Vol. 11(24), pp.

992-1012, 28 June, 2017

DOI: 10.5897/AJMR2016.8402
Article Number: 0034F6765054
ISSN 1996-0808 African Journal of Microbiology Research
Copyright © 2017
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJMR

Review

Microbial degradation of pesticide: A review

Satish G. Parte1,3, Ashokrao D. Mohekar3 and Arun S. Kharat2*
1
Department of Zoology, M.J.S.College, Shrigonda, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India.
2
Department of Biotechnology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Subcampus, Osmanabad, India.
3
ShikshanMaharshiDnyandeo Mohekar Mahavidyalaya, Kalamb, Osmanabad, India.
Received 29 November, 2016; Accepted 14 June, 2017

Excessive use of pesticides has been known to be hazardous to the environment, affect soil fertility as
well may impart toxicity in living beings. Presently there have been physical, chemical, biological and
enzymatic approaches implicated to reduce pesticides. Although aimed to eradicate, physical and
chemical methods are inefficient. Curiously, microbial pesticide remediation has been cost effective
and thermodynamically more affordable, which may use any physical mater soiled with pesticide. Under
favourable conditions microbes have been reported to use pesticides as source of carbon, sulphur and
electron donor. Microbes; bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi have been found to help remove or
detoxify chlorinated pesticides; polychlorinated diphenyl, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
organophosphorus. Major bacterial genera includes; Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium,
Moraxalla, Acinetobacter, Arthrobacter, Paracoccus, Aerobacter, Alkaligens, Burkholderia and
Sphingomonas. Fungi with pesticide degradation potential includes;Fusarium, Aspergilus niger,
Penicillium, Lentinulaedodes, Lecanicillium, Oxysporum. Among the Actinomycetes theStreptomycetes
have been found to successfully detoxify pesticides. Persistent organic pollutants in the form of
pesticides have also been reported to be taken care by the microbial enzymes viz-a-viz; dehydrogenase,
ligninase, oxygenase, peroxidises, phosphotriesterase, hydrolases, dehalogenase, laccase and
organophosphorus acid anhydrolase. Microbial strategies and tools; enzymes and genes involved in
pesticide catabolism are reviewed.

Key words: Chlorinated pesticides, organophosphors pesticides, bacteria, fungi, enzyme.

INTRODUCTION

Pesticides are organic chemical purposely presumably food storage. Recently, over 500 compounds are
intended for increasing agricultural yield, soil productivity, registered and used worldwide as pesticides or
products quality, minimizing losses of agricultural metabolites of pesticides. After World War II the use of
products caused by crop peet and to control the insect pesticide in agriculture field has progressively increased
vectors for prevention of the outbreak of human and leading to increased world food production. Amongst the
animal epidemics. Increased use of the pesticide and South Asian countries of the total pesticide consumption,
herbicides in agriculture has also been implemented for India is largest of pesticide consumer country which

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: + 91-240-2403227. Fax: +91-240-2403335.

Author(s) agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
 Parte et al. 993

account for 3% of the world consumption for crop STRATEGIES FOR PESTICIDE REMEDIATION
protection. The most commonly used pesticides in India
include organophosphates, organochlorins, neonicotiniods Due to the problems of pesticide contamination, for
etc. As per definition of ideal pesticide, a pesticide must effective clean- up of a particular polluted site, the
be lethal to the targeted pests, but not to non-target development of technologies that guarantee their
species, including man but unfortunately, this is not so, elimination in a safe, efficient and economical way is
hence the controversy of use and abuse of pesticides has important. Ideally, treatment should result in the
came into the light. However, due to their unplanned and destruction of the compound without the generation of
indiscriminate use, only 10% of applied pesticides reach intermediates (Frazer, 2000). Nowadays different
the target organism and the remaining high percentage of methods have been developed in order to reduce effects
it is deposited on non target areas such as soil, water, of pesticides on the environment and health, for
sediments and causes serious environmental pollution. remediation of contaminated sites and for the treatment
Similarly they also causes impacts onto non target of pesticide residues. The existing technologies are those
organism such as wild life, besides affecting public that apply physical treatments, such as adsorption and
health. There are now overwhelming evidence of some of percolator filters; chemical treatments such as the
these chemicals that cause unwanted side effects to the advanced oxidation which involve the use of powerful
environment and do pose potential risk humans and other transient species, mainly the hydroxyl radical. One of the
life forms (Jeyaratnam,1985; Igbedioh, 1991; Forget, popular technique used to study pesticide degradationis
1993). According to the ICMR bulletin report about 1 the heterogeneous photocatalysis with TiO2 (Ferrusquía
million deaths and chronic illnesses are reported per year et al., 2008). The high temperature incineration in special
due pesticide poisoning world-wide. Because of the furnaces is currently used method, in which pesticides
potential hazards to the nature and humans many of the are packaged in the places where they were abandoned,
pollutants which are toxic in nature were subsequently then transported to a country that has special facilities to
banned. Although their use has been discontinued from dispose off hazardous wastes. The estimated cost of
long time, these chemicals accumulate in soils and these operations by FAO varies is between 3,000 and
sediments where they can enter the food chain directly or 4,000 USD/ton (Ortiz-Hernández et al., 2002). The
percolate down to the water bodies. One of the features degradation of these compounds also carried out by
of modern agriculture for higher crop yield is the use of other strategies that include the photodegradation
insecticides for controlling plant pests. After application of (Torres-Duarte et al., 2009). However all these methods
the insecticides by missing the „target‟ they may reach are not cost effective and have several disadvantages. In
the soil or run-off from stems and leaves (Omar, 1998). the case of organophosphates, the alkaline hydrolysis is
Most of the pesticides becomes persistent pollutant used, which must include a rigorous control of the
because of their relative stable nature, and most of the conditions under which the experiments are performed,
time the extreme toxic nature results in to the severe such as maintenance of alkaline pH, as well as the
cases of pesticide poisoning, which is becoming the issue presence of complexes formed with metal ions, which
of concern nowadays. The environmental awareness has involves the formation of secondary pollutants. All of
increased which resulted into development of regulatory these conventional physicochemical approaches have
measures that help to remediate past mistakes and many drawbacks like their high expensiveness and their
protect the environment from future contamination and remediation is often incomplete due to the conversion of
exploitation (Frazer, 2000). The overview of the present the parent compound to metabolites which are more
scenario of hazardous compounds needs the promising persistent and equally or more toxic to non-target
tools for remediation of these hazardous compounds organisms (Singh and Thakur, 2006). To remove
from the environment. Nowadays the governments and pesticide from contaminated environment following
higher authorities of different countries are taking firm measures are used.
steps towards these critical issues. For this reason, it is
necessary to generate strategies for the bioremediation
of polluted sites and waste treatment. From an Thermal desorption (at low temperature)
economical and environmental point of view, the biological
treatment is an important technology. Recently, the use The ex situ clean up technology frequently used to de-
of native or genetically modified organism to degrade or contaminate pesticide polluted sites is thermal desorption
remove pesticides has emerged as a powerful technology at low temperature. But these strategies require highly
for in situ remediation. There are many investigation specialized facility and carry a comparatively high cost.
reports of different organisms like bacteria, algae, yeasts, The semi-volatile and volatile organic compounds,
fungus and plants, characterized in relation to their including pesticides, are removed from soils and it is also
genome and the enzymes that they produce, that can be able to remove pesticides from sludge, sediments and
utilized for waste treatment or bioremediation of soil and filter cakes. The process involve heating of media
water. between 300 and 1000°F, which results into the
994 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

volatilization, but not the destruction of organic Cabomba aquatic to uptake pesticides; copper suplphate,
compounds. The formed organic compounds in the flazasulfuron and dimethomorth were studied by Olette et
contaminated gas stream are then treated by either al. (2008). All of these three plants were able to conduct
passing through an after burner where the contaminants phytoremediation of pesticides successfully.
are completely destroyed or condensed. This process Two fungicides; dimethomorph and pyrimethanil
would convert the gas into a liquid phase for further removal from water by five macrophytes; L. minor, S.
treatment or they are captured by carbon adsorption beds polyrhiza, C. aqautica, C. palustris and E. candensis
which make their immobilization, but do not destroy the were studied by Dosnon-Olette et.al (2009). Experiments
contaminants. conducted in laboratory were able to remove 10 to 18%
dimethomorph and 7-2% pyrimethanil during four days
incubation window period. The maximum removal rate
Incineration during the test period was found to be 48 mg/gm fresh
weight for dimethomorph and 33 mg/g for pyrimethanil.
Another proven and most frequently used technology to Out of five, the L. minor and S. polyrhiza showed the
remediate pesticide contaminated sites is incineration. highest removal efficiency towards these fungicides
Unlike desorption approach incineration causes complete (Dosnon-Olette et al., 2009). Phytoremediation of
destruction of contaminant. The soil, sludge or sediments Chlorpyrifos in greenhouse conditions with water lettuce;
with organic contaminants are best been removed bt Pistia stratiotes L and dukeweed L. minor L were
incinerator. The organic compounds from the addressed by Prasertsup et al. (2011). Relative growth
contaminated media are subsequently oxidized by rate (RGR) studies at initial chlorpyrifos concentrations
applying heat and oxygen. The first stage of incineration up to 0.5 mg/L did not affect plant growth however RGR
involves heating of the contaminated media at was found to be affected at or above 1 mg/L chlorpyrifos
temperature between 1,000 and 1,800°F that result in concentration. RGR inhibition was found to be -0.036
partial oxidation and the volatilization of the organics. The mg/g/day for P. stratiotes while it was -0.023 mg/g/day for
second stage results in the complete destruction of L. minor. The maximum removal of chlorpyrifos by P.
organics which operates at temperatures between 1,600 stratiotes and L. minor was noticed when chlorpyrifos
and 2,200°F. The resulting ash can then be disposed off was at an initial culture concentration of 0.5 mg/L, was 82
in a landfill, if it meets safety regulations. and 87%, respectively. The bioconcentration factor (BCF)
of L.minor was significantly greater than that for P.
stratiotes and therefore, at least under this greenhouse-
Phytoremediation based conditions; L. minor was more efficient than P.
stratiotes for the accelerated removal of chlorpyrifos from
The cost-effective and aesthetically-pleasing method of water. In their study Riaz et al. (2017) indicated
remediating contaminated sites is an innovative phytoremediation of pyrethroids by macrophytes and
technology is the phytoremediation (U.S. EPA, 1999, algae in freshwater was superior over organochlorine.
2000). In natural ecosystems, substances generated by The Saccharaum officinarum (sugarcane) along with
nature are metabolized by plants, which act as filters. Candida was found to exhibit augmented removal of
Phytoremediation is new emerging technology that uses lindane in doped soil (Salam et al., 2017). Removal rate
plants to remove contaminants from soil and water (U.S. for atrazine from eutrophicated lakes in China with
EPA, 1999, 2000; Raskin et al., 2000). Many studies Potamogeton crispus-planted and Myriophyllum
have been carried out to determine the effectiveness of spicatum-planted sediments could reach over 90%. The
remediating persistent pollutants with various plant half life of atrazine was significantly reduced from 14.3 to
species and more results are frequently being reported. 8.6 days with P. crispus and 9.72 days with M. spicatum
Pesticide biotransformation in plants with reference to (Qu et al., 2017). In an alternative studies removal of
similarities and dissimilarities has been documented by atrazine was effectively achieved with prairie grass
Hall et al. (2000). Phytoremediation of ethion, a (Khrunyk et al., 2017) and shrub willows (Lafleur et al.,
phosphorus pesticide was studied with water hyacinth; 2016). Wang et al. (2016) under laboratory conditions
Eichhornia crassipes (Huilong el al., 2006). The study assessed the potential of Acorus calamus to remove
reported that ethion disappearance rate constants in chlorpyrifos at low concentration from water. While
culture solutions for non-sterile planted were 0.01059, phytoremediation of terbuthylazine from polluted solution
sterile planted were 0.00930, non-sterile unplanted were was found be effective with Festica arundinacea. Studies
-1
0.00294, and sterile unplanted were 0.00201 h . These reported that herbicide detoxification was due to
rate constants were significantly divergent and indicated Glutathion S-transferase and ascorbate peroxidase
that plant uptake and phytodegradation contributed 69% (Buono et al., 2016). Removal of terbuthylazine with
and while microbial degradation contributed 12% to the Italian ryegrass Lolium multiflorum L (Mimmo et al., 2015)
removal of the applied ethion. was studied in liquid solutions. Phytoremediation of
Capacity of lemna minor, Elodea Canadensis and imazalil and tebuconazole (Lv et al., 2016) from
 Parte et al. 995

contaminated water was studied with four wet land plants; enhanced by bioremediation. This enhancement is
Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Iris pseudacorus carried out by supplementing these microorganisms with
and Juncus effuses. The use of edible crops such as; nutrients, carbon sources or electron donors. The
tomato, sunflower, soyabean and alfalfa for removal of process can be carried out by using indigenous
endosulfan was reported by Mitton et al., (2016) and with microorganisms or by adding an enriched culture of
Vetiveria ziananioides L Nash in two cottons soils from microorganisms. Microbes utilize their inherent specific
Burkina Faso (Abaga et al 2014). Among this sunflower characteristics to degrade desired contaminant at a
was found to efficiently remove endosulfan from quicker rate. The result of bioremediation is the complete
contaminated soil. Human p450 transgenic A. thalinana mineralization of contaminants to H2O and CO2 without
was able to remove herbicide simazine of up to 250 the build-up of intermediates. For effective bioremediation,
µmole while nontransgenic plants were unable to tolerate microorganisms must enzymaticaly attack the pollutants
simazine of 50 µmole (Azab et al., 2016). In situ and convert them to less toxic products. An effective
cultivation of second generation biofuel crop, Miscanthus bioremediation can be achieved only where environmental
X giganteus was found to efficiently eliminate risk conditions permit microbial growth and activity; its
associated with both environmental and health due to application often involves the manipulation of
contamination of organochlorines (Nurzhanova et al., environmental conditions to allow microbial growth and
2015). Removal of pentachlorophenol (PCP) was studied degradation to proceed at a faster rate (Lacey and
(Hechmi et al., 2014). Four plant species, white clover, Goettel, 1995; Vidali, 2001). Bioremediation processes
ryegrass, alfalfa and rapeseed were grown in soil with or can be broadly classified into two categories, ex situ and
without PCP. Mixed cropping could almost remove 89% in situ. The ex situ bioremediation technologies involves
of PCP from contaminate soil. Transgenic tobacco plants the use of bioreactors, biofilters, land farming and some
expressing bacterial bphC gene was found to remove composting methods whereas in situ includes bio-
polychlorinated biphenyls with more efficacy. The stimulation, bioventing, biosparging, liquid delivery
specificity of bacterial enzyme and transgenic plant systems and some composting methods. The low cost
remains unaltered (Viktorovta et al., 2014). An innovative and its effectiveness are the most positive parts of this
ex situ soil washing technology was developed in this technology.
study to remediate organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and
heavy metals in a mixed contaminated site. This was
effectively achieved with maize oil and carboxymethyl-- APPROACHES FOR BIODEGRADATION OF
cyclodxtrin (Ye et al., 2014). Cyanophos pesticide PESTICIDES
removal with the use of Plantago major L in water was
reported by Romeh (2014). The performance of Cytisus The various biological systems, as microorganisms, have
striatus in association with different microbial inoculant been used to biotransform pesticides. The bacteria and
treatments on the dissipation of the insecticide fungi are the major entities involved in the pesticide
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) was studied (Becerra- biodegradation. The fraction of the soil biota, when are
castro et al., 2013). Soil dependent dissipation of HCH continuously applied to the soil, they can quickly develop
was found to be modified with microbial inoculation. the ability to degrade certain pesticides. For certain soil
Ability to dissipate HCH without microbes was improved microorganisms, these chemicals provide adequate
by 2.5 times with the use of microbial inoculation. Ability carbon source and electron donors (Galli, 2002), and
of Ricinus communis L, tropical plant species, to promote thus establishing a way for the treatment of pesticide-
the degradation of 15 persistent organic pollutants contaminated sites (Qiu et al., 2007). The absence of the
(POPs) in a 66 days period was assessed by Rissato et microbial systems that has the pesticide degrading
al. (2015). The pollutants used include; hexachloro- enzymes that leads to the persistence of the pesticide in
cyclohexane, DDT, heptachlor and aldrin are a few to the soil. In such cases, where innate microbial population
mention. The vegetation could efficiently remove various of the soil can not be able to manage pesticides, the
POPs between 25 and 70% (Rissato et al., 2015). external addition of pesticide degrading microflora is
recommended (Singh, 2008). Thus for bioremediation of
other chemical compounds to whom any microbial
Bioremediation degradation system is known, the isolated micro-
organisms capable of degrading pesticides can be used
Bioremediation is an innovative technology that is (Singh and Thakur, 2006). However, the transformation
frequently being used for the clean-up of polluted sites. of such compounds depends not only on the presence of
This technology is cost effective and becoming an microorganisms with appropriate degrading enzymes
increasingly attractive clean-up technology. The solid system, but also a wide range of environmental
sludge, soil, and sediment as well as groundwater parameters (Aislabie et al., 1995) such as; temperature,
pollution can be treated by bioremediation. The rate of pH, water potentials and available nutrients. Some of the
the natural microbial degradation of contaminants is pesticides are readily transformed by the microbes
996 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

however; some are recalcitrant in nature (Richins et al., exposure.They act by hyper excitation in the nervous
1997; Mulchandani et al., 1999). Additionally, some other system of the animals, causing acute toxic effects and
aspects such as physiological, ecological, biochemical their death frequently occurs due to respiratory failure
and molecular play important roles in the microbial after the disruption of nervous system function.
transformation of pollutants (Iranzo et al., 2001; Vischetti Organochloride pesticides are cumulative in the
et al., 2002). organisms and causes chronic health effects, like cancer
and neurological and teratogenic effects (Vaccari et al.,
2006).
BACTERIAL DEGRADATION OF PESTICIDES In general, these highly toxic and carcinogenic
compounds persist in the environment for many year.
There are various sources of microorganisms having the Some of the most widely used organochlorine pesticides
ability to degrade pesticides. Generally, microorganisms include, dieldrin, aldrin, alpha-BHC, beta-BHC, delta-
that have been identified as pesticide degraders have BHC, gamma-BHC (Lindane), heptachlor, endosulfan,
been isolated from a wide variety of pesticide methoxychlor, aroclor and dichloro diphenyl trichloro
contaminated sites. The soil is the medium that mostly ethane (DDT) (Menone et al., 2001; Patnaik, 2003)
gets these chemicals, when they are applied to (Figures 1 and 2).
agricultural crops; additionally, the pesticide industry's In 1939, the use of organochlorine pesticides started
effluent, sewage sludge, activated sludge, wastewater, when Paul Hermann Müller realized that the DDT was an
natural waters, sediments, areas surrounding the efficient insecticide (Matolcsy et al., 1988). During the
manufacture of pesticides are also rich source of World War II, for prevention of epidemics of typhus
pesticide degrader. In different laboratories around the transmitted by lice, DDT powder was pulverized on the
world, presently there are collections of microorganisms population‟s skin. In other countries, this insecticide was
identified and characterized for their pesticides also used to control the malaria-bearing mosquitoes
degradation ability. The isolation and characterization of (Konradsen et al., 2004). Although most organochlorine
pesticides degrading microorganisms that is able to give were banned from some countries, organochlorine
the possibility to count with new tools to restore polluted pesticides are still widely studied due to their recalcitrant
environments or to treat wastes before the final nature, that is, even after years since the use has been
disposition. Upon complete biodegradation of the banned, organochlorine contaminated sites are not rare.
pesticide, the carbon dioxide and water are formed by the Both biotic and abiotic factors determine the fate of
oxidation of the parent compound and this process pesticides in the environment. The rate of different
provides the energy to the microbes for their metabolism. pesticides which are undergoes biodegradation varies
The intracellular or extracellular enzymes of the microbes widely.
play major role in the degradation of chemical Some pesticides like DDT and dieldrin are recalcitrant
compounds. and they accumulate in the environment for a long time
and enter into food chains and accumulate for decades
after their application to the soil (Kannan et al., 1994).
Organochlorine pesticide and their degradation The in situ degradation of organochlorine pesticides by
pure cultures has been proven. Among microorganisms,
These are organic compound containing at least one bacteria comprise the major group involved in
covalently bonded chlorine atom and are insecticides organochlorine degradation, especially soil habitants
containing primarily of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine. belonging to genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter
These include a chlorocarbon, chlorinated hydrocarbon, and Micrococcus (Langlois et al., 1970). Matsumura et al.
organochloride, organochlorine or chlorinated solvent. (1968) reported that the evidence of the breakdown of
Organochloride pesticides are synthetic. In the 1970s, dieldrin in the soil by a Pseudomonas sp. Studies with
these were widely used, mainly in the United States. fungi have also evidenced the biodegradation of
Because of their wide structural variety and divergent organochlorine pesticides. Ortega et al. (2011) evaluated
chemical properties it has broad range of applications. marine fungi collected off the coast of São Sebastião,
Because of the effects of these compounds on the North of São Paulo State, Brazil for the biodegradation of
environment use of many derivatives are controversial. organochlorine. The fungi strains were obtained from
Although their use has been banned in many countries, marine sponges. The fungi like Penicillium miczynskii,
they are still used in developing countries. Many xeno- Aspergillus sydowii, Trichoderma sp., Penicillium
biotic compounds, especially the organochloride pesticides raistrickii, and Bionectria sp. were previously tested in
are recalcitrant and resistant to biodegradation (Diaz, solid culture medium for their degradation capability.
2004; Dua et al., 2002; Chaudhry and Chapalamadugu, Table 1 presents some of the microorganisms that were
1991). The rate of breakdown of most of them is slow and able to degrade organochlorine pesticides. An extensive
they can remain in the environment for long time after study on fungal degradation of heptachlor and heptachlor
application and also in organisms long after its epoxide was carried out on the 18 species of white rot
 Parte et al. 997

Figure 1. Structures of organochlorine pesticide.

They proposed the metabolic pathways in five species for epoxide, respectively, after 14 days of incubation. In
degradation of these pesticides. The P. tremellosa, P. these fungal cultures, heptachlor diol and 1-hydroxy-2,3-
brevispora and P. acanthocystis removed about 71, 74 epoxychlordene were produced as metabolites,
and 90% of heptachlor, respectively, after 14 days of suggesting that the hydrolysis and hydroxylation reaction
incubation. The metabolic products of heptachlor from occur in the epoxide ring and in position 1 of heptachlor
most fungal cultures were heptachlor epoxide, 1- epoxide, respectively (Xiao et al., 2010). Successful
hydroxychlordene and 1-hydroxy-2,3-epoxy- chlordene. degradation of the hexachlorocyclohexane in Spingobium
P. acanthocystis, P. brevispora, P. lindtneri and P. aurea indicum, Spingobium japonicum and Spingobium
removed about 16, 16, 22 and 25% of heptachlor francense has been due to uptake and metabolism of the
998 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

Figure 2. Organochlorine: Heptachlor degradation.

pesticide by the lin genes present in these three species could identify organism was able to perform activity
(Pal et. al., 2005). Latter on Liu et al. (2007) demon- anaerobically at various range of temeperature throughout
strated complete removal of hexachlorocyclohexane the year and the cbrA gene product; trichlorobenzene
chlorinated pesticide from the soil with S. japonicum, with reductive dehalogenase was found to be more important
an efficacy of 2 mg/L/h. Studies by Jayashree and enzyme. Chaussonnerie et al. (2015) isolated and
Vasudevan (2007) conducted studies on edosulfan characterized two closely related species of Citrobacter
remediation from the soil. In their experimental design amalonaticus those were able to transform recalcitrant
they used synthetic surfactant Tween 80 and efficacy of chlordecone from pesticide contaminated soil.
P. aeruginosa to degrade endosulfan at neutral pH and at Endosulfan degradation by P. aeruginosa G1 (88.5%),
8.5 pH was tested. In their studies they could Stenotrophomonas maltophilia G2 (85.5%), B.
demonstrate that surfactant could positively influence atrophaeus G3 (64.4%), Citrobacter amolonaticus G4
bacterial degradation of endosulfan. Bacterium could (56.7%) and Acinetobacter lowffii G5 (80.2%) was
remove as high as 94% endosulfan at pH 8.5 producing reported (Ozdal et al., 2016). Effect of biochar on the
endodiol and endosulfan sulphate, those were less toxic water soluble arsenic concentration and the extend of
to soild (Jayshree and Vasudevan, 2007). When mixed organochlorine degradation in a co-contaminated historic
cultures of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and sheep-dip soil during 180d glasshouse incubation
Rhodococcus erythropolis were used for degradation of experiment was studied (Gregory et al., 2015). In this
endosulfan (Kumar et al., 2008), studies revealed that 73 study microbial degradation activity was found to be
and 81% of  and  endosulfan were removed, enhanced after 60 day incubation. The biochar amended
respectively. When tested individually the S. maltophilia soil contained Chryseobacterium, Flavobacterium,
had better efficacy over R. erythropolis. The metabolites Dadobacterium, and Pseudomonadaceae members.
produced by mixed culture degradation were found to be Increased microbiological dehydrogenase activity due to
close to non-toxic to that of endosulfan when toxicity was biochar amendment was responsible for enhanced
tested against human polymorph nuclear cell detected by degradation of organochlorine that was otherwise
micronucleus assay (Kumar et al., 2008). Bacterium attenuated due to arsenic contamination. Abundance and
Achromobacter xylosoxidans CS5 was found to be able distribution of potential microbes and functional genes
to utilize edosulfan as the sole carbon, sulphur and associated with pentachlorphenol anaerobic minerali-
energy source from the activated sludge of Jiangsu, zation in a continuous flow reactor was studied by Li et al.
China (Li et al., 2009). Culture analysis with reference to (2016). Microbes with potential reductive dechlorinators;
pH, cell growth and residual endosulfan demonstrated Dehalobacter, Sulfospirillum, Deslfitobacterium and
CS5 strain could degrade endosulfan producing Desulfovibrio spp. and phenol degrader Cryptanerobacter
endosulfan diol and endosulfan ether as the major and Syntrophus spp. and putative functional genes;
metabolites. Studies Tas et al. (2011) investigated role chlorphenol reductive dehalogenase cprA, benzoyl-CoA
for Dehalococcides sp. in degradation of hexachloro- reductase bam A and seven types of putative nitrogenase
benzene dechlorination in river sediment. Curiously they reductase genes were determined (Table 1) (Li et al., 2016).
 Parte et al. 999

Table 1. Studies on organochlorine pesticide degrading microorganisms.

Pesticide Microorganism Reference

Alcaligenes eutrophus, Aerobacter aerogenes Nadeau et al., 1994.
Sphingobacterium sp. Wedemeyer, 1967.
Penicillium miczynskii, Aspergillus sydowii, Trichoderma sp., Penicillium raistrickii,
Fang et al., 2010.
Aspergillus sydowii and Bionectria sp.
DDT Aerobacter aerogenes Ortega et al., 2010.
Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas sp., Micrococcus sp., Arthrobacter sp., Bacillus sp. Wedemeyer, 1967.
Pseudomonas sp. Patil et al., 1970.
Patil et al., 1970; Kamanavalli and Ninnekar, 2005;
Sphingobacterium sp.
Fang et al., 2010; Pesce and Wunderlin, 2004
Dieldrin Pseudomonas sp. Matsumura et al., 1968.
Endosulfan Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepaeia, Arthrobacter sp. KW, Aspergillus niger Bhalerao and Puranik, 2007.
PCP Arthrobacter sp., Flavobacterium sp. Stanlake and Finn, 1982; Crawford and Mohn, 1985
1,4- Dichlorobenzene Pseudomonas sp. Spain and Nishino, 1987.
Sphingomonas paucimobilis Pesce and Wunderlin, 2004.
Lindane Pleurotus ostreatus, Streptomyces sp. Benimeli et al., 2008
Ganodermaaustrale Rigas et al., 2007.
DDE Phanerochaete chrysosporium Bumpus et al., 1993.
DDD Trichoderma sp Ortega et al., 2011.
Phlebia sp. Xiao et al., 2010
Heptachlor epoxide
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Arisoy and Kolankaya, 1998; Xiao et al., 2010
Phlebia sp. Lacayo et al., 2006
Heptachlor O Bjerkandera sp. Patil et al., 1970.
Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas sp., Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp. Patil et al., 1970.
Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas sp., Micrococcus sp. Patil et al., 1970.
Toxaphene O
Arthrobacter sp., Bacillus sp Patil et al., 1970.
Pseudomonas sp. 105 Patil et al., 1970.
Aldrin O
Pseudomonas sp. Patil et al., 1970.
Endrin O Patil et al., 1970.
Dieldrin O Matsumura et al., 1968.

The organochlorine compounds undergo reductive dechlorination that takes place under occurring aerobically. Several bacterial genera
degradation through two major pathways, anaerobic conditions, and dehydrochlorination, such a Klebsiella (Kwon et al., 2005), Alcaligenes
1000 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

(Don and Pemberton, 1981) Staphylococcus (Sonkong et and Acinetobacter sp. (Agarry et al., 2013).
al., 2008), and Pseudomonas (Barragan-Huerta et al., The gas chromatographic analysis of chlorpyrifos
2007) carry out the reaction. The ability to degrade degradation with P. putida strain MAS-1 revealed
organochlorine has been documented in different genera degradation was rapid. When growing in minimal salt
of fungi. Among these, basidiomycetes show more medium containing 2 mg.ml Chlorpyrifos as the solitary
resistance toward these compounds (Gomes Machado et carbon source it was demonstrated that as high as 90%
al., 2005; Rigas et al., 2005). Recently it is reported that a chlorpyrifos was utilized by MAS-1 just in 24 h (Munazza
strain of Trichoderma harzianum has capability to et al., 2012). In a parallel study, Sasikala et al. (2012)
degrade organochlorines through an oxidative system isolated nine different bacteria from chlorpyrifos
(Katayama and Matsumura, 2009). contaminated soil of which four were further used in
Another best example of organochlorine degradation is preparation of consortium for the degradation of
endosulfan degradation. Microorganisms play a key role pesticide. In another study, it has been reported that 4
in removal of such xenobiotic from the contaminated strains of Pseudomonas isolated from a water waste
sites. The dynamic, complex and complicated enzymatic irrigated agri-soil in India, were able to utilize chlorpyrifos
systems of the microbe degrade these chemicals by as an exclusive carbon source (Bhagobaty and Malik
eliminating their functional groups of the parent 2008). Rani et al. (2008) isolated chlorpyrifos degradting
compound. The endosulfan can undergo either oxidation Providencia stuartii from agricultural soil experience with
or hydrolysis reactions. Several intensive studies on the chlorpyrifos for 10 years in a row. While degradation of
degradation of endosulfan have been carried out which Chlorpyrifos by Spingomonas sp. Dsp-1 stain from
show, formation of endosulfan sulphate and endosulfan contaminated water was addressed by Li et al. (2007). In
diol as primary metabolites.The Mycobacterium an independent study, B. cereus mediated chlorpyrifos
tuberculosis ESD enzyme degrades beta-endosulfan to degradation from Chinese soil was demonstrated by Liu
the monoaldehyde and hydroxyether, but transforms et al. (2012). Actinomycetes Streptomycetes strains have
alpha-endosulfan to the more toxic endosulfan sulphate. been known for their profound industrial application.
However, oxidation of endosulfan or endosulfan sulphate Strains degrading chlorpyrifos were isolated (Briceno et
by the monooxygenase encoded by ese in Arthrobacter al., 2012), ability to degrade pesticide was established in
sp. KW yields endosulfan monoalcohol (Weir et al., 2006) agar medium, interestingly degradation was found to be
alternatively, in somebacteria like Pseudomonas modulated by the changes in the pH of the cultivation
aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepaeiahydrolysis of medium (Briceno et al., 2012). Yet another pesticide
endosulfan occur which yields the less toxic metabolite Profenofos degrading bacteria were isolated by
endosulfan diol (Kumar et al., 2007). enrichment technique. These bacteria predominantly
belonged to Pseudomonas genus and were able to
Bioremediation of organophosphorous remediate proficiently 90% pesticide within 90 h
(Malghani et al., 2009). Under laboratory conditions Rayu
The first OP compounds degrading bacterium was et al. (2017) could demonstrate that Xanthomonas sp.
isolated from a soil sample from the Philippines in 1973, 4R3-M3 and Pseudomonas sp. 4H1-M3 were able to use
and was identified as Flavobacterium sp. ATCC 27551 both chlorpyriphos and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol as a
(Sethunathan and Yoshida, 1973). The biodegradation of sole carbon and nitrogen source. Degradation of
organophosphorus compounds with their enzyme systems cyhalothrin and other pyrethroides by B. thuringiensis
involved in the biodegradation has been extensively strain was reported (Chen et al., 2015).
studied (Singh, 2008). Many of the pesticide degrading Studies demonstrated production of 3-phenoxyphenyl
genes harbored on the plasmid DNA are reported (Chung acetonitrile and N-(2-isoproxy-phenyl)-4-phenoxy
and Ka, 1998; Laemmli et al., 2000). The plasmid benzamide as metabolites in the degradation pathway of
carrying genetic system for the degradation of a complex pyrethroids. Cypermethrin degrading Bacillus sp. strain
compound is referred to as the catabolite plasmid. In the G2 was isolated from pesticides contaminate soil. The
literature till date, the catabolite plasmids bearing several isolate was found to utilize a novel pathway producing
bacterial species viz, Klebsiella, Moraxella, Rhodococcus, intermediates as 4-propylbenzoate, 4-propylbenzaldehy,
Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Alcaligenes, Acinitobacter phenol M-tert-butyl and 1-dodecanol (Pankaj et al.,
and Arthrobacter are reported (Sayler et al., 1990). 2016). Parte et al. (2013) tested ability of Pseudomonas
Recently, the co-metabolic degradation of organo- demolyticum NCIM2112 strain to degrade sufonated
phosphorus compound dimethoate is reported by aromatic amine, used as precursor in much OP
bacterium Raoultella sp. X1 (Liang et al., 2009). Similary, synthesis. Under controlled laboratory condition
by using Paracoccus sp. Lgjj-3, the biodegradation of NCIM2112 strain of P. demolyticum was found to
dimethoate with detailed biochemical pathway is also successfully remediate sulfonated aromatic amine. In an
reported (Li et al., 2010). Till date number of bacterial independent study strain SMK of Pseudomonas stutzeri
species has been reported for dichlorovos degradation. was obtained from the soil that received dichlorovos
These include Proteus vulgaris, Vibrio sp., Serratia sp. treatment for consecutive three years. Strain was tested
 Parte et al. 1001

Table 2. Studies on organophosphorous degrading microorganism.

Microorganism Pesticide Source References

Ochrobactrum sp., Castellaniella sp., Variovorax sp., Igepal CO-210 Igepal CO-
Sewage sludge DiGioia et al., 2008.
Pseudomonas sp., Psychrobacter sp. 520

Sphingomonas sp. Chlorpyrifos Wastewater Li et al., 2007.

Enterobacter sp. Chlorpyrifos Soil Singh et al., 2004
Sphingomonas sp. Isoproturon Soil Bending and Rodríguez, 2007
Burkholderia sp. Fenitrothion Soil Hong et al., 2007
Acinetobacter radioresistens Methyl parathion Liu et al., 2007
Ochrobactrum sp. Methyl parathion Soil Qiu et al., 2007
Pseudomonas frederiksbergensis Dimetoate, Malathion Soil Al-Qurainy and Abdel Megeed, 2009
Bacillus pumilus Chlorpyrifos Soil Anwar et al., 2009.
Bacillus sp. Soil Batisson et al., 2009.
Serratia liquefaciens, Serratia marcescens,
Diazinon Soil Cycon et al., 2009
Pseudomonas sp.

Pseudomonas putida, Burkholderia gladioli. Prophenofos Soil Malghani et al., 2009.

Pseudomonas putida Propiconazole Tea rhizosphere Sarkar et al., 2009.
Providenciastuartii Chlorpyrifos Soil Rani et al., 2009.
Micrococcus sp. Diuron Diuron storage Sharma et al., 2010.
Fenpropathrin
Sphingobium sp Methyl parathion Yuanfan et al., 2010.
sewage sludge

for its ability to remediate dichlorovos under controlled aerobic bacterium Burkholderia cepacia strain CH-9 were
conditions (Parte et al., 2017). performed by Madhuban et al. (2011) for degradation of
Following are the list of microorganism with their imidacloprid and metribuzin. Bacterial strain over 20 days
isolation source and pesticide that undergoes could remove as high as 69% imidacloprid and 86%
biodegradation (Table 2). metribuzin with initial dose of 50 mg/L in mineral salt
medium.

Biodegradation of neonicotenoids pesticide

Biodegradation of carbamate
Like organophosphorus compounds, the neonicotinoids
are also degraded by bacterial species such as Carbamates were introduced as pesticides in the early
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia CGMCC 1.1788, which 1950s and are still used extensively in pest control due to
degrades acetamiprid (Dai et al., 2007; Chen et al., their effectiveness and broad spectrum of biological
2008). The Pseudomonas sp. 1G is reported for activity (insecticides, fungicides and herbicides). High
biotransformation of imidacloprid (Pandey et al., 2009), polarity and solubility in water and thermal instability are
Leifsonia sp. (Anhalt et al., 2008). The Rhodotorula typical characteristics of carbamate pesticides, as well as
mucilaginosa strain IM-2 is reported for the degradation high acute toxicity carbamates are used to control insects
of acetamiprid (Dai et al., 2010). Agricultural soil that and nematodes in soils. Chemically, the carbamate
experienced clothianidine for three years in a row was pesticides are esters of carbamates and organic
used for isolation of clothianidine degrading bacterium. compounds derived from carbamic acid. The carbamates
Under laboratory condition Pseudomonas sp. was able to are inhibitors of AChE and are responsible for the
degrade clothianidine within 14 days (Figure 3) (Parte et greatest number of poisonings in the rural environment.
al., 2015) The carbamates are transformed into various products in
Biodegradation of acetamiprid using Rhodococcus sp. consequence of several processes such as hydrolysis,
strain BCH2 could allow elucidation of degradation biodegradation, oxidation, photolysis, biotransformation
pathway with the GC-MS analysis (Phugare and Jadhav, and metabolic reactions in living organisms (Soriano et
2013). The acetamiprid was found to be degraded via al., 2001). A number of bacterial genera have been
formation of N-amidoamide derivative, 1-(6-chloropyridin- identified as carbamate degraders (Parekh et al., 1995).
3yl)-N-methylmethanamine (m/z ¼ 156) and 6- Degradation of the pesticide occurs mainly through the
chloronicotinic acid (m/z ¼ 157). Investigations with an hydrolysis of the methylcarbamate linkage by an enzyme
1002 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

Figure 3. Proposed pathway for Acetamiprid degradation.

called carbofuran hydrolase, codified by the mcd gene, The bacteria like Sphingomonas sp. (Kim et al., 2004)
which was located on a plasmid is first described in and Arthrobacter sp. (De Schrijver and De Mot, 1999)
Achromobacter sp. (Tomasek and Karns, 1989). Further degrade Carbofuran first into carbofuran phenol which
studies showed that a wide variety of bacteria could was further degraded to 2-hydroxy-3-(3-methylpropan-2-
degrade carbamates using carbofuran hydrolase. Among ol) phenol. It has been reported that the
other genera Pseudomonas, Mesorhizobium, Ralstonia, fungicidecarbendazim was degraded by a microbial
Rhodococcus, Ochrobactrum, and Bacillus are the most consortium obtained from several soil samples in
notorious (Desaint et al., 2000). Fungal degradation of Japanese paddy fields with continuous culture
carbamates has also been reported. Of special interest is enrichment. Afterwards, the carbamate carbendazin was
the report a novel hydrolase from Aspergillus niger converted to 2-aminobenzimidazole by Pseudomoans
capable of hydrolysing several N-methylcarbamate isolates (De Schrijver and De Mot, 1999). Following table
insecticides (Qing et al., 2006). Several Actinomycetes how the example of carbamate degrader. Shin et al
that metabolize carbamate pesticides were isolated. In (2012) isolated 37 carbofuran degrading bacteria
most cases, this is initiated by hydrolysis of the representing 15 different 16 s RNA types. These included
carbamate at the ester linkage. Rhodococcus, Spingomonas, Spingobium as known while
 Parte et al. 1003

Table 3. Studies on carbamate degrading microorganism. Molecular characterization of this isolate demonstrated
that its ability to degrade EPTC was associated with the
Pesticide Microorganism References presence of a gene cluster that codes for an aldehyde
Achromobacter Karns et al., 1986 dehydrogenase and cytochrome P-450 specific for
Carbofuran Pseudomonas, Chaudhry and Ali, 1988 thiocarbamates degradation. They are the major
Flavobacterium Chaudhry and Ali, 1988 thiocarbamate-induced enzymes in Rhodococcus sp.
Flavobacterium Head et al., 1992 Strain NI86/21.

Arthrobacter Tam et al., 1987

Fungal biodegradation of pesticides
EPTC Rhodococcus Behki et al., 1993
Rhodococcus Behki and Khan, 1994 When the bacterial species fails to degrade pesticides
then fungus can be used. Recently, bioremediation
technologies using fungus has taken considerable
attention.For biodegradation of toxic organic chemicals,
Bosea and Microbacterium were new bacteria with fungi from the natural source can be screened out as an
carbofuran degradation potential. Four different strains of effective tool. The wood attacking fungi such as
Pseudomonas were isolated from soil exhibiting enhanced Phanerochaete and other related fungi possess a
oxamyl biodegradation. Bacteria could transform oxamyl powerful extracellular enzyme, the peroxidase that acts
to oxamin oxime by utilizing methylamine as a source of on the broad range of chemical compounds. The variety
C and N. All of the four strains carried carbamate of chemicals including pesticides, polychlorinated
hydrolase homologue of the cehA gene (Rousidou et al., biphenyl (PCB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
2016). Carbamyl degrading bacteria; Bacillus, Morganella, (PAH) are degraded by well-known fungus,
Pseudomonas, Aeromonas and Corrynebacterium were Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Which is well known for
isolated from local soil ecosystem of the Gaza strip. xenobiotic metabolism and it was reported to have the
Hamada et al. (2015) demonstrated that Bacillus and ability to degrade isoproturon herbicide via solid state
Morganella was able to efficiently utilize carbamyl as fermentation (Castillo et al., 2001). Endosulfan-
solitary source of C and N, remediating as high as 94.6 degrading, aerobic fungal strains are effective for
and 87.3% respectively. The Corrynebacterium indicated remediation of soil contaminated with organochlorine
moderate carbamyl degradation activity accounting to pesticides.Water body and soil that are affected by
48.8%. The soil isolate Pseudomona sp. strain C5pp was endosulfan can be easily bioremediated by Aspergillus
reported to mineralize carbaryl via 1-napthol, salicylate niger. The fungus, A.niger was tested for their endosulfan
and gentisate (Trivedi et al., 2016). The draft genome degrading ability and it was noted that the culture could
analysis of C5pp strain revealted that carbaryl catabolic tolerate 400 mg/ml of technical grade endosulfan and the
genes are organized into three operons; upper, middle complete disappearance of endosulfan was seen after 12
and lower. Studies also suggested role of horizontal gene days of incubation (Bhalerao and Puranik, 2007), which
transfer events in the acquisition and evolution of carbaryl was indicated by the evolution of CO2. Change in pH of
degradation pathway in strain C5pp (Table 3) (Trivedi et culture broth to acidic range supported the biological
al., 2016). transformation. Thin layer chromography (TLC) analyses
Genetic manipulation techniques can contribute to revealed the formation of variousintermediates of
elucidate biochemical pathways involved in the microbial endosulfan metabolism including endosulfan diol,
degradation of organochlorines, which represent endosulfan sulfate and an unidentified metabolite. In an
promising alternatives towards developing highly efficient independent study, Kamaei et al. (2011) indidcated
strains as well as the isolation and application of successful degradation of endosulfa and endosulfan
enzymes potentially involved in biodegradation. sulphage by a white rot fungus Trametes hirsuta. The
Genes involved in the degradation of carbamates have fungus was shown to degrade endosulfan and
been isolated and cloned from Achromobacter sp.WMll endosulfan sulphate by using multiple pathways. It is
by Tomasek and Karns (1989) and Rhodococcus sp. reported that, strains such as Mortierella sp. strain W8
strain NI86/21 by Nagy et al. (1995). The gene encoding and Cm1-45 resulted in 50 to 70% degradation of
for carbofuran hydrolase in Achromobacter sp. WMll was endosulfan in 28 days at 25°C via diol formation of
cloned and designated the mcd gene (methyl carbamate endosulfan firstly and then endosulfan lactone and
degradation); the enzyme has a broad spectrum of resulting into enhancing fertility of agriculture land
activity towards carbamates. Plasmid-borne genes have (Shimizu, 2002). A fungal strain Fusarium verticillioides,
been implicated in the complete mineralization of isolated from Agave tequilana leaves by enrichment
carbofuran by an unidentified soil bacterium by Head et techniques is able to use lindane as a carbon and energy
al. (1992). Similarly, plasmid involvement has also been source under aerobic conditions. In nitrogen and
implicated in the degradation of the carbamate herbicide phosphorus limiting atmosphere, the higher degradation
EPTC by an Arthrobacter strain (Tam et al., 1987). efficiency is achieved. The concentration of lindane and
1004 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

yeast extract and environmental factors improved the different enzymes such as dehydrogenases (Bourquin,
efficiency of the biodegradation process (Urlacher et al., 1977; Singh and Singh, 2005), cytochrome p450 (Castro
2004; Alzahrani, 2009]. Fungus uses chlorpyrifos as a et al., 1985; Jauregui et al., 2003), dioxigenases (Nadeau
sole energy and carbon source and causes its rapid et al., 1994; Van Eerd et al., 2003), ligninases (Pizzul et
degradation. Another fungus, basidiomycetes, degrades al., 2009). Several reports have documented the
chlorpyrifos very effectively. The fungal strains such capability of different genera of fungi to degrade
as Fusarium oxysporum, Lentinulaedodes, Penicillium organochlorines. Bacterial enzymes have been found to
brevicompactum and Lecanicilliumsaksenae has great achieve such detoxifying reactions (Singh et al., 1999;
potential for the biodegradation of the pesticides including Yañez- Ocampo et al., 2009). The commonly used as a
difenoconazole, terbuthylazine and pendimethalin in detoxification mechanism, especially in plants and
batch liquid cultures and are investigated to be valuable insects, is conjugation with glutathione and this
as active microorganisms for pesticides degradation (Shi mechanism has also been reported in bacteria
et al., 2012). The rot fungi isolates from contaminated soil (Vuilleumier, 2001; Wei et al., 2001; Chaudhry et al.,
degrades methomyl and diazinon pesticides. The 2002). In these processes, bacteria and fungi are
temperature optima for maximum efficiency are 28°C. involved. They produces intracellular or extra cellular
The higher rate of degradation is achieved by using enzymes such as hydrolytic enzymes, oxygenases,
mixture of fungal strains (Zhongli et al., 2001). By using peroxidases (Van Eerd et al., 2003).The basidiomycetes
mixed fungal strains, there is possibility of degrading are more resistant to these compounds (Gomes
mixed insecticides (DDT and chlorpyrifos). At low Machado et al., 2005; Rigas et al., 2005). Recently a
concentration of mixed insecticides there was the high strain of Trichoderma harzianum is reported to degrade
efficiency of degradation is observed. It is reported in organochlorines through an oxidative system (Katayama
DDT and chlorpyrifos, that the efficiency of degradation and Matsumura, 2009).
was 26.94 and 24.94% respectively (Pieper et al., 2000). It has been reported that a large group of bacterial
The phytopathogenic fungus easily grows up on genera are able to degrade organophosphates
organophosphonate herbicides and easily degrades compounds. Hydrolysis is fundamental for the complete
herbicides (Shen et al., 2009). The pesticide like degradation of the molecule. The reported and studied
pirimicarb is degraded by Trichoderma viride and T. enzymes are related to the phosphotriesterase, having
harzianum with high potential. Upon addition of activated capability to hydrolyzing organophosphate pesticides at
charcoal the degradation capacity increases (Eapen et the central atom of pesticides, phosphorus.
al., 2007). By enrichment culture method the strain, Phosphotriesterase activity is the first and most important
Sphingomonas yanoikuyaecan degrade carbamate and step in detoxification. A large number of bacterial genera
pyrethrin (OPs) with high efficiency under harsh have been reported for the carbamate degradation
conditions, and analyzed by gas chromatography (Cases (Parekh et al., 1995). An enzyme called carbofuran
et al., 2005). The carbofuran is degraded by salt resistant hydrolase carry out the hydrolysis of the
actinomycete (Chougale and Deshmukh, 2007). Up to methylcarbamate linkage within carbamate (Figure 4).
95% degradation of carbafuran is carried out by the S. Kim et al. (2004) studied the carbofuran degradation by
alanosinicus. It utilizes carbofuran as a sole source of bacteria like Sphingomonas sp. and Arthrobacter sp. by
carbon and is applicable to saline soils for its efficiency De Schrijver and De Mot (1999) and proposed the
(Wu et al., 2004). More than 30 microorganisms have metabolic pathway. The Carbofuran first degraded into
capablity of degrading the pesticides, of which carbofuran phenol which was further degraded to 2-
Gliocladium genus has maximum activity for selective hydroxy-3-(3-methylpropan-2-ol) phenol. Slaoui et al.
degradation of carbofuran (Fu et al., 2004). (2007) reported more than 30 microorganisms were
Besides these, various fungal species including capable of degrading the pesticides, out of which
Trametes sp. and Polyporus sp. were able to degrade Gliocladium genus had maximum activity for selectively
variety of chemicals including pesticides. Pesticide degrading carbofuran. Chougale and Deshmukh (2007)
degradation ability was also reported using A.fumigates, reported salt resistantactinomycete is capable of
A. sydowii, A. terreus, A. flavus, Fusarium oxysporum degrading carbofuran. One of seven actinomycetes, S.
and Penicillium chrysogenum (Hasan, 1999). alanosinicus, is most effective and gives up to 95%
degradation. It uses carbofuran as a carbon source and
was found to be applicable to saline soils for its efficiency
MICROBIAL ENZYME SYSTEMS IN PESTICIDE (Figure 5).
BIODEGRADATION De Schrijver and De Mot (1999) reported that the
fungicidecarbendazim was degraded by a microbial
Among various strategies used by the microorganism for consortium obtained from several soil samples in
degradation of xenobiotic compounds the enzymes play a Japanese paddy fields with continuous culture
key role in the biodegradation. The biochemical reactions enrichment. Afterwards, the carbamate carbendazin was
for degradation are achieved through a number of converted to 2-aminobenzimidazole by Pseudomoans
 Parte et al. 1005

CO2 + NH2CH3

OH
O O OH Red metabolite
O O OH OH
Carbofuran Carbofuran Phenol
NH

Fig.
Figure 4. Biodegradation Biodegradation
of Carbofuran of carbofuran
by Spingomonas sp.by Sphingomonas sp.

H O geneticist now has proven to have significant potential in

N O bioremediation. In order to investigate genetic basis of
NH pesticides biodegradation, several worker studied role of
N catabolic genes and the application of recombinant DNA
carbendazim technology. Pesticide-degrading genes from different
microorganisms have been characterized. Most of the
catabolic genes responsible for degradation are
Pseudomonas sp. extrachromosomal, genomic or found in transposons.
The new advancement in the field of metagenomics and
whole genome sequencing have opened up new avenues
H for searching the novel pollutant degradative genes and
N their regulatory elements from both culturable and non-
NH2 culturable microorganisms from the environment. The
N enzymes responsible for the degradation of several
2-aminobenzimidazole pesticides are encoded by these plasmids and
transposons which act a mobile genetic element. For
Figure 5. Biodegradation of successful implementation of the technology for in situ
Biodegradation of carbenazim Pseudomonas sp.
carbenazim Pseudomonas
sp.
remediation, it is important to understand of the genetic
basis of the mechanisms of how microorganisms
biodegrade pollutants and how they interact with the
environment (Hussain et al., 2009). Different microbial
isolates. enzymes with the capability to hydrolyze pesticides have
Tian and Chen (2012) studied carbendazim been reported (Yan et al., 2007), such as
degradation and reported microbial strain screening and organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH); encoded by the opd
isolation are very effective for degradation of gene found in bacterial strains and have been isolated in
carbendazim in mineral culture medium. Carbendazim is different geographic regions. Although these plasmids
carbon source for the growth of this strain.The pH range, show considerable genetic diversity, the region
5.1 to 8.1, and temperature range, 25 to 40°C, are containing the opd gene is highly conserved. Another
optimum for maximum degradation efficiency, that is, up enzyme, methyl-parathion hydrolase (MPH) from the
to 90% in nitrogen atmosphere. Zhu-cai et al. (2008) Pseudaminobacter, Achrobacter, Brucella and
reported that under harsh conditions, Sphingomonas Ochrobactrum are encoded by the mpd gene and were
yanoikuyae strain can degrade carbamate with high identified by comparison with the gene mpd from
efficiency in enrichment culturemethod, analyzed by gas Pleisomonas sp. M6 strain (Zhongli et al., 2001). The
chromatography. Yu et al. (2009) expressed methyl gene for the organophosphorus hydrolase has 996
parathion hydrolase enzyme within the Pichia pastons to nucleotides, a typical promoter sequence of the promoter
achieve an efficient remediation of parathion. TTGCAA N17 TATACT from E. coli (Zhang et al., 2005).
Table 4 give show the list of microorganisms and the Table 5 shows the most studied isolates of
enzymes degrading pesticides: microorganisms capable of degrading pesticide with their
several genes.
Microorganisms have inherent property against
ROLE OF CATABOLIC GENES AND GENETIC different stresses and respond differently to various kinds
ENGINEERING FOR PESTICIDE DEGRADATION of stresses and acquire fitness in the polluted
environment. This property can be accelerated by
Bacteria considered as elastic material once by the applying genetic engineering techniques. The unique
1006 Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.

Table 4. Studies on pesticide degrading microorganism with their enzyme.

Pesticides class Microorganism Enzymes Reference.

Bacteria Franken et al., 1991; Sharma et al., 2006;
Klebsiella sp., Alcaligenes sp. Kwon et al., 2005; Don and Pemberton, 1981.
Organochlorine Dehalogenases
Staphylococcus sp. Sonkong et al., 2008. Barragan-Huerta et al.,
Pseudomonas. sp. 2007

Flavobacterium and Pseudomonas sp.

Agrobacterium radiobacter
Alteromonas sp. Organophosphorus Singh and Walker, 2006; Serdar et al.,
Plesiomonas sp. hydrolase(OPH), 1982.Somara and Siddavattam, 1995; Horne
Achromobacter, Pseudaminobacter, Ochrobactrumand Brucella organophosphorus acid et al., 2002; Cheng et al., 1996; Cheng et al.,
Organophosphate Alteromonas undina, Alteromonas haloplanktis anhydrolase (OPAA), 1997; Zhongli et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2005;
B. diminuta and Flavobacterium sp Laccase Chen and Mulchandani (1998); Chen et al.,
Fungi: Aspergillus enzyme (A-OPH) 1999; Amitai et al., 1998; Liu et al., 2001; Liu
Penicillium enzyme (P-OPH) et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2001
Pleurotus ostreatus.
Aspergillus sp.
Penicillium sp.
Achromobacter sp.
Tomasek and Karns, 1989; Desaint et al.,
Carbamate Pseudomonas, Mesorhizobium, Ralstonia, Rhodococcus, Carbofuran hydrolase
2000.
Ochrobactrum, and Bacillus.
Carboxyl esterase,
Serratia, Pseudomonas. Grant et al., 2002.
Pyrithroid phosphotriesterase.
Fungi: Aspergillus niger Pyrethroid hydrolase Liang et al., 2005

insights into the molecular events that lead to the reinforce the available molecular toolbox. pastoris (Wu et al., 2004; Fu et al., 2004; Wang et
development of enhanced pesticide degradation Nevertheless, the incorporated genes or enzymes, al., 2012; Shen et al., 2009). The site-directed
phenomenon is achieved through advancement in even in a single modified organism, need to be mutagenesis has been used to improve the
the technique of isolation of pesticide degrading introduced within the regulatory and metabolic substrate specificity and stereo selectivity of OPH
microorganisms and the characterization of genes network for their proper expression (Shimizu, (Casey et al., 2011; Van Dyk and Brett, 2011). To
encoding pesticide degradation enzymes. For 2002; Pieper et al., 2000; Cases et al., 2005). generate OPH variants with up to 25-fold
optimization of the enzymes, metabolic pathways Firstly it was demonstrated that the detoxification improvements in hydrolysis of methyl parathion,
and organisms relevant for biodegradation in of organophosphate pesticides by genetically directed evolution have recently been used (Cho
various genetic approaches have been developed engineered microorganisms and the genes et al., 2002). Up to 700-fold improvement was
and used (Pieper et al., 2000). New information encoding these hydrolases have been cloned and obtained, and the best variant hydrolyzes
on the metabolic pathways and bottlenecks of expressed in Streptomyces lividans, Yarrowia chlorpyrifos at a rate similar to that of the
degradation is still gathering, requiring the need to lipolytica P. pseudoalcaligenes, E. coli, and Pichia hydrolysis of paraoxon by wild-type OPH (Cho
 Parte et al. 1007

Table 5. Studies on pesticide degrading microorganism with their

catabolic gene.

Microorganism Gene
Bacteria:
Pseudomonas diminuta opd
Alteromonas sp. opaA
A. radiobacter opdA
Nocardia sp. adpB
Escherichia coli pepA
Pseudomonas monteilli hocA
Burkholderia caryophilli pehA
Bacillus cereus phn
Burkholderia sp. JBA3 ophB
Stenotrophomonas sp. ophC2
SMSP-1 opdB

Lactobacillus brevis.
Arthrobacter sp. scl-2 imh
Ochrobactrum sp. Yw28, Rhizobium radiobacter mpd
Arthrobacter sp oph
Arthrobacter sp. L1. mph
Burkholderia cepacia mpdB
Enterobacter sp. opdE
Spingobium francense lin
Spingobium indicum lin
Spingobium japonicum lin

et al., 2004). Linuron degrading bacterium Variovorax sp pesticide degradation using microbes. Microbial
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(Horemans et al., 2016). Aryloxyphenoxy Propanoate CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
(AOPP) degrading strain Rhodococcus ruber JPL-2 was
isolated by Hongming et al. (2015). A novel esterase The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
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