos 2~
C;2 (15/4)1/2cos 0 sinZ0 sin 2~
C2o 1/2(3 cos20 - 1) C~3 (5/8)1/2sin30 cos 3qb
C21 (3)U2COS0 sin 0 cos ~ C33 (5/8)1/2sin30 sin 3qb
C~1 (3)1/2cos0 sin 0 sin
C~2 (3/4)1/2sin 2 0 cos 2d?
C~2 (3/4) 1/z sin 2 0 sin 2d~
Hybridization Schemes for Co-ordination and Organometallic Compounds 77
can be obtained from Eq. (1) and the Clmspherical harmonics of Table 1. The b o n d
directions are defined by the polar coordinates, 0i, qbi: (54.73 °, 45°), 54.73 °, 225°),
(125.27 °, - 45 °) and (125.27 °, - 225°), i.e. the z axis is defined down the C 2 axis.
~o0(hy) = s: 1/2(hyl + by2 + by3 + hy4)
~lo(hy) = Pz: 1/2(hyl + hy2 - hy3 - hy4)
~11c(hy) = Px: 1/2(hyl - hy2 + hy3 - hy4)

qq~s(hy) = py: 1/2(hyl - hy2 - hy3 + hy4)
Pz 0.5 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5 /hy2 hy2

= ----+ A
Px 0.5 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.5 lhy3 hy3
py 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5 0.5 \hy4 hy4
Since the linear combinations generated from Eq. (1) are orthogonal to each other
because of the equivalent property, A is an U n i t a r y matrix. Thus,
hy2 Pz
by3 = (A)* Px
hy4 py
where (A)* is the transpose of the matrix A. Therefore,
h y l = 0.5(s + pz + Px + Py)
hy2 = 0.5(s + Pz - Px - Py) (2)

hy3 = 0.5(s - pz + Px - Py)
hy4 = 0.5(s - p~ - Px + Py)

W h e n the 3-fold axis is defined as z axis, the following linear expansions can be
obtained from Eq. (1):
~oo(hy) = s: 0.5(hyl + hy2 + hy3 + hy4)

~ o ( h y ) = p~: 0.866(hyl - 0.333(hy2 + hy3 + hy4))
~11c(hy) = Px: (1/6)1/2(2hy 2 - hy3 - hy4)
~ l s ( h y ) = py: 0.707(hy3 - hy4)

Therefore,
h y l = 0.5s + 0.866p~
hy2 = 0.5s - 3~/2/6p~ + 2/61/2px (2)'

hy3 = 0.5s - 31/Z/6pz - 1/61/Zpx + 0.707py
hy4 = 0.5s - 31/2/6pz - 1/61/2px - 0.707py
The hybrids in (2) and (2)' are related by a simple rotation transformation. In each
case the hybrid has 1/4 s character and 3/4 p character.
The 6 equivalent hybrids in an octahedral molecule (2) provide another
example. From Eq. (1), we have
fi 5
2
19.1
s~
Pz:
/0408 o.4o8o.4o80.4o80.4o8o408ithyl
0.707 - 0.707 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 hy2
Px: 0.000 0.000 0.707 - 0.707 0.000 0.000 hy3
Py: 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.707 - 0.707 hy4
dz 2 0.577 - 0.288 - 0.288 - 0.288 - 0.288 0.577 hy5
dx2_y2: 0.000 0.000 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 hy6 /
[where (1/6)1/2= 0.408, (1/2)1/2= 0.707, (1/3) 1/2= 0.577 and (1/12)1/z= 0.288].
Following the same procedure as that developed for the tetrahedral sp 3 hybridiz-
ation scheme:
hy2 /
/
0.408 0 . 7 0 7
0.408 - 0.707
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.577
0.577
0.000~
0.000
\
Is /
P~
hy3 / = 0.408 0 . 0 0 0 0.707 0.000 - 0.288 0.500 Px (3)
hy4 / 0.408 0.000 - 0.707 0.000 - 0.288 0.500 Py
hy5] 0.408 0 . 0 0 0 0.000 0.707 - 0.288 - 0.500 dz2
hy6/ 0.408 0 . 0 0 0 0.000 - 0.707 - 0.288 - 0.500 dx2 y2
The above two examples illustrate a very simple methodology for constructing
the hybridized orbitals for spherical molecules where all the atoms are symmetry
equivalent.
A more complicated example is the square anti-prismatic structure where the
hybrids are no longer cylindrically symmetric. Although it was shown by Hultgren
[12] that no more than six equivalent cylindrical hybridized orbitals can be
constructed using s-p-d hybridization schemes, Racah [22] noted that eight
equivalent non-cylindrical hybridized orbitals can be obtained. He utilized the
rotation symmetry group to construct the eight equivalent non-cylindrical s-p-d
hybridized orbitals for the square anti-prism. The methodology developed above
provides a similar method for deriving the hybrid orbitals. From Eq. (1) it gives:
/I S \ /0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354~ / h y l \~

(/Pz /0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 - 0.354 - 0.354 - 0.354 - 0.354~
l!il/
Px /0.500 0.OO0 - 0.500 0.000 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 /
py = ]0.0OO 0.500 0.000 - 0.500 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354/
dxz [0.500 0.000 0.500 0.OO0 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354|
~dy z ] /0.000 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354]
\ / 0.000 0.000 o ooo 0000 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.5oo/
dry \ 0 . 5 0 0 - 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.000 0.OO0 0.OO0 0.OO0/
~dxz-y~¢
[where (1/8) 1/z = 0.354 and 1/2 = 0.500].

Therefore,
hyl = 0.354s + 0.354pz + 0.500px + 0.500dx~ + 0.500dx2_yZ (4)
The other seven hybrids can also be obtained from the above matrix. The hyl (4) is
illustrated in Fig. l(c) and its direction of maximum electron density makes an
angle of 57.6 ° with respect to the tetragonal axis. The direction of maximum density
is obtained by varying the 0, d~in Eq. (4), where the atomic orbitals s, p and d are the
angular spherical harmonic functions Ylm(0, ~). When s - d~2 mixing is considered
the angle becomes larger and when the ratio ofdz2 to s coefficients is - tan(18 °) the
maximum density occurs at 60.90 ° in agreement with Racah's calculation [13].
I n tetrahedral transition metal complexes, for example Ni(CO)4, the hybrid-
ization scheme sp 3 is not obviously the most relevant since the nickel d orbitals
could also participate in the c~-bonding. Since the dxy , dyz and dxz orbitals have the
same transformation properties as the Pz, Px and py orbitals and the corresponding
component pairs are:
Pz ~ dxy
Px ~ dyz
py ~ dxz
The alternative extreme sd 3 hybridized orbitals are:
hyl = 0.5s + 0.5(dxy + dyz + dx~)

hy2 = 0.5s + 0.5(dxy - dyz - dx~)
hy3 = 0.5s - 0.5(dxy - dyz q- dxz)
hy4 = 0.5s - 0.5(dxy -[- dy~ - dx~)
Since the s and d orbitals are both centrosymmetric the resultant sd 3 hybrids point
simultaneously at opposite corners of a cube (see Fig. 2). Similarly sd 2 (s, dxy and
dx2-y2 ) and sd (sdxy or sd~2_y:) hybrids point simultaneously at opposite vertices of
a hexagon and square.
Clearly the alternative sp m and sd m (m = 1, 2 or 3) hybridization schemes
represent extreme situations and in a molecule such as Ni(CO)4 an intermediate
hybridization scheme is relevant. Therefore a new set of hybrids for describing
Prismotic hybrid Equotoriol hybrid

0.31s+O.41pz+O.4Bpy+0.26 dzz+O.5Bdyz-O.32dxz.yz 0.37s-O.45py-O.44dzz-O.6Bdxz.y2
(a,) Tricopped trigonol prism
A sitehybrid B site hybrid

0.31s+O.47pz .0.34py+O.39dzz+O.62dyz-O.18dxz.yz 0.39s-O.tgpz .O.62py -0.31dzz-O.34dyz-O.47dxz.yz
(b) Oodecohedron
0.35s+0.35pz.0.50p~-0.50dyz-O.5Odxz.yz Axiol hybrid Equetoriol hybrid

0.44s+O.71pz *0.56dzz 0.35s+O.B3pym0.28dzZ" 0.53dxZ--yZ
(o) Squoreontiprism (~ Pentogonol bipyromid
0.41s+O.71pz+0.58dzz 0.41s+O.41pz*O.43py+ Axio[ hybrid Equotoriol hybrid

0.5Bdyz-0.39 d=z_yz 0.37s+O.71pz.O.6Odzz O./*gs+O.55py -O.~Odzz-O.6Zdxz.yz
(e) Octohedron (f) Trigonol prism (g) Trigonol bipyromid
Fig. 1. The optimum hybrids for spherical co-ordination polyhedra
Fig. 2. The comparison between sp and sd hybrids
a tetrahedral transition metal complex can be obtained from Eq. (2) by replacing
Pz --+ cos A Pz + sin A dry
Px ~ cos A Px + sin A dyz
py ~ cos A py d- sin A dxz
where the cos A and sin A indicate the relative contributions of the p and d
components.
The inclusion of d orbitals into the hybridization scheme leads to no change in
the maximum directions of the hybrids. The mixing of d character into the sp 3
hybrids enhances the directional character of the hybrids towards the four corners
of a tetrahedral structure. The complementary (d-p) hybrid orbitals are:
sin A pz - cos A dxy
sin A Px - cos A dy z
sin A py -- COSA dxz
These three orbitals maximize their electron densities towards the directions of the
four vacant corners of the cube and correspond to a rotation of 45 ° of the
tetrahedral structure along the z axis (see (1)). Figure 3 illustrates the nodal
characteristics of the pz-dxy hybrid orbital.
The dp mixing therefore creates four hybrids with superior directional charac-
teristics in the tetrahedral bonding directions and three hybrids with inferior
bonding characteristics. The latter become completely non-bonding when the
Fig. 3. The illustration of pz-dxy hybrid orbital

W
metal-ligand bonds coincide with their nodal planes since the metal-ligand overlap
for this mixing coefficient is precisely zero. The following linear combinations:
0.790p~ - 0.612dxy
0.790px - 0.612dyz
0.790py - 0.612dx~
have zero electron densities in the tetrahedral bond directions. Therefore the
following linear combinations:
0.612p~ + 0.790dxy
0.612px + 0.790dy~
0.612py + 0.790dxz
give maximum bonding in the tetrahedral bond directions.
These optimum sp m - rid" hybridization schemes are summarized in Table 2 for
3 and 4 co-ordinate complexes. The hybridization for these co-ordination com-
plexes are effectively s(pd) ~ (m = 2 or 3) with m d - p hybrids pointing away from
the bond directions and essentially non-bonding. Although these hybrids are
non-bonding as far as the or-bonding framework they play an important role in
metal-ligand n-bonding and this aspect will be discussed in more detail below. In
summary, when alternative sd m and s p m hybridization schemes are possible, p - d
mixing between orbitals which have the same symmetry transformation properties
ensures the occurrence of optimum hybrids s(pd) m which maximize the overlap in
Table 2. The o p t i m u m s ( p d ) m (m = 2 and 3) hybridization schemes for 3 and 4 coordinate complexes
3 Coordination
~-hybrids
hyl = ( 1 / 3 ) I / 2 s + (2/3)~/2(0.667pr - 0.745d~2_y2)
hy2 = ( 1 / 3 ) ~ / 2 s - ( 1 / 6 ) ~ / 2 ( 0 . 6 6 7 p y - 0.745d 2_r2) + 1 / 2 1 / 2 ( 0 . 6 6 7 p ~ - 0.745d r )
hy3 = ( 1 / 3 ) ~ / 2 s - ( 1 / 6 ) ~ / 2 ( 0 . 6 6 7 p y - 0.745d~_y2) - 1/21/2(0.667p~ - 0.745d y)
non-bonding hybrids
0.745Pr - 0.667dx2_y 2
0.745p~ - 0.667dxy
4 Coordination
o--hybrids
h y l = 0.5s + 0.5[0.612(p z + Px + Py) q- 0.790(dxr + dyz + dxz)]
hy2 = 0.5s + 0.5[0.612(p z - Px - Py) + 0-790(dxy - dy~ - dxz)]
hy3 = 0.5s - 0.5[0.612(p~ - Px + Py) + 0.790(dxy - dyz + dxz)]
hy4 = 0.5s - 0.5[0.612(pz + px - py) + 0.790(d y + dyz -- dxz)]
non-bonding hybrids
0.790pz - 0.612dxy
0.790p~ - 0.612dr Z
0.790py - 0.612dx~
Hybridization Schemesfor Co-ordination and OrganometallicCompounds 83
the bonding directions. The complementary dp hybrids are non-bonding because

they have nodal planes in the bond directions.
3 Inequivalent Hybridized Orbitals
3.1 Construction of Inequivalent Hybrids

Molecules such as N H 3 and H 2 0 etc. are described in terms of an inequivalent
hybridization scheme based on sp 3 in valence bond theory. The construction of
hybridized orbitals in such molecules is different from that developed above. The
tetrahedral molecule XAY 3 (3) provides a useful starting point. Since the hyl is
distinguished from hy2, hy3 and hy4, the symmetry-adapted linear combinations of
these hybrids cannot be generated in terms of the spherical harmonic expansion in
Eq. (1). But they can be derived as follows:
y Y
Y
(81
s: sinA hy I + c o s A / ( 3 ) a/2 (hy 2 + hy 3 + hy4)

Pz: cosA hy 1 - sinA/(3) 1/2 (hy 2 + hy 3 + hy4)
Px: 2/(6)1/2hy2 - 1/(6) 1/2 (hy3 + hy4)
py: 1/(2) 1/2 (hy 3 - hy4)
The above four linear combinations are orthogonal to each other. Therefore,
following the same method as developed above, we get
hyl: sinA s + cosA p~

hy2: cos A/(3) 1/2 s -7 sin A/(3) 1/2 Pz + 2/(6)1/2px
hy3: c o s A / ( 3 ) 1/2 s - sinA/(3) 1/2 p~ - 1/(6)1/2p~ + 1/(2)1/2py
hy4: cos A/(3) 1/2 s - sin A/(3) 1/2 p~ - 1/(6)1/2p~ - 1/(2) 1/2 py
The hy2, hy3 and hy4 hybrids are equivalent. The bond angle between two hybrid
orbitals can be calculated from the s and p characters in the hybrid orbital [23],
COS (~ = - c s /2c v 2 (5)

where qb is the bond angle and Cs/C2 2v is the relative s/p contribution. We can see
how the s character in the hyl orbital changes with the bond angle between the
other three equivalent bonds. The results shown below indicate that the s character
in the hyl orbital increases with the decrease of bond angle between hy2-hy3-hy4.
This illustrates the complementary nature of spherical electron density in these
pyramidal molecules. Equation (5) shows that the angle qb decreases with the
s character in the 3 equivalent hybrids. Consequently the s character increases in
the hyl hybrid from the normalization condition. In fact Eq. (5) results from the
orthogonalization and normalization conditions. Therefore it can be concluded
that the complementary nature of spherical electron density is a consequence of
these two quantum mechanical principles.
Orbital nature Bond angle s character (%)

(°) in the hyl orbital
A = 0° Pz and sp2 hybrids 120 0
A= 30° spa hybrids 109.47 25
A= 45° 1 hybrid + 3 hybrids 101.54 50
A= 60° 1 hybrid + 3 hybrids 95.22 75
A= 90° s and three p orbitals 90 100
The decrease in the bond angles of N H 3 ~ P H a --* AsH 3 pyramidal molecules

results in an increase of s character in the hyl orbital (non-bonding orbital). This
leads to a more stable geometry since the energies of the atomic s orbitals relative
to the p orbitals increase from N ~ P --* As.
Another example is provided by the X2AY 2 molecule (4). The orthogonal
symmetry-adapted linear combinations of hyl, hy2, hy3 and hy4 may be written as
follows:
X X
Yd3 ri 4
s:
/
[ sinA/21/2
Pz: I c°sA/21/2
Px: 0
sinA/21/2
c°sA/21/2
0
141
cosA/21/2
- sinA/21/z
1/21/2
cosAj(hyx)
1/21/2
21/2)
- sin A/U/z hy2
hy3
py: 1/21/2 1/21/2 0 0 hy4
Therefore,
h y l = sin A/2i/2 s + cos A / 2 i/2 Pz + 1/21/2 Py
hy2 = sinA/21/z s + c o s A / 2 a/2 Pz - 1/2i/2py
hy3 = c o s A / 2 i/2 s - c o s A / 2 i/2 Pz + 1/2i/2Px
hy4 = cos A/21/z s - cos A/21/2 pz - 1/2 i/2 Px
F r o m these h y b r i d s it can be seen that the angles of h y l - h y 2 a n d hy3-hy4 are n o t

i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e b o n d angles between h y l a n d hy2, hy3 a n d hy4 can be c a l c u l a t e d
from Eq. (5). The following results are obtained.
angle (o) s% in angle (°) s% in

between hy 1 between hy3
hyl-hy2 (or hy2) hy3-hy4 (or hy4)
A= 0° 90 0% 180 50%
A= 30° 98.21 12.5% 126.87 37.5%
A= 45° 109.47 25% 109.47 25%
A= 60° 126.87 37.5% 98.21 12.5%
A= 90° 180 50% 90 0%
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between 01 a n d 0 2 is illustrated in Fig. 4. F i g u r e 4 also shows the

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a [24] from m a i n g r o u p molecules a n d some late t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l
complexes, for e x a m p l e X2ZnY2, which have a core-like d 1° shell. The a g r e e m e n t
between the theoretical results a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a is r e m a r k a b l y good.
I n s u m m a r y the n o r m a l i z a t i o n a n d o r t h o g o n a l i z a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s ensure a c o m -
p l e m e n t a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n of electron density. If m o r e s electron density is concen-
t r a t e d in one half of a molecule then the r e d u c t i o n in s c h a r a c t e r in the s e c o n d half
OZ
180
XzAYz
System
150 uOZ •
120
Fig. 4. The relationship between 0a i lit
and 02 in X2AY2 system 90 120 150 180 8~

is compensated for by an increase in p orbital character. These ideas are of course

central to the conclusions developed by Bent [25a] to describe the geometries and
spectroscopic properties of a wide range of compounds.
In non-spherical coordination compounds, the spherical harmonic expansions
of hyi are not orthogonal to each other. This means that there is no longer
one-to-one mapping between @~m(hy)and qb~matomic orbitals. For example the
trigonal bipyramid (5) gives rise to S(hy), P0, + l(hy) and Do(by ) linear combinations
from (1). The S(hy) and Do(hy) linear combinations belong to the same a'~ irredu-
cible representation and correspond to admixtures of the s and dz2 atomic orbitals.
New linear combinations between S(hy) and Do(hy) may produce a one-to-one
mapping with the s and dz2 atomic orbitals. However, there is no general way to
obtain these new linear combinations.
151
The two examples described above indicate that a set of linear combinations
which are orthogonal to each other is needed to generate a set of hybridized
orbitals. Since the spherical harmonic expansions can be approximately used for
a pseudo-spherical structure, the expansions from (1) can be taken as the first set of
linear combinations of hyi. Then we reorthogonalize them to get a new set of
orthogonalized linear combinations which correspond to the atomic orbitals on
the central atom. The construction of orthogonal functions from a set of
n non-orthogonal and linear-independent functions @~m(hy)can be achieved by
using the Schmidt orthogonalization method [25b]. It is possible to construct
a new set of orthogonal functions @i from the set @lm(hy)'swhich are assigned as @i
by means of the linear transformation:
@i = @1
@i = C21@1 ql- C2 2@1/2
/[/~ = C31@1 q- C32@2 "F C33@3
@n = C n l @ l + Cn2@2 -~- Cn3@3 -]- . . , -[- Cnn@n

The procedure is to choose @~ = @1, and first to orthogonalize @2 to @~to give @h,
the @3 to @~ and @h to give @~, and so on. The general formula is:
i-1
@~= @ , - 2 @](f @]@idx)/(Y @;@Jdx) (i = 2 , 3 , . . . n)
j=l
The resulting orthogonal functions may then be normalized. From the procedure
above, it can be seen that the resulting functions depend on which 41m(hy) is chosen
as 41, which is 42, and so on. Since the hyi's are not equivalent for a non-spherical
structure, the S(hy), (l/n) 1/2 (hyl + by2 + hy3 + . . . + hyn) which is evenly distrib-
uted, cannot be chosen as 41. Therefore, 41m(hy)'s are chosen as 4i's in decreasing
order of 1, and then m.
3.2 Some Representative Examples

In this section, some specific examples will be illustrated using the method de-
veloped above. The trigonal bipyramidal structure has the following spherical
harmonic expansions:
S(hy): 0.369(hyl + hy2 + hy3 + hy4 + by5) 45

Po(hy): 0.707(hyl - hy2) 44
P~(hy): 0.707(hy4 - hy5) 43
Py(hy): 0.408(2hy3 - hy4 - hy5) 42
Do(hy): 0.301(2hyl + 2hy2 - hy3 - hy4 - hy5) 41
[-where (1/5) 1/2 = 0.369, (1/2) 1/2 = 0.707, (1/6) 1/2 = 0.408 and (1/11) 1/2 = 0.301].
According to the Schmidt method, the resulting orthogonal functions are:
(o.3690.369o4. o.4920.4.)(.,)
0.707 - 0 . 7 0 7 0.000 0.000 0.000 hy2
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.707 - 0.707 hy3
0.000 0.000 0.816 - 0.408 - 0.408 hy4
0.602 0.602 - 0 . 3 0 1 - 0 . 3 0 1 - 0 . 3 0 1 hy5
(hyl) (O.3690.7O7000000000602)(s)
Therefore,
hy2 0.369 - 0.707 0.000 0.000 0.602 Pz

hy3 = 0.492 0.000 0.000 0.816 - 0.301 Px
hy4 0.492 0.000 0.707 0.408 - 0.301 py
hy5 0.492 0.000 - 0.707 0.408 - 0.301 d~2
These hybrids correspond to the conventional description of sp3d hybridization

scheme for a trigonal bipyramid.
Here it should be noted that the resulting orthogonal linear combinations
depend greatly on the coordinates chosen since the orthogonalization scheme
depends on the order of 41m(hy)'s. Usually the definition of the principal axis of
a molecule as the z axis gives a chemically reasonable result.
88 D . M . P . Mingos and L. Zhenyang
In the methodology developed above, it is necessary to know the locations of

ligands, i.e. the polar coordinates (0i, dOi), to generate the spherical harmonic
expansions from (1). Then following the procedures above, we obtain the hybrids.
However, the maximum electron densities of these hybrids obtained on the basis of
the above methodology may not be located exactly in the direction of the (0i, q~)
defined initially. For example an XAY 3 (3) molecule belonging to the C3v point
group can be used to illustrate the point. Figure 5 illustrates the relationship
between the input 0 and the calculated 0 from the resulting hybrids. It can be seen
from the Figure that the greater the deviation from a spherical arrangement, the
worse the approximation. It is noteworthy that the overall trend is correct, i.e. the
calculated 0 increases with the input 0. Therefore, this approximation can be
utilized in the discussion of the effect of the variation of s, p and d character of
hybrids when the molecular geometry is distorted from spherical.
Following the methodology developed above, calculations on dodecahedron (6)
and tricapped trigonal prism (7) were completed.
,--.. ~
B1 "-~-...
° ~i
,4 G
171
Oc0t Colcutoted
ong[e
Ocol =Oinput
90
100 Y3system
110
Oinput Fig. 5. The relationship between the input

i 0 and the calculated 0 from hybrids in
120 110 100 90 Inputan~e XAY 3 system
F o r a t r i c a p p e d t r i g o n a l prism, (7), the r e s u l t i n g h y b r i d s w i t h 0A(input ) = 43.2 °

are:
h y A = 0.31s + 0.41pz + 0.48px + 0.26dz2 + 0.58dx~ + 0.32dx2_y2
h y B = 0.31s + 0.41pz + 0.42py - 0.24px + 0.26dz~ + 0.50dy~ - 0.29dxz
- 0.28dxy - 0.16dx2_y2
h y C = 0.31s + 0.41pz - 0.42py - 0.24px + 0.26dz~ - 0.50dyz - 0.29dxz
+ 0.28dxy - 0.16dx2_y~
h y D = 0.37s - 0.39py + 0.23px - 0.44dz~ - 0.60dxy - 0.34dx2_y2
h y E = 0.37s + 0.39py + 0.23px - 0.44dz2 + 0.60dxy - 0.34dxz_y2
h y F = 0.37s - 0.45px - 0.44dz2 + 0.68dx2_y~
h y G = 0.31s - 0.41p~ + 0.48px + 0.26dz~ + 0.58d~z + 0.32dx2_y2
h y H = 0.31s - 0.41pz + 0.42py - 0.24px + 0.26d~2 - 0.50dy z q- 0.29dx~
- 0.28dxy - 0.16dx2_y2
h y I = 0.31s - 0.41pz - 0.42py - 0.24Px + 0.26dz~ + 0.50dy z --}-0.29dx~
+ 0.28dxy - 0.16dx2_y2
T h e m a x i m u m e l e c t r o n densities of A, B a n d C h y b r i d s (or G, H a n d I) are l o c a t e d

e x a c t l y in the d i r e c t i o n of 0 = 43.2 ° (or 136.8°). T h e t w o different h y b r i d s are
i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. l(a). T h e s e angles are b a s e d o n t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
in the c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e of [ R e H 9 ] 2 - ]-17].
F o r the d o d e c a h e d r o n (6), the resulting h y b r i d s with d~a(input ) = 36.0 ° a n d
qbB(input) = 106.0 ° are:
h y A 1 = 0.31s + 0.47p~ - 0.34py + 0.39dz~ - 0.62dyz - 0.18dx2_y2
h y A 2 = 0.31s + 0.47pz + 0.34py + 0.39d~2 + 0.62dy~ - 0.18dx2_y2
h y A 3 = 0.31s - 0.47p~ + 0.34px + 0.39d~ - 0.62dxz + 0.18dx2_y2
h y A 4 = 0.31s - 0.47pz - 0.34py + 0.39dz~ - 0.62dxz + 0.18dx2_y=
hyB1 = 0.39s - 0.18pz - 0.62py - 0.31d~ + 0.34dyz - 0.47dx2_y~
h y B 2 = 0.3% - 0.18p~ + 0.62py - 0.31d~= - 0.34dy~ - 0.47dx2_y~
hyB3 = 0.39s + 0.18p~ + 0.62py - 0.31d~= + 0.34dxz + 0.47dx=_y2
h y B 4 = 0.39s + 0.18pz - 0.62py - 0.31d~ - 0.34dx~ + 0.47dxz_y2
T h e c a l c u l a t e d qba a n d qbB f r o m the a b o v e h y b r i d s are 34.4 ° a n d 106.9 ° which are

very close to the i n p u t angles. T h e s e angles are very close to the 34.55 ° a n d 107.22 °
angles o b t a i n e d b y R a c a h [22] a l t h o u g h the m e t h o d o l o g i e s are very different. T h e
A site a n d B site h y b r i d s are s h o w n in Fig. l(b). T h e t o t a l s a n d p c h a r a c t e r of the
hybrids associated with the A and B sites are 43.26% and 56.89% respectively. This
suggests that the stronger cy bonds will be formed between the central atom and
B site ligands. This conclusion is in agreement with those based on extended
Hfickel calculations [27].
4 Mixing Between Alternative Hybridization Schemes
For the trigonal bipyramid the dxy and dx2_y2 orbitals transform according to the
same representations of the D3h point group as Px and py. Therefore the limiting
hybridization schemes are either sp3d or spd3. The optimum hybrids can be
obtained using the same methodology as that developed above for the tetrahedron.
The in-phase d-p hybrids
sin A Px + cos A dxy
sinA py + cosA dx2_y2
are constructed which have nodal planes in the directions of the equatorial ligands.
These are calculated to have sin A = 0.745, consequently the optimum hybrids will
have the following relative proportions of p and d orbital character:
0.667p x - 0.745dxy
0.667py - 0.745dx2_y2
From the results in the preceding section, the following hybridized orbitals are
obtained for the trigonal bipyramid:
hyl = 0.369s + 0.707pz + 0.603dz2

hy2 = 0.369s - 0.707pz + 0.603dz2
hy3 = 0.492s + 0.816(0.667py - 0.745dx~_y2) - 0.301dzz
hy4 = 0.492s + 0.707(0.667px - 0.745dxy ) + 0.408(0.667py - 0.745dx2_y~)
- 0.301d~2
hy5 = 0.492s - 0.707(0.667px - 0.745dxy ) + 0.408(0.667py - 0.745dx~_y2)
- 0.301dzz
The methodology developed above has the advantage that the non-bonding
and the hybridized cy bonding orbitals are determined simultaneously. As a result,
it is very useful in the discussion of structural preferences in transition metal
complexes.
The optimum hybridization schemes for coordination compounds are sum-
marized in Table 3. In Fig. 1 the hybridization characteristics of spherical
co-ordination polyhedra are summarized together with those for polyhedra with
symmetry inequivalent bonds.
Table 3. Valence orbitals for a range of spherical or approximately spherical polyhedral complexes.
Coordination Hybrid Hybrid Pure atomic

number and schemes non-bonding non-bonding
geometry orbitals orbitals
3 s(pd) 2 (0.745px + 0.667dxy a'l(dz2)*,a~(pz),

Trigonal e'
plane 0.745py + 0.667dx2_y2 e"(dxz, dyz)
4
Tetrahedron s( pd )3 ( 0'790pz + 0.612dxy e(dz2, dx~_y~).
tz ~ 0.790Px + 0.612dyz
5 ~ 0.790py + 0.612d
Trigonal spd( pd) 2 k
bipyramid e' ~ 0.745px + 0.667d y
[ 0.745py + 0.667d~ y~ e"(d , dyz)
6
Octahedron spad 2 none tzg(dxy, dxz,dyz)
6
Trigonal spdE(pd) 2 ( 0.670p~ - 0.740d~2_y2
a'l (dz~)
prism e' ~. 0.670py + 0.740d y
7
Pentagonal sp3d 3 none e"(d , dy~)
bipyramid
8 sp3d a none a 1(d2)
Square
antiprism
8 sp3d 4 none b 1(dxy)
Dodecahedron
9 sp3d 5 none none
Tricapped
trigonal prism
* For clarity the mixing of s character into dz2 is ignored
5 Hybrids in Non-Spherical Polyhedra
In the previous sections, the hybrids for spherical or nearly spherical polyhedra
were discussed. The hybrids for non-spherical polyhedra, such as nido and arachno
structures, can also be constructed in a similar way to that developed above. The
construction of hybrids for a square pyramidal structure provides a specific
example for illustrating the methodology.
Since the dxy, dxz and dy z orbitals have zero overlap with ligands, they are not
involved in the 5 hybrids. The remaining s, Pz, P,, Py, d~2 and dx2_y2 orbitals should
be taken into account when the hybrids are constructed. The construction of 5
92 D.M.P. M i n g o s and L. Z h e n y a n g
hybrids from 6 atomic orbitals gives rise to one redundant orbital. This redund-
ant orbital minimizes its overlap with ligands and is referred to as non-bonding
orbital. Therefore, it can be defined by having its nodal cones coincident with the
M - L bond directions. When the vertex in the - z direction is removed from the
octahedr-on, the non-bonding orbital has the following wave function:
as - bpz + cd~:
The coefficients are determined by inserting 0 = 0 (axial ligand) and 0 = 90 °

(equatorial ligands) into the following equation derived from the spherical har-
monic functions (Y!m) given in Table 1:
a - b x 31/2 cosO+ c × 51/2/2(3cos 2 0 - 1) = 0
Combining this with the normalization condition, we obtain
0.456s - 0.791pz + 0.408d~:
The other two remaining orthogonal linear combinations of s, pz and dz2 which are
involved in the hybrids can be obtained by the Schmidt orthogonalization method.
They are:
qb1 = 0.667s - 0.745dz~

~/)2 = 0.589s + 0.612pz + 0.527dz2
For a spherical polyhedron, the linear combinations of hyi's are obtained from Eq.
(1), where Cl,m are the normalized angular parts of pure atomic wavefunctions
listed in Table 1. For a non-spherical polyhedron, the Cl,m has to be revised since
the atomic orbitals involved in the hybrids are now new linear combinations of
atomic orbitals. For example, the hybrids for a square pyramid involve qb1, qb2, p,,
py and dx2_y2 orbitals. Inserting these five new functions into Eq. (1) instead of
Cl.m(0, qb), we have the following five normalized linear combinations:
hy( + z) hy( + x) hy( + y) hy( - x) hy( - y)
do1 0.316 0.474 0.474 0.474 0.474

dOg 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
py 0.000 0.000 0.707 0.000 -- 0.707
p~ 0.000 0.707 0.000 -- 0.707 0.000
d~2_y2 0.000 0.500 - 0.500 0.500 - 0.500
where the hy( + z) indicates the hybrid in the + z direction and similarly for the
others. Following the methodology developed for spherical polyhedra, now we
reorthogonalize the above matrix from bottom to top by the Schmidt method, The
resulting orthogonal matrix is:
t 0.000 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 t

1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.707 0.000 - 0.707
0.000 0.707 0.000 - 0.707 0.000
0.000 0.500 - 0.500 0.500 - 0.500
Therefore the hybrids are:
h, +z)/oooo
hr,+x,
ooo oooo
,o,oooooo oooo
oooo oooo) o.7o7 o.5oo
t hy( + y)
hy( - x)
hy(y)
l 0.589
= | 0.500 0.000
~ 0.500 0.000
0.707
\0.500 0.000 - 0.707
0.612
0.000 -- 0.500
0.000 - 0.707
0.000
oooo oooo oooo o527( )

0.500
0.500
py
Px
dx~_y2
0.333 0.000 0.000 0.707 0.500 - 0.373 ~ Pz

=/0"333 0.000 0.707 0.000 - 0.500 - 0.373 | PY
0.333 0.000 0.000 - 0.707 0.500 - 0.373 ] Px
\ 0.333 0.000 - 0.707 0.000 - 0.500 - 0.373 i dx~-y2
dz2
The methodology developed by Murrell [19] is very similar to that described

above. Instead of orthogonalizing the above matrix, he obtained new linear
combinations of qb1, qb2, Px, Py and dxz-y2 which give the maximum overlap with
ligand orbitals. The results for a square pyramid based on his methodology are:
hy( + z) \ /0.468 0.604 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.645k / s k

hy( + x) /
hy( + y)]
hy(-x)]
h y ( - y) /
/ 0.378 0.052
=/0.378 0.052
~ 0.378 0.052
\ 0.378 0.052 -
0.000 0.707
0 . 7 0 7 0.000 -
0.000-0.707
0.707 0.000 -
0.500 -
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.323 / / Pz
0.323l i P , '
0.323//~x2 2
0.3231 t d~2-y
)
It can be seen that the results from both methods are very similar. The inclusion of
the Pz orbital in the equatorial hybrids from Murrell's method indicates that the
equatorial hybrids do not lie exactly in the xy plane.
When the four equatorial ligands are distorted from the xy plane, the mixing
between (Px, Py) and (dxz, dyz) has to be taken into account as well as that between s,
Pz and dz2. The same routine is used to find new linear combinations of Px, Py and
dxz , dyz which are involved in the hybrids and then the new revised functions replace
the Px and py functions in Eq. (1). Finally the same procedures are applied to
generate the hybrids for the distorted square pyramidal structure.
Using the procedures described above the hybrids for any kind of geometry can
be generated. The geometric consequences for nido and arachno structures will be
discussed in the next section.
6 Discussion
6.1 Spherical Polyhedra
6.1.1 GeneralNature of Valence Orbitals
The structures discussed in the sections 2-4 are referred to as spherical polyhedra
since their hybridization schemes can be either exactly or very closely described in
terms of the spherical harmonic methodology developed above. In summary the
orbitals describing these polyhedra based on the Valence Bond Theory can be
classified into three types:
(1) hybrid cy orbitals, pointing directly towards the ligands;

(2) hybrid non-bonding orbitals, usually p-d hybrids whose nodal planes coincide
with the metal-ligand bond directions;
(3) pure atomic non-bonding orbitals, with nodal planes in the ligand directions.
The above three types of valence orbitals for a range of spherical polyhedra are
summarized in Table 3. The hybrid cy orbitals which are not listed in the Table are
shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2. These cy bonding orbitals are usually utilized to form
M-L cy bonds. Therefore the occupation of the type (2) and (3) non-bonding
orbitals leads to complexes which conform to the 18-electron rule. Since the
p orbitals have high energies relative to the s and d orbitals for transition metal
atoms either a stabilization of the hybrid non-bonding orbitals through n-interac-
tions with n* vacant orbitals from ligands, such as CO, CN- etc., or a small d-p
promotion energy is required for the stabilization and complete electron occupa-
tion of orbitals of type (2). The following examples illustrate this conclusion.
Tetrahedron Ni(CO) 4 d 1°
Trigonal bipyramid Fe(CO)s d8
Octahedron Cr(CO) 6 d 6,
Pentagonal bipyramid Mo(CN)~- d4
Square antiprism H4W(CN)8 dz
Dodecahedron K4W(CN)8 d2
Deviations from the inert gas rule are a consequence of partial occupations of the
hybrid and pure atomic non-bonding orbitals. This often occurs because either the
non-bonding orbitats are destabilized by n-donor ligands, such as halide and OR -,
or the metal has a large d-p promotion energy, e.g. the late transition metals.
Hybridization Schemesfor Co-ordinationand OrganometallicCompounds 95
6.1.2 Site Preferences
In the complexes where the M - L bonds are not equivalent, such as trigonal and
pentagonal bipyramidal structures, the bonding abilities of these inequivalent
hybrid cy orbitals depend on their s, p and d character. Since an s orbital has
a larger overlap integral with ligand c~ orbitals than the p and d orbitals, a greater
s character in the hybrid ~ orbital leads to a stronger bond with a ligand. Therefore
the following conclusions can be made from the hybrid wavefunctions shown
in Fig. 1.
Structure Strong bond Weak bond
Tricapped trigonal p r i s m Equatorial Prismatic

Dodecahedron B site A site
Pentagonal bipyramid Axial Equatorial
Trigonal bipyramid Equatorial Axial
These conclusions are generally consistent with those derived from extended
H/ickel calculations [27-29]. In their calculations on trigonal bipyramidal com-
plexes, Rossi and Hoffmann [28] noted that the axial bonds are stronger than the
equatorial bonds when the electron configuration is d 8 for the central transition
metal. Checking the experimental data (see Table 1 of Ref. [19]) for d 8 trigonal
bipyramidal structures, we cannot find much evidence for such a site preference
effect.
6.1.30rientational Preferencesfor n-Acceptor Ligands Such as Ethylene
The structure of tris(ethylene)nickel(0) has attracted a lot of interest from experi-

mentalists and theoreticians [30]. A trigonal-planar arrangement (8) rather than
perpendicular (9) has been explained using extended H/ickel calculations [30]. In
terms of a hybridization model, the ~ interactions between Ni and ethylenes are
based on the optimum s(p d) 2 hybridization scheme given in Table 3. There are
-
6 non-bonding orbitals, one pure pz(empty), two pure d(e": dxz, dyz), two d-p
complementary hybrids (e') and one dz2 (mixing with s) orbitals (see Table 3). Since
ethylene is a n-acceptor ligand the preferred conformation is that which maximizes
the back donation from metal to ethylene n*. Filled d-p hybrid non-bonding
orbitals function most effectively in this sense since the relative orbital energies
nd < (n + 1)s ~ (n + 1)p ensures that such hybrids have a smaller ionization
(81 191
energy than pure d orbitals. The back donation interactions for (8) are between n*
and e'(d-p mixings) and for (9) rc* and e" (pure d orbitals). A larger stabilization
energy can therefore be expected for the trigonal-planar arrangement (8).
The X-ray structural studies of Howard, Spencer and Stone have established
the platinum tris(olefin) complexes, Pt(olefin)3 [31], do indeed have the anticipated
planar arrangement. Furthermore, all the known PtL2(olefin) [32] and PtL 2
(acetylene) complexes have the planar conformations shown in (10) and (11).
L..,. % L..._
L L ....
IlOl [111
In trigonal bipyramidal ML 5 complexes the optimum spd(pd) 2 hybrids define

the metal ligand o-bonds. Two non-bonding d-p hybrids lie in the equatorial plane
and the d~z and dyz orbitals lie perpendicular to this plane and by symmetry are
non-bonding (see Table 3). Occupation of the complementary hybrids and the
non-bonding d orbitals leads to a noble gas configuration for the metal. This of
course depends on the absence of a very large d-p promotion energy. Where this
occurs, e.g. platinum(II) and gold(III), the square planar geometry becomes ener-
getically preferred. If one of the ligands in the trigonal bipyramidal complex is
a non-cylindrical n-acceptor ligand, such as ethylene, then the more stable con-
formation is that which maximizes the back donation from the in-plane d-p hybrid
orbitals, i.e. that shown in (12).
Tetrakis(ethylene)nickel(0), with 18 electrons, has a structure which can be

either "quasidodecahedral" (13) or "quasicubical" (14), both with idealized
Dzd symmetry. The optimum s(pd) 3 hybridization scheme can be used to describe
the four cy bond interactions. From Table 3, there remain 5 non-bonding orbitals
which include two pure d(e: dx2_y2 , dz2 ) orbitals and three complementary t 2 d-p
hybrid non-bonding orbitals. The stabilization energy of the t 2 d-p hybrid
non-bonding orbitals by the n* acceptor of ethylene is more significant than that of
the e set of pure d orbitals. The three (d-p) hybrid non-bonding orbitals have
b 2 + e symmetries in the D2d point group. The four n* acceptor orbitals transform
as a 1 + b 2 + e for (13) and a 2 + b 1 + e for (14). Therefore, greater stabilization
[131 1141
energy is expected for the "quasidodecahedral" structure (13) by symmetry con-

sideration. This conclusion is confirmed by Hoffmann's MO calculations [30]. The
"quasidodecahedral" structure of [Cr(O2)4] 3- [33] can also be understood from
the above discussion. For the O 2- ligands the interaction between the empty (d.p)
hybrid non-bonding orbitals and the re-donor orbitals of O 2- are of primary
importance. Therefore the resultant conclusion is the same.
6.1.4 Square Antiprism and Dodecahedron
Since the M - L bonds are equivalent in a square anti-prismatic M L s complex, the

hybridized orbitals can be constructed as described in Sect. 2. The maximum
densities of those hybridized orbitals make an angle of 57.6 ° with the tetragonal
axis. Therefore the sp3d 4 hybridization scheme with a pure dz2 non-bonding orbital
(i.e. dz2 is excluded from the hybridized orbitals) leads to a geometry with a cone
angle of 57.6 ° in square anti-prismatic ML s complexes. From the method de-
veloped above, we can see that any deformation from the angle of 57.6 °, i.e. increase
or decrease, results in the mixing of s character into the dz2 non-bonding orbital
and the participation of dz~ in the hybridized cy orbitals. Consequently the above
argument indicates that the d 2 complexes prefer the structure having an angle close
to 57.6 ° and d o complexes tend to have cone angles which deviate from this value.
Since a square anti-prism based on equal edge lengths makes an angle of 59.26 °
with the tetragonal axis, the ligands in the d o complexes tend to adopt this spherical
arrangement. Specific examples [24] include H 4 W ( C N ) s . 6 H 2 0 (d 2, 0 = 57.6°),
[Nd(ONCsHs)8] (C103) 3 (d 2, 0 = 56.1°), [Sr(H20)8 ] (AgI2) 2 (d °, 0 = 58.2 °) and
Na3TaF s (d°, 0 = 59 °) and support the argument developed above. From extended
Hfickel calculations [27], Hoffmann and coworkers found an energy-minimum at
0 = 57°(d 2) and 0 = 59°(d °) for M L s square antiprismatic complexes.
In the dodecahedral structure M L s (7), with D20 symmetry, the non-bonding
orbital is a pure dxy (bl) orbital for all 0 g and 0 B angles. The most favoured
structure is the one in which the ligands are evenly distributed on the surface of
a spherical shell for both d o and d 2 complexes. The hybrids make 0 g and 0 B angles
of 34.4 ° and 106.9 ° respectively. Extended Hfickel calculations [27] have shown
that for both d o and d 2 systems minimum-energy geometries are located at
0g = 36 ° and 0B -=- 106 °. Experimental data [24] include K4Mo(CN)8 (d E) which
has 0g = 36.0 ° and OR = 107.1 °, and (Bu4N)aMo(CN)8 (d 1) has 0 a = 37.2 ° and
0B = 107.5°. These results emphasize that the conclusions derived from extended
H/ickel and the hybridization schemes are almost identical, because they both
depend greatly on the nodal properties of the spherical harmonic functions.
6.2 Capped Polyhedra
Coordination polyhedra can be described as mono-, bi- and tri-capped polyhedra if

they can be represented as a spherical polyhedron with one, two and three ligands
located on faces. Since the methodology developed above is based on the spherical
harmonic functions, the capped polyhedra are best described in terms of their
parent polyhedra which are spherical or approximately spherical. The capping
ligand can be either a cy-acceptor, i.e. L 2 +, or a ~-donor when the parent polyhed-
ron has empty non-bonding orbitals. The orbital interactions for capped polyhedra
arise from the hybrid d-p or pure atomic non-bonding orbitals on the central atom
and the capping ligand orbital. As indicated above stronger interactions occur for
hybrid d-p non-bonding orbitals than the pure d orbitals. Since the capping ligand
orbital interacts primarily with the hybrid and pure d non-bonding orbitals which
have no s character, the following general points can be made:
(1) The metal-capping ligand bonds are weaker than the other metal-ligand bonds
because they have less s character.
(2) The competition of the capping ligand for s character leads to a distortion of
the geometry of the parent polyhedron.
(3) Distortion of the parent polyhedron also results in a mixing of p character into
pure d non-bonding orbitals and consequently a destabilization of the
non-bonding orbitals.
The majority of capped structures are based on the tetrahedron, the octahedron
and the trigonal prism. In the following section these capped polyhedra are
discussed in terms of the valence orbitals listed in Table 3.
6.2.1 CappedTetrahedra
From Table 3 it can be seen that there are three t z (d-p) hybrid and two e pure
d non-bonding orbitals for a tetrahedral complex. The discussion in Sect. 2 showed
that the three non-bonding t 2 (d-p) hybrid orbitals maximize their electron den-
sities towards the triangular faces of the tetrahedron and the e(dx2_y2, dz2) orbitals
point towards the edges. Therefore the triangular faces are preferred for
capping ligands because of the mixing of p character into the t 2 non-bonding
orbitals. Examples of bieapped tetrahedral structures, HEFe[P(C6Hs)(OC2Hs)2]4
and (AuPR3)2[Fe(CO)4], and the mono-capped tetrahedral stuctures, HCo(PF3) 4
and HRh[P(C6Hs)3] 4, where the H and AuPR 3 are capping ligands, support the
arguments above [34, 35].
In ML4L' and ML4L~ complexes, where L and L' have approximately equal
electronegativities, the ligands have similar bonding capabilities and compete
HybridizationSchemesfor Co-ordinationand OrganometallicCompounds 99
equally for s character on the central atom. This ensures that a rehybridization
occurs from the s(pd) 3 optimum scheme of a tetrahedral structure to sp3d and
sp3d z. Therefore such compounds are characterized by trigonal bipyramidal and
octahedral structures. For examples, [Ni(PMe3)gBr ] - and [Ni(PMe3)4CH3]-
are trigonal bipyramidal structures [36] and [Rh(H20)4CI2] + is octahedral [37].
When L and L' have very different electronegativities, e.g. AuPR 3 and PR 3, it can
be predicted that the more electropositive ligands prefer the capping positions
because, according to (1) above, weaker bonds to the central atom are formed at
these positions. In the examples discussed above H and AuPR 3 are located in
capping positions.
6.2.2 Capped Octahedra

In the sp3d 2 hybridization scheme of an octahedral complex, the three
tzg non-bonding orbitals defined with respect to the C 3 axis are:
dz~ aa(C3v)
tzg(Oh) (2/3)X/2dx2_y2 + (1/3)1/2dx~
(2/3)l/2dxy - (1/3)l/2dyz t e(C3v)
The capped ligand then interacts with the dz2(ax) orbital of these non-bonding
orbitals. It was concluded from MO calculations [29] that 02( = 03 = 04) and
05( = 06 = 07) (see (15) for the definition of 0) both decrease as the number of
d electrons is increased from 0 to 4. This can be understood simply in the following
context. In the d o complexes where the e(C3v) non-bonding orbitals are not
occupied, the ligands tend to arrange themselves evenly on a spherical surface.
Therefore, the deformation from a regular capped octahedron towards a spherical
arrangement results in the increase of the 0z and 05. In the d4 complexes, the
occupation of the two non-bonding orbitals leads to a structure which maximizes
the d character in the e(C3v) non-bonding orbitals. This can be achieved by
a geometrical change which would lead back to the regular capped octahedron.
One example of a capped octahedron is [NbTelo] 3-, which was considered as
a cluster compound in the original paper [38]. Alternatively it can be described as
a seven coordination compound [Nb(Te3)aTe] 3- with do configuration, where
Te~- is the polytelluride ion.
5
[a~l
When the second capping ligand is introduced, it interacts with the remaining
non-bonding orbitals of e symmetry. Therefore a trans-bicapped octahedral com-
plex is unfavourable because the remaining available non-bonding orbitals have
zero electron density along the z axis.
6.2.3 Capped Trigonal Prisms
In a trigonal prismatic transition metal complex (16), in addition to the six

c~ hybrids which form M-L bonds there are three non-bonding orbitals which
include one pure dz~ and two e' d-p hybrid non-bonding orbitals (see Table 3). As
discussed above, it can be concluded that capping the square faces is preferred to
the triangular faces in the mono- and bi-capped trigonal prismatic transition metal
complexes because of the two d-p hybrid non-bonding orbitals which maximize
their electron density towards the square faces. The existence of structures such as
[Mo(CNR)6I] + (mono-capped) [39] and ZrF~- (bicapped) [40] supports the
conclusions above.
6~ If4 m5
(16)
Capping two ligands on two of three square faces of the prism results in a great
decrease in the 0 cone angle (see (16)) compared to the parent trigonal prism. The
decrease in the 0 cone angle leads to a mixing of s orbital character into the
non-bonding dz2 orbital. Consequently, an as + bdz2 hybridized orbital is involved
in the hybridized c~ orbitals of the trigonal prism and a rehybridization occurs
when two ligands are capped onto the square faces of a trigonal prism. The
complementary component bs - adz2, which maximizes its electron density in the
equatorial plane, is available for the third capping ligand. Therefore capping the
third square face rather than the triangular faces is preferred when the third
capping ligand is introduced.
6.3 Nido and Arachno Structures
Co-ordination polyhedra can be described as nido, araehno and hypho if they can be
represented as fragments of spherical polyhedra with one, two and three vertices
missing respectively. The grossly non-spherical nature of these polyhedra means
that their hybrid orbitals are no longer adequately described in terms of the
methodology developed above. It might appear that it is possible to describe the
hybrids associated with the missing vertices in terms of the parent polyhedron. This
is correct for the tetrahedron, where for example in AH 3 molecules the lone pair
orbital can be represented as a sp 3 hybrid as long as the H-A-H angle is 109.47 °.
However, for spherical polyhedra which require d orbitals to define the hybrids the
nodal cones of the hybrids do not coincide with the ligand positions. For example,
in an octahedron the relevant d2sp 3 hybrid has the form:
0.408s + 0.707pz + 0.577dz2
This hybrid has nodal cones at 38 ° and 99 ° with respect to the four fold symmetry
axis (see (17)) and do not coincide with the axes of the octahedron. Therefore, it is
hardly surprising that in transition metal square pyramidal complexes the angle
between axial and equatorial ligands is always greater than 90 °. Indeed extended
Hficket calculations [281 on d 8 PtL 5 complexes have resulted in an energy min-
imum at 0 = 98 ° almost precisely in the nodal cone of a d2sp 3 hybrid. The
experimentally determined angle in the related d 8 complex [Ni(CN)5] 3- is 100 °
[41]. In a d 6 low spin complex the hybrid orbital is empty and the geometry
approximates more close to that of an octahedron. For example, Mo(CO)s has
a 0 angle of 91 ° [Sa]. This emphasizes that undoubted success of approximate
molecular orbital methods such as the extended Hiickel lies in the fact that they are
reproducing the important properties of the angular parts of the wavefunctions and
defining the angles which maximize the metal ligand overlaps and placing the
ligands in the nodal cones of the remaining orbitals.
4 3
laTI
In more general terms one can explore the nodal characteristics of the
non-bonding al orbital in a square pyramidal complex by defining it initially as:
as - bpz + cdz2
The coefficients are then sought which lead to a hybrid with zero overlap with the
ligand o-orbitals of the square pyramid. Inserting the angular parts of the spherical
harmonic functions this leads to:
a - b x 31/2 cos0 + c x 51/2/2(3 COS20 -- 1) = 0
When the ligand angular co-ordinates are inserted, i.e. when 0 = 0 for the axial
ligand and 0 = 90 ° for the equatorial ligands, the a, b and c parameters can be
determined. The Table below summarizes the variation in s, p and d character as
a function of the 0 angle
a(s) b(pz) c(dz2)

0 = 80° .565 .755 .332
0 = 85° .518 .773 .367
0 = 90° .456 .791 .408
0 = 95o .377 .806 .456
0 = 100° .273 .816 .510
For a d 8 complex where the energy minimum is close to 100 ° the non-bonding
hybrid orbital defined above is similar to a d2sp 3 hybrid but not identical to it. It
has a higher proportion of p orbital character and less s and d character. Nonethe-
less, the nodal characteristics of the d2sp 3 hybrid give a good indication of the
magnitude and sense of the anticipated distortion. It follows that the bonding in
nido, arachno and hypho fragments can to a first approximation be described in
terms of the hybrid orbitals of the parent polyhedron. If the hybrid orbitals are
vacant then the geometry of the fragment closely approximates to that of the
parent spherical molecules. However, if the hybrid(s) is occupied then the geometry
will distort somewhat so that the ligands are located in the nodal cones of the
idealized hybrid orbitals.
The following series of matrix isolated molecules [8a] Mo (CO)5, Mo (CO)4 and
Mo(CO)3 illustrated these ideas since they all have geometries based on the parent
octahedron. Mo (CO)5 is square pyramidal with a 0 angle of 91 °, Mo (COb has a cis
divacant octahedral structure with O C - M o - C O (axial) = 174 ° and O C - M o - C O
(equatorial) = 107 ° and Mo(CO)3 has a cis trivacant C3v octahedral structure with
O C - M o - C O = 93.2 °. Since these fragments also have approximate dZsp 3 hybrids
pointing towards the missing vertices their bonding capabilities are readily defined.
The presence of these out-pointing hybrid orbitals has important consequences for
describing the bonding in clusters derived from M(CO). fragments and forms the
basis of the isolobal analogy.
Although for d 6 fragments the geometries are referred to the octahedron for
metals with fewer d electrons the fragments are referred to higher co-ordination
number polyhedra. For example, a d 4 M(CO)4 fragment can be referred to
a trigonal-base tetragonal base co-ordination number 7 polyhedron (18). The
computed C4v geometry is consistent with the formation of d3sp 3 hybrids to the
four basal ligands and three hybrids towards the missing vertices. The four ligands
lie in the nodal cone of dz2 and the nodal planes of dxy leading to two non-bonding
orbitals localized on the metal. The occurrence of such non-bonding orbitals with
maximum d character contributes significantly the stabilization of the geometry
in view of the orbital energy ordering n d > (n + 1)s ~> (n + 1)p. Similarly, the
IXS]
d 2 M(CO)4 fragment can be referred to a square antiprism with four outpointing

hybrids, four bonding hybrids and a dz2 non-bonding orbital. Extended Hfickel
calculations [Sa] on M(CO)4 fragments predict C4v pyramidal structures for
d2(0 = 117.5 °) and d4(0 = 122.5°). The nodal cone of dz2 occurs at 0 -- 125.27 °.
Since the position of the nodal cones in hybrids is relevant to the stereochemical
problems described above their positions are summarized in Fig. 6. In those cases
where the hybrids are not axially symmetric the nodal lines occur at different sides
of the hybrid.
When the square pyramid is distorted from the idealized octahedral geometry
the relative proportions of s, p and d character change according to whether
0 > 90 ° or < 90 °. For 0 < 90 ° the s character in the non-bonding hybrid is
increased at the expense of p and d, whereas when 0 > 90 ° the s character decreases
relative to d and p. Therefore, it is possible to account for the different stereochem-
ical properties of lone pairs in transition metal and main group M L 5 complex. For
a molecule such as BrF 5 0 < 90 ° [42] because the geometry maximizes the
s character in the non-bonding hybrid orbital, and this is energetically favourable
because of the atomic level ordering ns > np ~> nd. In the transition metal d s
complexes the level ordering n d > (n + 1)s ~> (n + 1)p leads to a geometry which
maximizes the d character.
6.4 Anisotropic n-Bonding Effects

In the examples cited above it has been assumed that the ligands are bonding
approximately equally and that c~-bonding effects are significantly more important
than n-bonding effects. There are numerous complexes, however, where there is
a unique ligand which is either a n-donor or n-acceptor. Some typical examples are
illustrated in (19) [43] and (20) [44] where the unique ligand is a n-donor or
acceptor.
0
N
/
1191 1201
In a square pyramid the change in 0 angle from the idealized octahedral angle
not only changes the character of the hybrid pointing towards the vacant site, but
also causes a mixing of (Px, Py) and (dxz, dyz). In a hybridized sense the extent of
mixing can be estimated by defining the resultant hybrid in such a way that it has
a nodal cone coincident with the equatorial ligand directions. The results of such
calculations for 0 = 80-100 ° are summarized over the page:
o,o
o
_ ~ ~ V ~ ~ o.~
o ~
r~
~.~ o
r~
00 E
e
o~
oLI.
~
Px dxz
0 = 80° -0.362 0,932
0 = 85° - 0.191 0.982
0 = 90° O. 1.000
0 = 95° 0.191 0.982
0 = 100° 0.362 0.932
It is noteworthy that although the mixing coefficients for 0 angles of 90 4- x are

equal, their signs are opposite. This difference is represented schematically in (21)
and (22). In each case the hybrid points away from the direction of distortion. If the
axial ligand is a good n-donor or acceptor then a superior ~-interaction is achieved
with the metal d-p hybrid if the 0 is larger than 90 °. The square pyramidal ~c-donor
complexes [OsNBr4]- (0 = 104.3 °) [43], [RuNBr4]- (0 = 104.2°) [45] and
ReNClz(PPh3)2 (0 = 109.7 °) [46] provide examples of such geometrically distorted
situations. The effect is not limited to square pyramidal complexes and for example
Pt(CO)(PR3) 3 (0 = 113 °) [47] and Ir(NO)(PPh3) 3 (0 = 117 °) [44] have distorted
tetrahedral geometries. Despite the fact that there are bulky ligands present, the
distortion increases the steric repulsions between the phosphine ligands.
If the situation is reversed such that the majority of ligands are good
~-acceptors and the unique ligand is a cy-donor then similar geometric effects are
observed. For example, [Mn(CO)sH ] [48] has an octahedral structure but the
OC(axial)-Mn-CO(equatorial) angle is 97 °. Similarly Co(CO)4H [-49] has a geo-
metry intermediate between capped tetrahedral and trigonal bipyramidal with
0 = 100 °.
The octahedral 18 electron compounds [MNLs] and [MOLs] [50] provide
particularly interesting examples of x-driven distortions. These complexes gen-
erally have a long metal-ligand bond trans to the unique multiply bonded nitrido
or oxo ligand. In addition the N-M-L bond angles are significantly larger than 90 °,
e.g. in [ReN(NCS)5] 2- (0 = 96 °) [51]. Clearly the stronger multiple bond leads to
rehybridization of d and p associated with an increase in 0. However, this angular
change also rehybridizes the hybrid pointing in the direction of the trans ligand.
The decreased s character in this hybrid leads to a significantly longer metal-ligand
trans bond.
7 Summary
This review has provided a general methodology for deriving the hybrid orbitals of
transition metal co-ordination compounds. The important types of hybridization
which can occur are summarized in Figs. 7-1 l, together with an indication of the
location of their nodal lines and cones. For s-p hybrids (Fig. 7) the nodal cone
moves from 70.5 ° from the - z direction for 0.500s + 0.866pz to 54.5 ° for
0.707s + 0.707pz. In contrast a dsp hybrid has two nodal cones (see Fig. 8), one in
the + z and the other in the - z direction. The former approaches 90 ° as the
percentage of dz2 character is increased and the latter decreases from 38.5 ° to 37 °.
The as + bdz2 and as - bdz2 hybrids are illustrated in Fig. 9. The former concen-
trates electron density in the + z and - z directions and has two symmetrical
nodal cones. The angles between the cones decreases as the percentage of s charac-
ter is increased. In contrast the as - bdz2 hybrids concentrate electron density in
the xy plane and their nodal cones make smaller angles with + z and - z axes.
These hybridization modes are particularly important for discussing the bonding
in linear d t° complexes of gold and mercury [52].
The hybridization schemes described above are relevant for describing
cy-bonding effects in molecular compounds. Hybrids which maximize ~-bonding
effects can be constructed from atomic orbitals which have a nodal plane in the
metal-ligand bond direction and are described as p~d ~ hybrids. For example the
apy + bdyz hybrids illustrated in Fig. l0 can be used to maximize the bonding with
a ~-donor or acceptor ligand located in the + z direction. The nodal planes
associated with these hybrids make an angle of 75 ° for 0.500py + 0.866dyz with the
- z axis and this angle decreases as the percentage of p character is increased.
In Fig. 11 an alternative hybridization mode based on Pz + dx2-y2 mixing is
illustrated. With respect to the z axis the p orbital is not noded and therefore has
~-pseudo symmetry. In contrast dx2_y2 is doubly noded and has 5-pseudo sym-
metry. The resulting hybrid has the effect of increasing the directionality of the
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I~/////fllIIIIIq,H X, XXXX\Xa
//~/(ll'l'I"lfrl]lllHAX"~ IIItllflltl t l l [ l l l l l illllllt~l| H/IIIIIIIIII I I I I I I I I I IllA~AX~
HIIIIfP r I I I I I I I Illllil/ Iltlllllll I I I I I I I I ] I I III]111III ~UtlIIlll I I I I I f I i I I I I I Iillllim
HIIIrllllilllllllll I~llllillilllllllllllllltllltfl |qll11111 II I I I I I I [ I I IIIIIIIIll~
~XIIIIllqlllflilllllitl#ll IIIII I
XXI ~ I I I I I I I l l l l l l l l l / / l
\XA~XLII rllllllllll/~ l\
0.500s+O.%6pz 0.574s+O.81Spz 0.707s+0.7Q7pz
Fig. 7. sp hybrid orbitals

0.44s.0.71pz • 0.56dzZ 0.41s*O.71pz "O.58dzz 0.37s÷O.71pz÷0°50dzz

Fig. 8. spd hybrid orbitals
+ lobes ofdx2_y2 in the z direction and - lobes in the - z direction. The relevant
nodal lines for a range of p and d character are illustrated in Fig. 11. This type of
p"d ~ hybridization is particularly important when the bonding in tetrahedral
co-ordination compounds is discussed as in a previous section of this review.
For spherical co-ordination compounds the equivalent or-hybrids can be
readily derived using spherical harmonic expansions. For spherical co-
ordination compounds with ligands occupying two orbits it is necessary to re-
orthogonalize the wave functions using, for example, Schmidt orthogonalization
procedures. The characters of the relevant hybrid orbitals are summarized in
Fig. 1. Where the ligands lie on separate orbits the relative proportions of s, p and
d character vary significantly and can be used to estimate ligand site preferences.
Generally, better G-donor ligands will interact most strongly with those hybrids
with a higher proportion of s character.
In the spherical co-ordination compounds ML n it is possible to define n hybrid
orbitals which have their maxima in the metal-ligand bond directions as long as
the ligand linear combinations can be defined using s, p and d spherical harmonics.
The remaining (9-n) orbitals are non-bonding either because the ligands lie in their
nodal planes or because they are d-p hybrids which have nodal lines pointing in the
metal-ligand directions. The characteristics of these hybrids are summarized in
Table 3. The occupation of these orbitals and the hybrid ~-orbitals leads to
compounds which conform to the noble gas rule. The conformational preferences
of non-axially symmetric n-acceptor and donor ligands are determined primarily
by the nodal characteristics of the non-bonding d-p hybrid orbitals.
108 D. M, P. Mingos and L. Zhenyang
0.316s+O.g/,gdz2 0.500s÷O.866dzz 0.574s+O.81gdzz
@ m
t
g-
~ H . I H I i i i,
IIIIlllll i i i i I r rl i I i I t | lll111I inf.#ill l i i i, it1 i i i s | s sHtSlm
iltltt s | i ! i n I I, I ~ / i i i iiiiii|ii 11~tl|ll I I I I I bl | | | | i i l . , . i
I J i i • h-l.,,"i ~ . . l i i x . . i . ~
l 0.500s-O.866dzz 0.574s- 0.819dzZ 0.707s-O.707dzZ

Fig. 9. s + dz2 hybrid orbitals
75.0 71.5 63.5

o.5oopy.o.866dyz 0.574py ÷0.819dyz 0.707py ÷0.707d~,z
Fig. 10. p~d~ hybrid orbitals
107.0
0.316pz *o.gz,gdxz_yz 0.592pz ÷O.80fidxz_yz 0.775pz*O.632dxz.yz

Fig. II. p°d ~ hybrid orbitals
For ML. co-ordination compounds with fewer than 18 electrons two altern-
ative situations are generally observed. (a) Spherical co-ordination polyhedra are
adopted and there are electron holes in the non-bonding d manifold. (b) When the
ligands are strong n-acceptors, then nido, arachno and hypho non-spherical poly-
hedra are adopted. These fragments have hybrids pointing towards the missing
vertices of the polyhedron. The location and number of these hybrids leads to the
isolobal analogies and plays an important role in influencing the conformational
preferences of ML, (q-polyene) complexes.
110 D . M . P . Mingos and L. Zhenyang
The discussion presented in this review has assumed that the radial parts of the
wavefunctions are relatively unimportant and the important geometric features
associated with transition metal co-ordination compounds are decided primarily
by the angular parts of the wavefunctionsl For transition metal atoms where the nd,
(n + 1)s and (n + 1)p valence orbitals are known to have very different radial
characteristics [8] some consideration needs to be given to this problem. For
spherical co-ordination compounds the number of angular variables is very limited
and the hybridization model results presented above give geometries very similar
to those predicted by molecular orbital methods which take into account differ-
ences in the radial distribution functions. In these co-ordination compounds the
geometries are decided primarily by the nodal characteristics of non-bonding
d orbitals. Since these do not involve admixtures of d, s and p differences in the
radial parts are relatively unimportant. In non-spherical co-ordination com-
pounds, dsp hybrids do play an important stereochemical role and a comparison
between these hybrids and the results of molecular orbital calculations is more
significant. For example, in a square-pyramidal MH5 complex with 0 = 90 ° the
out-pointing hybrid orbital is calculated to have the following wave function:
lll/nb = 0.22s - 0.40pz + 0.81dz2 + hydrogen atom contributions
The calculated hybrid in contrast has the following wave function:
Hy(nb) = 0.46s - 0.79pz + 0.408dz2
It tends to overemphasize the s and p character in the non-bonding hybrid and
underemphasize their contribution to the bonding hybrids. This occurs because the
methodology developed for generating the hybrids does not take into account the
superior overlap integrals between the s and p orbitals with the ligand orbitals.
Nevertheless, the relative signs of the orbital mixings are reproduced as are the
trends associated with the variation of the nodal characteristics as the d, s and
p contributions are varied.
The other assumption associated with the hybridization model is that the nd,
(n + 1)s and (n + 1)p valence orbitals have the same valence state ionization
energies. Molecular orbital calculations using the extended H/ickel approximation
have indicated that the changes in the valence state ionization energies do not
cause changes in the non-bonding wavefunctions.
Acknowledgement: The S.E.R.C. and the Chinese Academy of Sciences are thanked for their financial
support. We also received helpful comments on the manuscript from Prof. Pauling's associate Dr. Z.S.
Herman.
8 References
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52. Orgel LE (1960) An introduction to transition metal chemistry: Ligand field theory, London
The 1H NMR Parameters of Magnetically
Coupled Dimers The Fe2S 2 Proteins as an
Example
Lucia Banci 1, Ivano Bertini 1 and Claudio Luchinat 2
1 Department of Chemistry, University of Florence, Via G. Capponi 7, 50121 Florence, Italy

2 Institute of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 10, 40127 Bologna, Italy
The theoretical approach to the understanding of the N M R parameters in paramagnetic exchange

coupled dimers is discussed and simplified formulas are provided. The effect of magnetic coupling on
electron relaxation times in magnetic coupled heterodimetallic systems is also discussed. The 1H N M R
spectra of two oxidized and reduced Fe2S2-ferredoxins are interpreted and structural information is
obtained.
Other systems encountered in the literature are briefly reviewed and the guidelines for the interpreta-
tion of the 1H N M R spectra of Fe~S4 systems are given as an extension of the above model.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2 The Interaction Energy Between Nuclei and Magnetically Coupled Electrons . . . . . . . . . 114
2.1 The General Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.2 The Shortcut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3 The Electronic and Nuclear Relaxation Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4 The Fe2S 2 Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1 The Oxidized Fe2S 2 C a s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2 The Reduced Fe2S2 Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives in Dimetallic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6 Inferences for Iron Sulfur Systems of Higher Molecular Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Structure and Bonding72

© Springer-VerlagBerlin Heidelberg 1990
114 L. Banci et al.
1 Introduction
The theoretical principles necessary for understanding the NMR parameters in

magnetically coupled dimers are a relatively complicated matter and their applica-
tion is not straightforward even to the researchers in the field of NMR of paramag-
netic molecules [-1-7]. It is the aim of this article to summarize the principles and to
discuss theoretical and physical aspects of the coupling between resonating nuclei
and magnetically coupled electrons. We also discuss the effect of magnetic coupling
on electron relaxation in dimers and its consequences on the NMR parameters. As
a representative example, such a theory will be applied to the NMR spectra of two
iron-two sulphur proteins [-8] (ferredoxins) which contain the cluster shown in
Scheme 1. The complete 1HNMR spectrum of the reduced protein, containing
iron(II) and iron(III), isolated from spinach, has already been reported [9]. We
have now measured the spectrum of the reduced ferredoxin isolated from red algae
in order to ascertain the generality of the 1HNMR features of this class of
compounds; we have also measured the spectra of the oxidized species containing
two iron(III) ions and the nuclear relaxation times of all species. Finally, we
comment about previously investigated systems of pertinence here.
S S--
\Fe/s F/
Scheme I
2 The Interaction Energy Between Nuclei and Magnetically Coupled

Electrons
2.1 The General Approach
The contact contribution to the isotropic shift, - - experienced by a nucleus

\%/
I interacting with a single S manifold is proportional to the hyperfine coupling
constant A c according to the following relationship [1, 10]
Vo / fiyiBo
where h is the Planck constant and 7~ is the nuclear magnetogyric ratio. The
expectation value of Sz, (Sz), is given by
e x p ( - Es,~s/kY)(S, MsISzIS, Ms)
(Sz) = S,Ms (2)
exp(-- Es,~as/kT)
S, Ms
The ' H N M R Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers 115
where IS, M s ) are the spin eigenfunctions with Es, Ms eigenvalues. Since Eq. (1)
holds for a single S manifold, Eq. (2) reduces to
gegBBo
(Sz) = - S(S + 1) 3k~-T-- (3)
Let us now consider the case in which a nucleus interacts with two electron spin
moments, S 1 and S 2, of two metal ions. With no interaction between the two
electron spins, it is intuitive'that the two contributions to the isotropic shift are
additive:
1
(A-~v~°°~- (Ael(Slz) + Ac2(S2z)) (4)
Vo J hTIBo
Equation (4) is just the sum of two contributions of the same type as Equation (1).
We are interested in the changes occurring when the two S moments are
magnetically coupled. We consider here the case of an isotropic coupling situation,
described by the additional spin Hamiltonian term
= JS 1 . S 2 (5)
where J is the isotropic coupling constant. This isotropic coupling situation,

besides simplifying our reasoning, turns out t o be a good assumption, since
anisotropie contributions to the magnetic exchange coupling are usually small.
Because of magnetic exchange coupling, new energy levels originate, each
described by a different S;. The Si's range between IS 1 + $2[ and IS1 - $2 L, and the
relative energies are given by [11].
E(S~) = ½JES'i(S] + 1) - Si(S 1 + 1) - $2(S 2 + 1)] (6)
Schemes of the type of that shown in Fig. 1 are obtained. In that scheme J is
positive (antiferromagnetic coupled systems). With J < 0 (ferromagnetic coupled
systems) the resulting energy levels are reversed. From now on, we will neglect the
sign of J, since it does not affect the general treatment, except when discussing real
cases. The IS'i, Ms; ) eigenfunctions of Hamiltonian (5) are expressed as linear
combinations of [$1, $2, Ms,, Ms2 ) functions relative to the two metal ions
IS'i, Ms~) = ~ Cs, s2s~s1Ms2~s~lS1, S2, Ms,, Ms~) (7)
Msl, a
where CS, S~S~Ms1Ms2M~are the coefficients with which each ISt, S2, Ms,, Ms~)
function contributes to a given IS'i, Ms~) function. These coefficients are obtained
as a result of application of Hamiltonian (5).
The effect of magnetic exchange coupling in the analysis of N M R parameters
cannot be neglected everytime J is larger than A~I and A¢2, and larger than hz[ 1,
where ~ is the relaxation time of the electron spin system. ~ The first condition
1 In this case xs = T2e; generally, however, in this article we refer to xs = T I . It is possible, however,
that T,~-- T2o for slowly relaxing systems as a result of rotation independent electronic relaxation
mechanisms.
L. Banci et al.
E
f 1
1
I
I=
., +s2-l.N-l
I
I
I
I
S'= S,-S2+2=2
s=s,-S,+l =I
Fig. 1. Energy levels diagram for two magnetically coupled
S'= S,-S,=O spin momenta S, = S,
arises from the fact that, if the interaction energy between the electron spins is
smaller than each electron-nuclear coupling energy, the former can be neglected at
least in a first approximation. The second condition requires that the energy
separations among the S' levels (Fig. 1) be larger than their energy uncertainty. As
long as the exchange coupling is isotropic, J does not need to be larger than the
Zeeman term.
Equation (4) holds also for magnetically coupled dimers as long as the (SjZ)
values are evaluated over all the Si levels. Therefore
1 ew- ES;,Ms/kT)(SI, M,;I SjzISI, MsI)

si, Ms:
(SjJ = (8)
1e v - EsI,,,;/kT)
sl,Ms;
with j = 1 or 2. Here Sjz operates only on the Sj-containing part of the total
Si functions, It can be shown that each of the (Sjz) values in (8) tends to the value
given by Eq. (3) in the high temperature limit. The correct estimate of the isotropic
shift is achieved as a function of the two original Acj( j = 1,2) and of the new (SjZ)
values:
The physical meaning of this treatment is to project out of the total S; functions
the contributions from S, and S,, and evaluate each of them separately for each
The 1H NMR Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers 117
and all S~ levels. We therefore obtain the total contribution to the (Slz) and (S2z)
in the coupled system. The major drawback of this approach lies in the cumber-
some calculations that need to be performed, and in the fact that they must be
performed on a case-by-case basis, i.e. there is no general formula that one can
calculate once and for all. Dunham and Palmer [2] have developed this theory just
for Fe2S 2 proteins. However, this approach has been ignored by most of the
researchers who have subsequently been dealing with N M R of magnetically
coupled systems.
It should be pointed out that this procedure also holds for systems larger than
dimers, as long as Hamiltonians of the type of Eq. (5) can be used.
2.2 The Shortcut
Let us now suppose that in a given isolated metal ion more than one electronic level
is thermally populated, each with its own S. Equation (1) becomes
Aci<Sz)i (10)
V0 ,/ hyIBo "]"
where (Sz)i is separately evaluated on each i multiplet. In other words, a hyperfine
coupling constant for each populated level is needed to correctly define the
coupling with the nucleus I. This is a consequence of the fact that A c reflects
a specific distribution of unpaired spin density over the occupied molecular
orbitals, so that S multiplets belonging to excited states have different unpaired
spin density distributions.
In magnetic coupled dimers there are several S' levels, and the isotropic shift of
a nucleus interacting with the coupled pair should accordingly be given by
-- - y~ o,<s'~>i (11)
\Vo/ hTIBo i
where A'ci are the hyperfine coupling constants for each S'~ level.
Equation (11), as it is, is of little use in analyzing the N M R parameters of
exchange coupled systems, because as many A'c values as the different S'~multiplets
seem to be required. There have been many attempts in the literature, even in recent
years, to analyze N M R data using Eq. (11) or equivalents [4, 12, 13]. The next step
is to realize that the A'~ values relative to each S'i level are not independent of one
another, as they are in the case described by Eq. (10). As long as all the SI levels
originate from exchange coupling interactions between two pure S 1 and S 2 states,
the A'¢~values of Eq. (11) are related to the At1 and Ac2 values of Eq. (4). To find out
this relationship the magnetic exchange coupling is treated in the total spin
formalism, in which the spin Hamiltonian is reshaped in such a way to operate only
on the total spin functions [S~ Msl ). The exchange coupling term can be written as
)f~ = ½ J [ S ' . S ' - SI(S 1 + 1 ) - $2(S 2 --4-1)] (12)
from which the energy of the S~ states can be calculated as shown before (Fig. 1 and
Eq. (6)). The A'ci values in Eq. (11) are related to the Acj values in (4) through
118 L. Banci et al.
coefficients Cji [14], where j refers to the metal ion and i to the Sf level. The
Cji value is 112 for every homodimer [15], whereas different coefficients are
obtained in the case of heterodimers [14,16]. Such coefficients are only functions of
Sf,S, and S, and can thus be calculated once for all. They are reported in Appendix
I. They give the contribution of the isolated spin j to the ith spin level of the pair.
These coefficients were calculated more than a decade ago [14] and routinely
used since then in EPR of homo- and hetero-dimetallic complexes [17, 181.
According to this treatment it is possible to express the isotropic shift in a coupled
dimetallic pair as
where the (SL)i refer to the expectation values of S, for each particular Si multiplet.
Note that Eq. (13), rearranged as
is the exact equivalent of Eq. (ll), where now each of the unknown Aci values is
expressed in terms of a product between A,, (or A,,) and a known coefficient.
Equation (l4), with the explicit expression of (S:)i, written in analogy to
Eq. (8), takes the form:
In a more explicit form we finally obtain
con
ge PB
ACj1
i
+
CjiSf(Sl 1)(2Sf+ l)exp(- Es;/kT)
(16)
(2s: + l)exp(- Esl/kT)
i
The equivalence between Eq. (15) and Eq. (9) allows us 'to evaluate the Cij
coefficients and accounts for their physical meaning: they indicate how much Sj
and Msj are contributing to each Si wavefunction of the couple. Equation (16) is
easily applicable in all cases. As a practical example of use of Eq. (16) Appendix I1
shows the numerical calculation of the high temperature limit. It can be noted that
the temperature dependence of the isotropic shifts is often opposite to that ob-
served in monomeric complexes (anti-Curie behavior). In principle, fitting of
experimental temperature dependent data to Eq. (16) can give a measure of J.
Attempts to estimate J from temperature dependence were previously reported in
a number of cases [4,13,19]; however, equations of the type of (11) were used, with
the unjustified assumption that the Ac, values were all the same and equal to that of
the monomer.
3 The Electronic and Nuclear Relaxation Times
When one metal ion, let us say copper(II) without loss of generality, senses another
copper(II) ion, under the condition J < kT and J > A and h ~ - l , no obvious
physical mechanism can be conceived that can increase the electron relaxation rate
of the former copper ion. To first approximation, the electronic relaxation is not
affected by magnetic coupling in homodinuclear complexes [20-23].
In heterodinuclear systems one of the two metal ions has a shorter electronic
relaxation time than the other. The magnetic coupling allows the slow relaxing
metal ion to relax via the mechanisms of the other metal ion, so that its electronic
relaxation rate results increased [21-23]. The question lies in determining the
limits within which these mechanisms are operative. It is reasonable to set the lower
limit as J > fi'Cs~1 where 1 refers to the slow relaxing metal ion [233. This means that
magnetic coupling produces a splitting of the electron spin levels larger than the
uncertainty of their energy. Therefore the probability of the electronic spin trans-
itions, operative for relaxation, is changed by the presence of magnetic coupling. As
long as J is still much smaller than fiz~ 1, the new values of electronic relaxation
rates can be estimated through an equation analogous to that derived for contact
nuclear relaxation [24], since the Hamiltonian A I. S is analogous to that
o f J S1.S z
z~l(J) = zs(1(0) + 2(j2/fi2)S2(S 2 + 1) %22 2 (17)

1 + ms=%
Equation (17) lacks experimental verification. Qualitatively, it would predict the
effect of magnetic coupling on ~<* to be observable when J/fi _~ x/~u,l(0)~ *
It is reasonable to believe that, when J >>fiz~x, the actual ~ ( J ) will tend to
become z~2 [21, 23].
provided that we may have z~ different from those of the uncoupled system, we
should still take into consideration that the interaction energy between the un-
paired electron on a metal ion and a nucleus sensing it changes if the metal ion is
magnetically coupled to another metal ion, as discussed in the previous section.
Nuclear relaxation depends on the square of the above energy [1]. For a mono-
meric system the contribution to nuclear relaxation due to the presence of unpaired
electron(s) can be described by the general equation:
Ti-~ = KA2(S2)f('~¢, c0) (18)
where A is the hyperfine coupling and can be dipolar or contact in origin and (S 2 )
is evaluated applying the S 2 operator on the electronic spin levels. In the case of
a dinuclear system the nuclear relaxation rates of a nucleus in the presence of only
120 L. Banci et al.
one metal ion (j) in the couple is given by [3]:
Ti-~ = KAcjf(zcj, c0j) Z (S~)~ (19)

i
where (S~) is calculated over all the Sj components of the SI levels, as shown in
Eq. (7), but applying Sf instead of Sjz. Of course if a nucleus senses both para-
magnetic centers at different distances, then Ti-~ will be the sum of the two
contributions.
In the "shortcut" approach, i.e. in the total spin representation, we have to
calculate the hyperfine coupling for each new electronic spin level, using the
coefficients reported in Appendix I; then the squares of the hyperfine coupling must
be calculated. The (S'2)i value has to be evaluated by operating with the S'z
operator over each new SI level and then performing the sum on all the spin levels,
taking into account their population distribution. The general equation for nuclear
relaxation expressed in terms of total spin numbers takes therefore the form:
2 (go~ 2/282~
ZCjiSi(Si+ 1)(2SI+
2 / t
1)exp(-Esl/kT)( 7z,j 3%j "~ (20)
i +
Z(2S', + 1)exp(- Esi/kT) \ i + COs2%~ 1 +~.zzj
When J ~ kT, i.e. all the electronic spin levels are equally populated, Eq. (20) is
simplified in:
2 (go'j2 ~,282ta~ ~CJ2SI(S'I
i + 1)(2SI + 1)
Tllj -"= ] 5 \ ~ / / r6j-H Z(2s'i + 1)
i
7z~j 3%j "] (21)

22 -I-
1 + Osj%j 1 -J- (DI2 "~cj/
2
This equation is equal to that for the uncoupled system (besides the variation in %)
times a coefficient that depends only on the total spin numbers of the coupled
system and of the two single metal centers. These coefficients, that should multiply
the equation of the uncoupled system in the case of coupled systems in which
J ~ kT, are reported in Appendix III [5, 6].
When a nucleus senses both the metal ions a straightforward extension of
Eqs. (20) or (21) must be used.
4 The F e 2 S 2 Case
Two-iron two-sulfur (Fe2S2) dusters are present in several, ferredoxins. In the

oxidized state they contain two high spin antiferromagnetically coupled iron(III)
The ~H NMR Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers 121
ions with J values in the range 180 200 cm-1 [25]. In the reduced state one high
spin iron(III) and one high spin iron(II) ion are antiferromagnetically coupled with
J values of about 100 cm- t [25]. It should be reminded that S = 5/2 ions have long
electronic relaxation times unless the zero field splitting is large enough [26, 27], as
in Fe(III) porphyrins [28]. Long electronic relaxation times provide broad
1H NMR signals. For example, oxidized rubredoxin, with the Fe(III)S 4 chromo-
phore, does not show any detectable isotropically shifted 1H NMR signal [29].
The magnetic coupling, as already stated, does not help to reduce the electronic
relaxation times when it occurs between the same metal ions. In fact, oxidized
magnetic coupled ferredoxin systems only give rise to two broad signals, that
contain all the peaks from the eight [3-CH/and the four ~-CH protons, as shown in
Fig. 2 for oxidized red algae and spinach ferredoxins.
Iron(II) compounds have short electronic relaxation times and the 1H NMR
spectra are well resolved. Reduced rubredoxin containing a F e ( I I ) S 4 system has
beautiful ~H N M R spectra [29]. In the reduced Fe2S 2 system it is expected that the
fast relaxing iron(II) (from the electron point of view) drives the electronic relaxa-
tion times of iron(III) to similar values, J being larger than hl~s(Fe(ii)-1 ). Sharp
1HNMR signals are expected and indeed observed [8,9] for reduced F e z S 2
proteins (Fig. 3).
4.1 The Oxidized FeeSe Case
As already mentioned, both 1H NMR spectra of red algae and spinach oxidized
ferredoxins show a broad absorption at about 34 ppm downfield and a sharper
l, I i I I I I I I I I I I I
' 140 I I
12o L
16o ,
ao ,
6'o ' 4b f b
6(ppm)
Fig. 2a, b. 303 K 200MHz aHNMR spectra of oxidized FezS 2 ferredoxins solutions (in 50mM
phosphate buffer, pH 7.4) from: a) spinach; b) red algae Porphyra umbilicalis
122 L. Banci et al,
C ]
\
f I I I F I J I J I J I I I
b A B C D .4 E FG H 13.
~ I i I I I I r I I J I I I I J J
lZ,0 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20
~(ppm}
Fig. 3a, b. 303 K 200 MHz 1H N M R spectra of reduced Fe2S 2 ferredoxins from: a) spinach; b) red algae
Porphyra umbilicalis (same experimental conditions as in Fig. 2)
signal at about 15 ppm (Fig. 2). The isotropic shifts are 31 and 10 ppm respectively.
The former signal is probably due to 13C-H2's and the latter to ~ C-H's. The
J values are in the range 180-200 cm - t [25]. The energy levels are shown in
Fig. 4A. By using eq. (12) with St = $2 = 5/2, the energies of Fig. 4A with
J = 180-200 cm -1, Ac/h = 1.0 MHz (= 300 ppm) and Cts~ = C2s; = 1/2 for every
SI level (see Appendix II), we calculate an isotropic shift at 303 K of 28-31 ppm.
The choice of Ac/h = 1.0 MHz is arbitrary in principle although it is consistent
Fe(TIT)- Fe(]]]) F e ( ] I ) - Fe(IH)

$1= 5/2 $2= 5/2 $1=2 $2-- 5/2
15J- A
S'=S
5J
24/2J- S'=9/2
lOJ- S '=4 E 9/2 J
4J
15/2J- S'= 7/2
6J- S'=3 7/2 J
3J
8/2 J- S' = 5/2
3J- A
2J
S'=2
3/2 J-
Is,2j S' = 3/2 Fig. 4. Energy levels diagram
j- v S,=1
A
• J 3/2 J for two magnetically coupled
0 S'= 0 0 - I' S'=1/2 spin momenta: a) $1 = $2 =
A 5/2;b) S 1 = 5 / 2 , S 2 = 2
with the reduced case and with the known cobalt-cysteine systems [30, 31]. We
learn therefore that: 1)the 1 H N M R shifts are accounted for; 2)the linewidth
indicates a short nuclear T 2 which is the result of the coupling with a long zs. The
magnetic coupling in homodimers is not expected to change ~s which is then set
around 10-11 s.
4.2 The reduced Fe2S2 Case
If we assume that the hyperfine coupling of protons sensing iron(II) and iron(III) is
equal, the isotropic shifts can be calculated for protons sensing each of the two
metal ions as expressed in Eq. (16). The energy levels for the couple $1 = 5/2 and
S 2 = 2 are shown in Fig. 4B. The values of the isotropic shift, 8, as a function
of temperature calculated as reported in Appendix II are shown in Fig. 5A. We
used J = 100 cm -1, the Es~ and S~ values of Fig. 4B and the coefficients of
Appendix I for each set of S~, $1 and $2 values. This assumption is not a loss of
generality since we are interested in trends rather than in absolute values. In
Fig. 5B are reported the isotropic shift values calculated at 303 K as a function of
the J coupling constant. Palmer et al. [2] also included a parameter describing the
zero field splitting of the S = 2 of iron(II) with analogous results. If we take
a reasonable Ac/h value of 1.0 MHz (giving rise to a shift of 300 ppm in the oxidized
monomeric protein) we can assign the signals in the range 140-100 ppm to the
~-CH 2 protons of cysteines bound to iron(III) and the signals below 30 ppm to the
[3-CH 2 of cysteines bound to iron(II). In the 30 ppm range the ~-CH of cysteines
bond to iron(III) could also be present.
The temperature dependence of the isotropic shifts could be a check for this
assignment. As shown in Fig. 5A, the shift values of the [3-CH 2 protons of cysteines
sensing iron(III) decrease with temperature, whereas those of [3-CH2 of cysteines
sensing iron(II) increase with increasing temperature. This is what is indeed found
for both the two ferredoxins (Fig. 6). It appears therefore that the signals above
100 ppm belong to the [3-CH 2 of Cys residues sensing Fe(III) and the signals at 45
and 25 ppm to the ~-CH; signals F, G, H and I are assigned to [3-CH2 of Cys
residues of the Fe(II) domain.
Analogous treatment can be performed for the T 1 values. The experimental
values at different temperatures are reported in Table 1. In Table 2 are reported the
T 1 values calculated at 303 K for ~-CH2's and a-CH's protons, using Eq. (20),
assuming only dipolar interaction with both metal ions to be operative. Unfortu-
nately, there is not much temperature dependence of the experimental values and
therefore no much information is added for signal assignment and structural
purposes.
From the X-ray structure we know that the arrangement of the cysteines bound
to the metal ions is highly distorted, in particular one cysteine is in a completely
distorted position with respect to the others and one ~-CH z proton is very near to
both iron ions. Using these structural data we can calculate the proton T 1 values
reported in Table 2 by assuming a purely point-dipolar metal-centered model. For
reasons we are going to discuss the experimental values cannot be reproduced.
124 L. Banci et al.
6 ~op~
200
-20o0 ' ~ ' 4 ' ~ ' 8 10

a 1/T ( K-IxlO 3 )
40C
(~ (pprnl
200
................... Fe{~)
. Fe(lI)
100~[Fo/m/F~/~l
-200 . . . . .
b o.1 ~ 16 I;o Iooo .om l~
Fig. 5. Temperature dependence of the isotropic shift values calculated in a Fe(II)-Fe(III) magnetic
coupled system, with a J coupling constant of 100 cm- 1 (see text); b) Calculated dependence of the
isotropic shift values in a Fe(II) Fe(III) magnetic coupled system, and their ratio (broken line) as
a function of the J value. Temperature is 303 K
Indeed, in the present case, where s u l p h u r tends to host electrons from the metal
ion, the q u a n t i t a t i v e analysis of the N M R data require a full a c c o u n t of spin
delocalization. This is outside the scope of this review.
F i n a l l y N O E m e a s u r e m e n t s might provide i n f o r m a t i o n o n the i n t e r - p r o t o n
distances a n d add further i n f o r m a t i o n on the structure of the metal cluster a n d on
the assignment of the N M R spectra.
140
b
S J
13(
L y f
6
BJ
12C B,,./~-- -~,j
11¢
10( C'~r~ - ~ - - ' ~ - - - - ~ - J

- D J
E._
30 F
~ K , . .
10 t t i i i ; I I I I
3.3 3.5 3.7 3.3 3.5 3.7
1//T (K-'xlO 3) 1/T(K-IxlO ~)

Fig. 6a, b. Experimentaltemperature dependenceof the isotropic shift values for the reduced Fe2S 2
ferredoxins from: a) spinach; b) red algae Porphyra umbilicalis (Same experimental conditions as in
Fig. 2; signals' labelling as in Fig. 3)
5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives in Dimetallic Systems
The isotropic shifts experienced by the cysteine protons belonging to both iron(II)
and iron (III) have been accounted for on the basis of the magnetic coupling scheme
discussed previously. In principle the differences in shifts experienced by the [3-CH z
protons of the cysteines coordinated to iron (III)~ and the differences experienced by
the 13-CH2 protons of the cysteines bound to iron(II) could be ascribed to their
geometrical properties around the two metal centers.
The first consequence of the present assignment is that the two oxidation states
are well defined. The possibility that for each metal ion there is a distribution of
population between oxidation number 2 and 3 under rapid exchange conditions is
disfavored by the temperature dependence of the shifts: if such a distribution were
126 L. Banci et al.
Table l. Experimental T 1 values for reduced Fe2S 2 ferredoxins at different temperatures
A) Spinach ferredoxin
Signal T 1 (ms)
Temp 273 290 303

(K)
A l 1.5 2.5
U - - - - - -
C 0.8 1.l 1.5

D -- -- --
E 3.9 4.9 5.8
F} 4.9 5.0 {7.0
G 5.5
H 5.0 7.7 8.5
I 5.4 6.6 5.5
L 3.2 3.6 5.5
B) Red algae
Signal T 1(ms)
Temp 273 286 295 303

(K)
A 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.9
B - - - - - -
C 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4

O . . . .
E 3.7 4.4 5.3 5.6
F 5.2} 4.6 4.9 {6.1
G 3.6 4.4
H 6.9 7.0 -- 8.1
I 3.6 3.3} {3.0
J 4.7 5.2 3.4 7.5
K 4.6 6.2 6.2 7.8
50%,the antiCurie behavior of the signals would have been minimal and different
from that observed. Therefore we believe that there is neither fast electron exchange
between the two metal centers nor an intermediate valence situation. Electron
exchange could be slow; however, if the possibility existed of inversion of the two
oxidation states, a second 1H N M R spectrum different from the actual one and
superimposed on it could be observed. Since this is not the case, the amount of this
hypothetical species must be below detectability.
The next step in the analysis of two-iron two-sulphur proteins is a closer
attempt to relate the N M R parameters with the structure of the protein by taking
advantage of the X-ray data obtained on a similar protein from Spirulina Platensis
[-31] (which has about 75% homology with the present red algae ferredoxin 1-32]
and about 65% homology with the spinach one [33]) and a aH N M R spectrum in
the 50-0 ppm region very similar to those discussed here [34]. The shift values are
related to the equatorial-axial nature of the protons of the C H / g r o u p s and the T 1
Table 2. Calculated T 1 values for the protons in the Fe2S2 cluster"'b
Proton rH_Fe(ll) rn_Fe(ill ) T 1(ms)
HC[3Cys 41 3.0 5.5 5.7

HCI3Cys-41 4.1 6.3 18.1
HC~ Cys 41 4.7 6.9 34.8
HC[3Cys 46 2.8 4.9 3.2
HC[3 Cys 46 4.0 5.7 10.6
HC~ Cys 46 5.1 6.4 24.9
HC[3Cys 49 3.8 2.4 0.1
HCI3Cys 49 4.1 2.9 0.3
HCc~Cys 49 6.4 5.0 6.0
HCI3Cys 79 5.1 3.2 0.4
HCI3Cys 79 5.8 4.0 1.6
HC~ Cys 79 6.9 5.0 5.8
" T 1 values calculated using Eq. (20), keeping into account the interaction with both metal ions, and
using the structural data reported for ferredoxin from Spirulina platensis [-31]. Cys 41 and 46 were
assumed bound to Fe(III) and Cys 49 and 79 to Fe(II). Similar results are obtained for the reverse
choice. Their differenceis not large enough to discriminate between the two possibilities.
b Temperature is 303 K, J = 100 cm- 1, .Cs(Fe{lli)) = 6 x 10-12 s, "l~s(Fe(ll)) = 2 x 10- as s
values are essentially dipolar in origin, and therefore related to the proton-
unpaired electron distance. At this point, however, other factors should be taken
into account. It is generally true that the unpaired electrons are never localized on
the metal ions. In the case of cobalt(II)-substituted superoxide dismutase, in which
a copper-cobalt couple is present, nuclear relaxation indicated largely delocalized
spin density [6]. Despite the effect of an unpaired electron on a carbon atom being
small, it is very near to the protons and this makes it the predominant effect.
Nevertheless, a full analysis on this system where magnetic coupling between
cobalt and copper occurs has to start from the correct equation derived from the
above treatment and requires the use of the Eqs. (20) or (21).
We would like to stress that any analysis should start using the correct
equations derived for the magnetically coupled system. This treatment is quite
general and can be applied to both homo- and heterodimers. In the former class we
can mention !a-oxo diiron(III) porphyrins [-4] and dinuclear copper(II) complexes
[19]. The relatively sharp line of these systems is due to the large and negative
value of J which reduces the overall magnetic susceptibility and then (Sz). The
electronic relaxation rates are not increased by the magnetic coupling, as already
discussed in Sect. 3. The N M R parameters can be analyzed by using Eqs. (16) and
(20) for shifts and relaxation times, respectively. Among the heterodimers we may
mention are Cu2Co 2 superoxide dismutase [6], C u z C o 2 alkaline phosphatase [35]
and proteins containing iron(II) and iron(III) centers as, for example, hemerythrin,
acid phosphatase, ribonucleotide reductase [36]. For small complexes we should
call attention to the possibility that the rotatlonal correlation time Zr is the
dominant or a contributing term to the correlation time for the electron-nucleus
interaction. In this case, in the present analysis of nuclear relaxation rate we should
consider zr when it is relevant in Eqs. (20) and (21), whereas the analysis of the
contact shifts still holds.
128 L. Banci et al.
6 Inferences for Iron-Sulfur Systems of Higher

Molecular Complexity
When the number of atoms increases, the calculations become more complex but
the general philosophy still holds. Once the energy levels are calculated with their
S'i values and wavefunctions, the Cji coefficients, which represent the ratio between
(Sjz)i and (S'z)i, can be evaluated and used to compute the shifts and their
temperature dependence with equation 16. Analogously, the C~j coefficients
squared can be used for the analysis of nuclear relaxation. Of course, also the
analysis of the effects of magnetic coupling on the electronic relaxation rates of the
single ions become more difficult. An analysis of the 1H N M R spectra of a Co4811
cluster is available [37].
The cases of iron sulfur proteins with more than two iron atoms are presently
a subject of international debate. For example, several oxidized proteins contain
the cluster Fe4S 3+ with three iron(III) and one iron(II) ions [l]. A theoretical
treatment is available [38] which allows for the possibility of having two J values-
among the six possible pairwise couplings among four ions-different from one
another and from the other four. It is assumed that one of the J values within
a Fe 3 +-Fe 3 + pair differs by an amount AJ12, and one between the other iron(Ill)
ion and the iron(II) ion differs by an amount AJ34 (Figure 7). The energies are given
by the following equation [38].
E(S'j, S'12i, S;4~) = (J/2)[S~(SI + 1)3 + (AJ12/Z)[Si2i(S'12i + 1)3
-1- ( A J 3 4 / 2 ) [ S ; 4 i ( 8 ; 4 i -t- 1)3 (22)
where the energies are labeled according not only to the total SI value but also to
the spin quantum numbers of the subpairs ! 2 and 3-4. Analogously to dimers,
S'1"2 varies from IS1 - $21 to S 1 + $2 and 8;4 from 183 - S4I to S3 + S4. S' varies
from 1812 -- 8341 to 812 Jr- 834.
The coefficients are [38]:
C i l = Ci2 = (~'y/A1) , Ci3 -~- (611~/A2) and Ci4 = (62~/A 2) (23)
where
~ [8~12i(8~12 i -+- 1) -+- 81(81 -l'- l) -- 82(82 + 1)3/2
It = [S'(S' + 1) + Si2i(atl2i ~- 1) -- S ; 4 ( 8 ; 4 i + 1)3/2
A1 = Si2iISi2, + 1)S(S + 1)
e = [S'(S' + 1) + S;4~(S~4, + 1) - SI2,(SI2, + 1)]/2
51 ~-- [ S ; 4 i ( S ; 4 i --~ 1) + 83(83 -t- 1) -- 84(84 ~- 1)]/2
52 = [S;4~(S~4~ + 1) + 84(84 -[- 1) -- 83(83 -I- 1)]/2

It is reasonable to take J = 150 cm -1, AJ12 = 50 c m - 1 and AJ34 = -- 5 0 c m -1,
in agreement with the J values found in Fe2S 2 clusters. The result of the chosen
J values is that the Fe 3 +-Fe 2 + pair is forced to be ferromagnetically coupled with
S~4 = 9/2 ground state and the pair as a whole is antiferromagnetically coupled to
The 1H N M R Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers 129
Fe I (5/2)
J +AJ12
Fe 2 (5/2) (~90
100
~ A
8(]
F e4(2)
J +A J34 70
400 L ~ i , / ~ i i L ] ~ h L ~ t 60 ~ " B
~
30O
- ~JC,D
(ppm)
200
Fe(H)4 1 4C
iO0
-10
0
' -20
-100
i ~ I i G
-200 i i I i t i I I I i ~ I I ~t
5 10 15 3.3 3.4 3.5 1/T
(K4xl03)
a 1/T (K'lxl0 a) b
Fig. 7a. Temperature dependence of the isotropic shift values in a Fe4S] + system with J = 150,
J12 = 50, J34 = --50 cm-1 (see text); b Experimental temperature dependence of the isotropic shift
values for the FegS,] + cluster in oxidized HiPIP II from E. halophila [41].
the 1-2 pair. In order to account for the M6ssbauer data which suggest that two
iron ions have a + 2.5 oxidation state [39], a double exchange term within the 3-4
pair has been added in the spin Hamiltonian [38]. The importance of this term has
been previously stressed [38, 40]. However, we like to underline that most of the
effects on the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues due to the delocalization term can be
obtained by using different J values (i.e. lower symmetry) in the clusters as
mentioned above. We therefore drop such a term which is not needed at least for
accounting for the gross features of the N M R data. The isotropic shifts will have
different temperature dependence according to whether a proton senses the
Fe z + - F e 3 + pair or an Fe 3 + ion, in a fashion similar to that reported in Figure 5 for
the Fez s+ pair. The 1H N M R spectra of the Fe4S] + system display signals both up
and downfield, and could never be understood [1]. We propose that both kinds of
far shifted signals belong to cysteines ~ - C H z ' s . The signals upfield are due to
130 L. Banci et al.
negative ($12z) of the iron(III) ions, just like (S~z) can be negative for iron(II) in
Fig. 5. The temperature dependences of the (Sjz) values for a Fe4S3+ system
calculated with equation 22 and the above J and AJ values are shown in Fig. 7a; the
experimental temperature dependence of the isotropic shifts of the oxidized HiPIP
II from E. Halophila [41] is reported in Fig. 7b. More complicated patterns like the
protons of three CHz's experiencing downfield shifts and those of the fourth
experiencing upfield shifts, observed for other HiPIP's [41, 42] can be accounted
for by setting the two iron(III) inequivalent. We expect also that the protons
sensing the iron(III) ion with positive (S~2)~) and being shifted downfield will
have an anticurie behavior.
In the case of Fe3S4, it has been shown that there is a mixed valence Fe 2 +-Fe 3 +
pair with S' = 9/2 ground state and a Fe 3÷ ion antiferromagnetically coupled to it
[43]. The theoretical description of the system is obtained with three equal J values
and a large delocalization term [40]. Again, the same S' = 9/2 ground state for the
Fe 2 + Fe 3+ pair can be obtained by reducing the coupling constant between the
latter two ions. We predict that the protons sensing the above pair will behave like
those sensing iron(III) in the Fe2S 2 cluster, and the others will behave as the
protons sensing iron(II). Some preliminary 1H NMR spectra are available [44].
Besides the difficulties in evaluating eigenvalues and eigenstates for every
particular case, the fitting of the ~H NMR parameters will shed light into the
details of the electronic structure of the iron-sulphur clusters.
7 Appendices
Appendix I
Cji coefficients relating the hyperfine coupling of an $1 or S 2 spin system in

a monomer to that in a coupled system, for each SI spin level.
C1(2) i = [81(8' i -Jr- 1) -I- 81(81 Jr- I) "-T-82(82 "~ 1)]/[2S'i(S'i + 1)] (AI.1)
S 1 = 1/2
$2 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2
!
1 3/2 2 5/2 3
C1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6
C2 1/2 2/3 3/4 4/5 5/6
St 1/e 1 3/2 e
C1 -1/3 -1/4 -1/5 -1/6
C2 4/3 5/4 6/5 7/6
The 1HNMR Parameters of MagneticallyCoupled Dimers 131
$1=1
$2 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2
St 3/2 2 5/2 3 7/2

C1 1/3 1/2 2/5 1/3 2/7
C2 2/3 1/2 3/5 2/3 5/7
St 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2

C1 - 1/3 1/2 4/15 1/6 4/35
C2 4/3 1/2 11/15 5/6 31/35
St 0 1/2 1 3/2
C1 -2/3 -1/2 -2/5
C2 5/3 3/2 7/5
S 1 = 3/2
Sz 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2
St 2 5/2 3 7/2 4
C1 1/4 2/5 1/2 3/7 3/8
C2 3/4 3/5 1/2 4/7 5/8
St 1 3/2 2 5/2 3
C1 1/4 4/15 1/2 13/35 7/24
C2 5/4 11/15 1/2 22/35 17/24
St 0 1/2 1
C1 - 1 -3/4
C2 2 7/4
132 L. Banci et al.
S,=2
$2 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2

St 5/2 3 7/2 4 9/2
C1 1/5 1/3 3/7 1/2 44/99
C2 4/5 2/3 4/7 1/2 55/99
St 3/2 2 5/2 3 7/2
C1 - 1/5 1/6 13/35 1/2 26/63
C2 6/5 5/6 22/35 1/2 37/63
St 1 3/2 2 5/2
C1 - 1/2 1/5 1/2 12/35
C2 3/2 4/5 1/2 23/35
St 1/2 1 3/2
Cl - 1 1/2 2/15
C2 2 1/2 13/15
St 1/2
C1 - 4/3
C2 7/3
S1 = 5/2
$2 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2

St 3 7/2 4 9/2 5
C1 1/6 2/7 3/8 44/99 1/2
C2 5/6 5/7 5/8 55/99 1/2
S/ 2 5/2 3 7/2 4
C1 - 1/6 4/35 7/24 26/63 1/2
C2 7/6 31/35 17/24 37/63 1/2
St 3/2 2 5/2 3
C1 -2/5 1/12 12/35 1/2
C2 7/5 11/12 23/35 1/2
St 1 3/2 2
C1 - 3/4 2/15 1/2
C2 7/4 13/15 1/2
St 1/2 1
C1 -4/3 1/2
C2 7/3 1/2
S' 0
The 1H N M R Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers 133
Appendix II
We want first to perform a sample calculation to show that Eq. (16), which we
report here for convenience
A~, ~ Cj~S'i(Si + 1)(2S'~ + 1)exp(- E s j k T )

(A--~-V~e°n -- g~l-tB ; 2 i
Vo ,/ fiyi3k'[ j
(2S~ + 1)exp(- Esl/kT)
i
(AII.1)
reduces to Eq. (4) in the high temperature limit. If Esl/kT ,~ 1 the exponential terms
in the numerator and denominator are all -~ 1 and AII.1 becomes
Ac, ~, Cj~S'i(SI + 1)(2Si + 1)

(AII.2)
- h S r2
(2sl + 1)
i
Let us take S~ = 2 and S 2 = 5/2, as in the case of reduced ferredoxins. From

Appendix I we have
S' = 1/2 S' = 3/2 S ' = 5/2 S ' = 7/2 S ' = 9/2
Cll = - 4/3 C12 = 2/15 C13 = 12/35 C14 = 26/63 C15 = 44/99
C~1 = 7/3 Cz: = 13/15 C 2 3 = 23/35 C24 = 37/63 C25 = 55/99
and the contribution from metal 1(S 1 = 2) is
4/3.3/4.2
- 2/15.15/4-4 12/35.35/4.6
+ -~ +
2+4+6+8+10 2+4+6+8+10 2+4+6+8+10
26/63.63/4.8 44/99.99/4.10
+ +
2+4+6+8+10 2+4+6+8+10
1 180
=-z-x(-2+2+18+52+l10)- - 6 = $1($1 + 1)
..SU 30
while the contribution from metal 2 (S 2 = 5/2) is
7/3.3/4-2 13/15.15/4.4 23/35.35/4.6

+ +
2+4+6+8+10+2+4+6+8+10 2+4+6+8+10
37/63.63/4.8 55/99" 99/4' 10
-~ +
2+4+6+8+10 2+4+ 6+8+10
1 525 35
= ~ ( 7 / 2 + 13 + 69/2 + 74 + 275/2) = 60 4 - $2($2 + 1)
Each is of course multiplied by the corresponding A c. As we expected, these

contributions are the same as those of the isolated ions.
134 L. Banci et al.
We note that for both metal ions the stronger contributions come from the
levels with higher S', as it could be anticipated from the fact that these levels are
"more paramagnetic". This increase in paramagnetic contribution with increasing
S' is, however, more pronounced for the ion with smaller S (S 1 = 2 in this example)
than for the other. Moreover, for the ion with smaller S the contribution from the
lowest level is negative. Therefore, with increasing J, the weight of the levels with
higher S' decreases, and this is reflected in a more marked decrease in the
contribution of the ion with smaller S. Since in the ground S' level the contribution
from this ion is negative, an opposite temperature dependence of its contribution is
expected. To illustrate this behavior the results of sample calculations are shown in
Fig. 5. Figure 5A shows the temperature dependence of the contributions to the
isotropic shifts from metal 1 (S 1 = 2) and metal 2 ( S / = 5/2) for J = 100 cm -1.
Metal 1 shows an opposite temperature dependence for any temperature below
103 K. Below room temperature the isotropic shift caused by metal 1 becomes
negative. Figure 5B shows the isotropic shifts, as well as their ratios, as a function of
J for T = 303K.
Appendix III
Coefficients that should multiply the S(S + 1) term in the unpaired electron-
nucleus coupling contribution to nuclear relaxation in a magnetically coupled
system.
5/2 2 3/2 1 1/2
7j9 lj2
1/2
\ 3 8\ 11 27 .
1o49 ~6~467 2
\18 \ ~ -.. 1/2-.
3/2
107 ~ 113 ~1/2
2
102031
"~s37s 2
5/2 ~ 1 / 2
1/2
8 Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Drs. A. Bencini, G.N. La Mar, G. Martini, L. Noodleman, and

J.J. Girerd for helpful discussions.
9 References
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Boston
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Soc. 106:1826
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aMatsubara H (1981) J. Biochem. 90:1763
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Probing Metalloproteins by Voltammetry
Fraser A. Armstrong
Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92717, USA
Dynamic electrochemical methods, which have long held an important l~lace a m o n g the techniques of
the coordination chemist, have generally remained unexploited by those seeking to understand the
complex and often elusive chemistry of metal centres in proteins. For a number of reasons, electron
transfer between electrodes and proteins'has been regarded as being too slow and irreversible to provide
useful information. This article seeks to counter such a view and outlines the advances that have been
made towards achieving and interpreting voltammetric responses from metal-containing active sites.
The main theme, exploitation, is developed through discussion of several investigations that demon-
strate the advantages that are now on offer from electrodes that "talk" to metalloproteins. Far from
being restricted to measurements of stable equilibria, voltammetry can address reactive states; species
which are thermodynamically inaccessible by normal chemical titration or which display interesting yet
complicating dynamic properties such as structural change or catalytic activity. In such cases, the
coupled processes are visualised and may be investigated quantitatively and under controlled condi-
tions. The resolution of chemical activity which is thus afforded extends even to multi-site enzyme
complexes.
1 Introduction .............................................................. 139

2 The Feasibility of Protein Direct Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.1 "Metal Redox Centres in Proteins Tend to Be Buried". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 140
2.2 "Diffusion Coefficients of Proteins Are Too S m a l l " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.3 "Proteins Usually Adsorb Strongly and Denature at Electrode Surfaces". . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3 Electrodes and Interfaces for Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1 Electrochemistry at Hg Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.2 Reversible Electrochemistry of Cytochrome c: The Development of functionalized
Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3 Electrode Interfaces for a Wide Variety of Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.4 S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : .................... 168
4 Studies of Thermodynamic and Kinetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 171
4.1 Advantages Offered by Voltammetric Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2 Cytochromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.3 Blue Copper Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.4 Iron-Sulfur Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.5 Modified Proteins for Studies of hrtra-molecular Electron Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5 Studies of Metal-Ion Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.1 Voltammetric Signals as Analytical "Signatures" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.2 Studies of Fe-S Cluster Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3 The Wider Opportunities for Voltammetric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Structure and Bonding72

© Springer-VerlagBerlin Heidelberg 1990
138 F.A. Armstrong
6 Protein Electrochemistry Coupled to Biological Electron-transport Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

6.1 What Information is Sought? . . . . . . . . . . . . : ............................... 201
6.2 Reactions of Electrochemically Transformed Cytochrome c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7 Direct Electrochemistry of Metalloenzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.1 Fast Interfacial Electron Exchange with Active Sites of Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2 Oxidases and Peroxidases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.3 Dehydrogenases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8 Concluding Remarks and Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Probing Metalloproteins by Voltammetry 139
1 Introduction
Voltammetric techniques now feature so widely in the repertoire of coordination

chemists that characterization of the redox properties of metal complexes has
largely become a routine task. Consider, for example, the information that may be
obtained from cyclic voltammetry (CV). In the familiar direct current (DC) experi-
ment [1-4], the potential is swept linearly with time, forward and back, between
two limits. The current due to induced oxidation or reduction of molecules
interacting with the electrode is recorded as a function of potential. Starting from
a single solution species, sequential redox couples may be probed across a potential
range that is limited only by the stabilities of electrode and solvent. Most obvious-
ly, we may determine reduction potentials: in the general case, the formal reduction
potential E °' is equal to or usually very close to the average value of reduction
(cathodic) and oxidation (anodic) peak potentials, i.e. (Epc + Ep,)/2. We can gen-
erally determine the number of electrons transferred in the electrode reaction, and
whether or not the reaction is diffusion-controlled or involves adsorbed species. We
may be able to estimate the rate constant for the electrode reaction which will
reflect the intrinsic electron-transfer reactivity of the couple involved. We can
establish the chemical stability (or fate) of transformed species and determine if
these possess catalytic properties. Furthermore, rate constants for all types of
coupled reactions may be obtained by analysis of the voltammetric waveform and
observed current. In short, the voltammogram provides a dynamic picture.
An armoury of powerful electrochemical methods is available. Potential step
techniques such as differential pulse DP or square-wave SW voltammetry offer
advantages in sensitivity and resolution. Hydrodynamic techniques involving use of
rotating disc or rotating ring-disc electrodes allow the chemical steps of the
electrode process to be separated from mass transport. Electrochemical transform-
ations may be monitored optically with spectroelectrochemical methods. Even the
electrode interface itself is amenable to study by in situ spectroscopic techniques.
Detailed descriptions of these methods are to be found in appropriate texts [1-4].
In the past twenty years the field of "bioinorganic" chemistry has grown into
a major area. Yet while those engaged in the syntheses and characterization of
small active-site "model" complexes have freely exploited the techniques of dynamic
electrochemistry, others pursuing the study of native metal sites contained within
proteins have resorted to static techniques that, while excellent in terms of specifi-
city and precision, are largely limited to stable systems at equilibrium. Indeed,
potentiometric titrations in the presence of small-molecule mediators have long
been standard procedure [5, 6] for manipulating and quantifying biological redox
chemistry. The reason for this difference in approach lies in a general belief that
metalloproteins tend not to give a reversible or even quasi-reversible electrode
response even if the redox-site in question is an excellent agent for its own
biological role. As widespread accounts now show [7-11], such a view is steadily
losing ground.
The aim of this article is to bring to light the possibilities that voltammetric
techniques now offer for discriminate study, manipulation, and exploitation of the
140 F.A. Armstrong
active-site chemistry of metalloproteins. Examples of these aspects will be given in

Sects 4 to 7. The relationship between proteins and electrodes is a very complex one,
and I shall endeavour, in Sect. 3, to give an overview of investigations that shed
light upon the somewhat critical conditions required for observing the elec-
trochemical response and the mechanisms by which heterogeneous electron trans-
fer may occur. Firstly, however, we shall examine, briefly, three of the often-
quoted obstacles which, understandably or otherwise, have impeded progress.
2 The Feasibility of Protein Direct Electrochemistry
2.1 "Metal Redox Centres in Proteins Tend to Be Buried"
Drawing a simple comparison with "bare" complexes like ferrocene, we would

expect that the electron-transfer activity of a metal centre enclosed or "buried"
within a protein molecule should be considerably suppressed. Several investigators
have addressed the problem of how electrons may move rapidly between fixed
remote sites in proteins, and it is certain that both distance and the nature of the
intervening medium are important [12-16]. At an electrode interface the electron
may have to traverse some depth of polypeptide matrix and may also encounter
strongly bound ions and solvent molecules. How much of a restriction might this
impose? We may reason that two limiting situations will occur.
On the one hand, the protein may be "designed" for just this type of reaction or,
more correctly, its biological equivalent. Small electron-transfer proteins, usually
with molecular weights below 15000, convey electrons between larger, often mem-
brane-bound, proteins in which the active sites are themselves buried or secluded.
(This mediation is required because direct reaction between donor and recipient is
not feasible, for example because of physical separation and effective immobility.)
Those who have studied biological electron-transport systems are well aware that
these processes are efficient in terms of the high turnover rate that may be achieved
with a small thermodynamic driving force. Yet this is in spite of the need for two
long-range intermolecular electron-transfer reactions to occur at each cycle. A use-
ful perspective is drawn if we compare rate constants of electron self-exchange for
a selection of inorganic redox reagents (each of which show reversible or
quasi-reversible electrochemistry) with some values determined for proteins. These
are given in Table 1.
There is no evidence here to suggest that "buriedness' of redox centre prevents
electron transfer between these proteins. On the contrary, the respectably high
self-exchange constants indicate the ease with which the metal centres may respond
in the absence of a driving force, i.e. at zero overpotential. According to Marcus
[17], the rate constant for electron self-exchange may be equated directly with that
for the electrochemical process. We may thus argue that a reversible faradaic
response should be obtainable for an electron-transfer protein just as it is for the
small inorganic complexes.
Table 1. Experimental values of electron self-exchange rate constants for a selection of inorganic
complexes and metalloproteins
Redox couple Self-exchange rate constant/M - 1s -
Ru(NH3)~ +/2+ 820a

Fe(CsHs) 1+/° 6 x 106 b
Fe(CN)63-/4- 1x 104 ~
Co(phen) 3+/z+ 1.1 a
Cytochrome c (Fe 3+/2+) 1.4 x 105
Plastocyanin (Cu z+/l+) 7 x 104 f
Azurin (Cu 2+/1+) 2.4 x 106 g
a Meyer TJ, Taube H (1968); Inorg. Chem. 7: 2369;

u Pladziewicz JR, Carney MJ (1982) J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 104:3544
c Campion RJ, Deck CF, King P, Wahl AC (1967) Inorg. Chem. 6:672
d Baker BR, Basolo F, Neuman HM (1959) J. Phys. Chem. 63:371
e Ref. 107, .rate constant is limiting value in presence of ATP or Co(CN)~- ;
f Ref. 106, rate constant in presence of 8 mM Co(NH3) 3+.
g Groeneveld CM, Dahlin S, Reinhammar B, Canters GW (1987) J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 109:3247
Since mitochondrial cytochrome c was available commercially (horse heart

muscle being the most common source) and could readily be purified to a high
level, it formed the basic subject for most of the pioneering studies. Many ideas
concerning the electrochemical mechanism, in particular, the mode of interaction
with the electrode, have developed around the considerable wealth of information
that is available [14, 18] on the structure and properties of the protein molecule.
The extent to which the metal centre is "buried" is illustrated well in Fig. 1 which
shows the 3D structure [19] of yeast (iso-1) cytochrome c and a view of the exposed
active site. The major function of cytochrome c is as electron donor to cytochrome
c oxidase (Complex IV), the membrane-bound enzyme that is the terminus of the
aerobic respiratory chain and a site for proton translocation. Another physiolo-
gical oxidant of cytochrome c (in yeasts) is cytochrome c peroxidase, a soluble
enzyme whose crystal structure is known (see Sect. 7). The most important reduc-
tant of cytochrome c is the cytochrome c 1 component of the membrane-bound bc 1
complex (Complex III), but others (see Sect. 6, Scheme 5) include cytochrome bs,
sulfite oxidase, and flavocytochrome b 2 (lactate dehydrogenase, found in yeasts).
The molecular weight of cytochrome c is approx. 12500, and the active site is
a heme (Fe porphyrin) group that is attached to the polypeptide chain at two
cysteines through thioether bridges. The Fe atom itself lies in the plane of the ring,
and the two axial positions are occupied by methionine sulfur (Met-S) and histidine
nitrogen (His-N) donors. Except for a small part of the edge, the heme group is
almost entirely buried within the protein. The environment "tunes" the potential of
the redox couple (Eq. 1) to approx. 260 mV vs. SHE as measured at 25 ° with ionic
strength I = 0.1 M, pH = 7. The Fe is low-spin in each redox state
Cytochrome c(III)(Fe (III)) ~ , Cytochrome c(II)(Fe(II)) (1)
Crystal-structure studies [18, 19] show that the molecular shape is that of
a prolate ellipsoid with dimensions of the order of 25 x 25 x 37 ~. High-resolution
142 F.A. Armstrong
Fig. 1. Space-fillingdrawing of yeast iso-l-cytochrome c (seeRef. 19).Atomscolouredblack form a part

of the heineprostheticgroup (shownexposedalongside).Atomscolouredgrey(arrowed)belongto lysine
and arginine side chains on the protein surface.Atoms coloured white represent those not falling into
either of these categories.This illustration was kindly provided by Michael Murphy and Gary Brayer
(University of British Columbia)
~H N M R studies have shown that the Fe(II) form is particularly stable and the
native conformation is essentially retained up to 97 °. Cytochrome c(III) has a more
labile structure and the Fe coordination is more easily disrupted. It is known (see
Sect. 4.2) that, upon exposure to higher pH, methionine-S is displaced from the
Fe(III) by another (N) donor. Since the Fe donor-acceptor orbitals can mix with
the porphyrin ~* system, the effective d-electron density is extended to the heme
edge and thus to the molecular surface at which this is exposed. As evident from
Fig. 1, the actual protein surface area taken up by the solvent-accessible heme is
very small (amounting to less than 1% of the total) so that if electron transfer to
redox partners involves this entity (as it is widely believed) then the orientation of
the protein during the encounter will be critical. The electron-transfer activity of
the Fe centre may thus be termed "anisotropic".
The net charge of horse heart cytoehrome c(III) at pH 7 is + 9 based upon the
amino-acid composition. This charge arises from a considerable excess of positively
charged groups (mainly lysines,-NH~ ) with respect to glutamate and aspartate,
which confer negative charges at neutral pH. The distribution of the positive charge
over the protein surface is asymmetric. In the vicinity of the exposed heme edge, in
particular, are a number of lysines whose charge is largely uncompensated by
negatively charged residues. This area is believed to be the primary interaction
domain for physiological reaction partners.
In certain cases, the interactions of cytoehrome c with protein reaction partners

have been studied directly or modelled from X-ray data E20, 21]. We picture
a relatively long-lived complex with the two proteins juxtaposed to optimise the
rate of electron transfer between sites. So long as the formation of this complex is
very fast so that it may be considered always to be in equilibrium with the
separated reactants, the overall second-order rate constant k12 is a simple product
of two terms, the formation equilibrium constant K and the first-order rate
constant ket describing the electron transfer between sites
k12 = k~tK (2)
The two protein surfaces are held together by a multiple combination of

hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic contacts and coulombic forces (salt bridges). The
mobility of surface residues demands that our picture is not that of the docking of
rigid structures, but rather the optimization of forces within a dynamic assembly.
Since the electron-transfer activity of each buried redox centre may be termed
"anisotropic", their chemistry can be addressed optimally only by redox partners
that can associate in the correct manner. The protein-protein complexes thus
envisaged view cytochrome c as recognizing and binding at a domain of groups
whose properties complement those of its own interaction domain. Thus, typically,
this complementary domain will feature negatively charged residues, i.e. aspartate
or glutamate. The result is a system which exhibits a much greater degree of redox
selectivity than is encountered among small molecules.
Ideally, proteins should prefer their natural redox partners and may not even be
able to approach, in an intimate manner, those with which electrostatic interac-
tions are strongly repulsive. This might indeed be expected for the self-exchange
reactions and we should note, from Table 1, that the appreciable rates measured for
two of the proteins are obtained through the inclusion of multi-charged anions or
cations which may form ionic bridges or create considerable charge shielding
between like-charged surfaces. In conclusion, the "buriedness of centre" argument
requires qualification. "Buriedness" is not prohibitive. However, for an electron-
transfer protein, it introduces anisotropy of reactivity and hence specificity. Elec-
trochemistry may therefore be critically dependent upon how the protein interacts
with the electric field at the electrode-solution interface. The answer lies, at least in
J
part, upon an extension of the ideas of Hubbard and co-workers [22] who
demonstrated "tailoring" of electrode surfaces to achieve specificity in reactions of
small ionic complexes.
The other limiting situation concerns the larger redox proteins, most obviously
those which are classified as enzymes. Here we need to re-state the "buriedness of
centre" argument. The metal centre may again be buried beneath the molecular
surface but, more importantly, this could lie within a "pocket" that prevents
approach of all but small substrates or the relatively small electron-transfer
proteins discussed above. The problem is more one of steric hindrance since the
active site metal may actually be accessible to solvent. Under these circumstances,
an electrode surface--in its ideal form a planar surface--might be a poor redox
partner indeed.
144 F.A. Armstrong
Should steric hindrance be identified to be the problem, more elaborate modifi-

cation either of the electrode or even of the protein itself becomes necessary.
Modification of the protein might include introduction of electron "relays" that can
enable electrons to reach otherwise inaccessible active sites starting from a geomet-
rically simple surface contact. Here, however, the aim of having a technique to
characterize the chemistry of native proteins falls aside. On the other hand,
modification of the electrode surface means the creation of a suitable conducting
microstructure that is capable of penetrating deep pockets.
2.2 "Diffusion Coefficients of Proteins are Too Small"
In most experiments, we are interested in obtaining a voltammetric response from

protein molecules that undergo rapid exchange with those in the bulk solution.
Here, in what I shall sometimes refer to as the "Bulk Solution mode", the current is
limited ultimately by mass transport of reactant and product. In other experiments
we may seek to address only protein molecules that are strongly adsorbed, i.e.
bound tightly to the electrode surface. In this case (which I shall term the "Adsorbed
Film mode") mass transport does not concern us further unless the protein of
interest is an enzyme that yields a biocatalytic current from freely diffusing
substrate molecules. Mass transport of a molecule or particle under the influence of
a concentration gradient is described by a diffusion coefficient D that depends upon
the molecule or particle size and hydrodynamic properties. For bulk solution
electrochemistry, we must visualise the consequences of our redox system compris-
ing macromolecules as opposed to small reagents. Since we are interested in
a relative comparison, this can be done in the following idealised manner.
For a sphere of radius r, for which interactions with solvent molecules are
negligible, the diffusion coefficient in a medium of viscosity 11 is given by the
Stokes-Einstein equation---Eq. (3).
D = kBT/6rcrlr (3)
If the sphere has mass m, with uniform density p, Eq. (3) can be rewritten as Eq. (4)
D = kBT/{ 11.7q(m/p) 1/3} (4)
Now, consider the reduction of solution species "O" at a planar electrode
surface during a voltammetry experiment in which the potential is swept with time
in a linear manner. This is, of course, equivalent to the first sweep of a cyclic
voltammogram, and the faradaic current that we observe is ideally limited by the
diffusion of "O" to the electrode surface. In this case the observed peak current ip is
typically described [1-4] by the Randles-Sevcik equation--Eq. (5).
( n F ' ] 1/z
ip = 0,4463 n F A C o \ ~ - ~ j ul/2D~/2 (5)
in which n is the number of electrons transferred, A is the electrode surface area (in
cm2), C o is the concentration of component "O" (in moles cm-3), u is the scan rate
in Vsec- 1, and F, R and T have their normal meanings.
H2 02
I
1.0 ', cytochrome c
0.8
roeene PCMH
0.6
'~ 0.4
0.2
Fig. 2. Graph showing how voltammetric peak cur- I I I I I
rent is expected to diminish with increasing molecular
weight in the case of redox-active spherical molecules 101 102 103 104 105 106
diffusing to a planar electrode. PCMH = p-cresol-
methylhydroxylase (see Sect 7.3) molecularweight
If we extract the relevant parameters from the above equations, we arrive at the
relationship ip~ m-1/6. Our conclusion is that the diffusion-limited voltammetric
current given by a redox species is surprisingly insensitive to its molecular weight
per se. This is illustrated in Fig. 2 in which we see how ip (and hence the effective
sensitivity of voltammetric techniques) should vary with molecular weight (MW) in
the limiting case of uniformly active spheres and linear diffusion. Remarkably, the
diffusion restriction alone renders the current due to a macromolecule of MW 106
greater than 20% of that expected for a small complex of MW 100.
There are factors that we have not considered. The surface of a protein molecule
generally comprises polar side chains that interact strongly with solvent molecules
and ions. These interactions impede its mobility. Furthermore, we have neglected
to take into account the anisotropy of reactivity that we outlined above. Diffusion
to the electrode surface must be coupled to corrective rotational motion either on
approach or as a "rolling" movement during encounter, otherwise contact may be
restricted to an inactive area of protein surface. The question arises, "What is
meant by a diffusion coefficient?". The value which is relevant to a voltammetric
experiment, in which there is a dependence upon molecular orientation, must be
lower than the value which is determined by a technique like ultrafiltration. The
picture afforded by Fig. 2 is thus optimistic in that it compares the maximum
faradaic responses that may be achieved.
In this article I shall adopt a practical view and describe as diffusion-controlled
all cyclic voltammetry that adheres to a direct dependence of ip upon ul/2.
2.3 "Proteins Usually Adsorb Strongly and Denature at

Electrode Surfaces"
The tendency of proteins to adsorb strongly and often denature at surfaces is well
known [23-251. The aspect of adsorption itself is central to discussions of t h e
146 F.A. Armstrong
mechanism of electron transfer. In this article, I shall refer to just two electrochem-
ical mechanisms for rapid oxidation and reduction of protein molecules in bulk
solution. These mechanisms arise from a simple consideration of protein adsorp-
tion, particularly that occurring without denaturation i.e. in which the protein's
structural and chemical integrity is preserved (native adsorption).
We have referred already to the need for a protein to associate at the electrode
surface in a manner that will allow rapid electron transfer with its redox centre. In
the sense that the protein electrode interaction must be intimate enough to
accomplish electron transfer, weak adsorption might be regarded as a minimum
prerequisite for observation of a sharp and reversible voltammetric response [7].
We may discuss the options according to the scheme shown in Fig. 3.
First, if oxidation and reduction of freely diffusing molecules occurs only by
direct electron transfer between electrode surface and the metal centre, then there
are two limiting cases. At the one extreme, adsorption is weak. Both adsorption
and desorption are rapid, but, during its brief association with the electrode
surface, the protein molecule has been oriented so as to allow fast electron transfer
to occur. The corresponding voltammetric response arises from molecules that are
in rapid equilibrium with the bulk solution via direct exchange. This is the main
theme of what I shall refer to as the Rapid and Reversible Binding (RRB) mechanism
[7]. At the other extreme, adsorption may be so strong that the voltammetric
response stems from molecules that do not, within the experimental time domain,
exchange with those in the bulk solution. In the intermediate case, the response
may arise from molecules both adsorbed and freely diffusing, and either may
be addressed preferentially by varying the experimental time constant. Thus a
weak adsorption
intermediate adsorption
strong adsorption
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of modes of
with electron transport from an electrode surface to
electron protein moleculesadsorbed and diffusingfreely
exchange in solution (see text)
fast modulation will give emphasis to adsorbed species, while slow modulation
will allow a relatively greater degree of exchange to occur with freely diffusing
molecules.
In the Second mechanism for rapid oxidation and reduction of solution species,
electrons are transferred indirectly between the electrode and bulk protein
molecules by passage through a layer of strongly adsorbed protein [26]. This will
be referred to as the Adsorbed Protein Electron Exchange (APEE) mechanism. The
question is, "How does electron transfer to bulk species occur?" We have already
considered that protein electron-transfer activity should be anisotropic; con-
sequently, much is now demanded of the adsorbed protein molecule in terms of its
dynamic versatility. Two factors may facilitate electron exchange. On the one hand,
adsorbed molecules are not necessarily immobilized. Electron transfer to free
protein molecules may occur via rapid rotation and consequent translocation of
the redox centre and interaction domain. On the other hand, the protein may
contain multiple redox sites so that a relay system can operate provided intra-
molecular electron transfer is rapid. Both modes of exchange are likely to be
blocked if the adsorbed protein undergoes denaturation. In either case, and by
analogy with the homogeneous self-exchange process, the transient interaction
occurs between two protein molecules rather than between protein and electrode.
RRB and APEE mechanisms represent extreme cases. The RRB mechanism
is to be favoured in cases in which strong protein adsorption is not apparent.
The APEE mechanism, on the other hand, is to be favoured wherever diffusion-
controlled voltammetry is observed despite strong adsorption with saturative
electrode surface coverage. For a heterogeneous electrode surface, it is quite likely
that both mechanisms can operate simultaneously with RRB and APEE occurring,
respectively, at "coolspots" and "hotspots".
More generally, for characterization of the intrinsic properties of a protein, the
detailed mechanism of electron transfer is not of importance. More relevant is the
question, "How can I obtain useful information in the most direct manner with
a minimal amount of sample?" We can distinguish two types of configuration. In
the usual "bulk solution mode" experiment, the action is directed toward freely
diffusing protein molecules, and the electrochemical perturbation is propagated by
mass transport. Most reported work on proteins has been carried out in this mode,
including, of course, bulk electrolysis. Thin-layer electrochemical cells offer several
advantages including easy coulometric analysis and economy in sample usage [27].
The "adsorbed film mode" goes a stage further since the action is directed at or
limited entirely to adsorbed species. With strong adsorption, the presence of protein
molecules in solution is not required; and transferable films, even sub-monolayers
of pre-adsorbed material, can be studied. This situation makes possible the charac-
terization of proteins for which only very small quantities are available. The
magnitude of the current will depend upon the surface coverage of molecules.
Furthermore, if an enzyme is adsorbed in an electro-active native state, its catalytic
activity towards freely diffusing substrate, observed as the "biocatalytic current",
can be probed. Thus adsorption, far from being a prohibitive factor in protein
electrochemistry, offers itself as an exploitable asset. The real problem, as we shall
now discuss briefly, is denaturation.
148 F.A. Armstrong
If voltammetric techniques are to be useful for characterizing metalloproteins

and their reactions, it is clear that denaturation must be prevented. Data obtained
are invalid if the protein molecules responsible for the voltammetric response incur
reconformation or inactivation whilst at the electrode surface. Natural elec-
tron-transfer pathways may become inoperative, thus leading to poor kinetics.
Artifactual voltammetric waves may arise from degraded active sites.
Denaturation occurs because of a change in the balance of forces which
normally favour the native conformation. The effects of high temperature, extremes
of electrolyte concentration (including pH), and addition of solvents or other
reagents are well known. At an electrode surface also, a protein molecule is subject
to disruptive influences [283. Distortion may occur as a result of the large electric
field that is generated across the double layer. Part of the protein surface will be in
contact with the electrode, and the normal ionic and hydration shell may be
broken. There may be a strong tendency to make more extensive contact with the
electrode surface by unfolding and "reburying" the hydrophobic interior with
expulsion of numbers of water molecules--the so-called "hydrophobic effect".
Furthermore, there may be specific chemical reactions illustrated, for example, by
the affinity of metals such as mercury (Hg) for sulfur ligands as presented by
cysteine, methionine, or the bridging sulfur atoms of Fe S clusters.
Since proteins differ so greatly, there can be no general formula for controlling
the adsorption process to minimise denaturation. The tendency of proteins to
denature depends upon what we may term their "rigidity". In studies of protein
adsorption on negatively charged (sulfonato) polystyrene latex particles, Lyklema
and co-workers compared isotherms for human plasma albumin (HPA) and bovine
pancreas ribonuclease (RNase) [23]. They found that, even under conditions in
which the protein is negatively charged and the net coulombic interaction is thus
repulsive, adsorption could occur if it was accompanied by denaturation. This is
easy for the conformationally labile HPA, but much less so for RNase, which is far
more "rigid". Thus "tough" proteins, for example those that have extensive ]3-sheet
structure, should be more able to "survive" adsorption. Electron-transfer proteins
normally have relatively robust structures. Thus we should not expect denatura-
tion to be a plohibitive factor, particularly if low temperatures are used. Another
interesting feature to emerge was that non-denaturing adsorption of protein on
a like-charged surface is promoted by co-adsorption of counter ions, particularly
those with multiple charge. This we may rationalize as follows: the resulting high
charge density that would otherwise accumulate at the interface would either
prevent adsorption altogether (coulombic repulsion in the manner responsible for
the stabilization of colloids) or trigger structural changes to remediate the adverse
electrostatics. An electrode is more complicated still, since its surface charge
depends not only upon the chemical entities present, but also upon the potential
that is applied by the potentiostat.
In conclusion, it is difficult to predict whether denaturation may or may not
prove to be a problem in any particular case. TO control the adsorption process by
providing the correct combination of surface interactions is a vague, yet appropri-
ate, description of the task in hand.
Probing Metalloproteinsby Voltammetry 149
3 Electrodes and Interfaces for Proteins
3.1 Electrochemistry at Hg Electrodes
Early investigators of the direct electrochemistry of proteins made particular use of

polarography (voltammetry at the dropping Hg electrode). The theory and instru-
mentation for this technique were well established [1-4]. Moreover, since measure-
ments were made at a reproducible and continually renewed surface, there lay
an answer, at least in principle, to the problem of electrode fouling by strongly
adsorbed, denatured protein. But proteins do adsorb rapidly and irreversibly at
Hg, and various studies have addressed the question of whether or not this is
necessarily accompanied by denaturation. Reduction and reoxidation of disulfide
bridges in contact with the Hg surface is electrochemically reversible, and this
reaction has been exploited to determine numbers of accessible cystines and to
investigate conformational changes, reversible and irreversible, that occur as these
groups are reduced [29]. The activity of adsorbed urease, which depends upon the
integrity of a disulfide bridge, could actually be modulated by the appliedelectrode
potential [30]. Here it was clear that the process of adsorption per se did not cause
inactivation of the enzyme.
By contrast, the Hg electrode has not fared well in studies of electron-transfer
metalloproteins. In almost all cases, the electrochemical response has been
dominated by undesirable features: signals arising from adsorbed molecules, which
do not reflect the accepted redox chemistry of the metal centres, and irreversible
waves due to sluggish reduction and reoxidation of protein molecules in bulk
solution. Nevertheless, the studies that have been made are informative and some
will be mentioned briefly here. All potentials given in this article have been
corrected to correspond with the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE).
Significantly, the best examples of direct electrochemistry at Hg have been
studies on the robust tetraheme proteins termed cytochrome c 3. These are
low-potential electron carriers (MW 14000) that occur in sulfate-reducing bacteria
(Desulfovibrio) [31, 32]. Each of the four heme groups are relatively exposed to
solvent and inter-heme distances are short, suggesting the likelihood of mutual
interaction and facile intramolecular electron exchange. The electrochemistry of
cytochrome c 3 from Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Strain Miyazaki) provides [33-351
a representative case. On a hanging Hg-drop electrode, it was found to form, very
rapidly, a strongly adsorbed film--most likely of monolayer coverage--that was
electroactive upon transfer to a protein-free buffer solution. The corresponding
adsorbed-film voltammetric response was observed in the potential domain appro-
priate for the native protein, but it died away upon reduction. Differential
capacitance measurements showed, however, that the film was retained upon
reduction and, furthermore, that the reduced protein was also adsorbed from
solution, in this case to give a film that gave no signals. With cytochrome c3 in bulk
solution, the response was electrochemically reversible and diffusion controlled.
These observations were consistent with the APEE mechanism outlined earlier.
150 F.A. Armstrong
The presence of four tightly bound redox centres evidently enables the protein to
form a "conductive" film, even if some inactivation occurs. The polarogram was
broad, reflecting the presence of non-interacting redox sites having slightly different
potentials. We shall discuss these results further in the next section.
Polarographic studies on mitochondrial cytochrome c showed [36-39] that it
too adsorbs strongly at Hg, but, unlike cytochrome c3, the adsorbed layer inhibits
the electroreduction of protein molecules in bulk solution. Heterogeneous elec-
tron-transfer rates were found to be very dependent upon protein concentration. In
DC polarography, one criterion for electrochemical reversibility is that the
observed half-wave potential E~/2 corresponds to the thermodynamic reduction
potential for the species of interest. Anderson and co-workers found [36] that the
reduction of cytochrome c(lll) in Tris-cacodylate buffer (pH 6) proceeded essen-
tially reversibly at Hg if the protein concentration was 20 I~M or less. However, as
the concentration was increased, E~/2 underwent a progressive shift to more
negative values; the effective overpotential being approx. - 100 mV at a concentra-
tion of 105 gM. Nevertheless, it could be demonstrated that reduction of freely
diffusing molecules did occur. Analyses of limiting (plateau) currents showed these
to be proportional to cytochrome c(IIl) concentration and essentially dif-
fusion-controlled. Cytochrome c(1I) prepared by bulk electrolysis at a Hg pool was
fully active as a reductant for cytochrome c oxidase. Electrochemical reoxidation of
reduced cytochrome c was not observable: at the expected potential, this would
coincide with oxidation of Hg. The general conclusions from this work and
subsequent studies by other groups [37-39] were that the sluggish electrode
kinetics displayed in all but the most dilute of solutions were due to a barrier
imposed by adsorbed protein molecules. Mechanisms suggested for the electron
transfer to bulk molecules included: diffusion (now restricted) of the protein itself
through the layer, electron mediation via the redox centres of adsorbed protein
molecules, and direct electron transfer through flattened denatured adsorbed
molecules. Cyclic voltammetry of a pre-adsorbed cytochrome c(III) film transferred
to buffer solution (10 mM Tris-HC1, pH 7.6) showed a sharp reduction peak at
approx. - 340 mV with no return wave [39]. Cytochrome c(III) adsorbed at Hg is
thus electrochemically active, but it is in a form in which the potential is shifted to
more negative values. As mentioned further in Sects 3.2 and 4.2, this pattern of
behaviour may be traced to the relatively easy disruption of the Fe(III) active site.
Various studies of the electrochemical behaviour of ferredoxins, small elec-
tron-transfer proteins containing Fe-S clusters, have been reported. However,
polarograms, and voltammograms using the hanging Hg drop electrode have
generally been complicated by the appearance of large signals, attributable to
strongly adsorbed species, that do not correspond to the expected potentials for the
intact native systems [40 44]. This interference has been acknowledged by several
authors [42 44]; it is apparent also in the study of Holm and co-workers who
observed [45] that reversible, diffusion-controlled reduction of Clostridium pas-
teurianum ferredoxin occurred at Hg. It is likely that the problem arises, at least in
part, from the nature of the metal centres themselves and the well-known affinity of
Hg for sulfur ligands. In this class of protein, any chemical degradation of adsorbed
molecules releases a number of "new" electroactive agents--Fe 3+/2+, S2- and
exposed cysteine-S- residues. Most ferredoxins are highly negatively charged

proteins, and in recent years it has come to light that those polarographic and
voltammetric signals that are attributable to the native redox couples can be
greatly enhanced by addition of multi-charged cationic species, including poly-
lysine [46, 47]. Some discussion of this follows in Sect. 3.3.
3.2 Reversible Electrochemistry of Cytochrome c:

The Development of Functionalized Electrodes
Realization that suitably modified orfunctionalized electrode surfaces could inter-
act in a specific and non-degradative manner with proteins, to allow stable and
reversible (i.e. "well-behaved") direct electrochemistry that is uncomplicated by
artifacts, came about in the late 1970s. The chemical and mechanistic diversity of
these so-called "functionalities" is evident from the three first demonstrations of
such behaviour.
Eddowes and Hill found [48, 49] that essentially reversible cyclic voltammetry
of horse mitochondrial cytochrome c could be achieved with a Au electrode onto
which was adsorbed, from the same solution, the reagent 4,4'-bipyridyl. The result
is shown in Fig. 4. The criteria described by Nicholson and Shain [50] for
a one-electron process controlled by linear diffusion of species to a planar electrode
surface are met very closely indeed. The value of E °', given by (Epo + Epa)/2, was
255 mV, in good agreement with values determined by potentiometry. It could be
argued that free, reduced 4,4'-bipyridyl played no part in the mechanism, since its
reduction potential is much lower than that of cytoclirome c. It was proposed [7]
that the organic adsorbate allowed electron transfer to occur directly by providing,
at the electrode surface, functionalities with which the protein could interact
specifically and reversibly and thereupon donate or accept electrons rapidly. It was
thus termed a promoter as opposed to a mediator, in which the latter is considered
to convey electrons in bulk solution.
Fig. 4. Cyclic voltammetry of horse

cytochrome c (approx. 0.4 mM) in NaC10 4
(0.1 M), phosphate buffer (0.02 M) at pH 7, 1.0
in the presence of 0.01 M 4,4'-bipyridyl.
Scan rate: (a) 20 m V s - 1, (b) 50 mVs- 1, (c) 05
100mVs 1. Inset shows dependence of
peak current upon the square root of the
lO' O 2;o 300
' 5 10 15
scan rate. From Ref. 49, redrawn with kind
permission E/mVvs. SHE ~1/2/(mVs-1)ll2
152 F.A. Armstrong
Another approach to the problem was reported by Hawkridge and co-workers.

They found [51] that spinach ferredoxin gave a cyclic voltammetric response at
a Au electrode that had been functionalized with a film of polymerized methyl
viologen. A reduction potential in broad agreement with potentiometric data
(approx. - 430 mV) was estimated from the distorted voltammogram, while spec-
troelectrochemical experiments with a modified Au "minigrid" electrode demon-
strated rapid reduction and reoxidation of the protein in bulk solution at respect-
ably small overpotentials. Further studies [-52] carried out with the rotat-
ing-disc-electrode technique gave a heterogeneous reduction rate constant of ca.
5 x 10 -4 cms -1. The film itself was electroinactive; thus a surface-confined elec-
tron mediation effect seemed unlikely.
With a discovery that was free of arguments concerning electron mediation,
Yeh and Kuwana showed [53] that cytochrome c gave stable electrochemistry (CV
and DPV) at a Sn-doped-indium oxide electrode. The cyclic voltammetry at pH 7
was diffusion-controlled and reversible up to a scan rate of 500 mVs- 1. In this case
we may now regard the electrode surface to be "naturally functionalized" through
the presence of the stable oxide groups.
These early discoveries spawned a number of investigations largely devoted to
understanding the protein/functionalized electrode interface. Questions to be
answered included the following.
1 What role is performed by electrode surface functionalities, either those indigen-
ous to the electrode surface or provided by inclusion of promoters? Do they:
a) constitute sites that can engage in reversible interaction with the protein
surface, perhaps analogous to reversible precursor complex formation in physio-
logical processes? (This would be appropriate for the R R B mechanism.)
b) prevent electrode fouling caused by strong non-native adsorption of protein?
c) promote strong native adsorption of protein molecules? (This would be
required for the A P E E mechanism.)
d) act by providing facile pathways for electron transfer to and from the
protein's redox centre?
2) Can protein selectivity, in other words macromolecular recognition, be conferred
upon the electrode by variation of the functionality?
3) What information may be derived from analysis of voltammetric data and what
assumptions need to be made?
It is useful, first of all, to consider more closely results obtained with "bare"
metals like Hg. Other metals, including Pt, Ag or Au have been reported to be
generally unsatisfactory as electrodes for metalloproteins. However, there have
been some interesting observations that place this view in greater perspective.
Hawkridge and his colleagues searched for reversible electroactivity of proteins
at "bare" metals [54]. They carried out experiments using Au and Pt electrode
surfaces "cleaned" by various pre-treatments, including soaking in aqua-regia,
warm dilute nitric acid or heating in a hydrogen flame. With these freshly prepared,
it was possible to observe quasi-reversible cyclic voltammetry of cytochrome c.
Plots of ip against ~)1/2 were linear to ~=200mVs -1 and yielded a respectable
diffusion coefficient D = 1.1 x 1 0 - 6 c m 2 s - 1 . However, the response did not per-
sist. (Rapid deterioration of an initially good voltammetric response, or "impersist-

ence", is a central problem in protein electrochemistry. The cause may be either
fouling of the surface by irreversible adsorption and denaturation, loss of active
electrode surface functionalities, or a combination of both.)
The result here is significant since it provides basic ideas as to the minimum
requirements of an electrode for eliciting a response from a protein. In this case
a "clean" surface, devoid of strongly adsorbed contaminants such as hydrophobic
organics, was evidently active. In later work, Reed and Hawkridge showed [55]
that a Ag electrode, polished with alumina then pre-conditioned by repeated
cycling between 380 and 100 mV, gave cyclic voltammetry and voltabsorptiometry
of purified un-lyophilized cytochrome c with well-defined peaks for oxidation and
reduction. The response was diffusion-controlled at low scan rates, the E °' value
was + 250 mV and, most importantly, persisted for periods exceeding 12 h. If
lyophilized cytochrome c was used instead, the response was poor and impersist-
ent. Likewise, if protein contaminant (notably a polymeric form which separates
from native protein upon ion-exchange chromatography of lyophilized "pure"
material) was added to electro-active cytochrome c solutions, the voltammetric
response died away.
The Ag experiments are important since it is particularly feasible to detect and
characterize adsorbed species by the Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)
effect. Studies have indicated [56-58] that strong irreversible adsorption of cyto-
chrome c occurs at Ag and that, for the less stable Fe(III) state, this is accompanied
by a change in conformation. Direct evidence for this came from the spectroscop-
ically determined reduction potential for the adsorbed protein, which showed
a large negative shift, and detection of vibrations associated with non-native forms.
Two further studies on the electrochemistry of cytochrome c at Au have
produced evidence that a non-native, yet electroactive conformer having a lower
reduction potential dominates the voltammetry and inhibits electrochemistry of
the native form. Parsons and co-workers reported [59] that pre-adsorbed cyto-
chrome c gave a quasi-reversible couple at approx. - 250 mV that corresponded
to the peak potential obtained in simultaneous potential-modulated electroreflec-
tance and capacitance studies. Bond and colleagues observed [60] a process
associated with a reduction peak at approx. - 180 mV for which reoxidation was
observed only in the presence of I - ions. As 4,4'-bipyridyl was titrated in, the
low-potential reduction wave diminished and reversible waves corresponding to
the native couple developed at 260 mV. They proposed that at the unmodified Au
surface there might be preferential adsorption of the so-called State IV form [61] of
cytochrome c(III), in which the S ligand from Met-80 has been replaced by NH z-
from a lysine residue (see Sect. 4.2). The transition from native (State III) to State IV
conformer occurs normally at higher pH or if alcohols are added. Haladjian and
co-workers found [62] that the low-potential response appeared also during
experiments performed in the presence of 4,4'-bipyridyl as the solution was made
increasingly alkaline.
While these observations point to the formation of an adsorbed film of non-
native cytochrome c at Au or Ag, with general similarity to the results obtained at
Hg electrodes, there is an important factor to consider. In all cases in which SERS
154 F.A. Armstrong
or electroreflectance were studied (and for nearly all the voltammetric work) the
cytochrome c used had not been purified further from its commercial (lyophilized
state). In other words, the conditions prescribed by Hawkridge for reversible
electrochemistry at clean Ag were not met. It is not difficult to demonstrate the
heterogeneity of stored lyophilized cytochrome c, including the commercially
available material described as "pure". Cation-exchange chromatography [63] on
CM cellulose gives several bands attributable to various degradation products.
By contrast with cytochrome c, the properties of cytochrome c 3 adsorbed at Ag
as determined by SERS or voltammetry are very similar [35] to those of the native
state. Voltammograms observed for three types of cytochrome c 3 show resolution
of the non-equivalence of redox sites. Also, apparently by contrast to the situation
found at Hg electrodes, cyclic voltammetry shows that the reduced form remains
electroactive. It is important to note here that the cytochromes Ca are very stable
proteins that survive extended periods at high temperature and extreme pH [64].
What is the nature of the "clean" metal surface that appears active, at least
towards pure cytochrome c? Hawkridge and his group noted [54] that the active
Au surface was very wettable. As projected to cytochrome c molecules it must be
coated with H20 or O H - (and other anions) which comprise the Helmholtz layers.
Extensive direct contact between electrode metal atoms and the protein, likely to
result in chemical reaction and consequent denaturation, can occur only upon
drastic disruption of the hydration layer. However, since Au or Pt have only
a relatively low affinity for aquo-adsorbates as compared to hydrophobic organics
the surface soon becomes coated with non-native forms of cytochrome c or
contaminants, protein or otherwise, that are adsorbed more strongly. The native
voltammetric response dies away. One view therefore is that the clean hydrated
surface is already "functionalized" for cytochrome c electrochemistry. This may
extend to interactions of some specificity since the vicinal H20 and particularly
O H - may form hydrogen bonds or salt bridges with lysine residues on the
protein's natural interaction domain around the exposed heine edge. Whichever
rationale is most appropriate, the overriding problem remains that of practicality.
We wish to use direct electrochemical techniques as a tool for characterization. The
"bare" metal surface is a critical entity that appears at best to be easily poisoned by
trace amounts of protein impurities and degradation products.
The detailed mechanism by which 4,4'-bipyridyl and (as subsequently found)
a large number of other reagents act to promote cytochrome c electrochemistry at
noble metals has posed a very interesting problem. While studies by Hill's group
and others have established a number of points, there still remain elements of
controversy. Titration of the reversible electrochemical response (using AC voltam-
metric peak currents) as a function of the concentration of 4,4'-bipyridyl or
1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethene showed [49] Langmuir behaviour indicative of monolayer
formation. Respective Langmuir constants were approx. 5 mM and 0.5 raM; thus
1,2-bis-(4-pyridyl)ethene is adsorbed more strongly. The Oxford group has
favoured [7] a specific interactive role for the promoter; in this case it was
suggested that pyridyl-N atoms projecting from the adsorbate layer formed hydro-
gen bonds to the lysine-NH~- residues at the protein's interaction domain. As
outlined previously, the R R B mechanism views the protein/functionalized-elec-

trode interaction as being analogous to the physiological protein protein precur-
sor complex, i.e. the rate of electron transfer depends upon the strength of rapid,
but reversible binding (adsorption) as expressed simply in Eq. 2.
A quantitative kinetic investigation of the Au/4,4'-bipyridyl/cytochrome c sys-
tem was carried out [65] with the rotating-ring-disk technique. In terms of the
R R B mechanism, rate constants for adsorption and desorption of cytochrome c
were, respectively, 3 x 10 -2 cm s-1 and 50 s-1. The limiting first-order rate con-
stant for electron exchange within the protein-electrode complex was determined
to be 50 s-1. This is certainly a reasonable value when compared with recent
determinations [12-16] of rate constants for intramolecular electron transfer
within protein molecules.
The bipyridyl reagents were also found to promote reversible electrochemistry
of cytochrome c at Ag [66] and Pt [67] electrodes. As determined by SERS
[68, 69] and ellipsometry [70], the molecules are adsorbed in "end-on" i.e. perpen-
dicular fashion, so that one N is bound to surface metal atoms while the other
N must be positioned towards the solution.
A practical drawback with these simple bipyridyl promoters was that a signific-
ant level of the reagent in solution was necessary in order to achieve the mono-
layer coverage required for optimal cyclic voltammetry. Promoters with a much
higher affinity for adsorption at the metal surface (so all that was required was to
dip the clean Au surface in a solution of the reagent, then rinse offthe excess) were
clearly desirable. The sample solution itself could thus be "promoter-free". If this
was attempted [71] with 4,4'-bipyridyl or 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethene, the resulting
electrochemistry was relatively poor since the promoter desorbed readily.
Taniguchi and his co-workers found [71] that the reagent bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide
adsorbed much more strongly, giving stable and reversible cyclic voltammetry of
cytochrome c. From SERS studies of its adsorption at Ag and Au, they found
evidence [69, 72] that the surface contact involved the S atoms. Adsorbed species
did not give the -S-S- stretching signal, but an identical SERS spectrum was
obtained if 4-mercaptopyridine was adsorbed instead [69]. It was thus proposed
that bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide adsorbed with cleavage of the -S-S- bond. Consistent
with this, results from ellipsometry studies suggested [70] a kinetically complex
adsorption mechanism in which initial adsorption of the reagent was followed by
rearrangement. This could correspond to cleavage of the S-S bond in adsorbed
molecules following which the two halves then bound to Au in perpendicular
fashion.
There are now a large collection of reagents which, like the bipyridyl-types, are
electro-inactive in the potential domain of cytochrome c, yet promote its direct
electrochemistry at metal electrodes [71-81]. A selection of these are shown in Fig.
5. Many of them arise from an extensive survey carried out by Allen et al [73]. They
described such reagents as "dual-functionality" or "XY" promoters since they have
an "X" group that has a high affinity for the metal substrate and a "Y" group that is
suitable for interacting with the protein surface. Groups X and Y are separated
by a linking structure. The most successful groups X were soft bases like thiols or
156 F.A. Armstrong
N:~
N
7N N 7s@ d N~N
HOOC/~s_ ~
S"~
f ~ k~_/ g H h HOOCh/
Hooo .,, I I-/NI

H-N H_~N+
s-,,- ~-s-,-/- j\ /y/
i HOOC//""~
HOOO j
H- N\H k - OOC / x ~ ' / s ' ~
Fig. 5a-k. Structures of a selection of reagents that promote the direct electrochemistry ofcytochrome c
at Au (Ag, Pt) electrodes. Proposed orientations of adsorption are indicated by arrows directed toward
the electrode surface, a) 4,4'-bipyridyl (Refs. 48, 49, 65): b) 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethene (Ref. 49): c) bis(4-
pyridyl)disulfide (Ref. 71): d) 4-mercaptopurine (Ref. 77): e) tris(3-pyridyl)phosphine (Ref. 73): f) 4-
pyridylsulfonie acid (Ref. 73): g) 4-pyridylphosphonic acid (Ref. 73): h) thiodiethanoic acid (Ref. 73):
i) 2,2'-thiobis(succinic acid) (Ref. 73): j) pyridine-n-aldehyde-thiosemicarbazone (PATS-n) (Refs.
76, 78, 80): k) L-cysteine (Ref. 79)
phosphines, which have a high affinity for metals like Au or Ag. The effective
Y groups were either neutral hard bases or negatively charged groups such as
-CO3 o r - S O 3 .
A further clear feature to emerge was that molecules lacking delocalized
orbitals in the linking structure could still be good promoters. Possible need for
a conducting system had been suggested by the early observation [49] of the
inactivity of bis(4-pyridyl)ethane. The demonstration that promoters do not func-
tion a priori by provision of a facile electron-transfer pathway echoes the simple
observation of activity at "bare" metals described above. Instead, Allen et al
proposed [73] that the advantage of a conjugated linking group lay in its ability to
create a rigid conformation, thus imposing directionality, i.e. electrode--X-Y--pro-
tein. By preventing both X and Y from binding simultaneously to electrode surface
atoms, the availability of X for interaction with the protein would be more certain.
According to this hypothesis, bis(4-pyridyl)ethane was ineffective because rotation
about the C H z - C H 2- linkage allowed both pyridyl N atoms to be directed
towards the Au. It was found also that for some reagents to act as promoters,
particularly those without rigid conformations, "pre-activation" by treatment of
the electrode surface with bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide followed by polishing, was re-
quired. The "pre-activation" step alone did not give a response with cytochrome c,
but it was proposed that it could result in partial coverage of Au by S functional-
ities, thus minimizing simultaneous adsorption through X.
There are further, more subtle items of evidence for the existence not only of
these directionality effects, but also for contributions by specific ion binding. For
example, Hill et al investigated [78, 80-] the promoter activities of reagents termed
Pyridine-n-Aldehyde-Thio-Semicarbazones (n = 2, 3, 4), abbreviated PATS-n.
These are included in Fig. 5. They found [80] that, with use of NaC1 or cacodylate
as the supporting electrolyte, there was a progressive deterioration in the cyclic
voltammetric response as the promoter was varied from PATS-4, to PATS-3 and
thence to PATS-2. The latter was virtually non-promoting. However, on changing
to NaC10 4 as the electrolyte, PATS-2 was active [78]. Another interesting effect
was observed [78] if PATS-4 was methylated, either at position 4', in which case
much of the activity was retained, or at position 2', which resulted in loss of activity.
Evidence for the importance of coulombic effects is provided by the success of
promoters in which Y is a negatively charged functionality like -CO2 or -SO~- and
the failure [76-] of those for which Y is -NH~-. Moreover Hill's group has extended
the XY theme by devising promoters based upon peptides that contain
cysteine [79, 81]. The X functionality is now provided by Cys-S while specific
combinations of other amino acids provide the appropriate Y groups. For cyto-
chrome c, peptides such as (Cys-Glu)2 , (Cys-Glu(OMe)2)2 and (Cys-Gly)2 have
been found to promote electrochemistry [81]. By contrast, (Lys-Cys)z is ineffective.
Taniguchi and co-workers observed [72] that addition of bis(4-pyridyl)disulf-
ide to a cytochrome c solution in contact with the electrode resulted in the
complete replacement of the SERS signals due to adsorbed cytochrome c molecules
by signals associated with adsorbed promoter. They found also [69] that the SERS
signals due to adsorbed XY promoters were quite insensitive to the presence of
cytochrome c in solution. The latter result shows that interaction between the
promoter and the protein surface is weak and may be taken as evidence for the
R R B mechanism. Certainly, the marked effects of small variations in the structure
of the promoter, in particular those relating to directionality of hydrogen bonding
groups, are reasonably explained in terms of specific interactions that orient the
protein correctly during a brief encounter at the modified electrode surface.
With a change of emphasis, there is the view that promoters act in a more
general manner, by preventing direct adsorption that is normally irreversible and
may induce denaturation. Some support for this hypothesis stems from experi-
ments [-80, 82-] carried out with cytochrome c551. This is a smaller, bacterial
protein which, although having a similar tertiary structure to that of cytochrome c,
has only one lysine residue in the vicinity of its exposed heme edge. This domain is
instead dominated by more hydrophobic residues. Haladjian and Bianco found
[82] that cyclic voltammetry of cytochrome Cssl could be observed with the
presence of 4,4'-bipyridyl in solution. Results were poor; voltammograms showed
comparatively rounded peaks, low currents and a large peak separation, but they
did yield the appropriate reduction potential. Walton and co-workers found [80]
that cytochrome c551 gave no cyclic voltammetry, at least in the expected, thermo-
dynamically reversible region, either at bare Au or Au modified only by pre-dipping
158 F.A. Armstrong
in 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethene. The latter failure was strikingly different from the

situation observed with cytochrome c where a pre-dipped 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethene-
modified Au electrode does elicit a response, albeit impersistent. The observation
that both proteins are active at a bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide-modified Au electrode
suggested that the difference lay in a greater tendency for cytochrome c551 to
displace the more weakly bound X - - N promoter from the electrode surface,
thereby adsorbing irreversiby, and presumably with denaturation, in its place. The
Y functionality, after all, is common to both pyridyl reagents.
However, prevention of direct adsorption cannot, alone, be regarded as a mode
of action of promoters. Walton and co-workers noted [80, 83] that thiophenol
(Y = C), although adsorbing strongly, did not act as a promoter either for cyto-
chrome c or for the more hydrophobic cytochrome c551 .
Another hypothesis on XY promoters, which again does not exclude the basic
ideas of reversible binding, is that they prevent denaturation during adsorption.
Evidence from IR-reflectance studies has suggested [84] that 4,4'-bipyridyl arid
cytochrome c co-adsorb in an intimate manner at the Au surface, i.e. with direct
contact between protein and the electrode surface. Niki and his co-workers pro-
posed [84] that the main role of 4,4'-bipyridyl in this case is to stabilize the native
conformation of the directly-adsorbed protein. This idea is supported for the action
ofpurine (but not bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide, see above) by SERS studies carried out by
Taniguchi and co-workers. They found [72] that for a solution of cytochrome
c and purine, SERS signals persisted that were due to both species adsorbed
directly and simultaneously at Ag.
Metallic-oxide electrodes for cytochrome c have been studied further, particu-
larly by Hawkridge and co-workers [54, 85-87]. Sn-doped indium oxide and
F-doped tin oxide each give well-behaved cyclic voltammetry, although prepara-
tion of the electrode surface seems to be a critical factor. With these materials, it
was possible to observe, very readily, the effect of protonating electrode-surface
functionalities implicated in interactions with the protein. The intrinsic properties
of cytochrome c are not influenced significantly by changes in pH over the range
7 to 5 or by changes in ionic strength, but the voltammetry at oxide surfaces is very
sensitive to these variations. At F-doped tin oxide, lowering the ionic strength from
0.2 to 0.002 resulted [-54] in a decrease in peak currents and an increase in AEp.
This was attributed either to protein-electrode repulsion or to irreversible, electro-
statically induced adsorption of cytochrome c rendering the interface "blocked". It
was noted also that the response was attenuated if the solution was acidified from
pH 7 to pH 6 but was restored upon alkalinization. For RuO2 electrodes, Harmer
and Hill found [88] a pH effect of similar type. With support from published
measurements of the point of zero zeta potential (pH 5.1 to 6.1) and the potential of
zero charge (235 mV), they proposed that the voltammetric response was linked to
deprotonation of electrode-surface functionalities (pK 6). In its protonated state the
electrode was inactive, as was to be expected if electron transfer depended upon
hydrogen bonding or salt-bridge interactions with lysine-NH;- groups on the
protein.
However, Hawkridge and co-workers established also that cytochrome c
undergoes strong adsorption at Sn-doped indium oxide electrodes with retention
of native properties. They observed [54] that cyclic voltammetry could be obtained
after transfer of an adsorbed film of cytochrome c to buffer solution. The charge

passed during scans corresponded to fractional monolayer coverage, and the
observed reduction potential was + 245 mV, only a little lower than the accepted
thermodynamic value. More extensive adsorption (although weaker reversible
adsorption would now be contributing) was evident from analysis of current/
scan-rate data for the normal bulk-solution voltammetry of cytochrome e at the
same electrode. Toward higher scan rates the peak current arose increasingly from
adsorbed protein molecules [86, 87]. The surface excess thus calculated was high,
corresponding roughly to monolayer coverage. This had to be taken into consid-
eration when calculating standard heterogeneous rate constants [87].
Willit and Bowden made further studies of the electrochemistry of adsorbed
films of cytochrome c on F-doped tin-oxide electrodes [89]. They found adsorption
to be favoured at low ionic strength under mildly alkaline conditions (e.g. pH 8.5).
One interesting feature of this work was the estimation of first-order rate constants
for the electrode-protein electron exchange by measurement of AEp as a function of
u. Values of the first-order rate constant ket were found to be dependent themselves
upon u, thus indicating kinetic complexity that was inconsistent with a simple
model for electron exchange within a stable configuration. Measured at a single
scan rate, values of ket fell within the range 1.2 to 6.2 s- 1 and varied somewhat with
pH and ionic strength. The results may be compared with the value of ket = 50 s- 1
obtained [65] for the 4,4'-bipyridyl-modified Au electrode in which rapid and
reversible binding was postulated. Willit and Bowden proposed that the factor
limiting ket was a potential-dependent reorientation of adsorbed cytochrome
c molecules. A further point of interest here that under the conditions for such
strong and saturative adsorption to occur, fast electron transfer to free protein
molecules would be likely to occur by the A P E E mechanism.
Carbon materials, especially pyrolytic graphite (PG), have been found to be
very suitable for the voltammetry of various proteins. From a practical standpoint,
the large potential window offered by carbon essentially spans the entire range of
biological reduction potentials. Hill and co-workers [90, 91] examined the voltam-
metric response of cytochrome c at various faces and preparations of PG. A piece of
P G was mounted as an electrode in one of two ways. In the first case, a block of
material was oriented with the aromatic layers (the "basal" or " a - b " plane) parallel
to the solution interface and the sides were sealed with silicone rubber. This leads to
basal plane (PGB) electrodes. The electrode surface was prepared by cleaving with
a razor blade to expose a flesh basal layer. In the second case, a block of material
was mounted in epoxy resin so that the aromatic layers were perpendicular to the
solution interface; this orientation is known as "edge" or " b - c ' , hence " P G E "
electrodes. Here, the electrode surface was prepared by polishing with an aqueous
slurry of A120 3 (typically 1.0 or 0.3 la) or diamond powder, then sonicating to
remove adhering particles. Each of the two electrode surfaces gave a very different
voltammetric response towards cytochrome c. The results are illustrated in Fig. 6.
With the polished PGE, a near-reversible cyclic voltammogram was obtained with
well-defined "peak-like" reduction and oxidation waves. Peak currents were pro-
portional to u 1/2 up to at least 200mVs -1, thereby demonstrating a diffusion-
controlled process. By contrast, the response at the freshly cleaved PGB surface
was weak. There were no peaks, only a pair of faint sigmoidal-like waves. If the
160 F.A. Armstrong
Cleavedbasal
Polishedbasal
Polishededge
c,s
T ~ Fig. 6. Cyclic voltammograms (fourth scan,
I , I , I 0
100 300 500 20 mVs 1) of horse cytochrome c at various
Binding energy/ eV types of pyrolytic graphite electrode. Protein
E / mV vs, SHE is 0.15 mM in 5 mM Tricineand 0.10 M NaC1
at pH 8. Temperature 20°C. In each case the
XPSOF correspondingX-ray photo-electronspectrum
ELECTRODE PYROLYTIC of the graphite surface is shown. The scale
RESPONSE GRAPHITE enlargement for the O1,` peak is x 3
basal electrode was then polished, a much sharper peak-like voltammogram was
generated; it was similar to that obtained with the polished PGE, but having rather
broader waves and an apparently larger peak separation.
The chemical distinction between the various PG surfaces became clear from
XPS analysis (ESCA). This showed [91] (Fig. 6) that the polished P G E was rich in
surface oxides while the cleaved PGB contained only a very small number. This is
indeed expected since cleaving between the aromatic layers should not, ideally,
generate highly reactive sites for recombination with dioxygen. This is in contrast
to any process that ruptures bonds within the layers. Polishing, particularly across
the basal layers, creates a rich layer of C - O functionalities that include carb-
oxylates, alcohols, ketones and quinones [92-941. The relationship between surface
oxide density and the appearance of the voltammetry provided further evidence for
the need to have functionalities on the electrode surface. Another study' bearing
upon this work was reported by Anderson and co-workers [95] who investigated
the electrochemistry of cytochrome c at carbon fibre electrodes. They found that
voltammetric waves, seeming to arise from adsorbed native cytochrome c were
obtained only after pre-conditioning the electrode by repeated oxidative and
reductive ( + 2.5 V) cycling. The effect of this treatment might be either to destroy
and release surface contaminants and/or generate oxidized surface functionalities.
The voltammetry of cytochrome c at the pyrolytic graphite edge showed
a marked pH dependence [91]. Analysis of the reduction current measured at
a rotating-disk electrode as a function of pH showed that this was virtually
abolished under acid conditions. A plot of log(imam-- i/imax) against pH was linear
(slope 1.5) between pH 4.2 and 7.0 and yielded an effective pK of 5.6. A similar set of
measurements on the reduction of Fe(CN)~- under conditions of low ionic
strength (to amplify double-layer effects) showed an increase in current as the

solution was acidified, and the corresponding analysis also gave pK = 5.6. The
results indicated that each of the electrochemical reactions were controlled
by a common acid-base equilibrium at an electrode surface functionality. One
possibility suggested was a carboxylate with the pK raised by a neighbouring
hydrogen-bond acceptor.
The latter results in particular suggested a rather close analogy between the
reaction of cytochrome c at an electrode and that with a physiological partner for
which activity could also be coupled to the protonation state of groups on the
proteins' surface. Electrode surface functionalities that are negatively charged or
able to act as hydrogen-bond acceptors may be able to bind to cytochrome c via the
protonated lysine (-NH~) residues close by the exposed heme edge. Switch-off
occurs if the electrode groups are protonated. Experiments conducted by
Taniguchi and co-workers provided further evidence that the interaction between
cytochrome c and PGE functionalities resembles the physiological situation [96].
They observed that voltammetric waves of cytochrome c at PGE were removed
very effectively by polylysine at pH 7. Polylysine is an inhibitor of the reduction of
cytochrome c oxidase where it competes with cytochrome c for binding at the
enzyme [97]. By contrast, it was found that polylysine was ineffective at inhibiting
the electrochemistry of cytochrome c at Au electrodes modified by bis(4-
pyridyl)disulfide. In the latter case, polylysine neither displaces the promoter from
Au nor binds preferentially to the modified surface. Thus the interaction of
cytochrome c with pyridyl-N groups appears not to resemble, at least in detail, the
physiological interaction which is largely controlled by coulombic interactions.
Armstrong and Brown [98] tested the activity of PGE electrodes that had been
"silanated". Treatment of electrodes with trimethyl- or triphenyl-silyl reagents
generated a hydrophobic surface upon which oxygen-containing functionalities
would be derivatised. The resulting cyclic voltammetry of cytochrome c consisted
of weak sigmoidal-type waves similar to those observed at freshly cleaved PGB
electrodes. This type of response was observed also at Au electrodes under condi-
tions in which active promoters like bis(4-pyridyl)-disulfide were partially dis-
placed by the "inert" adsorbate thiophenol [83]. As discussed in Sect. 3.4, subse-
quent examination of this type of response was to indicate that the attenuation was
not due to a decrease in the intrinsic rate of electron transfer, but rather to a change
in the conditions assumed for mass transport.
3.3 Electrode Interfaces for a Wide Variety of Proteins
Interfacial electrostatics pose a far more critical determinant for the electrochem-
istry of proteins than is usually the case for simple redox complexes. This is
apparent even from the simplest of experiments in which one seeks to examine the
electrochemistry of a protein other than cytochrome c at one of the electrode
interfaces described above. The result is generally poor even with a high concentra-
tion of supporting (1:1) electrolyte to screen adverse coulombic interactions. Often,
no voltammetric response is observed at all. A major factor in remedying this
162 F.A. Armstrong
situation is generation of attractive coulombic interactions. Ideally, one needs to

consider the nature and distribution of polar and charged groups on the protein
surface and then modify the electrode surface or solution interface to provide an
environment that complements these.
By contrast with cytochrome c, the majority of small electron-transfer proteins
have an excess of acidic over basic residues. Consequently, they usually bear
a significant negative charge which, as with the positive charge of cytochrome c,
may be localized in what may be identified as an "interaction domain". Examples
include the ferredoxins (small Fe S proteins) and most plastocyanins (photosyn-
thetic "blue" Cu proteins). Reduction potentials for these span a volt or more.
Where appropriate, as for cases in which voltammetry or other electrochemical
techniques have assisted in their characterization, we shall review structures and
properties in the next section. But for the purpose of simplifying our discussion on
electrode interactions, we can group them together as proteins that all appear to
require positively charged or hydrogen-bond donor functionalities at the electrode
interface.
At the PGE surface, these functionalities may be generated simply by protona-
tion of the C-O groups. At pH 4, spinach plastocyanin gives [99] cyclic voltam-
metry with well-defined peaks, which is diffusion controlled up to 500 mVs-1,
whereas above pH 6 only an ill-defined, impersistent response is obtained in 0.1 M
KC1 and no response is observed at all at low ionic strength (see Sect. 4.3). The
origin of this pH effect is less certain than is the case with cytochrome c since the
isoeleetric point (pI) of spinach plastocyanin is around 4. Electroactivity under
mild acid conditions could instead be a result of plastocyanin behaving as an
uncharged molecule.
However, stable oxide surfaces like PGE can be covalently modified to give
positively charged functionalities. It was found [100] that Cr(III) complexes could
be generated at graphite electrode surfaces by voltammetrically cycling a solution
ofCr(NH3) 3 + in aqueous ammonia between - 400 and - 1200 mV. Reduction of
the complex gave labile Cr(II) species which would become linked to acidic C-O
groups upon re-oxidation. The Cr-modified surface was verified by ESCA.
Well-defined peak-type cyclic voltammetry of plastocyanin was thus obtained at
pH 7.
Another example of electrode modification which places positively charged
groups at the surface is a glassy carbon electrode modified by covalent attachment
(carbodiimide coupling) of a viologen (DAPV = N, N'-di(7-aminopropyl)violo-
gen). This has been reported [101] by van Dijk and co-workers. The
DAPV-modified electrode was itself electroactive: the surface-confined species
yielding adsorption-type voltammograms with E °' -- - 395 inV. However, when
ferredoxins (either the [2Fe-2S] protein from spinach, or the 214Fe 4S] protein
from Megasphaera elsdenii) were added to the solution, they gave excellent
quasi-reversible cyclic voltammetry with E °' values of - 4 0 0 mV and - 3 7 5 mV
respectively, in both cases appropriate for the native species. Although these values
were very close to the viologen potential it is important to note that peak currents
were diffusion-controlled, up to a scan rate of 500 mVs- 1 for spinach or 200 mVs- 1
(thereafter curving downwards) for M. elsdenii. While in this case a mediatory role
for the viologen functionality was certainly feasible, a more direct explanation
could be that its approx. 3 + charge acted to promote reversible interaction of the
protein at the electrode. A similar rationale might be appropriate for the poly-
merized methylviologen-Au electrode, reported by Hawkridge and co-workers,
which was active toward spinach ferredoxin [51, 52].
Hill and co-workers pursued the theme of XY promoters to investigate
compounds in which Y is a basic group [76]. Examples of these, 2-aminoethane
and 2,2'-dithiobisethanamine, whose amino groups are protonated at pH 8 and
below, gave well-defined and stable cyclic voltammetry of plastocyanin while being
inactive toward cytochrome c. All three isomers of PATS-n (Fig. 5) were effective,
thus demonstrating that one reagent could promote the electrochemistry of two
very different proteins. Similar findings were made with a derivative of cytochrome
c. This had been chemically modified to carry an overall negative charge by
attaching carboxydinitrophenyl (CDNP) groups to lysine residues. The CDNP-
cytochrome e gave a stable and essentially reversible response at Au electrodes
modified by adsorption of 2-aminoethane, 2,2'-dithiobisethanamine, and PATS
[76], although, like plastocyanin, it was not active at Au electrodes pre-dipped in
bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide. The stability of the plastocyanin voltammetry, but not that
of modified cytochrome c, was dependent upon temperature. Well-defined and
persistent electrochemistry was observed provided the solution was kept cold
(around 3 °C). At higher temperatures, the response showed impersistence. This
problem occurred in studies of plastocyanin at other electrodes, even PGE at which
the functionalities are very stable. It implied that plastocyanin might be particu-
larly susceptible to surface-induced denaturation.
Further success with various proteins has been achieved by use of promoters
based upon peptides incorporating lysine(s). Hill and his group [81] found that
(Lys-Cys)2 but not (Cys-Phe)2 or (Cys-Tyr)2 promote the electrochemistry of
plastocyanin at Au. There is considerable scope for developing this idea to provide
electrode binding sites that might be specific for one particular protein.
Very effective promotion of electrochemistry of proteins at various electrode
surfaces may be achieved by the simple addition to solution of ionic reagents of
multiple charge opposite in sign to that carried by the surfaces of protein and
electrode. It is well known that a number of electron self-exchange reactions are
catalyzed by counter ions (as indicated in Table 1), and such effects may be
important in physiological electron-transfer reactions. For example, reduction of
the P700 + centre of membrane-bound Photosystem I by plastocyanin, which
encounters coulombic repulsion at neutral pH, is promoted by Mg 2+ ions [102]. It
is also most likely [88, 91] that the oxide-type electrode surfaces PGE and R u O 2
(and IrO2) bear a negative charge at pH > 6 over much of the potential range
appropriate for aqueous studies.
Promotion of protein electrochemistry by multi-charged counter ions shows
several interesting features. A typical case, illustrated in Fig. 7, concerns the
214Fe-4S] ferredoxin from Clostridium pasteurianum. This is a low-potential elec-
tron carrier (MW approx. 6000) that carries a large overall negative charge,
possibly as high as - 10 for the fully oxidized state. Structurally, it is very similar
to the ferredoxin from Peptococcus aerogenes (see Fig. 14). Voltammetry at PGE
164 F.A. Armstrong
1mMNaCI 100mMNaCI
60gM
120gM
[Cr(NH3)63+]
210~M
400pM addNaCI~ Fig. 7. Cyclic voltammetry of Clostridium

pasteurianum 214Fe-4S] ferredoxin showing
the effects of successive additions of
Cr(NH3)63+ to solutions (buffered with 5 mM
2mM Tricine at pH 8) containing 1 mM or 100 mM
NaCI as background electrolyte.Temperature
= 25°C. The PGE electrode was freshly
polished at each stage. Cyclicvoltammograms
shown are consecutive cycles (scan rate
4raM 20 mVs-1) recorded from the time of initi-
ation at the positive limit
electrodes is promoted [91,103, 104] by addition of multi-charged cations, typ-

ically Mg 2+ or Cr(NH3)~ ÷. It was found [91] that under more conventional
conditions of 0.1 M NaC1 electrolyte, only a poor and impersistent response was
obtained at pH 8 (at which the P G E surface is in the deprotonated state). No
response was observed at all if the concentration of supporting electrolyte was at
the millimolar level, but as Cr(NH3)~ ÷ was titrated in, the single voltammetric
response due to both redox centres (which have indistinguishable reduction poten-
tials) grew and became more stable. The electrode was repolished between each
addition. The "end point" was judged as being the point at which stable voltam-
merry with well-defined peak-shaped waves was obtained. An important observa-
tion to note here is that, if a large amount of supporting 1 : 1 electrolyte was then
added, the voltammetry reverted back to being impersistent and further relatively
large amounts of Cr(NH3)~ ÷ were required to restore the well-defined stable
voltammogram. At each "end point", peak currents were proportional to u 1/2 up to
at least u = 200 mVs-1. If the P G E electrode was replaced by a polished PGB
electrode, the response deteriorated again. A freshly cleaved P G B electrode gave
only a weak sigmoidal-type response even at a very high concentration of
Cr(NH3)~ +
The value of E °" obtained from this experiment was typically - 370 mV, which
is at the positive side of the range of values obtained for the protein by poten-
tiometric methods. Most importantly, and by contrast with results obtained at Hg
electrodes, the voltammetry of an Fe-S protein was demonstrated to be stable,
essentially reversible, and free of other signals.
This pattern of behaviour has been encountered [91, 99, 103, 104] for a wide
range of proteins bearing negatively charged surface domains with use of a variety
of cations. A similar promotion of electrochemistry has also been observed in
studies with a RuO 2 electrode [88]. Interestingly, even electrochemistry at Hg
electrodes [46] is improved in this way (thus showing that the interactions involved
are not limited to surfaces covered by stable oxide functionalities). To qualify this, it
should be borne in mind that the Hg surface charge is negative under the
conditions of scanning in the low-potential range appropriate for ferredoxins.
Bianco and co-workers found [46] that the polarographic wave due to the native
redox couple of spinach and Clostridium thermocellum ferredoxins was amplified
considerably, by comparison with the normally-dominant adjacent wave arising
from degraded protein.
Several conclusions stem from the studies of negatively charged proteins at the
PGE electrode; these may be valid also for other electrode surfaces.
1) Values of E °' obtained after promotion of optimal cyclic voltammetry are in
good agreement with values obtained by potentiometric measurements. Small
differences generally manifest themselves as an increase in reduction potential.
2) The cations may be termed "promoters" following the preferred definition
for electro-inactive adsorbates at metal electrodes. They do not themselves mediate
electrochemistry by carryin 9 electrons. While it is possible that this could occur
given the use of a reagent with redox potentials close to those of the protein's
active-site process, the success of such a range of cations that are not redox active
under the experimental potential conditions, including Group 2 metal ions and
stable organic amines, shows that this is not a primary factor.
3) Promotion by cations is much more marked at PGE than at PGB.
4) There is a close relationship between the development of a well-defined
peak-shaped response and the absence of "impersistence".
5) More persistent electrochemistry, with a better-defined peak-shaped re-
sponse is obtained at low protein concentrations.
6) The primary mechanism of activity involves ion-pair interactions. Promo-
tion of electrochemistry by multi-charged cations is inhibited by a high concentra-
tion of background (1 : 1) electrolyte. The effectiveness of a cation is related to its
charge. Monovalent cations are completely ineffective in many cases, even at very
high concentrations, whereas cations with a large charge, 4+ or more, can be
potent at sub-millimolar levels. Stability is particularly influenced. For example,
cyclic voltammetry of plastocyanin as promoted by a small concentration of
Pt(NH3)~ + is stable at 25 °C, whereas promotion by Mg 2+ requires temperatures
around 5 °C or lower.
7) The potential applied at the PGE electrode has no clear influence on the
promotion of electrochemistry, at least within the range spanned by spinach
plastocyanin (E °' = + 370 mV) and Azotobacter chroocoecum ferredoxin (E °' for
the [4FeMS] cluster is - 645 mV), with which the requirements for promotion are
comparable.
8) Proteins show specificity through their promotion requirements. Some, like
Clostridium pasteurianum ferredoxin, as mentioned above, respond well with Mg 2+,
and even Na + or K + give reasonable results at molar concentrations. Others like
166 F.A. Armstrong
spinach plastocyanin give a stable response with Mg 2+ only at low temperatures

and if the protein concentration is low, but good results can be obtained with
Cr(NH3) 3+ under less strict conditions.
The first point 1) is very important since complex formation that is strong
enough to cause the protein to interact intimately with the electrode surface may
alter intrinsic properties and change the reduction potential. This is particularly
relevant since the promoters are free in solution. One example in which two
promoters yield different reduction potentials is in the voltammetry [105] of
Azotobaeter ehroococcum 7Fe ferredoxin, which is discussed later.
Points 2)-8) together pose the question of what the cation is doing. Their role
appears to be (at least) two fold. First, by associating with or between negatively
charged areas on the electrode or protein surfaces, they can create an electrostati-
cally favourable situation to stabilize a viable protein-electrode interaction. This is
similar to the catalysis of protein-protein electron self-exchange reactions by
counterions [106, 107]. An obvious analogy is also to be found with conditions
that destabilize colloids. According to the Schultz Hardy rules [108], coagulation
is induced very much more effectively by counter-ions of high charge. Second, one
seeks an explanation for the loss of "impersistence". If the interfacial electrostatics
are balanced, i.e. all local charge accumulation in the intervening space is minim-
ized by a distribution of charge that is complementary to that of the surface of the
native protein, there should be less tendency to unfold. This assumes, as seems
likely, that the "impersistence" is equated here with fouling of the electrode
surface by denatured and irreversibly adsorbed protein molecules. It was suggested
[91] that the situation could be illustrated by treating the cations as if they
associated in potential "cavities" created by docking the native protein conforma-
tion with an active area of the electrode, i.e. of oxidized functionalities on PGE.
To put this discussion in perspective, there are now several examples of the use
of macromolecules as promoters of direct electrochemistry. Van dijk and
co-workers showed [47] that polarographic responses attributable to native fer-
redoxins, rubredoxin, and flavodoxin could be generated through the addition of
polylysine to the electrolyte solution. Hill and Barker found [109] that cyclic
voltammetry of negatively charged cytochrome b 5 at a PGE electrode was promo-
ted by the addition of cytochrome c. Equally effective was redox-inactive
Zn-substituted cytochrome c. These observations are not compatible with the idea
of a promoter being "sandwiched" between protein and electrode; the promoter is
now so large that it would constitute a barrier to such an electron-transfer process.
A side-by-side or "rolling" interaction is likely.
We thus find ourselves knowing the "ingredients" of the protein-electrode
interface, but with little knowledge about their arrangement or dynamics. Possible
arrangements are shown in Fig. 8. The direct interaction of protein may be
transient leading to the R R B mechanism, or long-lived to give strong adsorption
whereby rapid oxidation and reduction of freely diffusing protein molecules occurs
by the APEE mechanism. Further light upon this has been cast by studies using
more complex organic cations, in particular aminoglycosides, which have NH~-
groups spaced over a quasi-rigid framework. The structure of Neomycin B is shown
here. The -NH 2 groups become protonated over the pH range 8-9. Such reagents
NH 2
/
Neomycin B (base) H © ~ . ~ ©
H0 ~ , / O \ H0\~ " ,- , ~
\ LNH
HO
_O~___
Fig. 8. Some possible arrangements of negatively charged
proteins, cations, and the deprotonated PGE electrodesur-
face. Upper: Cations bound in potential "cavities" at inter-
face of protein and electrode. Middle: Layer stabilized by
cations binding at the protein-electrode interface and be-
tween adjacent protein molecules. Lower: Promotion of
protein-electrode interaction by complex formation with
a positivelycharged protein molecule
have been found [105, 110, 111] to be particularly effective promoters of a variety
of negatively charged proteins at P G E electrodes, giving rise to well-defined
diffusion-controlled cyclic voltammetry at concentrations of around millimolar or
lower. Moreover, it has been found [,112] that many of these proteins co-adsorb
strongly with aminoglycosides at P G E electrodes giving transferable films that
approach monolayer coverage. Most success so far has been obtained with fer-
redoxins that contain two Fe-S clusters. Further studies are necessary to clarify the
importance of multiple sites and rapid intramolecular electron transfer for facilitat-
ing an A P E E mechanism. Returning to an earlier point, it is very likely that the
reversible bulk solution electrochemistry of cytochrome c3, which is adsorbed
strongly at various electrodes, is a result of the ability of the four metal sites to relay
electrons through the molecule. Bianco and co-workers have shown recently [-113]
that a P G electrode modified by pre-adsorption of the positively charged cyto-
chrome c 3 from Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Hildenborough) yields voltammetry of
ferredoxins in solution without addition of other reagents. Because of rapid
electron exchange between redox centres, cytochrome c3 may be loosely regarded
as forming a "conducting" film [114, 115].
How specific are the interfacial coulombic interactions which are clearly so
important? To make a meaningful assessment will require detailed comparisons of
each system based upon electrochemical kinetic data treated according to an
appropriate model. This has yet to be done. However, the greater promotional
activity shown by multiple-site reagents like aminoglycosides does conform to
168 F.A. Armstrong
ideas about coulombic interactions in biological systems as opposed to simple

small molecules. While the charge on a simple metal ion or complex is essentially
symmetrical, the surface charge on a protein is always irregular, and it is not
possible to determine binding constants without considering how this charge is
arranged. Tam and Williams I-1161 have discussed geometry effects in ion pairing
and have shown that interactions between complex organic cations and anions
cannot be calculated satisfactorily from basic coulombic expressions. Instead, the
influences of charge distribution, shape, and rigidity now form the basis for
macromolecular recognition.
The participation of hydrophobic interactions is even less clear. These may be
very subtle, involving discreet local contacts within a larger area of polar interac-
tions. Indeed, water molecules, if they intervene, may impede electron transfer so
that some dehydration is expected to be advantageous. Examination of the crystal
structures of representative electron-transfer proteins; plastocyanin, azurin, fer-
redoxins, flavodoxins and rubredoxin, show that the surface residues immediately
overlying the redox-active site are hydrophobic.
Despite this positive notion, there have been relatively few reports of protein
electrochemistry at deliberately prepared hydrophobic electrode surfaces. A PGE
electrode at which acidic C O functionalities were blocked by trimethyl- or
triphenyl-silyl groups [98] became almost inactive towards horse-heart cyto-
chrome c. However, another electron-transfer protein, azurin, gave cyclic voltam-
metry with prominent peaks (separation 100 105 mV at 20 mVs-1). This demon-
strates that one cannot formulate absolute rules. Azurin is a "blue" Cu protein
whose surface bears few resultant charged domains. It may thus have a high
propensity for interacting with hydrophobic surfaces, without distortion or disrup-
tion of a strong solvation sheath. It has also been found I-117] to adsorb strongly
with retention of native redox properties at a modified carbon-paste electrode
made by mixing together carbon paste and 4,4'-bipyridyl. Stable adsorbed-film-
mode electrochemistry was observed upon transfer of the protein-coated electrode
to a buffer solution. It was proposed that 4,4'-bipyridyl formed a film with the oil
component of the paste, into which azurin adsorbed tightly. Some enzymes, as
discussed in Sect. 7, display activity if adsorbed on carbon-paste electrodes. It is
very likely that the "oily" environment provides a substitute for hydrophobic
interactions that are normally operative, for example in stabilizing mem-
brane-bound proteins.
3.4 Summary
While it is interesting to view strongly adsorbed proteins in the role of relaying

electrons to bulk species, there is no clear evidence that the deliberate provision of
electron-mediating functionalities at the electrode surface is relevant, at least for
the small electron-transfer proteins that we have discussed above. Modified elec-
trodes designed to "relay" electrons have been described, and results show that the
potential of the surface-confined mediator (as would be the case were these to be
free reagents [6]) needs to be matched with that of the protein to be addressed in
bulk solution. Wrighton and co-workers modified Pt, Au, and p-type Si with
viologen-type reagents. They observed [118] that cytochrome c in bulk solution
could be reduced, but only at the low potential of the viologen; reoxidation was not
observed. Similarly, Elliott and Martin [119] found reduction of cytoehrome c to
occur at low potentials on a viologen polymer film. However, modification of Pt
and n-type Si electrodes with a layer of ferrocene molecules retained by
a -{CH2~Si-O- matrix yielded [120] a surface-confined redox system with
E °" = + 280 mV. This modified electrode showed reversible catalytic enhancement
upon introduction of cytochrome c. Solutions of the protein could be rapidly
brought to redox equilibrium and there was no evidence for irreversible adsorption
over long periods of time. Another class of systems that have received considerable
attention are conducting salts onto which enzymes, including flavocytochrome b2,
can be adsorbed to yield biocatalytic currents upon introduction of substrate
[121 123]. It has been debated whether or not these might act by mediating
electrons via dissociation from the film. While this is unlikely, since studies have
been conducted within the potential range of stability of the film, no simple
experiments with electron-transfer proteins have been reported.
The drawback with any surface mediatory system is that the protein is not
being addressed directly. This poses no problem for many applications, including
the use of enzymes in biosensors. But for visualizing directly the chemistry of
an active site through its voltammetry, straightforward interpretation of the
current-time-voltage response demands that the flow of electrons is not distorted
by the redox properties of the mediator. If electrons are relayed via adsorbed
protein molecules, the same considerations will apply; distortion of the response
and irreversible behaviour may ensue if the reduction potential of the metal centre
is changed drastically upon adsorption.
A more general conclusion to be drawn from the studies of the better character-
ized smaller proteins is that they are surface-selective. This is manifested in various
ways. Adsorbed proteins require an environment that stabilizes their structure
while allowing fast electron transfer. To achieve this, it is necessary to provide
stable and compatible electrode-surface functionalities. Additional "tailoring", for
example by ion complexation, may be needed to provide favourable electrostatics.
Freely diffusing molecules need to interact rapidly and reversibly with "electron
distribution sites". These are suitable patches located either on the electrode
surface, for example as generated by promoters (RRB mechanism), or on adsorbed
protein molecules that are capable of relaying electrons (APEE mechanism).
A number of questions remain concerning the dynamics of the protein
electrode interaction. Do experimental data give any idea about the rates, relative
or otherwise, of the electron-transfer step? The clearest result so far has been the
determination of kct for horse heart cytochrome c at 4,4'-bipyridyl-modified Au
with the rotating ring-disk technique as mentioned above [65]. There have been
a number of determinations of compound heterogeneous rate constants for protein
electrochemistry, mostly using Nicholson's method [124] for their estimation from
CV peak separations. All calculations have assumed that the mass transport can be
treated in terms of linear diffusion to a uniform planar electrode surface. Bond and
co-workers have pointed out [125, 126] that in many instances this is unlikely to be
170 F.A. Armstrong
the case. The central theme of the microscopic model concerns a protein's selectivity
for suitable sites on the electrode. Electron transfer occurs only at these and it is
fast. Electroactivity at other sites is negligible. The situation is similar to that of an
electrode under conditions of variable partial blockage [127-129]. There are two
limiting cases. On the one hand, the active sites may be so dilute and separated that
mass transport to them is radial. On the other hand, the site density may be so high
as to constitute a macroscopic planar surface to which mass transport from the
bulk will be linear. These are illustrated in Fig. 9.
The latter gives rise to the familiar peak shaped cyclic voltammetry that is
termed "well-behaved" and with which one may use Nicholson's analyses [124] for
estimating kinetic constants. If the kinetics are sufficiently fast, peak currents obey
the Randles-Sevcik equation--Eq. (5).
The former case is intriguing since the discrete active electrode site is a "micro-
electrode". The radial diffusion gives rise to steady-state sigmoidal voltammetric
waves, but since mass transport is very efficient, the current that is obtained from
an array of sites need not be greatly lower than that obtained for a uniformly active
surface. For a reversible electrode reaction the potential E1/2 at which half-max-
imal current is obtained is equivalent to the formal reduction potential E °'.
An intermediate situation occurs if the predominance of radial diffusion is
destroyed by the electrode active sites becoming larger, or if their packing becomes
dense enough so that diffusion layers overlap. The size of the diffusion layers
depend, of course, upon the time domain of the experiment. The resulting cyclic
voltammogram comprises a mixture of linear- and microscopic radial-diffusion
terms. Peaks appear more flattened and rounded.
Thus the use of peak separation for kinetic analysis is valid only if the electrode
surface is uniformly active, i.e. homogeneous. With this view, it was possible to
Radial limit
f
/ \
/ , ", i
E1/2
decrease
density of
active sites
on electrode
I
increase
Linear limit
. . . . . . . . . . . i
Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the transformation
between radial and linear diffusion modes, and the
E corresponding voltammetric waveforms expected for
El/2 limiting cases
rationalize the shapes of voltammograms that arise with the use of graphite
electrodes. The response of cytochrome c at a freshly cleaved PGB electrode
surface (see Fig. 6) or that of ferredoxin at a PGE electrode under conditions of low
Cr(NH3)6a+ concentration (Fig. 7) may be interpreted in terms of reversible elec-
trochemistry occurring at so few electrode sites as to constitute a microelectrode
array subject to radial diffusion. Thus while reduction and oxidation waves appear
flattened and broad, their El/2 values virtually coincide. The same rationale could
be applied to electrode surfaces "aged" through "impersistence". The deterioration
of electrochemical response, which probably arises from denaturation of protein
molecules, is not due to a decrease in the heterogeneous rate constant, but rather
due to destruction of sites and their resulting dilution. A similar result is found for
voltammetry at modified Au electrodes if the coverage of promoter adsorbate is
much less than monolayer.
The implication here is that proteins, once they bind to their respective
electrode sites with (presumably) the correct orientation, may actually transfer
electrons very rapidly indeed. The microscopic model [125, 126] is in accordance
with the view, expressed at the beginning of this article--that intrinsically the
reactivity of electron-transfer proteins is high, but is tempered by specificity.
4 Studies of Thermodynamic and Kinetic Properties
4.1 Advantages Offered by Voltammetric Techniques

The most obvious application of voltammetric techniques in studies of metallo-
proteins might be seen as lying in the measurement of reduction potentials;
however, as I hope to show here and in the following sections, their scope extends
throughout and beyond simple redox equilibria. One needs to ask, "For what type
of problem does voltammetry offer any advantage over potentiometry?" We have,
after all, just discussed how a voltammetric response depends critically upon the
behaviour of the protein at the electrode-solution interface. By contrast, poten-
tiometry [-5, 6] represents a tried and tested methodology with wide applicability.
There is, for example, an extensive databank of thermodynamic data, including
half-cell enthalpies and entropies of reduction, that has been built up from invest-
igations that use small mediators to carry electrons between protein and electrode.
In these potentiometric studies, one measures the equilibrium concentrations of
components in oxidized and reduced states at various values of the electrode
potential. There are a number of variations on this theme. For example, a deter-
mination may also be carried out without using an electrode, by equilibrating the
couple of interest with a titrant whose reduction potential is known accurately.
Most importantly, it is necessary that the component of interest (or the titrant)
exhibits some difference, in a readily measurable property, between oxidized and
reduced forms. Light adsorption is the most convenient parameter since it may be
monitored conveniently in situ. An excellent method, which has now gained wide
172 F.A. Armstrong
acceptance, involves the use of a thin-layer cell incorporating optically transparent

oxide or Au "minigrid" electrodes. An "OTTLE" [130, 131] (optically transparent
thin-layer electrode) cell enables precise measurements to be made with rapid
equilibration times and economy with sample size. The "ideal" subjects for this type
of study have been cytochromes and "blue" Cu proteins, for which large and
distinct spectral changes occur between oxidized and reduced forms, and which are
usually stable enough to survive a titration in both directions.
On a wider note, a number of considerations determine the suitability of
potentiometry and the various modes of monitoring redox status, for the purpose
of measuring reduction potentials. A potentiometric study conducted with an
OTTLE can yield information with ease and reliability for "ideal" systems. But in
certain cases, as discussed now, the approach is fraught with various complications.
1) Absorption spectra of the redox states may be weak and indistinctive so that
other characteristics must be monitored. In suitable cases, NMR offers opportun-
ities to examine thermodynamic and structural aspects of protein redox equilibria.
The most widely exploited alternative is EPR, but since room-temperature spectra
are not generally observed for metal centres, electrochemical and spectroscopic
measurements are made under very different conditions. After establishing equilib-
rium under ambient conditions, a sample is withdrawn and frozen for examination
at cryogenic temperatures. Molybdenum, "Type 2" Cu, and--for the most
part--Fe-S centres, do not constitute strong or distinctive chromophores and
low-temperature EPR is the method of choice.
Alternatively, the extent of oxidation or reduction of protein-active sites at
various applied potentials may be determined by coulometric measurements in the
presence of a suitable mediator [132]. Here, the extent of reduction or oxidation of
the group is determined from the charge that is passed in response to a potential
perturbation. The need for spectral monitoring is thus removed. Heineman and
coworkers have reviewed [133] the use of two techniques, thin-layer pulse
coulometry and thin-layer staircase coulometry, each of which are suitable for
studies on biological molecules.
2) There may be several redox centres present having similar spectra. In this
case the result obtained by deconvolution of titration curves, whether using optical
absorption, EPR, or other modes of monitoring, may not alone be definitive.
3) The protein may be unstable in one or more of its oxidation states and may
not survive a titration cycle without significant degradation. Correction of data for
this loss of material is an undesirable necessity.
4) Making measurements of systems that exhibit extremes of reduction poten-
tial can be particularly difficult. For active sites with very low potentials, long-term
anaerobicity is essential, and this requires working with a sealed cell or within
a glove box. Furthermore, there are few mediators or titrants that are suitable for
equilibration at potential extremes, i.e. close to or beyond the thermodynamic
limits of aqueous solvent/electrolyte stability.
Aside from these points, specific oxidation states may be active with regard to
ligand exchange or other chemical processes that are directly relevant to the
biological function of the protein. In a potentiometric investigation these interest-
ing reactions present a disturbance that is difficult to define. By contrast, voltam-
metry in such cases can yield a coherent picture. The voltammogram itself may be
regarded as a spectrum. It displays the quantitative time-resolved redox chemistry of
the active sites. In other words we acquire the means to visualize and integrate
complex redox behaviour. Great economy with sample size is possible. This is
particularly apparent in cases where it is possible to study electroactive thinfilms of
strongly adsorbed native protein. But even for macroscopic bulk-solution experi-
ments, the electrochemical perturbation can be restricted to the diffusion layer.
Consequently, each reaction, including a coupled irreversible process, may be
examined afresh after replenishing this relatively small fraction of the total sample
by brief stirring.
4.2 C y t o c h r o m e s
Studies of cytochromes have provided excellent demonstrations of the ability of

voltammetry to obtain acceptable quantitative data on protein redox equilibria.
Reduction potentials of cytochromes are influenced by a number of factors [134].
These include the nature of the axial ligands to Fe [135], the degree to which the
heme group is exposed to solvent [136], electrostatic interaction between the
Fe and propionate side chains of the porphyrin [137], and specific binding of
anions [138].
Cytochrome c itself shows pH-dependent variations in conformation that are
manifested as changes in the axial ligation to Fe [-61]. These are depicted in
Scheme 1. For cytochrome c(IlI), State III is the physiologically important form,
with low-spin Fe coordinated as shown in Fig. 1. State IV is also low-spin, but
Met-80(S) is replaced by another strong donor, established to be N H 2 from
a lysine residue. By contrast the Fe(II) form retains a stable conformation (termed
here as State IIR) with both axial ligands intact between pH 4 and 12. The
transition of cytochrome c(lII) from State III to State IV, which can be resolved
upon rapid alkalization or rapid oxidation of the reduced protein under mild
alkaline conditions, has a relaxation time in the order of hundreds of milliseconds
[139]. State IV is not reducible by ascorbate and stronger reductants such as
dithionite are required. This is reflected in potentiometric measurements which
cytochrome c(lll)
pK2,5 pK9,3
StateII State III state IV
His-18(N) His-18(N)
Met-80(S) Lys-79(N)?
cytochrome col) His-18(N)

Met-80(S)
pK4 pK 12
StateI State II R State III
Scheme 1
174 F.A. Armstrong
show a steady decrease in reduction potential above pH 8 [140]. Direct elec-

trochemistry provides an informative, dynamic picture; the situation being an
example of multiple redox-active conformers.
Haladjian and co-workers [62] investigated the cyclic voltammetry of horse
cytochrome c under alkaline conditions using a Au electrode modified by 4,4'-
bipyridyl. With a solution of cytochrome c(llI) at pH 9.3, they observed two
electrode reactions at very different potentials, as shown in Fig. 10. At high
potential, in the region expected for cytochrome c electrochemistry under con-
ditions of neutral pH, there is a large oxidation wave (la) with a very small
reduction counterpart. By contrast, at low-potential there is only a large reduction
wave (2c). Within a narrow range of low scan rates, peak currents of both waves
were found to be diffusion-controlled. Qualitatively, at least, this behaviour is
consistent with kinetic studies [139] and is not inconsistent with the equilibrium
data 1-140]. The reactions may be rationalized in terms of the cycle depicted in
Scheme 2. If the Fe(III) form exists as State IV, its reduction does not occur until
a much lower electrode potential is applied. Since the Fe(II) product associated
with the low-potential process reverts spontaneously to the native form State II~
(resembling State lII of the oxidized protein) i.e. with re-coordination of Met-80(S),
Fe(Ill) Fe(ll)
H+
Fe(I,) Fe(ll)
o-
Scheme 2
Fig. 10. Cyclic voltammogram of horse cytochrome c at

pH 9.30. Solution contained 0.35 m M oxidized cytoch-
...... ~ ......................................... -'" "- rome c in a medium consisting of 0.10 M sodium per-
chlorate, 0.02 M sodium borate and 0.01 M 4,4'-bipyridyl
as promoter. An Au electrode, area 0.0079 cm 2 was used.
Scan rate 5 m V s - 1, temperature 25 °C. Two chemically
..-"" " 1( non-reversible redox processes are observed, Wave 2e is
associated with reduction of the State IV conformer
which prevails at this pH. Note the virtual absence of
wave le, which would be observed for reduction of the
State III conformer. The corresponding return wave 2a is
not observed because the Fe(II) product reverts immedi-
ately to the State II R conformer resembling State III of
I I I I the Fe(III) form. Instead, re-oxidation (wave la) is ob-
served at a potential appropriate for the native State III
-200 0 200 400
system. From Ref. 62, redrawn with kind permission of
E/mV vs. SHE the authors
reoxidation occurs in the normal potential regime. The immediate product (State
III) then reverts to State IV, and the cycle of events continues.
The existence of interconverting conformers having different reduction poten-
tials means that the pH profile given by potentiometric measurements is a complex
summation of several terms. On the basis of peak heights from differential pulse
voltammetry, it was estimated that the effective pK for the State III to State IV
equilibrium was 8.1, a value which is, however, much lower than that determined
optically [61]. Haladjian and co-workers found that the wave corresponding to
reduction of State IV was only well defined at low scan rates, and they attributed
this to slow electrode kinetics. It might otherwise have been possible to measure the
rates of interconversion among conformers according to the methods described by
Nicholson and Shain [50].
The groups of Taniguchi and of Hawkridge have each undertaken detailed
studies of the influence of temperature, electrolyte composition and pH upon the
reduction potential of horse cytochrome c. Reduction potentials were measured by
cyclic voltammetry with a non-isothermal cell. With this configuration, in which
the reference temperature is kept constant while the sample temperature is varied,
data lead directly to the reaction centre entropy change ASr° as given in Eq. (6).
AS°c = nF(dE°'/dT) = Sr°d - - SoO (6)
Taniguchi and coworkers used a Au electrode "pre-dip modified" with
bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide. They examined the temperature dependence of E °' over the
range 0 to 55 °C at pH 6, 7 and 8 (Iphosphate = 0.10) with addition of 0.10 M NaCIO 4
[141] or NaC1 [142]. Over this range of conditions the structure of the promoter
interface was not observed to change significantly as monitored by SERS. Values of
E °' were obtained from voltammograms recorded at various scan rates 20 to
200 mVs-1 over which range the electrode reaction appears diffusion-controlled.
Koller and Hawkridge used a tin-doped indium-oxide electrode and made
measurements over the temperature range 5 to 75 °C at pH 7 using phosphate
(I = 0.20 M) or Tris/cacodylate (I = 0.20 M) buffer media [86]. In further work
they extended the pH range to 5.3 and 8.0 [87].
The result of each group are displayed for comparison in Table 2 together
with data from potentiometric studies made with redox mediators. First, we
see that the general agreement is excellent; AS° values lie within a range of
+ 10 JK -1 mol -~. The negative entropy change is consistent with cytochrome
c(II) having a more ordered structure. Second, there are small differences due to
choice of electrolyte. Taniguchi and coworkers found [142] that E °' values were
typically 10 mV higher if 0.10 M NaC1 was present instead of NaC10 4. Koller and
Hawkridge observed that E °' values measured in the presence of Tris/cacodylate
were approx. 8 mV higher than those measured in phosphate [86]. Thus, small
differences in ion-binding affinities could be detected easily; for example the ratio of
specific anion binding constants (Kc(u)/Kc{m)) is greater for C1- than for C102.
Third, each group noted sharp downward breaks in the E °' vs T plots at increased
temperature. Both groups found a transition at approx. 40°C that occurred
only at pH 8. Previous potentiometric studies [143] had also established this
type of behaviour although it was observed at pH 7 and only in the presence of
176 F.A. Armstrong
Table 2. T h e r m o d y n a m i c parameters measured for horse cytochrome c by potentiometric and

voltammetric methods
pH Method Electrolyte E °' (25°)/ AS c (temp. range)/ Ref.

mV vs SHE J K - 1m o l - 1
5.3 V" Tris/cacodylate 268 - 52.7 (5-75 °) [87]

I = 0.20
6.1 Vb phosphate/C10~ 261 - 53.1 (3-52 °) [141]
I = 0.20
6.1 Vb phosphate/Cl- 272 - 55.6 (1-56 °) [142]
I = 0.20
7.0 V~ Tris/cacodylate 264 - 56.1 (5 65 °) [86]
I = 0.20
7.0 Va phosphate 256 - 54.0 (5 55 °1 [86]
I = 0.20
7.0 Vb phosphate/C10,, 259 - 49.4 (3 53 °) [141]
I = 0.20
7.0 Vb phosphate/Cl- 268 - 51.9 (2-55 °) [142]
I = 0.20
7.0 pc phosphate/Cl- 262 - 42.7 (25-42 °) [143]
I > 0.20 - 123 ( > 42 °)
7.0 Pe phosphate 262 - 54.0 (9-39 °)
I = 0.10
7.9 Vb phosphate/C10,~ 258 - 43.1 ( < 42 °) [141]
I = 0.20 - 172 ( > 42 °)
7.9 Vb phosphate/Cl- 266 - 51.5 ( < 40 °) [142]
I = 0.20 - 132 ( > 42 °)
8.0 V" Tris/cacodylate 264 - 53.1 (5-40 °) [86]
I = 0.20 - 100 (45-60 °)
8.0 Vb phosphate 256 - 59.4 (5-40 °) [86]
I = 0.20 - 135 (45-55 °)
a cyclic voltammetry at Sn-doped indium oxide electrode;

b cyclic voltammetry at Au electrode modified by bis-(4-pyridyl)disulfide;
c O T T L E with dichlorophenol-indophenol as mediator;
d O T T L E with R u ( N H 3 ) 3+ as mediator;
e Taniguchi VT, Ellis, WR Jr, C a m m a r a t a V, W e b b J, Anson FC, Gray HB (1982) In: Kadish K M (ed)
Electrochemical and spectrochemical studies of biological redox components, ACS Adv. Chem. Ser.
201:51
C1- ions. This observation had led to the conclusion that the discontinuity was
essentially extrinsic, and it was suggested [143] that it might coincide with a phase
transition in the bulk water structure due to changes in C1--ion hydration. The
extensive voltammetric studies showed the discontinuity to occur in various
electrolyte media and thus indicated that its origin was probably intrinsic.
Taniguchi et al found [141] spectral evidence for some limited disruption of the
Fe(III)-Met-80(S) bond occurring at 40 °C under conditions of pH 8 (phosphate)
with 0.1 M NaC10 4. The absorption band at 695 nm (which is assigned to
Met-80(S)-to-Fe(III) charge transfer) was diminished in intensity although there
was no major change in the resonance Raman spectra. Thus, a subtle effect was
operative, in other words a conformational change yielding a species that resembles
more closely the low-potential State IV (alkaline) form. It was suggested that the
new high-temperature form corresponded to an intermediate state (IIIb) as pro-
posed by Myer et al 1-144].
Taniguchi and co-workers used a Au electrode "pre-dip modified" with 6-mer-

captopurine to examine the redox chemistry of horse eytochrome c under acidic
conditions [77]. This promoter gives well-defined voltammograms down to pH 2.8.
It was easy to see that E °' values decreased sharply below pH 3 4 , with the effective
pK being somewhat dependent upon the supporting electrolyte. By analogy with
the transition that occurs at high temperatures in mild alkali, a correlation could be
made with changes in the corresponding absorption spectra of cytochrome c(III),
for which acidification produced a decrease in the intensity of the band at 695 nm.
The acid species was suggested to be the so-called State IIIa [144] in which the
Fe-S ligation is again weakened by a conformational change (although the Fe(III)
remains in the low-spin state).
Four further reports show how voltammetric techniques may be applied
conveniently to determine factors that influence reduction potentials of cyto-
chrome c.
A modified (horse) cytochrome c, in which Met-80 is carboxymethylated and
therefore unable to coordinate to Fe, was studied by Di Marino et al [145]. At
pH 7 the Fe(II) form, by analogy with deoxymyoglobin, is able to bind 0 2 and CO.
Thus the sixth coordination position is vacant or is occupied by weakly bound
H20. With a Au electrode, either as wire or coated onto carbon, but without
further modification, cyclic voltammetry was observed with peaks due to reduction
and oxidation. There was clear evidence for specific adsorption of oxidized re-
actant, and the authors did not analyze their results further. The reduction
potential was determined to be - 218 mV from equilibrium measurements.
Santucci and co-workers [146] studied "microperoxidase", an Fe-porphyrin
undecapeptide (MW 1900), pI---4.7) obtained by hydrolysis of cytochrome c.
Cyclic voltammograms, showing diffusion-controlled reduction and oxidation
waves, were obtained with a PGE electrode at pH 7. At 25 °, E °' was - 160 mV, i.e.
considerably lower than for the intact native protein. This shift was attributed to
the far greater solvent exposure for the microperoxidase heme group. By contrast
with most electron-transfer proteins, and with behaviour now much more reminis-
cent of small redox molecules, well-defined electrochemistry was not critically
dependent upon electrolyte conditions. There was merely some enhancement of the
electrochemical rate (decrease in AEp) upon changing from 0.10M NaC104 to
0.025 M Mg(C104) a.
Hill and Whitford [ 147] examined a number of derivatives of horse cytochrome c
in which specific lysine residues had been modified with 4-chloro-3,5-dinitrophenol
(CDNP). The primary effect of this is to replace each 1 + charge by 1 - . Using
a PGE, or a Au electrode modified with bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide, they found only
small variations in E °' and electrochemical activity (AEp) among cytochromes
singly modified at Lys-13, -72, or -60, and only a small decrease in E °' (with greater
AEp) for di-substituted species. However, cytochrome c that had been extensively
modified (6-7 CDNP per molecule) gave a much higher reduction potential
(+ 450 mV) and required multi-charged cations to promote its electrochemistry at
PGE electrodes [76] (see Sect. 3.3).
Voltammetric characterization of precious samples in limited supply was
demonstrated in an interesting report by Sorrell and co-workers [148]. They used
178 F.A. Armstrong
genetic engineering methods to prepare a specific mutant form of yeast iso-2

cytochrome c in which His-18 (which normally ligates the Fe and is conserved in all
species) had been replaced by Arginine. The redox properties of the mutant protein,
termed C2-18R and obtained in small yield, were compared with those of the wild
type by cyclic voltammetry, using a tin-doped indium-oxide electrode. The
wild-type protein showed the expected reversible response with E ° ' = 268 inV.
Under the same conditions, 0.1 M phosphate (pH 7.8) and 0.8 M NaC1 with a scan
rate of 2 mVs -1, C2-18R showed a much larger peak separation, 200 mV, indic-
ative of a rather slower electron-transfer rate, yet E °' was unchanged. This was
a surprising result. Yeast strains lacking the ability to produce cytochrome c grew
only if they were transformed by plasmids containing mutant genes coding for
His-18 or Arg-18, although growth of colonies producing C2-18R was much
slower. Several other mutant cytochrome c genes, which would give Tyr-18,
Thr-18, Cys-18, Gln-18, Ser-18, or Leu-18 did not give viable proteins. The
specificity suggested that Arg-18 must be coordinated to Fe. If so, the electrochemi-
cal findings show that the direct effect of this major alteration to the active site,
substitution of imidazole by guanidyl, is to alter the kinetic activity but not,
remarkably, the reduction potential.
The cytochromes c 3 from Desulfovibrio give a good demonstration of the
investigation of complex proteins containing several metal centres with similar
reduction potentials. It was mentioned in Sect. 3 that these proteins gave reversible
diffusion-controlled electrochemistry at Hg and other electrode surfaces without
any requirement for special modification of the interface [33-35]. They contain
four covalently bound heme groups, each of which is more exposed to solvent than
that of mitochondrial cytochrome c. Two histidines comprise the axial ligands to
Fe. The reduction potentials are very negative as is appropriate for electron-
transfer partners of hydrogenases. Depending upon the source of protein, the cyclic
voltammetry consists of a single broad wave 1-34] (D. vulgaris Strain Miyazaki) or
two distinct waves [149, 150] (D. baculatus Strain Norway), in each case revealing
the presence of sites that differ (to an increasing extent respectively) in their
reduction potentials. Differential pulse voltammetry is a more suitable technique
for resolving individual electrode reactions with small differences in potential
[151]. Values obtained are macroscopic reduction potentials since they refer direc-
tly not to the intrinsic properties of each individual active site, but to equilibrium
distributions of protein molecules with 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 electrons added. Different
approaches to deconvolution of voltammograms have been taken by various
groups. On the one hand, Bianco and co-workers, conducting experiments with D.
baculatus cytochrome c 3, have treated [149, 150] the voltammogram as being the
sum of contributions from four different species each undergoing a reversible
one-electron process. Alternatively, it has been argued [152, 153] that the appro-
priate analysis should consider a fully oxidized molecule diffusing to the electrode
surface from bulk solution and undergoing four consecutive one-electron reduc-
tions. Figure 11 shows the DP polarogram obtained for D. vulgaris (Miyazaki)
cytochrome c3 with the simulated curve based upon a model incorporating four
consecutive reversible reduction processes. As an illustration of the validity of
voltammetric data in this type of problem, a comparison between reduction
potentials obtained by various methods is presented in Table 3.
Fig. 11. Experimental ( ) and simulated

(ooo) differential pulse polarograms of cytoeh-
rome c 3 from Desulfovibrio vulgaris, strain
Miyazaki, in 0.03 M phosphate buffer pH 7.0,
temperature 25 °C. Drop time 2 s, pulse ampli-
tude 10 mV. Simulation is for four reversible
consecutive one-electron processes having i
macroscopic formal potentials of - 2 4 0 , -1O0 -200 -300 -400 -500
- 297, - 315 and - 357 mV. Original plot
kindly supplied by Dr Katsumi Niki
(Yokohama National University) E/mY vs. SHE
Table 3. Comparison of macroscopic reduction potentials for cytochromes c 3 measured by elec-

trochemical or potentiometric (EPR) methods
Source Method Conditions E1 E2 E3 E4 Ref.

/mV vs SHE
D. baculatus EPR pH 8.1, 18° - 150 - 270 - 325 - 355 "

0.1 M Tris
DPV b pH7.6,25 ° - 160 -300 -330 -380 [150]
0.01 M Tris
DPP c pH7.6,25 ° -165 --305 -365 -400 [149]
0.01 M Tris
DPP c pH8.5,25 ° -160 -290 -360 -390 [154]
0.01 M borate
DPP c pH7.0,25 ° -126 -246 -290 -339 [35]
0.025 M Tris
D. vuloaris EPR pH 8.1, 21 ° - 227 - 287 - 320 - 366 d
(Miyazaki) 0.1 M Tris
DPW pH7.0,25 ° -240 -297 -315 -357 [35, 153]
0.03 M phosphate
D. vulgaris DPP c pH 7.4, 25° - 263 - 321 - 329 - 381 [35, 153]
(Hildenborough) 0.03 M phosphate
" Gayda, J-P, Bertrand P, More C, Guerlesquin F, Bruschi M (1985) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 829: 262;
b DPV = differential pulse voltammetry at glassy carbon electrode;
c DPP = differential pulse polarography;
Gayda J-P, Yagi T, Benosman H, Bertrand P (1987) FEBS Lett. 217:57
Attempts have been made to assign individual potential values obtained from
v o l t a m m e t r y t o specific h e m e g r o u p s . I n o n e e x a m p l e , t h e b u l k - s o l u t i o n v o l t a m -
m e t r y o f c y t o c h r o m e s c 3 w a s c o m p a r e d t o v o l t a m m e t r y o f t h e p r o t e i n s adsorbed at
silver e l e c t r o d e s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g S E R S " p o t e n t i o m e t r i c " d a t a 1-35]. S i n c e t h e
a d s o r b e d - f i l m v o l t a m m e t r y g a v e p o t e n t i a l s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e b u l k s o l u t i o n v a l u e s , it
w a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r o t e i n s w e r e a d s o r b e d e s s e n t i a l l y in t h e i r n a t i v e f o r m s .
The SERS potentials each corresponded m o r e closely to the e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l
180 F.A. Armstrong
process of highest potential. Since SERS is sensitive only to groups located very
close to the electrode surface, i.e. within 5 ~, it was argued that the SERS-derived
reduction potential should be assigned to the heine whose environment best
allowed close contact with the electrode. The group termed heine-1 [-32] was
suggested to be the best candidate since in each case the environment comprised
a significant excess of amino acids with N-donor side groups (several lysines and
a glutamine) that would make the preferred contacts with the Ag surface. On the
basis of crystallographic data, however, this group is not the most buried.
In another example, Dolla and co-workers examined [154] a chemical derivat-
ive of D. baculatus cytochrome Ca in which the solitary arginine group, Arg-73, had
been modified with cyclohexane 1,2-dione in the presence of borate. The DP
polarogram was significantly altered as compared to the native protein; in particu-
lar the normally well-separated high-potential couple was shifted considerably, by
approx. - 50 mV. This result was considered in view of the structural evidence that
Arg-73 is situated closest to heine-1 (heine-4 in the authors' system of numbering)
and therefore this redox group would be expected to incur the greatest alteration to
its environment upon modification.
4.3 Blue Copper Proteins
The "blue" Cu proteins are so named because they contain a Cu active site that is
the origin of an intense blue colour exhibited in the oxidized state [,-155]. "Blue" or
"Type 1" Cu centres as they are variously termed have been characterized through
extensive spectroscopic efforts and by X-ray diffraction studies on several proteins.
Of these, the photosynthetic electron carrier plastocyanin has been examined in
most detail. The role of plastocyanin is to convey electrons between two mem-
brane-bound components of the plant chloroplast electron-transport chain [-156].
It is a soluble protein of molecular weight approx. 10500 that is located in the
intrathylakoid space. Here it is reduced by cytochrome f and reoxidized by the
P700 + centre associated with Photosystem I. The crystal structure [,157] of poplar
plastocyanin shows that the Cu is coordinated by four ligands; two imidazole-N's
from His-37 and His-87, a thiolate-S from Cys-84, and a thioether-S from Met-92;
the latter constituting what may be regarded as an exceptionally long bond.
Active-site structures and interatomic distances (A) appropriate for various states
(see below) are depicted in Scheme 3.
The ligand set is a compromise between the requirements of Cu(I) (soft or class
"a") and Cu(II) (intermediate). The geometries of both Cu(II) and Cu(I) forms at
neutral pH may be described as rather distorted tetrahedra; again the imposed
geometry gives little preference to either oxidation state. The active site is located
close to the protein surface in an area that is dominated by hydrophobic residues.
Plastocyanins from higher plants bear a significant excess of acidic amino acids,
which results in an isoelectric point (pI) of around 4 or even lower. The negative
charge tends to be localized into an "acidic patch" some distance away [-158]. The
overall charge on spinach plastocyanin at pH 7, as estimated from its composition,
is -- 8.
N c 1 ~ s
NZ $ S Ni~_37 - "'-OS~ Smet-92
cys-84
HCu I +H + Cu ~ +e-
_ Cu jj
-H + ~ -e-
redox-inoctive redox-@ctive
Scheme 3
What factors influence or modulate the activity of plastocyanin? Different lines

of research reveal two effects. On the one hand, reduction of P700 + by plasto-
cyanin [102] is optimized under conditions of raised Mg 2+ levels or a pH of
around 4.7. This may be understood broadly in terms of electrostatics. The pl of the
isolated P700-chlorophyll a complex is also low, at around 5. Thus at higher pH,
formation of a precursory electron-transfer complex with plastocyanin involves an
unfavourable (overall) coulombic interaction. Binding is promoted by protonation
of surface residues or association of divalent cations. On the other hand, detailed
kinetic studies on the oxidation of plastocyanin by small inorganic reagents have
shown [159, 160] that protonation of a group on the protein (pK = 4.9 and 5.5,
respectively, for spinach and parsley plastocyanin) yields a redox-inactive form.
The reaction (in which the oxidant is typically Fe(CN6) 3-) is described in
Eqs. (7)-(9).
PCu(I)-H + - VCu(I) + H + Kn (7)
PCu(I) + OX , PCu(II) + RED k (8)
PCu(I)-H + + OX , PCu(II) + RED + H + kH (9)
If k n is small, i.e. if the protonated form is essentially inactive, the rate is given by
Eq. (10).
k[OX]
k°bs -- 1 + KH[H + ] (10)
Freeman and his group conducted a crystallographic-pH titration to determine

structural changes that are coupled to pH equilibria [157]. They found that while
the active-site geometry for the oxidized protein is essentially retained over the pH
range 4 to 8, the reduced form undergoes major alteration (Scheme 3). As the pH is
lowered, the Cu(I) moves away from His-87 to become effectively three-coordinate.
Furthermore the imidazole ring of His-87 rotates by 180 ° so that the original Cu-N
bond is replaced by a C ~ H - C (His-87) van der Waal's contact. The kinetic
inactivation at low pH as discovered by Segal and Sykes [159] is thus identified as
182 F.A. Armstrong
a major structural change at the active site which does not comply with the
Franck-Condon requirement for minimal reorganization.
Cyclic voltammetry of spinach plastocyanin portrays an interesting view of
how these factors affect its ability to transfer electrons. It was observed [99] that
the conditions required to promote electrochemistry at a PGE electrode were
broadly similar to those pertaining to the photosynthetic electron-transport sys-
tem. For a solution of the protein (oxidized or reduced) at low ionic strength,
well-defined diffusion-controlled voltammetric waves were observed upon addition
of Mg 2÷ or by acidification to pH 4. The peak-current response as a function
of these variables is shown in Fig. 12. At pH 7 (3 °C), E °' was found to be 375 mV, in
good agreement with the potentiometric value reported by Katoh and co-workers
[156]. The electrode reaction was found to be essentially reversible at pH 4. Whilst
this appears at first to be in conflict with the evidence for plastocyanin being
inactive at this pH, closer consideration shows that this is a consistent result. The
corresponding electrode reaction may be written as in Eqs. (11)-(12)
PCu(II) + e- " PCu(I) (11)
PCu(I) + H +- " PCu(I)-U + (12)
with Eq. (12) being described by k j [ H +] ( = k~), kb, and K [ H +] ( = K'). The point
about the coupled equilibrium, Eqs. (7) or (12), which refers to protonation and
reorganization of the Cu(I) geometry as shown in Scheme 3, is that it is established
very rapidly. At the electrode, the consequence of Eq. (12) is that E °" increases by
the increment (RT/F)ln(1 + K') as the pH is lowered. At pH 4, E °' is 430 mV. With
rapid equilibrium between redox-active and redox-inactive forms, the result is the
same as may be obtained by potentiometry. The original studies showed [161] that
peak
current
4tA
i 2.5gA
P 8 Mg2+/ mM
I I I I
300 600
a b E/mVvs.SHE
Fig. 12a, b. Electrochemistry of spinach plastocyanin at a PGE electrode, a) 3-D representation of the
effects of pH and Mg 2 + concentration upon observed peak currents (initial scan at 20 mVs-1 nor-
malized with respect to electrode surface area. Plastocyanin 25 p.M in 5 m M buffer (acetate, MES,
HEPES, Tris) with 1 m M KC1 at 3 °C. b) Initial-scan cyclic voltammetry at 500 mVs- 1 obtained for
oxidized plastocyanin (28 ,uM) at pH 4.0 (5 m M acetate, 1 mM KCI, 10 mM MgCI2). Temperature
= 3°C
the reduction potential increases by 2.3 RT/F volts per pH unit below the pK of
approx. 5. In terms of the electrochemical kinetics, a greater overpotential now has
to be applied in order to oxidize PCu(I), but correspondingly less is required to
reduce PCu(II).
More interesting are the actual values of kf and kb, since in the physiological
reduction of P700 + under conditions of lowered pH, deprotonation-linked re-
organization of the Cu coordination site could become a rate-determining factor in
turnover. In principle, rate constants for reactions coupled to an electrochemical
process may be obtained by analysis of the voltammetric waveforms according to
procedures described by Nicholson and Shain [50]. At pH 4, any limitation on
electron-transfer reactivity resulting from an inability to reorganize rapidly would
be observed as a progressive change in the shape of the cyclic voltammogram as the
scan rate is increased. Sampling a solution of PCu(II) and recording the first cycle,
the cathodic (reduction) peak should move towards more negative potentials and
the anodic (reoxidation) wave should be attenuated. As shown in Fig. 12, the pair of
cyclic voltammetric waves remain essentially symmetrical and of comparable
amplitude at least up to ~ = 500 mVs- 1. Estimation of k b based upon a limiting
ratio ipa/ipc ~> 0.75, showed [99] that this must be greater than 640 s- 1 A similar
result was obtained with a Au electrode modified by adsorption of
2,2'-dithiobisethanamine [76]. This lower limit on the reorganizational rate agrees
broadly with results of NMR studies which indicated [162] that proton relaxation
on N ~ of His-87 occurs with z of the order of 0.1 ms, i.e. k b m u s t be around
1000 s- 1. It is likely that a precise evaluation of the control of electron transfer by
conformational dynamics may be achieved by employing voltammetric techniques
with superior kinetic resolution.
Other "blue" Cu proteins have been studied by voltammetry. As mentioned
earlier, Azurin, an electron-transport protein from Pseudomonas, is interesting
since it appears to interact reversibly at hydrophobic electrode surfaces such as
PGB [91] and silanated PGE [98]. It also exhibits activity at a carbon-paste
electrode in the presence of 4,4'-bipyridyl, a reaction that appeared to involve
formation of an adsorbed film of native protein [117]. In each of these cases, E °'
values were obtained that were in agreement with results obtained by poten-
tiometry. Another protein, rusticyanin, has been investigated [163] by Lappin and
co-workers. This is an electron-transfer protein produced by Thiobacillus fer-
rooxidans, an organism whose energy is derived from the oxidation of Fe(II) by O 2
at pH 2. Rusticyanin is characterized by a high reduction potential and may be
closely involved in Fe(II) oxidation. Like azurin, it was found to adsorb at
a 4,4'-bipyridyl-modified carbon-paste electrode to give a transferable
electro-active film. This provided an easy means of determining the pH dependence
of the reduction potential since the protein-modified electrode could be immersed
in various solutions. Cyclic voltammograms were obtained at different pH values
between 1 and 3 over which range E °' was found to be invariant at + 670 mV. This
high reduction potential is certainly suited thermodynamically for serving in an
electron-transport chain that involves the FeIII/II couple at low pH. Rusticyanin
is not, however, unusual in this respect since the "blue" Cu centres in fungal laccase
also have high reduction potentials (see Sect. 7.2).
184 F.A. Armstrong
4.4. Iron-Sulfur Proteins
The techniques of direct electrochemistry are put to their best use in the study and
manipulation of proteins for which the redox chemistry is not addressed effectively
by other methods. Subjects to benefit particularly are proteins containing metal
centres that may be intrinsically unstable or have redox chemistry at potentials
beyond the stability threshold of the solvent system. Many proteins containing
Fe-S clusters fall into this category. These centres are widely distributed in bio-
logical systems [164] where their most widely accepted role is as electron-
transfer agents.
Four structural classes of Fe S centre have been identified to date; these are
depicted in Fig. 13. All of them feature high-spin tetrahedral Fe(II) or Fe(III)
coordinated typically by four sulfur donors. Apart from the monomeric centre
found in proteins known as rubredoxins, they are all clusters that contain both
protein donors and "inorganic" bridging (~t) sulfido ligands. Most of our know-
ledge stems from studies made on the small electron-transport proteins known as
ferredoxins (Fd's) and from work on "model" compounds. Figure 14 shows the
structure of a ferredoxin isolated from the anaerobe Peptococcus aerogenes [165].
.<
[1Fe] [2Fe-2S] [3Fe-4S] [4Fe-4S]
Fig. 13. Structures of the four currently established classes of Fe-S centre
P
Fig. 14. Stereo "ribbon" structure of Peptococcus aerogenes ferredoxin showing the two [4Fe-4S]
clusters. The "C" terminal and positions of the two prolines (P) are also indicated. This illustration was
kindly provided by Larry Sieker (University of Washington, Seattle)
Two [4Fe-4S] clusters are coordinated within a polypeptide fold that is remark-
ably conserved [166] among bacterial ferredoxins of differing size and composition
(see also Sect. 5.2). The complex redox chemistry of these systems is best described
by referring to the overall charge on the "core"; that is, the active-site structure
minus protein ligands. As evident from Scheme 4, the clusters function in
one-electron reactions, shuttling between species that may be categorized accord-
ing to whether their total d-electron count is odd (in which case the centre is usually
detectable by EPR) or even (for which EPR is generally not very useful).
Redox Relationships among Fe-S Clusters
Bold type indicates that the oxidation level is common

Light type indicates that the oxidation level is rare
Italics indicate that the oxidation level has never been detected (but see Sect. 5.2).
Fe 3 + Fe 2+
[2Fe-2S] 2+ _ _ [2Fe-2S] 1+ --- [2~e-2S] 0
[ 4 F e - 4 S ] 4 + --- [4Fe-4S] 3+ - - [4Fe_4SI 2+ _ _ [4Fe-4S] 1+ [4Fe-4S] 0
[3Fe-4S] 1+ _ _ [3Fe-4S] 0 --- [ 3 F e - 4 S ] 1- ___ [ 3 F e - 4 S ] 2 -
d-electron count
EVEN ODD EVEN ODD EVEN
Scheme 4
As a rule the protein environment appears capable of accommodating only

single changes in the oxidation "level", thus even [4Fe-4S] displays only o n e of the
several redox couples that are, in principle, available. Generally this is the 2 + / 1 +
couple as found also for [2Fe-2S]. In either case the reduced (1 + ) oxidation level
is a resultant spin doublet and gives an EPR spectrum characterized by g,v < 2 (but
see Sect. 5.2). This level is strongly reducing and usually very air-sensitive. In
certain cases the protein environment does not permit the existence of [4Fe-4S] a +
but instead favours oxidation of [4Fe~4S] 2÷ to the 3 + level. This, again, is
identified by EPR (S = 1/2, but in this case gay > 2). The proteins in which this
occurs are termed "High-potential Iron Proteins" or HiPIPs. In all cases so far
studi6d, the 2 + oxidation level has a diamagnetic ground state.
Tuning of cluster redox potentials by the protein environment is very fine.
From studies with synthetic analogues [167], it is known that greater stabilization
of the 1 + level is afforded by aromatic thiol ligands as compared to the more
electron-releasing groups such as aliphatic thiols, which can provide relative
stabilization of the 3 + level. Solvation is also important [168]. With thiolate
ligation the centres carry a negative charge that increases as the oxidation level
decreases. The 1 + oxidation level is thus stabilized by exposure to a high dielectric
I86 F.A. Armstrong
solvent such as water. Further stabilization of the more electron-rich reduced levels
is provided by hydrogen bonding between la-sulfido subsites and hydrogen atoms
from solvent or polypeptide [169].
The [3Fe-4S] clusters may be regarded as being derived from [4Fe-4S] with
one Fe subsite vacant [170-172]. Only two oxidation levels have so far been
identified. These are the 1 + level, which gives a distinctive EPR spectrum (S = 1/2
and g,v > 2), and the 0 level (S = 2). In some instances, for example aconitase,
interconversion between [3Fe-4S] and [4Fe-4S] clusters--associated with the
inactive and active enzyme, respectively--is known to occur readily [173 175].
Studies on Fe-S clusters are generally hindered by the lack of distinctive
optical-absorption features and by low reduction potentials and O2 sensitivity.
Techniques established for their characterization do not, furthermore, allow the
investigator to view and monitor rapid changes in cluster structure as they may
occur or be induced durin9 an experiment. Consequently, in what may turn out to
be a large number of cases, the rich chemistry that stems from the framework of
Scheme 4 has been difficult to define or control. As discussed now and in Sect. 5,
voltammetric methods are providing new possibilities and insight.
The main experimental problem to be overcome is the provision of an electrode
interface that is stable at very low potentials ( - 1 V or lower at neutral pH) whilst
accommodating the specific interaction requirements of the protein as discussed in
Sect. 3. The PGE electrode is well suited since it is electrochemically quite stable
and displays a high overpotential for H 2 evolution. Ferredoxins usually feature
a large excess of negatively charged amino-acid residues, and electrochemistry is
promoted by multi-charged cations, particularly aminoglycosides. In addition to
being stable towards reduction, the latter reagents are colourless and diamagnetic;
thus they do not interfere in the spectroscopy of species generated electrolytically.
The 7-Fe ferredoxin isolated from Azotobacter species provides an example
of how direct electrochemistry can reveal redox chemistry and generate species
that are not accessible through chemical reductants like sodium dithionite. The
crystal structure of Azotobacter vinelandii FdI reveals [170, 171] two clusters, one
[4Fe-4S] and one [3Fe-4S], incorporated into the protein, MW approx. 12000,
within a folding pattern that is related [166] to that of Peptococcus aerogenes Fd
shown in Fig. 14. There had long been some controversy not only concerning the
structure of the 3Fe cluster, but also with regard to the redox properties of the 4Fe
site. Previous potentiometric studies showed [176] that the 3Fe centre had a reduc-
tion potential of - 4 2 0 mV at pH 7, but the [4Fe-4S] cluster was reported as
being of the 3 + / 2 + type (see Scheme 4). The latter conclusion was drawn on the
basis that it was not reducible by dithionite, but gave instead an EPR signal with
gay > 2 upon treatment with Fe(CN6) 3-. Later, Stephens and co-workers sugges-
ted [177] that this cluster was probably of the "normal" type, i.e. reducible to the
1 + level, but with an unusually low reduction potential that made this state
inaccessible by dithionite at neutral pH.
Ferredoxin I from Azotobacter chroococcum [178], which is spectroscopically
indistinguishable from the A.v. protein, was investigated [105] by direct electro-
chemical methods. Cyclic voltammograms and the pH dependence of reduction
potentials are shown in Fig. 15. A PGE electrode was used with three different
Fig. 15. Cyclic voltammetry ofAzotobacter chroococcum

ferredoxin I, in 0.10 M NaC1 at pH 8.3 (20 m M TAPS)
and pH 6.3 (20 m M PIPES). Temperature 3 °C, scan rate
1 0 m V s -1. The electrochemistry was promoted by
\C", ~
1100
9.0
8.0 pH
7,0
1-2 m M levels of aminoglycosides neomycin or to- 6.0
bramycin. Shown at the centre is the pH dependence of I 5.0
E °' values, for which solid lines correspond to: (A), -8;0 ' -~ ' -~o ' -200
E °' (alkaline)
= - 460mV, A E ° ' / A p H = - 55mV, E°/rnV vs. SHE
pKred = 7.8; (B), E °' (pH 8.3) = - 645 mV,
AE°'/ApH = - 25 mV. Promoters used were:
(A) neomycin 1-2 raM; ( , ) tobramycin 1-3 mM; (©)
Cr(NH3)~ + 8 m M . Average estimated values for the
third redox couple (C) are also given. Limits for the
effective reduction potential of dithionite at pH 7 are
indicated by + +. Lower and upper limits indicate the
midpoint potentials appropriate for dithionite in solu-
tions initially 10 laM and 1 m M in dithionite respectively.
For a discussion of the reduction potentials of dithionite
solutions, see Mayhew SG (1978) Eur. J. Biochem. 85:535
promoters in order to make measurements over a wide range of pH and potential.

The range of promoters also allowed some assessment of the variation in reduction
potentials that might arise from specific binding of promoters to the protein. In this
case, both of the aminoglycosides used had an upper pH limit due to deprotonation
of N H J groups while neomycin, but not tobramycin, was found to cause precipi-
tation at pH values < 6.5. The use of Cr(NH3) 3+, on the other hand, allowed
measurements to be made under more alkaline conditions, but the potential range
was restricted by its redox activity below - 700 inV.
The voltammetry showed several interesting features. First, the waves (A) could
be assigned to the dithionite-reducible [ 3 F e ~ S ] cluster. The pH dependence of E °'
was analyzed in terms of electron transfer that is coupled to a rapidly established
acid-base equilibrium [50] with pK = 7.8. The limiting low-pH slope was
- 59 mV per pH unit while the limiting E °' value under alkaline conditions was
- 4 6 0 i n V . Values obtained with Cr(NH3)~ + as promoter were in good agree-
ment. The processes involved can be written as Eqs. (13) and (14).
[3Fe 4S] 1+ + e - - - [3Fe-4S] ° (13)
[3FemS]°+ H + - [3Fe 4 S ] ° - H + (14)
What is particularly interesting about this system is that the acid and alkaline
forms of the reduced cluster differ greatly in their magnetic-circular-dichroism
(MCD) spectra. While that of [3FeMS] ° is similar to those found for other 3Fe
188 F.A. Armstrong
systems, the acid form gives a very different spectrum that indicates a substantial
change in the electronic structure [178, 179]. This could be a result of H ÷ binding
directly to the cluster or inducing a rapid conformational change.
The second process (B) is the reduction of [4Fe-4S] 2+ to the 1 + level. This
was established by carrying out bulk reduction of the protein at a potential of
- 8 5 0 mV vs SHE in a stirred anaerobic cell. The product, now reduced by 1.9
electron equivalents, gave an EPR spectrum typical of [4Fe-4S] 1+ with evidence
for spin-coupling to the nearby paramagnetic species [3Fe-4S] °. Double integra-
tion gave 0.9 spins per molecule. Analysis of the voltammetric waves showed that
the system conformed well to "ideal" criteria for a diffusion-controlled one-electron
process. Plots of ip vs u 1/z were linear up to at least 1 Vs - 1 with AEp remaining at
around 60 mV. The reduction potential was found to be mildly dependent upon
pH, but there was no discontinuity. At pH 8.3 and 3 °C, E °' was determined to be
- 645 mV, a value considerably more negative than as yet found for any biological
Fe-S cluster under conditions of neutral pH. Using Cr(NH3) 3+, a somewhat
higher value ( - 600 mV) was obtained that was independent of pH. The shift
indicated binding of Cr(NH3)~ ÷ to a site close to the [4Fe-4S] cluster.
No redox couple could be observed in the potential range - 300 to + 600 mV,
thus showing that the oxidation process with Fe(CN) 3- previously reported [176]
could not be a reversible one-electron reaction, i.e. the 4Fe cluster was not of the
3 + / 2 + type. However, at more negative potentials, a third pair of waves (couple
C) was observed, whose amplitude and E °' value were found to be pH dependent.
Such an additional redox couple has been observed for other proteins that contain
a [3Fe~S] cluster. For example, ferredoxin III from Desulfovibrio africanus [110,
111] and other 7-Fe ferrodoxins, from the thermophiles Sulfolobus acidocaldarius,
Thermus aquaticus, and Thermoplasma acidophilum (Armstrong FA, Butt JN,
Cammack R, George SJ, Thomson AJ, unpublished results) each show three pairs
of waves, although there are just two clusters. For Desulfovibrio africanus Fd III, as
with Azotobacter chrooeoccum Fd I, the two couples having the higher reduction
potentials were assigned [110] to [3Fe-4S] 1+/° and [4Fe-4S] 2+/a+, through
preparation of spectroscopic samples by bulk electrolysis. The third couple, dis-
playing pH-dependent E °' values appeared to be largely confined to adsorbed
species. Desulfovibrio africanus Fd III has proved to be a most interesting and
unusual protein, and I have delayed discussion of the results pertaining to the
additional redox couple until Sect. 5.2. At this juncture, it may be mentioned that it
proved possible to link the low-potential process unambiguously with the presence
of the [3Fe-4S] cluster, and to establish that it was a two-electron reaction
accompanied by net uptake and release of H + [112]. Thus, with voltammetry,
it is possible to probe unexpected (and unprecedented) multiple electron-transfer
activity--in this case, the chemically reversible generation of a state corresponding
with or equivalent to [3Fe-4S] 2- (see Scheme 4).
Since the discovery of [3Fe-4S] clusters, it has frequently been argued [173]
that they must, in many cases, be artifacts produced by degradation of [4Fe-4S]
during isolation and exposure to air. Oxidation is probably a key factor since
Clostridium pasteurianum 214Fe-4S] ferredoxin (whose structure and properties
are analogous to Peptococcus aerogenes Fd) is converted [173, 180], upon treat-
ment with Fe(CN)~-, to a form containing a [3Fe-4S] cluster. With the exception
of HiPIPs, simple one-electron oxidation to produce [4Fe 4S] 3+ is not known and
might be expected to result in decomposition. With voltammetric techniques, it was
possible to study the oxidation of Clostridium pasteurianum 2 [4Fe-4S] Fd at high
potentials [ 181]. Using DC cyclic voltammetry, two broad and chemically irrevers-
ible processes were observed. With differential pulse voltammetry, these were
defined quite clearly, as shown in Fig. 16. Corrected for pulse height, the effective
potential values were +793 and + 1120 mV at 5 °C (pH 7). Their identities were
suggested by results of an analogous experiment with the 2 [4Fe-4Se] analogue.
This gave values of +797 and + 1090 mV under the same conditions. From the
magnitude of perturbation of each of the two peak positions, the lower potential
process was assigned to a cluster redox couple (presumably 3 + / 2 + ) while the
greater-influenced higher-potential process was more likely to arise from secondary
oxidation associated with S2- or Se2-. The reaction sequence thus proposed is
described by Eqs. (15) and (16) where X is S or Se.
[4Fe-4X] 2+ ~ [4Fe-4X] 3+ + e- (15)

fast
[4Fe-4X] 3+ , products (16)
Analysis of high-frequency square-wave voltammograms showed that the pu-

tative electrode product [4Fe-4S] 3+ did not survive for any measurable length of
time. Failure to detect the reverse of Eq. (15) even at a frequency of 200 Hz meant
that its half-life was certainly less than 1.6 ms at 5 °C. With the coupled, irreversible
reaction Eq. (16) taken into account, a lower limit of 860 mV was assigned for the
thermodynamic reduction potential of the [4Fe-4S] 3+/2+ couple. This is much
higher than the reduction potential, E ° ' = 350mV, that is established for
Chromatium vinosum HiPIP [182].
2a
Fig. 16. Differential pulse voltammograms of Clos- ~ .........J" la . " T """""""

tridium pasteurianum ferredoxin at high potentials:
(A), native protein containing [4Fe-4S] clusters; (B)
derivative containing [4Fe-4Se] clusters. Protein B /~" 2b
0.2 mM in 20 mM phosphate, 0.40 M NaCl, pH 7.0, .......... ." lb
temperature 5 °C. Pulse amplitude + 100 mV, scan •, ................. .."
rate 14 mVs -1. Signals la and lb are assigned to 3;0 ' 5;0 ' 700 ' 9;0 ' 11;0
E4Fe-4X] 3+/2+ whereas 2a and 2b are, most likely,
due to further oxidation of S or Se species E/mVvs.SHE
190 F.A. Armstrong
4.5 Modified Proteins for Studies of Long-range Intramolecular

Electron Transfer
A current strategy in investigations of long-range electron transfer in biological
systems is the study of intramolecular processes in specifically-modified
multi-centred redox proteins [I2-16]. In one class of experiment [13, 183-1873, the
system for study is prepared by covalent ~ttachment of redox-active complexes to
specific amino-acid residues on a suitable protein. The distance between the
"native" and the "synthetic" site and the nature of the intervening medium may be
deduced from crystallographic data. In typical investigations, surface-accessible
His-imidazole groups have been derivatized with the Ru(NH 3)53+-functionality by
treatment of the protein with Ru(NH3)5H2 Oz+ followed by oxidation. The prod-
uct is then purified and characterized. The position of the Ru label may be
confirmed by enzymatic digestion and examination of fragments. A typical kinetic
experiment involves pulsed one-electron reduction of protein molecules in which,
initially, both native and synthetic sites are in the oxidized state. This reduction
may be performed by pulse radiolysis or laser photolysis, but the key requirement
is that the kinetics of the initial second-order reaction are such as to generate
a significant amount of the state in which the low-potential centre is preferentially
reduced. This differs from the final equilibrium state by a free energy corresponding
to FAE'. As long as interaction between the two sites is negligible, AE' corresponds
to AE, the difference between the reduction potentials of native and synthetic redox
sites that may be derived from equilibrium measurements. The relaxation process,
corresponding to intramolecular electron transfer between the two sites, is now
monitored.
An example of such a system is horse cytochrome c to which the
Ru(NH3)~+-entity is coordinated to imidazole at His-33 [183, 184]. The distance
between the Ru site and the heine is estimated to be about 15 ~ based upon the
structure for tuna cytochrome c. Rate constants reported for the intramolecular
electron transfer from Ru(II) to Fe(III) vary between 30 and 52 s -1 at room
temperature.
In order to enlarge the database, investigators have sought to vary parameters
within a single protein host. With regard to distance and medium, the major
restriction is the number of protein sites that are suitable and available for
modification. With regard to driving force, the nature of the synthetic site can be
varied, for example (with Ru) by substitution of different ligands for NH 3. Use of
the Ru(NHs) 4 (isonicotinamide) functionality gives a high-potential synthetic site
[185], such that with cytochrome c, the direction of spontaneous intramolecular
electron transfer is reversed, becoming Fe(II)-to-Ru(III).
Voltammetric methods are very suitable for characterizing these modified
electron-transfer proteins. With regard to determining AE, the Ru chromophore is
relatively weak and, for the case of cytochromes, is hidden by the intense heme
Soret absorptions., Consequently, potentiometric determination of the reduction
potential for the Ru site using, for example, an OTTLE is not viable. In several
studies, investigators have adopted the reduction potentials of the solution ana-
logues, for example [Ru(NH3)5(His)-] 3+/2+ for which E ° ' = 80mV, However,
since the thermodynamic redox properties of complexes will certainly vary in

a protein environment, direct measurement is desirable. The voltammogram itself
also provides a useful "fingerprint" by which the integrity of modified proteins may
be ascertained.
Horse cytochrome c modified at His-33 by attachment of Ru(NH 3)3 + has been
studied independently by the groups of Gray [183] and Isied [184, 185]. They used
a Au electrode in the presence of 4,4'-bipyridyl to determine the reduction poten-
tials of each site. In either case, differential pulse voltammetry showed two overlap-
ping peaks. Values of AE thus measured showed a temperature dependence
(arising mainly from the Ru site) as well as some variability between groups, most
likely due to differing experimental conditions. As observed at 25 °C the two signals
in each case had very different amplitudes, the Ru peak being smaller and broader
(although Gray and co-workers noted [183] that upon lowering the temperature to
5 °C the waves became much more equivalent). Isied and co-workers also prepared
and characterized cytochrome ¢ modified at His-33 by attachment of the
Ru(NH3)4(isn) a +- entity I185]. Differential pulse voltammograms for both deriva-
tives are shown in Fig. 17.
Detailed electrochemical studies have been carried out on other modified
proteins. Two specific examples, plastocyanin from Scenedesmus obliquis modified
by Ru(NH3) 5- at His-59 [186] and HIPIP ([4Fe-4S] 3+/2+) from Chromatium
vinosum modified by Ru(NH3) 5 at His-42 [187], were studied by cyclic voltam-
merry [188]. Results obtained with a PGE electrode and comparisons with voltam-
mograms of the native proteins are shown in Fig. 18. By contrast with the native
proteins, multi-charged cations were not required to promote a stable and
well-defined response at pH 7. Modified plastocyanin gave excellent electrochemis-
try, with i; for both redox sites being of equal amplitude and diffusion-controlled
up to 50 mVs- 1. In view of the fact that this protein still retains an overall negative
charge, this observation gives an interesting illustration of the sublety of coulombic
interactions with the electrode surface and support for localized effects. For modi-
fied HiPIP (which is virtually neutral at pH 7) the situation was less clear-cut.
180mY :-
- 1lOrnV
Fig. 17. Differential pulse voltammograms of two deriv-

atives of horse cytochrome c in which a Ru complex
has been covalently attached at His-33. (a),
[Ru(NH3)4(isn)-cyt. c]; (b) [Ru(NH3)s-cyt. c]. Solutions
I lOgA
were in 0.1 M NaC10,,, 0.08 M phosphate (pH7) with

0.01 M 4,4'-bipyridyl to promote electrochemistry at the b
I I I [ I t
Au working electrode. Pulse amplitude 25 mV, scan rate
600 400 200 0
2 mVs-~. Redrawn from Ref. 185, with kind permission
of the authors E/mY vs. SHE
192 F.A. Armstrong
[4Fe-4SJ3+,~+
+ I-
D
i - i i r. i, i . i i , i
o i2oo ,4oo 6oo

EImVvs.SHE ii
0 ! 200 400 600

E/mVvsSHE I
AI C
+
Fig. 18. Cyclic voltammetry of plastocyanin (Scenedesmus obliquus) and HiPIP (Chromatiun vinosum)
and their Ru(NHa)3 +-derivatives. (A). Plastocyanin, 0.10 mM in 0.1 M NaC1, 20 mM AMHT*, 0.4 mM
neomycin, pH 7.0, temperature 2°C. Scan rate 100 mVs -1, current scale 1.0 pA. (B). Ru(NH3)~ ÷-
His(59) plastocyanin, 0.10 mM in 0.1 M NaC1, 20 mM AMHT*, pH 7.0, temperature 2 °C. Scan rate
20mVs -1, current scale 0.2~A. (C). HiPIP, 0.10mM in 0.1M NaCI, 20mM HEPES, 0.4mM
neomycin, pH 7.0, temperature 4 °C. Scan rate 10 mVs - 1, current scale 0.1 laA.(D). Ru(NHa)5a +-His(42)
HiPIP, 0.13 mM in 0.1 M NaCI, 20 mM AMHT*, pH 6.9, temperature 1 °C. Scan rate 10 mVs -1,
current scale 0.2 p~A. * 20 mM AMHT is a mixed buffer consisting of 5 mM each in acetate, MES,
HEPES and TAPS
While the waves for [4Fe-4S] 3+/2+ couple were well-defined and diffusion-con-
trolled up to 100 mVs-1, those for the Ru site were somewhat broader.
Taken together, the results on each of these modified proteins show that
reduction potentials may deviate significantly from values predicted from
isolated systems. In the examples shown in Figs. 17 and 18, E °' for the Ru site is
shifted considerably from that of the [Ru(NH3)5(imidazole)] 3+/2+ couple in
aqueous solution ( + 109 mV at 25 °C). Interaction between the redox sites may
also be gauged. In the case of HiPIP, E °' for the [4Fe-4S] 3 +/2 + couple is shifted
+ 30 mV upon introduction of the Ru centre so close by. By contrast, reduction
potentials of the native sites in modified cytochrome e or plastocyanin, in which the
Ru centre is further away, appear essentially unaffected.
In an earlier discussion (Sect. 3.4) it was mentioned that the electrode reactions
of proteins could be governed by radial-type diffusion, even at a macroscopically
planar electrode surface, because of specificity for electroactive sites having micro-
scopic dimensions. Deviation from linear diffusion behaviour depends upon the
size and density of these sites [125, 126]. Thus while the differences in waveshape
between native and Ru couples that was noted in these studies may have a purely
chemical-kinetic origin, the interesting possibility also arises that there exists
different effective mass transport behaviour for the electrode reactions of each
redox centre contained in a multi-centred macromolecule. Further evidence for this
suggestion is presented in Sect. 5.2.
5 Studies of Metal-Ion Speeiation
5.1 Voltammetric Signals as Analytical "Signatures"

Once electroactivity has been achieved for a metalloprotein, the voltammetric
waves become a valuable signature of the active site(s). Voltammetry can therefore
be used to define states and to monitor changes in structure and composition that
may result from appropriate chemical or electrochemical perturbations of the
system. This has interesting and important consequences since an electrochemical
experiment provides conditions of strict potential control within a small and often
microscopic sample size. The applications are, at present, in their infancy, but
I shall endeavour to illustrate the opportunities for studies of metal site speciation
by reference to one topical area, that of metal-ion uptake and loss among Fe-S
clusters.
5.2 Studies of Fe-S Cluster Transformations

It is now widely appreciated that the old, established view of Fe-S clusters as
a class of integral structural units whose activity is limited to electron transfer is in
error. We have become aware of other roles. For example, in the Fe-hydrogenases,
it is certain that a cluster serves as the catalytic site with which the H a / H +
substrates interact [-164]. Moreover, following the discovery by Beinert's group
that aconitase is an Fe-S protein [,175], there are now further examples of clusters
occurring in enzymes that do not catalyze, at least obviously, a redox reaction.
With aconitase itself, it is established that substrates bind to one Fe subsite of
a [,4Fe-4S] cluster without major disturbance of the core structure [189]. Such
findings demonstrate that "real chemistry" is available, reactivity that may be
exploited once tuned by the protein environment.
Furthermore, studies are showing that certain proteins may permit variations
in the composition and nuclearity of the core. So far this has been illustrated by
several systems in which the core types [3Fe-4S] and [4Fe-4S] (see Fig. 13) are
interconvertible [,173-1751. Of these, aconitase itself is the best example. Its
isolation under aerobic conditions yields an inactive form containing a [3Fe-4S]
cluster [1741. Activation involves addition of Fe 2+ under reducing conditions.
Beinert and his co-workers were able to establish that this Fe entered the vacant
subsite on [3Fe-4S] and that this rather labile component was the site for substrate
binding [-189]: The aconitase example showed that specific subsites of a cluster
could be endowed with unusual activity.
The smaller proteins, i.e. ferredoxins, which show [173] interconvertibility
between [,3Fe-4S] and [-4Fe-4S] core types are valuable since representative 3-D
structures are available and there are extensive sequence data. It thus becomes
possible to investigate the features that determine which structure is more stable
and how rapidly they may interconvert. In most cases there is a clear preference for
one core type over the other, and interconversion requires prolonged treatment
194 F.A. Armstrong
with excess reagents followed by chromatography to remove unreacted protein and

side products. The cluster status is then verified, typically by EPR, with MCD or
M6ssbauer as further probes. In general, conversion of [4Fe-4S] to [3Fe-4S] is
achieved by reaction with an oxidant such as Fe(CN)~- (or O2), while incorpor-
ation of Fe 2+ into [3Fe-4S] requires a reductant such as ascorbate or a thiol
[165-167]. This is described by Eq. (17).
red.craft [4Fe-4S] (17)

[3Fe-4SJ + Fe 2 +-zoxidan t
It has been demonstrated [190, 191] that metals other than Fe may be incorpor-
ated into clusters in a corresponding manner. Particular interest in this conversion
stems from the possibility that heterometal clusters may be active sites of enzymes,
as indeed is the case in nitrogenase [164].
The application of direct electrochemical techniques in this area is proving to
be very rewarding. Just why this approach should be so suitable may be under-
stood by considering the problems associated with conventional techniques.
1) As discussed earlier, in situ monitoring of cluster status is difficult. Absorption
spectra are generally broad and do not differ appreciably from [3Fe-4S] to
[4Fe-4S]. The problem is readily appreciated if only one out of two or more
clusters in a protein is reactive towards transformation and if other coloured
reagents e.g. Fe(CN)63- are present. On the other hand, cluster interconversion may
be accompanied by a sizeable change in reduction potential; thus the reaction may
be followed by loss and appearance of well-defined voltammetric responses. These
responses now become a sensitive and discriminating "handle". Significantly, in
this respect, differential pulse polarography was the technique of choice for study-
ing the kinetics of ligand exchange at small [4Fe-4S] analogue complexes [192].
2) Transformations in each direction are associated with oxidation or reduction.
Thus the obvious way to supply redox equivalents is electrochemically. The charge
passed can be monitored; furthermore the oxidation level (and hence reactivity) of
each type of cluster is controlled instrumentally.
A most unusual ferredoxin that has recently been characterized provides us
with a valuable "model" system. It has importance not only for understanding
cluster interconversions, but also for defining the effects of non-cysteine ligation
upon the spectroscopic and chemical properties of Fe-S clusters. As isolated,
ferredoxin III from the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio africanus contains
7Fe atoms in a molecule of molecular mass approx. 6000 [193]. Electrochemical
and spectroscopic investigations showed [1101 that there are two clusters, one
[3Fe-4S] and one [4Fe-4S] while the amino acid sequence revealed [193] that
there is considerable homology with 214Fe-4S] ferredoxins as typified by those
from Clostridium pasteurianum and Peptococcus aeroqenes (see Fig. 14). A compar-
ison of the primary structures of a number of ferredoxins containing [3Fe-4S] and
[4Fe-4S] clusters is shown in Fig. 19. The 2 [4Fe-4S] ferredoxins have two cluster-
binding domains each with the sequence -Cys-X-X-Cys-X-X-Cys-
. . . . . . . . Cys-Pro-. In the case of D.a. Fd III and some other 7Fe ferredoxins, one
of these domains is modified. In D.a. FdIII, there are two notable changes to the
N-terminal domain; the middle -Cys- is replaced by -Asp(D)-, and the - P r o - that
0
>
I2
>
l.~
>
O
>
0
~
U
>
0
>
O
>
O
>
I
0
(n z ,~ z r~ r.* Z u) &
| 0 0 0 U O ~ 0 LI OJ--
0 0 0 0 0 ~ " :1: M
<
tO 0 (.J 0 t..J 0 l.J 0 UI--
,"1 CI ~ ,"1 Cl [.i.] OI ~n ,'%
r-, r'-, > z "1 Z ~ I~ '~-
~.~ ~ '.9 Cl (.9
M
0
Z Z ~ Z ,', ~ Z Z r~
j ~u ~ e~ e~ ~ ~ ~ eu eu m
0 0 O O O O 0 0 [.)
F
a e ~e
---[ 0 0 0 0 (.J 0 l:~1 I:~ l::l I
0
"---~
[ [.3 0 l.) L) L/ 0 0 l.) I.J~
I
~e
0
X
196 F.A. Armstrong
hold at 2OO~nV
oddl:e2+
~tir briefly
cotllinlte
Fig. 20. Cyclic voltammetry of Desulfovibrio africanus fer-

redoxin III, showing how cluster transformation may be
contlm~ed
cycling controlled and monitored. Scan rate 16 mVs- 1, temperature
2°C. Protein 0.1 mM in solution containing 0.1 M NaC1,
20 mM HEPES, 0.1 mM EGTA and 1.1 mM neomycin at
pH 7.4. The EGTA sequesters Fe that is released during slow
degradation of the protein during handling.
Top. Prior to addition of Fe2+
Middle. Afterholdingat + 200 mV ~vhileFe2÷ is added with
stirring (to total of 0.2 mM)
Lower. Continuation of scan with no further stirring.
-86o ' ' i Waves A associated with [3Fe-4S] 1+/° have disappeared
F_.JmV vs, SHE completely. Waves C have also vanished.
succeeds the remote Cys- has been replaced by - G l u (E). This domain is thus
expected to accommodate the I-3Fe-4S] cluster.
Direct electrochemistry ofD.a. Fd III was achieved E110] with a P G E electrode
in the presence of low levels of aminoglycoside promoters such as neomycin. As
shown in Fig. 20 (top), three sets of voltammetric waves were observed. Spectro-
scopic examinations of the oxidized protein and of the products of bulk electro-
lyses carried out at - 3 2 0 m V and - 6 1 0 mV identified couples A and B as
[3Fe_4S]1+/o (E o, = _ 140 mV) and [4Fe-4S] 2+/1 + (E °' = - 410 mV), respect-
ively. In each case, reduction potentials were essentially invariant with pH over the
range pH 6 to 8. Early in the investigations it was noted that the relative amplitudes
of waves A and B varied erratically from one sample to another. But following
extensive aerobic dialysis against EGTA (or EDTA) and with the complexing agent
in solution and provided a low scan rate ( < 16 m V s - 1) was used, voltammograms
(as shown) were obtained that displayed A and B at equal intensity. Without this
treatment, or at scan rates > 40 m V s - 1, waves A were always smaller than B. (The
choice of EGTA over EDTA lay in the fact that the reduction potential of
Fe(EGTA) is sufficiently positive that its own electrode reaction does not interfere
with the voltammetry of the protein.)
This finding was an important indication of what was to happen when Fe z + is
added to the solution. As shown in Fig. 20 (middle), additions of Fe 2+ in
stoichiometric or excess amounts (after allowance for EGTA complexation) led to
dramatic changes in the voltammetry after passage through the [3Fe-4S] 1+ reduc-
tion wave [111]. The corresponding return (oxidation) wave was lost, and
there was a marked (almost two-fold) increase in the amplitude of the original
[4Fe 4S]2 +/1 + waves (Fig. 20, bottom). An appealing aspect of this experiment is
that the irreversible reaction thus initiated is restricted to the diffusion layer; thus
the experiment could be repeated a number of times after brief stirring at a poten-
!
1.5
current 1.0
increase
/pA
9,5
' 2',0
equiv. Fe2+
current t5,0
l l ,
I |
1 2 5 10 15 20 1
time/hr time/rain time/hr
Bulkreductionof 7Feferredoxin AdditionofFe2+ Continuedbulkreduction
Fig. 21. A quantitative analysis of cluster transformation in Desulfovibrio africanus ferredoxin III by
direct electrochemistry. The experiment starts with anaerobic bulk reduction, at - 610 mV, of the
oxidized protein (400 laL of a 0.1 mM solution including 20 mM HEPES, 0.1 M NaCI, 0.1 mM EGTA
and 1.5 mM neomycin) contained in a sealed cell equipped with a PGE working electrode. Temperat-
ure = 3°C. At exhaustion, aliquots of F e z + w e r e added (indicated by arrows) whilst holding the
potential at - 610 mV. The graph above shows the increase in current observed as a function of the
number of equivalents of Fe 2+ added. The line drawn through the points corresponds to uptake of 1.0
Fe2+ per protein molecule. The lag corresponds to uptake of Fe 2+ by remaining free EGTA. Finally, the
second-phase bulk reduction was continued to exhaustion. This phase consumed (in total) one further
electron equivalent
tial positive with respect to couple A, i.e. in a region in which [ 3 F e - 4 S ] 1 + is n o t

reduced.
T h e p r o d u c t of this electrochemically i n d u c e d r e a c t i o n was generated for
s p e c t r o s c o p i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n by c a r r y i n g out c o n t r o l l e d electrolysis. This was
d o n e in a way that allowed the r e a c t i o n s t o i c h i o m e t r y to be determined. As s h o w n
in Fig. 21, initial r e d u c t i o n of the 7Fe p r o t e i n at - 610 mV, in the presence of
E G T A , r e q u i r e d approx. 2.0 electrons. T h e n a d d i t i o n of aliquots of F e 2 + were
made, still m a i n t a i n i n g the p o t e n t i a l at - 610 mV, until they i n d u c e d no further
rises in current. These current increases occurred in each case with a half-life of
a few seconds. Exhaustive r e d u c t i o n then c o n s u m e d a further charge of a p p r o x . 0.9
electrons. The a m o u n t of a d d e d F e z + needed to effect the total change, after
s u b t r a c t i n g the lag phase due to c o m p l e x a t i o n by free E G T A , was 1.0 a t o m
equivalents. D e t a i l e d spectroscopic e x a m i n a t i o n revealed t h a t the [ 3 F e - 4 S ] cluster
h a d been replaced by a [ 4 F e - 4 S ] cluster of p a r t i c u l a r novelty in t h a t the r e d u c e d
1 + form h a d the g r o u n d state S = 3/2 instead of 1/2. T h e t r a n s f o r m e d cluster gave
an E P R s p e c t r u m c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a resonance at g = 5.2 instead of the typical
"g = 1~94" signal. The M C D s p e c t r u m of the t r a n s f o r m e d [ 4 F e - 4 S ] 1+ cluster was
198 F.A. Armstrong
similar to that of reduced Clostridium pasteurianum 214Fe 4S] ferredoxin except

that it was considerably more intense.
The amino-acid sequence demanded that one of the [4Fe 4S] clusters, cer-
tainly the new one, must have one Fe subsite coordinated to the protein by
a non-cysteine ligand. As evident from Fig. 19, this is likely to be the carboxylate-O
atom(s) from aspartate. The reduction potential value of the new cluster is very
close to that of the original one and is, again, not dependent upon pH, so that only
one resultant couple (of greater amplitude but shifted + 10 mV) is observed. The
situation which results is essentially analogous to that found for Clostridium
pasteurianum 214Fe-4S] ferredoxin; this shows (Fig. 7) simple voltammetry due to
two similar non-interacting sites. Thus the only property easily distinguishing the
new type of center is the magnetic ground state. A few other examples of
[4Fe-4S] 1+ are known to exhibit S = 3/2 ground states, for example the Fe
protein of nitrogenase, but the protein structures are less well defined.
The manner by which Fe uptake occurred spontaneously upon reduction
allowed unequivocal assignment of the route indicated in Eqs. (18) (19) in which
generation of [3Fe-4S] ° at the electrode is followed by spontaneous incorporation
of Fe 2 +. The product, [4Fe-4S] 2+, is capable of further reduction--Eq. (20).
[3Fe-4S] 1+ + e ~ [3Fe-4S] ° (18)
[3Fe-4S] ° + Fe 2+ ~ [4Fe-4S] 2+ (19)
[4Fe-4S] 2+ + e- ~ [4Fe-4S] 1+ (20)
This is a good demonstration of how the electrochemical approach can permit
the quantitative study of a system that otherwise exhibits complex and confusing
behaviour. Each reaction of this ferredoxin could be monitored and controlled. It is
an unstable protein that degrades quite rapidly on standing in solution. As a result
of trace Fe continuously released by cluster decomposition, conversion to the 8Fe
form occurs spontaneously in the presence of reducing equivalents unless the Fe is
sequestered by agents such as EGTA.
In a similar manner it has proved easy to demonstrate and study the
stoichiometric incorporation of Zn 2+, Co 2 + and Cd 2+ to produce clusters with
characteristic electrochemical and spectroscopic properties (Armstrong FA,
Butt JN, George SJ, Hatchikian EC, Thomson AJ, unpublished results). Reduction
potentials decrease in the order [Co-3Fe-4S] (approx. - 3 0 0 m V ) > [4Fe 4S]
(approx. - 390 mV) > [Zn-3Fe-4S] (approx. - 480 mV) > [Cd 3Fe-4S] (ap-
prox. - 580 mV). In each of these cases, metal-ion uptake into [3Fe-4S] ° was very
rapid. Incorporation into the oxidized (1 + ) cluster was not observed.
The investigations outlined above demonstrate the utility of electrochemical
techniques in probing cluster reactions. The titrimetric bulk electrolysis procedure
allows new cluster types to be prepared easily, with quantitative information on
stoichiometry. The cyclic voltammetry approach permitted a systematic study
of other ferredoxins to determine the factors that allow rapid reactions of this
type to occur. It could be shown, for example, that the presence of Asp in place Of
Cys in the sequence was not sufficient to confer this striking ambivalence between
cluster types. The 7Fe ferredoxin from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, which also has the
Cys-X-X-Asp-X-X-Cys sequence (Fig. 19) shows stable cyclic voltammetry in the

presence of 0.1 m M Fe z+ even at 60 °C (Armstrong FA, Butt JN, C a m m a c k R,
George S J, T h o m s o n A J, unpublished results). Clearly in this case, the ability of
[ 3 F e - 4 S ] ° to accept the fourth Fe is greatly diminished. Factors that m a y be
influential include active-site exposure (Sulfolobus Fd is much larger) and, perhaps,
the presence, in D.a. F d I I I of a Glu instead of the usual Pro residue adjacent to the
remote Cys coordinating the transformable cluster. Proline is well k n o w n as a
creator of kinks or bends in the polypeptide chain.
These reactions could be studied with adsorbed films of protein that
self-assemble spontaneously on P G E in the presence of aminoglycosides [112].
This provides a means to study, quite extensively, the properties of systems such as
this which are in limited supply. As shown in Fig. 22a, an adsorbed film of D.a.
Fd III gives a v o l t a m m o g r a m showing three waves; A', B', and C'. These waves are
sharp and well-defined, and, for A' and B', AE v is small even at a scan rate of
500 m V s - 1, thus showing that electron transfer is fast. Couple C' is more complex;
the reduction wave was observed to b r o a d e n at fast scan rates and higher p H
values while the oxidation wave remained sharp. Values of E °' for each couple
corresponded closely with those measured for the protein studied in solution under
diffusion-controlled conditions. W h e n the electrode modified by adsorption of D.a.
Fd I I I was transferred to a cell solution containing Fe 2 +, rapid cycling (Fig. 22b)
showed simultaneous disappearance of A' and C' with growth of B'. Together,
a OpA
Fig. 22a,b. Cyclic voltammogram of an adsorbed film

of Desulfovibrio africanus ferredoxin III. The protein was
adsorbed onto a PGE electrode from a solution contain-
ing 100pM ferredoxin in 0.1M NaC1, 5mM each in
TAPS, HEPES, MES and acetate, 0.1 mM EGTA, and
2 mM neomycin at pH 7.0. The voltammetry was meas-
ured in the same medium at 0 °C, adjusted to pH 6.25,
with a scan rate of 500 m Vs-1. A background trace,
obtained without adsorbed protein, is indicated (. • - •. )
for the oxidative scan. b. Effect of cycling the PGE
electrode with adsorbed ferredoxin in a solution as
above, but adjusted to pH 7.0 and containing 100 pM E i i J i
Fe2+ and no EGTA. Scan rate is 500 mVs -1 thus each
cycle, following initiation of the [3Fe-4S]-to-[4Fe-4S] -800 -600 -400 -200 0
transformation by the reduction of [3Fe-4S] (A'), corres-
ponds to ca. 1.3 s. E / mV vs. SHE
200 F.A. Armstrong
these observations indicated that the native properties of the clusters and poly-
peptide environment are retained in the aminoglycoside film. Indeed, the adsorbed
film voltammetry was thus demonstrated to be a viable method for studying the
kinetics of cluster interconversion in proteins.
As outlined previously in Sect. 4.4, and as indicated above, couples A'(A) (i.e.
E3Fe-4S] 1+/°) and C'(C) appear to be intimately linked. Since voltammograms of
thin films (and particularly of adsorbed species) give waves of essentially finite
width within which all the redox capacity is contained, it was easy to make a direct
comparison of the number of electrons transferred for each couple by integration.
In this way, it was determined [112] that the charge passed for re-oxidation of C'
was twice that passed for re-oxidation of A'. This ratio was observed regardless of
pH (range 6.25 to 7.8) or scan rate (10-1000 mVs- 1). It was concluded that couple
C' represents further chemically-reversible two-electron reduction of E3Fe~S] °, to
a form corresponding to [3Fe-4S]2-. Formally, this would be equivalent to an
all-Fe(II) cluster. The dependence of E °' on pH suggested that two H + were bound
or released respectively upon reduction and re-oxidation.
Other observations made with this system are important for understanding the
mechanism of protein electrochemistry. The absolute charge passed for the couples
in Fig. 22a approached or equalled that expected for monolayer coverage. This
was significant when considering the mechanism of electron transfer in bulk
solution electrochemistry. Since solution conditions (temperature, electrolyte, pro-
moter concentration in solution) were the same in each case, the bulk solution
electrochemistry described above and shown in Fig. 20 must proceed in the
presence of this layer of protein. Consequently, assuming a uniform layer, the
APEE mechanism would play a major role in this electrode reaction. Fast scans
with the protein in solution actually revealed E110] the adsorption wave A' for the
[3Fe-4S] ~+/° couple since the normal diffusive-type waves broadened and vir-
tually disappeared above ~ = 100 mVs- ~. The latter observation provided further
evidence for differing dynamic behaviour of two centres on one protein molecule
(see Sect. 4.5).
5.3 The Wider Opportunities f o r Voltammetric Methods
The use of voltammetry in studies of metal ion speciation is unlikely to be restricted

to Fe-S clusters. For example, the kinetics and thermodynamics of Fe distribution
in biological systems, including the storage proteinferritin, offer a very interesting
challenge [194]. Watt and co-workers [195], in an indirect coulommetric study with
methyl viologen as mediator, have already demonstrated the general advantage of
electrochemical methods in the quantitative study of ferritin, which accommodates
up to 4500 Fe atoms in its core. Direct voltammetry may provide a means to
distinguish, simultaneously, Fe in various environments, and to monitor its move-
ment under conditions of strict potential control. Metal-ion uptake by metal-
lothionein is another example where applications are obvious. One such study has
recently been reported [196]. Voltammetric methods, ideally with the components
contained within a thin-layer configuration, are particularly well-suited.
6 Protein Electrochemistry Coupled to Biological

Electron-Transport Systems
6.1 What Information is Sought?
By far the greater proportion of protein direct electrochemistry so far reported has
involved relatively small molecules whose role is to transport electrons between
biological sites of catalysis or energy transduction at which they are produced or
required. As the natural mediators for such systems, their own electrochemistry can
now be extended to afford interesting opportunities for study. There are several
ways in which coupling of the electrochemistry of an electron carrier protein to
reactions with its natural partners may be useful.
1) Rate constants for coupled homogeneous electron-transfer reactions may be
measured by analysis of voltammograms.
2) Redox titrations or assays of active sites in complex enzymes may be carried out
without use of artificial mediators. The advantage here of course is that the
electron-carrier protein, as the natural mediator, is more likely to be site specific.
Side reactions, such as non-enzymatic oxidation by dioxygen or peroxide (a
frequent problem when using certain small-molecule mediators) are less likely to
interfere.
3) Since no small mediators are involved, it is possible to determine the specific
accessibility to the electroactive electron-carrier protein, of various enzymes com-
partmentalized in intact membrane-bound environments.
6.2 Reactions of Electrochemically Transformed Cytochrome c
Most investigations of coupled electron transfer have explored systems that extend
the now'well-established direct electrochemistry of cytochrome c. Some illustrative
reaction pathways [18] are shown in Scheme 5. Since cytochrome c is a specific
electron carrier in a number of biological redox systems, the approach has con-
siderable scope. One of the first studies in this area, however, examined a non-
physiological reaction--the coupling of cytochrome c electrochemistry to the
respiratory chain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In this respiratory chain the terminal
oxidase, cytochrome cdl (also known as nitrite reductase since it catalyzes reduc-
tion of NO2 to NO as well as 02 to H 2 0 ) is normally reduced not by cytochrome
c, but by either one of two other electron-carrier proteins, cytochrome c551 or
azurin. This work, by Hill and Walton [197, 198], established direct electrochemis-
try as a viable yet previously unexploited way of determining protein-protein
electron-transfer rate constants and some detail of the approach will be given here.
It was found [198] that none of the three Pseudomonas aeruginosa components,
the oxidase or either of the natural reductants, gave a cyclic voltammetric response
at a Au electrode modified by 4,4'-bipyridyl. (Haladjian and Bianco later observed
[821 that cytochrome c551 did respond, albeit poorly, at this electrode.) Since this
202 F.A. Armstrong
e s from
lactate Con"31exesI andII
pyruvate
sulfite@sulfate
°H2
NADH
yt b5
\// 02 + 4H+
eductase
/
t c e da~
I
NAD++H+
2H20 2H20
oiifgr illiler
membrane inner membrane space membrane matrix
Scheme 5
/ 2ACu(I)
cc H20
electrode __ 2c551(11)
1 ~x~,~2 cytcol) 2ACu(ll)

or c(ll)d(ll) 1/202+2H+
2 c551(111)
Scheme 6
electrode interface was active for horse cytochrome c, it was possible to examine,
selectively, its electron-transfer activity as a non-physiological carrier in the enzy-
matic reduction of dioxygen. The reactions involved are shown in Scheme 6.
Upon addition of cytochrome cd 1 to an aerobic solution of cytochrome c, there
was a small increase in the cathodic peak current, thus indicating that some
regeneration of cytochrome c(III) occurred through direct homogeneous coupling
to the oxidase. However, as evident from Fig. 23, a drastic change in the voltam-
metry occurred when cytochrome c5sl or azurin was added. The sigmoidal wave
shape showed attainment of a steady state, with the rate of heterogeneous reduc-
tion of cytochrome c being balanced by its homogeneous reoxidation, ultimately by
02. Four-electron reduction of 02 to 2 H 2 0 was demonstrated [197] by integra-
tion of the current-time profile for bulk reduction in a sealed cell.
The result showed that cytochrome c itself is kinetically incompetent with
regard to reduction of cytochrome cdl, but it is able to transfer electrons to
current/!aA a b
-2
E/mVvs.SHE
2(30 300 4()0 ~ 200 300 4(30

E/ mVvs.SHE
c•2'0'
O0 3 0 400
Fig. 23. Coupling the cyclic voltammetry of horse cytochrome c (as promoted at a Au electrode in the
presence of 4,4'-bipyridyl) to reduction of 0 2 by Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome cd 1 via a sequence
of protein protein electron-transfer reactions. Aerobic solutions contained 0.1 M NaC104, 0.02 M
phosphate, pH 7.0. Scan rate 1 mVs- 1. a) horse cytochrome c (0.44 mM) alone, b) after an addition, of
cytochrome cd 1 to 6 I.tM. c) after a further addition, of azurin to 0.25 ~M. Redrawn from Ref. 198, with
kind permission
cytochrome c5sl or azurin, each of which have much higher specific activities with
the oxidase. Hill and Walton used the voltammetric theory for coupled homogen-
eous reactions derived by Nicholson and Shain [50] to investigate the kinetics of
the protein-protein electron-transfer reactions 1-198]. Catalytic currents were pro-
portional to cdl concentrations so that the rate-determining step appeared to be
oxidation of cytochrome c551 or azurin. In such a situation, the pseudo first-order
rate constant may be obtained by plotting the term ik/U ~/2 against log u (ik is the
catalytic current) and then comparing with working curves. Performing this ana-
lysis with each concentration of cytochrome Css~ or azurin yields the correspond-
ing pseudo first-order rate constants. However, experimental conditions limited the
concentrations of these proteins so that pseudo-first-order conditions were not
achieved. Hill and Walton overcame this difficulty by determining, via an extra-
polative procedure, rate constants that would be obtained at infinite scan rates, i.e.
if no reagent was actually transformed. By plotting these corrected pseudo
first-order rate constants against concentration of cytochrome c55a or azurin, the
second-order rate constants for electron transfer to cytochrome cd 1 were obtained.
These were, respectively, 2 x 10 4 M - 1 s- 1 and 1 x 104 M - 1 s- t, at pH 7 and ionic
strength 0.135, in good agreement with data available from independent studies.
Various aspects of the coupling of cytochrome c electrochemistry to the
reaction with mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase have been studied. The mam-
malian enzyme comprises 12 subunits, two of which (I and II) contain the four
redox-active sites [199]. The centres termed cytochrome a 3 and Cu B constitute
204 F.A. Armstrong
a magnetically coupled binuclear site that binds O 2 and executes its reduction to
H20. The other two, cytochrome a and Cu A, are sites for electron mediation and
storage. Cytochrome c oxidase spans the mitochondrial inner membrane and it is
widely accepted that intramolecular electron transfer is coupled to vectorial move-
ment of H +. Thus the enzyme constitutes one of the sites at which energy is
conserved through the maintenance of an H + gradient to drive ATP formation.
The active sites and their intrinsic redox properties are more readily investigated
after solubilization of the enzyme by suitable detergents. By contrast, the topo-
graphical and energy conservation aspects can only be probed if the enzyme is
retained in vesicular membranes. The redox chemistries of both soluble and
membrane-bound forms ofcytochrome c oxidase have been coupled to cytochrome
c electrochemistry.
For the soluble form, free of mass-transport restrictions, rate constants for the
cytochrome c-cytochrome c oxidase electron-transfer reaction have been obtained
by analysis of the catalytic current obtained when enzyme and O 2 are added to
cytochrome c [200, 201]. This is a fast reaction, k = 106-107 M - 1 s- ~, that is very
sensitive to various factors, including the method of enzyme preparation and such
experimental parameters as the ionic strength or the nature of the detergent. This
sensitivity being taken into consideration, it may be stated that the direct elec-
trochemistry approach can yield rate-constant values that are very similar to those
obtained by more conventional methods, typically the stopped-flow technique.
Another application lies with titrations of the cytochrome c oxidase redox sites
without the involvement of small nonphysiological mediators that may perturb
any relevant coupling between sites that is specific to the reaction with cytochrome
c. Using a tin-doped indium oxide OTTLE, Hawkridge and co-workers [202]
demonstrated a spectroelectrochemical coulometric method for the measurement
of reduction potentials of cytochromes a and a 3. They later extended the coupled
system to investigate the thermal denaturation characteristics of cytochrome c and
cytochrome c oxidase [203]. For this investigation they monitored electrochemical
turnover (in the form of the catalytic current) at increasing temperature. The onset
of retardation could be correlated with data obtained from differential calorimetry.
With membrane-bound cytochrome c oxidase, an interesting route into mech-
anism and organization in intact redox systems is displayed. Hill and co-workers
coupled [204] the electrochemistry of cytochrome c (as achieved at Au electrodes
modifed by adsorption of bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide) to electron transport in
mitochondria. A demonstration of the manner in which one may thus "tap into"
the respiratory chain itself without using non-specific, small-molecule mediators is
given in Fig. 24. Upon applying a potential of + 95 mV to an aerobic solution of
cytochrome c(III) enclosed within a stirred reaction chamber, the electrolytic
reduction current decreased exponentially to zero and there was no consumption
of 0 2 as measured with a Clark-type electrode. If, instead, a suspension of rat-liver
mitochondria was added, the reduction current still decreased, but then settled at
a steady-state level. There was simultaneous consumption of O 2, the rate of which
correspondingly increased to a steady value. If the electrode potential was increased
to + 395 mV, the reduction of O 2 ceased abruptly. Upon returning the electrode
potential to + 95 mV, the steady-state reduction current, with concomitant con-
+150 +95mY +395rnV +95mV
130
::~ ~ ~
cl>
=E
Fig. 24. Coupling the electrochemistry of ¢xl
cytochrome c to respiration of mitochondria O
in a sealed cell. The consumption of 0 2 (A)
and Faradaic current (B) as functions of time
for 0.7 mM horse cytochrome c and rat liver
mitochondria (2.0 mg protein/ml). The Au B - - 0
foil electrode was modified by pre-dipping in
a solution of bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide. Re- -I50
drawn from Ref. 204, with kind permission
sumption of 02, was rapidly resumed. Finally, at anaerobiosis, the reduction

current decayed to zero.
There are other variations on this type of experiment. Protoplasts from Para-
coccus denitrificans showed a similar type of response [204] except that there was
a higher level of endogeneous cytochrome c reduction. Respiration was "tapped"
oxidatively at + 395 mV under conditions of which anaerobiosis was marked by
a sharp increase in current. Further increase was obtained by additions of succi-
nate, which is a reductant for Cytochrome c via the sequence of membrane-bound
enzymes succinate dehydrogenase (Complex II) and ubiquinone-cytochrome c re-
ductase (Complex III). By contrast, respiratory coupling could not be observed
with protoplasts of Escherichia coli, an organism in which the terminal oxidase
system is not reduced via cytochrome c.
Possibilities for investigating the photosynthetic electron-transport chain were
brought to light by experiments [205] in which the reduction of P700 + was
coupled to eytochrome c electrochemistry. Although plastocyanin, not cytochrome
c, is the physiological reductant for P700 +, the results demonstrated, as with
mitochondria, the ability of a protein (as opposed to a small-molecule mediator) to
function in electron transport.
Another experiment carried out by Hill's group was an attempt [206] to detect
ejection of H + from the mitochondrial matrix, as associated with the cytochrome c
oxidase "proton pump". With a Au OTTLE modified by pre-adsorption of
bis(4-pyridyl)disulfide, to reduce cytochrome c, "H + pumping" was expected to be
observed as a transient change in the light absorption of phenol red--in an
essentially unbuffered suspension of rat-liver mitochondria--as the electrode po-
tential was "jumped" to a reducing level. However, the experiment succeeded only
in detecting the alkalinization expected from chemical depletion of H + as O 2 was
reduced.
Whilst lying outside the scope of this article it is worth mentioning that many
enzymes with which electron-transfer proteins are natural partners catalyze reac-
tions of considerable analytical interest [10]. Examples of these include cyto-
chrome c peroxidase and lactate dehydrogenase. In each of these cases, coupling to
206 F.A. Armstrong
cytochrome c electrochemistry has been achieved [207, 2081, to yield a device that
is sensitive to low levels of substrate. Another system thus far demonstrated
involves the enzyme p-cresol methylhydroxylase, whose natural protein electron
donor is the blue Cu protein azurin. In this case the electrochemistry of azurin was
coupled [209] to a useful stereospecific synthesis. As applications of coupled
reactions, however, a definite operational advantage of using the natural protein
redox partner in preference to a small mediator must be demonstrated. Since the
latter invariably win in terms of cost, stability, and, usually, electrochemistry (since
protein direct electrochemistry is so sensitive to the nature of the electrode surface)
it is to be expected that mediated amperometric enzyme electrode devices are less
likely to make extensive use of electron-transport proteins.
7 Direct Electrochemistry of Metalloenzymes
7.1 Fast Interfacial Electron Exchange with Active Sites of Enzymes
An ability to address the catalytic redox chemistry of an enzyme via fast interfacial
electron transfer at an electrode without mediators, natural or otherwise, has
interesting implications. The action of many redox enzymes may be thought of as
the transduction of a "simple" electrical current into a bond-making or -breaking
reaction of remarkable specificity. To achieve this, several centres may be required,
each playing its own important role in the system. The electrode surface is the ideal
"platform" on which to study this chemistry. But enzymes are larger and more
complex than electron-transport proteins, and the strategy and rationale behind
providing a suitable interface is less well defined. While many are soluble aqueous
systems, others are closely associated with membranes and have highly lipophilic
surfaces. The area thus presents a challenge with regard to its successful execution
and understanding of the interactions involved. The goal is to obtain a well-defined
voltammetric response that can be identified as a clean manifestation of the active-
site catalytic chemistry without the need for an overpotential that exceeds the
requirement in the physiological system. Electron mediation by other reagents
must be discountable.
Although there have been a number of reports of direct electrochemistry of
enzymes, cases in which these criteria have been met clearly are few in number.
Since they lie outside the context of this article, examples in which the sole enzyme
active site is an organic group, for example glucose oxidase, have been omitted.
To predict systems most likely to yield meaningful and useful direct elec-
trochemistry, redox enzymes may be divided into two categories. The first com-
prises those for which one of the redox Processes in the catalytic cycle is a discrete
outer-sphere (and probably long-range) electron-transfer reaction. Examples in-
clude the "blue" Cu oxidases, ferredoxin-linked reductases, and cytochrome
e oxidase and other enzymes of electron-transport chains. In such systems
there is exchange of electrons with an extrinsic agent, i.e. one that does not form
chemical bonds with the catalytic active site. The agent may be a small molecule or
an electron-transport protein. Such enzymes may be referred to as extrinsic redox
enzymes [11]. Often, long-range intra-molecular electron transfer occurs between
several redox sites within the enzyme.
The second category comprises enzymes for which all electron transfer occurs
within a highly localized assembly of the metal centre and redox substrates. These
may be termed intrinsic redox enzymes.
Since their electron-transfer activity is so confined and may be contained
entirely within the coordination sphere of the active site, intrinsic redox enzymes
may be silent towards non-physiological reaction partners particularly, of course,
electrodes. The extrinsic enzymes, on the other hand, have generally evolved facile
routes for electron transfer between the active site and specific areas of the protein's
surface (the interaction site) at which the redox partner binds. It follows that
electron exchange with a suitable electrode should be feasible. Where the natural
redox partner is an aromatic amine or alcohol, local hydrophobic electrode/enzyme
contacts might be envisioned to be important. This could be particularly relevant
in the case of integral membrane proteins for which part of the structure is buried in
a hydrophobic matrix and with which one of the physiological redox partners is the
membrane-confined quinone/hydroquinone system. Alternatively, viewed in the
light of what we have learnt so far from electron-transport proteins (Sect. 3), we
might expect that the most generally amenable of all systems may be those extrinsic
enzymes whose physiological redox partners are proteins. This expectation arises
because the need for intimate interaction with another macromolecule suggests
that the interaction domain should be open and unobscured. Indeed, in earlier
sections it has been suggested often that the "ideal" protein-electrode interaction,
permitting fast electron transfer between the active-site metal centre and the
electrode surface, is likely to resemble a protein-protein interaction appropriate to
the physiological process. The hypothesis should extend naturally to such extrinsic
enzymes.
7.20xidases and Peroxidases
Among the first accounts of direct electrochemistry of an enzyme that met some of
the criteria mentioned above were studies [-210, 211] of laccase, a soluble "blue" Cu
oxidase which catalyzes the rapid four-electron reduction of dioxygen to water.
Laccase is isolated from various plants and fungi from which it is secreted to carry
out oxidation of various extracellular aromatic alcohols and amines. The enzymes
from the Japanese lacquer tree Rhus vernicifera and from the fungus Polyporus
versicolor have been particularly well characterized [212]. They each contain four
Cu centres. One is a "blue" (or Type 1) Cu having similar spectral properties to
plastocyanin, one is "non-blue" (or Type 2) Cu, and the remaining two constitute
a magnetically coupled pair (the Type 3 centre) which is the site directly responsible
for binding and reducing 0 2. The reduction potentials of the Cu sites are known
from potentiometric studies [213]. Those for fungal laccase are particularly high: as
measured at pH = 5.5, the "blue" Cu site has a potential of + 785 mV while that of
208 F.A. Armstrong
the type 3 centre is at + 782 mV 1-213]. Since the four-electron reduction potential
of O 2 at pH 7 is 815 mV, very little free energy is conceded during the oxidation of
reduced enzyme.
An efficient electrocatalysis of 0 2 reduction by fungal laccase was first de-
scribed by Tarasevich and co-workers [211]. Their most successful electrode
surfaces were of carbon materials; pyrolytic graphite, glassy carbon and
CO2-treated carbon black cemented with Teflon varnish. They observed that
laccase adsorbed at these materials to yield biocatalytic electrochemistry. Whereas
reduction of 0 2 is normally slow at unmodified electrodes and generally proceeds,
under mild conditions, only as far as hydrogen peroxide, they found that the
four-electron reduction of O2 at "laccase-modified" electrodes proceeded easily at
potentials close to that for the reversible couple. At pH 5, as used in the experi-
ments, this is + 934 mV. This is rather higher than the reduction potentials of the
Cu centres since reduction of 02 is fast enough to maintain the oxidized sites at
a high steady-state level. Electrocatalysis was suppressed by addition of N£ or F - ,
each of which are specific inhibitors of laccase. Activity was also decreased by
addition of H202, another inhibitor, and this aspect was reflected, interestingly, in
the suppression of reduction currents below a potential of approx. + 300 mV at
which the uncatalyzed two-electron reduction of O 2 (and thus formation of H202)
commences at carbon-black electrodes. Taken together, the observations showed that
02 reduction must be occurring via rapid and direct electron transfer from the electrode
to the Cu sites of the enzyme.
Further studies on the electrochemistry of fungal laccase were reported by
Anson and co-workers [214]. In this case the enzyme was adsorbed at a PGE
electrode. Reduction of 0 2 was studied by DC cyclic voltammetry and by the
rotating-disc-electrode technique. Cyclic voltammograms measured for
O2-saturated solutions at pH 3.1 showed a nearly reversible sigmoidal (i.e.
steady-state) waveform with E1/2 close to + 700 mV. The rotating disc experi-
ments gave curved Levich plots characteristic of a limiting chemical step. The slope
and intercept of the resulting Koutecky-Levich (double-reciprocal) plot yielded the
number of electrons transferred (four) and the limiting rate constant
(1.5 X 104 M - i s - 1 ) corresponding to the reaction of laccase with 02. Four-elec-
tron reduction was further substantiated by the failure to detect H20 z in the
reacted solution provided the electrode potential had not been held low enough to
generate H20 2 non-catalytically. Qualitatively, there was good agreement with the
results obtained by Tarasevich and co-workers. They also reported a direct
voltammetric response from the adsorbed enzyme in the absence of O2. To observe
this, they needed to add the reagents 2,9-dimethylphenanthroline or 4,4'-bipyridyl.
The voltammograms yielded E °' values of approx. 600 mV and 700 mV respec-
tively, which showed no marked variation between pH 3.7 and 5.6. These are
significantly lower than the potentiometric values for Types 1 and 3 Cu centres. The
requirement for these agents must be regarded as puzzling since the catalytically
enhanced electroactivity was clearly visible without them.
Peroxidases catalyze the two-electron reduction of H20 2 (or organic peroxides)
to H10 (or alcohols) by electron-transfer proteins or small organic reagents.
A general catalytic cycle for the heme-containing enzymes is shown in Scheme 7.
H2o><o
Fe[lll) Fe(IV)=O & radical

H20~ (Compound I or ES)
Fe(LV):O
(Compound II)
2H + + e-
H202 + 2e-+ 2H+ - " 2H20

E°'(pH7) = ca. 1.3va
Compound I + e- - Compound fl E°'(luH7)= ca. 900mV (HRP)b
Compound II + e- - Fe(lll) E°'(pH7) = ca. 930mY (HRP)b
FeOII) ~ e- - Fe(ll) E°'(pH7) = -270mY (HRP)C

-190mY (CcP)d
" Hoare JP (1974) in "Encyclopaedia of Electrochemistry of the Elements" (Bard AJ, ed.) Vol. lI, p 194;
b Hayashi Y, Yamazaki I (1979) J. Biol. Chem. 254: 9101;
c Harbury HA (1957) J. Biol. Chem. 225: 1009;
d Conroy CW, Tyma PH, Erman JE (1978) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 537: 62.
Scheme 7
Cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) [215] isolated from yeast mitochondria uses

cytochrome c(II) as electron donor. Its crystal structure has been determined
[216]. It is a monomer of molecular mass 34000 containing a single b-type heine
group that is largely buried within the molecule. The Fe is coordinated on one side
by a histidine residue while the sixth position is occupied by a weakly bound H 2 0
in a channel suitable for entry and exit of small substrates.
The Fe(III) centre reacts rapidly with peroxide to yield a two-electron oxidized
species termed ES or Compound I. This contains Fe(IV) as ferryl (Fe=O), and
a cation radical species that is located either on the porphyrin ring system (plant
peroxidases) or on a nearby amino-acid residue(s) (cytochrome c peroxidase). The
Fe(III) form is regenerated by reduction via another species, Compound II, which
contains Fe(IV) but no radical.
For cytochrome c peroxidase, the reduction involves two protein-protein
one-electron transfers. There have been extensive studies of the physiologically
relevant reaction that provide much support for very rapid formation of a precur-
sory 1 : 1 electron-transfer complex [217]. Electrostatic interactions are a major
factor in this process. Examination of the structure of CcP reveals a ring of
aspartate residues that are arranged so as to be complementary with the distribu-
tion of highly conserved lysines that surround the exposed heine edge region of the
210 F.A. Armstrong
cytochrome c molecule (see Fig. 1). A hypothetical complex that optimizes the
polar interactions between surface groups has been proposed [21]. The resultant
heme-edge-to-heme-edge distance is 16.5 ~.
The CcP redox reactions encompass a wide thermodynamic range. The
relevant half-cell reactions and their reduction potentials are indicated also in
Scheme 7. With E °' for cytochrome c being + 260 mV, the driving force for
reduction of Compounds I and II is of the order of 0.75 V. Energy is not conserved
by coupling. Instead, the large driving force renders the reduction of H202
irreversible and accelerates the rate of long-range protein-protein electron transfer.
Estimates of the rate constant for this reaction [218] are of the order of 103 s-~.
Direct electrochemical transformations of CcP were achieved by Assefa and
Bowden who showed [219], using optical monitoring, that the Fe(III) form could
be reduced to Fe(II) and then reoxidized at a fluorine-doped tin oxide OTTLE. The
reactions were electrochemically irreversible, and large overpotentials ( - 490 mV
for reduction and + 610 mV for oxidation) were used to achieve rapid reaction.
Since the non-physiological redox couple could be addressed in this way, the
question remained, "What is observed if the electrode potential is modulated
within the range of activity for the catalytic cycle?" To address this question would
involve application of electrode potentials greater than 1 V, and problems of
stability might be expected. Armstrong and Lannon searched instead for the
biocatalytic reduction of H202 that must result if direct electrochemistry is able to
address the catalytically active states [220]. Overpotentials of at least 1 V are
normally required for reduction of H202 at electrodes. This was indeed found to be
the case at polished PGE electrodes. However, in the presence of small (IxM) levels
of CcP in solution, large reduction currents were obtained at potentials that, under
some conditions, were higher than + 700 mV. No catalysis occurred if the free
prosthetic group Fe protoporphyrin IX was used instead of enzyme. It was thus
concluded that the facile reduction of substrate could only be proceeding via direct
electrochemistry of the enzyme. The high potentials at which this occurred in-
dicated that the interfacial electron-transfer reaction was, in terms of kinetic
facility, at least comparable to the physiological reduction by cytochrome c(II).
The voltammetry is shown in Fig. 25. There are a number of points of interest.
1) The catalytic activity is associated with adsorbed CcP. At low enzyme concen-
trations, i.e. < 1 laM, time-dependent changes in wave form and current could be
monitored conveniently. The initial sigmoidal-like voltammetric response de-
veloped into a sharp peak whose potential position was dependent upon scan rate
and H20 2 concentration, and, to a lesser extent, CcP concentration and temperat-
ure. It was shown, by parallel monitoring of the changes in ellipsometric para-
meters f6r the reflection of polarized light from the electrode surface [221 ], that this
time dependence corresponded to the time course for adsorption of CcP molecules,
most likely resulting in monolayer coverage. The development of a peak-like
voltammetric waveform occurred within the first and major change in ellipsometric
parameters and with a rate that was broadly proportional to the solution concen-
tration of CcP. The change from sigmoidal- to peak-type response could be
interpreted in terms of a "microscopic model" [125], mentioned in section 3.4, in
which growing clusters of adsorbed enzyme molecules behave as expanding
micro-electrodes. Progressive adsorption of enzyme results in a transformation
~ ti II
1
E°~ytochromec
(iv)
Fig. 25. Linear-sweep voltammograms of H202 (56 pM) (v)
in 0.1 M KC1, 5 mM neomycin, 5 mM HEPES, pH 7.0,
initiated at various times following addition of cytochrome
c peroxidase to a concentration of 0.2 p M Scan rate 300 400 500 600 700 800
8 mVs l, temperature = 0 °C: i) 30 s; ii) 178 s; iii) 325 s; iv)
750 s; v) 1080 s. The position of E °' for cytochrome C, the
natural reductant of CeP is indicated. E/mY vs. SHE
from microelectrode behaviour (radial diffusion of substrate to isolated sites) to

that of a uniform planar macro-electrode (linear diffusion to a planar surface of
essentially packed sites). At the limit of zero time such a microelectrode would have
the dimensions of the enzyme molecule itself.
2) The peak currents obtained were proportional to the concentration of H 2 0 2 .
The dependence on the square root of the scan rate curved downwards above
= 5 mVs- 1 although the initial slope was consistent with a diffusion coefficient
of 1 x 105 c m 2 S - 1 a value appropriate for H 2 0 2 .
3) The voltammetric response appeared to require the presence of neomycin or
gentamycin, aminoglycosides observed [-105, 110 112] to be active promoters of
the electrochemistry of other proteins with negatively charged surfaces. Here, it was
proposed that the spatial distribution of NH~- groups presented by these sugars at
the electrode interface might resemble, broadly, that presented to CcP by the lysine
residues on cytochrome c. Thus the adsorption process might by guided by the
same recognition factors as are responsible for assembly of the physiological 1 : 1
complex. Subsequent studies indicated [2213 that this might not be the case since it
has proved possible to obtain a biocatalytic response of CcP at PGE electrodes in
the absence of these promoters. This finding is indeed described independently in a
recent paper by Paddock and Bowden [236].
4) From the appropriate reduction potentials for H 2 0 2 and CcP Compounds
I (ES) and II, it is clear that the biocatalytic response due to CcP adsorbed at PGE
electrodes still occurs at a significant overpotential (approx. 650 mV as related
to the H 2 0 2 / H 2 0 couple at approx. + 1.3 V). However, as indicated in Fig. 25,
the driving force is actually considerably smaller than that which would be
operative based upon the reduction potential of cytochrome c. Thus the experiment
demonstrated the ability of an electrode to function at least as effectively as
a physiological (protein) electron-transfer partner.
212 F.A. Armstrong
Plant (horseradish) peroxidase (HRP) has also been studied [222-225]. Like
CcP, it can be reduced to a non-physiological Fe(II) state. Razumas and
co-workers investigated this reaction at Au electrodes modified by electrochemi-
cally induced polymerization of viologens [222, 223]. The clearest evidence for
direct electron transfer was obtained in the case of the methylviologen-modified
electrode, which gave no voltammetric signals in buffer solution alone. Upon
introduction of HRP, a reduction peak appeared at - 470 mV while a poorly
defined oxidation wave was observed between - 160 mV and - 360 mV [222].
The reduction current was proportional to the concentration of HRP over the
range 7 to 27 laM. Reduction of enzyme molecules in bulk solution was demon-
strated by changes in the absorption spectrum. The product thus detected was not
the Fe(II) form, but the oxygenated Fe(II)-O 2 derivative. This oxygenated product
occurred because of the presence of 0 2 in the sample solution since the Fe(II) form,
like deoxymyoglobin, rapidly forms an O 2 adduct. A kinetic study of the reduction
of H R P at these electrodes was carried out [223] with the rotating-disc technique.
Heterogeneous rate constants for the methyl- and benzyl-viologen derivatives
were, respectively, 1.3 x 10 .5 and 8.4 x 1 0 - 4 c m s -1 at pH7. Razumas and
co-workers argued that mediated electron transfer was also unlikely in the
case of the benzylviologen/Au electrode system, despite its electroactivity
in buffer solution alone, since the benzylviologen cation radical is a relatively poor
mediator to H R P in solution. The much higher activity of the benzylviologen/Au
electrode was attributed to the presence of the aromatic rings, which could aid in
specific adsorption of H R P or assist electron transfer itself by penetrating the
protein interior.
Biocatalytic responses have been reported [224, 225] for HRP adsorbed at
various carbon electrodes. Where clearly evident [225], the overpotentials required
to effect rapid reduction of HzO 2 appear rather higher (approx. 850 mV related to
the H 2 O z / H 2 0 couple) than values appropriate for CcP discussed above.
7.3 Dehydrogenases
There is a wealth of intriguing and useful chemistry available within those enzymes
that catalyze specific oxido-reduction or oxygen-atom insertion (monooxygena-
tion) reactions with organic substrates. Clear demonstrations of direct electro-
chemistry have been made for a few cases, and the last discussions in this article are
concerned with these.
Ikeda and co-workers have studied [226] the voltammetric properties of
D-gluconate dehydrogenase (GADH) from Pseudomonasfluorescens. This is a mem-
brane-bound enzyme, MW 130 000, that catalyzes the oxidation of D-gluconate to
2-keto-D-gluconate (Eq. 21) and conveys the two electrons to ubiquinone in the
lipid layer, thereby linking up with the main respiratory chain. The enzyme consists
of three non-identical subunits which contain FAD (the likely site of D-gluconate
oxidation) a c-type heme, and an Fe-S cluster. Either or both of the latter
one-electron-active groups probably receive electrons from FAD and act as im-
mediate electron donors to ubiquinone [227].
Probing Metalloproteins by Vo|tammetry 213
COOH COOH
H- OH =O
HO- H HO-- H
+ 2 e + 2H + (21)
H OH H -OH
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
Carbon-paste electrodes were modified [-226] with GADH by placing small

aliquots of a solution of the detergent-solubilized enzyme onto the surface, allow-
ing the solvent to evaporate, and then rinsing away weakly adsorbed GADH and
low-MW solutes. Cyclic voltammetry of the modified electrode in buffer (0.1 M
acetate, pH 5) showed no waves in the range - 80 to + 380 mV. However, when
D-gluconate was added to the solution, there was a large catalytic enhancement of
the oxidation current above a potential of + 100 mV with a steady-state plateau
(u = 5 mVs -1) being reached at approx. + 320 mV. The result demonstrated
achievement of a specific organic oxidation process, Eq. (21), by an enzyme
adsorbed at an electrode. Even without observation of a reversible redox couple in
the absence of substrate (this is presumably a problem of sensitivity) the evidence
points strongly, as with laccase and peroxidases, towards a direct transfer of
electrons between electrode and the enzyme centres. The onset of catalytic activity
occurred at a potential close to that determined ( + 120 mV) for the c-type heme.
Another dehydrogenase, p-cresolmethylhydroxylase (PCMH), has recently
been shown [-228] to display high catalytic activity at PGE electrodes. Here, the
interfacial dynamics are more distinguished since there is a marked and discrimina-
tory requirement for and among aminoglycoside promoters. The enzyme is isolated
from Pseudomonas putida in which it catalyzes [229] the specific oxygenation of
p-cresol to p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, Eq. (22):
CH 3 CHO
(22)
OH OH
It is a n ~2[~2 tetramer of MW 115000. The larger of the two subunit types (MW
49 000) each contain a covalently bound FAD that is the site of substrate oxygena-
tion. The other subunits, c-type cytochromes of MW 8500, serve to relay electrons
to an accepter molecule, which is probably azurin (reduction potential + 320 mV).
In their electrochemical study, Hill and his group effectively provided an electrode
surface as a substitute for this protein partner.
As shown in Fig. 26, direct electrochemistry could be observed both through
the electrocatalytic oxidation of p-cresol by low (sub-micromolar) concentrations of
214 F.A. Armstrong
d~ ~.0~
c c- ~ ~
b~ I 0.1~A
Fig. 26a-d. Cyclic voltammetry of p-cresolmethylhydroxylase
(PCMH) at a PGE electrode in the presence of spermine as
promoter. Electrolyte comprised 10 m M HEPES, 10 mM KC1
(pH 7.4), scan rate 5 mVs- 1 (a) Spermine tetrachloride (10 mM)
alone. (b) Response after addition of P C M H to 35 pM. (e) as for
I f I I [
(b) but recorded at 0.1 current gain. (tl) as for (c) but upon
0 200 400 addition of the substrate p-cresol to 3 mM. Redrawn from Ref.
~mV vs. SHE 228, with kind permission
PCMH in solution (giving rise to catalytic-type steady-state cyclic voltammo,

grams) and through the reversible response that was visible with high (35 pM)
enzyme concentration in the absence ofsubstrate. The steady-state current ampli-
tudes were found to be proportional to substrate concentration. They increased
also, usually in a saturative manner, with the concentration of cation promoter.
These ranged from a variety of aminoglycosides to metal aquo-ions such as Mg 2 +.
The reduction potential value for the reversible process was + 255 mV, in good
agreement with potentiometric measurements monitoring oxidation and reduction
of the cytochrome in the intact tetramer, but significantly different from the value
obtained for the free subunit ( + 180mV). This observation showed that the
electrochemical response stemmed from the enzyme functioning as a unit rather
than from dissociated cytochrome subunits coupling electron transfer to the FAD-
containing entities. Since peak currents were proportional to •a/2 at low scan rates,
an effective diffusion coefficient could be evaluated. At 1 x 10 - 7 c m 2 s - 1, this was in
broad agreement with the "ideal" value predicted by the Stokes-Einstein equation
for a molecule of this size. The result is significant since it illustrates very clearly the
point made in Sect. 2.2, i.e. that the slower diffusion of macromolecules does not
pose a prohibitive problem. By contrast with the other enzymes discussed in this
section, PCMH appears not to be tightly adsorbed.
Considerable selectivity was shown among various cations as promoters of the
electrochemistry. Neomycin was the most potent reagent, yielding optimal
steady-state currents at a concentration of 0.2 mM (whereas 2 mM levels of the
comparable aminoglycosides gentamycin and ribostomycin were required). Fur-

thermore, the catalytic response could be achieved also by use of Au electrodes
modified by adsorption of the peptides cys-glu-cys (charge - 1), arg-cys-OMe
(charge + 2) or lys-cys-thr-cys-cys-ala ( + 1), provided that spermine (2 mM) was
present and the electrode had been subjected to a brief polish with alumina after
pre-adsorption of peptide. While these observations have not as yet been rational-
ized in terms of protein surface characteristics, they should provide an excellent
opportunity for starting to understand the specific interactions governing the
electrode interactions of large enzymes.
The clear detection of both reversible active-site and biocatalytic waves rep-
resents a "completeness" that establishes the feasibility of applying direct elec-
tochemistry to probe the mechanism of action of complex redox enzymes. To take
this further, I shall take up the author's prerogative for mentioning studies "cur-
rently underway in the laboratory" and mention, briefly, another mem-
brane-bound enzyme, fumarate reductase (FR), isolated from Eseheriehia coll.
Structurally, this is closely related to the more familiar succinate dehydrogenase
(SDH) which constitutes the major part of Complex II of the mitochondrial
respiratory chain. Of the four subunits which make up the membrane-bound
system, two may be freed to give a soluble enzyme that is active in fumarate
reduction by artificial electron donors [230]. The larger of these, MW approx.
70 000, contains, like SDH, a covalently bound FAD. The smaller, MW approx.
30000, appears to contain three Fe-S clusters. These are termed centre
1 ([2Fe-2S]), centre 2 ([4Fe-4S]) and centre 3 ([3Fe-4S]). Their respective
reduction potentials as determined by potentiometry are - 20 mV, - 320 mV,
and - 70 mV [231]. (Although the potential of the FAD has not been determined
for FR, the two-electron value for beef heart SDH is - 79 mV at pH 7.0. The
radical form is unstable since the two one-electron reductions occur at potentials of
- 127 and - 31 mV respectively [232].)
As shown in Fig. 27, this soluble form of FR adsorbs at PGE electrodes giving
rise to a voltammetric response having an effective E °' value of = - 4 0 m V ,
that appears essentially reversible even at a scan rate of 500 mVs- 1. This response
may actually be an "envelope" of signals from centres 1, 3, and the FAD.
As with P C M H described above, the reversible response coincides with a bio-
catalytic wave that is observed if fumarate is added. The overall electrode reaction
is given by Eq. (23).
Ho2cX CO2H
CH
I
CH2
+2e-+2H ÷ (23)
HC CH2
\ I
CO2H CO2H
The efficiency of this "electrocatalytic hydrogenation" is self-evident since it occurs

close to the thermodynamic reduction potential calculated for the fumarate/
216 F.A. Armstrong
b I
Fig. 27. a). Cyclic voltammogram (at a PGE electrode) of a so-
lution of fumarate reductase 13 gM in 20 mM HEPES, 0.1 M
rrent NaC1, pH 7.0, containing 2mM neomycin. Scan rate
500 mVs- 1, current scale 2 gA, temperature = 0 °C. The revers-
ible signal (arrowed) lies in the potential domain expected for
centres 1 ([2Fe-2S] 2+/1+), 3 ([3Fe-4S] 1+/o)and FAD/FADH 2
b). Cyclic voltammogram of a PGE electrode (at which is adsor-
-600 -400 -200 0 200 bed fumarate reductase) immersed in a solution of fumarate
(80/aM) in 20 mM HEPES, 0.1 M NaC1, pH 7.0. Scan rate
E/mY vs. SHE 1 mVs-1, current scale 0.1 gA, temperature 0 °C
succinate couple ( + 3 0 m V at pH 7.0 [233]). The steady-state current shows

Michaelis-Menten-type saturation as the concentration of fumarate is increased.
The role of centre 2, for which the potentiometric reduction potential,
at - 3 2 0 mV, is too low to be involved directly in electron transport between
hydroquinone and fumarate, is not clear [164, 234, 235]. In these electrochemical
experiments we have so far detected neither its electrode response nor any change
in the steady-state biocatalytic current as the potential is lowered beyond
- 320 mV. C a m m a c k and co-workers have proposed [234, 235] that this centre
might be active in one-electron reduction and reoxidation of the more reducing
FAD radical species that must be generated, albeit transiently, during turnover.
Their mechanism of reduction of oxidized FAD in S D H is termed the
"dual-pathway" model since the two single electrons flowing consecutively out of
FAD do so by different routes. The lower potential pathway uses centre 2. An
equivalent mechanism, with the direction of electron flow reversed, is applicable
for FR.
8 Concluding Remarks and Acknowledgments
As I conclude this article, I hope that I have given the reader some appetite for the
field and have shown that direct electrochemistry, far from remaining merely
a subject of curiosity, may be applied to interesting and important problems in
bioinorganic chemistry and enzymology. Without the requirement for mediators, it
is possible to "talk" directly to the active sites of metalloproteins. This ,two-way
conversation" happens in real time and provides a complementary departure from
contemporary strategies that are largely dominated by studies on "static" samples:
resting states or intermediates quenched during a reaction or catalytic cycle. With
this in mind, we have only just begun to see the tip of a very large "iceberg".
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge those individuals whose interest and

encouragement have been so forthcoming. Foremost is Allen Hill who introduced
me to electrochemistry some eight years ago, and with whose very active research
group at Oxford I am proud to have been associated. Among these scientists (to
name but a few) Nick Walton, Mark Harmer, Nigel Oliver and Martin Lannon
have been the most valued of colleagues. I am grateful to Andy Thomson, Simon
George, Dick Cammack, Geoff Sykes, Alan Bond, and a talented student--Julea
Butt, for interesting and continuing collaborations. Further advice and assistance
with this article were given by Isao Taniguchi, Katsumi Niki, Jean Haladjian, Hans
Freeman, Gary Brayer, Larry Sieker, and Gordon Sanghera. Their help and the
editorial comments of John Goodenough are gratefully acknowledged. Finally,
I wish to thank The Royal Society for their support over the past six years.
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Author Index Volumes 1-72
Ahrland, S.: Factors Contributing to (b)-behaviour in Acceptors. Vol. 1, pp. 207-220.

Ahrland, S.: Thermodynamics of Complex Formation between Hard and Soft Acceptors and Donors.
Vol. 5, pp. 118-149
Ahrland, S.: Thermodynamics of the Stepwise Formation of Metal-Ion Complexes in Aqueous Solu-
tion. Vol. 15, pp. 167-188.
Allen, G. C., Warren, K. D.: The Electronic Spectra of the Hexafluoro Complexes of the First
Transition Series. Vol. 9, pp. 49-138.
Allen, G. C., Warren, K. D.: The Electronic Spectra of the Hexafluoro Complexes of the Second and
Third Transition Series. Vol. 19, pp. 105-165.
Alonso, J. A., Balb?ts, L. C.: Simple Density Functional Theory of the Electronegativity and Other
Related Properties of Atoms and Ions. Vol. 66, pp. 41-78.
Ardon, M., Bino, A.: A New Aspect of Hydrolysis of Metal Ions: The Hydrogen-Oxide Bridging Ligand
(H302). Vol. 65, pp. 1-28
Armstrong, F. A.: Probing Metalloproteins by Voltammetry. Vol. 72, pp. 137-221.
Augustynski, ,L.: Aspects of Photo-Electrochemical and Surface Behaviour of Titanium(IV) Oxide. Vol.
69, pp. lqS1.
Averill, B. A.: Fe-S and Mo-Fe-S Clusters as Models for the Actie Site of Nitrogenase. Vol. 53, pp.
57-101.
Babel D.: Structural Chemistry of Octahedral Fluorocomplexes of the Transition Elements..Vol. 3, pp.
1-87.
Bacci, M.. The Role of Vibronic Coupling in the Interpretation of Spectroscopic and Structural
Properties of Biomolecules. Vol. 55, pp. 67-99.
Baker, E. C., Halstead, G. W., Raymond, K. N.: The Structure and Bonding of 4 f and 5f Series
Organometallic Compounds. Vol. 25, pp. 21-66.
Balsenc, L. R.: Sulfur Interaction with Surfaces and Interfaces Studied .by Auger Electron Spectro-
metry. Vol. 39, pp. 83-114.
Banci, L., Bencini, A., Benelli, C., Gatteschi, D., Zanchini, C.: Spectral-Structural Correlations in
High-Spin Cobalt(II) Complexes. Vol. 52, pp. 37-86.
Banci, L., Bertini L, Luchinat C.: The 1H NMR Parameters of Magnetically Coupled Dimers - - The
Fe2S z Proteins as an Example. Vol. 72, pp. 113-136.
Bartolotti, L. J.: Absolute Electronegativities as Determined from Kohn-Sham Theory. Vol. 66,
pp. 27-40.
Baughan, E. C.: Structural Radii, Electronzcloud Radii, Ionic Radii and Solvation. Vol. 15, pp. 53-71.
Bayer, E., Schretzmann, P.: Reversible Oxygenierung von Metallkomplexen. Vol. 2, pp. 181-250.
Bearden, A. J., Dunham, W. R.: Iron Electronic Configuration in Proteins: Studies by M6ssbauer
Spectroscopy. Vol. 8, pp. 1-52.
Bergmann, D., Hinze, J.: Electronegativity and Charge Distribution. Vol. 66, pp. 145-190.
Berners-Price, S. J., Sadler, P. J.: Phosphines and Metal Phosphine Complexes: Relationship of
Chemistry to Anticancer and Other Biological Activity. Vol. 70, pp. 27-102.
Bertini, L, Luchinat, C., Scozzafava, A.: Carbonic Anhydrase: An Insight into the Zinc Binding Site
and into the Active Cavity Through Metal Substitution. Vol. 48, pp. 45-91.
Blasse, G.: The Influence of Charge-Transfer and Rydberg States on the Luminescence Properties of
Lanthanides and Actinides. Vol. 26, pp. 43-79.
Blasse, G.: The Luminescence of Closed-Shell Transition Metal-Complexes. New Developments. Vol.
42, pp. 1-41.
Blauer, G.: Optical Activity of Conjugated Proteins. Vol. 18, pp. 69-129.
Bleijenberg, K. C.: Luminescence Properties of Uranate Centres in Solids. Vol. 42, pp. 97-128.
Bffca, R., Breza, M., Pelikhn, P.: Vibronic Interactions in the Stereochemistry of Metal Complexes.
Vol. 71, pp. 57-97.
Boeyens, J. C. A.: Molecular Mechanics and the Structure Hypothesis. Vol. 63, pp. 65-101.
Bonnelle, C.: Band and Localized States in Metallic Thorium, Uranium and Plutonium, and in Some
Compounds, Studied by X-ray Spectroscopy. Vol. 31, pp. 23-48.
Bradshaw, A. M., Cederbaum, L. S., Domcke, W.: Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Gases
Adsorbed on Metal Surfaces. Vol. 24, pp. 133-170.
Braterman, P. S.: Spectra and Bonding in Metal Carbonyls. Part A: Bonding. Vol. 10, pp. 57-86.
Braterman, P. S.: Spectra and Bonding in Metal Carbonyls. Part B: Spectra and Their Interpretation.
Vol. 26, pp. 1-42.
224 Author Index Volumes 1-72
Bray, R. C., Swann, J. C.: Molybdenum-Containing Enzymes. Vol. 11, pp. 107-144.
Brooks, M. S. S.: The Theory of 5 f Bonding in Actinide Solids. Vol. 59/60, pp. 263-293.
van Bronswyk, W.: The Application of Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance Spectroscopy to the Study of
Transition Metal Compounds. Vol. 7, pp. 87-113.
Buchanan, B. B.: The Chemistry and Function of Ferredoxin. Vol. 1, pp. 109-148.
Buchler, J. W., Kokisch, W., Smith, P. D.: Cis, Trans, and Metal Effects in Transition Metal
Porophyrins. Vol. 34, pp. 79-134.
Bulman, R. A.: Chemistry of Plutonium and the Transuranics in the Biospere. Vol. 34, pp. 39-77.
Bulman, R. A.: The Chemistry of Chelating Agents in Medical Sciences. Vol. 67, pp. 91-141.
Burdett, J. K.: The Shapes of Main-Group Molecules; A Simple Semi-Quantitative Molecular Orbital
Approach. Vol. 31, pp. 67-105.
Burdett, J. K.: Some Structural Problems Examined Using the Method of Moments. Vol. 65, pp. 29-90.
Campagna, M., Wertheim, G. K., Bucher, E.." Spectroscopy of Homogeneous Mixed Valence Rare
Earth Compounds. Vol. 30, pp. 99-140.
Ceulemans, A., Vanquickenborne, L. G.." The Epikernel Principle. Vol. 71, pp. 125-159.
Chasteen, N. D.: The Biochemitry of Vanadium, Vol. 53, pp. 103-136.
Cheh, A. M., Neilands, J. P.: The 7-Aminolevulinate Dehydratases: Molecular and Environmental
Properties. Vol. 29, pp. 123-169.
Ciampolini, M.: Spectra of 3d Five-Coordinate Complexes. Vol. 6, pp. 52-93.
Chimiak, A., Neilands, J. B.. Lysine Analogues of Siderophores. Vol. 58, pp. 89-96.
Clack, D. IV., Warren, K. D.: Metal-Ligand Bonding in 3d Sandwich Complexes, Vol. 39, pp. 1-41.
Clark, R. J. H., Stewart, B.." The Resonance Raman Effect. Review of the Theory and of Applications in
Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 36, pp. 1-80.
Clarke, M. J., Fackler, P. H.: The Chemistry of Technetium: Toward Improved Diagnostic Agents.
Vol. 50, pp. 57-78.
Cohen, I. A.: Metal-Metal Interactions in Metalloporphyrins, Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes.
Vol. 40, pp. 1-37.
Connett, P. H., Wetterhahn, K. E.: Metabolism of the Carcinogen Chromate by Cellular Constituents.
Vol. 54, pp. 93-124.
Cook, D. B.: The Approximte Calculation of Molecular Electronic Structures as a Theory of Valence.
Vol. 35, pp. 37-86.
Cooper, S. R., Rawle, S. C.: Crown Thioether Chemistry. Vol. 72. pp. 1-72.
Cotton, F. A., Walton, R. A.: Metal-Metal Multiple Bonds in Dinuclear Clusters. Vol. 62, pp. 1-49.
Cox, P. A.: Fractional Parentage Methods for lonisation of Open Shells ofd a n d f Electrons. Vol. 24,
pp. 59-81.
Crichton, R. R.: Ferritin. Vol. 17, pp. 67-134.
Daul, C., Schldpfer, C. W., yon Zelewsky, A.: The Electronic Structure of Cobalt(II) Complexes with
Schiff Bases and Related Ligands. Vol. 36, pp. 129-171.
Dehnicke, K., Shihada, A.-F.: Structural and Bonding Aspects in Phosphorus Chemistry-Inorganic
Derivates of Oxohalogeno Phosphoric Acids. Vol. 28, pp. 51-82.
Dobiit~, B.. Surfactant Adsorption on Minerals Related to Flotation. Vol. 56, pp. 91-147.
Doi, K., Antanaitis, B. C., Aisen, P.: The Binuclear Iron Centers of Uteroferrin and the Purple Acid
Phosphatases. Vol. 70, pp. 1-26.
Doughty, M. J., Diehn, B.: Flavins as Photoreceptor Pigments for Behavioral Responses. Vol. 41,
pp. 45-70.
Drago, R. S.: Quantitative Evaluation and Prediction of Donor-Acceptor Interactions. Vol. 15,
pp. 73-139.
Duffy, J. A.: Optical Electronegativity and Nephelauxetic Effect in Oxide Systems. Vol. 32,
pp. 147-166.
Dunn, M. F.: Mechanisms of Zinc Ion Catalysis in Small Molecules and Enzymes. Vol. 23, pp. 61-122.
Emsley, E.: The Composition, Structure and Hydrogen Bonding of the [3-Deketones. Vol. 57,
pp. 147-191.
Englman, R.: Vibrations in Interaction with Impurities. Vol. 43, pp. 113-158.
Epstein, L R., Kustin, K.: Design of Inorganic Chemical Oscillators. Vol. 56, pp. 1-33.
Ermer, 0.: Calculations of Molecular Properties Using Force Fields. Applications in Organic Chem-
istry. Vol. 27, pp. 161-211.
Ernst, R. D.." Structure and Bonding in Metal-Pentadienyl and Related Compounds. Vol. 57, pp. 1-53.
Erskine, R. W., Field, B. 0.: Reversible Oxygenation. Vol. 28, pp. 1-50.
Fajans, K.: Degrees of Polarity and Mutual Polarization of Ions in the Molecules of Alkali Fluorides,
SrO, and BaO. Vol. 3, pp. 88-105.
Fee, J. A.: Copper Proteins-Systems Containing the "Blue" Copper Center. Vol. 23, pp. 1~50.
Author Index Volumes 1-72 225
Feeney, R. E., Komatsu, S. K.: The Transferrins. Vol. 1, pp. 149-206.

Felsche, J.: The Crystal Chemistry of the Rare-Earth Silicates. Vol. 13, pp. 99-197.
Ferreira, R.: Paradoxical Violations of Koopmans' Theorem, with Special Reference to the 3d
Transition Elements and the Lanthanides. Vol. 31, pp, 1-21.
Fidelis, L K., Mioduski, T.: Double-Double Effect in the Inner Transition Elements. Vol. 47, pp. 27-51.
Fournier, J. M.: Magnetic Properties of Actinide Solids. Vol. 59/60, pp. 127-196.
Fournier, J. M., Manes, L.: Actinide Solids. 5 f Dependence of Physical Properties. Vol. 59/60, pp. 1-56.
Fraga, S., Valdemoro, C.: Quantum Chemical Studies on the Submolecular Structure of the Nucleic
Acids. Vol. 4, pp. 1-62.
Frafisto da Silva, J. J. R., Williams, R. J. P.: The Uptake of Elements by Biological Systems. Vol. 29,
pp. 67-121.
Fricke, B.: Superheavy Elements. Vol. 21, pp. 89-144.
Fuhrhop, J.-H.: The Oxidation States and Reversible Redox Reactions of Metalloporphyrins. Vol. 18,
pp. 1-67.
Furlani, C., Cauletti, C.: He(I) Photoelectron Spectra of d-metal Compounds. Vol. 35, pp. 119-169.
Gdtzquez, J. L., Vela, A., Galvhn, M.." Fukui Function, Electronegativity and Hardness in the
K0hn-Sham Theory. Vol. 66, pp. 79-98.
Gerloch, M., Harding, J. H., Woolley, R. G.: The Context and Application of Ligand Field Theory. Vol.
46, pp. 1-46.
Gillard, R. D., Mitchell, P. R.: The Absolute Configuration of Transition Metal Complexes. Vol. 7,
pp. 46-86.
Gleitzer, C., Goodenough, J. B.: Mixed-Valence Iron Oxides. Vol. 61, pp. 1-76.
Gliemann, G., Yersin, H.: Spectroscopic Properties of the Quasi One-Dimensional Tetracyano-
platinate(II) Compounds. Vol. 62, pp. 87-153.
Golovina, A. P., Zorov, N. B., Runov, V. K.: Chemical Luminescence Analysis of Inorganic Substances.
Vol. 47, pp. 53-119.
Green, J. C.: Gas Phase Photoelectron Spectra old- and f-Block Organometallic Compounds. Vol. 43,
pp. 37-112.
Grenier, d. C., Pouchard, M., Hagenmuller, P.." Vacancy Ordering in Oxygen-Deficient Perovskite-
Related Ferrities. Vol. 47, pp. 1-25.
Griffith, J. S.: On the General Theory of Magnetic Susceptibilities of Polynuclear Transitionmetal
Compounds. Vol. 10, pp. 87-126.
Gubelmann, M. H., Williams, A. F.: The Structure and Reactivity of Dioxygen Complexes of the
Transition Metals, Vol. 55, pp. 1-65.
Guilard, R., Lecomte, C., Kadish, K. M.: Synthesis, Electrochemistry, and Structural Properties of
Porphyrins with Metal-Carbon Single Bonds and Metal-Metal Bonds. Vol. 64, pp. 205-268.
Giitlich, P.: Spin Crossover in Iron(II)-Complexes. Vol. 44, pp. 83-195.
Gutmann, V., Mayer, U.." Thermochemistry of the Chemical Bond. Vol. 10, pp. 127-151.
Gutmann, V., Mayer, U.: Redox Properties: Changes Effected by Coordination. Vol. 15, pp. 141-166.
Gutmann, V., Mayer, H.: Application of the Functional Approach to Bond Variations under Pressure.
Vol. 31, pp. 49-66.
Hall, D. L, Ling, J. H., Nyholm, R. S.: Metal Complexes of Chelating Olefin-Group V Ligands. Vol. 15,
pp. 3-51.
Harnung, S. E., Schiller, C. E.: Phase-fixed 3-F Symbols and Coupling Coeffacients for the Point
Groups. Vol. 12, pp. 201-255.
Harnung, S. E., Sch?iffer, C. E.: Real Irreducible Tensorial Sets and their Application to the
Ligand-Field Theory. Vol. 12, pp. 257-295.
Hathaway, B. J.: The Evidence for "Out-of-the Plane" Bonding in Axial Complexes of the Copper(II)
Ion. Vol. 14, pp. 49-67.
Hathaway, B. J.: A New Look at the Stereochemistry and Electronic Properties of Complexes of the
Copper(II) Ion. Vol. 57, pp. 55-118.
Hellner, E. E.: The Frameworks (Bauverb~inde) of the Cubic Structure Types. Vol. 37, pp. 61-140.
yon Herigonte, P.: Electron Correlation in the Seventies. Vol. 12, pp. 1-47.
Hemmerich, P., Michel, H., Schug, C., Massey, V.: Scope and Limitation of Single Electron Transfer in
Biology. Vol. 48, pp. 93-124.
Hider, R. C.: Siderophores Mediated Absorption of Iron. Vol. 58, pp. 25-88.
Hill, H. A. 0., R~der, A., Williams, R. J. P.: The Chemical Nature and Reactivity of Cytochrome
P-450. Vol. 8, pp. 123-151.
Hogenkamp, H. P. C., Sando, G. N.." The Enzymatic Reduction of Ribonucleotides. Vol. 20, pp. 23-58.
Hoffmann, D. K., Ruedenberg, K., Verkade, J. G.: Molecular Orbital Bonding Concepts in Polyatomic
Molecules-A Novel Pictorial Approach. Vol. 33, pp. 57-96.
HUbert, S., Hussonnois, M., Guillaumont, R.: Measurement of Complexing Constants by Radiochem-
ical Methods. Vol. 34, pp. 1-18.
Hudson, R. F.: Displacement Reactions and the Concept of Soft and Hard Acids and Bases. Vol. 1,
pp. 221-223.
Hulliger, F.: Crystal Chemistry of Chalcogenides and Pnictides of the Transition Elements. Vol. 4,
pp. 83-229.
Ibers, J. A., Pace, L. J., Martinsen, J., Hoffman, B. M.: Stacked Metal Complexes: Structures and
Properties. Vol. 50, pp. 1-55.
lqbal, Z.: Intra- und Inter-Molecular Bonding and Structure of Inorganic Pseudohalides with
Triatomic Groupings. Vol. 10, pp. 25-55.
Izatt, R. M , Eatough, D. J., Christensen, J. J.: Thermodynamics of Cation-Macrocyclic Compound
Interaction. Vol. 16, pp. 161-189.
,lain, V. K., Bohra, R., Mehrotra, R. C.: Structure and Bonding in Organic Derivatives of Antimony(V).
Vol. 52, pp. 147-196.
Jerome-Lerutte, S.." Vibrational Spectra and Structural Properties of Complex Tetracyanides of Plati-
num, Palladium and Nickel. Vol. 10, pp. 153-166.
Jorgensen, C. K,: Electric Polarizability, Innocent Ligands and Spectroscopic Oxidation States. Vol. 1,
pp. 234--248.
Jorgensen, C. K.. Recent Progress in Ligand Field Theory. Vol. 1, pp. 3-31.
Jorgensen, C. K.: Relationshions between Softness, Covalent Bonding, Ionicity and Electric Polar-
izability. Vol. 3, pp. 106-115.
Jorgensen, C. K.." Valence-Shell Expansion Studied by Ultra-violet Spectroscopy. Vol. 6, pp. 94-115.
Jorgensen, C. K.: The Inner Mechanism of Rare Earths Elucidated by Photo-Electron Spectra. Vol. 13,
pp. 199-253.
Jorgensen, C. K.: Partly Filled Shells Constituting Anti-bonding Orbitals with Higher Ionization
Energy than their Bonding Counterparts. Vol. 22, pp. 49-81.
Jorgensen, C. If.: Photo-electron Spectra of Non-metallic Solids and Consequences for Quantum
Chemistry. Vol. 24, pp. 1-58.
Jorgensen, C. K.: Narrow Band Thermoluminescence (Candoluminescence) of Rare Earths in Auer
Mantles. Vol. 25, pp. 1-20.
Jorgensen, C. K.: DeeP-lying Valence Orbitals and Problems of Degeneracy and Intensities in Photo-
electron Spectra. Vol. 30, pp. 141-192.
Jorgensen, C. K.: Predictable Quarkonium Chemistry. Vol. 34, pp. 19-38.
Jorgensen, C. K.: The Conditions for Total Symmetry Stabilizing Molecules, Atoms, Nuclei and
Hadrons. Vol. 43, pp. 1-36.
Jorgensen, C. K., Reisfeld, R: Uranyl Photophysics. Vol. 50, pp. 121-171.
O'Keeffe, M.: The Prediction and Interpretation of Bond Lengths in Crystals. Vol. 71, pp. 161-190.
O'Keeffe, M., Hyde, B. G.. An Alternative Approach to Non-Molecular Crystal Structures with
Emphasis on the Arrangements of Cations. Vol. 61, pp. 77-144.
Kahn, 0.: Magnetism of the Heteropolymetallic Systems. Vol. 68, pp. 89-167.
Kimura, T,: Biochemical Aspects of Iron Sulfur Linkage in None-Heme Iron Protein, with Special
Reference to "Adrenodoxin". Vol. 5, pp. 1-40.
Kitagawa, T., Ozaki, Y.: Infrared and Raman Spectra of Metalloporphyrins. Vol. 64, pp. 71-114.
Kiwi, J., Kalyanasundaram, K., Gratzel, M.: Visible Light Induced Cleavage of Water into Hydrogen
and Oxygen in Colloidal and Microheterogeneous Systems. Vol. 49, pp. 37-125.
Kjekshus, A., Rakke, T.: Considerations on the Valence Concept. Vol. 19, pp. 45-83.
Kjekshus, A., Rakke, T.: Geometrical Considerations on the Marcasite Type Structure. Vol. 19,
pp. 85-104.
Kdnig, E.: The Nephelauxelic Effect. Calculation and Accuracy of the Interelectronic Repulsion
Parameters I. Cubic High-Spin d 2, d 3, d 7 and d 8 Systems. Vol. 9, pp. 175-212.
Kb'pf-Maier, P., Kb'pf, H.. Transition and Main-Group Metal Cyclopentadienyl Complexes: Preclini-
cal Studies on a Series of Antitumor Agents of Different Structural Type. Vol. 70, pp. 103-185.
Koppikar, D. K., Sivapullaiah, P. V., Ramakrishnan, L., Soundararajan, S.: Complexes of the Lanthan-
ides with Neutral Oxygen Donor Ligands. Vol. 34, pp. 135-213.
Krause, R.: Synthesis of Ruthenium(II) Complexes of Aromatic Chelating Heterocycles: Towards the
Design of Luminescent Compounds. Vol. 67, pp. 1-52.
Krumholz, P.: Iron(II) Diimine and Related Complexes. Vol. 9, pp. 139-174.
Kustin, K., McLeod, G. C., Gilbert, T. R., Briggs, LeB. R., 4th.." Vanadium and Other Metal Ions in the
Physiological Ecology of Marine Organisms. Vol. 53, pp. 137-158.
Labarre, J. F.." Conformational Analysis in Inorganic Chemistry: Semi-Empirical Quantum Calcula-
tion vs. Experiment. Vol. 35, pp. 1-35.
Lammers, M., Follmann, H.: The Ribonucleotide Reductases: A Unique Group of Metalloenzymes
Essential for Cell Proliferation. Vol. 54, pp. 27-91.
Lehn, J.-M.: Design of Organic Complexing Agents. Strategies towards Properties. Vol. 16, pp. 1-69.
Linarks, C., Louat, A., Blanchard, M.: Rare-Earth Oxygen Bonding in the LnMO4Xenotime Structure.
Vol. 33, pp. 179-207.
Lindskog, S.: Cobalt(II) in Metalloenzymes. A Reporter of Structure-Function Relations. Vol. 8,
pp. 153-196.
Liu, A., Neilands, J. B.: Mutational Analysis of Rhodotorulic Acid Synthesis in Rhodotorula pilimanae.
Vol. 58, pp. 97-106.
Livorness, J., Smith, T.: The Role of Manganese in Photosynthesis. Vol. 48, pp. 1-44.
Llin&s, M.: Metal-Polypeptide Interactions: The Conformational State of Iron Proteins. Vol. 17,
pp. 135-220.
Lucken, E. A. C.: Valence-Shell Expansion Studied by Radio-Frequency Spectroscopy. Vol. 6, pp. 1-29
Ludi, A., Giidel, H. U.: Structural Chemistry of Polynuclear Transition Metal Cyanides. Vol. 14,
pp. 1-21.
Lutz, H. D.: Bonding and Structure of Water Molecules in Solid Hydrates. Correlation of Spectro-
scopic and Structural Data. Vol. 69, pp. 125.
Maggiora, G. M., Ingraham, L. L.: Chlorophyll Triplet States. Vol. 2, pp. 126-159.
Magyar, B.: Salzebullioskopie III. Vol. 14, pp. 111-140.
Makovicky, E., Hyde, B. G.: Non-Commensurate (Misfit) Layer Structures. Vol. 46, pp. 101-170.
Manes, L., Benedict, U.: Structural and Thermodynamic Properties of Actinide Solids and Their
Relation to Bonding. Vol. 59/60, pp. 75-125.
Mann, S.: Mineralization in Biological Systems. Vol. 54, pp. 125-174.
Mason, S. F.: The Ligand Polarization Model for the Spectra of Metal Complexes: The Dynamic
Coupling Transition Probabilities. Vol. 39, pp. 43-81.
Mathey, F., Fischer, J., Nelson, J. H.: Complexing Modes of the Phosphole Moiety. Vol. 55,
pp. 153-201.
Mayer, U., Gutmann, 1I.: Phenomenological Approach to Cation-Solvent Interactions. Vol. 12,
pp. 113-140.
Mildvan, A. S., Grisham, C. M.: The Role of Divalent Cations in the Mechanism of Enzyme Catalyzed
Phosphoryl and Nucleotidyt. Vol. 20, pp. 1-21.
Mingos, D. M. P., Hawes, J. C.." Complementary Spherical Electron Density Model. Vol. 63, pp. 1-63.
Mingos, D. M. P., Johnston, R. L.: Theoretical Models of Cluster Bonding. Vol. 68, pp. 29-87.
Mingos, D. M. P., Zhenyang, L.: Non-Bonding Orbitals in Co-Ordination, Hydrocarbon and Cluster
Mingos, D. M. P., Zhenyang, L.: Hybridization Schemes for Co-ordination and Organometallic
Moreau-Colin, M. L.: Electronic Spectra and Structural Properties of Complex Tetracyanides of
Platinum, Palladium and Nickel. Vol. 10, pp. 167-190.
Morgan, B., Dophin, D.: Synthesis and Structure of Biometric Porphyrins. Vol. 64, pp. 115-204.
Morris, D. F. C.: Ionic Radii and Enthalpies of Hydration of Ions. Vol. 4, pp. 63-82.
Morris, D. F. C.: An Appendix to Structure and Bonding. Vol. 4 (1968). Vol. 6, pp. 157-159.
Mortensen, O. S.: A Noncommuting-Generator Approach to Molecular Symmetry. Vol. 68, pp. 1-28.
Mortier, J. W.: Electronegativity Equalization and its Applications. Vol. 66, pp. 125-143.
Mailer, A., Baran, E. J., Carter, R. 0.: Vibrational Spectra of Oxo-, Thio-, and Selenometallates of
Transition Elements in the Solid State. Vol. 26, pp. 81-139.
Miiller, A., Diemann, E., Jorgensen, C. K.: Electronic Spectra of Tetrahedral Oxo, Thio and Seleno
Complexes Formed by Elements of the Beginning of the Transition Groups. Vol. 14, pp. 23-47.
Miiller, U.: Strukturchemie der Azide. Vol. 14, pp. 141-172.
Mailer, W., Spirlet, J.-C.: The Preparation of High Purity Actinide Metals and Compounds. Vol.
59/60, pp. 57-73.
Mullay, J. J.: Estimation of Atomic and Group Electronegativities. Vol. 66, pp. 1-25.
Murrell, J. N.: The Potential Energy Surfaces of Polyatomic Molecules. Vol. 32, pp. 93-146.
Naegele, J. R., Ghijsen, J.: Localization and Hybridization of 5 f States in the Metallic and Ionic Bond
as Investigated by Photoelectron Spectroscopy. Vol. 59/60, pp. 197-262.
Nag, K., Bose, S. N.: Chemistry of Tetra- and Pentavalent Chromium. Vol. 63, pp. 153-197.
Neilands, J. B.." Naturally Occurring Non-porphyrin Iron Compounds. Vol. 1, pp~,59-108.
Neilands, J. B.: Evolution of Biological Iron Binding Centers. Vol. 11, pp. 145-170.
Neilands, J. B.: Methodology of Siderophores. Vol. 58, pp. 1-24.
Nieboer, E.." The Lanthanide Ions as Structural Probes in Biological and Model Systems. Vol. 22,
pp. 1-47.
Novack, A.: Hydrogen Bonding in Solids. Correlation of Spectroscopic and Crystallographic Data.
Vol. 18, pp. 177-216.
Nultsch, W., Hgtder, D.-P.: Light Perception and Sensory Transduction in Photosynthetic
Prokaryotes. Vol. 41, pp. 111-139.
Odom, J. D.: Selenium Biochemistry. Chemical and Physical Studies. Vol. 54, pp. 1-26.
Oelkrug, D.." Absorption Spectra and Ligand Field Parameters of Tetragonal 3d-Transition Metal
Fluorides. Vol. 9, pp. 1-26.
Oosterhuis, IV. T.: The Electronic State, of Iron in Some Natural Iron Compounds: Determination by
M6ssbauer and ESR Spectroscopy. Vol. 20, pp. 59-99.
Orchin, M., Bollinger, D. M.." Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange in Aromatic Compounds. Vol. 23, pp.
167-193.
Peacock, R. D.: The Intensities of Lanthanide f*-~f Transitions. Vol. 22, pp. 83-122.
Penneman, R. A., Ryan, R. R., Rosenzweig, A.: Structural Systematics in Actinide Fluoride Complexes.
Vol. 13, pp. 1-52.
Powell, R. C., Blasse, G.: Energy Transfer in Concentrated Systems. Vol. 42, pp. 43-96.
Que, Jr., L.: Non-Heme Iron Dioxygenases. Structure and Mechanism. Vol. 40, pp. 39-72.
Ramakrishna, V. V., Patil, S. K.: Synergic Extraction of Actinides. Vol. 56, pp. 35-90.
Raymond, K. N., Smith, W. L.: Actinide-Specific Sequestering Agents and Decontamination Ap-
plications. Vol. 43, pp. 159-186.
Reedijk, J., Fichtinger-Schepman, A. M. J., Oosterom, A. T. van, Putte, P. van de: Platinum Amine
Coordination Compounds as Anti-Tumor Drugs. Molecular Aspects of the Mechanism of Action.
Vol. 67, pp. 53-89.
Reinen, D.." Ligand-Field Spectroscopy and Chemical Bonding in C& +-Containing Oxidic Solids. Vol.
6, pp. 30-51.
Reinen, D.: Kationenverteilung zweiwertiger 3dn-Ionen in oxidischen Spinell-, Gi'anat- und anderen
Strukturen. Vol. 7, pp. 114-154.
Reinen, D., Friebel, C.: Local and Cooperative Jahn-Teller Interactions in Model Structures. Spectro-
scopic and Structural Evidence. Vol. 37, pp. 1-60.
Reisfeld, R.: Spectra and Energy Transfer of Rare Earths in Inorganic Glasses. Vol. 13, pp. 53-98.
Reisfeld, R.: Radiative and Non-Radiative Transitions of Rare Earth Ions in Glasses. Vol. 22,
pp. 123-175.
Reisfeld, R.: Excited States and Energy Transfer from Donor Cations to Rare Earths in the Condensed
Phase. Vol. 30, pp. 65-97.
Reisfeld, R., Jorgensen, C. K.." Luminescent Solar Concentrators for Energy Conversion. Vol. 49,
pp. 1-36.
Reisfeld, R., Jorgensen, C. K.: Excited States of Chromium(llI) in Translucent Glass-Ceramics as
Prospective Laser Materials. Vol. 69, pp. 63-96.
Russo, V. E. A.I Galland, P.: Sensory Physiology of Phycomyces Blakesleeanus. Vol. 41, pp. 71-110.
R~diger, W.: Phytochrome, a Light Receptor of Plant Photomorphogenesis. Vol. 40. pp. 101-140.
Ryan, R. R., Kubas, G. J., Moody, D. C., Eller, P. G.: Structure and Bonding of Transition
Metal-Sulfur Dioxide Complexes. Vol. 46, pp. 47-100.
Sadler, P. J.." The Biological Chemistry of Gold: A Metallo-Drug and Heavy-Atom Label with
Variable Valency. Vol. 29, pp. 171-214.
Schfiffer, C. E.: A Perturbation Representation of Weak Covalent Bonding. Vol. 5, pp. 68-95.
Sch'hffer, C. E.: Two Symmetry Parameterizations of the Angular-Overlap Model of the Ligand-Field.
Relation to the Crystal-Field Model. Vol. 14, pp. 69-110.
Scheidt, W. R., Lee, Y. J.: Recent Advances in the Stereochemistry of Metallotetrapyrroles. Vol. 64,
pp. 1-70.
Schmid, G.: Developments in Transition Metal Cluster Chemistry. The Way to Large Clusters. Vol. 62,
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Schmidt, P. C.: Electronic Structure of Intermetallic B 32 Type Zintl Phases. Vol. 65, pp. 91-133.
Schmidtke, H.-H., Degen, J.: A Dynamic Ligand Field Theory for Vibronic Structures Rationalizing
Electronic Spectra of Transition Metal Complex Compounds. Vol. 71, pp. 99-124.
Schneider, IV.: Kinetics and Mechanism of Metalloporphyrin Formation. Vol. 23, pp. 123-166.
Schubert, K.: The Two-Correlations Model, a Valence Model for Metallic Phases. Vol. 33, pp. 139-177.
Schutte, C. J. H.: The Ab-Initio Calculation of Molecular Vibrational Frequencies and Force Con-
stants. Vol. 9, pp. 213-263.
Schweiger, A.: Electron Nuclear Double Resonance of Transition Metal Complexes with Organic
Ligands. Vol. 51, pp. 1-122.'
Sen, K. D., Bbhm, M. C.~ Schmidt, P. C.: Electronegativity of Atoms and Molecular Fragments. Vol.
66, pp. 99-123.
Shamir, J.: Polyhalogen Cations. Vol. 37, pp. 141-210.

Shannon, R. D., Vincent, H.." Relationship between Covalency, Interatomic Distances, and Magnetic
Properties in Halides and Chalcogenides. Vol. 19, pp. 1-43.
Shriver, D. F.: The Ambident Nature of Cyanide. Vol. 1, pp. 32-58.
Siegel, F. L.: Calcium-Binding Proteins. Vol. 17, pp. 221-268.
Simon, A.: Structure and Bonding with Alkali Metal Suboxides. Vol. 36, pp. 81-127.
Simon, W., Morf, W. E., Meier, P. Ch.: Specificity for Alkali and Alkaline Earth Cations of Synthetic
and Natural Organic Complexing Agents in Membranes. Vol. 16, pp. 113-160.
Simonetta, M., Gavezzotti, A.: Extended Hiickel Investigation of Reaction Mechanisms. Vol. 27,
pp. 1-43.
Sinha, S. P.: Structure and Bonding in Highly Coordinated Lanthanide Complexes. Vol. 25,
pp. 67-147.
Sinha, S. P.: A systematic Correlation of the Properties of the f-Transition Metal Ions. Vol. 30,
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72

Structure and Bonding

Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Springer WWW home page: http://www.springeronline.com

ISSN 0081-5993 (Print)

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990

Crown Thioether Chemistry

Hybridization Schemes for Co-ordination and Organometallic

The 1H N M R Parameters of Magnetically Coupled

Probing Metalloproteins by Voltammetry

Author Index Volumes 1-72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Stephen R. Cooper* and Simon C. Rawle

Structure and Bonding 72

Applications and Future Directions ............................................. 66

References and Notes ........................................................ 68

1.1 Scope of the Review

Fig. 1. Crown thioethers discussed in this review 18 S 6 2 4S 6

conformations. These can only be studied by diffraction methods. Analysis of

one that is well-suited to study the effect of systematic geometric deformations on

1.3 rt-Acidity, d-orbital Participation, and Charge Neutral&ation

1.5 Properties of Crown Thioethers

Their disadvantages center mostly on their relatively low G-donor ability.

1.6 Synthesis of Complexes

2 Ligand Conformations; Implications for Binding

Conformational analysis of crown thioethers builds upon the pioneering of Dale

2.1 Ethyl-linked Crown Thioethers, i.e. ( S C H e C H 2 ) n

_jH C S ............. S S~C~C~S

2.2 Crown Thioethers Containing Propyl Linkages

The conformational preferences discussed above express themselves more clearly in

Fig. 4. Structures of free 14S4,

Table 1. Crown Thioethers: Crystal Structure Determinations

Complex Ideal. M-S, A Remarks Ref.

Complex Ideal. M-S, A, Remarks Ref.

[Rh(9S3)(COD)] + C~ 2.452(1)2.448(1) 2.308(1) Rh-C 2.098(2) [130]

Complex Ideal. M-S,/k Remarks Ref.

[Mo(N)2(Me8-16S4)] + Oh 2.424(2)2.428(2) trans isomer; [188]

As discussed above, the preferred conformations at C-S and C - O bonds differ in

Structurally, 12S3 sets in opposition the conflicting priorities of a quadrangular

In crown thioethers the heteroatoms often adopt exodentate orientations, in

3 Coordination Chemistry [88]

A recurrent theme in the coordination chemistry of crown thioethers concerns the

3.1 Tridentate Crown Thioethers

3.1.1 9s3 - First-row Metals

Among crown thioethers 9S3 is unique in retaining its conformation on binding to

conformation confers unique stability on chelating 9S3 complexes. Owing to its

[Mn(CO)3(9S3) ]+ + NOBF 4 , [Mn(CO)2(9S3)C1] (lc)

~L.~n.,. ~<1©\ ~<1 -./\

F e ( C 1 0 4 ) 2 . 6 H 2 0 ) (Fig. 5) [74, 96]. Surprisingly, in view of the relatively weak

(oxidant = electrode, PbO2)

[Fe(9S3)2] 2+ + 82 O 2 - , [Fe(9S3)(9S3(O))] 2 + (2c)

Electrochemically [Fe(9S3)2] 2+ shows a reversible one-electron oxidation at

Table 2. Crown Thioether Complexes: Redox Potentials

Couple Ef / V Remarks Ref.

Couple Ef/V Remarks Ref.

c Rawle, S. C.; Cooper, S. R.; unpublished work

or by electrochemical means affords the highly reactive, low-spin (Table 5) green

Co(II) complexes [101].

(oxidant = electrode, 82 O 2 - , NOBF4)

[Co(9S3)21 z + also undergoes an intriguing reduction (electrochemically revers-