1 s2.0 S0301479724003128 Main

Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120326
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman
Review
Strategies for mitigation of pesticides from the environment through

alternative approaches: A review of recent developments and
future prospects
Veena Chaudhary a, Mukesh Kumar b, Chetan Chauhan b, Ujjwal Sirohi c, Arun Lal Srivastav d, *,
Lata Rani e
a
Department of Chemistry, Meerut College, Meerut, Uttar-Pradesh, India
b
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping Architecture, College of Horticulture, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh, India
c
National Institute of Plant Genome Research, New Delhi, India
d
Chitkara University School of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India
e
Chitkara School of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling editor: Raf Dewil Chemical-based peticides are having negative impacts on both the healths of human beings and plants as well.
The World Health Organisation (WHO), reported that each year, >25 million individuals in poor nations are
Keywords: having acute pesticide poisoning cases along with 20,000 fatal injuries at global level. Normally, only ~0.1% of
Chemical pesticides the pesticide reaches to the intended targets, and rest amount is expected to come into the food chain/envi
Human health problems
ronment for a longer period of time. Therefore, it is crucial to reduce the amounts of pesticides present in the soil.
Plant health disorders
Physical or chemical treatments are either expensive or incapable to do so. Hence, pesticide detoxification can be
Non-target organisms
CRISPR/Cas achieved through bioremediation/biotechnologies, including nano-based methodologies, integrated approaches
Biotechnological pesticide remediation etc. These are relatively affordable, efficient and environmentally sound methods. Therefore, alternate strategies
like as advanced biotechnological tools like as CRISPR Cas system, RNAi and genetic engineering for develop
ment of insects and pest resistant plants which are directly involved in the development of disease- and pest-
resistant plants and indirectly reduce the use of pesticides. Omics tools and multi omics approaches like meta
genomics, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics for the efficient functional gene mining and
their validation for bioremediation of pesticides also discussed from the literatures. Overall, the review focuses
on the most recent advancements in bioremediation methods to lessen the effects of pesticides along with the role
of microorganisms in pesticides elimination. Further, pesticide detection is also a big challenge which can be
done by using HPLC, GC, SERS, and LSPR ELISA etc. which have also been described in this review.
1. Introduction of cancer, mutagenesis, and other adverse consequences, especially in

human beings (Kuppusamy et al., 2020).
Due to escalating global industrialization, several types of pollutants Pesticide usage in the agriculture sector fell from 4.12 Mt in 2018 to
are being released in the environment and it is threatening all living 2.7 Mt globally in year 2020. (FAO, 2021). This is in conformity with the
forms (Quintella et al., 2019). The human health and environment FAO 2021 report too. According to the FAO 2022 study, Americans used
quality are more at the risk due to the ongoing increase in pesticide use pesticides in agriculture on average in quantities of 1 metric tonne per
in agro-ecosystems to provide food to the world’s population, which is year, with per-acre consumption of 2.83 kg/ha and per-person use of
always expanding (Kaushal and Mahajan, 2022; Dhuldhaj et al., 2023; 1.17 kg in 2020. Between 2010 and 2015, the usage of pesticides
Kaur et al., 2023). The fact that pesticides have such a negative influence increased roughly by 50% in India (Bose et al., 2021). The primary OCPs
on the ecosystems and human health makes them one of the most are dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), hexa-chlorocyclohexane
dangerous pollutants for the environment. There is a greater possibility (HCH), chlordane, aldrin, lindane, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan, and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.L. Srivastav).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120326
Received 15 November 2023; Received in revised form 14 January 2024; Accepted 8 February 2024
Available online 21 February 2024
0301-4797/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Chaudhary et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120326
heptachlor. Because they are substantially less soluble in water, they are environmental restoration (Crawford and Crawford, 2005; Odukkathil
more likely to chemically interact with soil particles (Syafrudin et al., and Vasudevan, 2013). In order to achieve undetectable, harmless, or
2021). acceptable pollution levels, it seeks to lower or bring them down.
Rats, mice, ticks, mosquitoes, and other disease-carrying insects are Pesticides, their impacts on ecosystems, and potential remediation
among the insects that are controlled by using pesticides in the field strategies have been the subject of numerous reviews (Rani et al., 2021;
(Abhilash and Singh, 2009; Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011; Tudi et al., 2021; Pathak et al., 2022; Rajak et al., 2023; Rajan et al.,
Matowo et al., 2020; Frye and Wixted, 2021; Rani et al., 2021; Pathak 2023), and yet, none of the assessments have addressed the integrated
et al., 2022; Zaheer et al., 2022). These pesticides reduce or completely strategies such as integrated weed control, integrated pest management,
eliminate the losses of crop production and help in maintaining high or the use of contemporary biotechnological techniques to minimize the
levels of marketability for agricultural products by reducing or eradi need of pesticides. However, Rani et al. (2021) provided a full exami
cating the population of harmful insects, fungus, bacteria, and other nation of pesticides, including their benefits and hazards, how they
plant diseases (Tudi et al., 2021; Voltz et al., 2022). The overuse of these cause illness, and safe use for them in the environment, agriculture, and
chemicals and their lingering presence in the environment have led to public health. Additionally, El-Nahhal and El-Nahhal (2021) examined
significant issues, including soil, water, and, to a lesser degree, air residues of pesticides in potable water, their effects on health, and
pollution, which has a negative impacts on the ecosystem and the food possible solutions for removal. The use of cutting-edge technologies like
chain (Raffa and Chiampo, 2021). A dramatic rise in the usage of pes CRISPR-Cas, RNAi, and omics tools have not been given priorty in the
ticides with lengthy half-lives is also alleged to damage nearby aquatic previous research, and these tools are also helpful in the removal of
environments and accumulate in the plants, animals, and microbes that pesticides was never mentioned in any evaluations. The purpose of the
reside there (Dhuldhaj et al., 2023). Pesticides can contaminate grass, current review is to examine the detrimental effects of chemical pesti
soil, water, and other types of flora. Pesticides may poison other animals cides on the environment, plants, people, and animals while keeping in
in addition to killing weeds or insects, including birds, fish, beneficial mind the facts concerning how pesticides contribute to the degradation
insects, and target and non-target organisms (Gill and Garg, 2014). of environmental quality? The authors have also provided extensive
Global population growth and changes in average temperatures are the frameworks for their corrective actions, which include both preventive
primary causes of the increase in pesticide use (Hailu, 2017). The most measures and biotechnological techniques like CRISPR-Cas9, RNAi, and
dangerous pesticides are typically insecticides, although herbicides can genetic engineering.
also be dangerous to organisms that are not their intended targets (Aktar
et al., 2009; Chanda, 2014; Gill and Garg, 2014; Rani et al., 2021; Tudi 2. Chemical pesticide classification
et al., 2021).
Pesticides applied to a specific plant or dropped into the ground may Chemical classes, functional groups, action mode qualities, toxicity,
contaminate the environment. Additionally, pesticides can be trans and provenance are the only traits that may be used to distinguish one
ferred (or moved) and degraded once they are introduced to the envi chemical pesticide from another (Yadav and Devi, 2017; Akashe et al.,
ronment (Singh, 2012; Scholtz et al., 2007; J Liu et al., 2015; Tudi et al., 2018; Kaur et al., 2019; Weis et al., 2019; Abubakar et al., 2020; Raffa
2021). Pesticide degradation in the environment results in the creation et al., 2021). According to Kim et al. (2017), chemical pesticides are
of new chemicals (Marie et al., 2017; Tudi et al., 2021; Pathak et al., typically organic molecules with either natural or synthetic origins.
2022). Pesticides are transmitted from the target site to other environ Organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethrins/pyr
mental media or non-targets through transfer mechanisms such runoff, ethroids are the four main types of synthetic pesticides or chemical
adsorption, volatilization, leaching, and spray drift (Tudi et al., 2021). pesticides according to this categorization (Fig. 1).
According to certain studies, only 10% of administered pesticides reach
their intended targets (Satish et al., 2017; Bose et al., 2021); and 3. Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)
remaining 90% may contaminate various environmental matrices, such
as air, soil, and water. Organic molecules attached with five or more chlorine atoms are also
Organochlorine-containing chemicals, such as DDT, for instance, known as chlorinated hydrocarbons. They are employed in agriculture
have a mild acute toxicity but a remarkable propensity to accumulate in and are among the earliest kinds of insecticides ever created. Most of
tissues and damage animals over the long term (Tudi et al., 2021). them have long-lasting residual effects on the environment and are
Although, the majority of countries have banned their sale, due to their typically employed as insecticides to control a variety of insects. Ac
nature, leftovers remain in the environment for a very long period of cording to Tano (2011), these pesticides may change the insects’
time. On the other hand, the bulk of non-chlorinated pesticides are neurological systems work, causing illnesses including convulsions and
synthetic organic pesticides called organophosphorus (OPPs), which paralysis as well as eventual death. Endosulfan, dieldrin, chlordane,
were created to replace OCPs because of their wide applications and dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloro
toxicity. However, OPPs can also contaminate groundwater because of ethane (DDD), aldrin, dicofol, lindane, isobenzan, isodrin, chlor
their soluble nature in organic solvents (Laura et al., 2013; Bose et al., opropylate and toxaphene are the most widely used organochlorine
2021). Despite of having a low persistence, organophosphate in pesticides (Jayaraj et al., 2016). These substances typically bio
secticides are very hazardous to mammals when used in large quantities accumulate in tissues and persist in the environment because they are
(Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011; Kim et al., 2017; Bernal-González lipophilic and difficult to break down. OCs fall under the category of
et al., 2023). persistent organic pollutants (POPs) due to their significant persistence
Pesticides can be eliminated from the environment through biore in the environment. According to Kolankaya (2006), they may harm
mediation (Pathak et al., 2022), microorganisms (Arora, 2020; Morya living beings by causing mutagenic, histopathological,
et al., 2020), microalgae (García-Balboa et al., 2013; Osundeko et al., enzyme-inducing, enzyme-inhibiting, carcinogenic, and teratogenic ef
2014), ozonation (Aidoo et al., 2023), and so on. The limited bioavail fects. Exposure to organochlorines may raise the possibility of breast
ability of several pesticides in the diverse underground environment is a cancer in humans (Arrebola et al., 2015; He et al., 2017).
significant area of uncertainty in the use of bioremediation. It is a Organophosphates pesticides (OPPs).
widespread phenomenon, including procedures used to either repair or Organophosphorus is a class of insecticides generated from phos
clean up polluted places using biological systems. For bioremediation, phoric acid that is thought to have a wide spectrum of activity against a
the community of microbes is constantly used and recorded in the lit variety of pests, weeds, and plant diseases due to its multifaceted ca
eratures. By oxidising, immobilising, or converting the pollutants, the pabilities (Gámiz-Gracia et al., 2005). The initial compound to be syn
majority of the local microorganisms can successfully contribute in the thesised and employed as an agricultural pesticide was hexaethyl
2
Figure: 1. Classification of chemical pesticides.
tetraphosphate (HETP). OPPs pose a serious threat to the insects as well blossoms of Tanacetum cinerariaefolium. They are esters of 2,2,3-tri
as among the birds, mammals, and amphibians. The central and pe methyl-3-(2-methyl-l-propenyl)-l-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, and
ripheral nervous systems’ acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is inhibited, their active components are chrysanthemic acid and 3-(2-methox
which makes them poisonous (Roberts and Reigart, 2013; Rathnayake ycarbonyl-l-propenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-l-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid. The
and Northrup, 2016). chrysanthemic acid moiety of pyrethrin I is modified, and the alcohols
One of the four carbon-to-oxygen-to-phosphorus linkages of the are esterified, to produce pyrethroids, which are synthetic chemicals.
phosphate ester is substituted for the carbon-to-phosphate (C–P) bond in They can be split into groups A and B, respectively (Ensley, 2007).
the compounds that belong to this category covalently (Wanner and
Metcalf, 1992). Organophosphonate compounds are said to be resistant A. Pyrethroids: Esters containing chrysanthemic acid and one alcohol,
to some extreme conditions, which include chemical hydrolysis, with terminal side chain moieties and a furan ring.
photolysis when compared to, and thermal breakdown with analogous B. Pyrethroids: They contain 3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol derivatives in
substances distinguished by reactivity in the N–P, S–P, or O–P linkages. the alcohol moiety, as well as aromatic rings and substitutes for
This is because of the C–P connection itself is described as chemically certain of the terminal ends of chain moieties such dichlorovinyl or
and thermally inert in nature. Developing nations are using major dibromovinyl.
quantities of the pesticides. For instance, Iran is the world’s largest
producer of pistachios, and its farmers employ them to control pests on In comparison to pyrethrins, pyrethroids are synthesised and which
their plantations (Kazemi et al., 2012). These pesticides can be cat may have a stronger insecticidal effect and to be less sensitive to air and
egorised as slow pest resistance substances since they are slow to break light. Pyrethrins and most pyrethroids typically disintegrate quickly in
down, generate little environmental impact, and are biodegradable. the air when exposed to sunshine, but they persist for a very long period
in the soil because of their strong binding properties (Todd et al., 2003).
4. Carbamates pesticides (CBPs) Since pyrethrins and pyrethroids are applied directly to the crops and
plants, their exposure can be seen on the leaves, fruits, and vegetables
Compounds produced from carbamic acid are known as carbamates. (Morgan et al., 2018). The channels that carry sodium in the axons are
An ester group and an amino group are present together in their disrupted by pyrethrins and pyrethroids, harming the neurologic system
chemical structure. Pesticides made from organic carbamic acid are (Wu et al., 2017). Though, less dangerous to humans, they are hazardous
called carbamates. Aldicarb, carbofuran, fenoxycarb, carbaryl, ethie to the insects. However, it has been found that exposure to these pesti
nocarb, and fenobucarb are examples of common carbamate insecticides cides may cause gastrointestinal effects like nausea and vomiting,
(Tano, 2011; Arif et al., 2012). They have structural similarities with neurological effects like headache or dizziness, respiratory effects like
organophosphates. Carbamate insecticides worksimilarly to the organ irritation and/or dermal effects, coughing or other respiratory disorders
ophosphate pesticides by interfering with nerve signal transmission, after inhaling dust or aerosol particles (Saillenfait et al., 2015). Car
which kills the pest by poisoning it (Yadav et al., 2015). They are oc diovascular issues may also be observed as a result from pyrethroid
casionally used as stomach poisons, contact poisons, and fumigants. This usages (Han et al., 2017).
pesticide is easily biodegradable in a natural setting with low environ
mental harm. In order to combat domestic pests, carbamates are also 6. Pesticides routes for human
used in industrial and household products as biocides (Struger et al.,
2016). Because carbamates are organophosphates, which decrease People are exposed to pesticides both directly through their work,
acetylcholinesterase activity, their toxicity affects the nervous system agriculture, and household activities (Simas et al., 2021; Sapbamrer
(Wang et al., 2015). Human non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma incidence rises as et al., 2021; Tefera et al., 2022) and indirectly through the contaminated
a result of exposure to carbamate insecticides because they induce air, water, soil, and food (Macfarlane et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2017; Liu
human cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells to undergo et al., 2021; Korucu et al., 2021; Islam et al., 2021). The degree of
apoptosis and impair their ability to defend against malignancies (Li pesticide toxicity is determined by these various exposure types
et al., 2015a,b). (Hernández et al., 2013; Anderson and Meade, 2014; Yan et al., 2021).
The three main entry points for pesticides into the human body,
5. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids including cutaneous, oral, and respiratory, are shown in Fig. 2, which
have been reported in many literatures (Macfarlane et al., 2013; Tudi
The active ingredient in pyrethrins, also known as Chrysanthemum et al., 2021; Saeed et al., 2017; Ali et al., 2018; Sampath et al., 2015;
cinerariaefolium or Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium, is derived from the Pedroso et al., 2022).
3
soil-related pathways might also expose people indirectly by the pesti

cides (Li et al., 2021a,b; 2022; Tudi et al., 2021; Rajak et al., 2023). A
pesticide may be harmful in certain doses, whether it is natural or
manufactured. As a result, several pesticides were no longer used in
agriculture due to safety and health issues with the environment (Chang
et al., 2021). Some pesticides, such as lindane and DDT, have been
present in the environment for a long time, building up in the food chain
and causing havoc to both plants and animals. These chemicals are
nevertheless used in several nations in Asia and Africa, even if they are
prohibited in the majority of nations (Chaudhary, 2015; Chang et al.,
2021). The use of pesticides has an impact on both farmers and labourers
(Khan et al., 2019; Ong-Artborirak et al., 2022; Pathak et al., 2022).
Cancino et al. (2023) conducted a thorough analysis of the data pub
lished between 2011 and 2022 to determine the impact of pesticides on
agricultural workers’ depression. In the 27 articles that were examined,
78% of them suggested a connection between pesticide use and the
prevalence of depressive symptoms. There are currently thought to be
385 million cases of acute pesticide poisoning annually, up dramatically
from the 25 million cases that were supposedly documented in 1990,
according to a publication by Boedeker et al. (2020). Additionally,
research suggests that being exposed to pesticides increases the risk of
suicide (WHO, 2019a, 2021), especially in rural areas and among agri
Fig. 2. Route of exposure to pesticides for human and animals.
cultural workers (Behere et al., 2021). Different types of pesticides and
their impact on human health are depicted in Table 1 and Fig. 3.
Farmers who are working on the application of pesticides are Fig. 3 According to several studies, long-term exposure to OCPs has
exposed to these through splashing, spilling, or drifting sprays of pes been linked to immune system disorders, cancer, neurological impair
ticides (Bootsikeaw et al., 2021; Bormann et al., 2021; Mahaboonpeeti ment, reproductive issues, and birth defects (Agbeve et al., 2014;
et al., 2018). The most frequent and efficient route of exposure is Fosu-Mensah et al., 2016). The indiscriminate and excessive use of
through the skin, particularly, if pesticides are used in farming or during pesticides, however, has been associated with a number of serious health
home tasks (Aktar et al., 2009; Bányiová et al., 2015; Wang et al. 2020a, problems, such as oxidative DNA damage, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkin
b,c,d; Wang et al., 2021a,b,c; Siriwat et al., 2021). Using absorbent son’s disease, cancer, lung cancer; asthma, and coronary artery abnor
paper patches, Wang et al. (2021a,b,c), for instance, assessed the risk of malities (Kabir et al., 2015; Bonner et al., 2017; Brouwer et al., 2017;
employees who were dermally exposed to trinexapac-ethyl (TE). Tau Kalyabina et al., 2021; Rani et al., 2021). On the other hand, exposure to
feeq et al. (2021) assessed the risk to human health and looked at the both high- and low-dose pesticides was linked to poor mental health
pollution of OCPs in the River Barandu. The amounts of OCP in Hep (Khan et al., 2019). Emotional, social, and intellectual capacities can all
tachlor and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) were the pesticides and be significantly impacted by mental health issues (WHO, 2014, 2022). A
were among the most widely dispersed in both matrices of the river. For significant fraction of the population is affected by depression, one of the
individuals who played a role in the seed-coating process, Han et al. most common mood disorders in the world (WHO, 2019b). Major
(2021) identified cutaneous exposure and evaluated the risk of pesticide depression is more common in people over the age of 50 years as a result
exposure. The results of the study demonstrated that the quantity of of untreated physical health conditions like cancer, cardiovascular dis
chemical exposure varied based on the type of work performed and the ease, diabetes, and HIV infections (WHO, 2022). Major depression is
exposed body part. Tebuconazole handling during seed coating posed a linked to a 40% chance of early mortality. According to the WHO
negligible danger to the human health as compared to handling (2019b), depression is a condition that affects a person’s daily activities,
carbofuran. including work, sleep, study, food, and quality of life. Genetic,
Oral poisoning is the most prevalent route of poisoning, and it causes biochemical, environmental, and psychological factors all contribute to
significant health issues (Zhao et al., 2014; Lei et al., 2015; Fang et al., depression. Disruptive disorder, major depressive disorder, persistent
2015; Cui et al., 2015). Oral pesticide exposure can occur when people depressive disorder (dysthymia), premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and
who make or use pesticides, fail to clean their hands prior to eating or depressive disorder brought on by another medical condition are a few
smoking (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011; Kwong et al., 2021; examples of depressive disorders. All depressive disorders share the
Wang et al., 2021a,b,c), and the general population can be exposed same symptoms of depression, which include sadness, emptiness, or
when they consume pesticide-contaminated food (Khairy et al., 2012; anger, along with physical and cognitive abnormalities that severely
Yohannes et al., 2014; Odewale et al., 2021). The volatile pesticide limit a person’s ability to function (Chand and Arif, 2023).
components cause respiratory exposure, which can be caused by inha Pesticides can be ingested by both pesticide users and workers in
lation or breathing (Msibi et al., 2021; Yoshida et al., 2021; Chen et al., various ways, including occupational exposure for those who prepare
2022; Ratanachina et al., 2022). If workers intake a lot of pesticides from pesticides to optimize concentration and apply pesticides in fields and
the air as well as from water or soil, it can be bad for their health, exposure outside of work for those who live close to agricultural farms
especially for the tissues in their nose, throat, and lungs (Tudi et al., (Ernst, 2002; Ndlovu et al., 2011), and indirect exposure occurs when
2021; Yoshida et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; Ratanachina et al., 2022; people who don’t live near farms are nonetheless indirectly exposed to
Afata et al., 2022). In one study, Yoshida et al. (2021) highlighted the the pesticides through food and water contamination, agricultural
importance of the route of inhalation in Japanese children and also products, and the food chain (Pathak et al., 2022).
assessed family exposure to pyrethroids across all exposure paths. Despite using 80% of the pesticides produced globally each year,
industrialized countries account for fewer than half of all pesticide-
7. Effect of pesticides on human health related deaths (A Sharma et al., 2019). A study found that the chemi
cal pesticides found in food are to blame for an estimated 35% of all
Human health is impacted by pesticide exposure (Mavoungou et al., cancer incidences in the U.S. population (Zhang et al., 2019). Addi
2020; Lopes-Ferreira et al., 2022). It should be highlighted that tionally, according to Pimentel (2005), less than 1% of incidents of
4
Table: 1 8. Effect of pesticides on plant health

Pesticides and their effects on human health.
Pesticides’ active ingredient (ai) and Implication for References According to Ahammed et al. (2013a,b), lipophilic organic pollutants
brand name human health present in the air, shoot can directly absorb it. In addition, numerous
Ethoxysulfuron (Sunstar) Nausea, headache Sharma and pesticides are used on the foliage, which leads to their buildup in the
Singhvi
shoot (Peng et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2019; Pathak et al., 2022). According
(2017)
Sulfosulfuron (Leader) Fast heartbeat, lung Sharma and to various studies, applying pesticides has a detrimental impact on
scarring Singhvi plants’ ability to synthesise oxygen and other compounds through
(2017) photosynthesis (Jones et al., 1983; Youngman et al., 1990; Abdel-Re
Paraquat (Gramoxone) Kidney failure, coma Thi Hue et al. heem et al., 1991; Petit et al., 2012; Giménez-Moolhuyzen et al., 2020;
(2018)
Gautam et al., 2023). Common plant toxicity caused by the pesticide
S-metolachlor (Dual Gold) Anemia, diarrhea Quintaneiro
et al. (2018) includes chlorosis, necrosis, burns, stunting and leaf bending (Sharma
Imidacloprid (Imidacloprid) Tachycardia, nausea, Mahajan et al. et al., 2018a). Plants that are sensitive or under stress may be more
vomiting (2018)) susceptible to phytotoxicity; white patches on leaves, trichome and leaf
Pendimethalin (Stomp) Headache, nausea Ansari et al.
deformations, chlorosis, necrosis, and a reduction in biomass accumu
(2018)
Fenoxaprop-pethyl (Puma S) Epigastric pain, Tandon lation were all obvious symptoms in plants that have been subjected to
vomiting (2019) contact with organic contaminants like PAHs and pesticides (Alkio et al.,
Acetamiprid (Vimix) Nausea, respiratory Ma et al. 2005; De Freitas-Silva et al., 2022). One of the main reasons for the
failure (2019) decline in structural vegetation diversity is the overuse of herbicides
Pretilachlor (Rift) Gill cohesion, cell Shilpakar
(Donald, 2004). According to Ahammed et al. (2015), chloroplasts are
necrosis et al. (2020)
Metribuzin (Metribuzin) Liver failure, organ Samir et al. more susceptible to the organic contaminants. Fundamental photosyn
disorder (2020) thetic activities are hampered by the organic contaminants that build up
Emamectin benzoate (Tycon) Central nervous Niu et al. in chloroplast thylakoids and microsomal compartments (Lei et al.,
system depression, (2020)
2020). By interfering with fundamental photochemical processes,
aspiration pneumonia
Fipronil (Regent) Sweating, headache, Song et al.
organic pollutants in both their intact and photomodified forms may
nausea (2021) inhibit the process of photosynthesis (De Freitas-Silva et al., 2022). By
Atrazine (Click) Tumor, breast, and Rohr (2021) interfering with either photosystem II (PSII) or the connection between
uterine cancer, PSII and PSI at the cytochrome b/f, organic contaminants prevent
lymphoma
electron transit (Vánová et al., 2008). Additionally, fluctuations in the
Trifuralin (Trefan) Throat irritation, Rani et al.
cancer (2021) concentrations of photosynthetic pigments (Chl a, Chl b, and caroten
Bifenthrin (Bifenthrin) Abdominal pain, sore Park et al. oids) caused organic pollutants eventually change the course of photo
throat (2021) synthesis (Ahammed et al., 2013a,b).
Thiophanate methyl (Topsin-M) Liver and thyroid Moo-Muñoz
Critical indicators of the detrimental effects caused by organic pol
effect et al. (2021)
Xenobiotic substances Bladder cancer, non- Pedroso et al.
lutants include oxidative stress, ultra-structural abnormalities, changes
Hodgkin’s lymphoma, (2022) in antioxidant systems, cell death, and deteriorated plant development
prostate cancer, (Ahammed et al., 2015, 2017). Many factors determine the toxicity such
leukemia, and breast as pesticide use, rate of application, spraying technique, climate, flora
cancer.
organisation, humidity, and soil properties including moisture, tem
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Recurrent pregnancy El-Baz et al.
dieldrin, loss (RPL) in women (2023) perature, pH, texture, and microbial activity (Sharma et al., 2015,
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene 2016a; Shahzad et al., 2018). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are pro
(DDE), ethion, malathion, and duced during pesticide application, which stresses plants by causing
chlorpyrifos oxidative stress (Sharma et al., 2018b). This oxidative stress causes the
Organophosphorus pesticides, Maternal disorder Xu et al.
pyrethroid (2023)
proteins and pigments in chlorophyll to degrade, which in turn lowers
the effectiveness of plants’ photosynthetic processes (Xia et al., 2006;
Sharma et al., 2015). The herbicides come into contact with non-target
human cancer in the US are related to ingesting pesticides through food plant species along with the target plants. Non-target plant species may
or other sources. According to Pimentel (2005) and Bassil et al. (2007), also have harmful symptoms when these chemicals are applied and
chemical pesticides cause around 12,000 cases of cancer per year, which sublethal doses get to plants by droplet drift, vapour movement, runoff,
is in line with the rising number of cancer cases each year. The elevated leaching, erosion, and inappropriate disposal (Marshall, 2001; Boutin
risk of developing prostate cancer and pesticide exposure is related et al., 2014). Different herbicides indicated various side effects on plant
(Pardo et al., 2020). functions. According to Zimdahl (2007), several typical of herbicides’
According to Thompson and Darwish (2019), a number of pesticides, and their modes of action are as follows.
including aldrin, endrin, dieldrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT), chlordane, heptachlor, and hexachlorobenzene, have deadly I. Inhibitors of amino acid biosynthesis
impacts on both human and environmental health. Furthermore, a study II. Growth regulators with auxin-like activity
that focused on high-risk populations found substantial evidence for III. suppression of cell growth
links between lung cancer and exposure to organochlorine pesticides, as IV. Disruptors and inhibitors of cell membranes
well as lymphomas and soft-tissue sarcomas (Sarbawal et al., 2018). V. Inhibitors of fatty acid biosynthesis
Although, one study conducted by Fiore et al. (1986) on ladies did not VI. Photosynthesis inhibitors
show any overt health issues and also revealed that women who had VII. Pigment production inhibitors
consistently consumed groundwater contaminated with modest levels of VIII. Respiratory inhibitors
aldicarb (mean of 16.6 ppb), it showed signs of a noticeably reduced IX. Mechanism of action unknown
immune response.
9. Effect of pesticides on aquatic system
There are numerous processes including atmospheric precipitation,
5
Fig. 3. Effects of pesticides on human health.
factories that manufacture pesticides, and the discharge of unprocessed creatures are negatively impacted by contaminated water (Rani et al.,
pesticide wastes into the rivers and other water bodies. These pesticides 2021; Tudi et al., 2021). In one study of the fish market, fish samples
contaminate aquatic or water systems along with harming aquatic were collected from different water sources in Kolkata (India), and
ecosystems (Socorro et al., 2016; Pathak et al., 2022). Woodrow et al. pesticide residues was present in more than 90% of the sampled water
(2019) stated that these substances influence aquatic flora and fauna and fish from every stream (Kole et al., 2001). The contamination of OCP
directly by accumulating and spreading into the aquatic systems from residues in fish from several areas of Karnataka and their appropriate
lower to higher trophic levels. Three potential routes of exposure to ness for human consumption were assessed by Dhananjayan and Mur
pesticides exist for aquatic animals: cutaneous (direct skin absorption), alidharan (2010). Aquatic plant death brought on by herbicides
respiratory (gill uptake when inhaling), and/or oral (drinking contam produces an abrupt drop in oxygen levels, which eventually kills fish and
inated water). Pesticide-contaminated water led to overexploitation and lowers fish productivity. Herbicide use in close proximity to weedy fish
habitat loss for earthworms, predators, pollinators, humans, fish, am nurseries also had an impact on the ability of aquatic species to repro
phibians, and birds (Rohr et al., 2008; Rowley et al., 2010; Gill and Garg, duce (Helfrich et al., 2009).
2014). Pesticide contamination of bodies of water is the major worry Numerous amphibian families were negatively impacted by carbaryl
since it lowers the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. They can and the herbicide glyphosate, which increased the mortality rate of
harm aquatic creatures at various trophic levels, from algae to fish, as tadpoles and young frogs (Relyea, 2005). Tadpoles disturbed as a result
well as people, when they contaminate food and drinking water (Deneer, of malathion’s alteration of periphyton and plankton profusion and
2000; Chopra et al., 2011; Pathak et al., 2022). Fish populations may composition (Relyea and Hoverman, 2008). When exposed to Malathion
decline as a result of widespread pesticide use (Helfrich et al., 2009; for 5 days, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, tadpoles and Asian common
Scholz et al., 2012). Few fish and amphibian species’ immune systems toad exhibited multiple scoliosis, abnormal notochord curvature and
were negatively affected by atrazine. In coral reef fish (Acanthus trio kyphosis (David and Kartheek, 2015). Bufo bufo the common toad,
stegus), exposure to chlorpyrifos can frequently disrupt brain activity glyphosate-based pesticides may also be to blame for larval tail defor
and visual lateralization during a crucial life-history transition (Besson mation (Baier et al., 2016). Amphibians were seriously harmed by
et al., 2017). endosulfan and chlorpyrifos as well (Sparling and Feller, 2009). On the
Carbamate insecticides like Sevin and Methiocarb can cause other hand, in the amphibian Chinese toad, DNA damage was acceler
biochemical and histological abnormalities in fishes which may disturb ated by high chlorpyrifos concentrations (Yin et al., 2008, 2009).
their metabolic health (Altinok et al., 2006; Sastry et al., 1988). Living The aquatic system in regards to pesticides in Shanghai, China, was
6
examined by Chen et al. (2020), who found a high presence of the CUP 2011; Yadav et al., 2015; K. Wang et al., 2018). On the other hand, as the
(napropamide, atrazine, and chlorpyriphos). High detection rates of concentration of organic matter rises, herbicide adsorption rises as well.
napropamide, atrazine, chlorpyrifos, and dicofol were reported in Additionally, adsorption of herbicides also rises as soil pH lowers for the
comparative investigations of Chinese aquatic systems (Liu et al., 2018; herbicides 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T, picloram, and atrazine (Andreu and Picó,
Zhen et al., 2019). In a similar experiment carried out in Argentina, less 2004). This soil absorption mechanism is influenced by a number of
than 30% of all identified pesticides were measured, with glyphosate factors such as pH, organic matter, and soil amendment (Yue et al.,
and AMPA having the greatest concentrations in surface water (Car 2017; Ren et al., 2011). As compared to coarse, sandy soils, clay or
penter et al., 2016). Moreover, Pandit et al. (2006) examine the quantity organic soils are substantially more adsorptive to the pesticides because
of OCPs in Mumbai’s marine species. DDT and HCH pesticide concen they either contain greater particle surface areas or more spaces be
trations in fish samples were higher than those in other OCPs, with tween soil particles, where insecticides can be bound (Han et al., 2012;
ranges of 0.38–34 ng/g and 0.87–34 ng/g, respectively. Wu et al., 2018). For instance, the amount of clay and organic matter in
the soil may affect the adsorption and desorption properties of endo
10. Effect of pesticides on soil sulfan (Qian et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2016). The adsorption of pesticides
in the soil is also influenced by the soil moisture content (Singh, 2012).
Soil texture, soil colour, soil type, total organic carbon content, and Dry soils absorb more pesticides than wet soils because water molecules
the land use pattern of the soil play significant roles in controlling the compete with insecticides for binding sites in moist soils. The adsorption
presence of residual pesticides in the soil (Devi et al., 2015; Ali et al., of nitrogen and ammonium is also significantly influenced by temper
2020). The agriculture industry makes substantial use of pesticides, ature (Duan et al., 2013). The humic acid colloids have an impact on the
using them to protect food and commercial products (Alavanja, 2009). adsorption of DDT in sediments as well (Si et al., 2006; Gao et al., 2014).
Pimentel (1995) and Carriger et al. (2006) claim that only 0.1% of Pesticides can have a detrimental effect on human health by
pesticides used actually achieve their intended goal, while the destroying native microbes, disrupting soil vegetations, and entering the
remainder pollutes the soil ecology. The issue of exposure to these food chain (Niewiadomska, 2004; Ingram et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2006;
substances on the makeup of soil microbes and the path they take has Littlefield-Wyer et al., 2008; Gill and Garg, 2014; Rani et al., 2021).
drawn more attention as the use of pesticides in modern farming has Additionally, according to Riah et al. (2014) and Meftaul et al. (2019),
increased (Andrea et al., 2000; Baxter and Cummings, 2008; Gill and pesticides alter the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon,
Garg, 2014). Pesticides sprayed directly on the soil to protect crops are sulphur, and other soil microbial activities such fluorescein diacetate,
the main cause of soil pollution. To control pests in their fields in glucosidase, urease, hydrolase aryl-sulfatase, and alkaline phosphatase.
Southeast Asia, farmers were made aware about pesticide applications Pesticides can disrupt the metabolic activities of enzymes when they are
from salesmen who do not have specialised knowledge about pesticides added to the soil (Engelen et al., 1998; Hussain et al., 2007). It has been
(Schreinemachers et al., 2017). demonstrated that soil biocatalysts such oxidoreductases, hydrolases,
One of the characteristics of soil is its ability to filter, breakdown, and and dehydrogenases are adversely affected by pesticides (Perucci and
detoxify pesticides (Shakeri and Mehrabi, 2015). Pesticides decay, Scarponi, 1994; Malkomes and Dietze, 1998; Monkiedje and Spiteller,
leaving behind residues that endure and alter both terrestrial and 2002; Menon et al., 2004; Sukul, 2006; Gill and Garg, 2014; Arora and
aquatic ecosystems, polluting the environment for years (Barron et al., Sahni, 2016).
2017). In truth, pesticide contamination of soil and sediment has been a Pesticide usage has changed the biochemical, physiological, and
significant problem in terrestrial areas and has had a detrimental effect metabolic behavior of soil microorganisms (Singh and Walker, 2006;
on the quality of food and the viability of agriculture. Due to the large Supreeth et al., 2016). Schultz and Urban (2008), on the other hand,
retention capacity of pesticides in their structures through adsorption pointed out that biomass mass is a critical marker of microbial activity
and the re-emission of old organic pollutants into the atmosphere, and offers a clear evaluation of the relationship between microbial ac
groundwater, and living things as a secondary source, soil serves as the tivity and the transformation of nutrients. The harmful effects of pesti
primary repository for environmental pesticides in terrestrial areas, cides soil quality were demonstrated in several recent papers (Pampulha
which have a significant impact on the global distribution and fate of and Oliveira, 2006; Ataikiru et al., 2019; A. Sharma et al., 2019). Ac
contamination (Al-Wabel et al., 2016). Pesticides can be transported cording to Haney et al. (2000) and Chen et al. (2001), pesticide appli
downward with the water flow after being sprayed to crops. They can cations decreased soil respiration and declined microbial biomass.
also adsorb, desorb, and decompose while moving through the soil. The Reduced microbial diversity with increasing the functional diversity of
characteristics of the pesticide and soil and the current environmental microbial groups by using pesticides as reported in few studies (Pam
conditions all affect how quickly a pesticide passes through soil (Katagi, pulha and Oliveira, 2006; Wang et al., 2006). On occasion, these groups
2015). Soil fumigation may significantly increase the amount of pesti also showed an inclination for reversible stimulatory or inhibitory in
cide that seeps into the groundwater (Huang et al., 2019). Pesticides fluence on soil microbes. Herbicide use prevents the function of certain
penetrate the soil primarily through two methods: wash-off from treated fungus species (Chen et al., 2001; Harding and Raizada, 2015).
foliage and spray drift to the soil during foliage treatment (Rial-Otero More than 80% of soil samples tested positive for pesticide residues
et al., 2003). Because of the contact between air and soil, soils them in the studies conducted by European Union countries (Silva et al.,
selves can be a secondary source of pollutants (Pokhrel et al., 2018). 2019). Glyphosate, DDT, and broad-spectrum fungicides (tebuconazole,
Some pesticides, for instance, organochlorine DDT, endosulfan, endrin, boscalide, and epoxiconazole) were the pesticides that were most often
heptachlor, and lindane, are tightly linked to soil particles because of found. However, due to the complex interactions between particular
their persistence; as a result, they have been banned in several nations, pesticides and soils as well as other confounding factors, there are no
including China (Yadav et al., 2015). While some organophosphorus significant relationships between pesticide prevalence and soil quality
insecticides, carbamates, and fungicides do not persist in the soil and (Hvezdova et al., 2018). European countries collected 317 samples of
may not undergo a number of reactions during runoff and seep into agricultural top soil, and they identified the distribution of 76 pesticide
other environmental media, as a result, water and the food chain are residues in the samples, which either contained one pesticide or more
greatly threatened by pesticide-contaminated soil. than one (Silva et al., 2019).
In addition to the physical and chemical characteristics of pesticides,
the correlation between soil and its organic matter content, pH of the 11. Effect of pesticides on ecosystem and non-target species
soil, temperature, humidity, various types of microorganisms, methods
of irrigation techniques, and types of vegetation, including hedges, are Pesticides are a significant source of ecosystem pollution since they
also responsible to affece the soil health (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, do not only accumulate in the crops but may also get transported
7
through the air, soil, and water (Toumi et al., 2016; Qu et al., 2019). the intensity of land use or the year of the sampling, these pesticides can
According to Aktar et al. (2009) and Gill and Garg (2014), pesticides stay in the gas phase of air samples. The herbicides atrazine and ter
have a significant impact on biodiversity in plants and animals, as well buthylazine, as well as the insecticides carbaryl and chlorpyrifos, were
as non-target creatures. According to Majewski and Capel (1996), be frequently found in investigations conducted in different parts of the
tween 80 and 90 percent of pesticides employed will be able to vitalize world (Liu et al., 2018; Fuhrimann et al., 2020, 2022). Long-distance
more quickly and harm non-target organisms. The acute injury caused to environmental transfer of POPs also occurs among several workers
non-target plants by herbicides that volatilize the treated plant and (Qu et al., 2019; Olatunji, 2019; Meire et al., 2016). Airborne pesticide
vapours is sufficient (Straathoff, 1986; Gill and Garg, 2014). Pesticide residues can become more harmful than they were originally through
use without restriction leads to a decline in a number of terrestrial and oxidation and photochemical reactions (Woodrow et al., 2019).
aquatic plant species as well as animal families (Gill and Garg, 2014). Pesticides are likely disseminated in remote places due to the fea
Depending on how soluble the pesticides are, there are two ways that a tures of the pesticides (low solubility in water) and the climatic factors
natural environment can become poisoned (Rani et al., 2021). (dry weather and relatively high temperatures in spring and summer)
Contrarily, pesticides are unintentionally dumped into aquatic habitats (Muir et al., 2004). According to Liu et al. (2018), volatilization from
by sprinkling drift, aerial sprinkling, soil erosion, and negligent chemi surface water is a significant source of pesticides in the atmosphere.
cal discharge during machine washing. These contaminants may pose Pesticides may volatilize more quickly in warm seasons due to the higher
unacceptable risks to the ecosystem including humans too (Gill and ambient temperatures. Spray drift is the movement of spray droplets
Garg, 2014; Kumar et al., 2018a,b,c). through the air (Ou et al., 2020; Pourreza et al., 2020) that are evapo
Insect pests are controlled when pesticides are applied to plants, but rating from a treatment site after the application of pesticides that
non-target animals suffer as a result (Wanwimolruk et al., 2016). This contaminate food as well as horticultural commodities (Connell, 2005;
includes causing harm to wildlife, water habitats, birds, insects, and Singh, 2012; Ghaste et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a,b,c,d; Zhang et al.,
beneficial honeybees. Pesticides can harm non-target animals in two 2020). For instance, chlorpyrifos (ChF), which is toxic to aquatic or
different ways, Aktar et al. (2009) claim: directly through contact or ganisms and results in oxidative stress enzymes and histological changes
indirectly through long-lasting impacts that may harm non-target spe in the vital organs of tilapia as a result of exposure, is one of the pesticide
cies in the future. A few uncommon species, such as the falcon, osprey, residues that agricultural runoff and leaching spray drift expose aquatic
and peregrine falcon, are also threatened by pesticides (Helfrich et al., ecosystems to. ChF in the tilapia tissues at fatal levels led to oxidative
2009). stress and histological alterations (Farhan et al., 2020). Spraying pesti
Pesticides are believed to have variable effects on non-target or cides has the ability to kill intended pests and insects, pollute the air, and
ganisms, including the inhibition of physiological processes (Pathak expose people to chemicals (Aktar et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2017). Due to
et al., 2022; Rajak et al., 2022, 2023). Pesticides have been linked to volatilization, distribution, and long-distance transportation, the pesti
mass death of earthworms, pollinators, fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles, cide residues are subject to a process of environmental recycling be
and mammals (Rajak et al., 2023). Other biota in India, including birds tween the air and the terrestrial environment (Benka-Coker et al., 2020;
(Ramesh et al., 1992; Dhananjayan and Muralidharan, 2010; Jayakumar Yera et al., 2020; Doan et al., 2021). Pan et al. (2020) estimated that
et al., 2020) and house sparrows (Pathak et al., 2010), have been shown pesticide drifts may be responsible for 2%–25% of pesticide losses dur
to have considerable levels of OCP. Higher doses of the insecticides ing drifting. This technique has detrimental consequences for the ecol
pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, and organophosphate induce acute mortality ogy globally in addition to harming the local ecosystem (Kim et al.,
in foraging bees (Gill et al., 2012; Feltham et al., 2014; Balbuena et al., 2017). Pesticides like chlordane, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and
2015; Al Naggar et al., 2015). Low-level exposure can impair bees’ toxaphene were applied in fields of the southern United States, volatil
ability to find nectar and pollen resources. ized, sent by atmospheric processes, then condensed in cooler regions,
Non-target invertebrate and vertebrate species might cause organ and finally deposited from the atmosphere onto the Great Lakes in
damage, oxidative stress, reproductive failure, neuronal degeneration Canada (Sultana et al., 2014). Therefore, it is challenging to evaluate the
and teratogenic reactions (Khatun et al., 2017; Rajak et al., 2018). In amount of air pollution caused by pesticides. Volatilization is the con
neonatal broad-snouted caimans (Caiman latirostris), glyphosate-based version of a solid or liquid into a gas. Pesticides that have volatilized can
pesticides inhibit complement-mediated reactions and have immuno be removed from the treated area by air movement (Singh, 2012). The
suppressive effects (Siroski et al., 2016). Moreover, Hopkins and Winne level of pesticide volatilization is significantly influenced by a number of
(2006) assert that carbaryl impairs the capacity to swim in a variety of factors, including air movement, humidity, vapour pressure, soil
neonatal natricine snake species, including Nerodia rhombifer, Nerodia composition including texture, organic matter content and moisture and
taxispilota, Nerodia fasciata, and Seminatrix pygaea. Predatory birds temperature (Connell, 2005). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), for
accumulate more of the miticide dicofol, which is associated with poor example, are more likely to be dispersed in the atmosphere in tropical
fitness, in their livers, according to research done in the Canary Islands, areas than in temperate ones (Chakraborty et al., 2015). An insecticide is
Spain (Luzardo et al., 2014). also less likely to volatilize if it is tightly adsorbed to soil particles (Wong
et al., 2008). Lisouza et al. (2020) claim that the primary way in
12. Effect of pesticides on air quality dividuals are exposed to OCPs through volatilization is through
contaminated surface waters.
Spraying operations from the ground or from the air are the main Air contamination by pesticides is influenced by variable factors
causes of agrochemical air pollution. Semivolatile pesticides, which are (Teske et al., 2002; Creech et al., 2015). Droplet sizes less than 100 m
mostly adsorbed on atmospheric aerosol particles, can sustain gas-phase increase droplet retention on foliage, which lowers ground pollution
interactions with hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere and remain in the (Ozkan, 2016). The spray, on the other hand, becomes increasingly
particulate phase for a few days to a month (Socorro et al., 2016). Ac susceptible to the wind speed as the droplet size decreases (Teske et al.,
cording to Y. Liu et al. (2015), airborne pesticide contamination is a 2002). Spray properties, particularly droplet size, are directly influenced
significant source of pollution that is harmful to both human health and by sprayer parameters (Teske et al., 2002). It is usual practice to raise the
the health of both flora and wildlife. Agriculture-related pesticides are volume median diameter (VMD) in the spray by choosing a different
continually floating through the sky. Pesticide application or volatili nozzle, lowering the liquid pressure, or expanding the spray nozzle size
zation from the soil or plants are the main sources of pesticide residues in order to reduce soil deposits (Creech et al., 2015).
in the air (Langenbach et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2002). Pesticides can be
transported by gaseous, stable chemicals, as well as airborne in
secticides, over great distances (Woodrow et al., 2019). Regardless of
8
13. Impact on food safety agricultural areas, aside from exposure through contaminated food.
Since they physically contact 70–80% of the pesticides they apply,
Pesticide residues have been discovered in dairy, grains, and vege farmers and agricultural workers are more at risk of exposure (Pimentel,
tables, which could be sources of pesticide exposure (Rajak et al., 2023). 2005; Jallow et al., 2017).
In addition to having a direct effect on the quality of the drinking water
in the area, pesticide contamination of the water can also have an in 14. Removal techniques of pesticides
direct effect by transferring to other species and having an effect on the
soil and food chain (Donald et al., 1999). Due to their detrimental effects 14.1. Bioremediation
on both human health and the environment, hazardous pesticides in
food commodities, including water, have become a major source of Bioremediation is an approach through which living things like
concern for the general public and governments. Pesticide spraying on plants, algae, and microbes are employed to remediate, lessen, or
non-target plants can contaminate food in addition to the behavior of eliminate contaminants from the environment (Saxena and Bharagava,
pesticides in the environment, such as volatilization from the treated 2020; Kuppusamy et al., 2020). By using microbial metabolism to
area to the soil, air, and non-target plants, and residual pesticides accelerate biodegradation processes, bioremediation lessens the amount
entering from the soil and water to crops, vegetables, and fruits (Dam of pesticide pollution in agricultural soils (Kumar et al., 2015). It is a
alas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011; Chaudhary and Singh, 2016; Carvalho, therapy that is effective, economical, and safe to the environment. In
2017; Elgueta et al., 2017). Fig. 4, the classification of bioremediation is depicted in more detail
According to the WHO’s limit, maximum food contamination (Sales da Silva et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2022; Bala et al., 2022).
thresholds have been exceeded by pesticide contamination in some food Different types of microbes used in pesticide degradation are pre
crops including vegetables (Pimentel, 2005; Aktar et al., 2009; Hoai sented in Table 2. A brief discussion of the roles played by actinomy
et al., 2011; Fosu et al., 2017). For instance, Wanwimolruk et al. (2016) cetes, bacteria, algae, and fungi in pesticide remediation has been
assessed the health impacts of pesticide contamination in the fruits and provided (Huang et al., 2018; Bala et al., 2022). Acinetobacter bau
vegetables in Ghana and noticed that nearly all of the items had pesti mannii, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cit
cide residue levels that were higher than the prescribed maximum res robacter freundii, Stenotrophomonas, Flavobacterium, Proteus vulgaris,
idue limits (MRLs). The found pesticides surpassed their MRLs for and Klebsiella were among the bacteria Pino and Peñuela (2011)
Chinese kale and pakchoi at rates of 48% and 35%, respectively, at local assembled in a consortium that was able to break down methyl para
markets and supermarkets. According to the FDA (1994) and WHO thion and chlorpyrifos in a culture medium. In parallel, the percentage
(2018) reports, about 35% of consumer-purchased foods have detect of pesticides decreased when glucose was added to the medium. When
able amounts of chemical pesticide residues. On the other hand, 1–3% of Vibrio fischeri bacteria was used to measure toxicity, the therapy that
these foods have chemical pesticide residual levels that are above the contained glucose showed the greatest reduction. Three Pseudomonas
allowable tolerance threshold (WHO, 2018). Even after fruits and veg strains were investigated by Hassen et al. (2021) for use as bioremedi
etables have been washed, peeled, or cored, some pesticide residue is ation agents for PCP depletion and detoxification in soil microcosms. It
still present, according to USDA research (Wiles and Campbell, 1994). was discovered that these strains, when utilised in conjunction with
Across the world, farm workers are exposed to the most pesticides, ideal circumstances for optimum removal yield, can cure PCP-polluted
and people who reside near to or very close to heavily treated soils efficiently. Moreover, Singh (2008) discovered that some bacteria
Figure: 4. Methods of bioremediations for pesticides.
9
Table 2
Microbes uses in pesticides degradation.
Microbes Species of microbes Example of Pesticide Degradation References
Bacteria Pseudomonas sp. Endosulfan, endrin; Aldrin, hexachlorocyclohexane Verma et al. (2014)
chlorpyrifos, DDT, monocrotophos,
coumaphos, diazinon, methyl parathion, parathion Upadhyay and Dutt, 2017
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Hassen et al. (2021)
Phorate Jariyal et al. (2015)
Acinetobactor sp., Enterobacter sp. Photobacterium sp., Methyl parathion, chlorpyrifos (Pino and Peñuela, 2011)
Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus sp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Citrobacter freundii, Stenotrophomonas sp, Flavobacterium sp,
Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas sp, Acinetobacter sp,
Klebsiella sp and Proteus sp
Bacillus sp. DDT, diazinon, dieldrin, endosulfan, endrin, monocrotophos, Verma et al. (2014)
parathion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, glyphosate, methyl parathion, Upadhyay and Dutt, 2017
Alcaligenes Flavobacterium Chlorpyrifos Verma et al. (2014)
Endosulfan Kafilzadeh et al. (2015)
Diazinon, glyphosate, methyl parathion, parathion Upadhyay and Dutt, 2017
Fungus Allescheriella, Alternaria, Microsporum, Penicillium, Heptachlor epoxide, Bending et al. (2002)
Phlebia, Paecilomyces, Trichoderma Rhizopus, Alachlor, aldicarb, atrazine, carbofuran, chlordane, Hai et al. (2012)
White rot fungi, Cladosporium, Mortierella sp., Aspergillus chlorpyrifos, DDT, fipronil, lindane, malathion, metalaxyl, Elgueta et al. (2016)
fumigatus, Fusarium, Penicillium Mucor, Trichoderma spp, pentachlorophenol, terbuthylazine, 2,4-D, diuron, Wolfand et al. (2016)
endosulfan, esfenvalerate, fenitrothion, fenitrooxon, Malnoy et al., 2008
Mohapatra et al. (2022)
Algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Fluroxypyr Zhang et al. (2011)
Small green algae Chlamydomonas, Genus of diatoms Phorate, fenamiphos, parathion, Atrazine, fenvalerate, DDT, Day and Kaushik, 1987
patoran Shehata et al. (1997)
Kabra et al. (2014)
Tang (2018)
Actinomycetes Micromonospora, Micromonospora chalcea Actinomyces, Organochlorines, s-triazines, triazinones, carbamates, Schrijver and Mot (1999);
Nocardia, Streptomyces genous, Streptomyces atratus, organophosphates, organophosphonates, acetanilides, and Fuentes et al. (2010); Huang
Streptomyces alanosinicus, Streptoverticillium album, sulfonylureas Aldrin, carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, et al. (2018); Jagannathan et al.
Nocardia farcinia, Nocardia vaccine andNocardia amarae diuron (2021); Bala et al. (2022)
have the ability to break down pesticides more quickly and effectively, 14.2. Pesticide bioremediation by bacteria
which may help with bioremediation. Knowledge of the target microbe’s
physiology, biochemistry, and genetics can improve the procedure; for In diverse habitats, microorganisms that can break down different
example, the identification of gene-encoding enzymes for a number of pesticides have been effectively isolated and identified (Arora, 2020;
pesticides offers fresh perspectives on the potential of microbes. In Morya et al., 2020). Numerous pesticide chemicals, such as phenols,
regards to fungi, the potential role of fungi for pesticide removal and substituted phenolics, and toxic compounds, are broken down by mi
degradation is highlighted by Mohapatra et al. (2022). For the biore crobes such as bacterial species (Moneke et al., 2010; Castillo et al.,
mediation of pesticides from the environment, they suggested soil fungal 2011). The species of Mycobacterium, Pandoraea, Pseudomonas,
species such as Aspergillus, Allescheriella, Alternaria, Microsporum, Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Flavobacterium,
Penicillium, Phlebia, Paecilomyces, and Trichoderma. On the other Klebsiella, Methylococcus, and Streptomyces are among the microor
hand, the role of actinomytes in the remediation of pesticides Fuentes ganisms widely utilised in pesticide bioremediation (Nakkeeran et al.,
et al. (2010) reported that actinomycetes have a great deal of promise 2005; Glazer and Nikaido, 2007; Rani and Dhania, 2014; Parte et al.,
for pesticide bioremediation, and microbial activities are essential. After 2017; Kumar et al., 2018b). In addition to surviving under the stressful
isolating Streptomyces bacteria, they discovered that chlordane had the circumstances of pesticides, bacteria that break down certain pesticides
fastest rates of growth and elimination. According to Chandra et al. have also demonstrated biocontrol activity (Castillo et al., 2011; Chen
(2015) and Saxena and Bharagava (2016), the bioremediation method nappa et al., 2014). For instance, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus safensis
uses microorganisms and plants as biological intermediaries to convert were identified as the pesticide-degrading bacterial strains Disha A and
harmful organic and inorganic pollutants into less dangerous molecules. Disha B, respectively, that were isolated from pesticide-infested rhizo
In place of chemical and physical approaches, it is an effective and spheric soil (Roy and Das, 2017). Bacterial remediators are a particularly
environmentally friendly technique (Gilani et al., 2016). Cleaning up pertinent technique due to their low cost, quick growth, and simplicity
regions that have been exposed to pesticides can be accomplished using of usage. The bacterial bioremediation takes place in both aerobic and
antimicrobial control. The microbial control mechanism transforms anaerobic conditions. An active contaminant found in water, soil, and
harmful chemicals or substances into low-level dangerous compounds various other sediments is the herbicide or algicide diuron.
(Saez et al., 2014; Kurade et al., 2016; Pan et al., 2017). Microbial The environmentally dangerous herbicide known as fipronil,
degradation of pesticides, xenobiotics, and bio-chemicals has been commonly used against a variety of insects, is bioremediated by Bacillus
extensively demonstrated to reduce pesticide contamination in food firmus (Mandal et al., 2014). Using a single and mixed culture of
items (McGuinness and Dowling, 2009; Porto et al., 2011; Ladi Streptomyces sp., Briceno et al. (2016) evaluated the removal efficacy of
no-Orjuela et al., 2016). Recently, microbial remediation has become a diazinon, an organophosphate pesticide, and discovered that the mixed
focus of research and has been suggested as a secure and sustainable culture eliminated more diazinon than the single culture. Mixed cultures
method for eliminating pesticide contamination in soils (Boudh and of Streptomyces sp. have the ability to purge fluids of diazinon and other
Singh, 2019; Li et al., 2019; Zhang et al. 2020a, 2020b). Some fungi spp. organophosphates. Streptomyces sp. is a crucial bacterial species in the
were also used for the remediation of pesticides like Pleurotus ostreatus breakdown of OPPs because of its mycelial development and quick
for heptaclor and Aspergillus terreus forchloropyriphos pesticide (Pur growth rates (Fuentes et al., 2017). Profenophos, which is an effective
nomo et al., 2013; Silambarasan and Abraham, 2013). organophosphate insecticide, is hydrolyzed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and is frequently employed for managing lepidopteron pests of
10
vegetables, tobacco and cotton (Malghani et al., 2009). P. putida has effectiveness of pesticide adsorption from contaminated water. Micro
consumed and destroyed the insecticide cadusafos, which is used to algal biosorption is a passive, metabolically unrelated process. Once
manage nematodes and insect pests (Abo-Amer, 2012). Under in vitro pesticide chemicals are adsorbed to the microalgal cell walls, the pro
circumstances, soil bacteria Providencia stuartii used the cedure takes place. Sulfated polysaccharides, the intercellular gaps in
organophos-phate pesticide chlorpyrifos up to an amount of over 700 the cell wall, and the fibril carbohydrate matrix may all help to enhance
mg/L (Rani et al., 2008). In sediments and water samples, Kafilzadeh the adsorption of organic pollutants in wastewater (Hammed et al.,
et al. (2015) found bacteria that could efficiently break down endo 2016). Chlorella vulgaris was able to biosorb transition metals using
sulfan, including Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Fla functional molecules like sulphate, carboxyl, and hydroxyl groups
vobacterium, and Bacillus. Recombinant live/dead E. coli was developed (Ahmad et al., 2018), whereas Gracilaria verrucosa was able to biosorb
by Chaurasia et al. (2013) to enable bioremediation of the very persis 2,4-D herbicide primarily through its interactions via hydroxyl,
tent hazardous chemical lindane from the environment. Bacterial carboxyl, and amine active surface groups (Ata et al., 2012). The
remediation is therefore a reliable method for bioremediating diverse properties of contaminants, including their charges and polarity, have a
structures that have been contaminated. It is less expensive and more significant impact on the processes and functions of functional groups in
practical than chemical processes, and it may be done on-site. biosorption. According to Coimbra et al. (2018), biosorption is a crucial
step in the removal of heavy metal ions utilizing microalgae from
14.3. Pesticide bioremediation by microalgae wastewater. The efficacy of biosorption is influenced by the extracellular
polymer substances (EPS) generated in addition to the functionality of
Phytoplankton called microalgae, have biochemical characteristics the microalgal cell wall. The microalgal biosorption process is similar to
like oxygen-mediated photosynthesis. There are many different species conventional adsorption but impacted by a variety of variables, such as
of microalgae, and the majority of them can flourish and endure in harsh pH, temperature, and contact duration. Pesticides may be successfully
environments like high salinity and low temperatures. Microalgae may removed by microalgae using biosorption. According to Hussein et al.
generate higher biomass production than other plants without using (2017), live Chlorella vulgaris removes pesticides like atrazine, carbo
non-arable land. In order to meet the increasing need for bioprocessing furan, dimethoate, and simazine from biosorption.
and the creation of ecologically friendly goods, microalgae constitute an
environmentally friendly source for biomass production. In salty 14.5. Bio-uptake (bioaccumulation)
wastewater with an excessive load of organic matter, microalgae may
endure and thrive (Parsy et al., 2022). Microalgae may adapt to harmful It is described simply as the process through which contaminants are
pharmaceutical, pesticide, and mining pollutants and withstand those introduced into the inside of living cells. This energy-driven mechanism
(García-Balboa et al., 2013; Osundeko et al., 2014). The treatment necessitates the passage of pesticide chemicals across the cell membrane
procedure may be completed without generating unwanted by-products by the microalgae, enabling accumulation and metabolization (Ghasemi
that can cause secondary pollution by making use of the biological et al., 2011). The metabolic process of bioaccumulation is possible by
mechanisms that microalgae naturally possess. The using microalgae (Velásquez and Dussan, 2009; Bilal et al., 2018). Under
physico-chemical-biological properties of wastewater can be changed comparable conditions, bioaccumulation occurs at a slower pace than
and stabilised by microalgae. For example, they can lower the need for biosorption. The efficiency of bioaccumulation, which is the ratio of a
chemical and biological oxygen and slow the development of specific pollutant accumulated in microalgae to the concentration of the exposed
bacterial species (Alemu et al., 2018a, 2018b). Additionally, phenolic environment at equilibrium, is governed by the bioconcentration factor.
and dye pigments, which are frequently present in wastewater, may be Due to harmful pesticide chemicals bioaccumulating in microalgal cells,
broken down by microalgae, reducing the colour intensity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated in cell organelles (Gojkovic
increasing the amount of sunlight that is available in aquatic bodies (A. et al., 2015).
A. Khan et al., 2022). It’s interesting that growing microalgae in Overproduction of ROS encourages the oxidation of membrane lipids
wastewater enables simultaneous nutrient recovery and pollutant and DNA, which disturbs the structure and operation of cells. The cre
removal from a variety of wastewaters. Numerous studies have used ation of antioxidative enzymes that can remove excess ROS by scav
microalgae to recover nutrients from wastewater. Microalgae may be enging these free radicals and helps to lessen the consequences of
usefull for bioremediation of pesticides from water (Nie et al., 2020). bioaccumulation on microalgal cells (Xiong et al., 2017). It has been
According to Rezvani et al., (2019), Chaudhary and Singh (2016); established that insecticides acephate and imidacloprid, at a concen
Khalid et al., (2019), microalgae might remove nitrogen and phosphorus tration of 15 mg/L, cause an adaptive biochemical change that results in
with an effective removal rate of up to >95%. Chlorella, Chlamydo a significantly higher level of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dis
monas, and Scenedesmus sp. are among the phytoplankton for waste mutase activity (SOD) as a part of the defense mechanisms in the
water treatment that have been the subject of the greatest research freshwater microalgae Chlamydomonas mexicana (Kumar et al., 2016).
(Joseph and Ketheesan, 2020) because of their high environmental According to research by Nicodemus et al. (2020), the polar native
flexibility. The three main methods for phytoremediation of pesticides photosynthetic algae Cocomyxa subellipsoidea may break down and
by microalgae are biodegradation, bio-uptake, and bio-uptake are dissolve paraoxon, malathion, and diazinon organophosphates via
depicted in Fig. 2 (Verasoundarapandian et al., 2022). De Morais et al. creating ROS.
(2022) provided a summary of the most recent studies on microalgae
used for pesticide bioremediation, noting the difficulties of this method 14.6. Biodegradation
and outlining potential future directions and trends.
Biodegradation is the most crucial and efficient method for removing
14.4. Biosorption pollutants using microorganisms. It involves catalytic metabolic process,
which breaks down complex pesticide compounds into simpler mole
The solid and liquid phases contain dissolved or suspended species cules or completely mineralizes them (Wang et al., 2019). According to
that are sorbed and engaged in the biosorption process (Hussein et al., Kumar et al. (2018a,b,c), microalgae can break down the compounds in
2017). As a result, it is described as the adsorption of possibly harmful organophosphorus and use the molecules of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
pesticide components onto the surface of phytoplankton. In contrast to carbon as food. The metabolism of multiple enzymes, which play various
bioaccumulation, pesticide biosorption by microalgae is thought to be a roles in the biodegradation process, is necessary for pesticide biodeg
passive, metabolically independent process. Microalgae have special radation by microalgae.
cellular walls made of sulfated polysaccharides, which can improve the The pesticide’s biodegradation into smaller compounds using
11
microalgae serves as a source of nutrients to support microalgae et al., 2013). On the other hand, Maldonado et al. (2006) used ozonation
development (Kabra et al., 2014). According to Swackhamer and Sko to remove 40 various pesticides from industrial and other polluted
glund (1993) and Pérez-Legaspi et al. (2015), a number of enzymes, water. Additionally, dimethoate, diuron, metoxuron, pivhydrazine, and
including hydrolase, phosphatase, phosphotriesterase, oxygenase, vinclozoline were all successfully eliminated by ozonation (Jatoi et al.,
esterase, transferase, and oxidoreductases, are involved in the biodeg 2021).
radation of pesticides. Fig. 5 illustrates the three processes involved in According to Aidoo et al. (2023), ozone is essential for the break
pesticide biodegradation. down of pesticides that have been fixed to the surface of vegetables and
In particular, under lengthy hydraulic retention times, higly water- fruits. In contrast, ozonation can be accomplished using a variety of
soluble pesticides increased mobility and occurrence in aqueous methods and comes in both gaseous and aqueous forms (Balawejder
media, which increases their bioavailability for biodegradation (Blum et al., 2013). However, contemporary technical advancements continue
et al., 2018). Microalgae may bioaccumulate and biodegrade pesticides to offer a foundation for the creation of unique and effective methods for
at the same time. There are numerous approaches to remediating pes delivering ozone (Li et al., 2021a,b; Siddique et al., 2021). Okra and
ticides using microalgae, as demonstrated in the studies (Arutselvan chilli fruit were ozonized with water for 3 min, which resulted in the
et al., 2022; Goh et al., 2023). The significance of biosorption, bio highest elimination of acetamiprid and ethion (M. Singh et al., 2022).
accumulation, and biodegradation processes in the removal of pesticides Moreover, after being exposed to 2.0 mg/L of ozonated water for 15 min,
by microalgae was hypothesised; additional research is required to un malathion and carbosulfan from pakchoi were removed, with degrada
derstand the mechanism of action of microalgae remediation for various tion efficiencies of 53% and 33%, respectively (Wang et al., 2021a,b,c).
pesticides. In order to decompose pesticides, numerous scientists have Additionally, Sadło et al. (2017) found that an aqueous ozone solution
recently enriched, isolated, cultivated, and tested a large number of was effective in reducing captan, boscalid, and pyraclostrobin residues
microbial flora including bacteria, fungus, actinomycetes, algae, and from apples.
other microbial strains. The common microbes that break down the
pesticides are presented in Table 2. 14.8. Nano based material for pesticides remediation
14.7. Ozone based pesticides removal The cleanup of pesticides from the environment is now being done
using a variety of nano-based materials (Kumar et al., 2019; Deka et al.,
Pesticides are oxidised by ozone, causing the chemical bonds be 2021; Abdollahdokht et al., 2022; Boulkhessaim et al., 2022; Biswas
tween the molecules to dissolve and the byproduct to no longer be et al., 2023). The nanoadsorption technique makes considerable use of
harmful to human wellbeing. It is is a residue-free technique that is used nanomaterials such as metal/metal oxides, alumina, activated carbon,
to purify water, sanitize food items, and improve air quality (Díaz-López nanocomposites, nanosheets, nanotubes, chitosan-based polymers,
et al., 2022). This is a result of its general disinfection efficiency and graphene-based nanomaterials, and naturally occurring geogenic ma
ability to degrade pesticides and contaminants. Ozone treatment has terials including clay and zeolite (Sadegh and Ali, 2021). Nanomaterials
potential, but it has disadvantages such as greater quality output, rapid are a long-term solution for chemical-free methods with zero waste
conversion to oxygen, and the necessity for continuous application production in environmental applications (Dhingra et al., 2010; Mah
(Pandiselvam et al., 2021). Ozone oxidation is an effective pretreatment moud, 2020). However, because of their extraordinarily large surface
for fostering bioremediation because the oxygenation intermediates area and sorption sites, variable pore size, drastically reduced
produced when treating organic compounds with ozone are frequently intraparticle-diffusion distance, and high surface activity,
less hazardous, water-soluble, and biodegradable (Javorská et al., 2009; nano-adsorbents can be used to successfully adsorbate a wide range of
Díaz-López et al., 2022). Nowadays, ozone technique has been proved organic and other contaminants (Tara et al., 2020; Yadav et al., 2020,
very effective tool for the removal of pesticides from soil, water, and 2020a). As more than 90% removal efficiency was attained in the ma
food items (Aidoo et al., 2023). jority of the tests for up to 10 cycles, many studies demonstrate the
In soil, 80% of DDT is removed from contaminated soils when ozone effectiveness of nanomaterials for the adsorption of different POPs from
is used as a soil treatment (Balawejder et al., 2016). Endosulfan, on the wastewater (N. Khan et al., 2022).
other hand, has a lengthy half-life, a high rate of bioaccumulation with A ZnO–SnO2 based nanocomposite was created by Lwin et al. (2019)
high toxicity, making it a very deadly organochlorine insecticide. 62% of using the solvo-thermal process and it was used for the photocatalytic
it is lost when it is exposed to ozone (Rodríguez et al., 2020). Further destruction of tetracycline hydrochloride. The result demonstrates that
more, following 8 h of ozone exposure treatment, traditional ozonation ZnO–SnO2 nanocomposite has exceptional photostability even after four
may be able to remove up to 70% of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) from consecutive cycles, offering a potent POP remediation technique that
agricultural soil (Moreno et al., 2020). The percentages of pesticide can also be used for other organic pollutants. Khan et al. (2018) used the
residue deterioration were higher in ozonized soils after 50 days, sonochemical method to synthesise magnetic Fe–ZnO nanocomposite
particularly in sites where ozone was applied at a depth of 10 cm material to remove chlorpyrifos pesticide from the aqueous solution.
(Garrido et al., 2023). 90% of the chlorpyrifos breakdown was eliminated by nanocompsite.
In water and waste water, bitertanol (99%), a pesticide in agricul The surfaces of single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes
tural wastewater, was successfully broken down by ozone (Bourgin have been altered by increasing porosity in order to produce high-
Figure: 5. Pesticides undergo a multi-step biodegradation process (Nie et al., 2020).
12
energy sites that can adsorb more organic pollutants while enhancing liquid chromatography (HPLC), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
the efficiency of manifolds (Hu et al., 2022; Hussain et al., 2022). While (SERS), fluorescence microscopy, localised surface plasmon resonance
the activated carbon’s microporous shapes increase the effectiveness of (LSPR), and enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assays (ELISA), are
POP adsorption (Kurniawan et al., 2012; Subbaiah et al., 2021). Low frequently being used.
contact time and quick cyanazine removal from water were reported by
Ali et al. (2018) when they used iron nanocomposites that were made 14.10. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)
via green synthesis. In addition, Mahdavi et al. (2021) employed mag
netic graphene oxide modified with aminoguanidine for the effective The colorimetric methods based on nanotechnology offer possibil
removal of chlorpyrifos from water, and impressive desorption was seen ities for the rapid and highly accurate identification of residual pesti
when a synthesised nanoadsorbent was applied. Sahoo et al. (2020) cides. According to Sabela et al. (2017), one of the most crucial
created a GO/g–C3N4–Fe3O4 nanocomposite using the hydrothermal properties of metal nanoparticles that aid in the identification of a va
method to remove tetracycline and methylene blue from wastewater. riety of analytes is LSPR. Colloidal metal nanoparticles display a sig
Maximum adsorption capacity for tetracycline and methylene blue was nificant attenuation coefficient and distinctive colour in the visible
attained at pH 3 and pH 9, respectively, which shows that contaminant’s portion of the spectrum as a result of this remarkable characteristic
adsorption was pH-dependent. (Ullah et al., 2018). The form and size of metallic nanoparticles have a
In order to effectively protect crops from the insects, pests and dis significant impact on their analytical characteristics. The main idea
eases, nanoformulations for the creation of pesticides or nanopesticides behind calorimetric methods is based on the way colloidal nanoparticles
offer a wide range of advantages (such as increased effectiveness and change colour when they come into contact with the target analytes. Due
durability, good dispersion and wettability, the ability to biodegrade in to the extremely high extinction coefficients of metal nanoparticles,
the soil and environment, a lack of toxicity, and a photogenerative na particularly gold and silver, agglomeration between target analytes and
ture) (Kah and Hofmann, 2014; Chauhan et al., 2017). nanoparticle surfaces results in a colorimetric response. The sensitivity
Some research reports have shown that a variety of economically and selectivity of colorimetric tests are improved when nanoparticles
significant insect pests, including mosquitoes (Benelli, 2016), moths are modified and functionalized with additional ligands. However, there
(Roni et al., 2015), hard ticks (Abduz Zahir and Abdul Rahuman, 2012), are still significant issues that must be resolved in order to ensure that
louse flies (Jayaseelan et al., 2012), and others, are effectively these systems for onsite pesticide monitoring are effective (Singh et al.,
controlled by a variety of plant-synthesised nanoparticles (NPs). Because 2020a). Speed and sensitivity are the key benefits offered by
of this, water solubility in most pesticide formulations is modest nanotechnology-based colorimetric detection systems over conventional
(Knowles, 2009), and they are sold as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions or approaches. The analytical approach used in nanoparticle-based color
emulsifiable concentrates (ECs). imetric techniques is relatively straightforward and quick (Singh et al.,
Nanomaterials can improve the plant growth, production, and seed 2020b; Schoolaert et al., 2017).
vigour in addition to shielding crop plants from the pests and diseases,
and they may even be used to manipulate genes (Kole et al., 2013; Shang 14.11. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)
et al., 2019). By attaching to a carrier protein or by creating new pores
through ion channels, the NPs can penetrate plant cells and change the This method often uses an antibody or antigen that serves as a sub
systems of plants (Rico et al., 2011; Milewska-Hendel et al., 2021). strate for the target substance to bind it. The creation of a bioconjugate
Studies are still being conducted concentrating on the phytotoxic effects then involves the addition of a secondary antibody labelled with an
of NPs (Lee et al., 2010; Slomberg and Schoenfisch, 2012); and their enzyme. In order to provide a signal that can be detected using a spec
influence on plant development (Khodakovskaya et al., 2009; Bala trophotometer, another chromogenic reagent is finally applied. Xu et al.
lakshmi et al., 2017). This is true despite the plant cell wall’s extraor (2012) used an MAB-based directly competitive ELISA that was followed
dinary capacity to block NP entrance. Electron microscopic studies of by HPLC-MS/MS to detect pesticide levels in vegetables. With strong
the impact of NPs on insects and plants revealed that NPs can easily repeatability and precision, the authors were able to reach a LOD of 20
enter the cell, mitochondria, or nucleus of these species (Yasur and Usha g− 1 within 40 min using this method (Xu et al., 2012). Qian et al. (2009)
Rani, 2013, 2015). This suggests that NPs might be used as an effective developed an MAB-based ELISA to identify chlorpyrifos-methyl residues
insecticide with precise target delivery. in soil, water, and food products such Chinese cabbages and grapes.
Applications of nanoparticles in the environment are subject to Many attempts have been made to overcome the limitations of con
several restrictions (Biswas et al., 2023). When NPs are released into the ventional ELISA methods in order to increase the sensitivity, selectivity,
environment, retrieving them is nearly impossible. The water cycle, and accuracy of this method (such as biotin-streptavidin ELISA and
plants, and crops can all be affected by the easy dispersion of NPs in the nano-ELISA). These enhancements have reduced the related expenses of
air and their facile blending into the soil and groundwater (Wu et al., ELISA while also significantly increasing its robustness and application
2017; Mitter and Hussey, 2019). However, NPs that are applied to the range (Liu et al., 2016). Additionally, ELISA’s analytical effectiveness
environment later in the process result in residual concentrations of NPs and detection performance have both significantly increased.
in the environment (Reddy, 2010; Hendren et al., 2013; Tosco et al.,
2014). When NPs change the biochemical pathways by up- or 14.12. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)
down-regulating the genes involved in cellular mechanisms, this is
referred to as phytotoxicity (Abbas et al., 2020). Additionally, NP in Alternative detection methods gained advantages from new SERS
duces other harmful effects such cell death and leaking. For instance, technical advancements. SERS detection methods offer a lot of potential
lipid peroxidation resulted with the usage of CeO2 -NPs in Zea mays as an efficient method for identifying pesticide residues in foods. Ultra-
because of ion leakage in cells (Chugh et al., 2021). sensitive SERS is a helpful detection technique with less complicated
methods. Presently, SERS-based pesticide residue detection frequently
14.9. Pesticide residue detection approaches combines with real Raman spectra measured by SERS with theoretical
Raman spectra derived using density functional theory (DFT) and
Pesticides affect the environment and foods, which undergo ab standard solutions of target analytes. Following a straight-forward
sorption by the human body. Their residues contain very hazardous extraction to enhance the concentration of analytes, SERS is a very
chemicals that have been shown to cause major health effects in humans promising technology for detecting the presence of pesticides at
even at low doses. Nowadays, for the identification of pesticides, mod detectable levels in samples of liquid or on the surface of solid materials.
ern techniques include gas chromatography (GC), high-performance In their study on SERS-based pesticide detection, Xu et al. (2017) used
13
SERS to identify pesticides in food samples. colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface plasmon
resonance, and chemiluminescent techniques was offered by Yan et al.
14.13. Chromatographic strategies (GC and HPLC) (2018). They examined the key components of tried-and-true methods
by evaluating their effectiveness. Moreover, Narenderan et al. (2020)
These methods are mostly used for detecting pesticide residues. In examined a complete, up-to-date overview of traditional methods for
past several times, the combination of GC assays and other detection analyzing pesticide residue in various fruits and vegetables, including
methods has made it simpler to extract, detect, separate, and analyze gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography
substances that can be vaporised without degrading (Bakırcı and Hısıl, (HPLC) in combination with a range of detectors. They used modern
2012; Lima et al., 2017). Due to their great sensitivity and precision, a pre-treatment (polystyrene-coated magnetic nanoparticle) and detec
number of detection techniques have been used, including tion (sensor development and nanotechnology) strategies.
electron-capturing detectors (Fatoki and Awofolu, 2003), and flame Recently, Kaur et al. (2021) discussed the methods of pesticide
photometric detectors (Bakırcı and Hısıl, 2012). Selective ion moni analysis based on nano-systems for the easy, quick, green, and ultra
toring (Lima et al., 2017) was used to quantitatively examine the sensitive detection of residual pesticides in food and samples of the
mass-to-charge aspect ratio of the given analyte and determine a lower environment, as well as discussions on newer and future cost-effective
limit of detection (LOD) during sample analysis in order to prevent methodologies in the field of pesticide detection.
matrix interference or multiple reaction monitoring (Walorczyk, 2008)
techniques. For example, Walorczyk (2008) used gas chromatography 15. Alternative strategies that can minimize the usage of
mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify 129 pesticide residues in or on pesticides
leafy green vegetables. In a different research, GC with a mass-selective
detector was used to find 86 pesticide residues in non-leafy vegetables 15.1. Microbial and botanical pesticides
(EL-Saeid and Selim (2013). Following GC-MS, Lima et al. (2017)
identified organophosphates, dicarboximides, dinitroanilines, quinones, Pesticides originating from nature (animals, plants, microbes, and
pyrethroids, triazoles, tetrazines, carbamates, and organochlorines in minerals) are known as biopesticides. They are classified into three
grapes using the quick, simple, affordable, robust, and safe (QuEChERS) categories (Fig. 6) depending on the active component used: biochem
method. LODs varied from 0.0025 to 0.02 mg/kg using the aforemen ical pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), as well as micro
tioned method, with quantification limitations between 0.01 and 0.22 bial pesticides.
mg/g. Mass spectrometry (MS), photodiode arrays, UV, and diode array
detectors have been effectively coupled with a number of liquid 15.2. Biological or biochemical pesticides
chromatography-based approaches for the identification of pesticide
residues (Patel, 2021; Rajput et al., 2021). In analyzing samples of fruit They are natural substances that do not harmthe environemnet and
and vegetables, Bakırcı and Hısıl (2012) used HPLC-coupled MS to living creatures while managing pests’ population. They can be taken
identify 71 pesticides and their metabolites. Wang et al. (2012) from nature as it is or can also be synthesised using natural extracts
employed liquid-liquid microextraction cleaning and HPLC to find (Mishra et al., 2015). Semiochemicals are chemical substances that
neonicotinoid pesticides in brown rice, maize, millet, and oats with an plants and animal’s release. These substances include pheromones,
RSD range of 0.9%–12.6% In addition, Wang et al. (2014) used molec allomones, kairomones, and attractants. They are linked to the pests’
ularly imprinted solid-phase extraction in conjunction with HPLC to important processes, like eating, mating, and egg-laying (ovipositing)
discover pesticide residues of trichlorfon and monocrotophos in (Sarwar, 2015). As a result, manipulating their focus can be used to alter
vegetables. the pest life cycle.
14.14. Sensors and biosensors for detection of pesticides

15.3. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs)
Biosensor technology is unique because of its high sensitivity and

While the pest feeds on the plants, the plants might create PIPs.
selectivity for detection, remarkable performance capabilities, user-
Plants may be genetically engineered to encourage their production by
friendliness, on-site operation, production, and incorporation with
adding a gene that acts on an identifiable pesticidal protein to the plant’s
nanomaterials. Depending on their transducer technology, Hassani et al.
genetic code. In this approach, the plant may produce toxic chemicals
(2016) presented parameters for the majority of OP biosensors that have
for specific pests (Parker and Sander, 2017).
been described up to this point. The utilisation of innovative comple
mentary materials and analytical methods in OPs systems for detection
was highlighted. The emergence of user-friendly analytical tools with 15.4. Microbial pesticides
high levels of specificity and sensitivity in the development and creation
of OPs biosensors is due to the availability of these novel materials in These are living creatures that manage pests such as bacteria, fungus,
combination with new sensing methodologies. algae, and viruses. They keep pests at away by either creating poisonous
Fluorescence carbon nano-materials-based sensors have become very
popular over the past ten years because of the high demand for accurate
pesticide monitoring in environmental, culinary, and biological samples
for the protection of ecosystems, assurance of food safety, and disease
prevention (Su et al., 2021). These fluorometric approaches, which are
classified by different primary recognition units, such as enzymes, an
tibodies, aptamers, and molecularly imprinted polymers, provide
excellent findings for pesticides at a limit of detection as low as pg/mL.
Su et al. (2021) reviewed the obstacles and current barriers to
practical sensor designs in addition to comparing the performance of
these new sensors to alternative approaches. They then looked at po
tential future advancements in fluorescent carbon nanomaterial-based
sensors. A summary of recent developments and fresh ideas in optical
sensors for the detection of pesticides based on fluorescence, Figure: 6. Types of biopesticides for controlling of insects and pests.
14
compounds that cause harm and illness or by blocking the growth of control was employed only when essential and in a way that did not
other microbes (Montesinos, 2003). interfere with biological control" (Razdan and Sabitha, 2009). Globally
recognised as the paradigm for crop security in the future, integrated
15.5. Biopesticides pest management actually refers to the combination of several pest
management strategies rather than their integration. IPM is typically
The most effective, environmentally safe, and target-specific alter described in textbooks as a comprehensive "approach" or "strategy" to
native to chemical pesticides is thought to be biopesticides. Due to these attack plant pests using all practical means while utilizing the least
reasons, it is being used in pest management programmes all over the number of chemical pesticides possible (Dent, 2000; Peshin and Dha
world in place of chemical pesticides. Animals, plants, and other living wan, 2009). Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), and nematodes that are
things, including fungi, bacteria, algae, viruses, nematodes, and pro commercially accessible and employing them as an alternative to
tozoa, are the sources of biopesticides. The advancement of biopesticide chemical compounds that control pests (Maina et al., 2018). According
applications through improved research and development significantly to a survey, out of the more than 800 fungal species known to be harmful
reduces environmental pollution brought on by chemical residues from to the insects, more than 171 mycoinseticides have been created.
synthetic pesticides and supports agriculture’s sustainable development Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and nematodes that are commercially
(Nawaz et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2020). Since the introduction of accessible and employing are presented in Table 3.
biopesticides, many products have been registered and released, some of
which have dominated the agromarket (Chandler et al., 2011; Mishra
15.8. Integrated disease management (IDM)
et al., 2015, 2020).
It is a technique that evolved from effective IPM systems and entails

15.6. Botanical plant extracts scouting while employing a variety of techniques and tactics at the
appropriate moment. IDM favours alternative control strategies such as
Botanical pesticides are inexpensive, easily biodegradable, have a host-plant resistance, cultural norms, and biological control. IDM should
variety of mechanisms of action, are readily available in their sources, be applied when absolutely essential (Pandey et al., 2016). IDM’s pri
are safe for species not intended for use, and are effective in controlling a mary objectives are.
variety of agricultural pests (Lengai et al., 2020; Ngegba et al., 2022).
Different plants have different mechanisms of action, which are assumed 1. Reduce inoculum (RI)
to be caused by their different phytochemical compositions. The 2. Reduce the efficacy of the first inoculums
chemistry of plant-based pesticides, their biodegradation, their use in 3. Increase the host’s defences
integrated pest management, and the difficulties in implementing them 4. Delay the development of illness
for sustainable agricultural pest control were all discussed by Geraldin 5. The secondary cycles slowly
et al. (2020). 6. Several strategies are used, and routine usage offers disease control.
15.7. Integrated pest management (IPM) Recent breakthroughs in Integrated Plant Disease Management
(IPDM) have expanded the significance of managing plant diseases for
The term IPM was coined by entomologists at the University of sustainable growth in agriculture, including advances in technology and
California, who described it as a technique applied for pest and disease innovative delivery techniques.
control that integrates both biological and chemical control. Chemical The successful applications are described, along with the remaining
Table 3
Entomopathogenic fungi and nematode for insect pests’ management.
Fungi/Nematodes Name of Host Crops References
Verticillium lecanii Myzuspersicaeand Aphis craccivora (Koch) Chili Muhabbat et al. (1990)
Beauvariabassiana Whiteflies Melon Palumbo (2001)
Hirsutellathompsonii and Cladossporiumoxysporium Aphis craccivora (Koch) Cowpea Saranya et al. (2010)
Beauvariabassiana Myzuspercsicae Cabbage Michereff et al. (2011)
Beauveria bassiana and PDRL1187 Mustard Ahpid, Lipaphiserysimi, Aphis craccivora (Koch) Canola Ujjan and Shahzad (2012)
Verticillium lecaniiandV17, PDRL922 Cabbage aphid, Mustard Ahpid (Myzuspersicae, Cabbage and Ujjan and Shahzad (2012); Asi
Lipaphiserysimi) Canola et al., (2009)
Metarhizium anisopliae andL6, M440, PDRL711, PDRL526 Cabbage aphid, Mustard Ahpids, Lipaphiserysimi, Aphis Cabbage and Ujjan and Shahzad (2012); Asi
gossypii, Aphis craccivora (Koch) Canola et al., (2009)
Peacilomyceslilcinus PDRL812 Mustard Ahpids and Lipaphiserysimi Canola Ujjan and Shahzad (2012)
Beauveria bassiana and BB-01 Schizaphisgraminum, Rhopalosiphumpadi, Laboratory Akmal et al. (2013)
Brevicorynebrassicae and Lipaphiserysimi
Paecilomycesfumosoroseus n32, Mustard aphids, Diamondback moth Cabbage and Ujjan and Shahzad (2012); Asi
LipaphiserysimiandPlutellaxylostella Canola et al., (2009); Hsia et al., (2014)
Nematode for insect management
Neoaplectanacarpocapsae Diatraeasaccharalis Unknown Folegatti et al., 1988
Heterorhabditi indica and Steinernema glaseri Chilosacchariphagusindicas Unknown Karunakar et al. (1999)
Steinernemafeltiae Galleria mellonella and Achroiagrisella Unknown Saenz and Luque (2000)
Heterorhabditis Tenebrio molitor Unknown Shapiro-Ilan and McCoy, 2000
Bacteriophora
Steinernema masoodi, Steinernemaseemae, Helicoverpaarmigera Unknown Subramanian (2003)
SteinernemaglaseriSymbiobacteriumthermophilum
Steinernemacarpocapsae Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpaarmigera Unknown Ali et al., 2008, Gupta et al., 2008
Steinernemacarpocapsae, Heterorhabditis Capnodistenebrionis Unknown Morton and García-del-Pino, 2009.
Bacteriophora
Heterorhabditi indica Plutella xylostella and Helicoverpaarmigera Unknown Rishi and Prasad (2012)
S.sp., Heterorhabditis Odontotermesobesus Unknown Devi et al., 2018
Bacteriophora
15
gaps in research and difficulties. The Fusarium species associated with bioremediation (Hassan et al., 2022). However, systems biology
the FHB disease complex, together with their mycotoxin profiles, disease methods madeit simple to study microbial communities and their in
cycle, diagnostic techniques, and treatment strategies, were outlined by teractions (Jaiswal and Shukla, 2020; Chatterjee et al., 2022; Dash and
Alisaac and Mahlein (2023). Additionally, it covers how remote sensing Osborne, 2022), and these methods are also very helpful for under
technology is used to manage the scenario holistically. standing how microbes may survive in changing settings (Malik et al.,
For instance, Mycoinsecticdes have been proven effective in reducing 2022). Evaluation of the genetic features of bioremediation is aided by
insect pests that are economically significant to agriculture; however, systems biology employing multi-omics (Nagarajan et al., 2022; Dash
the effective promotion and utilisation of these products have been and Osborne, 2022). Today, a number of omics technologies have been
rather slow, mainly because of expensive prices, poor production effi developed, some of which are listed below and are frequently employed
ciency, poor performance under difficult environmental conditions, and for pesticide cleanup (Table 4 and Fig. 7).
a lack of awareness. However, Mycoinsectide is gradually gaining Bioinformatics has a significant impact on the field of microbial
popularity. Mycoinsecticides therefore have the possibility to be a biotechnology because the analysis of biological data enables the
crucial component of an integrated pest management (IPM) plan for the determination of genome sequences, identification of protein coding
efficient and generally risk-free management of insect pests in field regions, comparison of genomes to identify gene function, development
crops. of genomic and proteomic databases, and inference of phenotypes from
genotypes (Bansal, 2005; Bhatt, 2018; Bhatt and Barh, 2018; Pant et al.,
15.9. Integrated weed management (IWM) 2021; Dash and Osborne, 2022; Rafeeq et al., 2023). Bioinformatics
technologies facilitate the investigation of cellular mechanisms and
Integrated weed management (IWM) is a process of acquiring envi metabolic pathways related to pesticide biodegradation processes in the
ronmental data regarding the ecology and biology of weeds in order to context of microbial bioremediation and its outcomes (Fulekar and
control them (Sanyal (2008). Research on integrated weed management Sharma, 2008). To enhance the bioremediation process and soil health,
(IWM) focuses on decision-making, weed ecology and biology, IWM an integrated approach comprising different computational methodol
components that are typically applied to cropping patterns, herbicide ogies might be used (De Sousa et al., 2018). On the other hand,
resistance levels, transgenic plant ecology issues, and weed welfare (Rao contemporary enzyme-based bioremediation systems may be developed
and Nagamani, 2010). The adoption of integrated weed management using in silico approaches (Malla et al., 2018, 2022).
(IWM) will play a significant role in promoting sustainable integrated An improved method for pesticide bioremediation is the application
pest management (Riemens et al., 2022). However, there are some of computational tools and bioinformatics resources (Malla et al., 2018;
barriers that prevent farmers from adopting new technologies, such as Vanacek et al., 2018). Information on the biodegradation pathways of
decreased cost-effectiveness, higher risk, increased complexity, and time persistent chemicals and the biodegradation of xenobiotics (pesticides)
consumption, limitations on access to markets for new crops, in by microorganisms must be retrieved from publicly accessible bio
vestments in new technology, scant evidence of their efficacy, and degradative databases online (Nolte et al., 2018). In a few research
trade-offs with other system components (such as soil erosion after studies, these databases have been briefly discussed (Arora and Bae,
mechanical treatment, a lack of a framework for peer-to-peer learning 2014; Jaiswal et al., 2019). In response to pest resistance, Gong et al.
among farmers), individual differences, and trade-offs with other people (2012) created the PTID database, which comprises 1347 pesticides and
(Lefebvre et al., 2015; Hillock and Cooper, 2012; Liebman et al., 2016; 13,738 pesticide target interactions. The Microbial Genome Database
Moss, 2019; Pavlović et al., 2022; Riemens et al., 2022). (MBGD) is an additional database that provides access to comparative
IWM implementation has been inadequate, with little proof of con genomic analysis for the purposes of analysing gene organisation,
current decreases in herbicide use. Non-chemical approaches are identifying orthologs, and gathering paralog data (Bhatt, 2018; Selzer
frequently used to compensate for decreasing herbicide efficacy owing et al., 2018). Arora and Bae (2014) discovered entries in the Bionemo
to resistance rather than as replacements for herbicides. Farmers’ (Biodegradation Network Molecular Biology) database for sequences
reluctance to use non-chemical methods is due to a lack of drive and encoding for biodegradation genes (BDGs), as well as their transcription
action, not a lack of research. Herbicides are, understandably, perceived and regulation. For a strong biodegradation network, the obtained data
as the easier option; their convenience exceeds the greater complexity, is valuable and crucial (Oladipo et al., 2018). Jaiswal et al. (2019) dis
expenses, and maintenance time related to non-chemical options (Moss, cussed some key databases for a strong biodegradation network.
2019). Currently, bioremediation of pesticides is carried out using genomic
technologies like metagenomics (Guerra et al., 2018; Jeffries et al.,
16. Omics and advanced biotechnological tools for mitigation of 2018; Plewniak et al., 2018; Roy et al., 2018; Rodríguez et al., 2020;
pesticides Gangola et al., 2022). The direct examination of the genome is known as
metagenomics (Zolfo et al., 2018). According to Gupta et al. (2018) and
16.1. Omics tools Jeffries et al. (2018), the soil sample is used to directly extract the mi
crobial DNA. Metagenomics’s notoriety is the main advantage that
Powerful omics methods including bioinformatics, genomics, tran makes it possible to analyze non-culturable microorganisms present in
scriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics can produce pertinent data the sample using a culture-independent method (Perito and Cavalieri,
regarding the genes and proteins involved in pesticide breakdown 2018). According to De Sousa et al. (2018), the DNA acquired in this way
(Rodríguez et al., 2020; Gangola et al., 2022; Gruszecka-Kosowska et al., is sequenced and evaluated for expression.
2022; Malla et al., 2022; Hassan and Ganai, 2023; Leskovac, and Pet One of the most popular OMIC approaches for examining how pro
rović, 2023; Rafeeq et al., 2023; Raj et al., 2023). The single-omics tein expression changes in microorganisms under xenobiotic stress is
method, however, does not always provide enough data to fully proteomics. Protein pattern alterations, protein function, and protein-
comprehend a biological process, claimed by Jeffries et al. (2018). The protein interacting networks can all be fully understood using prote
understanding of pesticide remediation in various environmental set omics (Aslam et al., 2017; Rodríguez et al., 2020; Gangola et al., 2022).
tings has therefore been improved by the combination of omics tech In order to fully comprehend the stress proteins generated by the bac
niques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) teria and their significance in the catalysis of target pollutants, this
(Gangola et al., 2022c, 2023a,b,c). In addition to assisting in the iden approach is currently being employed to eliminate pesticides through
tification of novel strains, genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and bioremediation. According to studies, proteome analysis of microbial
metabolomic techniques also give trustworthy biodegradative processes populations offers a thorough method for understanding the molecular
for creating new molecular inferences, ideas, and models for pesticide processes involved in the biodegradation of pesticides (Gangola et al.,
16
Table 4
Omics tools for remediation of pesticides.
Pesticide Name Tools Method Used Refrences
Alachlor Proteomics MALDI-TOF/MS Szewczyk et al. (2015)

p- Nitrophenol Genomics HiSeq 2000 Chauhan et al. (2016)
DDT Genomics MiSeq Pan et al. (2016)
Glyphosate Transcriptomics Total transcriptome amplification &microarrays Le Guillouzer et al. (2017)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Genomics DNA sequencing Birolli et al. (2018)
Pyrimethanil, Carbofuran, Alachlor, S-metolachlor, Diuron Transcriptomics Microarrays, RT-qPCR Gil et al. (2018)
Hexavalent chromium Genomics Cloning and sequencing of ribosomal DNA Raman et al. (2018)
Methyl parathion Proteomics MALDI-TOF/MS Tiwari et al. (2018)
Acetamiprid Genomics MiSeq Yang et al. (2020)
DDT Metagenomics Solexa Al-Rashed et al. (2021)
Cypermethrin, Fipro-nil, Imidacloprid Genomics 16SrDNA sequencing Gangola et al. (2021a)
Glyphosate Metabolomics HPLC-Q-TOF-HRMS/MS Mesnage et al. (2021)
Lindane Metagenomics 454-GS-FLX Teo et al. (2021)
Methyl parathion Proteomics 2D-PAGE/MALDI-TOF Castrejón-Godínez et al. (2022)
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) Metagenomics Sanger method Khan et al. (2022)
Nicosulfuron, Sulfonylurea Transcriptomics RNA-Seq Li et al. (2022b)
Chlorpyrifos Metabolomics TLC/HPLC/LC-MS Mali et al. (2022)
Carbofuran Metabolomics LC-MS Park et al. (2022)
Paraquat Transcriptomics Microarrays Sharma et al. (2022b)
Pyrethroid Genomics Illumina HiSeq Zhou et al. (2022)
Phenanthrene Metabolomics GC/MS Kumar et al. (2023)
Imidacloprid, Fipronil, Cypermethrin, and Sulfosulfuron. Metabolomics GC/MS Gangola et al. (2023a,b)
Chlorpyrifos Metabolomics GC/MS Elzakey et al. (2023)
2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid Metabolomics HPLC Muhammad et al. (2023)
Parathion Proteomics 2D GE Pailan (2023)
3-Phenoxybenzoic acid Transcriptomics RNA-Seq Hu et al. (2023)
Pyrethroid Metagenomics 16SrRNA sequencing Huang et al. (2023)
Beta-cypermethrin (β-CY) Genomics Whole-genome sequencing Zhou et al. (2023)
Fig. 7. Omics tools towards remediation of pesticides.
2015, 2018). Transcriptome investigations have lately gained significance in

Transcriptomic methods have been used in a number of microbial biodegradation of pesticides from environment (Liu et al., 2015; Zhang
systems to examine genome-wide transcriptional activity, build regulons et al., 2015; Chen et al. 2016a,b,c; Perruchon et al., 2017; Rodríguez
and stimulons, delineate operon structures, discover DNA-binding sites, et al., 2020; Gangola et al., 2022).
and do comparative genotyping (Ye et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2010). In the bioremediation of OP and other pesticides, metabolomics tools
Rodríguez et al. (2020) highlighted the influence of pesticide exposure play an important role. The investigation of novel pesticide compounds
on global gene expression utilizing a variety of microorganisms as study produced by microbial enzymatic activity, the identification of micro
models, from bacteria to fungi, and emphasized transcriptomic ap bial metabolic pathways and enzymes involved in pesticide biodegra
proaches in the field of microbial biodegradation of pesticides. However, dation, and the harmful effects of pesticides on bacteria are a few
research on gene expression is limited and frequently focuses on species examples. Now, forecasting of microbial activity under bioremediation
that can withstand pesticides but do not break them down. procedures have been developed using metabolomics technology (Seo
17
et al., 2009; Callaghan, 2013; Chandran et al., 2020; Rodríguez et al., insect pest attack (Kumari et al., 2022). Genetic engineering provides
2020; Gangola et al., 2022). Advances in fluxomics, genomics, metab fresh methods for decreasing dependence on dangerous chemical pes
olomics, meta-proteomics, meta-transcriptomics, and bioinformatics are ticides (Mukhtar et al., 2023). Because of fast advances in genomics and
necessary to better understand how and why bacteria react to environ methods for molecular biology, a significant quantity of biological data
mental contaminants (Malla et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2022). Accord has been created in recent years. Using bioinformatics technologies, a
ing to Chandran et al. (2020), fluxomics is also anticipated to produce vast number of genetic variants, including disease-causing mutations
findings for growing biological systems and systems biology. The within the genome, have been located and characterised, and these
metabolic changes promoting plant growth and activating defence sys beneficial mutations have been used to produce disease resistance.
tems locally or systemically were characterised by Tran et al. (2023) Furthermore, crop genome editing techniques, namely the CRISPR/Cas9
untargeted metabolomics analyses on Arabidopsis thaliana plants system, provide unique and efficient ways for generating long-lasting
treated with seaweed extracts from Durvillaea potatorum and Asco resistance (Joshi et al., 2023). In contrast to agrochemicals, which
phyllum nodosum. These analyses provided useful insights for devel have a detrimental effect on human and environmental health and
oping new biostimulant and biocontrol products derived from algae. promote pathogen resistance, RNA-based approaches to plant disease
Complex genes that encode catabolic enzymes involved in OPs control provide an inviting alternative. Bocos-Asenjo et al. (2022)
metabolism can be added to microorganisms through genome engi explained the workings and prospects of two RNA-based plant disease
neering using technologies like CRISPR-Cas, ZFN, and TALEN (Dangi control techniques, mycoviruses and RNAi. The advance biotechnolog
et al., 2019; Jaiswal et al., 2019; Bala et al., 2022; Rafeeq et al., 2023). ical approaches for developing plant resistance against pests and dis
Nowadays, chlorpyrifos, methyl-parathion, carbaryl, triphenyltin, and eases are presented in Table 5 and Fig. 8).
triazophos can be remediated using CRISPR-Cas, ZFN, and TALEN gene
editing tools using Pseudomonas, Escherichia coli, and Achromobacter 17.2. Genetic engineering
sp. (Hassan and Ganai, 2023) and other bacteria. Moreover, gene editing
tools like CRISPR-Cas, ZFN, and TALEN and their role were recently Gene transformation of crops for insect resistance is the process of
discussed by Hassan and Ganai (2023) through an alteration in Pseu introducing a specific DNA segment or gene into agricultural plants to
domonas, Escherichia coli, and Achromobacter sp., which demonstrated confer resistance against insect pests. An insecticidal protein is often
improved bioremediation of chlorpyrifos, parathion-methyl, carbaryl, encoded by the DNA fragment that is inserted. The production of a
triphenyltin, and triazophos. However, microbial strains from Paeni certain insecticidal protein found in the inserted DNA segment confers
bacillus, Pseudomonas putida, Burkholderia cenocepacia, Rhodococci resistance to a plant against a particular insect pest (Gatehouse, 2013).
sp., and Pencillium oxalicum are able to degrade deltamethrin, According to Birkett and Pickett (2014), a variety of insect pests from the
p-nitrophenol, chlorimu-ron-ethyl, and nicosulfuron, according to sys Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera orders have been evaluated with
tems biology-based multi-omics methods. The biodegradation of pesti this method. Since being introduced in 1996, genetically engineered
cides into basic components may be significantly improved by using crops that produce insecticidal proteins from the soil bacteria Bacillus
gene editing methods (Bier et al., 2018). Using Pseudomonas, Escher thuringiensis have been extensively used worldwide in agriculture
ichia coli, and Achromobacter sp., gene editing methods may be (Abbas, 2018). The cry gene transformation strategy, according to
employed for pesticide bioremediation by creating gRNA for the perti Juturu et al. (2015), entails implanting certain DNA sequences or genes
nent bioremediation genes (Rafeeq et al., 2023). In keeping with the into agricultural plants by particle bombardment or transformation
trend of advanced research in the remediation of pesticides, system mediated by Agrobacterium. Research has also been done on additional
biology is another omics-based technique that provides substantial strategies for protecting plants against insect attack. Lectins, which are
volumes of data to draw a trustworthy conclusion for frequently found in many different plants, attached to carbohydrates in
bioremediation-related environmental problems (Jaiswal and Shukla, the midguts of phytophagous insects, disrupting the digestive system
2020; Dash and Osborne, 2022). This technology is based on a meth (Vandenborre et al., 2011). In order to stop insects from breaking down
odology that examines the effectiveness and scope of bioremediation in their meal, protease inhibitors have also been used in transgenic pro
various natural habitats using native bacterial strains, genes, enzymes, cedures (Singh et al., 2020). Similar to this, alpha-amylase inhibitor-
and metabolites (Breitling, 2010; Dvorak et al., 2017). Microbial in expressing transgenic plants that are resistant to Lepidopterans,
teractions with xenobiotics (pesticides) and the development of modern Coleopterans, Hemipterans and Dipterans, insects have been developed.
enzyme-based bioremediation techniques are made possible by system Additionally, chitin degradation in the exoskeletal and intestinal linings
biology. Metagenomics (DNA), transcriptomics (mRNA), proteomics of insects is significantly aided by insect chitinase and chitinase-like
(proteins), and metabolomics (metabolites) are examples of post proteins. These exhibit insecticidal qualities and have successfully
genomic research technologies that are used in OMICs. Interactomics is been cloned into plants. Each of these tactics and their function in
the study of these postgenomic research technologies’ relationships and managing insect pests are covered extensively (Kumari et al., 2022).
interactive pathways (Breitling, 2010; Dvorak et al., 2017; Patil et al.,
2022). 17.3. CRISPR cas system
17. Alternative strategies for mitigation of pesticides from Gene editing, a more recent and sophisticated technique, is already
envoronment being used to manage insect pests (Books, 2019). The gene editing
strategy comprises inserting, deleting, or replacing DNA bases in a
17.1. Approaches to host plant resistance based on advanced predetermined target DNA sequence of the genome in order to suc
biotechnological tools cessfully alter the function of a gene utilizing the cell’s natural processes
(Bortesi and Fischer, 2015). It is a new opportunity that is being
Biotechnology is defined as "the use of biological systems, living employed in insect pest management more frequently as a result of the
organisms, or adaptations thereof to create or modify a product, expansion of its potential and chances to improve plant resistance to
improve plants or animals, or develop microorganisms for specific insect pests. The most recent, best, and technically straightforward
purposes" (Persley, 2000). A new age of pest control possibilities has just technique for creating insect pest resistance is CRISPR/Cas9. To identify
begun as a result of biotechnological advances such as gene trans host plants, the majority of polyphagous insects rely on the plant’s own
formation, gene editing, RNA interference, marker-assisted selection, volatiles, gustatory cues, outward appearance, oviposition locations,
omics, and so on. Biotechnological technologies exist to generate and interactions Larsson et al. (2004). Plant volatile mixes may be
insect-resistant modified crop genotypes with improved resistance to altered through genome editing, which might be used as a backup pest
18
Table 5
Different biotechnology-based methods for insect pest management.
Name of targeted insect/diseases Targeted gene Using method Crop References
Chilosuppressalis, cry 1a(b) Gene transfer Rice Fujimoto et al. (1993)

Cnaphalocrocismedinalis
Scirpophagaincertulas and C. cry 1 a(b) Gene transfer Rice Wünn et al. (1996)
suppressalis
S. incertulas cry 1a(c) Gene transfer Rice Nayak et al. (1997)
S. incertulas cry 1a(b)/cry1a(c) Gene transfer Rice Tu et al. (2000)
C. medinalis, S. incertulas cry 2a/cry 1a(c) Gene transfer Rice Maqbool et al. (2001)
Phytophthora citrophthora (PR-5) Gene transfer Sweet Orange Fagoaga et al. (2001)
V. inaequalis, Gymnosporangium MpNPR1-1 (ortholog of AtNPR1) Gene transfer Apple Malnoy et al. (2008)
juniper-virginianae
Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte Suppression of target mRNA RNAi Maize Baum et al. (2007)
Helicoverpaarmigera cry1Ab + NptII Gene transfer Cotton Khan et al. (2011)
Powdery mildew NPR1,1 (Vv NPR1,1) Gene transfer Grapevine Le et al. (2011)
P. syringae NBS-LRR miRNA (MiR482) Tomato Shivaprasad et al.
(2012)
Heliothis sp. cry1Ab Gene transfer Cotton Khan et al. (2013)
H. armigera cry2AX Gene transfer Cotton Sakthi et al. (2015)
Tribolium castaneum E-cadherin gene, EGFP CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Gilles et al. (2015)
Leptinotarsa decemlineata β-actin gene RNAi Potato Zhang et al. (2015)
Lepidopteran dsRNA-Spray RNAi Maize Li et al. (2015a,b)
Plutella xylostella Pxabd-A CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Huang et al. (2016)
Drosophila melanogaster Chitin synthase 1 CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Douris et al. (2016)
Agrotisipsilo Yellow-Y Gene CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Chen et al. (2016a,b,c)
Locusta migratoria Orco- gene CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Li et al. (2016)
Spodoptera litura Slabd-A- gene CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Bi et al. (2016)
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. psidii Trichoderma-endochitinase gene Gene transfer Mishra et al. (2016)
ttoralis Orco- gene CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Koutroumpa et al. (2016
H. armigera HaCad CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Wang et al. (2016)
H. armigera HaCHI RNAi Tomato, Tobacco Mamta et al. (2016)
Cucumber Vein elf4E CRISPR/Cas9 Cucumber Chandrasekaran et al.
Yellowing Virus (CVYV), (2016)
Zucchini Yellow Mosaic
Virus (ZYMV), and Papaya Ring
Spot Mosaic
Virus-W (PRSV-W)
GFP viral genome LwaCas13a plant Knott (2017)
Pseudomonas syringae Auxin signaling genes (AFB2, AFB3 and TIR1 miRNA (miRNA167, miRNA160, Tomato Jodder et al. (2017)
miRNA390, miRNA393 and miRNA846
Citrus canker CsLOB1/promoter CRISPR/Cas9 Citrus Peng et al. (2017)
C. suppressalis APN1+APN2 RNAi Rice Qiu et al. (2017)
Leguminivora glycinivorella SpbP0-dsRNA RNAi Soyabean Meng et al. (2017
H armigera JHMT RNAi Cotton Ni et al. (2017)
Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte Dvvgr, dvbol RNAi Maize Niu et al. (2017)
H. armigera cry1AC + cry2Aa Gene transfer Pigeon pea Ghosh et al. (2017)
Ectropis oblique CDPKs, CBP, MAPK, LRR-RLKs, MYB TFs, miRNA miR172, miR396d-3p, miR156, Tea Jeyaraj et al. (2017)
bHLH miR828, miR171
H. armigera cryIIAa Gene transfer Chickpea Sawardekar et al. (2017)
C. medinalis cry2A Gene transfer Rice Gunasekara et al. (2017)
Tutaabsoluta cry1Ac Gene transfer Tomato Selale et al. (2017)
Anthamous grandis cry1Aa Gene transfer Cotton Ribeiro et al. (2017)
PVY NIb, P3, CI, CP CRISPR-LshCas13a Solanum Zhang et al. (2017)
tuberosum
S. exigua Ryanodine receptor CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Zuo et al. (2017)
Ceratitis capitata We CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Meccariello et al. (2017)
Rice tungro bacilliform virus eIF4G CRISPR/Cas9 Rice Macovei et al. (2018)
H. armigera Tetraspainin CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Jin et al. (2018)
H. armigera cry2Aa Gene transfer Pigeon pea Baburao and Sumangala
(2018)
H. armigera cry2Aa Gene transfer Pigeon pea Singh et al. (2018)
S. incertulas, C. medinalis cry2AX1 Gene transfer Rice Rajadurai et al. (2018)
Bemisia tabaci GRAS family TFs, NAC domain proteins miRNA miR170, miR171, miR164 and Tomato Wang et al. (2018a)
miR166
Banana Streak eBSV CRISPR/Cas9 Banana Tripathi et al. (2019)
Virus (BSV)
TuMV HC-Pro, CP, GFP CRISPR-LshCas13a N. benthamiana Abudayyeh et al. (2019)
S. litura cry1Aa Gene transfer Sweet Potato Zhong et al. (2019)
S. litura cry1AC + cry2Ab Gene transfer Cotton Siddiqui et al. (2019)
Holtrichia parallela cry 8 like Gene transfer Soyabean Qin et al. (2019)
Achaea Janata and S. litura cry1AC Gene transfer Castor Muddanuru et al. (2019)
Plutellaxylostella PxABCC2, PxABCC3 CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Guo et al. (2019)
Leptinotarsa decemlineata ECR gene RNAi Potato Hussain et al. (2019)
S. incertulas AchE RNAi Rice Kola et al. (2019)
Manduca sexta v-ATPaseA gene RNAi Tobacco Burke et al. (2019)
Bemisiatabaci BtACTB gene RNAi Tobacco Dong et al. (2020)
(continued on next page)
19
Table 5 (continued )
Name of targeted insect/diseases Targeted gene Using method Crop References
Aphis glycines TREH, ATPD, ATPE, CHSI RNAi Soyabean Yan et al. (2020)
H. armigera cry2AX1 Gene transfer Cotton Jadhav et al. (2020)
H. armigera α-6 (nAchR) CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Zuo et al. (2020)
Rhopalosiphum padi ß-1-3glucanase in maize CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Kim et al. (2020
Ostrinia furnacalis ABCC2 CRISPR/Cas9 Unknown Wang et al. (2020a,
2020b)
whitefly sexlethal (Sxl) protein, acetylcholinesterase amiRNA Nicotiana Zubair et al. (2020)
(AChE), and orcokinin (Orc) tabacum
Cotton leaf hopper and cotton Sec23 and EcR amiRNA N. benthamiana Hada et al. (2021)
whitefly
Verticillium dahliae ARF8 miRNA named miRm0002 identified Eggplant Zhu et al. (2021)
T. absoluta cry1Ab Gene transfer Tomato Soliman et al. (2021)
B. tabaci PGMT RNAi Tobacco Xia et al. (2021)
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. BEE1, DAHP1 and PERK2 miRNA miR319a and miR6300 Cucumber Xu et al. (2021b)
cucumerinum (Foc)
SRBSDV SRBSDV CRISPR-LshCas13a Rice Ashraf et al. (2022)
GFP HC-Pro, CP, GFP CRISPR-Cas13d (CasRx) Nicotiana Ai et al. (2022)
benthamiana
PVX-GFP PVX CRISPR-Cas13d (CasRx) Nicotiana Ai et al. (2022)
benthamiana
S. littoralis Sl 102 immune gene RNAi Tobacco Di Lelio et al. (2022)
Cotton leaf curl Multan virus ORFs CRISPR- LbCas12a Nicotiana Ashraf et al. (2023)
(CLCuMuV) benthamiana
Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Viruses pAMIE14 amiRNA in introns (AMINs) Tomato Khalid et al. (2023)
and pAMIN14 and amiRNA in exons (AMIEs)
Potato-Phytophthora infestans PGSC0003DMG400034305 miRNA miR394 Potato Luo et al. (2023)
(PGSC0003DMG400026899) miR396
(PGSC0003DMG400021641 miR6149-5p
Abbreviations: Cry-crystal protein, NPR-Nonexpressor of Pathogenesis-Related Genes, BBS-LLR-Nucleotide-binding site–leucine-rich repeat, Pxabd-A:Abdominal-A
homeotic gene, nAchR:α-6- nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, AchE:Acetylcholine esterase, WeEye; Pigmentation Gene White Eye, JHMT:Juvenile hormone methyl
transferase, Orco: Olfactory receptor co-receptor gene, HaCHI:Chitinase gene, Slabd-A: Abdominal-A gene, Pxabd-A:Abdominal-A homeotic gene, APN:Amino
peptidase N genes, PGMT:Phenolic glucoside malonyl transferase, miRNA: microRNA, amiRNA: Artificial microRNA, ORF-Open reading frames, ECR- ecdysone
receptor CHI- Chalcone Isomerase TIR- Transport Inhibitor Response LOB- Lateral Organ Boundaries MAPK- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases, TuMV- Turnip
mosaic virus SRBSDV- Southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus GFP- Green fluorescent protein PVX- Potato Virus X.
Fig. 8. Biotechnology based strategies for insect pest and disease resistant plant development.
20
management method. Since CRISPR gene editing has the ability to laboratories (Lee et al., 1993; Wightman et al., 1993; Voinnet, 2009). In
change the targeted gene of interest, it is a powerful tool for addressing order to genetically modifed plants for disease control, the discovery of
insect pest issues. The commercial implementation of CRISPR/Cas9 for microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of endogenous noncoding regulatory
the control of insect pests is currently in its infancy. For a variety of uses RNAs, has been widely employed (Ambros, 2001; Reinhart et al., 2002;
in model animals, it has undergone considerable reformatting, which Bilir et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023). The miRNA machinery has been
might suggest potential insect applications. For instance, used to design resistance to RNA viruses by substituting particular nu
CRISPR/Cas9-engineered insect pests designed for pest control are cleotides in the miRNA-encoding genes to change targeting specificity
provided in Kumari et al. (2022). In addition, Jaiswal et al. (2019) re (Xie et al., 2015; Raza et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). These synthetic
ported gene editing techniques that include CRISPR Cas, TALEN, and miRNAs have been employed to develop plant resistance to a number of
ZFNs that may be used to construct microbes with functional genes of viral pathogens, including the turnip mosaic virus (Niu et al., 2006),
interest for the breakdown of certain recalcitrants for enhanced cucumber mosaic virus (Qu et al., 2007; Duan et al., 2008; Zhang et al.,
bioremediation. 2011), potato virus X and potato virus Y (Ai et al., 2011), apple
Nowadays, other CRISPR Cas variants have also been used for the Botryosphaeria dothidea infection (Yu et al., 2022), and Fusarium
management of pests and diseases (Aman et al., 2018). In this context, oxysporum and Phytophthora infestans in tomatoes (Ouyang et al.,
Turnip mosaic virus resistance was stable production of the 2014; Canto-Pastor et al., 2019).
RNA-targeting nuclease Cas13a and the associated guide RNA in N. Studies on plant-insect interactions have recently discovered a
benthamiana (Aman et al., 2018). Since Cas13a does not cause DNA number of conserved miRNAs and their target genes (Bordoloi and
breakage when used to target viral RNA substrates, it would not result in Agarwala, 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). MiR160a, miR167, and miR393a
unwanted off-target alterations of the host genome (Abudayyeh et al., were discovered to be downregulated in response to aphid feeding in
2017). Additionally, it has been proposed that Cas12a (also known as Chrysanthemum and Cucumis melo. The transport inhibitor response 1
Cpf1) may lessen the prevalence of escape viral variations because (TIR1) and auxin response factors (ARFs), which were both significantly
mutations brought on by CRISPR-Cas12a are less likely to eliminate the increased during aphid infestation and inhibited the actions of proteins
recognition of the target by the original guide RNA (Ali et al., 2016). involved in inhibiting auxin signalling, were potential targets of these
Over the past ten years, CRISPR-Cas gene editing has been success miRNAs (Xia et al., 2015; Sattar et al., 2012). During whitefly feeding,
fully utilised to produce insect-resistant plants and alter a variety of there was an increased buildup of miR166, miR172, and miR396,
insects. This strategy has shown a lot of promise for enhancing crop respectively. Class III homeodomain-leucine zipper proteins were
productivity while managing insect pests sustainably (Moon et al., demonstrated to be miR166’s target, whereas AP2-like ethylene
2022). The production of agricultural plants and insects with altered response TFs and CDPKs were miR172’s target (Q. Wang et al., 2018;
genomes may help with insect pest management in agriculture. Jeyaraj et al., 2017). Let-7, as opposed to miR-14, decreases the
RNAi and miRNA. expression of E75 to take part in the development of the larval and pupal
To control illnesses and plant pests, RNA interference (RNAi), a stages in Bactrocera dorsalis (the oriental fruit fly) (Peng et al., 2019).
eukaryotic technique wherein transcript production is repressed in a Because chitinase expression was suppressed by feeding synthetic
sequence-specific manner, can be applied topically. It has been miR-24 to Helicoverpa armigera (cotton bollworm), substantial
demonstrated that double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), the essential RNAi morphological abnormalities and stagnant moulting were caused
trigger molecule, can offer protection without the incorporation of (Agrawal et al., 2013). In order to regulate metamorphosis in the Lepi
transgenes that produce dsRNA. As a result, the advancement of RNA- dopteran pest Spodoptera litura (tobacco cutworm), miR-14-3p targets
based biopesticides is beginning to gain steam as a focused substitute the 20E signalling gene (E75) and EcR, two members of the ecdysone
for chemical-based control strategies, allowing for the precise and tar cascade. These findings found a great potential of
geted targeting of pests and diseases (Fletcher et al., 2020). dsRNA is artificial-miRNA-based antiviral approaches. Some important applica
evolving as a novel, sustainable method for plant protection in place of tions of miRNA against insect control. Other biotechnological tech
traditional chemical pesticides. niques, including marker-assisted selection, antero-embryonic culture,
The successful commercialization of dsRNA-based biocontrols for protoplast fusion, somaclonal variants, etc., have been reported by
effective pest management approaches requires the cost-effective pro Talakayala et al. (2020) but very little work has been carried out. This
duction of large quantities of dsRNA coupled with suitable delivery provides a description of these strategies in Table 4.
modes to assure RNAi efficacy against the target insect. Potential ob Challenges and limitations.
stacles to the widespread use of dsRNA biocontrol as distinctive, sus Today’s environment is full with toxins and pollutants, which are
tainable substitutes for current chemical pesticides are identified by dangerous to both human and animal lives and also have negative im
Hough et al. (2022). Mamta and Rajam (2017) examined the possibility pacts on the ecosystem as a whole. Treatment of trash, pollutants, and
of RNAi-based techniques for successful insect pest management. They harmful substances found in the environment can be accomplished
also reviewed the different aspects that must be addressed for through a sensitive, effective, and environmentally friendly process
host-induced RNAi-mediated management of insect pests while having called bioremediation. The treatment of agricultural solid waste and the
no influence on non-target species or the environment. Examples of removal of pesticides in agricultural fields are all accomplished using
controlling insects/pests employing RNAi technology can be seen in the various species of bacteria, plants, and fungi. The fact that bioremedi
review (Kumari et al., 2022). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and ation only detoxifies biodegradable material is a significant drawback
short-interfering RNAs (siRNAs), two different forms of regulatory (Kumari et al., 2022). The challenges and limitations of current ap
sRNAs, are present in the plants. While siRNAs are 20–24 nt sequences proaches to bioremediation of pesticides are discussed in recently pub
derived from lengthy dsRNA precursors, miRNAs are 20–22 nucleotide lished articles (Sun et al., 2020; Varjani et al., 2020; Sarker et al., 2021;
(nt) sequences formed from a single-stranded RNA molecule that folds Xu et al., 2021; Aldas-Vargas et al., 2022; S. Singh et al., 2022; Yılmaz
back on itself to form a double-stranded region with a loop known as et al., 2022; Goh et al., 2023; Mali et al., 2023; Elzakey et al., 2023;
RNA hairpin (hpRNAs) (Voinnet, 2009; Borges and Martienssen, 2015; Manikandan et al., 2023). However, a number of issues, including cul
D’Ario et al., 2017). ture upkeep and growth medium usage, arise throughout this process. In
With the finding of the developmental regulator lin-4 in the nema addition to these drawbacks, bioremediation has other restrictions, such
tode Caenorhabditis elegans, the first miRNA was found more than 50 as.
years ago (Horvitz and Sulston, 1980). Lin-4, which was once thought to
be a typical protein-coding gene, really codes for a 22-nucleotide reg 1) Bioremediation can only be applied to biodegradable materials. Not
ulatory RNA, as was shockingly discovered by the Ruvkun and Ambros all compounds can degrade completely and quickly.
21
2) Some individuals worry that the byproducts of biodegradation will climate change on the environment, the successful application of omics
stay longer or be more dangerous than the original molecule. approaches is essential in the remediation of pesticides. When working
3) Important prerequisites for bioremediation should be included, such with omics data and identifying novel patterns within observed out
as the availability of populations of metabolically active microbes, comes, it requires both the necessary tools and critical thinking to
ideal conditions for development, and ideal concentrations of nu examine the results. The scientific community and interdisciplinary
trients and pollutants. research teams face additional challenges when reusing, storing, ana
4) Results from bench- and pilot-scale studies are challenging to lysing, and sharing such high-dimensional data sets. Researchers will
translate into extensive field operations. soon have access to biotechnological methods including genetic engi
5) To create bioremediation methods suitable for places with complex neering and CRISPR/Cas-based gene editing, among others. The future
combinations of toxins that are not evenly dispersed throughout the of this topic will probably be greatly influenced by the creation of
ecosystem, research is required. Solids, liquids, and gases can all be genetically modified microbes with enhanced pollution-degrading
contaminants. Bioremediation often takes more time than substitute capabilities.
treatment techniques like soil removal and excavation or cremation. It is clear that the same difficulties now exist in creating better pol
6) Regarding acceptable performance standards for bioremediation, icies to protect the mental health of agricultural workers. Despite the
there is still regulatory ambiguity. Since there is no widely agreed existence of international rules and regulations intended to reduce the
definition of what constitutes "clean," and bioremediation therapy exposure of farm workers to pesticides, their great heterogeneity and
has no established outcomes, measuring the success of bioremedia poor effectiveness have prevented dangers from being reduced in both
tion is challenging. high- and low-income nations. As a result, it is crucial to have a con
versation about this matter with the international organisations to
18. Conclusion and prospects for the future advise the standards for occupational safety and health. Stronger in
ternational standards for occupational safety and health are required
Environmental contamination is the primary concern of the 21st since effective policies and regulations to lower the dangers of pesticide
century, and research communities pay close attention to this topic. exposure have not yet been widely adopted in spite of this data. Higher
Microbe-based bioremediation is a powerful method for eliminating percentage of pesticide poisonings and fatalities take place in devel
pesticide pollution because it accelerates biodegradation processes oping nations due to lax occupational safety standards, lax food-use
naturally in polluted areas. The extraordinary role played by extrem regulations, lax enforcement, inadequate pesticide labelling, wide
ophiles in bioremediation highlights the need for more extensive spread illiteracy, and a lack of pesticide knowledge. In a survey with the
research in order to identify novel species and examine the methods they farmers in the different Indian states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Har
employ in such hostile conditions. There are numerous microbes with yana, Uttrakhand, Jharkhand, and Chattishgarh, where farmers are
important metabolic genes that can be incorporated into different spe growing sugarcane, vegetables, and rice, they are using different pesti
cies. Pesticides can be eliminated from food, water, and soil using ozone. cides in overdoses, and they don’t know how much concentration of
One drawback of employing ozonation is the higher energy needed to pesticides is required for spray, soil application, and drift form, and they
produce ozone from pure oxygen, which leads to CO2 emissions and a are using indiscriminate pesticides on the crops. On the other hand, after
corresponding effect on climate change. This aspect might be the major using pesticides, pesticide packets are dumped in the soil, where they
reason why this therapy hasn’t been widely applied in the field. Nano may be leached and pollute the environment. Therefore, awareness of
particle use results in environmental problems. As a result, the toxicity these facts should be provided to the farmers through the awareness
of NPs is poorly known due to the lack of methodologies that have been sessions and seminars, as well as trainings on how to make proper
verified and inconsistent data. Biopolymers like starch, chitosan, and concentrations of pesticides in appropriate doses. It has also been
cellulose can be utilised as support materials to lessen toxicity, and green observed by the farmers that they do not use masks for spraying and
nanotechnology-based strategies that emphasise the use of biological drifting pesticides in their fields. Therefore, training must be organized
extracts can take the place of the hazardous chemicals currently to suggest how pesticides can enter the human body and may create
employed for surface functionalization. These methods will lessen the serious health problems like cancer and mental abnormalities among the
toxicity of many NMs, however, many of the NMs and nanotechnology farmers and co-workers, and how wearing masks can be safe for their
methods discussed here are not yet commercially accessible. The health.
development of biopesticides, such as microbial and botanical pesti
cides, integrated weed management (IWM), integrated disease man CRediT authorship contribution statement
agement (IDM), integrated pest management (IPM), microalgae,
bacteria, and other alternatives that can reduce the use of pesticides, has Veena Chaudhary: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft.
received very little research. As a result, additional study should be done Mukesh Kumar: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Chetan
on these topics. Nowadays, another eco-friendly technique, like ozone Chauhan: Formal analysis, Methodology. Ujjwal Sirohi: Project
treatments, has also been used for the remediation of pesticides from administration, Writing – review & editing. Arun Lal Srivastav: Vali
water, wastewater, soils, and food items, including vegetables and fruits, dation, Writing – review & editing. Lata Rani: Methodology,
but this technique has some limitations. Ozone treatment could be more Visualization.
expensive because it needs specific tools and skilled personnel. The
food’s flavour, texture, and appearance can all be changed by ozone Declaration of competing interest
treatment. Therefore, it is important to develop low-cost technology that
is more effective. Since omics techniques have made it possible to The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
observe and analyze biological systems with astounding precision and at interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
steadily declining costs, they are fully incorporated into environmental the work reported in this paper.
studies. Genomic, metabolomic, metagenomic, transcriptomic, proteo
mic, and multi-omics and integromics techniques are the most prom Data availability
ising omics technologies for use and improvement in this field. In order
to analyze and comprehend the vast quantity of data produced by these No data was used for the research described in the article.
high-throughput omics approaches, interdisciplinary scientific collabo
ration is required, especially in the field of bioinformatics. Due to the
need to learn new information for measures to mitigate the effects of
22
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Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120326

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

Strategies for mitigation of pesticides from the environment through

1. Introduction of cancer, mutagenesis, and other adverse consequences, especially in

Figure: 1. Classification of chemical pesticides.

soil-related pathways might also expose people indirectly by the pesti­

Table: 1 8. Effect of pesticides on plant health

There are numerous processes including atmospheric precipitation,

Fig. 3. Effects of pesticides on human health.

Figure: 4. Methods of bioremediations for pesticides.

Figure: 5. Pesticides undergo a multi-step biodegradation process (Nie et al., 2020).

14.14. Sensors and biosensors for detection of pesticides

Biosensor technology is unique because of its high sensitivity and

It is a technique that evolved from effective IPM systems and entails

Alachlor Proteomics MALDI-TOF/MS Szewczyk et al. (2015)

Fig. 7. Omics tools towards remediation of pesticides.

2015, 2018). Transcriptome investigations have lately gained significance in

Chilosuppressalis, cry 1a(b) Gene transfer Rice Fujimoto et al. (1993)

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soil-related pathways might also expose people indirectly by the pesti