DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE: SURVEY OF WORLD HISTORY II

COURSE CODE: BHU2206

PURPOSE
To introduce students to the major historical events in the world from 1500 to present day
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
i) Analyze the explorations, movements and settlement of people in different parts of the world.
ii) Discuss political, economic and social change affecting people.
iii) Review inventions as conducted through world history.
iv) Evaluate industrial and political evolutions world history.
v) Analyze world trade
vi) Discuss causes and consequences of Old and new imperialism.
vii) Discuss major causes of the First and second World Wars
viii) Explain international relations after WW2, cold war & other movements
ix) Discuss major international organizations, purposes & achievements.

Content
World history from +1500 onwards; expansion and spread of people, emergence of scientific cultures; Rise
and development of world economic system; Race, rations; imperialism and international conflicts,
international organizations, Africa and the world history.

Teaching / Learning Methodologies

Lectures and tutorials; Group discussion; Demonstration; Individual assignment; Case studies of critical and
scientific reading, writing and listening in the field of Business and technology
Instructional Materials and Equipment
Projector; Test books; Design catalogues; Computer laboratory; Design software; Simulators
Course Assessment
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 30%; Total - 100%

Core Textbooks
i) Dayal R. (1989; 2006). A Textbook of Modern European History 1789-1939. Delhi CBS
ii) Palmer R.P (Ed) (1957; 2000). Atlas of World History. New York Rand McNally Company.

Recommended Text Books

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i) Stavirianos, L.S. (1982;1995). The World since 1500. New Jersey Prentice Hall International.
ii) Craig A.G (1987; 2007) Europe Since 1815. New York.

CHAPTER 1
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1500–
1780)

The Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries changed the way educated people looked

at the world. It evolved from the Renaissance’s stress on the importance of individuals to understand the

world around them, and was the key factor that moved Europe from a worldview that was primarily religious

to one that was primarily secular. Although a more secular society was likely not their goal, Luther’s and

Calvin’s attacks against the authority of the pope provided a powerful example of how to challenge

traditional authority.

Their questioning attitudes produced an environment that encouraged the inquiry necessary for science to

flourish.

Science in the Middle Ages was designed to help a person reach a better understanding of God and not the

world. A medieval scientist would have found it inconceivable to examine the universe outside the realm of

religion.

During the Renaissance from the 1300s until the early 1500s, science was still considered a branch of religion,

and scientific thought held that the earth was a stationary object at the center of the universe. Beginning with

Copernicus, however, who taught that the earth revolved around the sun, Europeans began to reject

Aristotelian- medieval scientific thought. Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton developed a new concept of a

universe based on natural laws, not a mysterious God.

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The new scientific approach promoted critical thinking. Nothing was to be accepted on faith. Belief in

miracles and superstition was replaced by reliance on reason and the idea that rational thinking would uncover

a plan governing the universe. This critical analysis of everything in society from religion to politics and the

optimism that the human mind could find the solution to everything was known as the Enlightenment.

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century intellectuals, writers, and philosophers were optimistic that they could

change society for the better. Writers, such as David Hume and Immanuel Kant, were primarily interested in

teaching people how to think critically about everything, while philosophers, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu,

Rousseau, Smith, and Diderot, were not revolutionaries but reformers who criticized the existing social,

political, and economic structures in order to improve them. They found their hope in Enlightened Despots,

or monarchs, the most important of whom were Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and

Catherine the Great of Russia, who would improve the lives of their subjects and encourage the pursuit of

knowledge. However, societal reform was not accomplished by these despots, but came instead through the

revolutionary forces that were instrumental to the French Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century.

The scientific revolution

It refers to a period in history when many discoveries were made about the universe. The discoveries and

development in science increased human knowledge and understanding about the universe.

It began in Europe during the renaissance period (1400AD). This was a period of rebirth of leaning and

exploration.

To understand how the Scientific Revolution dramatically altered the way society viewed the world and the

role of man in society, you must realize that the medieval worldview was ruled by the ideas of the third-

century B.C.E Greek philosopher, Aristotle, the second-century B.C.E. Egyptian philosopher, Ptolemy, and

theologians. Their ideas had been recovered during the Middle Ages as Western Europe began to trade with

the East. Medieval theologians, such as St. Thomas Aquinas, brought these writings into harmony with
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Christian doctrines. The philosophy of Aquinas was known as scholasticism. The Aristotelian view of the

world supported the Ptolemaic

view of a motionless earth at the center of the universe, and this world was made up of four elements: earth,

air, fire, and water. This view offered a common-sense approach for Christians, who put human beings at the

center of the universe. Although widely accepted during the Renaissance, the traditional view of science

began to be questioned by various rulers, such as Florence’s Medici family, who supported the investigations

of Galileo.

The views of Aristotle and Ptolemy were shattered by Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543). In his book On the

Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (not published until after his death in 1543 because he feared the

ridicule of fellow astronomers), Copernicus suggested that the sun was the center of the universe and that the

earth and planets revolved in circular orbits. This Heliocentric Theory that the sun—and not the earth—was

the center of the universe contradicted contemporary scientific thought and challenged the traditional

teachings of hundreds of years. Copernicus’ book had enormous scientific and religious consequences. By

characterizing the earth as just another planet, he destroyed the impression that the earthly world was different

from the heavenly world.

Religious leaders understood the significance of Copernicus’ findings all too well; of him, Luther is reported

to have said, “The fool wants to turn the world of astronomy upside down.” Calvin, like Luther, also

condemned Copernicus. The Catholic Church, however, reacted slowly and did not declare Copernicus’

theory false until 1616, continuing to hold to the view that the earth was the center of the universe. The slow

reaction of the Church reflected the slow acceptance of Copernicus’ theory. Other events created doubts about

traditional astronomic ideas as well, such as the discovery of a new star in 1572 and the appearance of a comet

in 1577.

These events began to dramatically alter the acceptance of the earth as a motionless object.
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Copernicus’ ideas influenced others in the field of science. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601),

set the stage for the study of modern astronomy by building an observatory and collecting data for over

twenty years on the location of the stars and planets. His greatest contribution was this collection of data, yet

his limited knowledge of mathematics prevented Brahe from making much sense out of the data. Johannes

Kepler (1571–1630), a German astronomer and assistant to Brahe, used his data to support Brahe’s data and

Copernicus’ idea that the planets move around the sun in elliptical, not circular, orbits. Kepler’s three laws of

planetary motion were based on mathematical relationships and accurately predicted the movements of

planets in a sun-centered universe. His work demolished the old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy.

While Kepler was examining planetary motion, Galileo Galilei, a Florentinian (1564–1642), continued the

attack on traditional views of science. Using observation rather than speculation to help him formulate

ideas—such as his laws on the motion of falling bodies—Galileo established experimentation, the

cornerstone of modern science.

He applied experimental methods to astronomy by using the newly invented telescope. Using this instrument,

he discovered the four moons of Jupiter, and that the moon had a mountainous surface, much like the earth.

His discovery destroyed an earlier notion that planets were crystal spheres (the earth was the center of the

universe and around it moved separate, transparent crystal spheres: the moon, the sun, five planets, and fixed

stars), and challenged the traditional belief in the unique relationship between the earth and the moon.

Galileo’s evidence reinforced and confirmed the theory of Copernicus. Following the publication of his book,

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which openly criticized the works of Aristotle and

Ptolemy, Galileo was arrested, imprisoned, tried for heresy by the Papal Inquisition, and forced to publicly

recant his views. In modern times, Galileo’s trial has come to symbolize the conflict between religious beliefs

and scientific knowledge. The greatest figure of the Scientific Revolution was Sir Isaac Newton (1642–

1727), an Englishman. In his book Principia Mathematica (1687), he integrated the ideas of Copernicus,
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Kepler, and Galileo into one system of mathematical laws to explain the orderly manner in which the planets

revolved around the sun. The key feature of his thesis was the law of universal gravitation. According to this

law, everybody in the universe attracts every other body in precise mathematical relationships. Newton’s law

mathematically proved that the sun, moon, earth, planets, and all other bodies moved in accordance with the

same basic force of gravitation. Such proof showed that the universe operated by rules that could be explained

through mathematics and that a religious interpretation was not the sole means of comprehending the forces of

nature.

The Scientific Revolution also led to a better way of obtaining knowledge. Two important philosophers were

Francis Bacon (1561–1626) and René Descartes (1596–1650). Both were responsible for key aspects in the

improvement of scientific methodology. Francis Bacon was an English politician and writer, who advocated

that new knowledge had to be acquired through an inductive, or experimental, reasoning process (using

specific examples to prove or draw a conclusion from a general point) called empiricism. Bacon rejected the

medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, and believed instead that it was necessary to collect data,

observe, and draw conclusions. This approach is the foundation of the scientific method.

René Descartes was a French mathematician and philosopher. Like Bacon, he scorned the traditional science

and broke with the past by writing the Discourse on the Method (1637) in French rather than Latin, which had

been the intellectual language of the Middle Ages. Unlike Bacon, Descartes stressed deductive reasoning. He

believed that it was necessary to doubt everything that could be doubted. His famous quote—“Cogito ergo

sum” (“I think therefore I am”)—proved his belief in his own existence and nothing else. He believed that, as

in geometry, it is necessary to use deductive reasoning and logic to determine scientific laws governing

things. Descartes’ view of the world (now called Cartesian Dualism) reduced natural law to matter and the

mind, or the physical and the spiritual. Bacon’s inductive experimentalism and Descartes’ deductive,

mathematical, and logical thinking combined into the scientific method, which began taking hold of society

in the late seventeenth century. Some consequences of the Scientific Revolution include the following:
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 ■ A scientific community emerged whose primary goal was the expansion of knowledge. Learned societies

like the French Academy of Sciences and the Royal Society of London were founded to promote the growth

of scientific ideas among different countries.

■ A modern scientific method arose that was both theoretical and experimental, and its practitioners refused

to base their conclusions on traditional and established sources or ancient texts. The belief that human reason

was the vehicle that would unlock the secrets of the universe ended the dominance of religion on society. The

Age of Reason in the eighteenth century, with its faith in the rational and skeptical mind, would provide the

background for the Enlightenment.

There was little connection, however, between science and technology. The Scientific Revolution had little

effect on daily life before the nineteenth century. The revolution in science in the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries was primarily an intellectual one.

Factors which facilitated the scientific revolution.

1. The need to find solutions to day to day problems encouraged scientific research.

2. The renaissance period in Europe encourage scholarship in different fields of scientific research.

3. Discovery of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg of Germany in 1447 enabled the printing of

books and journals and this enhanced the spread of scientific ideas.

4. Government and wealthy individuals provided funds to support scientific research.

5. Voyages of exploration led to discovery of new lands and encourage interest in new spheres of

knowledge and research.

The impact of the scientific inventions

The impact of the scientific inventions on agriculture

Positive effects

1. It has led to improvement in farming methods and animals – husbandry.

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 2. The invention of machines to replace human labour has quickened the agriculture process.

3. Discovery of food preservation method has minimised loss of agriculture produce.

4. Agriculture has been transformed from small-scale subsistence farming to a large scale economic

activity.

5. It has led to fast transportation of farm inputs; this has reduced on time and enabled farmers to earn

maximum profit.

6. Marketing of farm inputs and outputs has been improved by scientific invention through availability of

telecommunication.

7. Scientific invention has resulted into setting up of industries which consume agricultural produce

directly as raw materials.

Negative effects.

1. Continuous use of artificial fertilizers had led to soil impoverishment.

2. Continuous use of hybrid species has led to loss of some traditional plant and animal species which are

more resistant to diseases.

3. Pesticide, fertiliser and the farm inputs are expensive.

4. Some agro-chemicals, e.g. pesticides, fungicides, fertilisers are toxic and therefore harmful to both

plants and animal’s life.

Impact on industry

Positive effects.

1. The invention of machines and new sources of power has led to emergence of more factories and

mills.

2. The invention of vaccines and drugs to control human diseases led to population growth rate.

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 3. The invention of printing press has led to mass production of newspapers, magazines, periodicals and

books.

4. The discovery of steam power greatly revolutionaries transport industry as it led to the railway age

with the invention of George Stephenson’s rocket.

5. The discovery of steam, electricity and petroleum has led to the building of new iron and steel

factories.

6. Industrial developments have created job opportunities both skilled and unskilled.

7. Production of industrial goods in large quantities has promoted the growth in trade.

Negative effects.

1. Widespread industrialisation has led to an increased in industrial affluent hence leading to

environmental pollution.

2. Automation in industries has led to loss of jobs.

3. Invention and production of military hardware has led to massive loss of lives and destructive wars.

Impacts of medicine.

Positive effects.

1. Scientific inventions led to i.e. eradication of killer disease e.g. smallpox

2. It led to cleaner, safer and less painful surgical operation.

3. It has made it possible for one to have a new face or look through plastic surgery.

4. The invention of x-ray has made it possible to examine the extent of broken bones.

5. The development of babies in the tubes through external fertilisation has helped childless couples to

have children.

6. It has made it possible for one to have a heart, liver and kidney transplant.

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Negative effects.

1. Some of the inventions are expensive and beyond the reach of many people.

2. Overdependence on drugs has weekend immune system due to development of resistance.

3. Invention of safer abortions has led to immorality and loses of life in some countries.

4. The failure of some scientific inventions and research has led to emergence of some resistance strains

of diseases.

The Industrial Revolution

Industrialization in Britain.

 Up to about 1670, Britain was the most industrialized country and a major world power with a wide

trading market.

Factors that favoured industriasation in Britain.

1. Inventions in the British textile industries pioneered the revolution arising in the British industries.

2. Britain hard accumulated large amounts of wealth from her trading empire and colonies.

3. Through colonisation Britain had acquired industrial raw materials and market for industrial products.

4. Britain underwent a period of developments in agriculture; these agrarian changes had great influence on

industrialisation.

5. Its large population provided a market and cheap labour for the industry.

6. It had good transport and communication, her road and railway network facilitated the movement of

industrial goods and products.

7. The naval forces were important as it guarded sea routes from pirates and other intruders as well as

protecting the merchants in trading ports.

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8. Uses of slave labour in plantations and mines in colonies greatly influenced her industrial development.

9. Britain was and has been one of the countries with a well maintained banking and insurance infrastructure.

10. Britain had for a long history of internal political stability.

11. There were cottage industries that became the pioneers in large-scale factory investments.

12. Britain had an abundant supply of skilled labour for her industries and economy.

13. The country had adequate energy resources.

14. The government encouraged a free and open-market economy.

Industrialization in continental Europe.

The industrial revolution started from Britain in about 1750, this spread to continental Europe by 1850.

Factors that led to industrialisation in continental Europe.

1. Most of the countries had adequate supply of resources such as coal and iron-ore to provide energy and

new materials.

2. These countries also experienced political stability.

3. The high population in these countries offered both skilled and unskilled labour for the factories.

4. In all countries they strived to improve transport network through construction of roads, railways and

canals.

5. Most of the countries had undergone agrarian revolution.

6. These countries had capital for industrial development through investment by wealthy merchants.

7. They had varied sources of energy for industrial development.

8. Availability of new skills in science and technology.

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Effects of industrial revolution in Europe.

Political effects.

1. It leads to the scramble and partition of Africa.

2. It led to the birth and growth of maxims. This was ideology which was advanced by Karl Marx (1818-

1863). It condemned capitalism for its exploitative tendency.

3. It led to growth of a middle class, comprising of urban workers who became vocal in demanding for

reforms and took on active role in the decision-making process.

4. The revolution led to the emergence of the trade union movement.

5. There were many unemployed people who offered a fertile ground for grievances and organisations

opposed to the state.

Social effects.

1. It created new social groups notably the urban and rural society.

2. It led to rural-urban migrations as many people migrated to the towns.

3. It also led to population growth in Europe.

4. It also led to improved medical services.

5. High population in towns led to a shortage of housing.

6. There was growth in pauperism or state of begging due to high levels of unemployment in towns.

7. High incidence of child labour, where children and women workers were exposed to dangerous working

conditions for long hours.

8. It led to sound air and water pollution.

Economic effects.

1. It led to improvement in agriculture due to market, fertilizers and machines.

2. There were marked improvements in transport and communication patterns in Europe.

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3. It led to expansion of international trade as industrial countries were looking for markets to sell their

products.

4. Urban factories could not cope with the large numbers of rural- urban migrants who were seeking jobs.

This led to high unemployment rate.

5. The development and spread of factory based industries slowly forced the decline and collapse of cottage

– based set-ups.

6. Through the industrial revolution, European nations were able to make a lot of wealth.

7. It also led to urbanization in Europe.

8. It also led to scientific inventions related to machinery, transport and communication.

The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

The Scientific Revolution was the single most important event that fostered the creation of a new intellectual

movement in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries called the Enlightenment, or, sometimes, the

Age of Reason—a time period defining the generation that came of age between the publication of Newton’s

ideas in 1687 and the death of Louis XIV in 1715.

It was time in Europe when people were free from superstitions and ignorance of the Middle Ages. (People

started using reasoning to solve problems or answer questions) The Enlightenment’s core tenet was that

natural law could be used to examine and understand all aspects of society. European thinkers came to

believe that all problems could be solved by human reason. (They called themselves "enlightened")

The Enlightenment’s leaders believed that by using scientific methods, they could explain the laws of society

and human nature. It was an optimistic creed—armed with the proper methods of discovering the laws of

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human nature, enlightened thinkers were convinced they could solve all problems. They believed it was

possible to create a better society and people and that progress was inevitable. They were free from the

restraints of religion and focused instead on improving economic and social conditions. Consequently, the

movement was profoundly secular.

Some important enlightened thinkers include the following:

■ Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). An English writer, Hobbes was influenced by the experimental attitude

toward nature and decided to apply it to politics. Writing at the time of the English Civil War, Hobbes was

forced to flee London to Paris in 1648 because he feared for his life. In 1651 he wrote Leviathan, a title he

chose after the sea monster from the Book of Job. Hobbes believed that humans in their original state of

nature were unhappy. In the state of nature, Hobbes asserted that man was quarrelsome, turbulent, and forever

locked in a war against all. He supported an absolute monarch (although he did not support the Divine Right

Theory of government) because he thought that man needed protection from destroying himself and an all-

powerful ruler was the best source of such protection. Thus, man enters a social contract to surrender his

freedom to an absolute ruler, in order to maintain law and order. The subject could never rebel and the

monarchs had the right to put down any rebellion by any means possible.

Hobbes’s ideas never won great popularity. In England, Royal Absolutism, a cause he supported, never

gained acceptance. He was overshadowed by his contemporary John Locke.

■ John Locke (1632–1704). Like Hobbes, Locke was interested in the world of science. His book, Two

Treatises of Government (1690), was written as a philosophical justification for the Glorious Revolution,

which refers to the bloodless overthrow of James II in 1689 and the end of absolutism in England. This work

translated his belief in natural law into a theory of government that became known as The Social Contract.

Locke argued that man is born basically good and has certain natural rights of life, liberty, and property. To

protect these natural rights, people enter into a social contract to create a government with limited powers.

Locke believed that if a government did not protect these rights or exceeded its authority, the people have a
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right to revolt, if necessary. Locke’s ideas of consent of the governed, a social contract, and the right of

revolution influenced the writing of the United States’ Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of

the United States. Locke’s ideas also laid the foundation for the criticisms of absolute government in France.

It was in France that the Enlightenment reached its highest development. Some of the reasons for this were the

following:

■ French was the international language of the educated class.

■ In addition to being the wealthiest and most populous country, France was the cultural center of Europe.

■ Although critical books were often banned by the French censors and their authors jailed or exiled, the

writers were not tortured or executed for their statements. Thus, the French intellectuals battled powerful

forces but did not face the overwhelming difficulties of writers in Eastern or Central Europe.

The French used the term philosophe (philosopher) to describe the thinkers of the age. The philosophes were

committed to bringing new thought to all of Europe. They wanted to educate the economic and social elite but

not necessarily the masses. Philosophes, who were not allowed to criticize either the Church or state openly,

circulated their work in the form of books, plays, novels, dictionaries, and encyclopedias, using satire and

double meaning to spread their messages and thus preventing their writings from being burned or banned.

Salons, gatherings organized by wealthy women held in large drawing rooms in their homes, were also used

to help philosophes avoid trouble with authorities. At these meetings, philosophes would gather to discuss

politics, philosophy, and current issues. These discussions allowed the writers greater freedom to spread their

words.

Enlightened thinkers considered themselves part of an intellectual community. They shared their ideas

through books, personal letters, and visits back and forth amongst themselves.

Some of the important French philosophes included the following:

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 ■ Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755) was a French aristocrat who wanted to limit royal absolutism. In his

book, The Spirit of Laws (1748), he urged that power be separated among three branches of government:

executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch would check the other branches, thus preventing despotism

and preserving freedom. Montesquieu admired the British system of government and was critical of the

absolutism of the French monarchy because all power was concentrated in one person. His theory of the

separation of powers greatly influenced the framers of the United States Constitution.

■ Voltaire (1694–1778): Born François-Marie Arouet, Voltaire is considered to be the greatest of all the

Enlightened philosophes. Educated by Jesuits, he challenged the authority of the Catholic Church.

Although he believed in God, his God was a distant deistic God—a clockmaker who built an orderly

universe and then let it operate under the laws of science. Voltaire hated religious intolerance, urged religious

freedom, and thought that religion crushed the human spirit. In his book, Candide, he wrote against the evils

of organized religion, and in his Treatise on Toleration, he argued for religious tolerance. Voltaire denounced

organized religion because it exploited people’s ignorance and superstitions. Deism was intended to construct

a more natural religion based on reason and natural law. His most famous anti-religious statement was

“écrasez l’infâme” (“crush the horrible thing”).

In 1717, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for eleven months, after which he was forced to live in exile for

three years in Great Britain, a period of time that greatly influenced the rest of his life. Like Montesquieu,

Voltaire came to admire Britain’s system of government. He praised their limited monarchy, respect for civil

liberties, and freedom of thought. He promoted freedom of thought and respect for all. Typical of his outlook

is the statement attributed to him: “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to

say it.” Voltaire became a European celebrity who in 1743 lived in the court of Frederick the Great of

Prussia, and became a supporter of Enlightened Despotism.

■ Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Like other Enlightened writers, Rousseau was committed to

individual freedom. However, he attacked rationalism and civilization, considering them to be destroying
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rather than liberating man. Instead, spontaneous feeling was to replace and complement the coldness of

intellectualism.

According to Rousseau, man was basically born good and needed protecting from the corrupting influences of

civilization. These ideas would later greatly influence the Romantic Movement of the nineteenth century,

which rebelled against the culture of the Enlightenment.

Rousseau’s book, The Social Contract, published in 1762, begins with the famous line, “All men are born

free but everywhere they are in chains.” He believed that as social inequalities develop, people enter into a

social contract agreeing to surrender their individual rights to the community and the general will, or the will

of the majority, in order to be free—thus creating a government as a necessary evil to carry out the general

will. If the government fails, people have the right to replace it. Although Rousseau’s concept of the general

will appealed to democrats and nationalists after the French Revolution of 1789, it has also been used by

dictators like Adolf Hitler to justify totalitarian rule by claiming that a dictator or one-party ruler speaks for

the general will to which all citizens owe obedience.

In 1762, Rousseau also published Émile, a book that stirred controversy because of its attacks on

civilization and its new theory of education. He criticized education that focused on the development of

reason and logical thinking and advocated greater love, tenderness, and understanding towards children.

Rousseau argued for more humane treatment of children and for children to develop naturally and

spontaneously.

Children had to explore nature as a way to raise their emotional awareness. Émile helped to change the

educational and child-rearing practices in eighteenth-century Europe.

■ Denis Diderot (1713–1784) published his writings and the ideas of many Enlightened philosophers in his

Encyclopedia (1751). This 25-volume collection of political and social critiques, which included writers such

as Voltaire and Montesquieu, attacked abuses of the French government, including religious intolerance and

unjust taxation. The Encyclopedia was an example of the eighteenth-century belief that all knowledge could
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be organized in a systematic and scientific fashion. Diderot hoped that this information would help people to

think and act rationally and critically.

The physiocrats were economic thinkers in eighteenth-century France who developed the first complete

system of economics. Like the philosophes, the physiocrats looked for natural laws to define a rational

economic system. However, the physiocrats, unlike the philosophes, were close to the government as

advisors. Some famous physiocrats include the following:

■ François Quesnay (1694–1774) was the French leader of the physiocrats and a physician to Louis XV.

He supported a hands-off, or laissez-faire, approach to the government’s involvement in the economy.

■ Adam Smith (1727–1790) was a Scottish economist. While not an actual physiocrat member, Smith had

met with the physiocrats on the continent and adopted and refined many of their ideas. In his Wealth

ofNations, published in 1776, the same year as the United States’ Declaration of Independence, Smith argued

against strict government control of mercantilism. He outlined the nucleus of the economic system that came

to be known as capitalism. Smith believed in a laissez-faire approach to business. He argued that individuals

should be left to pursue their own economic gain. The role of the state is to act as a policeman who intervenes

only when necessary. Smith thought that the invisible hand of supply, demand, and competition would ensure

that people would act in the best interest of everyone.

Enlightened Despotism

Many philosophes believed that Enlightened reform would come by way of Enlightened monarchs.

EnlightenedDespots were rulers who tried to justify their absolute rule by claiming to rule in the people’s

interest by making good laws, promoting human happiness, and improving society. Encouraged and instructed

by philosophes like

Voltaire who did not trust the masses and believed that change had to come from above and not from the

people, the monarchs of Prussia, Russia, and Austria were able to mesh their need for a more effective state
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with the need for economic, educational, and social reform. The most notable Enlightened Despots of these

countries include the following:

■ Frederick the Great (b. 1712, ruled 1740–1786) of Prussia. As King of Prussia, Frederick invited

Voltaire to his court and sought his advice on how to be an Enlightened ruler. He did away with the torture of

accused criminals, improved the educational system, allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in

religion, and promoted industry, agriculture, and commerce. He was an efficient statesman and made Prussia

into the best-ruled nation in Europe. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) of Germany, the greatest German

philosopher of his age, suggested that Frederick was an Enlightened ruler because he allowed freedom of the

press and gave Catholics and Jews permission to settle in Prussia.

■ Peter the Great (b. 1672, ruled 1682–1725) of Russia was a contemporary of Louis XIV of France.

Technically, he might not be considered an Enlightened Despot because he never tried to justify his

absolutism by claiming to rule in the people’s interest. Nevertheless, he was responsible for trying to make

Russia a part of Europe after centuries of domination by the Mongols. Peter’s efforts to westernize Russia

included introducing his country to Western ideas in science, education, military training, and industry. He

ordered his male subjects to shave their traditional long beards and discard their oriental garments. He also

extended control over the Russian Byzantine Church. Western artisans were invited to the country and, with

their workers, helped to build a new seaport on the Gulf of Finland called St. Petersburg, his “window to the

West.” This seaport provided a trade route with Western Europe.

■ Catherine the Great (b. 1729, ruled 1762–1796) of Russia. The German wife of the Russian czar, Peter

III, Catherine deposed her husband and ruled as an autocrat. She read the works of Montesquieu and Voltaire

and imported Western culture to Russia. She also revised and codified Russian law, patronized the arts,

19
created hospitals, and undertook other public welfare projects. The Pugachev serf uprising of 1773 led her to

reverse her trend towards reform of serfdom and return to nobles the absolute control of their serfs.

■ Maria Theresa (b. 1717, ruled 1740–1780) of Austria realized upon inheriting the throne that Austria

was weak, and so she began a series of reforms. She established a national army, limited the power of the

Catholic Church, revised the tax system and the bureaucracy, and reduced the power of the lord over the serfs.

She also improved the educational system.

■ Joseph II (b. 1741, ruled 1780–1790) of Austria furthered the reforms of his mother, Maria Theresa. He

abolished serfdom and introduced a single tax for everyone, a physiocratic idea. He granted religious

tolerance to Calvinists and Lutherans, and eliminated many of the restrictions on Jews. Joseph abolished

capital

punishment, reformed the educational and judicial system, and established hospitals. After his death, his

brother Leopold II (b. 1747, ruled 1790–1792) was forced to back away from these reforms as a way to quell

a series of peasant and aristocratic revolts.

Some notable impacts of enlightenment

1. The new ideas delivered and brought throughout the enlightenment supported a democracy for the
better of the people and to rid of monarchy.

2. Hobbes hoped for the world to be rid of evil and his new ideas of having a strong central government
influenced people

3. The people were angered about having no say in government and the enlightenment thinkers
encouraged democracy and for the people to speak out and participate in government

4. Positive outcomes of the french revolution is people now have freedom of speech and can now vote.
Education is now available while corruption in the government is no more

5. Montesquieu’s ideas of having 3 branches of government are believed to be the strongest form of all
current democratic governments.

6. The ideas of life liberty and property were new concepts that made the people think about their roles.

20
7. Democracy and equality were of great importance to the thinkers of the Enlightenment, who were
dissatisfied with the greediness and prestige of the aristocratic social tier.

8. Napoleons long series of war led to economic debt causing inflation within France’s currency.

21
CHAPTER 2
AGE OF EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERIES

Background

The Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration (approximately from the beginning of the 15th century

until the end of the 18th century) is an informal and loosely defined term for the period in European history in

which extensive overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European culture and was the beginning

of globalization. It also marks the rise of the period of widespread adoption in Europe of colonialism and

mercantilism as national policies. Many lands previously unknown to Europeans were discovered by them

during this period, though most were already inhabited. From the perspective of many non-Europeans, the

Age of Discovery marked the arrival of invaders from previously unknown continents.

Global exploration started with the Portuguese discoveries of the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira and the

Azores, the coast of Africa, and the discovery of the sea route to India in 1498; and the Crown of Castile

(Spain) the trans-Atlantic Voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas between 1492 and 1502 and the

first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519–1522. These discoveries led to numerous naval expeditions across

the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, and land expeditions in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia that

continued into the late 19th century, and ended with the exploration of the polar regions in the 20th century.

European overseas exploration led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial empires, with the

contact between the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) and the New World (the Americas and Australia)

producing the Columbian Exchange; a wide transfer of plants, animals, food, human populations (including

slaves), communicable diseases and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This represented

one of the most-significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture and culture in history. The Age of
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Discovery and later European exploration allowed the global mapping of the world, resulting in a new world-

view and distant civilizations coming into contact, but also led to the propagation of diseases that decimated

populations not previously in contact with Eurasia and Africa and to the enslavement, exploitation, military

conquest and economic dominance by Europe and its colonies over native populations. It also allowed for the

expansion of Christianity throughout the world: with the spread of missionary activity, it eventually became

the world's largest religion.

Beginning in the early fifteenth century, European states began to embark on a series of global explorations

that inaugurated a new chapter in world history. Known as the Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration,

this period spanned the fifteenth through the early seventeenth century, during which time European

expansion to places such as the Americas, Africa, and the Far East flourished. This era is defined by

figuressuch as Ferdinand Magellan, whose 1519–1522 expedition was the first to traverse the Atlantic to the

Pacific Ocean and the first to circumnavigate the globe. The European Age of Exploration developed

alongside the Renaissance. Both periods in Western history acted as transitional moments between the Middle

Ages and the early modern period. Competition between burgeoning European empires, such as Spain and

England, fueled the evolution and advancement of overseas exploration. Motivated by religion, profit, and

power, the size and influence of European empires during this period expanded greatly. The effects of

exploration were not only felt abroad

but also within the geographic confines of Europe itself. The economic, political, and cultural effects of

Europe’s beginning stages of global exploration impacted the long term development of both European

society and the entire world.

The Spanish and Portuguese were some of the first European states to launch overseas voyages of exploration.

There were several factors that led to the Iberian place in the forefront of global exploration. The first

involved its strategic geographic location, which provided easy access to venturing south toward Africa or

23
west toward the Americas. The other, arguably more important, factor for Spain and Portugal’s leading

position in overseas exploration was these countries’ acquisition and application of ancient Arabic knowledge

and expertise in math, astronomy, and geography. The principal political actors throughout the Age of

Exploration were Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands, England, and France. Certain European states, primarily

Portugal and The Netherlands, were primarily interested in building empires based on global trade and

commerce. These states established worldwide trading posts and the necessary components for developing a

successful economic infrastructure. Other European powers, Spain and England in particular, decided to

conquer and colonize the new territories they discovered. This was particularly evident in North and South

America, where these two powers built extensive political, religious, and social infrastructure.

Motivating Factors for European Expansion

• Desire to enhance National Prestige (Nationalism)

• Nation Wealth & Territory Prestige for Monarchs.

• Possibility of Personal Wealth, Fame, & Social Prestige.

• Quest for New Geographical knowledge.

• Desire to spread Christianity.

• Intensifying International competition among the powerful Nations.

• States of Europe desire to find new Trade Routes to the East.

• Increase Profits.

• Renaissance spirit- Europeans adventurers wanted to test the limits of human ability and to explore the

unknown

New Technologies that Impacted Exploration

• Better & faster Ship design

• Printing Press
24
 • More reliable Magnetic Compass

• The invention of the Clock (allowed for new navigational methods- Eventually Longitude)

• Astrolabe- Latitude Navigation

• More accurate Maps

• Gun Powder & New Weapons

-Cannons and Muskets

Effects of explorations and discoveries

Economic

• Rapid economic growth and increase in business activity.

• Vast amounts of Gold & Silver flooded into Europe.

• Prices of Good rose due to INFLATION and MERCANTILIST economic policies.

• Expanded opportunities for the rising middle class.

• Majority of Europeans saw little improvement in their “Standard of Living.”

• CAPITALISM began to emerge –(exception was in Spain)

Political

• Western Europe began to Dominate the Globe (New land were claimed and colonized)

(Western political models were installed)

• The “Rivalry” between the Nation-States of Europe intensified.

• International tension grew.

Social

• Social values began to be more focused on MATERIAL WEALTH and SOCIAL STANDING.

• Growing SECULAR trends.

• Rising MIDDLE CLASS benefitted from New economic & social opportunities.
25
 • POWER & WEALTH in the colonies came to be concentrated in the hands of few.

-(Social & Economic issues have continued to PLAGUE these regions as a result of this trend.)

Religious

• Christianity spread across the Globe

(The Americas)

(Parts of Asia)

• Christian Missionaries worked to Convert Native populations

(The Jesuits were very active)

(Started Missions)

(Established Schools)

• Very often Conversations were forced and or coerced; however, many truly converted to Christianity.

• Christianity of blended with traditional religious beliefs and practices

Summary:

 The age of European exploration and discovery represented a new period of global interaction and
interconnectivity. As a result of technological advancements, Europeans were able to forge into new
and previously undiscovered territories. They understood this to be a “New World.”
 European exploration was driven by multiple factors, including economic, political, and religious
incentives. The growing desire to fulfill European demand for luxury goods, and the desire to unearth
precious materials such as gold and silver, acted as a particularly crucial motivation.
 The period of European global exploration sparked the beginning phases of European empire and
colonialism, which would continue to develop and intensify over the course of the next several
centuries.
 As European exploration evolved and flourished, it saw the increasing oppression of native
populations and the enslavement of Africans. During this period, Europeans increasingly dealt in
African slaves and started the transatlantic slave trade.

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CHAPTER 3
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Background

The French Revolution was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies
that lasted from 1789 until 1799. It was partially carried forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of
the French Empire. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, catalyzed violent periods
of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon who brought many of its
principles to areas he conquered in Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the
Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history, triggering the global decline of absolute
monarchies while replacing them with republics and liberal democracies.[1] Through the Revolutionary Wars,
it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely
regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history.

Causes, development & timeline of the French Revolution

1. Political Cause

During the eighteen the Century France was the centre of autocratic monarchy. The French Monarchs had
unlimited power and they declared themselves as the “Representative of God”.

27
Louis XIV was the exponent of this view. The French Monarchs engaged themselves in luxurious and
extravagance at the royal court of Versailles. They enjoyed unlimited power. By the Letter de Catchet, they
arrested any person at any time and imprisoned them. They paid no attention towards their subjects.

Louis XIV (1643-1715) of the Bourbon Dynasty was a powerful monarch. He was an efficient, hard-working
and confident ruler. He participated in many wars. Louis XIV’s concept of unlimited royal power is revealed
by his famous remarks, “I am the State”.

Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded Louix XIV He was a ‘butterfly monarch’. His defective foreign policy
weakened the economic condition of France. Louis XV fought the Seven Years War against England which
brought nothing for France. France became bankrupt due to over expenditure in wars and luxury. He realised
it later on. Before his death he cried-‘After me the Deluge.

After Louis XV, Louis XVI (1774-1793) ascended the throne of France. During that period, the economic
condition of France became weak. Louis XVI was an innocent and simple man. But he was influenced by his
queen Marie Antoinette who always interfered in the state affairs.

2. Social Cause

The Social condition of France during the eighteenth century was very miserable. The then French Society
was divided into three classes— the Clergy, Nobles and Common People.

The Clergy belonged to the First Estate. The Clergy was subdivided into two groups i.e. the higher clergy and
the lower clergy. The higher clergy occupied the top position in the society. They managed the churches,
monasteries and educational institutions of France. They did not pay any tax to the monarch.

They exploited the common people in various ways. The higher clergy lived in the midst of scandalous luxury
and extravagance. The common people had a strong hatred towards the higher clergy. On the other hand, the
lower clergy served the people in true sense of the term and they lived a very miserable life.

The Nobility was regarded as the Second Estate in the French Society. They also did not pay any tax to the
king. The Nobility was also sub divided into two groups-the Court nobles and the provincial nobles. The court
nobles lived in pomp and luxury. They did not pay any heed towards the problems of the common people of
their areas.

28
On the other hand, the provincial nobles paid their attention towards the problems of the people. But they did
not enjoy the same privileges as the Court nobles enjoyed. The Third Estate formed a heterogenous class. The
farmers, cobblers, sweepers and other lower classes belonged to this class. The condition of the farmers was
very miserable.

They paid the taxes like Taille, Tithe and Gable. Inspite of this, the clergies and the nobles employed them in
their fields in curve. The Bourgeoisie formed the top most group of the Third Estate. The doctors, lawyers,
teachers, businessmen, writers and philosophers belonged to this class. They had the wealth and social status.
But the French Monarch, influenced by the clergies and nobles, ranked them as the Third Estate.

So they influenced the people for revolution. They aroused the common people about their rights. Thus, the
common people became rebellious. The lower Clergies and the provincial nobles also joined their hands with
the common people along with the bourgeoisie. So the French Revolution is also known as the ‘Bourgeoisie
Revolution’.

3. Economic Cause

The economic condition of France formed another cause for the outbreak of the French Revolution. The
economic condition of France became poor due to the foreign wars of Louis XIV, the seven years War of
Louis XV and other expensive wars. During the reign period of Louis XVI, the royal treasury became empty
as extravagant expenses of his queen Marie Antoinette.

To get rid of this condition. Louis XVI appointed Turgot as his Finance Minister in 1774. Turgot tried to
minimise the expenditure of the royal court. He also advised the king to impose taxes on every classes of the
society. But due to the interference of Queen Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI dismissed Turgot.

Then Necker was appointed as the Finance Minister in 1776. He published a report on the income and
expenditure of the State in order to arouse the people. But he was also dismissed by the king.

The next person who was appointed by the King as the Finance Minister of France in 1783 was Callone. He
adapted the policy of borrowing in order to meet the expenditure of the royal court. But due to this policy, the
national debt of France increased from 300,000,000 to 600,000,000 Franks only in three years.

29
Then Callone proposed to impose taxes on all the classes. But he was dismissed by the king. In this situation,
the king at last summoned the States General. The economic instability formed one of the most important
causes of the French Revolution.

Revolutionary timeline & Stages:

It was agreed that a revolution was to continue until a single sovereign order has been restored either by
agreement or force. As the French Revolution demonstrated, the level of violence is likely to be greater after
the first outbreak of revolution or revolutionary situation, as one group claiming sovereignty seeks to
vanquish one or more other rival groups also claiming sovereignty.

 A good example in the French Revolution is the events leading up to the overthrow of the
Constitutional Monarch on August 1792—often called the “Second Revolution”—and the
establishment of the First French Republic.
 After the establishment of the Republic, the level of violence grew as the Republican regime sought to
repress counter-revolutionary movements in France (Federalist revolts and the Vendée uprising) while
struggling at the same time to prevent defeat in war by the combined forces of Austria, Prussia, and
Britain. The so-called reign of Terror was instituted to quash both internal and foreign forces of
counter revolution. But once these internal and foreign threats were under control in the spring of
1794, Terror continued at the direction of the Committee of Public Safety, the most famous member
of which was Maximiliean Robespierre. This last period of Terror was aimed at eliminating political
rivals of Robespierre and the Committee, which included Danton. The excesses that resulted led to the
overthrow of Robespierre and the Committee on the 9th of Thermidor, Year II (July 27 1994).
 After the overthrow of Robespierre, the revolution continued still longer as the moderate leaders of the
newly established government called the Directory (1795-1799) attempted to bring the revolution to a
close in keeping with the principles of 1789 that would be under bourgeois control and freed from the
intervention and pressures of the popular movement. This effort entailed the forceful repression of 1)
the popular movement in Paris by Napoleon’s so-called “whiff of grapeshot.” the overturning of
elections in 1797 (to oust neo-Jacobins seen as too radical) and again in 1798 (to oust ultra
conservatives). The Directory relied on the army and military force to carry out these repressive acts
at the same time it supported the army and Napoleon in an aggressive war of expansion in Europe and
Egypt. Having relied on the army so much, the Directory was in the end overthrown by Napoleon and
military might.
30
  Another interpretation of the Revolution divides the period of 1789-1799 into stages or phases:
 A liberal, constitutional phase of 1789-1792
 A radical, republican phase that led to authoritarian terror of the Committee of Public
Safety August 10 1792 to 9 Thermidor 1794
 Thermidor: A reactionary phase in response to the excesses of radical republicanism
(universal male franchise) and of Terror.
 The Napoleonic coup d’etat, the ending of the Revolution by military coup and the
restoration of “order” and domestic peace through an authoritarian regime.

The National Assembly declares war on Austria April 1792

The National Assembly declared war preemptively, because:

a) Felt threatened by the foreign monarchs. The foreing monarch were threatening to interfere on the behalf of
King Louis XVI. Especially Leopold II, brother to Marie Antoinette.
b) The Girodins wanted war as way of spreading the revolution throughout Europe
c) To lesser influence King Louis also wanted the war hoping to change the dynamics of the French
revolution in his favor

The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King, many of
the Feuillants, and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war.
- The King was hoping war would increase his personal popularity and make him stronger.
- The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the
Revolution within France.
- Other Monarchs from Prussia, Austria were threatening of invading France on the behalf of the French
Monarchy. Moreover, the king was unhappy to sharing power and not wanting to accept the limitation on his
power as result he agitating with the foreign monarchs
- People like Barnave and Robespierre in France opposed the war, and in Austria the emperor Leopold II,
brother of Marie Antoinette, may have wished to avoid war, but unfortunately he died on 1 March 1792.

31
Thus France under this circumstance it preemptively declared war on Austria (20 April 1792). Prussia joined
the Austrian side a few weeks later. And the wars that will catapult Napoleon into notoriety was on.

Effects of The French Revolution

The France revolution brought fundamental social, political and economic changes in the history of France.
The changes caused by the revolution were both positive and negative in the history of France:

1. Destruction of social classes:

The French revolution destroyed the social discriminative class system in France and declared equality for all.
The revolution came up with the equality and career open to talents, i.e., appointment and promotion was to
base on talents and ability. This led to rise of middle class who had acquired education to positions of
responsibilities.

2. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte:

The French revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power without which he would have
died a common man. It destroyed the congregative class system and opened opportunity to talent peasants like
Napoleon. All the army generals were swept away during the reign of terror giving chance to Napoleon to rise
to power in France.

3. Declaration of rights of man:

The fret revolution led to the declaration of rights of man and citizens. The constitutional assembly /
parliament came out with the document of human rights. It granted political liberty, like freedom of speech,
press, association, worship and ownership of property. Although they were abused during the reign of terror,
they became foundation of freedom.

4. Revolutionary ideas:

32
The revolution gave birth to the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. These ideas started in
France and got spread to other areas like Italy, German, etc. such ideas promoted equality, freedom and
democracy and good governance. This made France to be a nursery bed of democracy in Europe.

5. Ended the rule of Bourbon Monarch.

The Bourbon monarch that had ruled France for over 400 years came to end by the French revolution. The
monarchy rule was abolished in 1792 and replaced it with the Republican form of Government. Although the
Bourbon monarch was restored by the great powers after the downfall of Napoleon, it could not survive
beyond 1830 because the monarchs were already weakened by the changes caused by the French revolution.

6. Rise of political parties:

France became a multiparty state as a result of the 1789 French revolution. The freedom of association led to
the rise of political clubs such as the Jacobins, cordilliers, Giirondin Fauvillants that competed for power.
These parties kept the government under check and balance by criticizing bad policies.

However, these political parties caused reign of terror in France.

7. Parliamentary Democracy:

The French revolution led to the revival of the parliament which was abandoned for a period of over 175
years. The revolution gave France a functional parliament with representatives who are democratically
elected. The French men were able to participate in the governing of their country.

8. Constitution and rule of law:

The French revolution introduced the rule of law in the history of France. Before 1789, France had no
constitution to safeguard people’s rights and freedom. However, in 1791, the government enacted the
constitution that was amended in 1793 and 1795. The constitution clearly separated the executive, the
judiciary and legislature. The constitution reduced the king’s excessive powers.

33
9. Land ownership

.The revolution brought new reforms and change on land ownership in France. Before the revolution, land
was dominated by the clergy and the nobles who exploited the peasants. The revolution brought change in the
land tenure system in France. The idea of private ownership of land by every body was encouraged this
provided chance to peasants to own land. I.e., the church land was nationalized and sold to peasants.

9. National Guard:

There was formation of National Guard that replaced the royal guard of the Bourbon monarchy. National
Guard was the revolutionary army whose role was to protect the achievements of the French revolution. By
the end of 1793, there were about 700, 000 well trained and disciplined soldiers of the National Guard that
protected people and their property. This was one of the great achievements of the revolution in France.

10. Rise of Nationalism, e.g Unification and Rise of Germany and Italy was result of French Revolution.
11. Fall of Austria Hapsburg( Holy Roman Empire)
12. Rise of Britain as world power for next century

The French Revolution as a turning point in European history

Napoleonic Wars ultimately spelled the end for the Holy Roman Empire. In the process, Germany, which
previously been filled with several large kingdoms and numerous micro-states was reorganized so that the
number of ruling princes was reduced greatly. This ultimately would set the stage for an emergent Germany
later in the 19th century.

In addition, the former Holy Roman Emperor declared himself to be Austrian Emperor which set the stage of
Austria being excluded from the same said Germany.

In Germany and Italy, the seeds of nationalism were planted that helped bring about the Unification of both of
those countries.

The Napoleonic Code was spread to most European nations and today remains the basis for law in many of
those same countries and their successors.
34
Many of Spain and Portugal’s now former colonies started their bids for independence either during the
Napoleonic Wars or shortly afterwards; taking advantage of a Spain that was weakened from the wars.

During the Napoleonic Wars, America was able to obtain the Louisiana Territory from France.

Ultimately, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars ultimately changed the face of Europe, and
indeed the world for ever

35
CHAPTER 4

NEW IMPERIALISM IN THE 19TH CENTURY & AND WORLD WARS

Imperialism is the domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or
region. - it's more than just military or government.

New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and
Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas
territorial acquisitions.

Previous European empires were driven by mercantile interests, the purpose of colonies being to capture a
market (the British in India, the Dutch in Indonesia) or control the production of specific trade goods (Spanish
and Portuguese in South America). Indirect control was preferred since it was a lot cheaper; before
independence in 1947, 40% of British India was governed through 565 semi-autonomous princely states
(Kashmir being the most famous).

Under ‘New Imperialism,’ colonies enhanced the status of the colonizer and thus possession became valuable
in itself. This philosophical development coincided with increased competition for ‘unallocated’ colonies due
to the rise of Germany, Russia and the US and their challenge to Britain’s position as the world’s only global
industrial power. The Berlin Conference of 1878 recognized the potential for conflict and tried to head it off
by dividing colonies in advance. This mostly worked, although the British and French nearly came to blows
over Fashoda in 1898, as did the Germans over Morocco in 1905 and 1911.

History often focuses on the competition between European Powers, especially in Africa but the US was a
large and often ignored participant. The 1820 Monroe Doctrine had unilaterally declared Latin America a
‘hands off zone’ for other powers; this was now followed by the acquisition in 1898 of Spanish colonies in
Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines and control of Panama. US Admiral Alfred Mahan’s theory of the
importance of blue water fleets to relative national power had immense influence (Kaiser Wilhelm made it
essential reading for all German naval officers).

36
It also reflected deeper changes in philosophy and culture; Social Darwinism is vital to an understanding not
just of New Imperialism but late 19th and early 20th century Western society in general. A key tenet of
colonialism in this period was to interpret Darwin’s concept of survival of the fittest as implying a genetic
predisposition for some races (white) to be superior to others (non-white). This is the ‘roads, railways and
sanitation’ line, with Christianity thrown in as a bonus. Colonialism was not just helpful to the colonizer but
in a perfect conflation of self interest and hypocrisy also to the colonized. You can still see this today in
Western concepts of free trade and ‘democracy.’

Causes of New Imperialism

37
THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)
Background
World War I occurred between July 1914 and November 11, 1918. By the end of the war, over 17 million
people would be killed. The reason why war erupted is actually much more complicated than a simple list of
causes. While there was a chain of events that directly led to the fighting, the actual root causes are much
deeper and part of continued debate and discussion. This list is an overview of the most popular reasons that
are cited as the root causes of World War 1.

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I

1. Mutual Defense Alliances
Over time, countries throughout Europe made mutual defense agreements that would pull them into
battle. These treaties meant that if
one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1, the
following alliances existed:
Russia and Serbia
Germany and Austria-Hungary
France and Russia
Britain and France and Belgium
Japan and Britain
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing
Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia.
France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through
Belgium pulling Britain into war.
Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies.

2. Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country increases their power and wealth by bringing additional territories under their
control. Before World War I, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention among the European
countries. This was especially true because of the raw materials these areas could provide. The increasing

38
competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into
WW I.

Prior to world war 1, the major European powers had colonies all around the world. The British had control
over major parts of South Asia, the French were colonizing much of Africa and the Spanish had parts of South
America under their rule. The Europeans had made the most out of the age of Renaissance, using their
advancement over the lower societies to bring them in under their rule. The likes of Britain, France, Spain,
and Russia had a massive head start over Germany in terms of extended colonizing. The prospect of resources
and raw materials new colonies could provide was lucrative enough. For that reason, all these big powers
were trying to make the most out of contemporary unrest in Europe, leading to more conflict between
themselves.

3. Militarism and arms race

As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase
in military buildup. Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further,
in Germany and Russia particularly, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public
policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into war.

At a time when almost all the Europeans were living in fear of a war that threatened to break out any day, the
major European nations became involved in a major arms race to fortify themselves from the worst case
scenario. It was the naval race between Britain and Germany that caused a lot of friction between the two
nations and their alliances. By 1914, Britain already had 29 of dreadnaught battleships and even though
Germany lagged behind with 19 dreadnaughts, the pace at which it was building new ones showed all
indications of overshadowing the British by 1920. On the land, pretty much every major European country
was on a military expansion spree. Over a short period of 3 years between 1910 and 1913, Europe saw an
unprecedented rise in military expenditure from an annual 1.67 billion dollars to 2.15 billion dollars.

4. Nationalism

Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no
longer be part of Austria Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the
War. But in a more general way, the nationalism of the various countries throughout Europe contributed not

39
only to the beginning but the extension of the war in Europe. Each country tried to prove their dominance and
power.

In an attempt to make the most out of instability in the Slavic region, the Slavic people in Bosnia and
Herzegovina decided it was the right time to put their aspiration of separating from Austria-Hungary and
merging into Serbia into action. Despite all volatile situation in the region, a war that would soon envelop all
major European superpowers are still only a distant fear for many. This single event triggered a series of
offenses that significantly narrowed any chances of the peaceful armistice. Nationalism played a role in
leading to the war not only in the Balkan region. The entire Europe was high on the concept of nationalism,
granting each of nations an ‘inviolable territory’. So when Germany had captured Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it
did not go very well with the French. It is for that reason when the Slavic region opened up due to repeated
conflicts, the newly formed Balkan nations were ready for war if any European nation tried to annex them into
new colonies.

5.Decline of Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman empire was once a force to reckon with, especially through the medieval period and in the early
days of the modern era, it was known as the world’s largest imperial power – its rule extending all over the
Middle East and much of northern Africa and eastern Europe. But by the end of the 1800s, the Ottoman
Empire was already near dismantled by internal conflicts and instabilities. This situation led to the break out
of the first Balkan war which saw Serbia (then part of the Balkan League) annex Albania. With the
perspective of Serbians gaining access to the sea looming on its face, Austria-Hungary was set for an
unavoidable clash with the Serbs. Meanwhile, the Russians were lying Armenia and Britain. France was
looking set to conquer Iraq and Syria. Germany was already feeling left out in the race of extending colonies
and territory.

6. The Balkan wars

The Balkan war was a result of instability in the Ottoman empire, with Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and
Bulgaria making up the Balkan alliance against the fading empire. By the first Balkan war in 1913, they had
destroyed almost all opposition and divided the Balkans among themselves. This thumping victory of Balkan
league shocked the major European superpowers, but none was more shocked then Austria-Hungary for
whom the idea of a sovereign Serbia was out of the question. The prospect of Serbia becoming the center of
an eventual South Slavic state was a massive threat to the Serbs. Meanwhile, Britain, Russia and the French
40
were eyeing for a grab by annexing areas in the Middle East and the Armenia. Needless to say, such a volatile
situation, where every opportunist nation was lurking right around the corner only further worsened things.

7. Lack of International Laws

These days there are so many rules that have brought most of the nations under the canopy of a certain set of
laws of international peace that must be followed or else the culprit nations has to face consequences and
ramifications (though their effectiveness is fairly questionable). Back when world war one was about to put
entire Europe into chaos and disarray, no such laws had been formed to keep unwarranted aggression between
nations in check – let alone bring justice to those who annexed territories in the name of imperial aspirations.
Although a global level economy had already surfaced by the late 19th century, the global community as a
whole was yet to devise a system of international law that could restrain one nation from using violence
against another. Institutions that were supposed to treatise peace were fairly dysfunctional to have any impact
on the then international community.

8.The First & second Moroccan Crisis

The First Moroccan Crisis (Mar 1905 to May 1906) was one in a series of events that lead to the start of
WWI in 1914. European powerhouse countries were all trying to make a play for African nations. When
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany visited in 1905, it worsened Germany’s (already horrible) relationship with
France and the United Kingdom. The Kaiser promoted the independence of Moroccan whereas the French
wanted to dictate Morocco’s governmental structure. Tensions rose between Germany and France but
eventually a “truce” was reached in 1906. The crisis left the Kaiser feeling humiliated and France/UK feeling
empowered.

9. German paranoia

Though the sole blame of possible encirclement by surrounding countries goes to Germany itself, the general
frenzy among the German high commands is pretty high during the years that led to the start of world war 1.
At a time when the rise of German naval power was threatening to overshadow, the yet undisputed might of
British naval fleets, Britain took the most obvious step to ensure its safety. The signing of the Entente Cordial
between France, Russia and Britain tipped the balance of power towards the British alliance. But this only
made the Germany become more wary of a possible conspiracy to encircle it in Europe. The consequence was

41
even more heightened German paranoia of imminent attack at the hands of British alliance and resulted in
even more aggression from the Germans.

10.Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (The immediate cause)

At a time when every event had led the now imminent war to its boiling point, it was this incident that
almost immediately turned much of Europe into an active war zone. The conflict between Austria-
Hungary and Serbia over the desire of Bosnia to become part of Serbia was brimming high. The
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was making a visit to Sarajevo with his wife on June 28, 1914.
Although the couple narrowly escaped an attack by a Serbian terrorist group called Black Hand, they
were later assassinated on the same day by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip while they
were still in Sarajevo. Since Princip and his accomplices were Bosnian Serbs, Austria-Hungary
accused Serbia of masterminding the assassination and immediately declared war on Serbia. Being in
alliance with Serbs, Russia soon mobilized its army in Serbian defense, which in turn led to German
declaring war over Russia.

The start of the war spread and course

The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914) was the main catalyst for the start of
the Great War (World War I). After the assassination, the following series of events took place:
 July 28 - Austria declared war on Serbia.
 August 1 – As Austria’s ally, Germany declares war on Russia, an ally of Serbia
 August 3 – Germany declares war on France, an ally of Russia and immediately
begins an invasion of neutral Belgium
 August 4 – Great Britain, an ally of France, declares war against Germany
 The United States (President Wilson) declares that the United States will remain
neutral.

The western and eastern fronts

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The first month of combat consisted of bold attacks and rapid troop movements on both fronts. In the west,
Germany attacked first Belgium and then France. In the east, Russia attacked both Germany and Austria-
Hungary. In the south, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. Following the Battle of the Marne (September 5–9,
1914), the western front became entrenched in central France and remained that way for the rest of the war.
The fronts in the east also gradually locked into place.

The United States’ entrance and Russia’s exit

Despite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two important developments in the war occurred in 1917. In
early April, the United States, angered by attacks upon its ships in the Atlantic, declared war on Germany.
Then, in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted Russia to pull out of the war.

Reasons for USA entry into the war

The United States played a crucial role in the outcome of World War I and the subsequent peace treaty,
however, the country tried very hard to stay neutral throughout most of the conflict which it saw as a
European affair. By 1917, Woodrow Wilson's policy and public opinion changed in favor of the US entry into
World War I for the following 5 reasons that are described below.

1.German Atrocities in Belgium

One factor that had a major influence on American public opinion was the invasion of neutral Belgium and
stories of German atrocities in the country which shocked and outraged the Americans. Stories of unarmed
civilians being killed and small towns being destroyed circulated throughout the press. Although some of the
stories were British propaganda, they left a strong anti-German sentiment among Americans.
2. Economic Interests

The American businessmen were very interested in the Allied victory and many such as J.P. Morgan helped
fund British and French war efforts with approximately $3 billion in loans and bond purchases. If the Allies
would be defeated by the Central Powers, they probably wouldn’t be able to repay their debt to their US
lenders. Many businessmen therefore supported the so-called ‘Preparedness Movement’ which campaigned
for the US intervention in the war on the side of the Allied forces.

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3 Sinking of the Lusitania

In May 1915, a German U-boat sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania off the coast of Ireland. Over 1,000
passengers were killed, including 128 Americans. Although the ship may have been carrying military
equipment along with the civilians, the Americans were infuriated because the people on board weren’t
warned before the sinking. In addition to straining diplomatic relations between the US and Germany, the
Sinking of the Lusitania further increased anti-German sentiment in America.

4.Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

In response to Britain’s blockade, Germany turned to unrestricted submarine warfare to keep goods from
reaching Britain. After the Sinking of the Lusitania, Germany promised to stop unrestricted submarine
warfare but within less than one year, they torpedoed another passenger ship - the cross-English Channel ferry
Sussex. Again, the Germans promised not to attack passenger ships without warning (the Sussex Pledge). But
that pledge was short lived as well.

5.Zimmermann Telegram

In 1917, German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann sent a telegram to Mexico suggesting that if the US
should declare war on Germany, Mexico should declare war on the US In return, Mexico would get back the
territory lost in the Mexican-American War (Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona). Unfortunately for Germany,
the telegram was intercepted by the British and hurriedly given to the Americans. Although Mexico had no
real intention of declaring war on the US, the publication of the letter further mobilized the American people
against the Central Powers.

The end of the war and armistice

Although both sides launched renewed offensives in 1918 in an all-or-nothing effort to win the war, both
efforts failed. The fighting between exhausted, demoralized troops continued to plod along. In August –
September, an Allied offensive along the Meuse River and through the Argonne Forest succeeded in driving
an exhausted German army backward toward the German border. A deadly outbreak of influenza, meanwhile,
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took heavy tolls on soldiers of both sides. Eventually, the governments of both Germany and Austria-Hungary
began to lose control as both countries experienced multiple mutinies from within their military structures.
On November 11, 1918, the Germans signed an armistice in which they agreed to surrender their arms, give
up much of their navy, and evacuate occupied territory in the Treaty of Versailles

The Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

o Germany acknowledged that it was solely responsible for causing the war.
o Germany returned the border region of Alsace-Lorraine to France (taken from France in the
Franco-Prussian war in 1871).
o Germany surrendered small amounts of German territory to Belgium.
o France occupied Germany’s coal-rich Saar region for fifteen years.
o The Entente Powers occupied all German territory west of the Rhine River for 15 years.
o Austria and Germany, the two German states, were never allowed to unite in the future.
o The Sudetenland, a region that was overwhelmingly German, became part of the new country
of Czechoslovakia.
o German port cities on the Baltic were awarded to the new country of Poland.
o Germany surrendered the region of Upper Silesia to Poland.
o The German Army would be limited to 100,000 volunteer troops.
o Germany was forbidden to have an airforce or U-boats.
o Germany would have to pay war reparations.

The German government was outraged that the treaty offer was so severe. Right after he read the Treaty of
Versailles, the head German delegate said, “Germany renounces its existence” (Meyer 615) But, German
civilians were starving and the Army had disintegrated. The Allies threatened to invade, and the Germans felt
they had little choice but to sign. So, they signed. But they felt the treaty unfair and unjust. Many Germans
therefore felt they had little responsibility to comply with it in the long run.

The League of Nations also took control of Germany’s overseas colonies.

Germany had to return to Russia land taken in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into
new states : Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.
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The German reaction to the Treaty of Versailles

After agreeing to the Armistice in November 1918, the Germans had been convinced that they would be
consulted by the Allies on the contents of the Treaty. This did not happen and the Germans were in no
position to continue the war as her army had all but disintegrated. Though this lack of consultation angered
them, there was nothing they could do about it. Therefore, the first time that the German representatives saw
the terms of the Treaty was just weeks before they were due to sign it in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of
Versailles on June 28th 1919.

There was anger throughout Germany when the terms were made public. The Treaty became known as a
Diktat – as it was being forced on them and the Germans had no choice but to sign it. Many in Germany did
not want the Treaty signed, but the representatives there knew that they had no choice as Germany was
incapable of restarting the war again.

The consequences of Versailles

The Treaty seemed to satisfy the “Big Three” as in their eyes it was a just peace as it kept Germany weak yet
strong enough to stop the spread of communism; kept the French border with Germany safe from another
German attack and created the organisation, the League of Nations, that would end warfare throughout the
world.
However, it left a mood of anger throughout Germany as it was felt that as a nation Germany had been
unfairly treated.

Above all else, Germany hated the clause blaming her for the cause of the war and the resultant financial
penalties the treaty was bound to impose on Germany. Those who signed it (though effectively they had no
choice) became known as the “November Criminals”.

The other peace settlements

It is often forgotten that with the energy put into the punishment of Germany, other countries fought on her
side and, equally, had to be dealt with. These countries were Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey.
Austria-Hungary had to sign two peace settlements, indicative of the fact that this state was shortly to be
divided into two.

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Austria signed the Treaty of Saint Germain.
Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon.
Austria and Hungary were treated as two completely new countries after these treaties were signed. Both lost
land to neighbouring countries; the new state of Czechoslovakia was effectively created out of this carve-up
of land; large blocks of land went to Poland, Roumania and Yugoslavia. Part of Austria went to Italy.

Both new countries had to reduce their military capability and both states had to pay reparations for war
damage. However, the figures involved were nowhere near as high as the figure imposed on Germany.

Bulgaria had to sign the Treaty of Neuilly. Bulgaria lost land to the new state of Yugoslavia, had to reduce
her military capability and had to pay reparations.
Turkey – or the Turkish Empire to be precise – had to sign the Treaty of Sevres.
This was a very harsh treaty. Why was Turkey treated this way? Memories were still clear to many people on
the Allied side of what had happened at Gallipoli when the ANZACS suffered appalling losses at the hands of
the Turks in what was one of the the Allies greatest defeat of World War One. To an extent, there was an
element of revenge on “Johnny Turk” who had had the audacity to inflict defeat on one of the major powers
of the world – Great Britain.

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the
Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose
principal mission was to maintain world peace.[1] Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included
preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through
negotiation and arbitration.[2] Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment
of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and
protection of minorities in Europe.[3] At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it
had 58 members.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred
years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Great Powers of World War I

47
(France, the UK, Italy and Japan were the permanent members of the executive Council) to enforce its
resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often
reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During
the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical
tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when
eagles fall out."[4]

After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of
preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by
the fact that the United States never officially joined the League and the Soviet Union joined late and only
briefly. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain and others. The onset of the Second
World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world
war. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World
War and inherited several agencies and organizations founded by the League.

The failures of League of Nations

1. Absence Of Great Powers :

It was unfortunate that the covenant of the League of Nations was made a part parcel of the peace settlement.
It would have been better if it had kept separate. There were many states which consider the Treaty Of
Versailles as a treaty of revenge, and were not prepared to ratify the same. By not retifying the treaty , they
refused to be the members of the League.
The absence of the great powers from the international organization weakened her and was partly responsible
for its ultimate failure.
Japan , Germany and Italy also left the League and their defection must have weakened the League.

2. Domination Of France and England :

It was felt that the League Of Nations was dominated by England and France and consequently the other
states began to loose their confidence in that organization.

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3. Rise Of Dictatorship :

The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany also weakened the chances of success of the League of
Nations .
Japan was determined to acquire fresh territories and her unscrupulous patriotism threw to the winds of all
principles of international law and morality. If the League was to prepared to condone her fault of conquering
Manchuria . She was to prepared to give up her membership of the League and that is exactly what she
actually did.
When League decided to take action against Italy on account for her aggression in Abyssinia , Italy left the
League.
In the wake up spreading dictatorship states continued to be the members of the League so long as their
national interest were not in any way endangered and sacrificed.

4. Limitations Of Legal Methods :

The League Of Nations demonstrated the limitations of the legal methods.

The League was fairly efficient in structure and probably would have worked if there had existed a realization
of a community of interest.
Law grows out of public opinion cannot operate in disjunction with it. In the case of League law proposed and
opinion disposed.

5. Loss Of Faith In League:

Small nations lost their faith in the effectiveness of The League to save them from any aggression.
The principle of collective security was not applied in actual practice. Each state decided to follow her own
policy , the principle of security weakened and thus there was nothing to check the aggressive policy of Hitler.

6. Constitutional Defect :

The League Of Nations failed because of certain constitutional defects. In the cases of disputes brought before
49
the council of the League under Article 11, decisions of the council had to be unanimous in order to adjudge a
nation guilty of having violated the covenant by resort to war or unjustifiable aggression, In Article 15. If the
decisions were not unanimous verdict under Article 11, the disputing parties were free to resume the
hostilities after a period of 3 months. By allowing exceptions , the covenant seemed to assumed that was
remained the normal solution of international disputes.

7. Narrow Nationalism :

Narrow nationalism was still the dominant among the peoples of the world. France was increasingly
concerned with her national security, while Great Britain considered that problem less urgent than promoting
commerce by fostering international trade. Japan intoxicated by her emergence as a world power, while Italy
was desperate to redress her damage . Germany was indulge to retain her national prestige even at the cost of
an aggressive military adventure.

8. Lack Of Mutual Co-Operation :

The member of the league lack mutual co-operation which is always essential for the success of an
organization.
For France the League was an instrument for providing her security from Germany.
On the other hand Great Britain wanted League protecting her imperialist interest .
Hitler found League a great hurdle on the way of rise of Germany.

9. Separate Lines Of Thoughts :

On the other hand the British attitude was extremely hessistant in its approach to the nation os enforced peace.
In its proposal the world peace is not mentioned and international co-operation is restricted to one limited
object.
These two inconsistent principles were incorporated in the fabric of the League itself and no wonder it failed.
10. Manchurian Crisis :

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On the night of Sep. 18-19, 1931 some Japanese soldiers making an attempt to blow off the railway line near
Mukdan .Japan took full advantage of this minor incident and on the 18th Sep.1931 She invaded Manchuria
and also occupied all Japanese cities north of Mukdan.
League of Nations failed to implement sanctions on Japan and on March 27 , 1933 Japan decided to withdraw
her membership of League of Nation.

Conclusion

According to most of the thinkers , existence of League Of Nations was at wrong time .
Then , all the nations was indulge in the concept of narrow nationalism and sovereignty. Situation would have
been much more different had except the concept of Internationalism .

SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945)

This was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash
between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier. The vast majority of the world's
countries—including all of the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances:
the Allies and the Axis. It was the most global war in history; it directly involved more than 100 million
people from over 30 countries. In a state of total war, the major participants threw their entire economic,
industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and
military resources. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 50 to 85 million
fatalities, most of whom were civilians in the Soviet Union and China. It included massacres,
the genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, premeditated death from starvation and disease and the only
use of nuclear weapons in war.

First World War did not solve any of the problems which had caused it. So, some years later started another
world war.

The Second World War was the largest and the most violent armed conflict that opposed, between 1939 and
1945, the Allied countries with a democratic ideology countenance to the Axis coalition with a totalitarian
character.

51
In the beginning of the war, the first block consisted of the United Kingdom (with the British Empire), France
(with the French Empire) and Poland. But, with the war continuation, more countries joined to that block,
such as the United States of America, China and the Soviet Union.

The war was started by Germany, but later was joined by Italy, Japan, Hungary and Romania, making the
Axis Powers block. However, in the beginning of the war until its invasion by Germany, the Soviet Union
also belonged to the Axis.

Causes of Second World War(1939-1945)

(1) Humiliation by the Treaty of Versailles

 War indemnity.
 The provision for disarming Germany.
 Saar coal mine to France for 15 years.
 Polish corridor was given to Poland.
 City of Danzing was made free.
(2) Growth of Fascism and Nazism

 Mussolini (Italy) and Hitler (Germany) strongly glorified war and violence.
 While West was fighting communism, Germany and Italy started massive militarization.
(3) Rise of Japan

 Imperialism.
 Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis (1936).
(4) Neglect of minority interests

 New countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia and Austria were formed after the First World War. While
drawing boundaries the interests of minority groups in each of these countries were neglected.
(5) Military Alliance

 Allies – Britain, France, USA, USSR and China vs Axis Powers – Germany, Italy and Japan
 Leaders – Churchill (Britain), Roosevelt (USA), Stalin (USSR)

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(6) Germany’s attack on Czechoslovakia

In-spite of the Munich Pact between Germany and Britain (1938), Germany re-attacked and sized
Czechoslovakia.

(7) Immediate Cause : Germany’s invasion of Poland (1st September 1939)

 Germany annexed Polished corridor and Danzig city. The sudden attack on Poland is known as Blitzkrieg
(lightning war).
 Brtiain and France declared war on Germany.
Course of the War

 World War II officially began on September 1, 1939.

 Germany conquered – Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Holland and France.
 Battle of Britain – Germany vs Britain (air battle; German Air force =Luftwaffe).
 Battle of Stalingrad – Germany vs USSR. (Operation of Barbaressa (1941 = Attack on Yugoslavia and
Greece; Russia countered attack on Moscow with Scorched Earth Policy).
 Atlantic Charter (August 1941) – Between Churchil (UK) and Roosevelt (USA).
 Pearl Harbor Attack (7th December 1941) – Japan on USA.
 Italy vs UK in Africa (1942) – Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, British Somaliland, Eritrea.
 France was conquered by Germany in 1940, but British and American troops liberated France in 1944.
 Atom bomb – Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Consequences of Second World War

1. Germany and Japan were in ruins as a result of the war, so they received major financial help
from the US, to get them back on their feet. Since the end of WW2 marked the beginning of the
Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union, the americans needed both countries to be as
strong as possible, to combat the perceived threat of communism;

53
2. The borders were redrawn for several countries. Germany was forced to hand over a lot of eastern
territories to Poland and the USSR, as well as being divided into western and eastern occupation
zones, controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. Finland ceded parts of Finnish
Karelia, a part of Salla and islands in the Gulf of Finland, to the USSR. Romania lost all of its
north-eastern lands (current day Republic of Moldova), as they were incorporated into the Soviet
Union. All three Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) became members of the USSR.
Japan lost the Sakhalin and Kuril islands, which were annexed by the Soviet Union.
3. The United Nations was created by the Allies in October 1945, with the USA, Soviet Union,
China, Great Britain and France being permanent members of its Security Council. The
organisation’s purpose was to maintain peace and introduce worldwide collective security.
4. The beginning of the Cold War, between the United States-led NATOalliance and the the Soviet-
led Warsaw Pact .
5. The division of Europe into Western and Eastern spheres of influence, by drawing a veritable
“iron curtain”. This expanded the USSR by installing pro-Soviet governments in Bulgaria,
Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania and Romania, as well as supporting a
communist government in Yugoslavia. The latter was actually more independent than the other
communist countries, thanks to Josip Broz Tito and his leadership, which caused tensions with
the Soviet Union.
6. Korea, which had been under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the south and
the USSR in the north, between 1945 and 1948. As a result, separate republics emerged in 1948,
each claiming to be the rightful ruler of the entire peninsula. This led to the Korean War .
7. The creation of the state of Israel in 1948, which marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli
conflict.
8. The beginning of the decolonisation process, as a direct result of the European colonial powers’
loss of prestige and resources during the war.
9. The introduction of nuclear weaponry and an unprecedented escalation of the arms race, between
the 2 opposing factions of the Cold War.
10. End of colonialism and imperialism.
11. End of dictatorship in Germany and Italy.
12. Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany. West Germany was controlled by
Britain, France and USA. East Germany by USSR.

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 13. Strengthening of nationalist movements in Africa and Asia. (From Britain – India, Myanmar, Egypt,
Sri Lanka; From America – Philippines; From France – Indo-China; From Dutch – Indonesia)
14. Economics problems – Unemployment, low growth etc.
15. Emergence of two super powers blocks
16. Emergence of third world Countries.

COLD WAR (1945 -1990)

The Cold War was a period of economic, political and military tension between the United States and Soviet
Union from 1945 to 1991. Following the end of the Second World War, complications arose centering on the
shifting of international power. The Soviet Union wanted to acquire additional territory while the United
States attempted to limit the gains desired by the Soviets. This battle of ideologies resulted in increased
national security, diplomatic tension and proxy wars between the two powerful nations.

Genesis of the Cold War

The beginning of the Cold War is linked to the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945. The intention of
the meeting was to discuss the realignment of post-war Europe. However, discussions broke down into
threats. The United States and Soviet Union agreed upon the division of Berlin, but the Soviets, under the
leadership of Joseph Stalin, wanted to acquire Poland as a buffer against future attacks.

President Harry Truman rejected Stalin's demands, citing the right of self-determination in the case of
Poland. Truman then revealed his master card: the atomic bomb. Upon learning of the destructive weapon,
Stalin ordered a crash program to commence in order to speed arms development and counter the atomic
bomb.

The Cold War was a lengthy struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union that began in the
aftermath of the surrender of Hitler’s Germany. In 1941, Nazi aggression against the USSR turned the Soviet
regime into an ally of the Western democracies. But in the post-war world, increasingly divergent viewpoints
created rifts between those who had once been allies.

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The United States and the USSR gradually built up their own zones of influence, dividing the world into two
opposing camps. The Cold War was therefore not exclusively a struggle between the US and the USSR but a
global conflict that affected many countries, particularly the continent of Europe. Indeed, Europe, divided into
two blocs, became one of the main theatres of the war. In Western Europe, the European integration process
began with the support of the United States, while the countries of Eastern Europe became satellites of the
USSR.

From 1947 onwards, the two adversaries, employing all the resources at their disposal for intimidation and
subversion, clashed in a lengthy strategic and ideological conflict punctuated by crises of varying intensity.
Although the two Great Powers never fought directly, they pushed the world to the brink of nuclear war on
several occasions. Nuclear deterrence was the only effective means of preventing a military confrontation.
Ironically, this ‘balance of terror’ nevertheless served as a stimulus for the arms race. Periods of tension
alternated between moments of détente or improved relations between the two camps. Political expert
Raymond Aron perfectly defined the Cold War system with a phrase that hits the nail on the head: ‘impossible
peace, improbable war’.

Major Causes of the Cold War in 1945

1. The Soviet Union refused to become part of the UN for a long time
2. Stalin felt that America and Britain were delaying D-Day, causing more Soviet losses in a plot to
weaken the Soviet army. Almost sixty times more Soviets died in the war than the Americans.
3. The “Big Three” clashed during the Tehran Conference about Poland and other Eastern European
countries that bordered with Germany. Stalin felt independent countries were a security threat to
Russia because they have been weak enough to let Germany attack the Soviet Union through them
several times. Britain and America wanted these countries to be independent, not under communist
rule.
4. The Soviets and Germans had a non-aggression pact in the first two years of the war with a secret
protocol
5. The support of the Western allies of the Atlantic Charter
6. The Eastern Bloc of Soviet satellite states that was created

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 7. The Allies allowing Germany to rebuild an industry and army, scrapping the Marshall and Morgenthau
plans
8. The Allies allowing Germany to join NATO
9. American and British fears of communist attacks and the Soviet Union’s dislike of capitalism
10. The Soviet Union’s fear of America’s nuclear weapons and refusal to share their nuclear secrets
11. The Soviet Union’s actions in Eastern Germany, in the Soviet zone
12. The USSR’s aim to promote communism across the world and their expansion into Eastern Europe

Timeline of events in the Cold War

1948: Berlin Airlift

Germany was the pivot point of the conflict in Europe. When the US and USSR failed to agree on a single
Germany acceptable to both, the country was divided. West Berlin was surrounded by Communist East
Germany. Stalin's blockade lasted 11 months but West Berlin held out - the crisis actually accelerated the
creation of the Federal Republic of Germany and Nato in 1949.

1950-53: Korean War

Korea represented a shift in the Cold War. The Communists took over in China in 1949, the Soviets detonated
their atomic bomb, and then you had this conflict in Korea between north and south. Kim Il-Sung in the north
forced the civil war in 1950 and the US responded by going to the UN - when the Soviets walked out, passing
on the chance to veto a military response, the US and its allies intervened. Korea wasn't that strategically
important, but the conflict took the Cold War beyond Europe - because of Korea you got Vietnam

1956: Soviet invasion of Hungary

"Hungary marked the failure of US attempts to liberate eastern Europe by encouraging the overthrow of
Communist governments. But the Soviet use of force led to an erosion of its status and raised questions about
whether they could continue their economic and military influence over the Warsaw Pact countries. There
would be further uprisings in 1968 and the early 1980s before the fall of the Berlin Wall
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1962: Cuban missile crisis
The cold war had now spread to America's back yard. The escalation of US attempts to check the Communist
regime in Cuba, with the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, led to a further acceleration of tensions
and the Soviets planned on putting nuclear weapons in Cuba. This raised the prospect of an atomic war but
both sides backed away.

1955-72: Space race landmarks

In 1957 the US was shaken when the Soviets put Sputnik into orbit. This perception of weakness was matched
by the military fear of inter-continental ballistic missiles. The Soviets gained further advantage by putting a
man in space in 1961. However, John F Kennedy countered by declaring a civilian, rather than military,
contest by declaring the New Frontier of a mission to the Moon. The US would go beyond the Moon to
develop the Space Shuttle while the Soviets would create the first International Space Station.

1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall

The Soviets could not sustain themselves economically. After four decades, the Cold War was decided not by
a military showdown but by the inability of the Soviet Union and their allies to provide for basic needs of
their citizens. The exodus of people, first from Hungary and then Czechoslovakia, led to people leaving East
Germany through those countries and made the wall obsolescent, even before it was knocked down.

How the Cold War Ended

When Mikhael Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union as the General Secretary of the Communist
party in 1985, he changed the face of the world. The Soviet Union was going through a torrid phase at the
time, owing to several different reasons, and the dissenting voices against the very costly arms race and the
rule of the Communist party were growing strongly. Gorbachev took it upon himself to end the strife his
nation was suffering, and started a reform process that would convert Russia into a democratic state. He put
into place several treaties and movements which literally ended the Cold War, but unfortunately, resulted in
the breakdown of the Soviet Union into 16 different countries as well. This was not something that he had
envisioned, but it can also be said that the War would not have ended so abruptly, if this disintegration has not
taken place.
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1. Failing Russian Economy
Oil prices saw a rapid decline in the 1980s, and this drastically affected the foreign earnings of the Soviet
Union at the time. This prompted Gorbachev to undertake several reformative measures with the sole aim of
uplifting the economy. He introduced the concepts of Perestroika, or restructuring, and Glasnost, or openness,
to counter the secrecy that surrounded the workings of the Government of the Soviet Union. Moreover, with
the aim of getting one over the United States in terms of weapons and arms, the Soviet Union was spending
billions of dollars to collect such arms, and this was also leading to a fall in the economical state of the nation.
All this led to many liberal reforms in the nation which were not handled properly nor taken well by the
member states, and this led to several revolutions which ultimately destroyed the USSR.

2. War in Afghanistan
Between 1979 and 1989, the Soviets were aiding the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan fight against the
Afghan Mujahideen and other Arab-Afghan infiltrators. Eventually, the United States also got involved in this
war, with the sole purpose of opposing the Soviets. The loss of personnel and equipment suffered during the 9
year war was too much to take for the general public, and there were several public outcries at the time to put
a stop to the madness.

3. Effect on Other Nations

Whenever there was a conflict between two other nations, they always approached either the Soviet Union or
the USA for help. As a result, almost the entire world was divided into two blocs, and this was affecting both
these nations. They found themselves embroiled in several conflicts that did not involve them at all, and this
eventually led to severe backlashes in both nations.

4. Enhanced Communication Between USSR and USA

For many different reasons, the relations between the USA and the Soviet Union started thawing and many
unilateral talks were held. Ronald Reagan, who was the President of the United States at the time, agreed to
hold several economic discussions with the Soviet Union, and the focus ultimately shifted to the reduction in
the arms race that had carried on for decades. In 1985, the first of such meetings was held in Geneva,
Switzerland, and this marked the beginning of the end of the War. The final meeting was held in Moscow,
where Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush signed an arms control treaty, and in 1989, at the Malta Summit, the
Cold War was officially declared as over.
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The underlying cause of the end of the war, however, was the growing resentment in Soviet World about a
war that was costing lives and money, and prohibiting genuine economic development. The harsh rule of the
Communists in the Soviet Union also contributed towards feelings of resentment, and all these factors
combined together to end the Cold War, which had led to the most hostile and suspicious times that humanity
had ever seen.

5. Disintegration of USSR into various states

6. Re-unification of Germany in 1990
7. Fall of the Berlin wall.
8. Dissolving of the Warsaw pact.

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CHAPTER 5
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
The United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51
countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among
nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

Due to its unique international character, and the powers vested in its founding Charter, the Organization can
take action on a wide range of issues, and provides a forum for its 193 Member States to express their views,
through the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council and other bodies and
committees.

The work of the United Nations reaches every corner of the globe. Although best known for peacekeeping,
peace-building, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance, there are many other ways the United
Nations and its System (specialized agencies, funds and programmes) affect our lives and make the world a
better place. The Organization works on a broad range of fundamental issues, from sustainable development,
environment and refugees protection, disaster relief, counter terrorism, disarmament and non-proliferation, to
promoting democracy, human rights, gender equality and the advancement of women, minorities, children and
youth, governance, economic and social development and international health, clearing landmines, expanding
food production, and much more, and, recently added in the ever growing body of treaties – the Arms Trade
Treaty, in order to achieve its goals and coordinate efforts for a safer world for this and future generations.

Aims of the United Nations:

The objectives of the United Nations, according to its Charter, are:

(1) To maintain international peace and security.

(2) To develop friendly relations among nations on the basis of equality and the principle of self-
determination.

(3) To foster worldwide cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems.

(4) To promote human rights and fundamental freedom for the people of the world.
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(5) To serve as a centre where various nations can coordinate their activities towards the attainment of the
objectives of the United Nations.

(6) To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.

The organs of the United Nations

The UN has six principal organs to carry out its functions:

1. The General Assembly,

2. The Security Council,

3. The Economic and Social Council,

4. The Trusteeship Council,

5. The International Court of Justice and

6. The Secretariat.

The General Assembly:

The General Assembly is the largest organ of the UN. All members of the UN are members of the General
Assembly. Each state can send up to five representatives but is entitled to one vote in the Assembly. This
ensures that all the member states have equal status.

The General Assembly meets once a year for three months. But special sessions may be held during times of
crisis. At the beginning of every session, the Assembly elects a new President.

The functions of the General Assembly are as follows:

1. It can discuss any matter affecting international peace and security.

2. It makes recommendations for peaceful settlements of disputes.

3. It passes the budget of the UN.

4. It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council.

5. It also elects the members of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council.

6. It admits new members to the UN on the recommendation of the Security Council.

7. The Security Council and the General Assembly elect the members of the International Court of Justice.

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8. In recent years the General Assembly has increased its power through a resolution called Uniting for Peace
Resolution. The General Assembly can make recommendations for “collective measures, including the use of
armed forces”, in case the Security Council is unable to take a decision during a crisis.

Decisions are taken in the General Assembly by a simple majority vote. In some important cases a two-thirds
majority vote is required for taking a decision.

The Security Council:

The Security Council is the most important and effective organ of the UN. It is the executive wing of the UN.
The Security Council consists of 15 members. Five of them are permanent members, namely Britain, China,
France, Russia and the USA. The ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a term
of two years.

Each member has one vote. Decisions are taken by a majority vote of at least nine members including the five
permanent members. Each permanent member has the power to reject or veto a decision. This means a
negative vote by any one of the permanent members would lead to a cancellation of the resolution. The
Council is powerless to act if there is such a veto by any permanent member although it may be supported by
all other permanent members.

The Security Council has the basic responsibility of maintaining peace and security in the world. The Security
Council meets once a month but in the event of an emergency, a meeting may be held whenever required.

Functions of the Security Council:

1. To maintain international peace and security in the world.

2. To investigate international disputes and recommend appropriate methods of settling them.

3. To call on member states to apply economic sanctions against the aggressor and thus to put pressure on the
guilty state to stop aggression.

4. The Security Council may take military action against the aggressor, if required.

The International Court of Justice:

The International Court of Justice, located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations.

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The Court consists of 15 Judges from different countries elected by the General Assembly and the Security
Council. They are elected for a nine-year term. No two judges can be citizens of the same country.

Functions of the International Court of Justice:

(1) To settle disputes brought to it by member nations.

(2) To provide legal advice to any organ of the UN on request.

The Trusteeship Council:

The Trusteeship Council was set up immediately after the Second World War. It was set up to ensure the
proper administration and development of those areas of the world that were under foreign rule. The Council
was also to take steps to help them attain self- government. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-
government. The Council will now meet only if required to do so.

The Economic and Social Council:

The Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members elected by the General Assembly for a three-year
term.

The ECOSOC discusses major economic and social issues. It is mainly concerned with the management of the
UN’s social, economic, cultural and humanitarian activities.

Its main functions are as follows:

1. To promote economic and social progress.

2. To solve problems relating to health, illiteracy, unemployment, etc.

3. To coordinate the functions of the agencies of the UN like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
International Labour Organization (ILO), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the World Health
Organization (WHO), the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the
United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF), etc.

The Secretariat:

The Secretariat is the principal administrative department of the UN. It is headed by the Secretary-General
appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of five years.
He can be re-elected.
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The staff of the Secretariat is appointed by the Secretary-General. They are chosen from among the 192
member countries. The Secretary- General holds a key position in the administration of the affairs of the UN.
He organises conferences, oversees peacekeeping operations, drafts reports on economic and social trends,
prepares studies on human rights, mediates in international disputes and prepares budget estimates.

It is to be noted that the United Nations can achieve success only if the member states cooperate with it. All
member countries must abide by the policies and programmes of the United Nations, if the latter is to succeed
as a peace-keeping organisation.

General functions & achievements of the UN

1. Food aid

Food supply is always a significant issue. Especially in the 21st century, when the global population increases
exponentially, the food problem becomes more vital and imperative. In that context, the UN’s World Food
Program has removed the pressure burdening the shoulders of many countries. The World Food Program is
known as one of the most successful programs the UN has ever ratified because of its enormous impacts on
the global community. Every year, the UN feeds 104 million people in 80 countries. They feed people in war
zones, natural disasters, health emergencies and poor countries.

As most of us remember, in 2010 and 2011, the earthquake disasters that happened in Haiti and Japan
respectively, destroyed infrastructures and changed the lives of its residents for the worse. In those
circumstances, UN has stepped in and provided the residents in the devastating areas with aid in food supplies
and other necessities. But the World Food program is not only helpful when natural disasters happen but it
also helps stabilize the food security. Right now, the UN is trying to expand the spectrum of its World Food
Program with the support of many countries in the world.

2. Aid to refugees

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is another success of the United Nations. Founded in
1949, the UNHCR has helped 17 million asylum-seekers and refugees. The officers of the UNHCR help the
refugees directly, working to ensure governments meet their responsibilities to the expatriates. Two Nobel

65
Peace Prizes in 1954 and 1981 are persuasive evidence for the success of the UNHCR. Right now, the
UNHCR is facing a problematic financial issue, trying to protect and assist 700,000 people who have fled
conflicts in Syria, Mali, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It is truly the hope of millions
of refugees all over the world.

3. Protecting Children

Perhaps, many of us are too familiar with the phrase “UNICEF” because it is repeated myriad of times on the
media. Yes, UNICEF (United Children’s Fund) is an agency belonging to United Nations whose headquarters
are based in New York. This organization protects the rights of children everywhere in the world and works to
enhance the living standards of children. With the significant contribution of UNICEF, the number of deaths
for children under the age of 5 has declined from nearly 12 million in 1990 to 6.9 million in 2011.

4. Peacekeeping

Currently, the UN has 16 active peacekeeping missions in hotspots like Syria, Kosovo, North
Korea…International Peace is always the greatest concern of the UN because its main purpose is encouraging
peaceful diplomatic relations between different countries around the world. With the intervention of the UN,
many conflicts have been reconciled, saving the lives of many people. The contribution the UN has given to
global peace is undeniable and therefore, peacekeeping should be regarded as one of the most successful tasks
the UN has undertaken in its 68 years of history.

5. Running Elections

Incontrovertibly, a free election is one of the most basic political rights of everybody around the world. But in
fact, not everyone gets access to freedom of choice. The UN has fought continuously for the voting right of
people in areas where the ideology of dictatorship or monarchy is still dominating. A great example of this is
with Iraq. With the external support from an international community, represented by the UN, Iraq
successfully overthrew Saddam’s government and installed an interim administration in which the
government was completely elected by Iraq citizens. The successful election in Iraq did not only create a
momentous turning point in Iraq’s history but it also marked a new step for the UN in the war against
dictatorship and totalitarianism.

6. Reproductive Health and Population Management

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The UN also specializes in mother and childhood health, family planning and the prevention of sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs). The UN’s population fund is widely respected and is credited with helping to
drastically reduce infant and maternal mortality in over 100 countries. Besides that, the UN is also deeply
concerned about the rapid increase of the global population in the recent years. Every year, in the UN
conferences, many relevant resolutions have been established in order to hold back the population growth of
the world to a sustainable level. The significant decline of global population growth rates in the past few years
is the eloquent approval for the laudable efforts and contributions of UN in this area.

7. War Crimes Prosecution

This is a fairly new line of business for the UN. The Tribunals it has set up for former Yugoslavia and
Rwanda have had their share of delays and management problems but, all in all, they are respected, have
developed an important case law on genocide and human rights and have provided a measure of justice that is
taken very seriously by the people of affected regions. War crime, again, is such a controversial issue to be
judged by an individual or even a single state. On behalf of the international community, the UN has been in
charge of running many different tribunals and sentenced the rational sanctions to the war criminals. The
operations of the UN in this area do not only persevere the international equity but also raise awareness about
human rights and justice.

8. Fighting AIDS

The UN is the leader when it comes to the global battle against HIV/AIDS. Between the World Health
Organization, UNAIDS, and the Global Fund to fight AIDS, the UN is at the heart of every aspect of dealing
with this epidemic, from heightening awareness to raising funds to making sure appropriate programs for
prevention and treatment are implemented. The UN has wisely recognized that the organization itself cannot
shoulder this one alone, and has set up the Fund and other mechanisms aimed at drawing governments, other
multilateral, NGOs and corporations into the fight. According to the most recent report of UNAIDS, the
number of people who died from AIDS and the opportunistic disease caused by AIDS has decreased from 2.3
million in 2005 to 1.6 million in 2012. There are more and more people who have HIV and who are supported
by the UN and its sub-organizations.

9. Bringing invisible issues to the forefront

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Without the efforts of United Nations, we might never get access to the issues such as landmine victims,
Marburg fever and Cholera sufferers, child soldiers, modern-day slavery and there are still more and more
problematic issues which are less noticed or completely ignored by the public.

But above all, the lofty contributions of the United Nations for the global issues has inspired us, the global
citizens, and motivated us to live more humanely and responsibly.

The Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, often known as simply the Commonwealth,[2] is an intergovernmental
organisation of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.[3] The chief
institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat, which focuses on intergovernmental
aspects, and the Commonwealth Foundation, which focuses on non-governmental relations between member
states.

The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British
Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as the British
Commonwealth of Nations[5] through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, and formalised
by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations
was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community, and
established the member states as "free and equal".[6] The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II,
who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is head of state of 16 member states, known as
the Commonwealth realms, while 32 other members are republics and five others have different monarchs.

Member states have no legal obligations to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture
and their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.[4] These values are enshrined in
the Commonwealth Charter[7] and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.

Functions of the Commonwealth of Nations

(i) Promotes understanding and tolerance among members through free exchange of ideas.

68
(ii) Supports education and training for example, through Commonwealth scholarship.

(iii) Provides financial assistance to members from less developed countries.

(iv) Promotes development of legal systems of member countries.

(v) Provides machinery for maintaining peace among members.

(vi) Supports youth programmes geared towards national development like youth projects.

(vii) Encourages trade among members for example,trade negotiations,trade fairs and market surveys.

(viii) Promotes partnership and co-operation among member states on matters affecting them.

(ix) Promotes respect,trust and friendship among members to work towards economic prosperity.

(x) Provides a forum for member states to air their views on international affairs.

(xi) Promotes democracy and good governance through parliamentary meetings as wel as sending election
observers.

Achievements of commonwealth to its members.

1. It has promoted partnership and cooperation among its members in the field of politics, social and
economic through consult action.
2. Its providing financial assistance to members.
3. It supports Education training i.e Scholarships and grants.
4. It has encouraged trade among member states
5. It has promoted technical cooperation among member states through CFTC.
6. It has enhanced social and cultural cooperation through common wealth games.
7. It has promoted understanding and tolerance through free exchange of ideas.
8. It has promoted democracy and good governance through parliamentary meetings i.e. sending
observers during Elections.

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 9. It has provided forum for members to air their views.
10. It has promoted respects and encourages trust and friendship among members.
11. It has promoted youth programmes through CYP
12. Promotes cooperation among the states.
13. Provision of employment e.g sectretaries.
14. Offers military training.
15. Promotes the growth of democracy.
16. Promotion of sports e.g Commonwealth games.
17. Promotes trade among the states.

Non-Aligned Movement
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any
major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members.[1]

It was established in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. An initiative of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to
the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries.[3] The term non-aligned
movement appears first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as "members
of the movement".

The purpose of the organization has been enumerated as to ensure "the national independence, sovereignty,
territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries" in their "struggle
against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation,
domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics," by Fidel Castro in his
Havana Declaration of 1979.[4] The countries of the Non-Aligned Movement represent nearly two-thirds of
the United Nations' members and contain 55% of the world population. Membership is particularly
concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World, though the Non-Aligned
Movement also has a number of developed nations.

Although many of the Non-Aligned Movement's members were actually quite closely aligned with one or
another of the superpowers, the movement still maintained cohesion throughout the Cold War, even despite
several conflicts between members which also threatened the movement. In the years since the Cold War's

70
end, it has focused on developing multilateral ties and connections as well as unity among the developing
nations of the world, especially those within the Global South.

Origins and the Cold War

The founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement were Josip Broz Tito of Socialist Yugoslavia, Jawaharlal
Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Their
actions were known as 'The Initiative of Five'.

The Non-Aligned Movement as an organization was founded on the Brijuni islands in Yugoslavia in 1956,
and was formalized by signing the Declaration of Brijuni on July 19th, 1956. The Declaration was signed
by Yugoslavia's president, Josip Broz Tito, India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Egypt's second
president, Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Objectives of NAM
Independence: To preserve the national independence sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of the
non-aligned countries.

Eliminate interference: Elimination of foreign interference and intervention in the internal and external
affairs of independent states.

To strengthen the non-aligned bloc, which was threatened by two great super power blocks. Spread and
expand the non-aligned philosophy worldwide.

Eliminate colonialism: To eliminate colonialism, neocolonialism and racism and support of all national
liberation struggles against colonial and foreign domination.

Unity: To promote unity, solidarity and cooperation among non-aligned countries with view to the
achievement of objectives of non-alignment, thus preserving its essential character, ending the arms race
particularly the nuclear arms race.

Promote Development: To establish a new international economic order with view to accelerating
development of developing countries eliminating the inequality between developed and developing countries.

Eradicate poverty: Eradication of poverty, hunger, sickness and illiteracy in LDCs (Havana meet 1986).

Equality: Establish equality in solving international issues. The third world also has the right to discuss
peace and war. Why? Because all wars have always affected the third world countries. Nuclear wars can
affect the whole world.
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Democracy: To establish democratic systems of international relations based on equality of states, respect for
and preservation of human rights and fundamental freedom.

Strengthen the UNO: To strengthen the United Nations organizations as an effective instrument for
promoting international peace and security.

Withdraw of foreign troops: To withdraw all foreign troops and dismantling of foreign military bases.

Economic co-operation: To promote economic cooperation among the non-aligned countries.

Peaceful settlement of disputes: To seek settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means such as
negotiations, reconciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means.

Achievements of the Non-Aligned movement

``

End of Vietnam War: Due to pressure from the non-aligned movement, the Vietnam War eventually ended
in 1975. This was an ideological war between the capitalist bloc. The USA suffered a great loss in this war.

Independence: Colonized countries, which suffered oppression and exploitation such as Namibia, South
Africa, got their independence. Namibia became independent under SWAPO on 21st March 1990. Then
Mozambique on 6/7/1975, Zimbabwe on 18th April 1980 and South Africa on 10th May 1992.

Withdraw of foreign troops: In 1976, the French who used to occupy Mayotte Islands of the Comoros
withdrew as a result of pressure from the non-aligned movement. In 1985, the Nicaragua was finally relieved
from the USA imperialism.

End of Arab-Israel conflict: Lots of peace efforts through the signing of treaties with the initiative of the non
aligned have gone into the solving of the Israel-Arab conflict which started many years back.

Trade promotion: It has also promoted trade among the member’s states. The poor members of the non-
aligned cooperate with the richer members like Cuba, Brazil, India, etc. This was the consequence of
increased trade between the members in the 1970s while that with the former masters declined. This also led
to the formation or regional trade organizations such as the PTA. ECOWAS, etc.

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Reduction of Military bases: Through pressure mounted by the movement, the number of military bases has
reduced. It has also enabled the member countries to acquire technical, economic and military assistance as
well as capital investment.

End of Iran-Iraq war: It also helped in bringing about the end of the Iraq-Iran war in 1988 after eight years
of serious clashes.

Condemnation of Nuclear weapons: The movement has always condemned the arms race and called for
disarmament. The consequence has been the strategic arms Limitation Talks (SALT). There were talks on
SALT 1 and SALT 2 and a series of non-proliferation of the treaties.

Creation of a nuclear free zone: Due to non-aligned pressure, the creation of nuclear free zone treaty was
successful at least on the Pacific. Following the nuclear plant disaster at Chernobyl on April 26th, 1986, two
nuclear accident conventions were adopted on 26th September 1986 under the Atomic Energy Agreement.

End of Arab-Israel conflict: Also prescribed plans of the Arabs' league to end the conflict of Arab-Israel
continued. The freedom of international associations and condemnation of aggression and intervention of big
powers - The non-aligned movement through resolutions and condemnations have been instrumental in
bringing about peace in crisis-ridden areas worldwide.

Weaknesses Of The Non Aligned Movement

Poverty: One of the biggest problems arises from the fact that the members of the non- aligned movement are
poor and formerly colonies. They are the third world nations, which experienced oppression and exploitation
from decade to decade.

Attachment to Soviet Union: Due to political and economic inability, the poor members find themselves
inevitably looking for foreign aid from the big powers yet they do not want to associate with them. The
communist bloc for instance, was instrumental in the fight for independence. It financed, gave moral and
logistical support to many developing countries.

Neo-colonialism: It has found it hard to make members condemn and abandon the neo-colonialism in the
independent poor states. For instance, we have the Anglophone and Francophone states which continue to
have direct dealings with the former colonial masters.

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Poor economies: Poverty has made the members of the movement vulnerable to the scheming of the
powerful exploitative states. Financial institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF have greatly
influenced the economies of the non-aligned members. The same influence has infiltrated into the politics of
these members. Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda are examples.

Ideological differences: In countries such as Cuba, Libya and the Latin America, ideological imbalance has
infiltrated too much such that communism is more evident for instance in Cuba. Some leaders within the non-
aligned have developed differences. Libya, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Sudan, Uganda have many issues which
divide them. In 1990, Gadaffi accused the movement for watching on while the USA was molesting the
government of Libya while Iran stormed out the meeting simply because Iraq was not blamed for starting the
war, and using chemical weapon on Iran.

Failure to isolate: It also at times failed to safeguard the sovereignty of some of its member states. For
instance, despite threats, on its neighbours by South Africa, some continued to interact politically and
economically with South Africa.

Regional problems: Has also failed to address its self to regional problems. Example is the India/Pakistan
poor relations, the Iran-Iraq war that took eight years. Today, Yugoslavia has been reduced to ruins as though
it was not a member of the movement

Coups: Its failure to control coups and condemn military leadership and impose sanctions has been one of the
major setbacks. Many countries like Nigeria, Algeria, Ghana, Gambia, Sudan, Somali, Rwanda, Chad,
Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Gambia, Togo, etc have been experiencing the worst
military leadership ever known.

Failure to liberate some countries: Some liberation fronts have failed to come near any success such as the
Spanish Sahara organization (POLISARIO) and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

No economic order: It has also failed to achieve the New World economic order despite being top in the
agenda. Member states will continue trading with non-members and worse still, with the former
colonizers. The result has been manipulation by the donor nations economically and socially.

Ignorance and disease: The third world countries have not moved away from ignorance, poverty and disease,
phenomena that are no longer known in the developed countries.

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Mass media: In the field of mass media, a lot is desired because the super powers are still leading and the
propaganda has continued to dominate more especially the capitalist bloc now that the socialist bloc is in
tatters.

Advantages of Non Alignment

1. It enables countries to exercise influence with world affairs, which would not be possible for a single
country.
2. Member countries can seek economic, technical and military and anywhere without strings attached.
3. Promotes self-reliance so that poor countries realized their real political and economic independence.
Non alignment enables a country to act according to its best judgement.
4. It brings about mutual reliance between weak and strong countries.
5. It is an umbrella under which widely differing nations can find communication for views such as anti-
colonialism, disarmament, and eradication of poverty, ignorance and diseases.
6. In a country where ethnic differences that can be exploited by foreigners do exist, non-alignment helps
to emphasize independent foreign policy.

Disadvantages of Non Alignment

1. Problems concerning different social and political systems of member states.

2. Territorial conflicts are very common.
3. Foreign assistance does not come in steadily due to isolation.
4. Failure to stick on one country’s principles.
5. Playing off one block against the other is risky.
6. Cooperation among developing countries may lead to failure to copy good aspects of development
from rich countries.
7. Member states are poor to avoid interdependence with big powers.
8. Internal problems within nations attract foreign interference.
9. Ideological conflicts still exist as a problem.
10. The absence of a unified military command to solve the third world military conflicts has forced the
poor country to seek the UN assistance e.g. in the Congo crisis of 1960-63 and 2000.

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11. The end of the cold war politics affected the performance of the NAM. USA remained a unipolar
power dictating world policies such as the adoption of multi-party political system, liberalisation and
privatisation. Therefore African states in order to attract American aid have only remained with the
alternative dancing to her tunes.
12. Perhaps the demise of the original architects of the NAM has undermined it's existence and
performance. J. Nehru it's flag bearer in Asia died in 1964, Nasser of Egypt in Africa 1970 and Tito of
Yugoslavia in Europe 1980.

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