Crop Protection

Contributors:
Ms. Fe D. Alzona
Prof. Johnny Balidion
Prof. Priscilla M. Barcial
Dr. Grace F. Barroga
Dr. Rizaldo Bayot
Dr. Teresita U. Dalisay
Dr. Henry T. Facundo
Ms. Ester A. Magsino
Prof. Janet B. Matanguihan
Dr. Marina P. Natural
Dr. Joey I. Orajay
Prof. Hedelina M. Ramirez
Dr. Stephen G. Reyes

1
PLANT PATHOLOGY

 From: “pathos” (Greek)= suffering

“logos” = to study
 Study of the suffering plant (do plants really suffer?)
 has two important components
1. as a Science
2. as an Art

As a science
 Understand the nature of plant disease
1. cause- etiology of plant disease
2. plant- pathogen interaction
3. determine factors affecting disease development
4. study methods of control or management of diseases
As an Art
 Process where science is made useful; is doing or applying knowledge gained in science.
1. Plant disease diagnosis
2. Assessment and forecasting
3. Recommend control measure

Ultimate objective of Plant Pathology

To control or manage plant diseases so that losses will be brought to a minimum.

Characteristics of Plant Disease

1. A malfunctioning process that results in suffering
2. Generally harmful/detrimental
3. Produces symptoms- histological and morphological abnormalities
4. Caused by an agent

Vital Processes of Plants Affected by Disease

1. Root absorption
2. Uptake of water and minerals
3. Photosynthesis
4. Respiration
5. Transport of photosynthates
6. Reproduction

Importance of Plant Diseases

1. Plant diseases endanger food supply
2. Reduce the quantity and quality of plant produce.
3. Cause financial losses
4. Limit the kinds of plants and industries in an area.
5. Make plants poisonous to humans

2
 6. Increase cost of production due to control measures
Types of Losses due to Diseases
1. Losses due to reduction in yield.
2. Losses due to deterioration during storage, marketing or transport.
3. Losses due to reduction in quality.
4. Losses from produce contaminated with toxins that cause various disorders and /or death
to animals and man.
5. Losses due to predisposition of host to attack by other pathogens.
6. Losses from increased cost of production and handling.

Definitions and terminology

 Pathogen- any agent that causes disease especially the biotic or living agent.
 Parasite- an organism that depends wholly or partly on another organism for its food.
1. Is a pathogen always a parasite?
2. Is a parasite always a pathogen?
Parasite
 Obligate parasite- subsist on living organisms and attacks only living tissues (ex. Virus,
rust fungi, downy mildew fungi, etc.)
 Facultative parasite- an organism, which has the ability to become a parasite but is
ordinarily a saprophyte.
Saprophyte- an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter.
 Facultative saprophyte- has the ability to become a saprophyte but is ordinarily a parasite.

Host- refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite. A food relationship between the
host and the parasite is implied.
Suscept- is a plant that is susceptible to a disease whether or not the pathogen is parasitic.

 Pathogenicity- is the capacity of an organism to cause disease.

 Pathogenesis- refers to series of events that lead to disease development in the plant
 Virulence- refers to the quantitative amount of disease that an isolate (the pathogen) can
cause in a group of plants. A characteristic of a pathogen.

Plant Disease Diagnosis- defined as identification of diseases based on symptoms and signs
 Symptom- manifestation or expression of a plant as a result of a disease.
 Sign- a pathogen or a part of a pathogen found on a host plant.

Symptoms- evidences of disease in the plant

 Symptom complex- different symptoms exhibited by the plant
 Syndrome- symptom + sign
 Classification of symptoms
a. Local or systemic
b. Primary or secondary
c. Microscopic or Macroscopic

 Local symptoms- Expressed as physiological or structural changes in a limited area of the

tissues of the host (galls, spots, cankers)
3
  Systemic symptoms- Expressed as the reaction of a greater part of or all of the plants
(dwarfing, wilting, yellowing)

Primary vs. Secondary symptoms (same disease)

 Primary- the direct result of pathogen activity on the invaded tissues
 Secondary- the physiological effects on distant and uninvaded organs

Microscopic vs. Macroscopic symptoms

 Microscopic- expressions of disease in cell structure or arrangement that can be studied
only under the microscope
 Macroscopic- expressions of the disease in the plant or in its parts that can be studied
with the unaided eye
Macroscopic symptoms
 Pre-necrotic- stage preceding death of cells
 Necrotic- characteristics of dead cells and tissues

General types of symptoms

1. Necrotic
• Involve the death of protoplast
• Examples- Spot, canker, blight, scorch
2. Hypoplastic
• Inhibition or failure in the differentiation/development of some aspect of plant
growth
• Examples- Stunting, chlorosis, mosaic, curling and rosetting
3. Hyperplastic
• Expressed with the excessive multiplication, enlargement or overdevelopment of
plant organs
• Prolonged retention of green color
• Gall formation, scab, knots
a. Hypertrophy- overdevelopment due to the increase in the size of the cell
b. Hyperplasia- abnormal increase in the number of cells

Signs of Pathogens
 Structures of the pathogen or pathogen itself; may be the result of interaction between the
pathogen and the host (ooze, odor)

 Examples- fungal mycelia, conidia, oospores, teliospores, ascospores, zoospores,

sclerotial bodies, chlamydospores; nematode eggs, juveniles or larvae, adults; bacterial
cells; virus particles; seed of phanerogams

4
Koch’s postulates- Criteria used to confirm the identity of the causal agent of a new or unknown
disease:
1. Association- the pathogen or signs of the pathogen must be found associated with the
disease in all the diseased plants examined.
2. Isolation- the pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture on nutrient media, and
its characteristics described. Obligate parasites must be isolated and grown on a healthy
but susceptible host plant. The characteristics of the obligate parasite must also be
described.
3. Inoculation- the pathogen from pure culture must be inoculated on healthy plants of the
same species or variety on which the disease appears, and it must produce the same
disease on the inoculated plants.
4. Re-isolation- the pathogen must be re-isolated from the inoculated plants and grown once
more in pure culture. Its characteristics must be exactly like those observed in steps 1
and 2.

Classification of Plant Diseases according to:

1. affected plant organ
2. symptoms
3. type of affected plants
4. type of pathogen
a. infectious diseases- biotic agents
b. non-infectious diseases- abiotic

Abiotic stress or injury

1. Non-living
2. Not spread from diseased to healthy plants
3. Non-infectious
4. Knowledge of environmental factors before and during disease occurrence necessary for
correct diagnosis.

Kinds of Abiotic Diseases or injury or stresses

A. Injury caused by adverse physical factors

1.Injury caused by too low temperatures-
 Freezing injury- caused by ice crystals formed within cells and in between cells
 Chilling injury- low temp slightly above freezing. Pitting and water soaked
symptoms
2. Injury caused by too high temperature- sun scald, heat necrosis of potato
3. Stress caused by lack of oxygen- black heart of potato
4. Stress caused by too much or too little light
5. Injury caused by adverse meteorological conditions.

B. Injury caused by air pollutants

1. Ozone
2. Peroxyacylnitrates (PANS)
3. Hydrogen fluoride (HF)

5
 4. Ethylene
5. Nitrogen oxide
6. Particulates- volcanic ash, cement dust
C. Stress caused by mineral deficiencies and mineral excesses
D. Diseases caused by improper agricultural practices
E. Diseases caused by naturally occurring toxic chemicals

HOW TO PREVENT THESE STRESSES OR INJURIES

1. avoid the factor
2. protect the plants
3. supply the factor
4. good management of the crop to produce healthy plants

PARASITIC or BIOTIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES

1. Viruses and viroids (subcellular entities)

2. Bacteria and phytoplasmas (prokaryotes)
3. Fungi and fungal-like protists
4. Nematodes
5. Parasitic flowering plants
6. Protozoa
7. others

VIRUS

 Ultramicroscopic made up of nucleic acid and a protein coat

 Obligate parasites (replicate only in cytoplasm of living hosts)
 Nucleic acid core (RNA or DNA);4-20 K bases; Infectious part
 Protein coat-
1. Provide a protective sheath for the nucleic acid
2. Facilitate movement of virus from cell to cell
3. For transmission of viruses by vectors

Transmission and Spread of viruses

1. Mechanical means
2. Grafting
3. Nematodes
4. Soil-borne fungi and fungal-like organisms
5. Infected vegetative planting materials
6. Infected seeds
7. Mites
8. Insects- Aphids, leafhoppers, plant hoppers, thrips, whiteflies, mealy bugs, etc.

Insect transmission - Virus-Vector Relationship

1. non-persistent viruses- (stylet-borne)
2. semi-persistent-(foregut-borne)- viruses can stay in the vector for days.

6
 3. Persistent viruses-
a. Circulative - replicate only in plants but virus passes through the gut into the
haemolymph and then the salivary glands
b. Propagative - replicates both in plants and vectors

VIRUS DISEASE SYMPTOMS

 Range from no symptoms to death of plants
 Local lesions
 Systemic symptoms
1. Reduction in plant size
2. Mosaic patterns
3. Yellows
4. Ringspots/color break in flowers

CONTROL OF VIRUS DISEASES

 Difficult to control once established in an area
1. Prevention through quarantine and certification
2. Use virus free seeds and planting materials
3. Roguing of diseased plants
4. Hot water treatment of planting materials
5. Control of vectors
6. Cross-protection
7. Genetic engineering

VIROIDS

1. Stable and free ribonucleic acid (RNA) that can infect plant cells
2. 250-375 base pairs
3. Closely associated with the nuclei, especially the chromatin of the cells they infect
Examples of diseases caused by viroids
1. Potato Spindle tuber
2. Cadang-cadang of coconut
3. Apple scar skin
4. Avocado blotch

BACTERIA
• Typically one-celled.
• Possess a unit membrane and cell wall
• Reproduce by binary fission
• No membrane-bound organelles;
• Prokaryotic; lack nuclear membrane & lack a well-defined nucleus.
• DNA as nuclear material
• Some have plasmids, which are extra chromosomal DNA that are self replicating

7
Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria
1. Mostly rod-shaped
2. Mostly aerobic
3. Mostly flagellated
4. Mostly Gram negative
5. Mostly non-spore-forming

Genera of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria

Old Genera (Prior to 1980)

1. Agrobacterium
2. Pseudomonas
3. Erwinia
4. Xanthomonas
5. Corynebacteria(not valid anymore)

New Genera of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria (after 1980)

From Pseudomonas Other Genera

1. Acidovorax 1. Acetobacter
2. Burkholderia 2. Bacillus
3. Ralstonia 3. Clostridium
4. Pseudomonas 4. Gluconobacter
From Erwinia 5. Nocardia
1. Brenneria 6. Rhizobacter
2. Enterobacter 7. Sphingomonas
3. Pantoea 8. Serratia
4. Pectobacterium 9. Spiroplasma
5. Erwinia 10. Streptomyces
Former Corynebacteria (Gram positives) 11. Xylella
1. Arthrobacter 12. Xylophilus
2. Clavibacter
3. Curtobacterium
4. Leifsonia
5. Rathayibacter
6.Rhodococcus

BACTERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Traditional methods of characterization to group bacteria into genera:

1. Morphological- size, shape, flagella
2. Cultural- growth characters in media
3. Biochemical- reactions in substrates
4. Physiological- carbon & nitrogen requirements
5. Pathological- pathogenicity to plants

8
Molecular techniques
6. DNA base composition
7. DNA-DNA homology- useful for bacterial species identification
8. DNA-rRNA homology- detects similarities between genera or families
9. RFLP- for strain identification

Bacterial Ecology- the scientific study of interactions among organisms, between organisms
and their environment, or surroundings
1. As parasite inside hosts
2. On plant surfaces (buds)
3. Partly in plant debris in soil
4. In or on seeds; other planting materials
5. In insects

Bacterial diseases and their pathogens

1. Potato blackleg- Pectobacterium carotovorum
2. Potato soft rot- P. carotovorum
3. Bacterial wilt of solanaceaus and non solanaceous crops- Ralstonia solanacearum
4. Stalk rot of corn- Pectobacterium chrysanthemi
5. Ratoon stunting disease of sugarcane-Leifsoniaxyli subsp. xyli
6. Crown gall of roses and many dicots- Agrobacterium tumefaciens
7. Rice leaf blight- Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
8. Rice Leaf streak- Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola
9. Cassava blight- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis
10. Citrus canker- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri
11. Angular spot of cotton- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum

Genera of Non-typical Plant Pathogenic Bacteria

1. Streptomyces sp.
2. Nocardia sp.
3. Fastidious bacteria
4. Phytoplasma
5. Spiroplasma

Fastidious vascular bacteria (previously called rickettsia-like organisms [RLO])

1. Cannot be grown in simple media
2. Generally rod-shaped; no flagella
3. Cell wall undulating or rippled
4. Gram-negative
5. Phloem (citrus greening, periwinkle club leaf) or xylem-limited (Xylella, Leifsonia)

Mollicutes – Bacteria without cell walls

1. Phytoplasma
a. Spheroidal to ovoid, irregular to filamentous (pleomorphic)
b. Phloem sieve tubes
c. Transmitted by leafhoppers, psyllids and plant hoppers

9
 d. Grow in insect body (propagative)
e. Not yet grown in culture
f. Resistant to penicillin, not to tetracycline

2. Spiroplasmas
a. Can be spherical to slightly ovoid, branched non-helical filaments
b. Can be cultured in nutrient media
c. Reproduce by fission
d. No flagella but motile if helical
e. On agar, typical fried egg appearance

Control of Bacterial Diseases

1. Cultural Practices
a. Sanitation to reduce inoculum
b. Crop rotation
c. Proper watering and draining
2. Seed treatment- weak acids or sodium hypochlorite
3. Hot water treatment
4. Antibiotics (?) and copper fungicides
5. Resistant varieties

PLANT PATHOGENIC PROTISTS

1. They are not considered as fungi anymore but protozoa-like or fungal –like.
2. Their cell walls are not made up of chitin but of cellulose and other glucans

Protozoa-like protists - unicellular, plasmodial, or very simple multicells, phagotrophic

(feeding by engulfing food)
a. Phylum: Myxomycota
b. Phylum: Plasmodiophoromycota (endoparasitic slime molds)

Phylum Myxomycota- true slime molds

• Vegetative body is a plasmodium (a membrane-bound single cell containing multiple
nuclei).
• Fruiting body is sporangium (a small spore container which may be sessile or
stalked), aethalium (masses of completely fused sporangia) or pseudoaethalium
(fruiting body composed of sporangia closely crowded together).
• Saprophytic- feed on decaying organic matter; bacteria, etc.
• Disease of low lying plants like turf grasses, strawberry, vegetables

Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota- (Endoparasitic slime molds)

• Plasmodium as vegetative body
• Zoosporangium as fruiting body
• Obligate endoparasite of vascular plants
• One class- Plasmodiophoromycete

10
Fungal-like Protists- have mycelia and conidia but cell walls are made up of cellulose and
glucans, not chitin as true fungi would have.
Phylum: Oomycota
Class: Oomycetes
Order: 1. Saprolegniales
2. Peronosporales
Class: Oomycetes
• Have well-developed aseptate (coenocytic) mycelia containing cellulose and glucans
• Fruiting body is a zoosporangium for asexual reproduction
a. Sporangia borne on mycelium or sporangiophore,
b. Spores- zoospores or conidia
Sexual reproduction
• Heterogametangia
female-oogonium= globose
male- antheridium= club-shaped; forms a fertilization tube
• Fusion of male and female gametes produce oospores - diploid; germinate into
diploid mycelia
Order: Peronosporales
Three Families
a. Pythiaceae- damping off & root rots
b. Peronosporaceae- downy mildew
c. Albuginaceae- white rust
Genera under Family Pythiaceae
1. Genus: Pythium
a. Damping off diseases
b. Rots of vegetables
c. Turf diseases
2. Genus: Phytophthora
a. Root rots
b. Rots of fleshy tissues

Family: Peronosporaceae
• Obligate parasites of plants; cause downy mildew diseases
• Sporangia borne in sporangiophores
• Sporangiophores are branched; determinate in growth
• After sporangia fall off, sporangiophore withers and dries.
• Branching of sporangiophore- distinguishing feature of the genus

Downy mildew diseases- the pathogens belong to the oomycetes

1. tobacco- Peronosporata bacina
2. lettuce- Bremia lactutae
3. Sugarcane Peronoscleospora sacchari
4. cucurbits- Pseudoperonospora cubensis
5. sorghum- Peronosclerosporas orghi
6. grapes- Plasmopara viticola
7. corn- Peronosclerospora philippinensis

11
 Family: Albuginaceae
• Obligate parasite of flowering plants
• Sporangiophores short, club-shaped, indeterminate in growth
• Sporangia globose, in chain
Example : white rust of kangkong

Fungi (true fungi)

Four Phyla with Plant Pathogens

1. Phylum: Chytridiomycota
2. Phylum: Zygomycota
3. Phylum: Ascomycota
4. Phylum: Basidiomycota

The True Fungi-general characteristics

1. Heterotrophs- obtain food from organic matter (living or non-living); cannot make its
own food; devoid of chlorophyll
2. Nutrition is by absorption
3. Non-motile (a few, the chytridiomycetes, have motile reproductive cells)
4. Reproduce by spores (sexual/ asexual)
5. Primary stored carbohydrate is glycogen
6. Usually filamentous & multicellular (hyphae/ mycelia made up of chitin)

Phylum: Chytridiomycota
 Contains a single class- Chytridiomycete
 About 150 genera; 1000 species
 The only member of Kingdom Fungi that form motile cells (zoospores or gametes)
 Thallus is coenocytic; either globose or ovoid, elongated hypha or well developed
mycelium
 Zygote formed converted into: resting spore or resting sporangium

Important plant pathogenic chytrids

1. Olpidium brassicae- root disease of crucifers (vector of lettuce big vein virus)
2. Synchytrium endobioticum- black wart of potato
3. Synchytrium psophocarpi- orange galls of calamismis (winged bean)
4. Physoderma maydis- brown spot of corn

Phylum Zygomycota
 Produce non-motile asexual spores in sporangia
 Sexual spore is zygospore formed inside a zygosporangium after union of two
isogametangia
 Produce well-developed aseptate mycelium
 Cell wall has chitin and glucan
 Habitat- terrestial, saprobic, human pathogens, weakly plant pathogenic, ecto-
endomycorrhizal

12
 Order: Mucorales
 Rhizopus
 Mucor
 Choanephora
Order: Glomales (mycorrhiza)
 Glomus
 Gigaspora

Phylum Ascomycota
Sac fungus- sexual spores (ascospores) formed within a sac known as ascus.
 Teleomorph- the sexual or perfect stage of ascomycetes
 Anamorph- the asexual or conidial or imperfect stage

 During the growing season, plant pathogens exist as mycelia/conidia.

 Perfect stage occurs only at end of growing season.
 Ascospores generally act as primary inoculum.
 Sexual reproduction through an ascogonium (♀) fertilized by antheridium or spermatium
(♂), a minute male sex spore.

Deuteromycetes or imperfect fungi- the imperfect stage of Phylum Ascomycota. Many plant
pathogens belong to this class.
 Asexual or conidial forms of most of the Phylum Ascomycota and rarely of the Phylum
Basidiomycota
 Sexual reproduction and sexual structures are lacking or unknown

Three groups of Deuteromycetes or imperfect fungi

1. Hypomycetes- Fungi that produce conidia on free conidiophores or groups of
conidiophores
2. Coelomycetes- Fungi that produce acervuli or pycnidia that bear conidia and
conidiophores
3. Mycelia sterilia- No asexual nor sexual spores

Hyphomycetes- no fruiting structure Coelomycetes

Genera  Pycnidia-forming
1. Alternaria 1. Diplodia
2. Aspergillus 2. Phomopsis
3. Penicillium 3. Phyllosticta
4. Cercospora 4. Septoria
6. Fusarium  Acervuli-forming
7. Bipolaris 1. Gloeosporium
8. Oidium 2. Colletotrichum
9. Pyricularia 3. Sphaceloma
10. Verticillium
11.Cladosporium

13
Mycelia sterilia
 the sterile fungi; no asexual nor sexual spores produced
 sclerotial bodies produced

Examples: Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii

Phylum Basidiomycota
• Club and mushroom fungi
• Sexual spores are basidiospores produced externally on a club-like, one- or four-celled
spore producing structure called a basidium
• Most are fleshy
• Includes rusts and smuts
Orders under Phylum Basidiomycota
1. Order Uredinales- Rusts
2. Order Ustilaginales- Smuts
3. Order Exobasidiales- lacks basidiocarp
4. Order Agaricales- the mushrooms
5. Order Aphyllophorales- the polypores

Order Uredinales - The rusts

• Attacks mostly leaves and stems; some form swellings and even galls.
• About 140-150 genera; 5000 species.
• Most rust fungi are very specialized- attack only certain genera, varieties.
a. Formaespeciales-
Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici= attacks wheat only
Puccinia graminis f.sp. hordei= attacks barley only
b. Pathogenic (physiologic) race= P.g. f.sp. tritici attacks some varieties of wheat
(within crop species).
• Most produce 5 distinct fruiting structures and 5 spore forms.

Fruiting structures Spore forms

basidium Basidiospores (n)

spermogonium Spermatia (n)

aecium Aeciospores (n+n)

uredinium Urediniospores
(uredospores) (n+n)

telium Teliospores (n+n)= 2n

(teleutospores)

14
Examples of rust diseases
1. Peanut rust- Puccinia arachidis
2. Corn rust – Puccinia maydis, P. polysora
3. Coffee rust- Hemeleia vastatrix
4. soybean rust Phakopsora pachyrhizi
5. bean rust- Uromyces phaseoli

Order Ustilaginales - the smuts-

• Attack ovaries of grains, develop in them and in the fruit or kernel; some attack leaves,
stems and floral parts.
• Some infect seeds or seedlings, grow internally until they reach the inflorescence.
• Cells affected are destroyed and replaced by black spores.
• Produce teliospores and teliospores produce basidiospores.
• Basidiospores germinate, germ tubes unite with compatible ones and then infect; or
penetrate tissue directly.
• Haploid mycelia cannot invade tissues, only dikaryotic ones.
• Examples:
1. Corn smut- Ustilagomaydis
2. Corn headsmut and sorghum smut- Sporisoriumreilianum
3. Sugarcane smut – Ustilagoscitaminea

Order Agaricales- the mushrooms

• Armillaria
• Marasmius
• Pleurotus
• Amanita- poisonous
• Calvatia- puffball

Order Aphyllophorales – shelf or bracket fungi

• Corticium- resupinate
• Ganoderma
• Polyporus
• Aethalium (Sclerotium)

NEMATOLOGY
Nematodes
 Derived from the Greek words "nema/nematos" "thread" and "edos" = "resembling
or likeness"
 Morphologically, they are vermiform/worm shaped (except for the female of some
genera which swells upon maturity), unsegmented, pseudocoelomate, bilaterally
symmetrical animals without motile cilia.
 Majority are marine aquatic species: some are free living terrestrial and animal
parasites. Only 10% of the 30,000 described species are known as plant parasites.

15
Phytonematology
 Deals with nematodes that parasitize plants.
 Begun with the invention of microscope
 Turbatrix aceti (wheat gall nematode) first plant parasitic nematode (PPN)
described.
 Caenorhabdilis elegans (a free living nematode) used as a model organism (for
animals) for genetic and physiological studies: the complete genome was sequenced
in 1995.

I. Techniques
Reasons for sampling:
 Nematodes are too small to be seen with bare eye.
 Symptoms caused are not typical
 Need for quantitative estimation of density

Sampling theories:
1. Spatial distribution - nematode distribution within the field is generally patchy owing to
their small size and slow rate of active movement.
2. Vertical distribution - refers to the dispersal of nematodes in a soil profile. This is mainly
influenced by density of feeder roots which is higher in the upper 30 cm of soil, though
it can grow deeper in perennial crops.
3. Temporal/seasonal distribution - influenced by climatic pattern (wet and dry) and host
availability. Nematode density is highest during near harvest stage of crop.

Extraction techniques:
A. Motility - dependent / active methods - extracts slender and active stages of
nematodes.
Examples: Bearmann funnel and its modification and H20 incubation method
B. Motility-independent / passive methods - extracts even sluggish (slow moving)
nematodes.
Examples:
- Wet sieving method (depends on nematode size)
- Maceration - sieving (depends on nematode size)
- Elutriation method (depends on sedimentation difference of nematode and soil
particle)
- Centrifugal flotation (depends on specific gravity)

II. Morphology
The cross section of nematode looks like a "tube within a tube". The outer tube consists
of the following:
 Cuticle· a semi-permeable outermost covering or the nematode body; made lip
of protein (keratin and collagen as opposed to chitin of insect cuticle); shed off
during molting to allow growth.

16
  Epidermis- a thin layer which functions mainly for secretion of new cuticle
during molting.
 Muscles- allow movement by alternate contraction and relaxation of dorsal and
ventral muscles.

Digestive system- the inner tube is essentially the digestive system. It begins from
the mouth opening to the anus (for female) or cloaca (the common opening of digestive and
reproductive system for male)
The stylet is a protrusible structure in the mouth of nematodes which distinguishes
plant parasitic from living forms. It is the structure they use for puncturing plant cells and
withdrawing their contents.
Three types of stylet:
 Stomatostylet- with distinct cone, shaft and knobs; inside is hallow;
possessed by Order Tylenchida (the order where most of the known and
most important PPNs belong)
 Odontostylet- a hallow spear, possessed by members of the Order
Dorylaimida where the virus vector genera Xiphinera, Longidorus and
Paralongidorus belong.
 Onchiostyler- a bent solid needle-like stylet possessed by members of the
Order Triplonchida where two other virus-vector genera belong
(Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus).

Nematode Biology

A. Life Cycle
Zygote  embryogenesis  Juvenile stages  adult

After the zygote is formed, it will undergo embryogenesis wherein the initially
single celled zygote will divide. At the end of embryogenesis, a complete individual is
formed which is formed the 1st juvenile (J1). This will molt (M2) and J2 will emerge. All
these occur in the egg. The egg will hatch from it. J2 will emerge. This is the feeding or
infective stage for most PPNs because this is the stage where they will start looking for and
feeding in/on host roots. Two more juvenile stages (J4 and 14) will emerge after each
moltings (M2, M3 and M4). For few PPNs, J4 is the infective stage. After M4, adult
nematodes (either male or female) will emerge which are capable of mating and producing
offsprings. Male nematodes are usually non-parasitic and leave the roots and die after
copulation.

B. Parasitic/feeding strategy
Types of PPNs based on location of feeding
 Ectoparasite - feeds superficially (epidermal cells) using their stylet. Body (or large
part of it) remains outside the root cells.

17
  Endoparasite - capable of entering the roots during their infective stage or in some
genera, in all stages. They establish feeding site in the cortical, endodermal or stellar
tissues.

Types of PPNs based on mobility

 Migratory - moves to another cell once the initial feeding site is exhausted.
Essentially, they are vermiform.
 Sedentary - stays longer in the cell (in case of ectoparasite), or establish a
permanent feeding site in the inner tissues (in case of endoparasite), As feeding and
development proceeds, body size increases.

Combining the two classifications, we will have the following:

1. migratory ectoparasite e.g.' Longidorus, Xiphinema, Trichodorus, Paratrichodorus

2. sedentary ectoparasite e.g. Criconemoides, Hemicyclophora
3. semi-ecto, semi-endoparasite (feeds in inner tissues, large part of the body remains
outside, becomes swollen) e.g. Tyienchulus, Rotylenchulus
4. sedentary endoparasite e.g. Meloidogyne, Globodera, Naccobus, HirschmanielJa

C. Reproductive stage
1. Amphimixis - mode of reproduction where males are needed.
2. Parthenogenesis- mode of reproduction wherein only females are produced (or
males are rare and not needed) and offsprings are clone of the female.
3. Sex reversal- phenomenon observed in juveniles of parthenogenic species of
Meloidogyne during unfavorable condition. Depending on the onset of the
unfavorable condition, gonad of “destined to be” female juveniles develops into
non-functional testis.

D. Survival Strategy
Dormancy- lowered metabolism
Types of dormancy
 Diapause- state of arrested development which persist until specific
requirements for development are satisfied even if favorable condition
return.
 Quiscence- spontaneous reversible response to unpredictable unfavorable
conditions.

Example of quiescence:
State Adverse condition
Cryobiosis Cool temp
Thermobiosis High temp
Anoxybiosis Lack of oxygen
Osmobiosis High osmotic pressure
Anhydrobiosis Dehydration

18
Egg stage- the survival stage of nematodes; the egg shell provide protection. Once the J2
emerge, they are more prone to external stresses.

Survival strategies of selected PPNs:

 Egg sac/gelatinous matrix- Meloigyne spp.
 Cysts- Globodera, Hetrodera
 Daucer- Rotylenchulus
 Coiling/clamping- Ditylenchus, Anguina

V. Nematode Ecology
A. Biotic influences
 Parasites of Nematodes
o Nematode trappers
o Endozoic parasites
o Egg parasite
 Predators of nematodes: tardigrades, insects, protozoa, other nematodes
B. Abiotic Factor
 Soil texture and structure
 Moisture
 Aeration
VI. Nematode diseases important to the Philippines
 Slow decline of citrus (Tylenchulus semipenetrans)
 Spreading decline of citrus (Radopholus similis)
 Toppling disease of banana (Radopholus similis)
 Root knot of various crops (Meloidogyne spp.)
 False Root knot (Naccobus spp.)
 Ufra disease of rice (Aphelenchoides besseyi)
 Rice root knot (mentek) (Hirschmaniella oryzae)
 Yellow dwarf disease of black pepper (Radopholus similis)
 Red ring disease of coconut (Radinaphelenchus cocophilus)

VII. Methods of Nematode Management

 Prevention- quarantine at farm, country and international level
 Crop rotation- altering susceptible host with non-host crop
 Trap crops- susceptible crops intentionally planted but are uprooted before the
nematode complete its life cycle. E.g. Crotolaria
 Antagonistic crops- exudes chemicals that are either repellant or nematicidal
o e.g. Tagates patella- produces a-thertienyl
o Brassicas- produces isothiocyanates
 Land management and cultural practices
o Early planting
o Plowing
o Flooding
o Organic soil amendments
 Physical methods

19
 o Steaming
o Solarization
o Field burmning
o Heat treatment of planting materials
 Resistant /tolerant varieties
 Biological controls e.g. BIOACT
 Chemical control
o Fumigants- methyl bromide; ethylene dibromide; chloropicrin
o Non-fumigants- fenamiphos, thionazin, aldicarb, oxamyl, methomyl

PARASITIC HIGHER PLANTS

Classification:
A. Hemiparasites - contains chlorophyll but without roots so it depends on host for
water and minerals.
a. Examples: witchweed; True mistletoe and leafy mistletoe; Loranthussp.
B. True parasite - have little or no chlorophyll and no roots either so entirely
dependent on host for water and minerals.
a. Examples: dodder; Broomrapes; Bungangtubo (Aegineliaindica)

FLAGELLATE PROTOZOA

• Possess one or more long slender flagella

• Mostly one-celled and generally motile
• Plant protozoa – Phytomonas
 Can be found on sieve tubes of non-laticiferous plants
 Coconuts and oil palms - heart rot of coconut
 Coffee- phloem necrosis of coffee

MECHANISM OF VARIABILITY IN PATHOGENS

I. GENERAL MECHANISMS OF VARIABILITY

A. Sexual Reproduction
• Segregation and recombination of genes during meiosis
• Genetic crossovers (exchange of chromatids and the genes they carry)
• Haploid gametes are different from parents and from each other
B. Mutation
• Abrupt changes in the genetic material which is inherited by the offspring
• Can occur spontaneously or through mutagenic agent

II. SPECIALIZED MECHANISMS OF VARIABILITY

A. Sexual-like processes in Fungi

 Heterokaryosis - cells of fungal hyphae contain two or more nuclei that are
genetically different

20
  Heteroploidv - cells, tissues or whole organisms have chromosomes in the nuclei
that are different in number from the normal number of chromosomes
 Parasexualism - genetic recombination occur in the fungal heterokaryosis during
meiosis

B. Sexual-like processes in Bacteria

 Conjugation - two compatible bacterial cells come into contact and exchange genetic
material through a conjugation bridge or pilus
 Transformation - bacterial cells incorporate genetic material from ruptured
bacterial eels
 Transduction - a phage or a virus that infects bacteria, transfers genetic material
from one bacterial cell to another

CONTROL METHODS

A. Those that exclude the pathogen

a. Quarantine
b. Inspection and crop certification
c. Use of pathogen-free propagating materials (seeds, vegetative propagules)
B. Those that eradicate or reduce inoculums
a. Cultural methods
i. removal and burning
ii. crop rotation
iii. sanitation
iv. polyethylene traps (sticky, yellow polyethylene sheets to trap insects)
and mulches (reflectant aluminum, black colored, etc., to repel, misled
insects)
b. Biological methods
i. use of suppressive soils - contains antagonistic microorganisms
ii. soil amendments with antagonistic microorganisms
iii. trap plants
iv. antagonistic plants - marigold against root knot nematodes
c. Physical methods
i. heat treatment (soil sterilization, hot water treatment, hot air
treatment)
ii. drying stored grains and fruits
iii. refrigeration
iv. radiation
d. Chemical methods
i. soil treatment
ii. fumigation
iii. disinfection of warehouse
iv. control of insect vectors
C. By immunization or improving host resistance

21
 a. Cross-protection
b. Induced resistance: systemic- one pathogen infection leads to resistance to
another pathogen, or pathogen is inoculated at a resistance stage will make
the plant resistant to the pathogen
c. Plant defense activators- salicylic acid
d. Use of resistant plants
e. Providing proper growing conditions
D. Direct protection of plants from pathogens
a. Direct protection by biological control agents
b. Direct protection by chemical control
E. Integrated control of plant diseases
a. Prevention
i. Avoidance or evasion of inoculum
ii. Exclusion
iii. Eradication
iv. Protection
v. Host plant resistance
b. Cure (therapy of host)

22
23
24
Table 2. Other minor orders of insects present in the Philippines
Order Type of Development Characteristics/Remarks Examples
Thysanura Ametabolous Wingless, 3 long filaments at Silverfishes
the tail end; found in old
books, under rocks
Ephemeroptera Hemimetabolous Forewings much larger than Mayflies
hind wings, 2-3 long caudal
filaments
Plecoptera Hemimetabolous Soft-bodied with archaic Stoneflies
features; poor fliers; live
near water, immature aquatic
Emboiptera Paurometabolous Poor fliers; live in colonies Webspinners
in silken tunnels in soil;
lichen or moss
Psocoptera Paurometabolous Small, soft-bodied but fast Harklice, booklice
running; found under barks,
old books
Phthiraptera Paurometabolous Flat-bodied, wingless with Head lice, booklice
clinging legs, ectoparasites
of vertebrates
Strepsiptera Paurometabolous Forewings reduces, females Stylopids
– endoparasites of other
insects; males – free-living
Mercoptera Holometabolous Beak elongated, male Scorpionflies
abdomen tip scorpion-like;
adult and larvae carnivorous
Siphonaptera Holometabolous Body laterally flattened, Fleas
sucking mouth type,
wingless, vertebrae
ectoparasites
Trichoptera Holometabolous Moth-like, wings covered caddisflies
with short fine hairs, aquatic
immatures live in case

25
Table 3. Rodent important to agriculture in the Philippines
Scientific Name Common name Distinguishing Characteristics
1. Rattus Norway rat, urban rat Largest of the common rats (200-500g); gray,
norvengicus brown or black dorsum, uniform gray or black.
Venter; bicolored tail as long or shorter than
head + body; blunt snout; small eyes;
mammary gland formula; 3 + 3=12
2. Rattus tanezumi Philippine ricefield Medium-sized (100-250g); variable shades of
rat, common ricefield dark brown, yellow-brown, grey-brown, Rattus
rat mindanensis; common ricefield rat unicolored
tail longer than head + body, broad at base;
pointed snout; large prominent eyes; mammary
gland formula: 2+3=10
3. Rattus Asian rice field rat Medium-sized (95-125g); hair variable yellow-
argentiventer orange tips over dark background (sail and
pepper appearance); unicolored tail longer than
head + body; thin at base, pointed snout; large
eyes; mammary gland formula: 3 + 3=12
4. Rattus exulans Polynesian rat Smallest of the Philippine rats (20-60g);
variable brownish gray to dark; unicolored tail
longer than head + body, thin at base; pointed
snout; large eyes; mammary gland formula: 2 +
2=8

26
 DISEASE CYCLE

 Sequence of events that leads to, and is involved in disease production

 Activities of the pathogen away from and in the host
 Not the life cycle of the pathogen
 Continuous process

PATHOGENESIS STAGE

COLONIZATION TYPES OF DISEASE CYCLE

INFECTION Secondary
INCUBATION cycles

PENETRATION SYMPTOM DEV’T

PROD’N OF 20 INOCULUM

DISSEMINATION
INOCULATION
MONOCYCLE
10 inoculum
Dissemination SURVIVAL
SAPROGENESIS STAGE POLYCYCLE

A General Disease Cycle

MONOCYCLIC DISEASE
 One disease cycle in one crop growing season or one year
 Rate of inoculum build-up is slow
 Rate of disease increase is slow
 Soilborne diseases like bacterial and fusarial wilt; rusts of trees; smuts

POLYCYLIC DISEASE
 2-30 disease cycles in one cropping season or one year
 Rate of inoculum build-up is fast
 Rate of disease increase is 50-100%
 Late blight of potato, grain rusts, rice blast, leaf spot of mungbean’ viruses with insect
vectors
 EPIDEMICS

Saprogenesis Phase
 Survival phase
 Weakest link in the disease cycle
 Pathogen population is at its lowest
 Target for most control strategies

Mechanisms for Pathogen Survival

5. Formation of specialized structure- nematode cysts, teliospores, oospores, sclerotial
bodies, cleistothecia, zygospores

27
 2. Dormancy- rest period interrupting development; long enough for the pathogen to resume
parasitic activity; synchronize with renewed host activity. Ex. Claviceps ascospores (rye
flowers) &Plasmodiophora spores (allylisothiocyanate from crucifers)
3. Fungistasis- a control mechanism which restricts germination of propagules deposited in
the soil
4. Survival in hosts or vectors- quiescent vegetative condition in host tissues.
5. In alternate hosts
6. Survival as saprophytes- degrade and make use of a wide range of organic nutrients

Geographic Distribution of Plant Pathogens

 Distribution- movement of a plant pathogen to and its establishment in a geographical
area not previously invaded by that pathogen.
 Transport, dispersal, dissemination- movement within an area of distribution

Ecological significance of dispersal

 A fundamental feature of the life cycle of all living organisms
 Space and nutrients are limited
 Adaptation is very narrow; parasites need living hosts
 Dispersal in terms of
 Spatial spread
 Time scale

Structures well adapted for dispersal

 In vital assoc. with host
1. Viral particles
2. Bacterial cells
3. Fungal mycelia, conidia
4. Nematode larvae & adults
 In non-vital assoc.
1. Oospores
2. Teliospores
3. Zygospores
4. Sclerotial bodies
5. Seeds of parasitic flowering plants

Main Routes of Dispersal

1. Aerial environment
2. Soil environment
3. Man and other vectors

Problems facing the pathogen after dispersal

1. Unfavorable environmental conditions
2. Uninhibited germination or hatch
3. Absence of a host to infect following dispersal
4. Consumption of energy reserves during dispersal

28
INOCULATION
 Contact of pathogen with the host
 Deposition of inoculum into an infection court
 Inoculum: any part of the pathogen that can initiate disease
 Infection court: the susceptible part which could be natural opening, a wound, or intact
plant surface

TYPES OF INOCULUM
 FUNGI: spores/conidia, mycelial fragments, sclerotial bodies
 NEMATODES: eggs, larvae, adults
 PHANEROGAMS: seeds
 Bacterial cells, phytoplasma cells, protozoan cells, virus and viroid particles

SOURCES OF INOCULUM
1. Infected living plants
2. Plant debris
3. Infested soil
4. Infected seed and vegetative propagating materials
5. Vectors like insects, nematodes
6. Contaminated containers, storage areas and equipment

Agents of inoculation
1. Man in the process of doing farm work
2. Insects- casual or specific vectoring
3. Nematodes – virus diseases
4. Mites- virus diseases
5. Fungi and fungal-like organisms- virus diseases
6. By chance- wind and rain splashes, near and far

Specialized transmission- Bacteria –insects

1. Erwinia tracheiphila- striped cucumber beetle (cucumber wilt)
2. Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. atroseptica – seed corn maggot (potato soft rot)
3. Pseudomonas savastanoi- olive fly (Olive knot)

Specialized transmission - Virus -Insects

4. Rice tungro virus- green leaf hopper, Nephotettix virescens
5. Abaca bunchy top virus- Pentalonia nigronervosa
6. tomato spotted wilt virus- 7 species of thrips

Penetration or Ingress
 Entrance of pathogen into the host
 Passive: pathogen plays no active part. Vectors carry the pathogen into the plant cells or
tissues.

29
  Active: pathogen participates. Flagellar movement, germination of spores, appresorium
and penetration pegs

Avenues for penetration

1. Wounds
a. Mechanical wounds- grafting, pruning, desuckering, plowing, weeding, transplanting,
spraying, harvesting

2. Through natural openings

1. Stomata- rust spores, downy mildew pathogens, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri
2. Lenticels- occur in barks or woody stems, tubers
3. Hydathodes- water pores
4. Nectarthodes, broken glandular and foliar trichomes

Direct Penetration
 Through intact epidermis- wax, cutin, pectin, cellulose fibrils
 Bacteria, viruses & some fungi cannot penetrate directly

INFECTION
 Occurs when the pathogen has become established in the plant tissues after penetration
and obtains nutrients from the host.
 Penetration alone does not imply successful infection and disease production.

• Latent infection- the state in which the host is infected with the pathogen but does not
show any symptoms.
• Pathogen stops growing and remains dormant.
• In mango fruits w/ anthracnose; symptoms appear only after fruits start to ripen as the
fungus resumes parasitic activity.

COLONIZATION/ INVASION

• Growth / multiplication or movement of the pathogen in or through host tissues

• Produce harmful chemicals like enzymes, toxins, hormones, etc

Colonization by Fungi- growth by producing mycelia and spores

a. Intercellular invasion- hyphae are in between cells
b. Intracellular invasion- spores and hyphae in xylem vessels
c. Intercellular invasion (hyphae) but with intracellular haustorium

Colonization of Bacteria- multiplication of more bacterial cells

a. Intercellular- in between cells
b. Intracellular- in xylem and phloem vessels

Colonization of Viruses- multiplication of virus particles

a. Always intracellular- inside epidermal cells, the palisade cells, the spongy mesophyll,
vascular systems.

30
Colonization of Phytoplasmas- binary fission, budding, etc. to produce more cells.
a. Colonize phloem sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma.

Factors affecting spore germination

1. Moisture- free water is required for germination.
a. 100%RH- Puccinia coronata & P. graminis
b. 90- 100%RH- Ustilago spp., Botrytis cinerea, Peronosclerospora philippinensis
c. 75%RH- Some species of Penicillium and Aspergillus
d. 0-98%RH- Erysiphe polygoni & Uncinula necatur. Free water inhibits some
Erysiphaceae, esp. if spores are completely immersed.
2. Temperature
• Cryophilic organisms- optimum below 15°C
• Mesophilic - 15-20°C
• Semi-thermophilic- 25-30°C
• Thermophilic- above 35°C

 Optimum for germination may not be optimum for growth of germ tube or for general
vegetative growth. Ex. P. infestans- short exposure to 40°C increased germination, then
to 20°C.
 Can also influence method of germination. P. infestans liberate zoospores at 12-13°C;
germ tubes at higher temperature.

3. Light
 Natural visible light- 4000-8000Å have little effect but intense light may cause heating
thus inhibit it.
 UV rays- injurious and mutagenic
 Near UV- 3100-4000Å peaking at 3650Å induces sporulation
 Light near the red end can inhibit
 Shorter wavelength accelerates germination
4. pH
 Fungi germinate best under slightly acid conditions (about pH 5-6.5 with a range of
pH 3-8).
 Plant exudates may render the pH at the infection droplet unsuitable for germination and
subsequent growth of the germ tube.
 Over-all effect is complex- involves availability of nutrients and other factors.
5. Oxygen and CO2 concentration
• Spores germinate with oxygen concentration of 50% and above.
• An increase in CO2 conc. stimulates germination (60-70%).
• Water logging limits oxygen and can inhibit spore germination; can also increase CO2
accumulation that also inhibits germination.
6. Biological Factors
• Nutrient in spores -some will germinate in pure water because the spore contains all
nutrients needed.
• Exudates from plant tissues- stimulate spore germination. An ecological advantage for
specialized parasites.

31
• Pollen- diffusates stimulate germination.
• Root secretions- egg hatching, Striga sp. seed germination
• Age of spores
• Autotropism- influence of surrounding spores in determining whether and where the
germ tube emerges.

MECHANISMS OF PATHOGENICITY

• How pathogens attack plants,

• How pathogens cause disease,
• How pathogens bring about “malfunctioning of the normal physiology” of affected
suscept.

1. Interference with the uptake of water and inorganic elements from the soil.
1. Root-rotting microorganisms
2. Colonization of xylem vessels
3. Crushing of xylem by gall forming nematodes
4. Formation of tyloses-enlarged xylem parenchyma cells
5. EPS and vessel macromolecules resulting from breakdown of cell walls

2. Interference with translocation of organic compounds

Photosynthates- pass through plasmodesmata to the phloem elements, then to cell
protoplasm
 Phloem necrosis by viruses
 Yellowing
 Unfilled grains or small tubers

3. Reduction of plant’s photosynthetic capacity

 Reducing the effective surface for photosynthesis like leaf spots, blight, curl,
mosaic, mottle, canker, scab, dieback, wilt, etc.
 Destruction of chloroplasts and reduction of chlorophyll
 Blocking reactions for production of chlorophyll resulting in chlorosis.

4. Increased transpiration
 Powdery mildew, downy mildew and rust pathogens destroy the cuticle and
epidermis
 Increase permeability of leaf cells
 Detrimental water loss through increased transpiration
 Wilt

5.Changes in growth of suscept

Plant growth involves a series of well-regulated and coordinated processes as
metabolism is controlled by growth regulating hormones and feedback mechanisms.

32
 Hormones associated with plant diseases

1. Auxins (IAA) and cytokinins

1. required for cell division and differentiation
2. promotes synthesis of mRNA  proteins, enzymes  structural proteins
3. Increased auxin (IAA) levels occur in many plants infected by fungi, bacteria,
viruses, mollicutes and nematodes.

Examples:
1. Corn smut caused by Ustilago maydis
2. Club root of cabbage caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae
3. Peach leaf curl-Taphrina deformans cause puckering, curling and other leaf
distortions. Auxin is involved. Palisade parenchyma cells respond more than the
spongy mesophyll and result in uneven growth, causing leaf to curl.
4. Crown Gall- Agrobacterium tumefacien

Increase in IAA is due to:

• Pathogens induce increased IAA levels in their respective hosts
• Decreased degradation of IAA through inhibition of IAA oxidase

2. Gibberillins - Stimulate stem elongation by stimulating cell division and

elongation
Example- Foolish disease of rice caused by Gibberella fujikuroi which led to the
discovery of the gibberellins.

3. Ethylene
• a simple, gaseous hydrocarbon synthesized by all plant tissues and by some
microorganisms
• the natural aging and ripening hormone, physiologically active in trace amounts (0.1
ppm)
• levels of production and internal concentration vary widely among different fruits
and plants
• Applied exogenously it is effective in very low concentrations (below 0.1 ppm)
• in excess, it produces a variety of plant responses such as: epinasty, premature
senescence, and shedding of leaves
• in a number of viral diseases, leaves with necrotic local lesions produced more
ethylene than those with systemically infected plants without necrotic lesions

6. Death of cells and tissues

A. Enzymes in plant disease

 Enzymes are large protein molecules that catalyze all interrelated reactions in the cell.
 Enzymes involved degrade the plant cell wall that is composed primarily of
polysaccharides (pectic substances, cellulose, hemicellulose), structural glycoproteins
and lignin.

33
 Pectic enzymes
1. Assist in the penetration of the host. Expose the cellulose and hemicellulose fractions of
cell wall.
2. Degradation results in the weakening of cell walls or tissue maceration which facilitates
inter-and intracellular invasion of the tissues.
3. Provide nutrients to the pathogen in infected tissues. (exo-enzymes)
4. Involved in the induction of vascular plugs and occlusions in vascular wilt diseases (endo-
enzymes)

Cellulose Enzyme degradation

1. Endo-1,4β-D glucanase- cleaves internal glucosidic bonds within an unbroken
glucan chain.

-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-

2. 1,4 β-D glucancellobiohydrolase- cleaves cellobiose dimers from exposed non-

reducing ends

-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-
-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-

3. β-glucosidase- hydrolysis cellobiose (o-o) to glucose (o) (o)

o-oo-oo-ocellobiose

Hemicellulose fraction- found in the matrix of both primary and secondary cell walls.
 A xyloglucan with glucose backbone linked β 1,4. Xylose units are attached to the
backbone, and both galactose and fructose are bonded to xylose.
 Requires many enzymes to degrade the hemicellulose.

B. Toxins in Plant Disease

Toxins- Chemicals that act directly on living host protoplasts, seriously damaging or
killing cells resulting in necrosis
• Extremely toxic, effective in low concentrations
• Affect permeability of membranes
• Inactivate or inhibit enzymes
• As antimetabolite- induce deficiency for an essential growth factor.

I. Host Specific toxins

• Toxic only to hosts of the pathogen producing the toxin. Little or no toxicity to non-
susceptible plants.
• Virulence of the pathogenic strains varies with their capacity to produce the toxin.
• Has a role in the establishment of the pathogen in the host.

34
 Examples of Host specific toxins
1. Helminthosporoside (HS toxin)- produced by Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium
sacchari), the cause of eye spot of sugarcane.
2. Victorin (HV toxin)-Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) victoriae causing foot or root rot
and leaf blight of oats.
3. T-toxin- Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Helminthosporium maydis)- causes Southern corn
leaf blight.
4. HC toxin- Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) carbonum causes leaf spot of corn.
Resistant corn has gene that codes for HC toxin reductase that detoxifies the toxin.
5. PC toxin- Periconiacircinata causes milo disease of sorghum. Only isolates that produce
the toxin are pathogenic.

II. Non-host specific or non-host selective toxins

• Produce all or part of disease syndrome on host plants and non-host plants. Not selective.
• Enhance disease but not essential for the pathogen to cause disease.

Examples of non-host specific fungal toxins

1. Fusarial wilt toxins
a. Fusaric acid- many species of fusarium
b. Phytonivein – Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum
c. Phytolycopersin- F.o. f. sp. lycopersici
d. Lycomarasmin- F.o. f. sp. Lycopercisi, melonis, vasinfectum
2. Ophiobolin (Cochliobolin)-Cochliobolus miyabeanus
3. Helminthosporal- Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) sativus
4. Fusicoccin- Fusicoccum amygdali
5. Pyricularin- Pyricularia grisea

Examples of non-host Specific Bacterial Toxins

1. Tabtoxin- Wildfire disease of tobacco- Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci
2. Phaseolotoxin- Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. Phaseolicola (halo blight of beans) and P.s.
pv. Actinidae (bacterial canker of Kiwi fruit)
3. Coronatine- Pseudomonas syringae pv. atropurpurea
4. Rhizobitoxin-Produced by some isolates of the root-nodule bacterium, Rhizobium
japonicum, when plants are under stress.
5. Syringomycin and Syringopeptin-Produced by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae
6. Amylovorin – Erwinia amylovora causes fire blight of apples and pears

MECHANISMS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE

 How plants defend themselves against pathogens

 Resistance - Characteristic of host that inhibits or suppresses the growth and
development of the parasite / pathogen

35
Types of resistance
1. Pre-formed Resistance- Resistance present in plant even without the presence of the
pathogen
2. Induced resistance -Active only in the presence of inducers

Preformed Resistance
A. External Physical Barriers

1. Trichomes
a. Effect of trichomes on insect transmission of plant pathogens
• Interfere w/ feeding and oviposition
• Hooked hairs catch tarsal claws
• Glandular hairs secrete alkaloids that are toxic or secrete chemicals that repel
insects
b. Effect of trichomes in fungi
• Spores, germ tubes and appressoria can’t adhere to surfaces
• Malic acid in glandular hairs toxic to Mycosphaerella blight

2. Cuticle
a. Consists of pectin, cutin, wax layers
b. Acts as water repellent (electrically charged surface)
c. A toxic barrier
d. A mechanical barrier

3. Stomata based on:

• Stomatal density
• Spatial arrangement
• Structure (cuticular ridge)
• Time of opening and closing

4. Root cap and mucilage

5. Thick seed coat

6. Thick epidermis

B. Internal Physical Barriers

1. Suberized Tissues
• An insoluble polymer tightly attached to cell walls of underground parts, barks and
periderms
• Mechanical and chemical barrier

2. Lignified Tissues
• Phenolic polymer
• Plant cell walls and intercellular spaces
• Endodermis of roots

36
 3. Cellulosic walls- more difficult to degrade

4. Middle Lamella- lignified or calcified pectic substances

5. Deposition of Gums, Resins, and Tannin-like substances- serve as partial barriers, can be
fungi toxic

6. Deposition of Silicic Acid

7. Structural features of the vascular elements – narrow and more branching contribute to
resistance

C. Defense through lack of essential factors in the host

1. Lack of recognition between host and the pathogen
2. Lack of host receptors and sensitive sites for toxins
3. Lack of essential nutrients for the pathogen

D. Pre-formed Chemical Factors

1. Phenolics- pyrocatechol and pyrocatechuic acid are found in onions resistant to onion
smudge caused by Colletotrichum circinans

Phloridzin and phloretin- found in apples resistant to Erwinia amylovora

2. Tannins- found to be powerful inhibitors of the pectolytic and hydrolytic enzymes

3. Saponins- naturally occurring chemicals that bind to sterols in fungal cell membranes;
alters permeability
 Avenacin- found in oats that are resistant to root rot pathogens
 Tomatine- in tomato resistant against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopercisi

4. Enzymes involved in resistance

 Peroxidases- involved in oxidation reaction
 Polyphenol oxidase- converts phenols to quinones
 Lytic enzymes
A. chitinase- against fungal cell walls
B. -1,3 glucanase- also against fungal-like oomycete cell walls

B. Induced Resistance
 Active only in the presence of inducers
 Induced response to infection includes: a cascade of responses such as the production
of novel antimicrobial compounds (phytoalexins), proteins, and formation of physical
barriers to penetration.

37
Recognition of the Pathogen by the Plant
Fungi and bacteria release in their immediate environment various substances like
glycoproteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, and peptides which could act as elicitors of
recognition by the plant.

Inducers
1. Physical presence of pathogens like fungal spores on plant surface
2. Others require penetration before induction
3. Non-specific elicitors (innate response that discriminates between self and non-self)
4. AVR gene products in Gene for gene resistance model (races of pathogens)
5. Other molecules

A. Induced structural defenses

This type of defense includes the formation or one or more types of structures for defense
which could involve:
1. the cytoplasm (cytoplasmic defense),
2. the cell wall (cell wall defense),
3. histological defense (host tissues ahead of pathogen), and
6. the death of the invaded cells (necrotic or hypersensitive reaction).

1. Cytoplasmic Defense Reaction

Cytoplasm and nucleus of the invaded cells enlarge and the cytoplasm becomes granular,
dense and filled with various particles causing disintegration of the fungal mycelium (observed
in weakly pathogenic Armillaria strains).

2. Cell Wall Defense Structures

• Involve morphological changes in the cell wall of the invaded cells.
• Three types of such structures have been observed in plant diseases
A. outer layer of the cell wall of parenchyma - in contact with an incompatible bacteria
swells and produces an amorphous, fibrillar material - surrounds and traps the
bacteria and prevents multiplication
B. Cell walls thicken - cellulosic material: infused with phenolic substances that are
cross-linked; resistant to penetration.
C. Callose papillae - deposited on the inner side of the cell wall (fungal invasion):
envelopes the penetrating hyphal tips forming a sheath infused with phenolic
substances.

3. Histological Defense Structures

a. Formation of cork layer (with suberin or lignin) – Cork layer is composed of dead cells
that inhibit further invasion by the pathogen; also block the spread of any toxic subs.
that the pathogen may secrete.
b. Formation of Abscission Layers - formed on young active leaves; consists of a gap
between two circular layers of cells of leaf surrounding the locus of infection;

38
 c. Formation of Tyloses - overgrowths of the protoplast of adjacent living
parenchymatous cells which protrude into xylem vessels through half-bordered pits.
Tyloses have cellulosic walls.
d. Deposition of Gums-around lesions or injury through mechanical means
 they form quickly in the intercellular spaces and within the cells surrounding the
locus of infection
 an impenetrable barrier around the pathogen which becomes isolated

B. Induced Biochemical Defenses

1. Defense thru hypersensitive response (HR)
 HR is localized plant cell death at the site of infiltration. Occurs in incompatible
interactions.
 The cell death surrounding the pathogen creates a physical barrier to movement of the
pathogen.
 In addition, compounds released from the dead cell can be toxic to the invading
pathogen.

2. Production of anti-microbial substances in attacked cells (Phytoalexins)

 Secondary metabolites produced in response to pathogen attack, stress, and injury

 produced by healthy cells adjacent to localized damage and necrotic cells in response
to materials diffusing from the damaged cells
Examples of phytoalexins
1. Phaseolin in beans
2. Pisatin in pea
3. Glyceolin in soybean, alfalfa and clover
4. Rishitin in potato
5. Gossypol in cotton
6. Capsidiol in pepper

3. Pathogenesis related proteins- proteins that are related to disease process

Examples-
1. Endo β-1,3-glucanase
2. Type I, II, IV, V,VI, VII chitinase
3. Protease inhibitor
4. Endoprotease
5. Peroxidase
6. Ribonuclease
7. Defensin
8. Lipid-transfer protein

4. Production of other defense-related proteins

a. Lectin- chitin-binding lectins in cereals
b. Ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs)- an antiviral protein, reduces virus replication

39
 c. Lipoxygenases- produce volatile and non-volatile fatty acid derived 20 metabolite toxic
to invading pathogens

5. Detoxification of Pathogen Toxin

Detoxification of some toxins like HC toxin and pyricularin, are known to occur in plants
and may play a role in resistance.

6. Protection of plants against Pathogens

Cross protection: less virulent strain of a virus is inoculated into the plant – more resistant
to more virulent strain

Local and Systemic Acquired Resistance

 SAR confers quantitative protection against a broad spectrum of microorganisms
 Chemical activators of SAR comprise inorganic compounds, natural compounds, and
synthetic compounds.

Systemic signal transduction (leading to systemic acquired resistance or SAR)

Systemic inducers
 Salicylic acid (SA)
 Oligogalacturonides
 Jasmonic acid (JA)
 Systemin
 Fatty acids
 Ethylene

GENES FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE

 Defense Genes
 Resistance Genes

Defense genes- Sequence of DNA that encode various proteins that are responsible for synthesis
and accumulation of defense arsenals in plants
 quiescent in healthy plants but activated when pathogens come in contact,
releasing signals
 signals are transferred to the plant nucleus through signal transduction pathway
activating defense genes

Defense genes may function as:

1. involved in production of antimicrobial compounds like phenolics, phytoalexins,
pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and active oxygen species.
2. reinforcement of cell wall by accumulating hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, callus,
lignin and phenolics.
3. Non-enzymatic action which includes antifungal action, elicitor-releasing activity,
increase in mechanical strength of host cell wall and others involved in the release of
second message and systemic signal molecules.

40
Resistance (R) Genes
 Resistance genes are regulatory genes. Sequences of DNA that regulate the functions of
the defense genes
 Products of the resistance genes share striking similarities and they appear to be involved
in signal transduction system to activate defense genes
Role of R gene Products:
1. Recognition - likely the "receptors" or binding sites for the "elicitors" (Avr proteins)
2. Signaling- participating in signal transduction cascades

R genes and Resistance

1. Elicitor molecule produced by avr gene of pathogen is recognized by a specific plant receptor
encoded by an R gene.
2. After recognition, one or more kinase enzymes may become activated that then amplify the
signal by phosphorylating, and thereby energizing, other kinases and other enzymes.
3. This leads to cascade of biochemical reactions leading to hypersensitive reactions (HR).

41
 EPIDEMIOLOGY

 Study of disease development in plant populations

 Epidemics- (Vander Plank) an increase in disease incidence within the plant population
with time.
 Epiphytotics- (purist) epidemics of plant disease

Endemic disease- disease that is native or indigenous to a particular place

Exotic disease- a disease that was introduced from some other area

Pandemic disease- a disease of worldwide or widespread occurrence throughout a

continent or region.

Other factors involved in disease development

1. Plant susceptibility
2. Pathogen virulence
3. The duration and intensity of the various environmental factors
4. Time
5. Presence of vectors
6. Intervention measures by man
Epidemic more likely to occur if:
1. A single crop variety is planted over a wide area
2. Plants are predisposed to infection by excessive nitrogen fertilization or by injuries
3. There is abundant inoculum, inoculum is rapidly formed, efficiently liberated, spread,
and inoculated.

Disease increase at any one time is dependent on:

1. Initial amount of inoculum or disease (Xo)
2. Rate of disease increase (r)
3. Duration or period of time involved
 Accdg. to Vander Plank, this is similar to the increase in money invested at
different interest rates. (Initial amount, interest rate, duration of investment)

Relation of epidemiology to control practices:

X= Xoert
Where: X= amount of disease
X = initial inoculum
o
e= base of natural logarithm
r= rate of disease increase
t= time

Control measures are geared towards reducing initial inoculum and reducing the rate of
disease increase

42
Development of epidemics
 Plotted against time, disease incidence shows a sigmoid epidemic curve (polycyclic)
 Epidemics begin at a point where sigmoid curve begins to leave the horizontal line to
approach the vertical line
 After onset of epidemic, disease incidence becomes logarithmic, until susceptible tissues
decrease.
 Epidemic ends-
o A. no susceptible tissues,
o B. unfavorable environment prevent further increase. Curve levels-off.
Types of diseases
1. Compound interest or polycyclic diseases
 Pathogens are readily spread from plant to plant during the disease cycle (rusts,
powdery mildews, Cercospora, etc)
 Repeating disease cycles occur with several generations of the pathogen

2. Simple interest or monocyclic diseases

 No plant to plant spread during the primary cycle, or
 Only one generation of pathogen occurs during the growing season as in root knot and
vascular wilts caused by soil-borne pathogens

Control practices that reduce the amount of initial inoculum

1. Roguing of diseased plants.
2. Chemical eradication
3. Hot water treatment
4. Destroying infested plant debris
5. Soil fumigation
6. Using varieties with vertical resistance

Control practices that reduce rate of disease increase

1. Modification of environment
2. Cultural practices that hinder growth and reproduction of pathogen (less fertilization,
raising furrows, clean culture)
3. Planting varieties with horizontal resistance

DISEASE ASSESSMENT

Disease assessment is necessary in:

1. Evaluating resistance of varieties.
2. Disease survey and evaluation of incidence and severity in a locality.
3. Effectiveness of fungicides and how much control was attained.
4. Effectiveness of management package in controlling the disease.

43
Assessing amount of disease
1. Determining % incidence (% diseased plants, organs or tissues)

Number of infected plants

% disease incidence = X 100
Total number of plants

Disease incidence best used for:

 diseases that exhibit systemic symptoms such as wilts, damping off, root rots, those
caused by viruses
 disease that affect entire organs such as fruit rots, inflorescence smuts
 presence of disease is directly translated to yield loss

2. Use of descriptive disease ratings on a numerical scale (Disease severity)

 diseases that show various amounts of infection in different parts of the plant like leaf
spots, rust pustules, stem rusts, anthracnose
 Presence of disease does not directly translate to yield loss.

For example:
Rating scale –foliar rice blast (Percent leaf area infected)

Rating DESCRIPTION
scale
0 No lesion/infection
1 Small to large brown speck, 1-5% leaf area infected (lai)
3 Typical blast lesion, 6-15% lai
5 Typical blast lesion, 16-25% lai
7 Typical blast lesion, 26-50% lai
9 More than 50% lai

To compute for % disease severity

n(0) + n(1) + n(3)…..n(9) X 100

%DS =
Nx9

Where n= number of infested plants classified by grade (scale)

N= total number of samples
9= represents the highest value in the rating scale; varies on the rating scale used

44
 1 1 32 5
3 47 59
<1% LAI 1-5% 6-25% 26-50% >50%
% leaf area infected (LAI)

Cercospora leaf spot of mungbean

For example:

Rating Number of Plants Rating x no. of plants (n x r)

0 0 0
1 3 3
3 12 36
5 10 50
7 1 7
9 0 0
Σ N=26 Σ NxR= 96

96
% D.S. = ---------------------- x 100 = 41%
26 x 9

PLANT DISEASE SURVEYS

 Wide scale appraisal of the severity and prevalence of disease in a country, a region or a
continent.
 Prevalence- How often the disease occurs in the locality (Whole year?, occasional?).
Objectives:
1. Determine the geographical distribution of certain diseases, certain pathogens or certain
physiologic races.
2. Detect and monitor newly introduced pathogens.
3. Determine the distribution of alternate hosts.
4. Quarantine

45
Plant disease surveys
• Aid in evaluation of the relative importance of diseases and assist in the development of a
cooperative control program.
• Carried out by trained personnel
• Aerial photography of diseases with symptoms
• Spore trapping
• Space vehicles that orbit the earth
• Molecular biology tools

FORECASTING OF PLANT DISEASES

1. Predicting the incidence and severity of plant disease

2. To properly guide farmers in making decisions on disease control
3. To save crop growers a lot of money that otherwise would be thrown away on control
measures that are not necessary.

General Procedure
1. Study under controlled condition the environmental conditions required by the pathogen for
tiding over adverse conditions, for the development and spread;

2. From the data obtained,

a. a climatological model is prepared;
b. model includes the sequence of climatic conditions during specific times of the day as
they affect the various events of the disease cycle (spore germination, penetration,
colonization, sporulation, spore dispersal, etc.)
2. From the data obtained,

a. a climatological model is prepared;

b. model includes the sequence of climatic conditions during specific times of the day as
they affect the various events of the disease cycle (spore germination, penetration,
colonization, sporulation, spore dispersal, etc.)

2. From the data obtained,

a. a climatological model is prepared;

b. model includes the sequence of climatic conditions during specific times of the day as
they affect the various events of the disease cycle (spore germination, penetration,
colonization, sporulation, spore dispersal, etc.)
c. Model is field tested noting disease development in relation to the weather, and the
necessary refinements are made.

46
 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT
(PLANT DISEASE CONTROL)

 The raison d’ etre of the science of plant pathology is the control of plant diseases
 Must be economical
 Most are preventive in nature
Purpose:
1. Prevent disease development
2. Maintain a tolerable disease incidence
3. Minimize yield losses

Four General Principles

1. exclusion
2. eradication
3. protection
4. resistance

EXCLUSION principle
 Prevention of a “new pathogen” from being introduced into a locality where it is
currently unknown.
Methods of Plant Disease control (those that exclude the pathogen)
a. Quarantine – regulatory actions to prevent the introduction or dispersal of non-native
organisms (exotic diseases); Legal methods
b. Inspection and seed certification
c. Use of pathogen-free propagating materials

ERADICATION principle
 Elimination of pathogens that have become established within the plant or in an area
Mechanical and physical methods to eradicate pathogens
Utilize some physical component of the environment, such as temperature, humidity, or
light, to the detriment of pathogens
A. PHYSICAL
1. Heat treatment (hot water, hot air, soil sterilization, soil solarization)
2. Irradiation- UV rays, X rays and Gamma rays
3. Light wavelenths that prevent sporulation
4. Drying stored grains

B. CHEMICAL
1. Systemic chemicals
2. Soil fumigants
3. Disinfestation of warehouses
4. Control of insect vectors

47
Chemical Control
1. Employs the use of chemicals that are generally toxic
2. Used as disinfectants or fumigants or chemicals that target specific kinds of pathogens
(fungicides, bactericides, nematicides)
3. Effective at concentrations that will not harm the plant
Know your chemical
 Chemical must have low risks to man and animals and minimal effect on normal
microflora of plants and soil
 Pathogens should not develop resistance against them
 Suitable for long storage in ambient conditions

Antibiotics – against bacteria

 Chemicals produced by micro-organisms which destroy or injure living organisms,
especially bacteria
 Very few, very expensive
 Streptomycin used as stop-gap measure
 Development of resistance to antibiotics

Issues related to use of chemicals

1. Pathogen resistance
2. Risk of poisoning humans and animals
3. Contamination of livestock products
4. Harm beneficial insects and microflora
5. Contamination of food products, waterways and soil
Risks to humans- when and how they become risks
1. Preparation or application of chemicals- inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin
 safety precautions must be followed
2. Consumption of plants or their products
 various regulations exist with regard consumable products like with-holding
period and MRL
3. Environmental concerns- copper and sulfur sprays that drip off in soils affecting a broad
range of microorganisms or washed off in waterways
4. Public awareness- less use, best application , lower doses, better understanding of
threshold levels

C. Biological Control
 A pathogen kept in check by the microbial community- natural control which is a form
of biological control
 Employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population.
 Involve introduction of exotic species or use of naturally existing biological control
agents in the ecosystem

Mechanisms of biological control

1. Parasitism-hyperparasitism or mycoparasitism

48
 2. Predation- invertebrates, bacteria feeding nematodes, amoeba attacking yeasts, small
spores, and fungal hyphae
3. Competition- between organisms that require the same resource for growth and survival.
Also, competition for infection sites of related microorganisms.
4. Induced resistance- cross protection, systemic acquired resistance. Prepares plants for
attack by virulent pathogens.
5. Production of antimicrobial substances- but antibiotics are easily lost in the environment
and broken down by other organisms.

D. Cultural management to eradicate pathogens

1. Roguing or removal and destruction of infected plants
2. Removal of alternate hosts
3. Sanitation
4. Crop rotation
5. Creating unfavorable conditions

PROTECTION PRINCIPLE
Prevention of infection through
1. Chemical barriers
2. Biological control
3. Crop management
4. Manipulation of environment
Putting a chemical barrier between the pathogen and the host
1. before inoculation
2. to prevent spore germination
3. or kill germinating spores

Cultural Management Practices for protection and eradication

 Measures undertaken by man to prevent and control disease by manipulating plants. Only
forms of control that are economically viable for low value crops.

A. Reducing initial levels of inoculum (Xo)

1. Selecting appropriate planting materials

a) Planting resistant varieties
b) Planting a number of mixed cultivars
c) Using certified seeds
2. Destruction of crop residues- burying or burning or removal of crop residues are
important practices performed between cropping seasons
 Disadvantages of burning-loss of nutrients, smoke pollution, increased soil erosion
and greenhouse effect.
3. Elimination of living plants that carry pathogens
a) Remnant or diseased crop plants
b) Wild plants or weeds as alternate hosts

49
 4. Crop rotation- successive planting of different crops in the same area, sometimes with
fallow, or resting period in between crops.
 rotate crops over periods that are longer than the survival period of pathogens

B. Reducing rate of disease spread (r)

1. Wider spacing of plants

a) Reduces speed with which disease moves between plants
b) Reduce moisture levels to inhibit infection-
 water plants in the morning to reduce wet periods when the sun rises and dries leaves;
 pruning or training plants to reduce canopy cover.
2. Adjust sowing practices
a) Change time of planting - exploit weather conditions.
b) Depth of sowing- chance of infection at pre-emergence attack
c) Direction of sowing
3. Change planting density- transfer of inoculum, microclimate, wet periods longer
4. Intercropping- the practice of planting more than one crop in alternating rows.
a) Increase the distance between plants of the same species
b) Creating a physical barrier between plants of the same species
c) Labor intensive but beneficial
d) Proper combination of plants
5. Mulching and soil amendments- used to conserve moisture and organic matter and reduce
erosion in the soil, decrease soil temperature, weed inhibition and seedling protection.
a. Organic matter- straw, sawdust, manure, aquatic plants, coir dust
 Crop residues as mulch should not provide food and attractive environment to
pathogens.
b. Manufactured products- plastics, asphalt paper, paper
6. Flooding- reduce weeds, reduce fungal propagules, insects and nematodes but may also
help in dissemination of pathogens
7. Irrigation- irrigation water may carry propagules, overhead sprinklers splash inoculum,
etc. Trickle or drip irrigation as alternative.
8. Roguing- removal and destruction of diseased plants. Practical in small plantings,
detection is early and labor is cheap.
9. Fertilizers and crop nutrition- healthy vigorous plants better. N,P, K and Ca for plants and
pathogen.
a) N- delays crop maturity, alter activity of soil microflora, change microenvironment
due to increased canopy cover and crowding of foliage, therefore higher risk of
infection.
b) Phosphorus- sometimes encourages disease. Not well understood.
c) Potassium- generally inhibits disease development. Promotes healing of wounds.
Sometimes effects are variable.
d) Calcium- necessary component of plant cell walls for resistance.
9. Strip farming - areas of one crop are separated from each other with strips of another.
Crops do not share the same pathogens

50
 RESISTANCE PRINCIPLE
 Involves modifying certain physiological or physical features of the host so that it can
repel infection
 Resistance is the relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of a pathogen

METHODS IN RESISTANCE

1. Improving the growing conditions of plants (cultural management)

2. Use of resistant varieties
 Vertical resistance (few major genes)
 Horizontal resistance (many minor genes)
 Most effective and economical

Resistant varieties developed by/ used:

1. Selection
2. Gene pyramiding- involves incorporation of several resistance genes in one host
variety. Reduces Xo; caution: development of “super pathogen”
3. Multiline varieties- a mixture of several lines with similar agronomic characteristics
but with different genes for resistance

Gene deployment- involves the use of different resistance genes or varieties in various
geographical areas where the pathogen / race is absent.

IMPORTANT PEST MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

 Plant diseases and /or pests can never be eliminated, only managed at economically
acceptable level.
 Pest management requires knowledge and judgment: know the enemies (the pests), know
the battleground (the environment), know the crop (the host)
 Provide the crop with every possible advantage. Use all weapons in the arsenal of
integrated pest management.
 Continuous pest management is basic to efficient production.
 Least possible cost and minimize losses.

Strategic objectives in disease management

1. Reduce the initial inoculum.
2. Reduce the rate of increase and spread of the pest.

Remember: X = Xoert
 Use proper tactics; develop and employ suitable weapons to carry out strategy

Example of a Disease Management Package

1. Use chemicals if available and effective
2. Resistant varieties

51
 3. Seed treatment
4. Crop rotation
5. Proper planting date and site
6. Proper seeding rate and depth
7. Proper harvesting and storage
8. Keep abreast of latest developments

MAJOR PESTS OF IMPORTANT CROPS

RICE
I. Green leafhopper (order: Homoptera) – Nephotellix virescens/ Nephotellix nigropictus
 Upper leaves wilted, young plants stops growing and dies. Panicle--formation
seriously impaired
 Transmits the tungro virus
2. Brown planthopper (order: Hemiptera) – Nilaparva talugens
 Plants wilted and stunted. Heavy sooty mold growth on surfaces of leaves. Exhibits
characteristics "hopperbum" due to direct feeding.
 Transmits the grassy (excessive tillering and stunted growth) and ragged stunt
(ragged/twisted) virus
3. Rice bug (order: Hemiptera) – Leptocorisa oratorius
 Grain stained brown
 Panicles empty or underdeveloped as a result of sucking grains during the milk
stage
4. Stemborers (order: Lepidoptera)
 Striped stem borer – Chilo suppressalis
 Yellow stem borer – Scirpophaga ncertulas
 Pink stemborers – Sesamia inferens
 White stemborers – Scirpophaga innotata
o Younger leaves and growing points wither exhibiting the so called
"deadheart symptom" during vegetative stage
o Plants attacked during the reproductive stage exhibit white empty panicles
known as "whitehead"
5. Golden apple snail (order: Megastropoda) – Pomacea canaliculata
 Cut base of seedlings/leaves

CORN
1. Asiatic com borer (order: Lepidoptera) – Osrtrinia furcanalis
o Larvae bores hole on stem, leaves and ears
2. Corn semi-looper (order: Lepidoptera) – Chrysodeixi schalcites
o Infests young plants, feeds on the leaf blade leaving only the veins and the
midrib
3. Corn seedling maggot (order: Diptera) – Atheriogona orozae
o Affect young plants with younger leaves drying ("deadheart" symptom)
4. Corn ear worm (order: Lepidoptera) – Helicoverpa armigera
o Larva bores on young unfolded leaves, ears heavily attacked

52
 5. Whitegrub (order: Coleoptera) – Leucopholis irrorata
o Root feeder, irregular patches of yellowing or wilting plants in the field

STORED GRAINS
1. Rice weevil (order: Coleoptera) – Sitophilus oryzae
2. Corn weevil (order: Coleoptera) – Sitophilus zeamais
3. Rice moth (order: Coleoptera) - Corcyra cephalonica
o Feed on both milled and unmilled grains

SUGARCANE
1. Root grubs (order: Coleoptera) – Leucopholis irrorata

o Leaves unthrifty and stunted.

o Grubs feed on roots.

o Affected leaves often show patches of initially yellowing plants.

2. Heart borer (order: Lepidoptera) – Tetramoera schislaceana

o Yellow tip borer (order: Lepidoptera) – Chilo infuscatellus
o Larva bores through the stem - loss of sugar content

VEGETABLE CROPS
1. Crucifers (pechay, cabbage, cauliflower, radish. etc.)
o Diamond back moth (order: Lepidoptera) – Plutella xylostella
 Leaves eaten out and turned into lace-like appearance with irregular
and small holes on leaves
o Cabbage worm (order: Lepidoptera) – Crocidolomia binotalis
 Irregular perforation on the leaves
o Cutworm (order: Lepidoptera) – Spodoplera lilura
 Leaves and stems of newly planted seedlings cut-off/eaten- out

2. Cucurbits (bottle gourd, amplaya, squash, patola)

o Yellow squash beetle (order: Coleoptera) – Aulocophora similis
 Grubs bore into the roots and adults scrape epidermis of leaves giving it a
shredded appearance
o Melon fruitfly (order: Diptera) – Bactocera cucurbitae
 Fruit rooting inside with maggots

3. Solanaceous crops (tomato. eggplant, pepper. etc.)

o Tomato lady beetle (order: Coleoptera) – Epilachna vigintisex punctata
philippinensis
 Adult larva scrape epidermis of leaves resulting in characteristic net-like
damage
o Eggplant fruit and shoot borer (order: Lepidoptera) – Leucinoides orbonalis

53
  Growing shoots and fruits are bored; shoots eventually die.

4. Malvaceous crops (cotton, okra, kenaf)

o Cotton stainer (order: Hemiptera) – Dysdercus cingulatus
 Bolls discolored and resulted to premature fruit fall, plant growth become
stunted when population is extremely high
o Cotton bollworm (order: Lepidoptera) – Helicoperva armigera
 Larva feeds on terminal buds, floral buds and developing bolls

5. Legumes (cowpea, mungbean, soybeans, bush sitao)

o Beanfly (order: Diptera) – Ophiomyia phaseoli
 Young plants especially exposed to attack especially after emergence.
 Leaves streaked with oviposition punctures.
 Maggots remain and feed on the stem epidermis.
 Stem above the root thickens and growth is impaired.
o Aphids (order: Homoptera) - Aphis craccivora
 Heavily infested plants have shoots deformed and distorted. Leaves are
slightly curled downwards and fruit formation is prevented.
o Bean pod borers (order: Lepidoptera) · Etiella zinckinella & Marucca testulalis
 Etiella -pod partially stained dark, occupied by caterpillars and filled
with greenish pulpy excrement. Larva feeds inside the pod.
o Marucca - leaves spun together and eaten. Flowers and buds also attacked.
Pods with holes were excrement is visible. Seeds in the pods are also
destroyed.
o Leaffolders (order: Homoptera) – Homona coffearia
 Larvae feed inside the rolled or folded leaves
o Leafhopper (order: Homoptera) – Empoasca ricei
 Leaves turn yellow and show necrotic patches, their margin slightly
curled.
 Shoots attacked are deformed oftentimes with uniform seeds.
o Bean Lycaenid (Order: Lepidoptera)- Euchrysops cnejus
 Podes bored by slug-like larvae

ROOT CROPS
1. Sweet potato weevil (order: Coleoptera) – Cylasf ormicarius formicarius
a. Tubers with rotting section and legless larvae tunnel and feed inside the
tubers. Infested tubers exude disagreeable odor and bitter taste.

FRUIT CROPS
1. Mango
a. leafhopper (order: Hemiptera) – Idioscopus niveosparus/ Idioscopus clypealis
i. blossom withers and fruit setting is prevented;
ii. sooty molds are abundant
b. Philippine fruitfly (order: Diptera) – Bactrocera philippinensis
i. Maggots feed on fruits which eventually rot due to secondary
contamination with pathogens
54
 c. Mango twig borer (order: Coleoptera) – Niphonuclea albata/ Niphonuclea
capito
i. Twigs are girdled and eventually wither and die. Larvae inside dead
twigs.
2. Banana
a. Banana leafroller (order: Lepidoptera) – Erionatha thrax
i. Portions of leaves rolled. Powdery caterpillar inside feeds on the
leaves
ii. Banana weevil (order: Coleoptera) – Cosmopolitus sordidus
 Plants wilt and urn yellow and collapse
 Pseudostem infested with weevil; grubs on rootstock
iii. Abaca aphid (order: Hemiptera) – Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Transmits virus causing bunchy top symptom

COCONUT
1. Asiatic palm weevil (order: Coleoptera) – Rhynchoporus ferrugineus
a. Adults bore through the cabbage and legless larvae feed on the soft bud of
the coconut resulting to the destruction of the whole crown
2. Coconut rhinoceros beetle (order: Coleoptera) - Oryctes rhinoceros
a. Damage inflicted solely by the adult that bores through the unopened
leaves of the central bud. When leaves open, triangular gashes are
disclosed as if component leaflets had been cut by scissors.
COFFEE
1. Coffee berry borer (order: Coleoptera) – Hypothenemus hampei
a. Holes on berries with feeding or adult beetles
2. Leaffolder (order: Lepidoptera) – Homona caffearia
a. Larvae fold leaves and eat on the epidermis

CACAO
1. Pachyrrhynchid beetle (order: Coleoptera) – Pachyrrhynchlls moniliferus
2. Pink mealybugs (order: Hemiptera) – Planococcus lilacinus
• Fluffy pinkish mealybugs feed on leaves and young shoots
• Sooty molds present
• Stunted growth
3. Cacao pod borer (order: Lepidoptera) – Conopomorpha cramerella
• Beans of older pods are bored and eventually rot
4. Mosquito bugs (order: Hemiptera) – Helopeltis collaris/ Helopeltis bakeri
• Pods riddled with black necrotic areas

VERTEBRATE PESTS
1. Birds - Philippine weaver
• Feed mainly on grains (e.g. rice)
• Cause shattering of grains when they alight on panicles
2. Rodents
a. Norway rat – Rattus norvegicus
b. Philippine rice field rat – Rattus mindanensis
55
 c. Asian rice field rat – Rattus argemiventer
d. Polynesian rat – Rattus exulans
• Feed directly on grains (e.g. com, rice) and other fleshy part of me plants
(e.g. sweet potato, coconut)
• Cause indirect damages by transmitting human diseases and contaminating
stored products with their urine and feces.

NATURAL ENEMIES
1) Parasitoids - biological control agents that require only one host to complete their
life cycle
2) Predators- biological control agents that consume several hosts to complete their
life cycle
3) Pathogen - microorganisms that cause disease on other organisms
a. e.g. Metarrhzium anisopliae- a fungus that infects rhinoceros beetle
b. Bacillus thuringensis- a bacteria that produces toxins and kills larvae of
cruciferous pests (e.g. diamond back moth)

WEEDS and THEIR CONTROL

Weed Science – study of weeds and their control. It is an offshoot of plant
physiology- from study of plant growth regulators. The main goal is the formulation of
most effective, economical, and satisfactory methods of controlling weeds.

Importance of Weeds
Weeds are familiar plants of our environment which are seen infecting lawns,
sidewalks, roadsides, fence rows, ditches, canals, ponds, waterways, garden, croplands,
rangelands, and forests. They adversely affect the use, economic value, and aesthetic aspect
of the land and waters they infest.

 Weeds
o A plant growing where it is not wanted
o A plant whose potentialities for harm far outweighs its potentialities for good
o A plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered
o A plant or plant part interfering with the objectives of man in a specific
situation
o A misfit; a plant unwanted at a particular time and place
 For a plant to be considered a weed depends not only on its
characteristics and habits but also on its relative position with
reference to other plant and man.
 A weed must impair man’s activity

 Why weeds as pest are not recognized early?

o Damage caused by weeds are not visible as those caused by insects and
diseases
o It is seldom to have a total crop failure due to weeds
o Crop is always associated with weeds

56
 Effect of weeds
o Negative
 Reduce crop yield

Table 1. Percent yield reduction in some selected crops due to uncontrolled

weed growth

Crop Ave. Yield Reduction (%)

Rice, transplanted 33
Rice, direct seeded 64
Rice, upland 86
Corn 39
Tomato 39-86
Cabbage 16-90
Onion 67-88
Cowpea 53

 Increase cost of production

 Added cost for disease management and insect control
 Weeds hamper harvesting and increase harvest cost through
interference with harvesting operation
 Reduce the quality of crop and animal product
 Act as alternate hosts of insects and pathogens
 Harbor birds and rodents
 Increase cost of public utilities
 Impair human and livestock health
 Hazard to human health and livestock: E.g. Chromolaena
odorata- poisonous to livestock which cause disorders, illness,
birth defects and death of livestock
 Pollen causes allergy:
o Pistia stratiotes- serve as host to mosquitoes which
carry the parasites responsible for rural filariasis and
encephalomyelitis
o Saccharum spontaneum, Imperate cylindrica, Eleusine
indica, Amaranthus spinosus, Celosia argentea, Tridax
procumbens, Vernonia cinereal, Mimosa pudica
 Interfere with water resource management
 Pistia stratiotes, Eicchornia crassipes in waterways
 Depreciate land value
 Impair beauty
 Interfere with traffic and navigation
 Protect pests and their vectors
 Compete with crops for insect pollinators

57
 Table 2. Weeds act as secondary hosts of pathogens and insects
Disease (Pathogens), Insects Host Weed species
Rice dwarf (virus) Echinochloa crusgalli
Rice stripe (Virus) Echinochloa crusgalli
Bacterial Leaf Blight Leptochloa chinensis
(Bacteria)
Brown spot (Fungi) Cyncodon dactylon, Leersia hexandra, Digitaria
sanguinalis
White tip (Nematode) Setaria viridis, Cyperus rotundus, Imperata
cylindrica
Meloidogyne (Nematode) Fimbristylis milliacea
Maize stripe (maize stripe Roettboellia cochinchinensis
tenuvirus)
Corn delphacid Roettboellia cochinchinensis
Papaya Ringspot potvirus Melothria pendula, Coccinea grandis
Root knot nematode Acalypha indica, Vernonia cinerea
(Meloidogyne incognita)

o Positive
 Prevent erosion
 Add organic matter to the soil
 Food and medicines for human
 Serve as nectar for bees
 Food for livestock, wild animals and birds
 Provide habitat for insect predators
 Source of beauty
 Recycle nutrients
 Source of genetic materials
 Crops vs. Weeds
o Similar physiology and morphology
o Weeds are unwanted, crops are plants that fit economically into man’s work
and existence.
 Characteristics of a Weed
o Rapid vegetative growth
o Reproduce rapidly and mature early
o Very prolific and produce abundant seeds
 R. cohinchinensis can produce more than 700 tillers and branches are
capable of producing inflorescence
o They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions
 Some species have the ability to germinate and grow under a wide
range of environmental conditions. They possess mechanism to resist
drought and excessive moisture stress.
 Example: Large crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis) when exposed to
extremelt dry conditions forms contractile roots and shoot growth is

58
 arrested. When conditions become favorable, they resume their
normal growth.
o Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant under
unfavorable condition
 Dormancy – state of arrested growth or a state at which a seed or any
propagule does not germinate even if favorable conditions for growth
are given; a mechanism that enables the species to survive under
favorable conditions including control operations
o Adapted to crop competition
 Weeds have properly synchronized germination, rapid establishment
and growth of seedlings, quick response to available moisture and
nutrients.
Table 3. Production capacities of common weed species in the Philippines
(Pancho, 1964)
Weed Species Number of Seeds/Plant Number of Seeds/Gram
Commelina 1,610 311
benghalensis
Ageratum conizoides 36, 865 8,576
Cyperus difformis 21,096 94,000
Cyperus iria 4,775 7,010
Cyperus rotundus 2,975 5,400
Dactyloctenium 65,800 4,280
aegyptium
Digitaria sanguinalis 1,705 2,506
Echinochloa colona 8,148 600
Echinochloa crusgalli 2,173 945
Echinochloa 2,235 3,559
glaberescens
Eleusine indica 50,352 3,559
Rottboellia 2,208 94
cochinchinensis

 Classification of Weeds
o Life Cycle
 Annual- weeds that complete their life cycle in 1 season; reproduce
mainly in seeds; profuse vegetative growth manifested by profuse
tillering and/or branching which contribute to the numerous seed
production. Shallow rooted.
 Ex. Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Ageratum conyzoides,
Amaranthus spinosus, Echinochloa crusgali
 Perennial- weeds that live for more than one season or for several
years and reproducing vegetatively and by seeds. Perennials can be
divided to:
 Simple perennial – reproduced mainly by Seeds

59
 o Ex: Sida acuta, Mimosa pudica, Chromolaena odorata,
Lantana camara
 Creeping perennial – reproduce by seeds and vegetative
propagule
o Ex: Stolon-Cyncodon dactylon; Rhizomes-Sorghum
halepense, Imperata cylindrica, Paspalum distichum;
Tubers-Cyperus rotundus, Scirpus maritimus; Offshoots-
Pistia stratiotes
o Gross morphological feature
 Grasses
 Belong to the family Poaceae or Graminae
 Stem, referred to as CULM, is cylindrical
 Culm has well defined nodes and internodes
 Leaves with parallel leaf venation arise alternately in two rows
 Basal part of the leaf is the leaf sheath which clasps the culm,
upper part is the blade with veins parallel
 Leaf sheath clasps around the culm overlap to protect the
growing shoot
 Ligule (a hairy membranous outgrowth between the leaf blade
and the leaf sheath) exists
 Ex: Echinochloa colona, Echinochloa crusgalli, Eleusine indica,
Paspalidium flavidium, Rottboellia cochinchinensis
 Sedges
 Belong to the family Cyperaceae
 Resemble grasses—leaves that are long and narrow
 Culm is triangular w/ no nodes and internodes
 Leaf sheath fused to form a tube around the culm forming a
rosette leaf arrangement
 Leaves have parallel leaf venation
 Ex: Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Cyperus difformis,
Fimbristylis littoralis
 Broadleaves
 Weed characterized by more expanded leaves
 Maybe monocots or dicots
 Ex: Ageratum conyzoides, Lantana camara, Pistia stratiotes,
Synedrella nodiflora, Cleome rutidosperma
o Number of cotyledons
 Monocotyledonous weeds – weeds having a single seed leaf or
cotyledon, parallel leaf venation and fibrous root system
 Dicotyledonous weeds – weeds having two seed leaves or cotyledons.
They have expanded leaf blades, netted leaf venation and tap root
system.

60
 o Habitat
 Aquatic
 Floating – grow on water surface and roots not attached to the
soil bottom
o Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta
 Emerged – have their roots beneath the water surface and
leaves above the surface. Roots attached to the soil
o Fimbristylis littoralis, Cyperus iria, Sphenochlea zeylanica
 Submerged – have all leaves beneath the water surface but
may have floral parts above water
o Hydrilla verticillata
 Terrestrial
 Arable land
 Waste place
 Pasture/rangeland
 Lawns
 Ex: Cynodon dactylon,Eleusine indica, Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Imperata cylindrica,
Cyperus rotundus, Ageratum conyzoides, Synedrella nodiflora,
Tridax procumbens, Celosia argentea, Amaranthus spinosus,
Mimosa pudica.
 Aerial or Epiphytes
o Other classification
 Common weeds- weeds that are more or less found in every farm but
are not exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by good
farming practices.
 Noxious weeds- weeds that are particularly undesirable, because of
their certain undesirable characteristics, like the presence of an
extensive perennial underground system which enable to resist the
most determined effort to control
 Reproduction and Establishment of Weeds
o Seeds or Sexual reproduction
o Vegetative or asexual reproduction
 Rhizomes – resembles a root but is differentiated into nodes,
internodes, and scale leaves (Imperata cylindrica)
 Tubers – terminal portion of the rhizome develops into a fleshy
storage organ (Cyperus rotundus)
 Stolons – resemble the rhizome but they remain underground. The
young plant arises from the lateral bud near the basal part of the stem
axis (Cynodon dactylon)
 Bulbs – the rhizome develops into a basal bulb which send out the
rosette or aerial leaves (Cyperus rotundus)
 Off shoots – Pistia stratiotes (the offshoots can be produced in 18
days)

61
 o Disseminating Agents and Dispersal of weeds
 Dispersal Agents
 Water
 Wind
o Seeds are very light and minute
o Flattened structures
o With wing-like outgrowth of feathery or hairy
appendages (Echinochloa spp – light and can easily be
blown by the wind; Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum
spontaneum have parachute like structures; Achenes of
composite as in Ageratum conyzoides and Tridax
procumbens are provided with pappus consisting of
circle of silky hairs
o For Celosia argentea and Portulaca olarecea, the strong
wind causes the seeds to separate from the plant. The
seeds fall on the soil surface where they remain or may
roll with the wind.
 Animals and man
o Some seed have special structures like spines and hooks
or sticky substances that enable them to cling to fur or
hides of animals and clothes of man (Ex: Bidens pilosa
have hooks).
o Seeds of edible fruits are dispersed by animal and birds
o Rats and ants carry seeds through short distance. Some
seeds secrete natural substances that stimulate ants to
feed
o Man carries weeds across natural barriers in the
shipment of seeds, feedstuff, and farm equipment
o Some plants are introduced as ornamentals. These
introduces species may spread rapidly and ultimately
become noxious weed.
o Application of manure containing weed seeds as
fertilizers contribute to the seriousness of the weed
problem in cultivated areas.
o Mud on shoes or feet may carry weed seeds from one
place to another.
 Soil
o Sources of weed seeds in the soil:
 Seeds produced in the previous season
 Disseminated from other locations
 Originally present in the soil
 Crop-Weed Competition
o Competition occurs when two or more plants make demands for the same
resources of the environment in excess of the immediate supply or when the
resources are supplied in the limited amount

62
 o Crops and weeds have the same requirement for growth and development
o The overall effect of competition is a reduction in the reproductive potential
of the competitors
o Ex: Corn-weed competition: weeds in corn can reduce yields by 15-80% if
left uncontrolled. Thus, corn needs a weed-free period of 0-42 DAP (Baltazar,
2011
o Types of Competition
 Interspecific – competition between plants of different species
 Intraspecific – competition between plants of the same species
 Allelopathy – any direct or indirect effect of one plant on another
plant through the production of chemical compounds that escape into
the environment
o Factors affecting competition
 Time of weed competition
 Time of crop and weed emergence (transplanting vs. direct-seeding)
 The critical period of competition is that time in which the crop is
very sensitive to weed competition which is usually on the first
25-33% of the crop growth. Thus, weeds should be removed
before or during this critical period.
Table 4. Critical Period of competition for some economic crops
Crop Maturity Critical Period of Competition
Corn 120 49
Upland rice 120 40
Lowland rice 120 30-40
Onion 95 56
Peanut 105 42
Mungbean 60-65 21-35
Soybean 125 42

o To reduce competition:
 Provide enough of the resources being competed for (not true for
fertilizers)
 Remove one of the competing individuals in this case, weeds (direct
and indirect control methods)
 Apply strategies that will weaken weeds or make weeds grow slower,
but make crops grow faster (weed management strategies)

63
 Table 5. Allelopathic crops
Allelopathic plants Affected Plants
Imperata cylindrica Corn
Cyperus rotundus Cucumber
Salvia leucophylla Cabbage
Rottboella Cucumber, Ipomoea triloba
cochinchinensis
Barley Stellaria media
Cucumber Panicum millaceum

 Shifts in Weed Population

o All vegetation in continuous state of change
o Change is influenced by environment and the activities of man
o Weed species in cultivated or cropped areas keep changing or shifting
from less dominant to more dominant species.
 Principles of Weed Management
o The aim of weed management is to reduce weed population to level
that will not result in significant yield reduction
o Weed control measure should be directed against organs responsible
for reproduction and spread of weeds
o Weed control activities should be started at the early crop stages and
sustained until the crop is able to compete favourably with weeds.
 Weed Control
o Weeds should be controlled to prevent yield reduction
o The timing of weed control is more important than the number of
weeding operations
o It is very important to consider the critical period of weed
competition, which is usually the first 30% of the life cycle of the crop
 Methods of Weed Control
o Preventive methods- deal primarily with the measures taken to avoid the
introduction or spread of specific weed species in the area.
 Use of weed-free seeds
 Proper management of farm implements and livestock
 Keeping bunds (leaves) and irrigation canals free from weeds
 Prevent seeding of weeds in the field and spread of perennial weeds
that reproduce vegetatively
o Manual methods- handweeding and use of hand tools like and sickles
 Advantages:
 Effective method of removing weeds within the rows of hills of
crops where weeds cannot be removed by other means
 Disadvantages:
 Extremely tedious and time consuming
 Not practical to use in large hectarages

64
  Difficult to distinguish weed seedlings from rice seedlings at
early stages of growth and uprooting or damaging rice cannot
be avoided
 Weed control in corn
 Hoeing or handweeding – Done 2-3 times per cropping season
at 14, 28, and/or 42 DAS
o Not practical with itchgrass and spicy amaranth
o Increasing labor costs, tedious back-breaking work
o Unavailability of labor at critical periods of competition
 Interrow cultivation
o Off-barring (move soil away from base of plant) at 15
DAS
o Hilling-up (move soil toward crop rows, which can still
reduce yields significantly
 Handweeding within the rows to remove the weeds that were
not controlled by interrow cultivation
o Cultural and ecological methods- an alteration of growing conditions aimed
at suppressing indirectly weed populations by decreasing the competitive
ability or directly encouraging weed growth at a specified period during
which time direct control methods can be imposed. These two go together
because any change in cultural methods essentially affects the ecology of
both crops and weeds
 Land preparation – suppression of weeds can be done by deep
plowing, puddling, increased tillage, timing of land preparation and
stale seedbed technique—a method where weeds are allowed to
emerge (up to 1-2 weeks after last cultivation), then killed using
either cultivation or a non-selective herbicide.
 Water management – water will suppress weeds if it is applied before
the weeds germinate or before they emerge above the soil surface.
Once weeds have emerged, they may not be controlled by flooding.
 Method of planting – transplanting rice will suppress weeds better
than wet seeding or dry seeding.
 Cultivar grown
 Tall droopy-leaved traditional cultivars are more competitive
than the erect-leaved cultivars.
 A high tillering rice cultivar suppresses weeds better than a
low-tillering cultivar
 Plant density – high seed rate in broadcast-seeded rice
suppresses weeds better than a low seed rate
 Fertilizer application
 Crop rotation – planting of different crops in sequence
o Crops should be rotated to reduce the buildup of certain
weed species associated with the crop

65
 o With crop rotation, no species or group of species can
have undisturbed development, therefore, the
population is reduced.
o Biological weed control – the suppression or control of weeds by the action
of living organisms or natural enemies which is accomplished naturally or by
purposeful introduction.
 Insects
 Plant pathogens
 Fish and other animals
-Biological weed control agents (BWCA) are required to effectively put
pressure on the weeds but they should not attack plants with economic
importance.

Attributes of an effective BWCA

 Highly host specific
 Has the ability to kill the weed or prevent its reputation in some direct
or indirect manner
 Has the ability to disperse successfully to locate the host plant
 Has a short life cycle and high rate of reproduction
 Be amenable to be cultured in the laboratory
o Chemical control – use of herbicides to kill weeds
-Importance: understanding of the different types of herbicides based on
time of application, method of application and biological effect are necessary
for their efficient use.
 Types of herbicides
 Based on time of application
o Preplant- any herbicide applied before the crop is
seeded or transplanted
 Foliar applied- the herbicide is applied on the
existing vegetation to kill weeds before planting
 Ex. Glyphosate
 Preplant soil incorporated- the herbicide is
incorporated into the soil to prevent
volatilization losses or to place the chemical in
the zone where it is needed.
 Ex. Pendimethalin to control R,
cochinchinensis
o Pre-emergence- herbicide is applied before the
emergence of the crop or the weeds. The herbicide is
applied to the soil surface. Ex. Butachlor
o Post-emergence- any treatment made after emergence
of a particular crop or weed.
 Ex. 2,4-D applied 30 days after emergence (DAE)
 Based on biological effect

66
 o According to mode of action
 Contact- herbicides applied to the foliage and kill
the plant tissues at or very close to the site of
application
 Ex. Paraquat
 Translocated or systemic- herbicides capable of
movement within the plant to exert herbicidal
effect away from the site of application.
 Ex. 2,4-D; Glyphosate
o According to selectivity
 Selective- kill or stunt some plants w/a little or
no injury to others
 Non-selective- kills all plants also called general
weed killers, ex. Glyphosate, Paraquat
o Based on method of application
 Foliar applied – herbicides that are directly
sprayed on the foliage; maybe contact and
selective (ex. Propanil); systemic and selective
(ex. 2,4-D); systemic and non-selective (ex.
Glyphosate)
 Soil applied – herbicides that are applied to the
soil (ex. Butachlor)
 Precautions when applying Herbicides
o Rate used – the rate should be not more or less than the recommended rate
o Apply at the correct time – apply when it is most destructive to weeds but is
not harmful to the crop
o Spray during fair weather only
 Sunlight maybe needed for the herbicide to penetrate into the plants
 Rain after application (within 2-3 hours), may wash-off the herbicide
and reduce its effectiveness.
 Strong wind during herbicide application may cause uneven
distribution of the chemical and may damage susceptible crops due to
drift

 Sprayer Calibration
o Calibration is the process of determining prayer output and adjusting the
sprayer output by changing the speed of walking and/or nozzle size to match
a specified sprayer output that is recommended for a particular herbicide on
the herbicide label; done to ensure that enough herbicide I applied to kill
weeds and to avoid spraying much which would be a waste of money and
may damage the crop or soil.

67
MAJOR WEEDS OF THE PHILIPPINES

Table 1. Lowland Weeds

Scientific name Common name Mode of Life cycle Morphology
Reproduction
Cyperus iria Rice flatsedge Sexual Annual Sedge
Cyperus deformis Flat flower umbrella Sexual Annual Sedge
plant
Echinochloa colona Jungle rice Sexual Annual Grass
Echonochloa Barnyard grass Sexual Annual Grass
crusgali
Echinochloa Barnyard grass Sexual Annual Grass
glaberescens
Fimbristyllis Fimbristyllis Sexual Annual Grass
littorallis
Ludwigia octovalvis Water purslane Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Monocharia Pickerel weed Sexual Annual Broadleaf
vaginalis
Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce Asexual Perennial Broadleaf
Ischeamum Saromatta grass Sexual Perennial Grass
rugosum
Scirpus maritimus Bulush Asexual Perennial Grass
Paspalum distichum Knotgrass Asexual Perennial Grass
Leptochloa chinensis Sprangletop Sexual Annual Grass
Sphenochlea Gooseweed Sexual Annual Broadleaf
zeylanica

Table 2. Upland Weeds

Scientific name Common name Mode of Life cycle Morphology
Reproduction
Amaranthus Spiny amaranth Sexual Annual Broadleaf
spinosus
Amaranthus viridis Slender amaranth Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Ageratum Tropic ageratum Sexual Annual Broadleaf
conyzoides
Biden pilosa Beggarsticks Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Cyncodon dactylon Bermuda grass Asexual Perennial Grass
Digitaria ciliaris Crabgrass Sexual Annual Grass
Euphorbia hirta Garden spurge Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Cleome Spindle top Sexual Annual Broadleaf
rutidosperma
Commelina Dayflower Asexual Perennial Broadleaf
benghalensis
Commelina diffusa Spreading dayflower Asexual Perennial Broadleaf
Rottboellia Itchgrass Sexual Annual Grass
cochinchinensis
Paspalidium Paspalidium Sexual Perennial Grass
flavidum
Jungle rice Sexual Annual Grass
Vernonia cinerea Little Iron weed Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Imperata cylindrica Cogon Asexual Perennial Grass
Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge Asexual Perennial Sedge
Eleusine indica Goose grass Sexual Annual Grass
Portulaca olarecea Common purselane Sexual Annual Broadleaf
Trianthema Horse purslane Sexual Annual Broadleaf
portulacastrum

68
Lantana camara Lantana Asexual Perennial Broadleaf
Ipomoea triloba Three-lobe morning Sexual Annual Broadleaf
glory
Mimosa pudica Sensitive Plant Asexual Perennial Broadleaf
Chromolaena Devilweed Sexual Perennial Broadleaf
odorata

PESTICIDE CALCULATIONS
Formulas:
A. FP=rate/Ai
 where:
o FP amount of formulated product
o raterecommendation or actual; expressed as amount kg ai/ha
o aipercent of the active ingredient in the formulation; expressed in
decimal form
B. C1V1=C2V2
 where:
o C1 initial concentration
o V I volume to be taken in the original solution
o C2  desired concentration
o V2  volume to be prepared

Sample Problems:
1. Diazol EC contains 320g active ingredients per liter of formulated product. It has to
be mixed at 4 tbsp/l6 L water.
a. What is the concentration of the formulated product in percent?
b. What is the concentration of the spray solution in ppm?
c. If the recommendation calls for 150 L spray solution per hectare, how much
of the product is needed to spray 6,000 square meters?

2. Lorban 5G, with 5 % active ingredient, has to be applied at 0.7 kg ai/ha. how much
Lorban 5G is needed per hectare?

3. Consider the following:

 Average time to cover 100m2 = 2.5 minutes
 Average volume of spray delivered in 2.5 minutes = 3.5
 Sprayer capacity = 16 L
 Recommended rate of application for Lebaycid 50EC = 1.5 L/ha
a. How long would it take to spray 314 ha?
b. How many sprayer load of solution is needed per spray load?
c. How much of Lebaycid 50EC is needed per spray load?

4. Matador contains 600g Methamidophos per liter of formulated product. How many
liters have to be applied in 2 hectares to obtain a rate of 0.75 kg ai/ha?

69
 5. Compute for the amount (ml) of Perfekthion 40EC needed to prepare 1L each of the
folJowing concentrations:
a. 10,000 ppm
b. 500 ppm
c. 0.75%
d. 0.05%

Answers:
1.) 2.) 3.) 4.) 5.)
a. 32% 14kg a. 3.125hrs 2.5 kg a. 25 ml
b. 0.08% b. 16.4 sprayer loads b. 1.25ml
c. 225ml c. 68.6ml/tank load c. 18.75ml
d. 1.25ml

Calculation:
1.) a. __ 320g___ x 100 = 32%
100g/L

b. 4 tbsp = 40mL
% conc= 40ml x 0.32 = __1.28 ml ai__ x 100 = 0.08%
16,000 ml
= 800ppm

d. 150 L/ ha x 0.6 ha = 90L x 40mL = 225ml

16L 16L

2.) Amount required (kg/ha) = RR (Recommended rate) x ha x 100

% ai
= 0.7 kg ai/ha x 1 ha x 100
5%
= 14kg

3.) a. 25 mins = __x mins__ ¾ ha = 0.75 ha = 7,500 m2

100 m2 7,500m2

X mins = (25 mins)(7500 m2) = 187.5 mins or 3 hours, 7 mins., 30 sec.

100 m2

b. area = 7,500 m2
Spray volume for 100m2 = 3.5L
Volume (L) = 3.5L (7500 m2) = 262.5 L
100 m2

= 262.5 L = 16.4 sprayer load (TL)

70
 16 L/TL
c. 1.5 L = x___
1 ha 0.75ha

x = 1.5 L (0.75 ha) = 1.125 L = 0.06859 L = 68.6 ml/TL

1 ha 16.4 TL

4.) Amount of Formulated Product required = Recommended Rate (RR)

_____x Area in ha.______ x 100
% ai

= 0.75 kg ai/ha x 2 ha x 100

60%
= 1.25 kg methamidophos/ha x 2 ha = 2.5 kg methamidophos for 2ha

5.) C1V1 = C2V2

Perfeckthion = 40% ai = C1
V2 = 1L
Amount of Perfekthion = V1

a. C2 = 10,000 ppm = 1%
V1 = (1%) 1L = 0.025 L = 25ml
40 %

b. C2 = 500ppm = 0.05%
V1 = (0.05%) (1L) = 1.25 x 10-3 L x 1000 ml/L = 1.25 ml
40%

c. C2 = 0.75%
V1 = (0.75%) (1L) = 0.1875 L x 1000 ml/L = 18.75 ml
40%

d. C2 = 0.05%
V1 = (0.05%)(1L) = 0.00125 L x 1000 ml/L = 1.25ml
40%

 Biotechnological Methods
o Develop herbicide-resistant crops
o Out of herbicide-resistant weeds were developed herbicide-resistant crops
o Develop allelopathic crops
o Convert C3 crops to C4 crops
 Herbicide Resistant Crops (Baltazar, 2011)
o GMO crops: Corn, Soybeans, Cotton, Canola
o 10 million farmers in 22 countries planted over 100 million hectares with
GMO crops in 2006

71
 o 80% of GMO crops planted have a herbicide resistance gene
o US-95% of soybeans, 90% cotton, 60% corn are Roundup ready
 Development of Herbicide-resistant Crops
o It works on (formerly) susceptible crops
o Simple
o Economics: higher yields, lower costs
o Reduced risk of damage on rotational crops
o Examples of HRSs:
 Glyphosate – Roundup Ready Corn, soybean, canola, cotton
 Glufosinate – Liberty link maize, canola
 Sulfonylureas – STS soybean
 Imidazolinones – lmi rice, Clearfield rice, wheat, corn, canola
 Bromoxynil – BXN cotton, tobacco
 Sethoxydim – compatible maize
o In the Philippines, glyphosate resistant corn is grown in 267,071 ha since
2005 (Baltazar, 2011).
 0.7-1.4 kg ae/ha glyphosate applied 15 DAP (4-8 cm weeds) and 40
DAP (10 cm weeds)
 In corn-corn systems (2 crops per year), may have 4 to 6
treatments/year
 Need to monitor weed shifts or development of glyphosate-resistant
weeds
 Yield advantage of 700 kg/ha over FP and reduce cost by P900/ha
 Issues and concerns of Genetically-Modified Crops
o Potential for increased herbicide use/misuse
o Abandonment of alternative weed control practices
o Gene flow to other plants (weeds)
o HR crop turns into a weed?
o Cost of seed, proprietary issues (IPR)
o Social, ethical, and environmental concerns
o Acceptance in foreign markets (Europe rejects GMOs)
o Registration and regulation
o Post-commercial monitoring and risk assessment
o GM crops in the Philippines regulated by Department of Agriculture AO No. 8
and EO 430, and the national Committee on Biosafety (NCBP) regarding
health, food, and environment concerns
 Integrated Weed Management Strategies
o Combine two or more weed control methods to get the most efficient season-
long control
o “best-mix” combination
o Must be practical, economical and cost-effective
o Must be suitable to existing farming conditions
o Usually herbicide followed by a mechanical or cultural method (direct +
indirect methods)

72
73