Department of Journalism and Mass Communication

DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM AND MASS
COMMUNICATION
BJL1202: THEORIES & MODELS OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
BJL1202: THEORIES & MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Contact hours: 42
Pre-requisites: BJL1202
Purpose: The course emphasizes on the need to understand the communication process and
the effect of mass communication on society as discussed by various scholars. This unit helps
learners to appreciate the growth, theories & models of communication in relation to media.
Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course:

By the end of the course, students should be able to:-
a) Explain the different theories & models of mass communication;
b) To appreciate different works of various proponents of communication theories & give
their relevance in the communication field;
c) To apply various theories & models of mass communication in media
Course Content:
Introduction to mass communication theory; Scientific methods of mass communication;
Models of mass communication; The role of perception in mass communication; Problems in
encoding; Analysis of Propaganda theory; The measurement of readability; Cognitive
consistency & mass communication; Groups and communication; Mass media &
interpersonal communication; Theories of mass communication-Agenda setting; Uses &
Gratification theory; Diffusion of Innovation; The knowledge gap hypothesis; The effects of
mass communication; Uses of the mass media; Mass media in modern society; Media chains
& conglomerates; The overall picture of mass communication.
Course Outline
WEEK 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
 Definitions- Mass Communication, communication;
 Introduction to mass communication theory;
 Scientific methods of mass communication;
WEEK 2
CHAPTER TWO: MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
 The Linear model;
 The Circular model;
 The Spiral Model;
 The Stimulus response model;
 The Two-step flow model;
WEEK 3
CHAPTER THREE: PERCEPTION IN MASS COMMUNICATION
 What is the role of perception in mass communication?
 Problems in encoding;
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WEEK 4
CHAPTER FOUR: PROPAGANDA THEORY
 Analysis of propaganda theory;
 The first theories of decoding & effects;
WEEK 5 & 6
CHAPTER FIVE: GROUPS & INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
 The measurement of readability;
 Cognitive consistency & mass communication;
 Groups and communication;
 Mass media & interpersonal communication;
WEEK 7
CHAPTER SIX: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
 Agenda setting;
 Group discussion-Critique and application of Agenda setting theory in society;
WEEK 8 & 9
CHAPTER SEVEN: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
 Uses & Gratification theory;
 Group discussion-Critique and application of Uses & Gratification theory;
WEEK 10 & 11
CHAPTER EIGHT: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
 Diffusion of Innovation;
 The knowledge gap hypothesis;
 The effects of mass communication;
WEEK 12
CHAPTER NINE: THE MASS MEDIA
 Uses of the mass media;
 Mass media in modern society;
WEEK 13
CHAPTER TEN: CONGLOMERATION OF THE MEDIA
 Media chains & conglomerates;
 The overall picture of mass communication;
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Course Assessment
Examination - 70%
Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 20%
Assignments - 10%
Total - 100%
Recommended Text Books:

i) James Wilson et al. (1998). Mass media, mass culture. McGraw-Hill
ii) Davis K dennis & Baran Stanly K. 1996 Mass communication and everyday life :A
perspective of theory and effects Wadsworth Publishing Company California
iii) 1998 Introduction to mass communication McGraw Hill
iv) James Wilson et al (1998) Mass Media Mass Culture, McGraw Hill
v) Joseph R. 2000 The dynamics of Mass Communication, Methods and Uses in the
Mass, Longman NewYork
vi) Severin J Werner& Tankard W. James,(1992) Communication theories: Origins,
Prentice Hall international, New York
Text Books for further Reading:

 Debanjan, B. (2010). Mass communication: Trends, traits, and theories. Journal of
Media & Communication Studies, 2(5), 118-121.
 Graeme 1985. More than Words: An Introduction to Communication. London:
Methuen.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1
1.1 Communication ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Communication Theory.................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Role of Theory.................................................................................................................. 1
1.4 Mass Communication ....................................................................................................... 1
1.7 Scientific methods of mass communication ..................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO: MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION...................................... 8
2.1 The Linear Model ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2 The Circular Model .......................................................................................................... 9
2.3 The Spiral Model ............................................................................................................ 10
2.5.1 History and Orientation ............................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 12
2.5.3 Development of the Two-step Flow of Communication theory.................................. 13
2.5.4 The Opinion Leaders ................................................................................................... 13
2.5.5 The Critique................................................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER THREE………………………………………………………………………...14
3.2.1 Linearity ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 Making meaning .......................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER FOUR: PROPAGANDA THEORY ............................................................. 17
4.1 Propaganda ..................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER FIVE: GROUPS & INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION ............... 21
CHAPTER SEVEN: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION (CONT.) ............ 28
7.1 Uses and Gratification Theory........................................................................................ 28
7.1.1 History and Orientation ............................................................................................... 28
7.1.2 Explanation of Theory: ................................................................................................ 28
7.1.3 Ideas and Implications:................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER NINE: THE MASS MEDIA.......................................................................... 36
9.1 Uses of the mass media .................................................................................................. 36
9.1.1 Surveillance ................................................................................................................. 36
9.1.2 Correlation ................................................................................................................... 37
9.1.3 Entertainment .............................................................................................................. 37
9.3 The media and its effect in society ................................................................................. 38
9.3.1 Violence....................................................................................................................... 38
9.3.2 Drugs and Alcohol....................................................................................................... 38
9.3.3 Political Campaign and Rating .................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER TEN: CONGLOMERATION OF THE MASS MEDIA ............................ 40
10.1.2 Conglomeration of the book Industry........................................................................ 42
10.1.3 Hyper-Commercialization ......................................................................................... 42
10.2 Media Convergence...................................................................................................... 43
10.2.1 Convergence with the Internet................................................................................... 43
10.2.2 Trends and Convergence in Magazine Publishing .................................................... 44
Appendix 1: Theories & Models of Mass Communication.................................................. 47
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

a) Define the terms related to mass communication and theory
b) Explain the criteria of a “good” theory
c) Discuss the scientific methods of mass communication
1.1 Communication
It is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver (Rogers &
Shoemaker, 1970).
As the process of sending & receiving messages through channels which establishes common
meanings between a source and a receiver (Van de Ban & Hawkins, 1988).
1.2 Communication Theory

A communication theory is aimed at improving our understanding of the process of mass
communication.
1.3 Role of Theory

The role of theory is to formulate statements or propositions that will have some explanatory
power.
1.4 Mass Communication

It refers to the activities of the media as a whole and fails to distinguish among specific
media, modes of communication, genres of text or artifact, production or reception situations,
or any questions of actual communication (Debanjan, 2010).
1.5 A model
 It provides a frame within which we can consider a problem, even if in its early
versions it does not lead to successful prediction.
 It is like a map, representing features of a territory.
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1.6 Introduction to mass communication theory
What are the six criteria that define a good scientific and authentic theory?
1. Theoretical scope: How general is the theory? That is, how widely applicable is it? In most
cases, a theory that may only be applied within a fairly narrow set of circumstances is not
considered as useful as a theory that encompasses a very wide range of communicative
interactions.
2. Appropriateness: Theories are often evaluated based on how well their epistemological,
ontological and axiological assumptions relate to the issue or question is being explained. If a
theory recapitulates its assumptions (if it is tautological), it is not an effective theory.
3. Heuristic value: Some theories suggest the ways in which further research may be
conducted. By presenting an explanatory model, the theory generates questions or hypotheses
that can be operationalized relatively easily.
4. Validity: It may seem obvious that for a theory to be good, it must also be valid. Validity
refers to the degree to which the theory accurately represents the true state of the world.
5. Parsimony: The law of parsimony dictates that a theory should provide the simplest
possible (viable) explanation for a phenomenon. Others suggest that a good theory should
exhibit an aesthetic quality and that it should be beautiful or natural.
6. Openness: Theories should not exist to the absolute exclusion of other theories. A theory
should not be a dogma; it should encourage and make provision for skepticism and should to
whatever degree possible, be compatible with other accepted theory.
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1.7 Scientific methods of mass communication
Native Human Inquiry

• Intuitive
• Tradition
• Authority
• Expert
Scientific Research
Science concerns itself with what is,
What exists, or what happens when, not with questions of what is right or what should be.
Questions of values, or what should be, are dealt with by the fields of religion, ethics, and
philosophy rather than by science.
Purpose of Research
• To extend the boundary of knowledge
• To generate new knowledge
• To produce theory
Three Major Objections

• The charge of triviality
• What about exceptions?
• People could interfere
Research Question
• Significant
• Answerable
• Specific
• Theory-driven
Theory and Research can be clustered into two:

• Deduction: derivation of expectations or hypotheses from theories
• Induction: development of generalizations from specific observations
i. Induction
To arrive at general conclusion from particular or specific instances observed. It is often
called empiricism. Example: Mathematical formula
ii. Deduction
Apply what is right for general to particular or specific instances. It is often called logic or
rationalism. Example: Hypothesis-testing
Process of Deduction Model
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-Theory or theoretical assumptions
-Derivation of theoretical hypotheses
-Operationalization of concepts
-Collection of empirical data
Observations: Basic Criteria

Significant correlation; Order of time; excluding of other explanation
Conceptualization
• Process of specifying what we mean when we use particular terms.
• Produces an agreed-upon meaning for a concept for the purposes of research.
• Describes the indicators we'll use to measure the concept and the different aspects of
the concept. Example: Model; Conceptualization; Operationalization
Operationalization
You may have incompatibilities, disagreements, or differences (i.e., conflict) with your peers.
Please circle a number on the scale provided after each statement, to indicate how you handle
your conflict with your peers. Try to recall as many recent conflict situations as possible in
ranking these statements.
Scale:
5 = Strongly Agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Undecided,
2=Disagree, 1 = Strongly Disagree
Operationalization Choices
• Range of variation - to what extent is we willing to combine attributes in categories?
• Variations between the extremes
• Dimensions
• Defining variables and attributes
• Levels of measurement
• Single or multiple indicators
Cumulative Nature
Science is cumulative. It builds on what others have done before. “If I have been further, it is
by standing on the shoulders of giants” (Isaac Newton)
Literature Review: Limitations

Method flaws
Theoretical imperfections
Unanswered questions
Unsupported hypotheses etc
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories

Inspiration from Previous Theories and Research
Science is cumulative and people often generate hypotheses based on previous theories and
research.
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Hypotheses based on Personal Observations
Personal experience, current events, and literature can provide a source of hypotheses to test.
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories
Research Methods
Q1. What are the most popular research methods for communication and new media?
Q2. Why do we need to use those research methods?
Q3. How do we use those methods in research on communication and new media?
Most Popular Research Methods

a)Quantitative Methods:
–Survey
–Experiment
–Content Analysis
b) Qualitative Methods:
–Field Observation
–Focus Groups
–Discourse Analysis
–Case Studies
What Is Survey?
A survey involves interviewing a sample of people through face-to-face, telephone, mail, or
the Internet about their use of media, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, in order to project
the results to the population.
Examples of Survey
• Newspaper readership
• Television audience measurement
• Channel loyalty in Hong Kong
• Use and impact of the Internet
Newspaper Readership Survey

a) How often do you read a newspaper: Options--always, often, occasionally, seldom, never
b) How many days in a week do you read a newspaper?
c) What newspaper did you read yesterday?
Television Audience Measurement

• Coincidental calls (telephone survey)
• Diary
• People Meter
• TV Rating and Share
– Rating = # of HHs watching program A / Total # of TVHHs
– Share = # of HHs watching program A / Total # of TVHHs watching any program
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Experiment
An experiment involves the control or manipulation of a variable by the experiment and an
observation or measurement of the results in an objective and systematic way. It is the most
appropriate way to find causal relationship.
Examples of Experiment
• TV violence and children’s aggressive behavior
• Impact of televised presidential debate (Zhu, Milavsky & Biswas, 1994)
Experimental Designs
• After-only design
–R O1 (control group)
–R X O2 (experimental group)
• Before-after design
–R O1 O2 (control group)
–R O3 X O4 (experimental group)
Notation: R = randomization; X = stimulus; O = observation
Content Analysis (1): Overview

• Content Analysis is an interview with message (instead of human subjects)
• Analysis is a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective,
and quantitative manner (Kerlinger, 1986)
–Systematic: based on random sampling & predetermined categorization
–Objective: based on inter-coder reliability check
–Quantitative: based on coding
Content Analysis (2):

Categorization
The design of categories for content analysis follows similar rules in questionnaire
construction:
• Categories should be explicitly defined and clearly expressed
• Categories should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive
• Categories should be theoretically guided
Content Analysis (3): Coding

Coding is the process for one or more coder(s) to assign quantitative values to the message
based on the categorization; At least two coders are needed to code the same message
independently, with their coding decisions compared to determine the inter-coder reliability;
Mutual agreement over 90% is acceptable
Case Studies
Different from a survey, a case study examines many characteristics of a single subject
(newsroom, newspaper, TV station etc.). But the results of a case study cannot be generalized
to other subjects.
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Review Questions
i) Define a the following terms:
a) Communication Theory
b) A Model & A theory
c) Mass communication
d) Communication
ii) What are the criteria of selecting a “good” theory? Discuss
iii) What are the Scientific methods of mass communication? Explain
References for further reading

i) Debanjan, B. (2010). Mass communication: Trends, traits, and theories. Journal of
Media & Communication Studies, 2(5), 118-121.
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CHAPTER TWO: MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives

a) Describe the linear model of mass communication
b) Discuss the circular model, stimulus model of mass communication
c) Discuss the two-step flow theory of communication
2.1 The Linear Model

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948) model was based on the five questions below,
which effectively describe how communication works:
(1) Lasswell's Model:

It is considered the early verbal model in communication. It focuses attention on important
aspects of communication. The model has the following elements: Who; Says What; In
Which Channel; To Whom; With What Effect.
Who: The "Who" raises the question of the control of the messages (e.g. gatekeeper)?
Says What: is the subject of content analysis, for instance from a TV programs.
In Which Channels:
It implies that more than one channel can carry a message. Communication channels are
studied in media analysis.
To Whom: It deals with the receiver and audience analysis. (e.g. viewers attitudes towards
presidential elections).
With What Effect: This is the main goal of the communication process (e.g. communication
credibility, changing people's attitude, behavior…etc).
(2) Shannon &Weaver
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Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts
understanding between the speaker and the listener. Figure 1.3 shows a linear model of
communication:
Receiver Destination
Transmitter
Information
source
Noise Source
In this model, the information source produces a message.

The message may consist of spoken or written words, music, pictures, and so on.
The transmitter converts the message to a signal suitable for the channel to be used.
The channel is the medium that transmit the signal from the sender to the receiver.
The destination is the person or thing for whom the message is intended. (e.g. the listener, the
reader, the viewer, the computer..).
Feedback allows the system to make corrections in its own operation. In mass medium the
audience feedback has many forms that help the source to correct subsequent outputs.
Letters, phone calls, from readers or listeners, increase or decrease in sales, audience ratings
are some examples of mass media feedback.
Noise is defined as anything added to the signal that is not intended by the information source.
Noise can take many forms: distortion of sound on radio, distortion of shape or shading in TV
image etc. Noise can take the form of speaker's distracting mannerism-added to the signal, but
not intended by the information source. Noise can also be competing stimuli from outside the
channel. Examples are a crying baby, a barking dog, or a low-flying airplane.
2.2 The Circular Model

This model highlights two way communications. Here the response of the receiver is given
importance, thus the sender always anticipates feedback from receiver. Therefore the receiver
of the message reacts in the context of the message forwarded by the sender. As a result,
communication is completed.
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The Osgood Model of mass communication
Decoder Decoder
Interpreter Interpreter
Encoder Encoder
a) Encoded: transformed into an understandable sign and symbol system

b) Interpreter: all participants working to create meaning
c) Decoded: the interpretation of signs and symbols
d) Noise: anything that interferes with successful communication
2.3 The Spiral Model

The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from the public awareness
as it adherents became silent. In other words, the people fear of separation or isolation those
around them, they tend to keep their attitudes to themselves when they think they are in the
minority. This process is called “Spiral of Silence”.
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In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and
send e-mail to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees
are not satisfied with his decision. But they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.
Because
1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer
3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid
fight.
4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.
2.4 The Stimulus Response Model

This model is the most basic model in communication. This is show communication as an
action - reaction process. This model thinks that verbal words, in verbal signs, pictures, and
actions will stimulate other people to give the response in some ways. You can also say that
this process is moving information or ideas. This process could be interactive and have a lot
of effect. Every single effect could change another act of communication in the next level.
This model ignore that communication is a process. In other words, communication is
considered as a static thing.
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2.5 The Two-step Flow Model
2.5.1 History and Orientation

The two-step flow of communication hypothesis was first introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld,
Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in The People's Choice, a 1944 study focused on the
process of decision-making during a Presidential election campaign. These researchers
expected to find empirical support for the direct influence of media messages on voting
intentions. They were surprised to discover, however, that informal, personal contacts were
mentioned far more frequently than exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence on
voting behavior. Armed with this data, Katz and Lazarsfeld developed the two-step flow
theory of mass communication.
2.5.2 Introduction
Man has forever fought against the forces of entropy, working very diligently at creating order
and meaning, dissecting and perusing until order is achieved. For civilization this has been
important. It has lent the world many fascinating theories about our surroundings and the
effect human beings can have. As order driven beings, we seek to stretch and apply
knowledge gained in all aspects of life to situations and experiences very different from the
origin of the knowledge. It is through the stretching and manipulating of old thought that new
insights are made, and new psychological mountains are tackled. It is through this stretching
and manipulating of one socio-political based theory that the field of Advertising has defined
some of its capabilities and constraints in the area of mass communication. This theory
involves the two-step flow of communication.
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This paper will address insights to the history and development, the criticisms and praises,
recent studies, and current applications of the two-step flow of communication theory.
2.5.3 Development of the Two-step Flow of Communication theory

As with most theories now applied to Advertising, the Two-step flow of communication was
first identified in a field somewhat removed from communications-sociology. In 1948, Paul
Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet published The People's Choice, a paper
analyzing the votersi decision-making processes during a 1940 presidential election
campaign. The study revealed evidence suggesting that the flow of mass communication is
less direct than previously supposed. Although the ability of mass media to reach a large
audience, and in this case persuade individuals in one direction or another, had been a topic of
much research since the 1920's, it was not until the People's Choice was published that society
really began to understand the dynamics of the media-audience relationship. The study
suggested that communication from the mass media first reaches "opinion leaders" who filter
the information they gather to their associates, with whom they are influential. Previous
theories assumed that media directly reached the target of the information. For the theorists,
the opinion leader theory proved an interesting discovery considering the relationship between
media and its target was not the focus of the research, but instead a small aspect of the study.
2.5.4 The Opinion Leaders
The studies by Lazarsfeld and his associates sparked interest in the exact qualities and
characteristics that define the opinion leader.
Who are they? How have they come to be defined?
A study by Robert Merton revealed that opinion leadership is not a general characteristic of a
person, but rather limited to specific issues. Individuals who act as opinion leaders on one
issue, may not be considered influential’s in regard to other issues (Merton, 1949). A later
study directed by Lazarsfeld and Katz further investigated the characteristics of opinion
leaders. This study confirmed the earlier assertions that personal influence seems more
important in decision making than media. Again, influential individuals seem constrained in
their opinion leading to particular topics, non-overlapping among the individuals. The opinion
leaders seem evenly distributed among the social, economical, and educational levels within
their community, but very similar in these areas to those with whom they had influence.
Katz and Lazarsfeld did not identify any particular traits amongst opinion leaders that stand
out. The traits that characterize each of the opinion leaders in their niche did have things in
common, though. For one thing, the opinion leaders were identified as having the strongest
interest in their particular niche. They hold positions within their community affording them
special competence in their particular niches. They are generally gregarious, sociable
individuals.
2.5.5 The Critique

Although the theory of indirect flow of information from media to the target was quickly
adopted, the original study performed by Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet was not. It had a
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few faults. The panel method by which they attempted to better understand the influences
reaching a voter was undaunted. It very effectively allowed the researchers to notice changes
in a voter's feelings almost immediately. The resulting unit of change was an objective
measurement that could easily be recorded and compared. The faults lie in the manner with
which the researchers addressed the flow of influences.
Since the research was not designed to specifically test the flow of influence, the experiment
was decidedly lacking in explanations. The first problem concerning the findings of the study
were that the data had to be collected in a random sample, but subjects in a random sample
can only speak for themselves. For these reasons, each person could only say whether or not
they considered his/herself an advice giver. Lazarsfeld and his associates in the 1940 election
study were unable to determine the specific flow of influence. They determined there were a
number of opinion leaders spread throughout the socio-economic groups; however, these
leaders were not directly linked to particular groups within the socio-economic levels.
Even within studies specifically designed to determine who opinion leaders are and how they
are different from the average populace, there have been problems born from experimental
design. "The criticisms of the concept of opinion leaders have focused mainly on its
methodological deficiencies (Weimann, 1991). As Weimann suggested in his 1989 study of
pervious research, much of the design problems involved determining the opinion leaders
while studying the flow of information. There seemed to be too many factors to control.
Despite the difficulties in qualifying the influentials, the theory of a group of individuals that
filter the flow of media information has lived on.
Review Questions
i) What are the key components that explain Lasswell’s model of communication
ii) Discuss the circular model of mass communication
iii) What does a theory based on socio-political research have to do with advertising,
anyway?"
iv) Is an opinion leader influential in all cases, on all topics? Or is the influence of an
opinion leader constrained to certain topics? How does an opinion leader come to
be influential?
References further reading

i. Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-
Wadsworth
ii. Littlejohn, Stephen W. (2002). Theories of Human Communication (7th ed.).
Albuquerque, New Mexico. Wadsworth.
iii. Katz E (1990). Communication Research since Lazersfeld. Public Opinion Quarterly
(New York) Mass Communication Review
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CHAPTER THREE: PERCEPTION
Learning Objectives

a) Discuss the problems with the encode-decode model
3.2 Problems with the Encode-Decode Model

The encode-decode model states that the thing which makes communication possible
is a common language. However, there are several problems with this simple account.
For instance, human communication is not typically conducted in a linear, stepwise
fashion. Also, the model does not take into account how people both create and
process meaning.
Criticizing the Encode-Decode Model

According to the encode-decode model of communication, the thing that makes
communication possible is a common language. Now, any language is a code: a
method by which sounds are associated with meanings and meanings with sounds. All
that is required – so the model claims – is that the people communicating with each
other share the same code (e.g. English, Swahili). In this way, they are able to encode
meanings into sounds and decode the sounds into their meanings.
There are, however, several problems with accepting this model as a true account of
how people communicate. They include the following:
3.2.1 Linearity
One of the main criticisms of the encode-decode model is that it is typically presented
as a linear, one-way process. It suggests a clear-cut start and finish to the
communication process in which the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder are
clearly appointed. In reality, these roles continually alternate. In an effort to rectify
this deficiency, Osgood and Schramm (Schramm, 1954) extended the model to
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emphasize the circular nature of communication between man, in which the roles of
source/encoder and receiver/decoder interchange.
3.2.2 Making meaning

This extended model additionally emphasizes the need to interpret a message, i.e.
communication is not just a matter of decoding incoming signals but also of
interpreting the message carried by the sound wave. This is an active process in which
the current receiver seeks to make sense of the message. In this regard the encode-
decode model of human communication is unsatisfactory, as it does not deal
adequately with the processing of meaning. This is largely a product of the early
development of transmission models, which focused on technological communication
rather than face-to-face human communication. For example, Claude Shannon
developed a mathematical theory of communication whilst working at Bell Telephone
Laboratories in 1948. This later became known as information theory. An applied
mathematician by training, he was primarily involved with the investigation of signal
transmission along telephone wires.
Review Questions
a) Discuss the problems with the encode-decode model
References for further Reading

i) Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works in Schramm W (ed.) The
Process and Effects of Mass Communication Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
ii) Shannon, C. (1948) ‘A mathematical theory of communication’ Bell System
Technical Journal Vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, July, October, 1948. [The paper
has appeared in a number of republications since. You can download a pdf version
of the paper from Bell Labs at http://cm.bell-
labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf (accessed 12.11.2012).]
iii) Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
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CHAPTER FOUR: PROPAGANDA THEORY
Learning Objectives

a) Describe the linear model of mass communication
b) Discuss the circular model, stimulus model of mass communication
c) Discuss the two-step flow theory of communication
4.1 Propaganda Theory
Propaganda is a form of persuasion involving a mass message campaign designed to

discourage rational thought and to suppress evidence. The term is also used to refer to
individual messages as in a piece of propaganda, often as a pejorative term used to attack a
message in disagreement with the source of the pejorative. This entry considers definitions
and theories of propaganda and its history, distinguishing propaganda from other persuasive
forms.
Defining Propaganda
Persuasion refers to a subset of communication involving the intent to support or change
people’s beliefs and behaviors. In its most common current usage, propaganda refers to a
form of persuasion distinguished by a mass persuasion campaign, often one sided and fear
based, that distorts or attempts to hide or discredit relevant evidence, disguises sources, and
discourages rational thought. Often considered a tool of government formation and policy,
propaganda also may be found in advertising, religion, education, and other institutional
settings.
The term propaganda may also be used neutrally through definitions such as the systematic
propagation of a doctrine or cause, communication’s role in social struggle, or mass
suggestion of influence through the manipulation of symbols and psychology. Some
definitions suggest propaganda requires total control of the media, an unlikely event. The
more neutral definitions do not distinguish clearly between education, advertising, and
propaganda. They suggest that the education-propaganda distinction may simply be based on
one’s viewpoint: What another does is propaganda; what I do is education. In some cases,
then, education and propaganda as practiced may be the same. But a theoretical distinction
between them as ideally practiced is important to maintain. Rather than seeking to hide
evidence, subvert reasoning, and promote the propagation of belief through fear-based
emotions, in theory, education should seek to promote the search for and evaluation of all
available evidence and to promote logical thought, separating it from emotion for the purpose
of creating a rational understanding of the subject matter.
Definitions dependent on the use of specific message techniques or on the channels and media
used for transmission have not proved useful in distinguishing propaganda from other mass
persuasion campaigns. Propaganda may or may not involve the use of specific media or the
employment of specific techniques such as the seven devices of propaganda articulated by the
Institute for Propaganda Analysis: name-calling, glittering generality, transfer, testimonial,
plain folks, card stacking, and band wagon. The existence of such characteristics is neither
17
necessary nor sufficient evidence of the existence of propaganda. Information dissemination
strategies are propagandistic only when the attempted subversion of evidence and/or
reasoning processes occurs, by whatever means.
Propaganda is referred to as white, grey, or black, according to properties of the attributed
source. In white propaganda, the actual source is attributed to the message. In grey
propaganda, no source is attributed or an actual source is difficult to discern. In black
propaganda, the attributed source is not the actual source.
Analysis of Propaganda Theory

Propaganda may have a single audience, perhaps the American voter, or two or more basic
target audiences, perhaps a home audience and an enemy audience. Home and enemy targets
are often approached through different campaigns, with different message sets for each.
Within each such audience are some who are initially in favor and others who are initially
opposed to the policy of the propaganda source, as well as those who are neutral. A principal
strategy is to move those in each of the basic audiences who are opposed to the propagandist’s
position toward neutrality or to uncertainty, thus moving them to inaction; to move some who
are neutral toward favorableness; and to keep those who are in favor within the fold by
creating within them a readiness and willingness to act.
This may be done by creating doubt about the position to be attacked concerning its validity,
practicality, potential financial and security costs, and its compatibility with dearly held
principles of the target position, along with reassurance of these factors with respect to the
proffered position. The simplest method of accomplishing this is usually through the use of
fear, often by associating the policies of the opposition with great perceived harm and disaster
for the target individual and/or the relevant others for that individual, while supporting the
desired alternative policy or group. Notably, these strategies may also be used in a persuasion
or advertising campaign, claiming failure to use a particular mouthwash will result in bad
breath and loss of sexual experiences. The distinction between persuasion and propaganda
occurs if, when, and to the extent that a persuasive campaign uses messages designed to hide
or subvert evidence, and/or to remove rationality and substitute emotional responses for
reasoned discourse. This line may be crossed in advertising, education, or any other
application of persuasion.
Common propaganda tactics are those of persuasion. They often include misdirection or
distraction of the audience’s attention away from issues important to the opposition and
toward irrelevant issues associated with fear and loathing by the target audience. If there are a
substantial number of single-issue members of the target audience who favor a position X on
the issue, and X is opposed by group A, repeated messages from group B concentrating on the
connection of A with X will often be effective in moving the single-issue voters away from A.
Given two sides to an issue, X and Y, grey propaganda claiming X to be true, later followed
by information showing X to be untrue, can lead toward belief in Y. If an event occurs that
affects the credibility or the nature of the connection or of that issue, the message set may
require change. Existence of such a change may be suggestive of the existence of propaganda,
but is not proof. Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky propose a theory of propaganda
alleging a systemic bias in the mass media and explaining the existence of the bias through
structural economic causes. They suggest that the growth of democracy and corporate power
has led to the growth of corporate propaganda to protect corporate power from democracy. In
18
their model, the product of the media is an audience that is produced through messages such
as TV shows and news
Modern History of the Study of Propaganda

Although propaganda has long been a tool of governments, the term originated in the Latin
title of the Council of Bishops of the Roman Catholic Church. The Congregation de
Propaganda Fide, or Congregation for Propagation of the Faith, was created in 1622 by Pope
Gregory XV, seeking ways of convincing people to convert without the sword. For the
church, propaganda involved conversion without coercion, intending a neutral definition. The
term maintains this connotation within the church and within communist agitprop strategies,
where propaganda is advocated for use with the educated classes, and agitation—repetition of
slogans without reasoning—for the masses.
An infamous example of propaganda concerns a work possibly created in the mid-1890s by
the Head of the Okhrana, the Czar’s secret police, to convince the Czar to act forcefully
against the Bolsheviks. Attempting to discredit Bolshevism by tying it to Judaism, The
Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion was largely plagiarized from Hermann Goedsche’s
1868 novel Biarritz, which itself borrowed from an 1864 French novel titled Dialogue in Hell
Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu. In the protocols, the names of Jewish leaders
attending the first Zionist Congress in Basil, Switzerland, were substituted for the original
characters. Bound in a manner appearing to suggest notes of a secret meeting of Jews who
were bent on world economic domination, it was exposed as a forgery in 1920 by a Jewish
committee and by a 1921 Times of London article by Philip Graves. Apparently spread by
Loyalists fleeing Russia following the Bolshevik Revolution, copies reached most Western
countries by 1920. Henry Ford placed excerpts from the protocols in his showrooms, and his
purchase of the Dearborn Independent was intended to serve as a vehicle for disseminating
anti-Semitic propaganda based on the protocols. A set of leather-bound volumes containing
portions of the protocols and Ford’s editorials for the independent was available in Berlin. It
may have been the copy initially seen by Adolph Hitler and referred to in Mein Kampf. Julius
Streicher relied on the protocols while producing issues of Der Stuermer. Though denounced
as a forgery by each of many investigations, beginning with a Czarist committee after it
became publicly available in 1903 to the U.S. Senate investigation in 1964, the protocols still
appears on many Internet hate sites represented as truth.
During World War I, George Creel employed Walter Lippman and Edward Bernays as the
best known members of the Creel Commission, the Committee on Public Information of the
U.S. Government. This committee relied on fear in a poster campaign and on personal contact
in the speeches of the volunteer 4-minute men. Their topics covered reasons for America’s
role in the fight and the need for press censorship, to be conducted by a president who had
promised peace. Creel’s committee worked on reducing morale on the German home front
and produced massive anti-German sentiment in America. Few records remain, as Congress
provided no funds for archiving its work due to a public backlash. In the 1930s groups such as
the Institute for Propaganda Analysis attempted to sensitize the public to propaganda
techniques through lists such as its seven devices, yet employed these very devices in
arguments against propaganda. Funding for the anti-propaganda movement dried up as the
United States prepared for World War II. German, British, and American propaganda efforts
in World War II drew on ideas from the Creel commission.
19
In 1935, Leonard Doob was among the first to state clearly that propaganda works through its
effects on the individual human mind. The movement from the study of propaganda toward
the study of persuasion did not begin in earnest until the 1950s. It became increasingly clear
that though public opinion was a useful concept, it was a convenient fiction, implying the
existence of a group mind. Three elements worked together to produce the change in
scholarship from public opinion and propaganda to persuasion: the shift of emphasis from
changing public opinion to the persuasion of individuals, the movement from a hypodermic
effect to a two-step flow model, and the government desire to be associated with funding of
research on persuasion, not propaganda.
Review Questions
i) A number of factors could have a strong influence on the type quantities and
qualities of the project inputs, describe them
ii) Discuss the objectives of supply marketing
iii) Explain the rationale for classification of raw materials and supplies
iv) Why is it necessary to estimate the costs of raw materials and supplies
i) Choudhury S. (2004), Project Management, Tata Mgraw Hill
ii) Chandra Prasanna, (2002), “Projects: Planning, Analysis Financing Implementation
and Review”, 5th Ed, Tata McGraw-Hill New Delhi
20
CHAPTER FIVE: GROUPS & INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives

a) Describe the Interpersonal methods of communication
b) Discuss the group methods communication
c) Discuss the mass media methods of communication
Selection of effective combination of extension method

A combination of extension teaching methods or that of mass media and inter personal
sources is perhaps the most effective way of reaching people with new ideas and persuading
them to utilize these innovations.
The basic idea behind this is:

 The more the senses of the learner are involved in the learning process, the greater the
learning.
 To ensure action on the part of learner, several exposures may be necessary in order to
motivate, remind and persuade them.
 It will depend on the situation as well as knowledge and experience of the extension
agent.
Basically Communication Methods Are Classified As:-

1. Interpersonal Communication
2. Mass media Communication
Interpersonal Communication
It consists of a face to face exchange between two or more individuals. The message flow is
from one to a few individuals. Feed back is immediate and usually plentiful, and the messages
are often relatively high in socio-emotional content.
21
Mass media Communication
It involves some type of hardware equipment that enables a source of one or a few individuals
to reach a large audience. Feedback is limited and delayed and the messages are often
relatively low in socio-emotional content.
[A]. Interpersonal Methods
In this method, the extension agent communicates with the people individually, maintaining
separate identity of each person. This method is followed when the number of people to be
contacted are few, are conveniently located close to the communicator and sufficient time is
available for communication. eg. Farm & Home visit, Farmers call etc
Advantages
1. Helps in selecting demonstrators & local leaders
2. Helps in changing attitudes of people
3. Helps in teaching complex practices.
4. Facilitates transfer of technology
5. Getting feedback information
Limitations
1. This method is time consuming & relatively expensive
2. Has low coverage of audience
3. Extension agent may develop favoritism or bias towards some persons
[B]. Group Methods

It may be defined as an aggregate of small number of people in reciprocal communication and
interaction around some common interest. In this method extension agent communicates with
the people in groups and not as individual persons. eg. Result demonstration, Method
demonstration, group meeting etc.
Objectives
1. It helps for selection of village leaders.
2. It gives the idea for the need of people.
3. Less expensive than individual method due to more coverage
22
4. More effective than mass method in stimulating action.
Limitations
1. Wide diversity of interest of people may create a difficulty to learning situation.
2. Everybody wants for their individual development.
[C]. Mass Methods

In this method, extension agent communicates with vast & heterogeneous mass of peoples,
without taking into consideration their individual identity. This method is followed where a
large & widely dispersed audience is to be communicated within a short period of time. The
size of audience may be a few hundred in mass meeting, few thousands in campaign &
exhibition and millions in newspaper, radio & TV.
Advantage:
1. Suitable for creating general awareness amongst the people.
2. Helps in transferring knowledge, forming & changing opinion.
3. Large number of people can be communicated within short time.
Limitations:-
1. Less intensive method.
2. Cannot be held frequently
3. Little scope for personal contact with the audience.
4. Little control over the responses of audience.
5. Difficult in getting feedback information & evaluation of results
Review Questions
i) Describe the Interpersonal methods of communication
ii) Discuss the group methods communication
iii) Discuss the mass media methods of communication
iv) What are the advantages of mass methods of communication?
v) What are the advantages of interpersonal methods of communication?
23
i) Hansen, (1992), “Manual for the Preparation of Industrial Feasibility Studies”,
UNIDO
ii) Phil Baguley(2009), Project Management, Hodder& Stoughton
24
CHAPTER SIX: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives

i) Explain the Agenda setting theory of mass communications
ii) Discuss, critique the agenda setting theory
6.1 Agenda Setting Theory

Mass Communication plays an important role in our society its purpose is to inform the public
about current and past events. Mass communication is defined as the process whereby
professional communicators use technological devices to share messages over great distances
to influence large audiences. Within this process the media, which can be a newspaper, a book
and television, takes control of the information we see or hear. The media then uses gate
keeping and agenda setting to control our access to news, information, and entertainment
(Wilson, 2001). Gate keeping is a series of checkpoints that the news has to go through before
it gets to the public. Through this process many people have to decide whether or not the
news is to be seen or heard. Some gatekeepers might include reporters, writers, and editors.
After gate keeping comes agenda setting.
The Agenda-setting theory says that the media (especially the news media) are not always
successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think
about (McCombs, 1972; Shaw, 1973). Agenda Setting is defined as the process whereby the
mass media determine what we think and worry about. Walter Lippmann, a journalist first
observed this function, in the 1920’s. Lippmann then pointed out that the media dominates
over the creation of pictures in our head, he believed that the public reacts not to actual events
but to the pictures in our head. Therefore the agenda setting process is used to remodel all the
events occurring in our environment, into a simpler model before we deal with it.
McCombs and Shaw as pointed out by Littlejohn have best described the agenda setting
function in their book Emergence of American Political Issues. In the book there is
abundantly collected evidence that editors and broadcasters play an important part as they go
through their day to day tasks in deciding and publicizing news. This impact of the mass
media- the ability to affect cognitive change among individuals, to structure their thinking-
has been labeled the agenda-setting function of mass communication. Here may lie the most
25
important effect of mass communication, its ability to mentally order and organize our world
for us. In short, the mass media may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are
stunningly successful in telling us what to think about (McCombs and Shaw, 1977)
The common assumption of agenda- setting is that the ability of the media to influence the
visibility of events in the public mind has been a part of our culture for almost half a century.
Therefore the concept of agenda setting in our society is for the press to selectively choose
what we see or hear in the media.
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw have brought the importance of agenda setting to our
attention when they carried out the Chapel Hill study. Their emphasis and goal with this study
was that the agenda issues found in the news media and among general public is what sets the
media agenda. Then in 1972 David Weaver joined McCombs and Shaw in project were they
panel studied the 1976 U.S. presidential election. Within this project the researchers studied
the attributes of the agenda, the description of presidential candidates in the news and the
agenda attributes in voters’ descriptions of the candidates (McCombs, 1977). Throughout this
study the researchers found out that there was a relationship between the media agenda and
the public agenda. These studies are for the purpose of looking at the media issues and
determining whether these issues are important. Therefore the second level of agenda plays an
important role in this study because it decides what parts of the issues are important in regards
to the presidential election.
Other factors that affect agenda setting these may be the combination of gatekeepers, editors
and managers, and external influences. These external influences may be from non-media
sources, government officials and influential individuals. These factors affect the agenda
setting process to an extent that depending what power each factor may have will eventually
influence the media agenda. For instance the media has close relationship with the elite
society, that class will probably affect the media agenda and the public agenda in turn
(Litlejohn, 2002).
This theory of agenda setting as I have mentioned above has many useful uses in our society.
First of all it gives the media power to establish what news we see or hear and what part of the
news is important to see or hear. This concept of agenda setting in Littlejohn’s book is
explained as the idea of issue salience as a media effect is intriguing and important. Therefore
agenda setting is used for many purposes to establish the media agenda and to retrieve the
26
opinion of the public. Also agenda setting is very important in the political aspect because the
public agenda influences the policy agenda which means that candidates will try to focus on
issues that the public wants to hear about. In conclusion the agenda setting theory has many
beneficial uses in our society and it is part of our communication.
Review Questions
i. Discuss the Agenda setting theory & critique it
ii. Using local examples state how the media uses the agenda setting theory of mass
communication

i) Littlejohn, Stephen W. (2002). Theories of human communication (7th ed).
Albuquerque, New Mexico. Wadsworth, 2002.
ii) McCombs, Maxwell E, & Donald L. Shaw. (1977). The emergence of American
political issues. New York. West Publishing Co,.
iii) Wilson, James R., & Roy S. Wilson. (2001). Mass Media, Mass Culture (5th ed.).
Boston. McGraw Hill.
iv) Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, (1972). ’The Agenda-setting Function of the
Media’. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, pp. 176-8.
27
CHAPTER SEVEN: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
Learning Objectives

i) Explain the Uses & Gratification Theory of mass communications
ii) Discuss, critique the uses & gratification theory
7.1 Uses and Gratification Theory
7.1.1 History and Orientation

The theory originated in the 1970s as a reaction to traditional mass communication research
emphasizing the sender and the message, stressing the active audience and user instead.
Psychological orientation taking needs motives and gratifications of media users as the main
point of departure.
Uses and gratifications theory attempts to explain the uses and functions of the media for
individuals, groups, and society in general. There are three objectives in developing uses and
gratifications theory:
1) To explain how individuals use mass communication to gratify their needs. What do people
do with the media
2) To discover underlying motives for individuals’ media use.
3) To identify the positive and the negative consequences of individual media use. At the core
of uses and gratifications theory lays the assumption that audience members actively seek out
the mass media to satisfy individual needs.
Statement: A medium will be used more when the existing motives to use the medium leads
to more satisfaction.
7.1.2 Explanation of Theory:

Blumler and Katz’s uses and gratification theory suggests that media users play an active role
in choosing and using the media. Users take an active part in the communication process and
are goal oriented in their media use. The theorist says that a media user seeks out a media
28
source that best fulfills the needs of the user. Uses and gratifications assume that the user has
alternate choices to satisfy their need (Blumler & Katz, 1974)
Individual Interpretations and Critique: Uses and gratifications theory takes a more
humanistic approach to looking at media use. Blumler and Katz (1974) believe that there is
not merely one way that the populace uses media. Instead, they believe there are as many
reasons for using the media, as there are media users. According to the theory, media
consumers have a free will to decide how they will use the media and how it will affect them.
Blumler and Katz values are clearly seen by the fact that they believe that media consumers
can choose the influence media has on them as well as the idea that users choose media
alternatives merely as a means to an end. Uses and gratification is the optimist’s view of the
media. The theory takes out the possibility that the media can have an unconscious influence
over our lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy a
given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in today’s society.
7.1.3 Ideas and Implications:

Uses and gratification theory can be seen in cases such as personal music selection. We select
music not only to fit a particular mood but also in attempts to show empowerment or other
socially conscience motives. There are many different types of music and we choose from
them to fulfill a particular need.
Review Questions
i) What do people do with the media?
ii) What is the essence of uses and gratification theory?
iii) Explain the uses and gratification theory and its application in the Kenyan context
29
i) Blumler, J.G. & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communications: Current
perspectives on gratifications research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
30
CHAPTER EIGHT: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
Learning Objectives

i) Explain the Diffusion of Innovation Theory of mass communications
ii) Discuss, critique the diffusion of Innovation theory
8.1 Diffusion of Innovation

In the Diffusion Innovation theory, communicators in society with a message
influence/encourage people that have strong opinions through the media to influence the
masses (Lazarsfeld, 1944).
Diffusion of Innovations seeks to explain how innovations are taken up in a population. An
innovation is an idea, behaviour, or object that is perceived as new by its audience.
Diffusion of Innovations offers three valuable insights into the process of social change:
 What qualities make an innovation spread successfully.
 The importance of peer-peer conversations and peer networks.
 Understanding the needs of different user segments.
These insights have been tested in more than 6000 research studies and field tests, so they are
amongst the most reliable in the social sciences.
8.1.1 What qualities make innovations spread?

Diffusion of Innovations takes a radically different approach to most other theories of change.
Instead of focusing on persuading individuals to change, it sees change as being primarily
about the evolution or “reinvention” of products and behaviors so they become better fits for
the needs of individuals and groups. In Diffusion of Innovations it is not people who change,
but the innovations themselves.
8.1.2 Diffusion scholars recognize five qualities that determine the success of an
innovation.
1) Relative advantage
31
This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes by
a particular group of users, measured in terms that matter to those users, like economic
advantage, social prestige, convenience, or satisfaction. The greater the perceived relative
advantage of an innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption is likely to be. There are no
absolute rules for what constitutes “relative advantage”. It depends on the particular
perceptions and needs of the user group.
2) Compatibility with existing values and practices
This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the values, past
experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is incompatible with their values,
norms or practices will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is compatible.
3) Simplicity and ease of use
This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. New
ideas that are simpler to understand are adopted more rapidly than innovations that require the
adopter to develop new skills and understandings.
4) Trialability
This is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis. An
innovation that is trialable represents less uncertainty to the individual who is considering it.
5) Observable results
The easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to
adopt it. Visible results lower uncertainty and also stimulate peer discussion of a new idea, as
friends and neighbors of an adopter often request information about it.
Innovators: The adoption process begins with a tiny number of visionary, imaginative
innovators. They often lavish great time, energy and creativity on developing new ideas and
gadgets. And they love to talk about them. Right now, they’re the ones busily building stills to
convert cooking oil into diesel fuel and making websites to tell the world about it.
Unfortunately their one-eyed fixation on a new behavior or gadget can make them seem
dangerously idealistic to the pragmatic majority. Yet no change program can thrive without
their energy and commitment.
How to work with innovators:
32
 Track them down and become their “first followers”, providing support and publicity
for their ideas.
.
Early adopters: Once the benefits start to become apparent, early adopters leap in. They are
on the lookout for a strategic leap forward in their lives or businesses and are quick to make
connections between clever innovations and their personal needs. They love getting an
advantage over their peers and they have time and money to invest. They’re often fashion
conscious and love to be seen as leaders: social prestige is one of their biggest drivers. Their
natural desire to be trend setters causes the “take-off” of an innovation. Early adopters tend to
be more economically successful, well connected and well informed and hence more socially
respected. Their seemingly risky plunge into a new activity sets tongues wagging.. What early
adopters say about an innovation determines its success. The more they crow and preen, the
more likely the new behavior or product will be perceived positively by the majority of a
population.
How to work with early adopters:

• Offer strong face-to-face support for a limited number of early adopters to trial the new idea.
• Study the trials carefully to discover how to make the idea more convenient, low cost and
marketable.
• Reward their egos e.g. with media coverage.
• Promote them as fashion leaders (beginning with the cultish end of the media market).
• Recruit and train some as peer educators.
• Maintain relationships with regular feedback.
Early majority: Assuming the product or behavior leaps the chasm, it may eventually reach
majority audiences. Early majorities are pragmatists, comfortable with moderately progressive
ideas, but won’t act without solid proof of benefits. They are followers who are influenced by
mainstream fashions and wary of fads. They want to hear “industry standard” and “endorsed
by normal, respectable folks”.
Majorities are cost sensitive and risk averse. They are looking for simple, proven, better ways
of doing what they already do. They require guaranteed off-the-shelf performance, minimum
33
disruption, minimum commitment of time, minimum learning, and either cost neutrality or
rapid payback periods. And they hate complexity. They haven’t got time to think about your
product or project. They’re too busy getting the kids to football and running their businesses.
If they do have spare time they’re not going to spend it fussing around with complicated,
expensive, inconvenient products or behaviors. They want to hear “plug-and-play”, “no
sweat” or “user-friendly” and “value for money”.
How to work with the early majority:

• Offer give-a ways or competitions to stimulate buzz.
• Use mainstream advertising and media stories featuring endorsements from credible,
respected, similar folks.
• Lower the entry cost and guarantees performance.
• Redesign to maximize ease and simplicity.
• Cut the red tape: simplify application forms and instructions.
• Provide strong customer service and support.
Late majority: They are conservative pragmatists who hate risk and are uncomfortable your
new idea. Practically their only driver is the fear of not fitting in, hence they will follow
mainstream fashions and established standards. They are often influenced by the fears and
opinions of laggards.
How to work with the late majority:

• Focus on promoting social norms rather than just product benefits: they’ll want to hear that
plenty of other conservative folks like themselves think it’s normal or indispensable.
• Keep refining the product to increase convenience and reduce costs.
• Emphasise the risks of being left behind.
• Respond to criticisms from laggards.
Laggards: Meanwhile laggards hold out to the bitter end. They are people who see a high risk
in adopting a particular product or behavior. Some of them are so worried they stay awake all
night, tossing and turning, thinking up arguments against it.
34
How to work with laggards:
• Give them high levels of personal control over when, where, how and whether they do the
new behaviour.
• Maximise their familiarity with new products or behaviours. Let them see exactly how other
laggards have successfully adopted the innovation.
Each of these adopter personalities is very different. It’s vital to know which one you are
addressing at a given time.
Rogers went as far as assigning precise notional percentages for each segment:
Innovators: 2.5%
Early Adopters: 13.5%
Early majority: 34%
Late majority 34%
Laggards 16% 9
However the “20:60:20 Rule” is a good all-purpose rule of thumb.
Review Questions
i) Explain the Diffusion of Innovation Theory and its application in the Kenyan
context
ii) What are the attributes that make up the diffusion of Innovation theory

i) Choudhury S. (2004), Project Management, Tata Mgraw Hill
ii) Chandra Prasanna, (2002), “Projects: Planning, Analysis Financing Implementation
and Review”, 5th Ed, Tata McGraw-Hill New Delhi
35
CHAPTER NINE: THE MASS MEDIA
Learning Objectives

i) Explain the uses of the mass media
ii) Explain the roles of mass communication in the society
iii) Discuss why the Press is so useful and important in every society
9.1 Uses of the mass media
9.1.1 Surveillance
This is otherwise known as news function of mass communication. It involves scouting the
environment to bring the evidence essential for information [news] about major happenings in
the society. The word ‘surveillance’ connotes a careful monitoring of something done in
secret. The idea behind surveillance is to protect things or someone under watch from falling
below public expectation or going astray. This surveillance concept is synonymous to
‘watchdog’ role of the press. As a watchdog, the media monitors societal ills and exposes
them. These ills include corruption in any sector of the society, politics, education, church,
organizations etc. By exposing corruption, the journalist is sanitizing the society and at the
same time, putting public office holders on public scale which measurement is done by
36
members of the public. By watchdog role, the journalist owes the public duty of digging out
hidden deeds and untold/unheard dealings.
9.1.2 Correlation
The correlation use is also known as the opinion or editorial function of the press. This refers
to the process of editorial selection, interpretation and prescription through which the mass
media help their consumers to better understand the information brought to them. By the
correlation function, the media provide the background social context and critical analyses
necessary for that understanding. The press also helps to monitor public opinion, for example,
through phone-in radio or television programmes. The correlation function is best illustrated
in columns and editorial pages of news papers where the columnist may compare statements
made by political office holders with conflicting statements made by other politicians or
personal views on a matter. It may also be observed in broadcast commentaries and editorials
in television documentaries designed to make viewers aware of an issue or supportive of a
prescribed course of action (Sambe 2005:44)
9.1.3 Entertainment
The media used as an entertainment tool. As a matter of fact, higher percentage of audience
prefers entertainment to information. Those in this category include students, youths,
teenagers, sport lovers, kids (cartoons). Except for very serious minded individuals who tune
the media for information, quite a number of people consume media products during their
leisure time, and as such see media as a tool of enjoyment and entertainment.
9.1.4 Cultural Transmission

This entails the passing on or the transfer of a nation’s (or society) social heritage from one
generation to another. Sambe (2005) describes the cultural transmission function as the
preservation of past heritage or culture from one ethnic group to another, one nation to
another and from generation to generation for the purpose of promoting and even integrating
culture. Mass media transmits culture by the way the programmes transmitted reflect the
behavioral norms and standard practice in the society. If for instance, the contents of media
37
messages emphasize morals and religious harmony as an acceptable way of survival in the
society, then those who consume such contents are most likely to pattern their lives
accordingly.
9.2 Definition of Media Effect

McQuail (1977) defines media effects as any of the consequences of mass media operation,
whether intended or not, that has effectiveness and the capacity to achieve given objectives.
Media effects mean different things to many people. To some, it is just about the impact of the
mass media message on the audience. Even at that, some communication academics believe
that particular parts of the media message must be contextualized. In other words, some
academics talk about media effects to mean the impact of particular content of the mass media
message. For instance, the impact of watching pornography on audience is propensity to rape.
In this case, it is the contents of the media message that produce the impact.
9.3 The media and its effect in society

1. Violence
2. Drugs and alcohol
3. Political campaign and rating
9.3.1 Violence
The main issue here is that media, especially TV, exposes people to violent acts which make
them behave violently. In other words, there is a causal relationship between televised
violence and anti social behaviors. Baran asserts: “The prevailing view during the 1960s was
that some media violence affected some people in some ways some of the time, for normal
people, that is, those who were not predisposed to violence little media violence affected few
people in few ways little of the time.
9.3.2 Drugs and Alcohol

The issue of drugs and alcohol is closely related to that of violence in that both blame the
media for exposing people unnecessarily to drugs and alcohol.
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9.3.3 Political Campaign and Rating
One major issue under effects of political exercise is the fact that media have the power to
influence the electorate on who to vote and not to vote for. In other words, the media can set
agenda for the public as regards political directions.
Review Questions
i) Why is the surveillance function of the press regarded as fundamental to
Journalistic practice?
ii) Try and recollect the number of advert messages you have been exposed to in the
television or radio, recall the way any ten of them entertain you.
iii) To what extent do media influence or mould your opinions on issues of
public importance?

i. Curan J, Michael G (1991). Mass Media and Society. London; New York: Edward
Arnold.
ii. Sambe J.A. (2005). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Limited.
39
CHAPTER TEN: CONGLOMERATION OF THE MASS MEDIA
Learning Objectives

i) Define media conglomeration and concentration
ii) Explain media concentration & conglomeration in Kenya
Discuss the convergence of media forms
Ownership of media companies is increasingly concentrated in few and fewer hands.

Concentration of ownership has resulted in a narrow range of information & entertainment
available to the all audiences & the audience feels the impact.
Conglomeration is the increase in the ownership of media outlets by larger, non media
companies. The danger according to critics is that conglomerates treat journalism as less
important compared to their other interest.
10.1 Definition of Terms & Arguments for Concentration and Conglomeration

The international telecommunication environment is increasingly fragmented and companies
must maximize their number of outreach to reach as many people as possible.
Economies of scale: the bigger the concentration the better because the relative cost of an
operation output declines as the size grows.
Globalization: refers to ownership of media companies by national corporations. It has
afforded these large multinationals corporations access to distant audiences and markets.
Audience Fragmentation: The mass media audience is also changing. The audience is
becoming more fragmented and more narrowly defined. It is becoming less of a mass
audience.
Hyper-commercialization: Refers to increasing the amount of advertising and giving non
commercial media content a commercial value. This is done through selling of more
advertising time on new and existing media and identifying ways to combine content and
commercials.
40
10.1.1 Trends and Concentration in Newspaper Publishing
1. Loss of competition
There has been a huge decline in competition due to loss of competing papers and
concentration of ownership.
JOA- Joint Operating Agreement – where a failing paper merges most aspects of its business
with a successful local competitor as long as their editorial and reporting operations remain
separate. It’s better to have two more or less independent papers than to allow one to close
e.g. in Kenya?
Editorial diversity allows a multitude flow from different voices and people are best served by
a number of antagonistic voices. Concentration of ownership makes journalism to reflect on
partisan interests of the owners and advertisers rather than the diverse interests of the
community.
Ownership is also a concern especially when the few owners also own other types of media
outlets and non media companies. It raises the questions:
 Will the different media holding speak with one corporate voice?
 Will they speak objectively?
 Will they cover at all the doings of their non-media corporations?
Conglomeration: Hypercommercialism, Erosion of the firewall, and loss of mission
With conglomeration increased pressure on newspapers to turn a profit, it has led to the
following:
 Hyper-commercialism such as selling ad space on the front pages and affixing
removable sticker ads to the front pages.
 Erasure of the distinction between ads and news- barrier between newspaper’s
editorial and advertising missions. There’s a policy that businesspeople will share in
the selection of the news makes journalists become questionable.
 Loss of journalism- Editors and staff feeling powerless and isolated. The pressure on
journalists is if they will think about journalism or accounting aspects. Papers are lay-
41
off staff and hiring young and less experienced reporters. They are focused on profit
margins and this is a distraction to the editors.
10.1.2 Conglomeration of the book Industry

It’s the increase in the ownership of media outlets (in this case book publishing houses) by
non-media companies.
Advantages
• Rich parent companies can inject necessary capital to the publishing house thereby enabling
it to attract better authors and take a risk on new writers.
• The corporate parent company can use other media holdings within the company to
promote, repackage and market the books for greater profitability.
Disadvantage
Product quality suffers as important editing and production steps are eliminated to maximize
profits.
10.1.3 Hyper-Commercialization
• Refers to increasing the amount of advertising and giving noncommercial media content a
commercial value. This affects book publishing because the drive for profitability is
emphasized at all cost.
• Book publishing in a hyper-commercialized industry favors ―brand name authors,
blockbuster titles with little consideration for literary merit.
• Subsidiary rights which is basically the selling of a book, its content and characters to other
interested parties like film makers, foreign producers etc.
• Product placement (featuring of brands in content) is also another aspect of hyper-
commercialization that is finding itself in the book publishing industry.
• Publishers have also attempted to offset the large investments they do make through sales of
subsidiary rights, that is, the sale of the book, its contents, and the characters to filmmakers,
paperback publishers, book clubs, foreign publishers and product producers (t-shirts, posters,
mugs, greeting cards, etc.).
42
Growth of Small Presses
Small publishing houses are many in numbers but account for a very small population of
books sold. However, they are mitigating hyper-commercialization. They most often publish
writings that the big blockbuster conglomerates find uninteresting like poetry and literary
commentary.
Visit http://www.kenyapublishers.org/about.html and you will realize that there are a number
of emerging publishing houses in Kenya like Njigua Books, Suba Books & Periodicals,
among the big ones like KLB, Jomo Kenyatta, Longhorn, Oxford etc.
10.2 Media Convergence

 Convergence refers to the appearance of older media forms on the newest media
channels.
 Convergence also refers to newspaper, broadcast, and Internet outlets existing under
one corporate roof (also known as cross platform).
Erosion of distinctions among media

Convergence is another trend that is changing the mass media and communication industry. It
brings together the different forms of mass communication to a single digital platform. The
digitization of nearly all information provides a common means to represent all forms of
communication.
High speed connectivity and more pervasive faster networks that is wired and wireless. This
has made it possible for people to access printed texts, audio, and moving images virtually
anywhere and anytime. Advances in technology in which speed, memory and power
improvement allow a device to do more.
10.2.1 Convergence with the Internet

Especially with the young people who are moving from the print to electronic news media.
The internet and World Wide Web provides readers with more information and more depth,
and at greater speeds than the traditional newspapers. It also empowers readers to control and
43
interact with the news, in essence becoming their own editor’s in chief. This has led the
newspapers to converge with the internet.
The newspaper industry recognizes that it must accept economic losses while it builds online
readers trust, acceptance, regular and frequent use. They do these by:
 Offering local papers online and searchable avenues to get any information on the
local subjects.
 Have message boards and chats groups that deal with important issues. Community
publishing.
 Delivering downloadable newspapers prints as they look on print on home and office
computers. These deals with late deliveries and one can access the paper worldwide.
For publishers, newsprint and delivery costs decline.
Space in the internet is infinite therefore journalists can write more thoughtful pieces.
Issues of online success include:
 If people will read the paper online. Is news new if it’s online or when it’s on paper?
 How to earn income with the web? Charging online editions, advertising space.
 How to measure circulation? - do you add the online readership to the hard-copy
readership and what this means in advertising.
10.2.2 Trends and Convergence in Magazine Publishing

Fragmentation has caused magazines to become specialized in order to survive. Magazines
have to give reader what they want in order to survive.
1. Online magazines (Webzines)
 Online magazine which have been made possible by convergence on the internet.
 However, online magazines are yet to succeed financially. Those online copies
produced by existing paper magazine manufacturers serve primarily as an additional
outlet of the existing material as a way to extend the reach and circulation of a parent
publication.
Hurdles
 Web users are accustomed to free access to sites on the internet and online
magazines are yet to find a successful means of charging and subscriptions.
44
 Producing purely online magazines with content generated for online readers is an
expensive undertaking. This expense is hard to recoup since purely online magazines
will still have to compete for readers and advertisers as equals with webzines which
are subsidized by their paper counterparts.
 Purely online magazines must also compete with all the other websites on the
internet for readers.
2. Custom magazines
This is an emerging trend where publishers specifically design and create magazines for
individual companies seeking to reach a very narrowly defined audience e.g. a magazine
published for the Law Society of Kenya
Custom magazines include brand magazines (e.g. the option by Safaricom).
Magalogue (designer catalogues like the DSTV catalogue), and synergistic magazines. Most
companies are moving towards this trend of having custom magazines as a way of
differentiating their brands.
3. Competition from Cable Television
Cable TV also targets a narrow audience segment like magazines and sells this segment to
advertisers. Therefore, as CTV is gaining prominence, the trend now is for magazines to
redefine their existence. Magazines are well position to survive this competition because of
three reasons:
 Internationalization,
 Technological advancements that have made printing and distribution of magazines
equally fast.
 Magazine publishers have the advantage of selling subscribers list directly to
advertisers and others who may need to reach the subscribers. This means they get
directly to specific type of readers.
4. Advertorials.
Are adverts that appear in magazines and take on the appearance of genuine editorial content.
This trend suggests that publishers and advertisers are increasingly collaborating to boost the
value of a newspaper as an advertising medium and increase revenue.
45
10.2.3 Trends and Convergence in Books Publishing
Convergence is the erosion of distinction among media.
Through the internet a lot has changed in book publishing.
There is the convergence of print and electronic media on the digital platform which has
resulted in e-publishing. This has changed the distribution of books.
10.2.4 E-Publishing
E-publishing refers to the publication of books initially or exclusively online.
E-publishing can take the form of the d-books (digital books) and print on demand (POD).
Many d-books are designed to be read on handheld computers called e-books.
E –publishing has resulted to new ways for writers ideas to be published since the physical
form of books is changing.
With D-books the authors save time and can publish books that have been rejected by
publishers. They also get more royalties if they use an e-publisher since they bypass all the
services offered in the traditional setting.
Review Questions
i.) Define the following terms
a.) Media concentration & conglomeration
b.) Hyper-commercialization
c.) Media convergence
ii.) Explain media concentration & conglomeration in Kenya
iii.) Discuss the convergence of media forms

i) Turow, J. (1992). Media Systems in Society: Understanding Industries, Strategies, and
Power. New York: Longman
ii) Baran, S.J. (2002). Introduction to Mass Communication. New York: McGraw Hill.
46
Appendix 1: Theories & Models of Mass Communication
Appendix 2: Sample Test Papers
DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM
End of Semester Examinations
BJL1202: Theories & Models of Mass Communication
Time: 2 Hrs
Instructions to Candidates: Answer question 1 (Compulsory) and any other TWO questions.
QUESTION 1 (10mks each)

a) Discuss & critique the Uses and gratification theory
b) Explain five uses of the mass media
c) Explain the purpose of research using the medium newspaper

a.) To what extent do media influence or mould your opinions on issues of
public importance? Explain
b.) Explain the linear model of communicating using one example

a) Describe the purpose of theories
b) Describe the criteria of a good scientific or authentic theory

a) Discuss the problem with encoding-decoding model
b) Explain the advantages of media convergence using one example

a) Discuss & critique Diffusion of Innovation theory, using local examples
b) Why is the surveillance function of the press regarded as fundamental to
Journalistic practice?
47
DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM
End of Semester Examinations
BJL1202: Theories & Models of Mass Communication
Time: 2 Hrs
Instructions to Candidates: Answer question 1 (Compulsory) and any other TWO questions.

a) Describe the building blocks that make up diffusion of innovations theory
b) Discuss & critique the Agenda setting theory
c) Fragmentation has caused magazines to become specialized in order to survive.
Mention & discuss five of the magazines

a) Describe the advantages of mass methods of communication?
b) Is news new if it’s online or when it’s on paper? Discuss

a) Discuss & critique Two-step flow theory, using local examples
b) Describe the factors to consider when considering audience segmentation

a) Are opinion leaders really influential? Discuss
b) Mention and Discuss the elements of Shannon & Weaver model of mass
communication

a) Discuss the negative influences of the media to society
b) Describe the challenges facing the book publishing industry
48

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DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM AND MASS

BJL1202: THEORIES & MODELS OF MASS

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course:

Recommended Text Books:

Text Books for further Reading:

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

1.2 Communication Theory

1.3 Role of Theory

1.4 Mass Communication

Native Human Inquiry

Three Major Objections

Theory and Research can be clustered into two:

Observations: Basic Criteria

Literature Review: Limitations

Formulating Hypotheses and Theories

Most Popular Research Methods

Newspaper Readership Survey

Television Audience Measurement

Content Analysis (1): Overview

Content Analysis (2):

Content Analysis (3): Coding

References for further reading

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

2.1 The Linear Model

(1) Lasswell's Model:

(2) Shannon &Weaver

In this model, the information source produces a message.

2.2 The Circular Model

a) Encoded: transformed into an understandable sign and symbol system

2.3 The Spiral Model

1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2.4 The Stimulus Response Model

2.5.1 History and Orientation

2.5.3 Development of the Two-step Flow of Communication theory

2.5.4 The Opinion Leaders

2.5.5 The Critique

References further reading

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

3.2 Problems with the Encode-Decode Model

Criticizing the Encode-Decode Model

3.2.2 Making meaning

References for further Reading

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

4.1 Propaganda Theory

Propaganda is a form of persuasion involving a mass message campaign designed to

Analysis of Propaganda Theory

Modern History of the Study of Propaganda

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

Selection of effective combination of extension method

The basic idea behind this is:

Basically Communication Methods Are Classified As:-

[A]. Interpersonal Methods

[B]. Group Methods

[C]. Mass Methods

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:

6.1 Agenda Setting Theory

References for further Reading

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to: