NLT Canadian Design Construction Guide PDF

v1.
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide I

©2017 Binational Softwood Lumber Council and Forestry Innovation
Investment Ltd. All rights reserved.
The Nail-Laminated Timber Design and Construction Guide (the “Guide”)

may be electronically downloaded without charge from the websites:
www.naturallywood.com and www.rethinkwood.com.
No part of this Guide may be reproduced, published, or transmitted for

commercial purposes in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, whether or not in translated form,
without the prior written permission of the Binational Softwood Lumber
Council and Forestry Innovation Investment Ltd.
The information contained in this Guide represents current research results

and technical information made available from many sources including
researchers, manufacturers, and design professionals. The information has
been reviewed by professionals in wood design including architects, design
engineers, and wood product manufacturers; and while every reasonable effort
has been made to insure the correctness of the information presented in this
Guide, the Binational Softwood Lumber Council and Forestry Innovation
Investment Ltd., the other above mentioned parties and the parties named
in the acknowledgement below (collectively, the “Industry Group”) make no
representation, or warranty, expressed or implied, or assume any legal liability or
responsibility for the contents, use, application of and/or reference to opinions,
findings, conclusions, information or recommendations included in this Guide,
nor do they assume any responsibility for the accuracy of completeness of the
information in this Guide or its fitness for any particular purpose.
This Guide is designed to provide current and authoritative information, but is

not intended to provide professional advice. Users are responsible for exercising
professional knowledge and judgement in the application and use of the
information contained in this Guide. Under no circumstances will any one or
more of the Industry Group be liable to any person or business entity for any
loss, costs, or damages of any kind resulting from their use of the Guide.
Cover Image Orchard Commons, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Michael Elkan)
Acknowledgements
Jana Foit The Guide was conceived and prepared by skilled practitioners who are each
Rebecca Holt extraordinarily dedicated to advancing high-quality timber construction across
Alex Minard industries, typologies, and geographies. We are grateful for the support of the
Sindhu Mahadevan Binational Softwood Lumber Council and Forestry Innovation Investment
for funding this work, and for their ongoing leadership as we advocate for
responsible use of timber in the built environment. Each author listed here
Ian Boyle
contributed essential content and expertise; we wish to acknowledge their
Carla Dickof
effort, time, and dedication with much gratitude.
Tanya Luthi
Special thanks to Marjan Popovski from FPInnovations and Helen Griffin
from the Canadian Wood Council for their thoughtful direction throughout
Lucas Epp our collaboration. Finally, we thank Alex Kinn from Perkins+Will for
his mad graphic design skills and countless hours spent illustrating and
annotating our work.
Nathan Bergen
It was our pleasure to learn from these leaders.
Rebecca Holt Tanya Luthi Carla Dickof

Bailey Brown Perkins+Will Fast+Epp Fast+Epp
Graham Finch Co-editor Co-editor Co-editor
Colin Shane
Robert Gerard
Bevan Jones
Andrew Harmsworth
Naki Ocran
Dan Lyzun
Chris Fraser
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide III

Above Lansdowne Station, Richmond, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Martin Tessler)
IV Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Glossary
Absorption
Gain of liquid moisture into the volume of a material.
Adsorption
Accumulation of moisture in the form of vapour into and the porous
surfaces of a material.
Aesthetic Grading
Additional grading done to select lumber with a higher quality appearance.
This form of visual grading does not allow higher structural design values
than typical visually graded lumber.
Anisotropic
Having different physical properties along different axes. For example, wood
is stronger parallel to the grain than it is perpendicular to the grain.
Apparent Impact Isolation Class (AIIC)

A single number rating that indicates the ability of a floor/ceiling assembly to
reduce impact sound. It is based on in-situ field measurements and includes
sound flanking paths. Refer also to Field Impact Isolation Class (FIIC) and
Impact Isolation Class (IIC).
Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC)

A single number rating that indicates the ability of a partition (e.g. floor/ceiling
or party wall) to block airborne sound such as speech frequencies. It is based
on in-situ field measurements and includes sound flanking paths. Refer also to
Field Sound Transmission Class (FSTC) and Sound Transmission Class (STC).
Appearance Grading
See Aesthetic Grading.
Bound Water
Water held within the cell walls of wood.
Butt Joint
End to end alignment of laminations within a course, generally without a direct
connection between the lams (i.e. no toe nails, glue, or connection plates).
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide V

Checking
See Lumber Checking.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

The use of computer systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation,
modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.
Computer Numeric Control (CNC) Machine

The use of digitized data from a computer or computer-aided program,
to control, automate, and monitor the movements of a machine such as a
router, used to cut materials into specific forms defined by the data.
Course
Multiple laminations arranged end-to-end.
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)

A solid structural panel consisting of three, five, seven, or nine layers of sawn
lumber oriented at right angles to one another, and then glued.
Curved-In-Plan NLT
Planar NLT with a curve or profile in plan only, generally formed by cutting
the edges of the panel.
Curved NLT
NLT curved in section, perpendicular to the laminations, generally created
on a curved jig to follow the curve of a supporting perpendicular beam. This
fabrication process does not produce a true curve but a faceted surface, with
each facet being the width of one lam.
Desorption
Loss of moisture from a material.
Dimension Lumber
Visually graded or mechanically graded sawn lumber cut into planks, typically
called up as thickness-by-depth. Thicknesses are typically 2x (38 mm), 3x (64
mm), or 4x (89 mm) with depth typically falling from 89mm (4 in. nominal),
140 mm (6 in. nominal), 184 mm (8 in. nominal), 235 mm (10 in. nominal), or
286 mm (12 in. nominal). Refer to CSA O86 tables for design values.
Dowel-Laminated Timber (DLT)

A solid wood structural panel, created by placing dimension softwood lumber
(nominal 2x, 4x, etc., thickness) on edge and friction-fastening laminations
together with hardwood dowels.
VI Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Dunnage
Scrap wood or disposable material placed below construction material to raise
it off the ground, floor, or truck bed.
Engineered Wood Product

Elements made by binding or fixing strands, particles, fibres, or veneers
or boards of wood together with a binder, such as glue or resin, to form
composite materials. These materials can be structural or non-structural.
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC), %

A moisture content at which wood neither gains nor loses moisture to the
surrounding air.
Fibre Saturation Point, %

The moisture content at which the cell walls of wood are saturated with water
(bound water) and no water is held in the cell cavities by capillary forces. It usually
is taken as 25% to 30% moisture content, based on weight when oven-dry.
Field Impact Isolation Class (FIIC)

A single number rating that is an indication of a partition’s (e.g. floor/ceiling
assembly) ability to block impact sound. It is based on field measurements
where sound flanking has been eliminated. See also Apparent Sound
Transmission Class (ASTC) and Sound Transmission Class (STC).
Field Sound Transmission Class (FSTC)

A single number rating that indicates the ability of a partition (e.g. floor/
ceiling assembly or party wall) to block sound, such as speech frequencies.
It is based on field measurements where airborne sound flanking has been
eliminated. See also Apparent Impact Isolation Class (AIIC) and Field Impact
Isolation Class (FIIC).
Firestop
A fire protection system made of various components used to seal openings
and joints in a wall or floor assembly.
Fire Separation
A fire-resistant element that divides a building or space to prevent fire spread,
such as a fire wall.
Flanking
The passage of sound around, over, or under the primary partition separating
two spaces.
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide VII

Flashover
The near-simultaneous ignition and sustained burning of most or all of the
exposed combustible material in an enclosed area.
Flame Spread Rating

A standardized rating system used to describe the surface burning
characteristics of a building material. One common rating systems is
the ASTM E-84.
Finger-joined Lumber
Lumber manufactured by bonding two pieces of lumber with ends machined
to mated finger-like profiles.
Free Water
Water that is not bound within the cell walls of wood.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Certified Wood

Wood from forests evaluated by the Forest Stewardship Council to meet
environmental and social standards (www.fsc.org).
Glued-Laminated Timber (GLT)

A solid wood structural element composed of individual sawn lumber
laminations, specifically selected and positioned based on their performance
characteristics and then bonded together with durable, moisture-resistant
adhesives. The grain of all laminations runs parallel with the length of
the member.
Glulam
See Glued-Laminated Timber (GLT).
Heavy Timber Construction

A traditional type of combustible construction in which a degree of fire
safety is attained by placing limitations on the sizes of wood structural
members, the thickness and composition of wood floors and roofs, and by
the avoidance of concealed spaces under floors and roofs.
Hi-Line Grade
An appearance grade of SPF lumber, often for export, and generally kiln-
dried. It generally meets visual grading standards (white, bright, straight);
however, a visual grading standard must also be specified. May also be known
as Home Centre Grade.
Hygroscopic
Tending to absorb or adsorb water from the air.
VIII Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Impact Isolation Class (IIC)
A single number rating that indicates the ability of a floor/ceiling assembly
to reduce the transmission of impact sound. It is based on laboratory
measurements. See also Apparent Impact Isolation Class (AIIC) and Field
Impact Isolation Class (FIIC).
J-Grade Lumber
The preferred appearance grade of wood in the Japanese market. This
grade meets high visual grading standards (minimal defects, white, bright
appearance) and is kiln-dried for dimensional stability. This is generally the
most selective appearance grade of lumber.
Jig
A temporary structure or device that holds a piece of material and guides the
tools operating on it.
Kerf
A slit made by a saw cut. The kerf width is equal to the saw blade width.
Kiln-Dried (KD) Lumber

Lumber dried in a wood-drying kiln to meet lower moisture content values,
generally around 12%.
Lamination or Lam
Individual dimension lumber component within NLT.
Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL)

A structural composite lumber made of wood strand elements with wood
fibres primarily oriented along the longitudinal axis of the member. The
strands are selected to meet specific strength requirements.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

A structural composite lumber made of wood veneer sheets with wood fibres
primarily oriented along the longitudinal axis of the member. The veneers
are selected to meet specific strength requirement.
Layout
Placement, orientation, and location of prefabricated NLT panels in plan view.
Layup
Individual lamination pattern within NLT.
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide IX

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
A third-party-verified green building rating system managed by the US and
Canada Green Building Councils which provides a method of measuring
environmental benefit of buildings and communities (www.usgbc.org;
www.cagbc.org).
Lumber Checking
A separation of wood along the fibre direction that usually extends across the
rings of annual growth, commonly resulting from stresses created in wood
during seasoning/drying.
Mass Timber
Engineered wood products of massive panel type such as cross-laminated
timber (CLT), nail-laminated timber (NLT), glued-laminated timber (GLT),
laminated strand lumber (LSL), laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and other
large-dimensioned structural composite lumber (SCL).
Machine Stress Rated (MSR) Lumber

Lumber graded using machine stress rating equipment instead of being
visually graded. Each piece is non-destructively evaluated and assigned to a
bending and modulus of elasticity class.
Moisture Content, %
The ratio of the total mass of water within the wood relative to the total
mass of wood in its oven dried state. Living trees can have a moisture content
between 30% and 200+%.
Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT)

A solid wood structural element consisting of dimension lumber on edge and
fastened together with nails.
Penny Size
A designation of nail size. For example 6D, 8D, 10D, or 12D. In this Guide,
nail type, penny size, diameter and length are specified for clarity.
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)

A single number rating of the sound absorption properties of a material,
derived by averaging Sabine absorption ranging from 0 to 1, where 0
represents no noise absorption (e.g. concrete) and 1 represents complete
noise absorption (e.g. an open hole).
X Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Nominal Size
As applied to products such as dimension lumber, the approximate rough-
sawn commercial size by which it is known and sold in the market. Actual
rough-sawn sizes may vary from the nominal. Reference to standards or grade
rules is required to determine nominal/actual finished size relationships:
• 38 mm (1-1/2 in.) actual finished width = 2 in. nominal

Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)

An international non-profit, non-governmental organization dedicated to
promoting Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) through independent third-
party certification. PEFC-certified wood may be required by projects pursuing
certification under some green building rating systems (www.pefc.org).
Sawn Lumber
Visually or mechanically graded wood sawn to typical construction sizes as
described in CSA O86. The term applies to a variety of sizes and species as
defined in CSA O86, Section 6.3.
Seasoned Lumber
Lumber that has been either air-dried or kiln-dried to lower the moisture
content not in excess of 19%.
Sound Transmission Class (STC)

A single number rating that indicates the ability of a partition (e.g. floor/
ceiling assembly or party wall) to block airborne sound, such as speech
frequencies. It is based on laboratory measurements. See also Field Sound
Transmission Class (FSTC) and Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC).
Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF)
A specific wood species group as described in CSA O86.
Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of energy needed to increase one unit of mass by one unit in
temperature. Expressed as J/kg·K (Btu/lb-°F).
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XI

Stickers
Narrow strips of scrap wood or disposable material placed between layers of
construction material to provide a gap between layers.
Structural Composite Lumber (SCL)

A family of engineered wood products created by layering dried and graded
wood veneers, strands or flakes with moisture resistant adhesive into blocks of
material known as billets, which are subsequently re-sawn into specified sizes.
The grain of each layer of veneer or flakes runs primarily in the same direction
resulting in solid, highly predictable, and uniform engineered wood products.
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI)

A non-profit organization that manages the SFI Forest Management and
Certification Standard which may be required by some projects pursuing
green building rating systems (www.sfiprogram.org).
Thermal Conductivity
Quantity of heat flow through a material for a given unit temperature
difference, expressed as W/m·K (Btu·in/h·ft²·°F).
Thermal Diffusivity
The thermal conductivity of a material divided by the product density and
specific heat capacity.
Thermal Resistance, RSI (R-Value)

Measure of a material, component or assembly’s resistance to heat flow
through it at a given temperature difference, expressed as
m²·K/W (ft²·°F·hr/btu) and often denoted as per unit thickness of a
material (RSI/mm and R-value/inch).
Temporary Moisture Management System (TMMS)

Applied membranes, panel joint treatments, or both used to control
construction phase moisture.
Visually Graded Lumber

Lumber graded by visual evaluation in accordance with the grading rules of
the applicable grading or inspection agency, and identified as No.1, No.2, or
Select Structural.
XII Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content
Organic chemicals that have a high vapour pressure/low evaporation point
causing large numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate into the air at
ordinary room temperature. Maximum VOC content for composite wood
products may be specified by projects pursuing certification through green
building rating systems such as LEED.
Warped NLT
NLT forming an undulating or bent surface out of plane, generally by
staggering the NLT courses up or down from the adjacent courses to create
curvature in section perpendicular to the laminations.
Zero-Strength Layer
A calculation term which accounts for a reduction in strength of the heated
wood beyond the char front.
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XIII

Above Samuel Brighouse Elementary School. Richmond, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)
XIV Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Table of Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Architecture 6
2.1 Conceptual Considerations 6
2.1.1 Form 6
2.1.2 Surface Characteristics 11
2.2 Planning Considerations 13
2.3 Detail Considerations 14
2.4 Mechanical, Electrical & Plumbing Considerations 16
2.5 Acoustic Considerations 17
2.5.1 Interior Space Acoustics 18
2.5.2 Inter-Space Sound Control 19
2.6 Durability Considerations 22
3 Fire 26
3.1 Fire Safety in Timber Buildings 26
3.2 Fire Performance of Combustible Construction 29
3.2.1 Fire-Resistance Ratings 29
3.2.2 Char 31
3.2.3 Fire Spread and Smoke Development 33
3.3 Fire Design 34
3.3.1 Acceptable Solutions 34
3.3.2 Building Code Alternative Solutions 35
3.3.3 Performance-Based Alternative Solutions 37
3.4 Additional Considerations 38
3.4.1 Connections 38
3.4.2 Penetrations 39
3.4.3 Concealed Spaces 39
3.4.4 Construction Fire Safety 40
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XV

4 Structure 44
4.1 Gravity Design Procedures 44
4.1.1 Additional Modification Factors 45
4.1.2 Strength 50
4.1.3 Deflections 51
4.1.4 Vibration 52
4.1.5 Fire Design 53
4.2 Lateral Load Design Procedures 54
4.2.1 Diaphragms 54
4.2.2 Shear Walls 56
4.3 Connections 57
4.3.1 NLT Connections 57
4.3.2 Support Connections 59
4.4 Additional Design Considerations 61
4.4.1 Point Loads 61
4.4.2 Openings 61
4.4.3 Overhangs 63
4.5 Specifications 64
5 Enclosure 68
5.1 Managing Heat-flow 69
5.2 Air-flow 72
5.2.1 Special Detail Considerations 74
5.3 Water Vapour Transport 75
5.4 Liquid Water 76
5.4.1 Leak Detection and NLT Venting 78
6 Supply and Fabrication 82

6.1 Materials 82
6.1.1 Lumber 82
6.1.2 Fasteners 86
6.1.3 Coatings 86
6.2 Tools and Equipment 87
6.2.1 Jigs 87
6.2.2 Fastening 87
6.2.3 Cutting 88
XVI Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

6.2.4 Coating Application 89
6.2.5 Temporary Moisture Management System Installation 89
6.2.6 Panel Handling 90
6.3 Fabrication Process 92
6.3.1 Board Placement and Splice Pattern 92
6.3.2 Plywood/OSB Installation 92
6.3.3 Plan Layout of Panels 92
6.4 Manufacturing Standards 93
6.4.1 Pre-Manufacturing Checks 93
6.4.2 Tolerances 93
6.4.3 Quality Control and Documentation Review 93
7 Construction & Installation 96

7.1 Organization 96
7.2 Shipping 96
7.3 Storage 98
7.4 Unloading 98
7.5 Installation 98
7.6 Construction PhaseMoisture Management 99
7.6.1 Temporary Moisture Management Systems 100
7.6.2 Additional Strategies 105
8 Erection Engineering 108

8.1 Design Loads 108
8.2 Panel Lifting 109
8.2.1 Engineering Considerations 109
8.2.2 Lifting Mechanisms 110
8.2.3 Pick Points 110
8.3 Fall Arrest and Horizontal Lifelines 112
8.4 Temporary Stability 113
Appendicies116
Appendix A: NLT Appearance Chart 118
Appendix B: Sample Specification 119
Appendix C: Swelling & Shrinkage of Wood 125
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XVII

List of Figures
Figure 4.7 Prefabricated
Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Pre-Sheathed Panels
Figure 2.1 Historic NLT Vancouver Figure 3.1 Building Code Figure 4.8 Effective Discrete
Urban Winery Performance Requirements Chord Element
Figure 2.2 Renovated Space at Compliance Path Figure 4.9 Prefabricated NLT Panels
Vancouver Urban Winery Figure 3.2 Functions of with Varying Support Conditions
Figure 2.3 NLT Stair Core Fire Resistance Figure 4.10 Lamination Nailing
Figure 2.4 Aberdeen Station Figure 3.3 One-Dimensional Figure 4.11 NLT Connection to
Figure 2.5 Samuel Brighouse Char Profile Wood Beam
Elementary School Figure 3.4 Wood Charring Figure 4.12 NLT Connection to
Figure 2.6A Brentwood Station Figure 3.5 Air Movement Steel Beam
Figure 2.6B Brentwood Station Through NLT Figure 4.13 NLT Connection to
Figure 2.7 Tsingtao Pearl Visitor Figure 3.6 Representative Example Interior Wood Shear Walls
Centre of Effective Depth Figure 4.14 NLT Connection to
Figure 2.8 CNC Milled Compound Figure 3.7 Internal Steel Plate Exterior Wood Shear Wall
Curve Prototype Connection Buried Within Figure 4.15 NLT Support at
Figure 2.9 Ribbed and Smooth Wood Member Balloon-Framed Wood Shear Wall
Surfaces on NLT from Un-Planed Figure 3.8 Internal Plate and Figure 4.16 NLT Connection to
and Planed Laminations Concealed Fasteners Concrete Wall
Figure 2.10 Uniform Depth Figure 3.9 Structural Connection with Figure 4.17 Small Opening with
Cross-Section Column Cap at The Landing Building Fully Threaded Screw Reinforcing
Figure 2.11 1:1 Alternating Figure 3.10 Structural Connection with Figure 4.18 Supplementary Steel
Staggered Depth Cross-Section Column cap at The Leckie Building Framing at Small Openings
Figure 2.12 2:1 Alternating Figure 4.19 Supplementary Steel
Staggered Depth Cross-Section
Chapter 4 Framing at Large Openings
Figure 2.13 NLT Visual Reference Figure 4.1 NLT Cross-Section Figure 4.20 Wood Outrigger
Figure 2.14 Office Partition Walls Figure 4.2 Grillage Model Supports for NLT Overhang
Figure 2.15 Example of Continuous Figure 4.3 Staggered NLT
Soffit from Interior to Exterior Cross-Section
Chapter 5
Figure 2.16 Service Chase in NLT Figure 4.4 Charred NLT Figure 5.1 Climate Zones Across
Figure 2.17 NLT Panel Before and Cross-Section Canada
After Capping the Service Chase Figure 4.5 Bearing Reduction where Figure 5.2 Potential Deformation
Figure 2.18 Alternating 38 mm x 89 supported on Exposed Timber Beam or Deflection of Air Barrier System
mm & 38 mm x 140 mm Lumber With Figure 4.6 Prefabricated NLT Panel from Forces of Air Pressure
& Without Sound Absorbing Material Sheathed On-Site
XVIII Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Figure 5.3 Examples of Horizontal
NLT Assembly Details
Chapter 7
Figure 5.4 Example Horizontal NLT Figure 7.1 Shipping with Dunnage
Roof Assembly to Soffit Transition and Stickers
Detail at Window Head Figure 7.2 Storage Set-Up with
Figure 5.5 NLT Panel with Dunnage and Stickers
Preformed Tape Figure 7.3 NLT Panel Installation
Figure 5.6 Venting Options for NLT Sequencing Model
Roof Assemblies Figure 7.4 Installed Roof Panels
with Gaps for Expansion
Chapter 6 Figure 7.5 NLT Install of Roof
Figure 6.1 NLT Showing Blue Prefabricated, Pre-Sheathed Panels
Staining from Beetle-killed wood. Figure 7.6 Horizontal NLT Floor
Figure 6.2 Example of Aesthetic Panel Subjected to Snow
Grade Boards for NLT Panels Figure 7.7 Scheffer Climate Index
Figure 6.3 Finger-Jointed Lumber Figure 7.8 Temporary Moisture
Figure 6.4 NLT Fabrication Set-up Management System Joint
Figure 6.5 Shop Applied Coating Treatment Concepts
on NLT Panels Figure 7.9 Fixed Tenting Installation
Figure 6.6 Combined NLT and
Support Beams
Chapter 8
Figure 6.7 4D Sequencing Figure 8.1 Point Arrest and Lifelines
with Navisworks Figure 8.2 Temporary
Stability Supports
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XIX

List of Tables
Chapter 2 Chapter 4 Chapter 6
Table 2.1 Typical NLT Floor Spans Table 4.1 NLT Layup Types and Table 6.1 Saw Types and Cutting Depth
Table 2.2 Impressions of Impact/ Adjustment Factors
Footstep Noises Table 4.2 Staggered NLT
Chapter 7
Table 2.3 STC and IIC Testing Data Adjustment Factors Table 7.1 Temporary Moisture
Completed for NLT Floors Table 4.3 Creep Factors Management Systems
Table 4.4 Minimum
Chapter 3 Lamination Nailing
Chapter 8
Table 3.1 Minimum Thickness of Table 8.1 Dynamic Acceleration
Solid Wood Walls, Roofs, and
Chapter 5 Factors
Floors (mm) Table 5.1 Thermal Conductivity Table 8.2 Lifting Mechanism Options
Table 3.2 Maximum Building and R-Values of Common NLT
Height Permitted for Combustible Softwood Laminations and Sheathing
Construction by Occupancy Type Table 5.2 Roof Membrane Assemblies
Table 5.3 Exterior Soffit Assemblies
XX Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Above Orchard Commons, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Michael Elkan)
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XXI

Above UBC Bookstore, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Office of Mcfarland Biggar Architects + Designers (Photo credit: Ema Peter)
1 Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Construction Guide

1 Introduction
Part of the family of mass timber panel products, Nail-laminated Timber

(NLT) is mechanically laminated to create a solid structural element. NLT
is created by placing dimension lumber, 38 mm, 64 mm, or 89 mm (2x, 3x,
or 4x) width and 89 mm to 286 mm (nominal 4 in. to 12 in.) depth, on edge
and fastening the individual laminations together with nails. Typically used as
floors and roofs, panels can also be used for walls, elevator shafts, and stair
shafts. Plywood/OSB added to one face can provide in-plane shear capacity,
allowing the product to be used as a shear wall or diaphragm.
Nail-laminated Timber (NLT) is an old method of construction with a range

of modern opportunity to create compelling architecture. Used in many
historic applications, it is enjoying renewed interest as we rediscover the many
benefits of mass timber and advance wood technology and manufacturing.
Lightweight, low-carbon, and very compatible with high-performance
buildings, innovation with NLT is inspiring new opportunities for large and
small-scale buildings and infrastructure across sectors and around the world.
The mass timber product range available in North America includes Glued-
laminated Timber (GLT), Cross-laminated Timber (CLT), Dowel-laminated
Timber (DLT), and Nail-laminated Timber (NLT). Structurally composite
materials such as Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL), Laminated Strand
Lumber (LSL), and Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL) are also considered mass
timber products. While this wide range of products affords many options for
specific design applications, each has different design challenges, performance
characteristics, and construction advantages.
NLT is significant in the range of available mass timber options given

the relative ease of fabrication and access to material; NLT requires no
necessarily unique manufacturing facility and can be fabricated with local
dimension lumber for use in applications across sectors and structure types.
Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide 2

Chapter 1 Introduction
While products like GLT and CLT have modern publications and resources
aimed at assisting designers and builders with specification, detailing, and
installation, NLT resources are dated and focus on prescriptive rather than
engineered applications.
This Design and Construction Guide (the Guide) provides the Canadian
design and construction industry with immediate support and guidance to
ensure safe, predictable, and economical use of NLT. It is intended to offer
practical strategies, advice, and guidance, transferring knowledge and lessons
learned from those with experience.
This Guide focuses on design and construction considerations for floor

and roof systems pertaining to current Canadian construction practice and
standards. While NLT is being used for vertical elements for walls, stair
shafts, and elevator shafts, this Guide provides the greatest depth of direction
for common horizontal applications. The information included here is
supplemental to wood design and construction best practices and is specific
to the application of NLT. Built examples are included to illustrate real
application and visual reference as much as possible. This Guide is consistent
with the following codes and standards, and these should be referenced as
accompanying documents:
• The National Building Code of Canada 2015 (NBC) [1]

• CSA O86-14 Engineering Design in Wood [2]
Other relevant resources are referenced throughout as necessary for

more details.
References
[1] Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, and National
Research Council of Canada. 2015. National building code of Canada,
2015. Ottawa, Ont: National Research Council Canada.
[2] Canadian Standards Association. 2014. Engineering design in wood.
3 Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Above Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainablity, Vancouver, B.C.. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Martin Tessler)

Above T3, Minneapolis, MN. Architecture: Michael Green Architecture. (Photo credit: Ema Peter)

2 Architecture
2.1 Conceptual Considerations

In This Chapter
2.1.1 Form
2.1 Conceptual Considerations
Nail-laminated timber (NLT) allows the creation of a monolithic “slab”
2.2 Planning Considerations
of wood from off-the-shelf dimension lumber, supporting a broad range
2.3 Detail Considerations
of architectural opportunities. Historically, NLT was primarily used for the
2.4 Mechanical, Electrical, and
construction of warehouses and other large buildings (refer to Figures 2.1
Plumbing Considerations
and 2.2). While flat floors and roofs remain the most common NLT building
2.5 Acoustic Considerations
elements, more expressive and dynamic forms are being explored.
2.6 Durability Considerations
Figure 2.1: Historic NLT Vancouver Urban Winery, part of the Settlement Building Brand
Collective which also houses Postmark Brewing and Belgard Kitchen. Dating from the 1920s, the
building was originally used as a steel manufacturing foundry. (Photo courtesy of Vancouver Urban
Winery. vancouverurbanwinery.com)

Chapter 2 Architecture
Figure 2.2: Renovated Space at Vancouver Urban Winery. The building dates from the 1920s, used originally
as a steel manufacturing foundry. (Photo courtesy of Vancouver Urban Winery. vancouverurbanwinery.com)
The examples here are intended to inspire and illustrate the breadth of
possibilities as they pertain to NLT. Although NLT floors and roofs can be
covered by finishes, they are often left exposed as a key design element. NLT
is most commonly exposed at the ceiling, where it is protected from wear and
the elements.
NLT may also be used as walls where exposing it for aesthetics is desirable, or
for elevator and stair cores to meet higher loading or solid wall requirements
(refer to Figure 2.3).
Creating simple curves from NLT is relatively easy. The roof of Aberdeen
Station, shown in Figure 2.4, is composed of gently curving steel channels
which support the lumber, creating a modular, prefabricated panel that was
craned into place. The channels were bolted to the adjacent panel channels.
Figure 2.3: NLT Stair Core (Photo courtesy

of WoodWORKS! BC and Performance
Construction)

Figure 2.4: Aberdeen Station, Richmond, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will.
(Photo credit above: courtesy of Perkins+Will; Photo credit below: Martin Tessler)

Figure 2.5: Samuel Brighouse Elementary School. Richmond, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)

Figure 2.6A: Brentwood Station, Burnaby, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)
The atrium at Samuel Brighouse Elementary School, shown in Figure 2.5,

advances the same concept with integrated steel struts and tension cables,
turning the NLT into a truss system to create a whimsically undulating roof.
Compound curves are also possible. The NLT at Brentwood station is curved
perpendicular to the laminations, and used a combination of curved NLT,
curved-in-plan. Figure 2.6A shows the NLT curved to follow the shape of
the glued-laminated beams, and Figure 2.6B shows the form of the NLT
curved-in-plan to accommodate the overall form of the station. The NLT Figure 2.6B: Brentwood Station, Burnaby, BC.
Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Nic
spans between the curved glued-laminated beams set at varying angles, results Lehoux)
in a building form with compound curvature.
More dramatic, freeform curvatures are also possible. Gradual curves

achieved with large radii help to mitigate the visual impact of faceting and
stepping between adjacent laminations, as demonstrated by the Tsingtao Pearl
Visitor Center shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Tsingtao Pearl Visitor Centre,

Qingdao, China. Architecture: Bohlin Cywinski
Jackson. (Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)

Compound curvature NLT with tight radii in the direction parallel to

laminations requires the use of short lumber segments and results in
noticeably faceted surfaces. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) milling of
the faceted surface can be used to achieve a smooth surface. This is a labour
and material-intensive process typically reserved for specialty applications.
Refer to Figure 2.8 for prototype examples.
2.1.2 Surface Characteristics

Whether in flat or curved building elements, the components that form NLT
remain distinguishable within the final product, allowing for considerable
flexibility and freedom for the designer to define the appearance of the
surface. Visible surface characteristics that must be considered include:
Figure 2.8: CNC Milled Compound Curve Species: Any species of wood can be used to fabricate NLT; this Guide
Prototype. (Photo courtesy of Perkins+Will)
assumes the use of species listed in the CSA Standard O86-14 Engineering
Design in Wood. Availability of species will vary by region, and offer different
colouration and variation in appearance. For example, Douglas Fir appears
to be more red or orange, compared to Pine, which appears more yellow or
white. Refer to Appendix A for an NLT Appearance Chart.
Lumber Grade: It is best to specify lumber grade and any other desired
characteristics of the timber if the product will be visible in the finished
building. For example, one project may require a ceiling that is free from
knots, while another may demand a rougher look. Specifications should use
regional appearance grading nomenclature to ensure lumber will achieve the
desired surface aesthetic. Refer to Appendix A for an NLT Appearance Chart.
Ribbed
Eased or Sharp Edges: Typical North American dimension lumber is milled
with slightly rounded corners in cross-section, giving NLT a distinctive grooved
or ribbed texture. To achieve a smooth face, the entire surface may be planed
after layup, or specifications may call for individual laminations to be planed on
one side prior to layup, as shown in Figure 2.9. If the NLT is assembled first,
and then planed or sanded smooth, the gaps between the boards will become
Smooth more obvious; the grooves tend to hide these imperfections. Both approaches
will impact cost, and not all fabricators will have the ability to plane NLT
Figure 2.9: Ribbed and Smooth Surfaces on
NLT from Un-planed and Planed Laminations smooth. Refer to Chapter 6 for more on fabrication.

Cross-Section Size: Another way to modify the surface of NLT is by
incorporating different sizes of dimension lumber. This technique achieves
a unique aesthetic and can modify the acoustic properties of NLT (refer to
Section 2.5.1). While the number of unique cross sections is theoretically infinite,
most NLT is fabricated as illustrated in Figures 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12. Where NLT Figure 2.10: Uniform Depth Cross-Section.
depth is staggered, lumber depths that vary by two inches are the most common
combination: for example, alternating 38 mm x 89 mm (2x4) with 38 mm x 140
mm (2x6). Larger variations in depth are less efficient structurally, owing to a large
stiffness discrepancy. Structural considerations are addressed in depth in Chapter
4. The visibility of grade stamps on the sides of boards in staggered cross section
NLT should be addressed in the design and fabrication processes. Figure 2.11: 1:1 Alternating Staggered
Depth Cross-Section.
Set expectations for panel appearance using physical samples, reference
images and clear specifications with regionally appropriate nomenclature.
These should be provided to the fabricator and discussed in detail to ensure
that the design intent is delivered. Refer to Chapter 6 for more on fabrication.
Set expectations for NLT appearance using physical samples, reference

images, and clear specifications with regionally appropriate nomenclature. Figure 2.12: 2:1 Alternating Staggered
Depth Cross-Section.
These should be provided to the fabricator and discussed in detail to ensure
that the design intent is delivered. Refer to Chapter 6 for more on fabrication
and Appendix A for an NLT Appearance Chart. All construction materials
and systems are susceptible to damage during transportation, installation,
or by other construction activities after installation. For wood, this includes
staining from water, rust, and paint; mechanical damage; and burning.
Restoring damaged NLT may be accomplished by sanding, refinishing, and

patching. NLT can tolerate heavy sanding and refinishing due to its thickness;
however, heavy sanding tends to degrade the even appearance of the ribs
and grooves of NLT. Patching poses an even greater aesthetic challenge to
the ribs and grooves. When reviewing construction deficiencies and repairs,
all NLT should be compared with a sample as shown in Figure 2.13 or a
mockup. Detailed considerations on fabrication and installation are provided
in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7. Refer to Appendix B for a sample specification Figure 2.13: NLT Visual Reference. (Photo
courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
including requirements for finish and mock-up requirements.

Table 2.1 TYPICAL NLT

FLOOR SPANS 2.2 Planning Considerations
NLT is a combustible material and a code-compliant structural system
NLT DEPTH TYPICAL SPAN
RANGE for buildings with varying heights, areas, and occupancies, that allows for
89 mm up to 3.7m combustible construction or heavy timber roof structure where permitted.
(4 in. nominal) (12 ft.)
Currently, the NBC permits up to six storeys of combustible construction for
140 mm 3m to 5.2m
residential and office occupancies only, with limited combinations of other
(6 in. nominal) (10 to 17 ft.)
occupancy types on lower levels. The provinces have adopted the NBC’s
184 mm 4.3m to 6.4m
(8 in. nominal) (14 to 21 ft.) allowance with varying degrees of restrictions on occupancy type, storeys,
235 mm 5.2m to 7.3m and height. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information.
(10 in. nominal) (17 to 24 ft.)
286 mm 6.1m to 7.9m Structurally, NLT is a system that spans only in one direction, which has
(12 in. nominal) (20 to 26 ft.) implications for the layout of the structural grid. NLT requires linear support
and cannot be supported on columns alone. Typical spans for NLT of
Spans will vary and may fall outside these ranges
depending on use, loading, and vibration criteria. various depths are given in Table 2.1; linear supports such as load-bearing
walls or beams should be spaced accordingly. These maximum spans may be
governed by vibrations rather than strength. Where changes in the column
grid or load-bearing wall locations from floor to floor are necessary, load
transfers should be accomplished through supplementary framing rather than
placing large concentrated loads on the NLT itself. Refer to Section 4.4.1 for
more on point loads.
To reduce floor/ceiling assembly thickness, NLT can be mounted flush with

the top of beams. NLT can also be suspended below the bottom of beams,
with a raised floor system concealing the beams.
Cantilevers in the direction of the NLT span are feasible. A useful rule of
thumb for concept design is that NLT can cantilever one quarter of its
backspan length, although larger cantilevers may be possible depending on
loading conditions. Cantilevers projecting through the building envelope create
additional design and detailing considerations; refer to Sections 4.4.3 and 5.2.1.
Planning should also carefully consider tolerance for swelling and shrinkage
with NLT. To achieve a consistent aesthetic, consider NLT expansion
joint widths in parallel with structural detailing requirements, fabrication
tolerances, and installation tolerances. Finish applications and MEP
anchorage requirements should be designed to accommodate swelling and
shrinkage of NLT.

Figure 2.14: Office Partition Walls in Mountain Equipment Co-Op Head Office. Vancouver, BC. (Photo courtesy of Fast+Epp)
2.3 Detail Considerations

The architectural details for NLT carry the same considerations as for other
building materials and systems. Wood construction detailing practices should
be followed, but details may resemble those used for other materials. For
example, when NLT is used as a non-bearing exterior wall it will bypass the
floor slab, similar to a steel curtain wall system. Detailing in these situations
are typically very similar despite the material.
In addition to affecting the appearance of the surface of NLT, the grooves

at eased edges of laminations and gaps between laminations can affect the
appearance and the performance of construction details. When a wall, door
frame, or other linear element butts up against the underside of NLT, the
gaps created by the grooves and the space between laminations must be
considered for fire, acoustics, and aesthetics. Situations requiring airtight
construction must be carefully detailed. For example, Figure 2.14 shows
enclosed offices with interior partition walls that extend to the underside of
an NLT floor structure above. Carefully consider the interface between the
walls and the ceilings to mitigate sound travel between spaces.

Figure 2.15: Example of Continuous Soffit from Interior to Exterior. Samuel Brighouse Elementary School. Richmond, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will.
(Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)

Due to the difficulty in sealing linear elements to the underside of NLT, it 1.
is good practice to keep NLT from penetrating the building envelope. If a 2.
continuous soffit is desired from interior to exterior, similar to the example

3.
shown in Figure 2.15, devise a detail that accommodates continuity of air,
vapour, and weather barriers. Refer to Figures 4.20 and 5.3 for example
4. 5. 6.
section details.
Figure 2.16: Service Chase in NLT.
2.4 Mechanical, Electrical, and Key

1. Concrete topping
Plumbing Considerations 2. Plywood/OSB
3. NLT
Services such as pipes, conduits, and cables in an NLT building are usually 4. Gap for mechanical fire stopped as required
5. Mechanical services
either suspended from the ceiling or contained within a raised floor system.
6. Wood cover to hide services as required
Where services are suspended and the NLT is supported on beams rather
than load-bearing walls, the direction of service runs should be carefully
considered. Service runs that are parallel to the beams allow for the most
efficient use of s pace, because the services can be contained between the
NLT soffit and the beam soffit. Where services must run perpendicular to
the beams, they must either penetrate the beams or be routed beneath them.
If penetration is required, coordinate carefully with the structural engineer.
Where routing services beneath, floor-to-floor heights may be affected if a
minimum overhead clearance is required.
Another strategy for suspended services is to create a service chase in the

face of the NLT and then insert a cap once the conduit, piping, and/or
cabling has been installed. Refer to Figure 2.16 and 2.17. This approach creates a
concealed space. Refer to Section 3.4.3 for details on protecting concealed
spaces.
Vertical distribution of services through NLT must be coordinated with the

structural engineer to ensure any openings with a diameter greater than the
width of two laminations are appropriately framed or reinforced. Larger
openings must have additional reinforcing or framing for support. Refer to
Section 4.4.2 for detailed framing requirements at openings. For both vertical
and horizontal distribution of services, typical care must be exercised to isolate
piping and ducts from the structure so as to avoid the transfer of noise Figure 2.17: NLT Panel Before and After
Capping the Service Chase. (Photos courtesy of
generated by the flow of water, waste, or air. StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
When using NLT as walls, keep in mind that there is no wall cavity within
which to route services after the fact. All pipes, conduit, cables, and so forth
must be accounted for and accurately located during fabrication.

1. 2. 3.
2.5 Acoustic Considerations
Acoustics is a complex field, and an expert should be consulted in the design
of floor/ceiling and wall assemblies and the applicable interfaces. While it is
common to make use of such expertise for specialized spaces with low noise
tolerances, such as a performance or recording space, it is equally important for
4.
any building type where there is an expectation of acoustic privacy or general
noise and vibration control. These include education facilities, hospitals, office
1. 2. 3.
buildings, and multi-family dwellings. Acoustics and noise control is one of the
most common complaints in finished and occupied buildings.
The National Building Code of Canada (NBC) and relevant provincial codes,
establishes minimum Sound Transmission Class (STC) targets for airborne
4. 5. sound isolation between multi-family residential units—STC 50. The NBC
does not set requirements for impact noise, or Impact Isolation Class (IIC),
but rather suggests a good practice target of IIC 55. Further, neither the
Figure 2.18: Alternating 38 mm x 89 mm
(2x4) and 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) Lumber NBC nor provincial codes provide guidelines for room finishes. While room
With and Without Sound Absorbing Material finishes can affect the quality of life for occupants, finishes do not directly
Key affect the sound isolation performance of walls or floor/ceilings with respect
1. Concrete topping to the their STC rating, nor do they affect the façade details in terms of
2. Acoustic mat
outside-to-inside sound reduction (OITC). The selection of the appropriate
3. Plywood/OSB
4. NLT
OITC rating relative to acceptable interior noise levels in an occupied space is
5. Sound absorbing material generally set by local noise bylaws.
In general, the acoustic considerations for an NLT structure are the same as
for any other structural system. That is, one must consider how sound passes
through it when it is part of a floor/ceiling system and how sound reflects
from the NLT surface when the underside is exposed in the room below.
Initial testing done by FPInnovations indicates that NLT performs in ways

similar to CLT with respect to acoustics. Assemblies and values published
in the CLT Handbook [1] can therefore be used as a starting point of
reference for designers. Although their acoustic performance may be similar,
unlike CLT, NLT typically has small gaps between laminations, which can
create ‘leakage’ paths through which sound can travel. Plywood/OSB and/
or a concrete topping over NLT may address sound leakage by limiting
the passage of airborne sound. Addressing sound leakage paths is a prime
consideration of the basic design. Once the potential for leakage through
the panel itself has been addressed, the overall issue of sound flanking (that
is, sound that bypasses the building structure) is dealt with in ways similar to
those used for other structural materials and systems.

There are a number of recent building examples that use CLT and timber
structural systems as the basis of design. The Wood Innovation Design
Centre in Prince George, BC is a six-storey office and classroom building that
uses exposed CLT to help achieve both the STC and room acoustics targets
as well as good impact isolation for floor/ceiling systems with wood studs
used for partitions. The 18-storey Brock Commons student residence project
at the University of British Columbia applies a hybrid system of encapsulated
CLT for the floor/ceiling system and metal studs for party walls.
2.5.1 Interior Space Acoustics

An NLT surface is acoustically hard and relatively flat and smooth, making
it inherently sound-reflecting, with sound absorption properties similar to
any solid wood construction and not dissimilar to a concrete slab system. In
many instances, upgraded room acoustics are an important part of the overall
building design. Good room acoustics assists with control of overall noise
levels in a space, aids in speech intelligibility for both the spoken word and for
sound systems, and provides a more user-friendly environment.
To create an effective sound absorbing surface using an NLT design, consider

using an alternating staggered cross section layup (refer to Figure 2.18). To
improve sound absorption of the NLT system, introduce a material with
reasonably good acoustic properties into the openings. This approach assumes
that the ‘sound leakage’ of the basic construction has already been addressed.
Refer to Figure 2.18 showing NLT made of alternating 38 mm x 89 mm (2x4)
and 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) dimension lumber with a strip of sound-absorbing
material glued between the deeper laminations. The ceiling surface of such
an assembly is composed of 50% lumber and 50% sound-absorbing material
having a Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) of at least 0.65. The depth of the
acoustic medium should be at least 25 mm (1 in.) and the width at least 38 mm
(1-1/2 in.). The exposed acoustic medium should be at least 70% of the surface
area of the ceiling for a reasonably good acoustic environment. This can be
achieved by greater spacing of the 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) lumber.
Always consult an acoustics expert for project and product-specific advice. The
overall fire rating of the final assembly must also be considered as part of the
basic acoustic design; refer to Chapter 3 for more on fire considerations.

Table 2.2 IMPRESSIONS OF IMPACT/FOOTSTEP NOISES AS HEARD IN ROOMS DIRECTLY BELOW PARTY FLOORS
WITH VARIOUS IIC RATINGS
PARTY FLOOR IIC IMPRESSIONS OF IMPACT/FOOTSTEP NOISE HEARD

Normal walking clearly audible below, chair movements, dropped objects audible.
Less than 45 Unsuitable for multi-family units or where moderate isolation is required within
same dwelling unit.
Normal walking (in hard shoes) still clearly audible, may be adequate between
45 to 55
spaces within same dwelling unit, not suitable for most multi-family buildings.
Normal walking noise still clearly audible when background noise levels are fairly
55 to 60
low; may be adequate for multi-family buildings in less critical situations.
Normal walking audible only during very low background noise situations,
60 to 70
adequate for most multi-family buildings.
Normal walking generally inaudible, usually adequate for even the most sensitive
70 to 80
(high quality, low background noise) situations.
80 or higher Virtually no audible impact noise transmitted from walking, small dropped objects etc.
2.5.2 Inter-Space Sound Control

Transfer of sound between adjacent spaces takes two forms. The first is
the transfer of airborne sound. The ability for a building element such as a
wall or a floor/ceiling assembly to reduce the transfer of airborne sound is
typically designated by a single number rating called Sound Transmission Class
(STC). STC is determined by laboratory testing, according to specific ASTM
requirements. The second form is the transfer of impact sound. Impact sound
is most typically generated by footfall, but can also be generated from the
movement of furniture, or dropping heavy objects. The ability of a floor/
ceiling assembly to prevent the transfer of impact sound is described by a single
number rating system called Impact Isolation Class (IIC), also determined by
laboratory testing. Designers should determine the most appropriate rating and
design details to satisfy codes, regulations, and owner requirements; indicative
STC and IIC ratings are included in Table 2.2 for reference only.
Canadian national and provincial codes include requirements for minimum STC
ratings1 but only guidance for best practice for IIC2. Further, the 2015 National
Building Code sets design targets using the Apparent Sound Transmission
Class (ASTC) rather than the previously referenced Sound Transmission Class,
STC. It is expected that the forthcoming provincial codes will adopt the ASTC
requirement. There are currently no proposed changes to the requirements for
IIC. Refer to the following section on Impact Sound for more information.
1 Minimum STC rating is 50 between occupied spaces in dwelling units, and 55 adjacent to
elevator shafts.
2 Best practice IIC minimum is 55.

Airborne Sound
To mitigate airborne sound in NLT construction consider how sound travels
through the floor/ceiling assembly to a space below, as well as horizontally to
an adjacent occupied space.
Reducing airborne sound through the floor/ceiling assembly is accomplished

by addressing both the mass of the NLT and the homogeneous nature
of its surface. Similar to other mass timber panel products, NLT does not
have enough mass to mitigate airborne sound on its own to meet Building
Code requirements. Materials must be added to the top and/or underside
of the NLT structure to compensate for the lack of mass. To address
the homogenous surface, refer to Section 2.5 and Figure 2.18. As a result
of minor swelling and shrinkage, gaps may develop between the NLT
laminations that penetrate the full depth of the NLT. Any gap through which
air can pass is also a path for airborne sound, and can result in sound leakage.
Accordingly, bare NLT without continuous plywood/OSB sheathing, or
concrete topping will not provide effective attenuation to airborne sound.
Airborne sound can travel horizontally along any surface including NLT;
the grooves on the surface of NLT unlike a smooth flooring finish provide
potential sound leakage paths at the party wall/floor interface. Accordingly,
designers should carefully consider interface details when using NLT. For
example, where a wall running perpendicular to the laminations meets
the underside or top-side of the NLT, an acoustic sealant must be applied
between the NLT and the plates of the abutting wall to fill the gaps.3
If a concrete topping is used to increase the sound rating via the floor/
ceiling system, the sound leakage through NLT gaps should be addressed
automatically at the floor/wall interface at least.
Impact Sound
Impact sound is often perceived to be more disruptive than airborne sound;
especially in situations where the level of airborne sound is well controlled.
For example, a residential building constructed of concrete or a modified NLT
construction (both of which meet Building Code requirements for airborne
sound) can effectively block the sound of voices from the suite above, but the
sound of someone walking in hard-soled shoes or of chair movement will be
clearly audible in the occupied space below. Complaints of impact noise are the
most common in any occupied multi-family residential building.
3 Use of an acoustic caulk at the header and base plate of a party wall in all construction is a
requirement to optimize the acoustic performance of the party wall system.

Table 2.3 STC AND IIC TESTING DATA COMPLETED FOR NLT FLOORS
FLOOR ASSEMBLY (TOP TO BOTTOM) STC IIC

1 13 mm (1/2 in.) plywood + 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) NLT panel (baseline measurement) 34 32
2 Bare CLT panel (5-ply, 175 mm [6-7/8 in.] thick) 39 25
102 mm (4 in.) normal weight concrete topping + Pliteq GenieMat FF06 acoustical mat +
3 51 44
13 mm (1/2 in.) plywood + 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) NLT
Carpet + 102 mm (4 in.) normal weight concrete topping + Pliteq GenieMat FF06 acoustical mat +
4 51 58
5 54 50
6 56 52
38 mm (1-1/2 in.) Gypcrete 2000 + Maxxon Acousti-Mat II acoustical mat + 13 mm (½ in.) plywood +
7 - -
2x6 NLT
38 mm (1-1/2 in.) Gypcrete 2000 + Maxxon Acousti-Mat 3 acoustical mat + 13 mm (1/2in.) plywood +
8 - -
38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) NLT
9 55 49
13 mm (1/2 in.) plywood + 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) NLT + RC + 16 mm (5/8 in.) Type C Gypsum
10 13 mm (1/2 in.) plywood + 38 mm x 140 mm (2x6) NLT + Pliteq GenieClip RST Clip + 60 59
R8 Fibreglass batts + 16 mm (5/8 in.) Type C Gypsum
Addressing impact sound is typically the governing factor for the floor/
ceiling assembly, and like most structural floor systems, floor finish material
can have a significant effect on an NLT floor assembly’s IIC rating. In order
to optimize the reduction of impact noise, additional material is typically
applied on top of the NLT, below it, or both.
As previously noted, many local building codes have yet to adopt IIC ratings
as part of their requirements, but the minimum acceptable target according to
the International Building Code (IBC) is IIC 50. Floors in residential buildings
with IIC ratings less than 50 often result in complaints related to impact noise.
While it is not a requirement to provide a floor with a minimum IIC 50 rating,
it is strongly recommended. Some residential developments implement more
stringent ratings (IIC 55 or higher) in an effort to satisfy residents. In fact, the
BC Building Code suggests a minimum of IIC 55 as good practice. Further,
while IIC 55-58 is a common target range for upgraded performance, a range
of at least IIC 65-70 is required for overall user satisfaction.
The IIC rating required to provide generally acceptable impact noise insulation
depends on a range of factors, such as quality of building, expectations of
occupants and background noise environment. Table 2.3 provides some
guidance in selecting appropriate IIC targets for various design conditions.

Field Testing
Careful control of flanking paths is important for all construction and material
types. Field-tested ratings4 are typically five points lower than those achieved in
laboratories (STC and IIC) due to the effect of sound flanking in-situ.
Table 2.2 provides STC and IIC test results for NLT floors. Included in the
table for comparison is the acoustic performance of bare NLT with plywood
topping and bare CLT. It is always important, however, to contextualize the
results and the applications in which systems are typically used. For example,
STC and IIC ratings are derived from 1/3 band octave data that occur over
a range of frequencies. In order to better understand the comparison of one
assembly’s acoustic performance to another, the differences over that entire
frequency range should be evaluated.
While the industry builds a more complete database of tested assemblies for
NLT, designers may opt to use other mass timber assembly tests as a guide to
predict the performance of NLT. For example, there are a number of CLT
acoustic assemblies listed in the CLT Handbook [1] as well as others available
from acoustical mat manufacturers; some provide STC/IIC values and some
provide FSTC/FIIC values. If an NLT deck of a similar thickness was used
in place of the CLT, a rule of thumb suggests that the assembly performance
could be estimated by subtracting three from the STC/IIC, FSTC/FIIC, or
ASTC/AIIC values. In addition, there are proprietary software programs that
can predict the STC and IIC of non-standard assemblies. Such programs
generally predict results with an error of +/- 3 points for STC and +/- 5
points for IIC.
2.6 Durability Considerations

Durability considerations for any wood product also apply to NLT; ultraviolet
(UV) light and moisture are primary concerns. NLT must be protected in
service from direct exposure to the exterior environment, without proper
preservative treatment. Where NLT is exposed to UV light, its colour will
fade unless the wood is protected with a suitable coating. Coatings with
higher pigment amounts typically resist UV longer than clear coatings.
Consult manufacturers to assist with selecting coatings, and weather
test options to help select the appropriate product. A continuous film
coating applied to NLT after fabrication will likely develop cracks between
4 Field tested ratings are FSTC or FIIC where ‘F’ means ‘Field’; where ASTC and AIIC
are used, ‘A’ means ‘Apparent’

laminations, causing the film to fail. A penetrating finish may not crack, but
concealed faces of laminations will not be exposed to receive the coating.
Where untreated wood is exposed to moisture, there is a significant risk of

staining, mould, decay, and excessive dimensional changes. Exposed end
grains at the edges of NLT are most susceptible to moisture, leading to
swelling and distortion of the laminations. However, moisture exposure
on any part of the panel, including moisture trapped between adjacent
laminations or between laminations and sheathing can have a significant
impact on the durability and lifespan of the panels. Enclosure elements
must be designed to avoid trapped water and moisture build up, both during
construction and in service. Refer to Chapter 5 for more on Enclosure.
Construction phase moisture must be managed through a moisture
protection plan established in consultation with the design team. Unplanned
moisture exposure during the construction phase can delay project schedules
and negatively impact the quality of the work. Refer to Section 7.6 for more
on construction phase moisture protection.
REFERENCES
[1] Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. 2013. CLT handbook: Cross-
laminated timber. Pointe-Claire, Québec: FPInnovations

Above Chilliwack Secondary School, Chilliwack, BC. Architecture: Dialog. (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders, Inc.)

Above Mountain Equipment Co-op Head Office, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Proscenium Architecture+Interiors. (Photo credit: Ed White Photographics)

3 Fire
This Chapter provides guidance on the use of nail-laminated timber (NLT)

in accordance with fire safety provisions of the National Building Code of
Canada (NBC), with special reference to the 2015 edition. The NBC is the In This Chapter
model building code for Canada, adopted with relevant amendments by all 3.1 Fire Safety in Timber Buildings
provinces as the applicable building code. The prescriptive solutions in Division 3.2 Fire Performance of Combustible
B Part 3 of the NBC include provisions for the use of NLT in buildings Construction
permitted to be of combustible construction and in sprinklered buildings not 3.3 Fire Design
more than two storeys in height, regardless of construction type. 3.4 Additional Considerations
Construction using NLT has been prescribed in the NBC since the first
edition in 1940, described as “solid sawn lumber planks set on edge and
well spiked together.” The current NBC includes minimum allowable sizes
when combustible construction with a fire-resistance rating up to 45 minutes
is permitted in Division B Part 3 and provides historic generic acceptable
solutions for fire-resistance ratings up to 1.5 hours. The intent of this Guide
is to provide direction on both the prescriptive use of NLT and offer a
performance-based framework to extend beyond the prescriptive provisions.
3.1 Fire Safety in Timber Buildings

The primary objectives for the construction requirements under Division
B Articles 3.2.2.20 to 3.2.2.88 of the NBC, as noted in Article 3.2.2.1, are
to limit the probability of fire spread, and to limit the risk of, or prevent,
collapse caused by the effects of fire.
The intent of these construction requirements is to provide safety to building

occupants, safety to property, and safety to fire fighters and emergency
responders. Similar objectives are noted in Article 3.2.2.2 to provide
guidance on the construction of buildings that may not fit directly under the
prescriptive construction provisions in Articles 3.2.2.20 to 3.2.2.88.

Chapter 3 Fire
BUILDING CODE COMPLIANCE
OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONAL STATEMENTS
DIVISION B
ACCEPTABLE SOLUTIONS ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
Defines Level of Performance Meets the Objective and

Functional Statement
Provides the Same Level of
Performance Relative to Objectives
and Functional Statements
Figure 3.1: Building Code Performance Requirements Compliance Path
Methods to satisfy these performance requirements include the following, as

illustrated in Figure 3.1:
• Compliance with prescriptive requirements of Division B

(“acceptable solution”);
• Simple building code alternative solutions per Division A;
• More complex alternative solutions, in particular, performance-based
design, typically addressed by approval at the provincial level and/or
a requirement for a third-party review.
The prescriptive requirements of the NBC for construction type are based on
occupancy, building area, building height, and the presence of a sprinkler system.
Combustible construction, where permitted by the acceptable solutions of the
NBC, is typically considered to be wood-frame construction, which is regarded
as the type of combustible construction with the lowest level of performance
in fire. Heavy timber construction is considered a special subset of combustible
construction. It is permitted where a fire-resistance rating of not more than 45
minutes is required and for selected uses in buildings otherwise required to be of

noncombustible construction. The minimum heavy timber dimensions required
to provide the 45-minute fire-resistance rating are outlined in Division B Part 3,
Article 3.1.4.7. Where combustible construction is permitted and a fire-resistance
rating exceeding 45 minutes is required, Division B Appendix D-2.4 may be used
to determine the required dimensions of NLT.
The NBC’s Division A Sentence 1.2.1.1 (1) allows design flexibility beyond
prescriptive requirements through alternative solutions as described under
Section 2.3 of Division C. These alternative solutions must demonstrate to
the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ), typically at the municipal level, that
the fire safety objectives of the code will be achieved. Alternative methods to
comply with the acceptable solutions of the NBC could range in scope from
addressing specific details, such as minor combustible elements beyond that
permitted by the acceptable solutions of the NBC, to whole building design.
Refer to Section 3.3.2 for more on building code alternative solutions. Refer
to Section 3.3.3 for more on performance-based design. The NBC 2015
acceptable solutions in Division B prescribe maximum allowable building
areas and heights for combustible construction ranging from two storeys for
care occupancies to six storeys for residential and business occupancies. Refer
to Section 3.3.1 for more.
There are minimal provincial variations relative to the use of NLT. British
Columbia (BC), Alberta, and Quebec adopted six-storey combustible
construction provisions in advance of the publication of the NBC 2015.
Quebec has specific provisions for an “expedited” alternative solution for
encapsulated mass timber construction up to 12 storeys, which would directly
permit the use of NLT. Some provinces have specific processes for unique
or special buildings. For example, the recently constructed Brock Commons,
an 18-storey building of mass timber construction, located on the University
of British Columbia campus in Vancouver, BC, was approved through a Site
Specific Regulation developed by the provincial government’s Building and
Safety Standards Branch. The Site-Specific Regulation was authorized by the
provincial Building Standards and Safety Act and approved by the minister
responsible for housing in BC.

Chapter 3 Fire
3.2 Fire Performance of

hot gases
Combustible Construction
and smoke
There are generally two types of combustible construction in the NBC:

wood-framing (also known as platform framing) using dimension lumber and
small-dimensioned structural engineered wood products, and heavy timber
construction. In wood-frame construction walls and floors are framed using
dimension lumber. Wood-frame construction is generally covered by gypsum
board to conceal insulation and services within the cavities of the assemblies
Structural Stability and to meet fire safety requirements such as flame-spread ratings, integrity
of fire separations, and fire-resistance ratings. In heavy timber construction,
wood elements such as NLT that meet the minimum sizes per Article 3.1.4.7
hot gases of Division B and permitted to be used where a fire-resistance rating of up
and smoke
to 45 minutes is required are used to form structural frames. The structural
members are permitted to be exposed, as their large mass provides an
inherent degree of resistance to ignition and flame spread.
Mass timber construction is similar to heavy timber construction except

that member sizes are typically larger than the minimum sizes prescribed for
heavy timber construction in the NBC, and mass timber includes engineered
wood products (other than glued-laminated timber) not currently addressed
Integrity
by the NBC. The fire-resistance rating of mass timber is driven by the sizes
of members of a proposed design in relation to the load-resistant capacity of
the design and may provide fire-resistance ratings exceeding the maximum 1.5
hours contemplated by the current NBC acceptable solutions.
3.2.1 Fire-Resistance Ratings

Fire-resistance ratings are based on the following criteria, illustrated in Figure 3.2:
Structural stability: resistance of the assembly or member to structural

collapse or exceedance of deformation limits.
Integrity: ability of the assembly to limit the spread of hot gases or fire
Insulation to the unexposed side.
Figure 3.2: Functions of Fire Resistance [1]
Insulation: ability of the assembly to limit the rise of temperature on
the unexposed side.
The applicable criterion to determine the fire-resistance rating for a specific

element or assembly depends on its intended purpose. For example, a structural
column is expected to meet the stability criterion, but not integrity or insulation.
A structural floor, acting as both a structural component and a fire separation,

Table 3.1 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF SOLID WOOD WALLS, ROOFS, AND FLOORS (MM)
(ADAPTED FROM TABLE 2.4 OF THE NBC)
FIRE-RESISTANCE RATING
TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION
30 45 1 1.5
MINUTES MINUTES HOUR HOUR
Solid wood floor with building paper and finish
89 114 165 235
flooring on top
Solid wood, splined or tongued and grooved with
64 76 - -
building paper and finish flooring on top
Solid wood walls of load bearing vertical plank 89 114 140 184
Solid wood walls of non-load bearing horizontal plank 89 89 89 140
is required to meet all three criteria. NLT floor assemblies used in fire-resistive Notes:
(1) See CSA O141, “Softwood Lumber,”
applications are typically required to meet all three criteria. for sizes.
(2) The fire-resistance ratings and minimum
There are three primary methods of determining a fire-resistance rating dimensions for floors also apply to solid wood roof
decks of comparable thickness with finish roofing
above 45 minutes for NLT:
material.
(3) The assembly shall consist of 38 mm thick
NBC assemblies: Division B, Appendix D-2.4 of the NBC provides a table members on edge fastened together with 101 mm
of minimum sizes for solid wood walls, floors, and roofs for fire-resistance ratings common wire nails spaced not more than 400 mm
o.c. and staggered in the direction of the grain.
up to 1.5 hours; this table is included in the Guide for reference as Table 3.1. NLT (4) The floor shall consist of 64 mm by 184 mm
panels, by virtue of its fabrication as solid wood members spiked together, wide planks either tongued and groved or with 19
mm by 38 mm splines set in grooves and fastened
meets the definition of a solid panel. These designs have been in the code for together with 88 mm common nails spaced not
more than 400 mm o.c.
many decades and it is not known whether the designs are based on actual fire
tests or historic practice that has been grandfathered into the code. The generic
solutions provided in Appendix D-2.4 are acceptable solutions under the code.
Calculated fire-resistance: NLT systems can be designed to meet the

minimum fire-resistance ratings based on char analysis and structural
calculations. CSA O86, “Engineering Design in Wood” is the structural
design standard referenced in the NBC. Annex B of this standard provides a
methodology for establishing structural fire-resistance ratings although a specific
methodology for NLT is not yet included. Currently, calculation methodologies
such as Annex B of CSA O86 are considered alternative solutions under the
code—except in Quebec, which recognizes Annex B as an acceptable solution.
Tested assemblies: There are currently very limited data on tested NLT
assemblies. However, testing in this area is being contemplated. Once
testing is completed, this guide will be updated and results made available
by the Canadian Wood Council and/or Forestry Innovation Investment.
Reports demonstrating an assembly or structural member has been tested in
accordance with CAN/ULC-S101 is an acceptable solution under the code.

Chapter 3 Fire
1. 2. 3. 3.2.2 Char
Charring of wood occurs when it is exposed to temperatures ranging from
approximately 280°C to 300°C [2]. Extensive testing has allowed char rates
of wood to be reliably predicted under the CAN/ULC S101 standard fire
time-temperature curve for various types of mass timber elements. The cross-
Figure 3.3: One-Dimensional Char Profile [2]
sectional dimensions of a wood element have a considerable impact on fire
Key
performance due to the development of char on the surface of a burning
1. Char Layer
2. Pyrolysis Zone member. The char significantly reduces the rate of burning; the char at the
3. Normal Wood exposed side of the wood member acts as thermal insulation and delays heating
of unexposed wood. Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show a typical cross-section of a
wood member exposed to fire on one side. In Figure 3.3, the profile includes a
pyrolysis zone or heated layer in the portion of the wood member beginning to
undergo charring. Behind the pyrolysis zone is wood at ambient temperature,
which retains all of its structural strength.
NLT that meets the minimum sizes prescribed in Division B, Article 3.1.4.7
have inherent fire resistance due to their thickness and are recognized as
elements of “heavy timber construction” in the NBC. Such members are
permitted by the code to be used where a fire-resistance rating up to 45
Figure 3.4: Wood Charring (Photo courtesy of
Holmes Fire) minutes is required and combustible construction is permitted, and thus do
not require char calculations.
Where the fire-resistance rating is required to be greater than 45 minutes, char

calculations may be used to determine the structural stability of elements
exposed to the CAN/ULC-S101 standard fire. This process involves
assigning the appropriate char rate, determining the depth of char on all
exposed sides and thickness of the heated layer, and evaluating the capacity
of the remaining structural element.
Topping Continuity and Char Behavior

Air Movement Possible
Account for Side Charring Where fire-resistance-rated construction is required, the topping used over
NLT may have a considerable impact on char behavior and resulting fire
resistance, as illustrated in Figure 3.5. Existing documentation suggests where
hot gases pass between the NLT laminations, bi-directional char may occur
[3]; i.e. char may occur on the sides of the individual laminations as well as
the bottom. Where NLT includes a monolithic topping such as concrete,
gypsum, plywood/OSB or similar materials, and gaps between laminations
Air Movement Prevented
Treat as Solid Timber Element are relatively tight, char behavior has been shown to be primarily be one-
dimensional. The flow of hot air through the assembly is negligible, keeping
Figure 3.5: Air Movement Through NLT
char limited to one direction on the exposed bottom surface.

In order to treat NLT as a solid timber element, in addition to the top
membrane, NLT should be manufactured using dry, quality lumber such
that the laminations are tight and gaps between the laminations are minimal;
drying of wood with a high moisture content tends to lead to the expansion
of the gaps between the laminations. Some testing has shown that where
the gaps are excessive, 4 mm (0.16 in.) or more, treatment of NLT as a solid 1. 2.
member may not be appropriate, even with a top membrane. Other testing 3.
has shown that where construction is tight, consideration of NLT as a solid, 4.
5.
monolithic member may be appropriate. Further testing is required in this
area to determine the degree of tightness required to consider an NLT panel
as monolithic. Figure 3.6: Representative Example of
Effective Depth
Where NLT is being used as a fire separation, air and therefore smoke
Key
may move through the assembly. A top membrane resolves this for floor 1. Residual Section
assemblies; however, for walls, shafts or stair fire separations, possible smoke 2. Calculated Charring Line
movement must be considered. 3. Calculated Depth of Charring
4. Profile of Original Section
Calculated Char Rate 5. Radius of Arris Rounding
The char rate is the speed at which solid wood burns and creates char
through the depth of a wood member. It is expressed in units of length
divided by time [4]; mm/min:
Char rate = char depth [mm] / time [min]
Char rates are generally consistent between types and species of wood and
are typically reported as a one-dimensional char rate or a notional (effective)
char rate. The one-dimensional char rate is applicable where the effect of
corner rounding is taken into account separately, or for slab elements exposed
to fire from one side (e.g. walls and floors). The notional char rate inherently
accounts for the effect of corner rounding and this need not be calculated
separately. Accordingly, the notional char rate is typically greater than the one-
dimensional char rate. Figure 3.6 shows a wood beam exposed to fire where
the effect of corner rounding is evident.
The residual cross-section on which the structural fire-resistance rating of

an NLT member is based is determined by subtracting both the char depth
and a “zero-strength” layer. This layer accounts for the pyrolysis zone and
additional heated portion of wood below charring temperature on all fire-
exposed surfaces. The reduced strength of the pyrolysis zone is represented in
calculations by a smaller zero-strength layer. The resulting residual cross-section

Chapter 3 Fire
or ambient wood below is assumed to maintain full strength and is used to

evaluate structural stability and fire-resistance rating. As previously noted, test
data on the char rates of NLT are limited; determining fire-resistance ratings of
NLT may require close review by a fire safety engineer and structural engineer
on a case-by-case basis.
Annex B of CSA O86 provides design charring rates for various wood
products exposed directly to the CAN/ULC-S101 standard fire temperature
conditions. These char rates apply only where the residual cross-section has
dimensions greater than 70 mm (2.75 in.) when exposed to fire on two parallel
sides. Specific details for NLT have not yet been incorporated in CSA O86;
however, it is expected that future editions will include these. The methodology
under ‘Timber Plank Decking’ may be used but is likely to prove onerous in
comparison to the values provided in Appendix D-2.4 of the code.
3.2.3 Fire Spread and Smoke Development

To control the risk of fire spread and smoke development at early stages in a
fire, the NBC regulates the materials and interior finish surfaces that can be used
in different buildings based on occupancy classification, type of construction
permitted, location of finishes, and the presence or absence of sprinkler
protection. Limitations on interior finishes are intended to delay ignition, slow
fire and smoke development, and limit fuel contribution to a fire; these in turn
delay the onset of untenable conditions and flashover. For exposed NLT (both
as structure and interior finish), the interior finish classification requirements may
apply in addition to fire protection requirements.
Interior wall and ceiling finish materials are typically evaluated based on
testing in accordance with CAN/ULC-S102 to determine flame-spread
ratings and smoke developed classifications. Evaluated finishes are assigned
a numerical, dimensionless flame-spread rating or smoke developed
classification based on formulas noted in the test standard. The species of
wood used for NLT should be evaluated to confirm the appropriate flame-
spread rating for the NLT. Most softwood finishes achieve a flame-spread
rating of 150, which is generally permitted to be used as interior wall finish in
sprinklered buildings with the exception of exits and lobbies used for exits.
Refer to NBC Subsections 3.1.5 and 3.1.13 of Division B for interior finish
requirements. The interior finish requirements noted in the NBC Subsection
3.1.13 of Division B apply to both combustible and noncombustible
construction.

Table 3.2 MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT PERMITTED FOR COMBUSTIBLE
CONSTRUCTION BY OCCUPANCY TYPE
GROUP MAXIMUM BUILDING

OCCUPANCY TYPE AND HEIGHT PERMITTED
DIVISION FOR COMBUSTIBLE
CONSTRUCTION
A1 1 storey (Heavy Timber)
A2 2 storeys
Assembly
A3 1 storey
A4 1 storey
Detention B1 -
Treatment B2 2 storey
Care B3 3 storey
6 storey - includes A2 & E
Residential C
on lower floors
Business and 6 storey - includes A2 & E
D
Personal Services on lower floors
Mercantile E 3 storey
High Hazard Industrial F1 3 storey
Medium Hazard
F2 4 storey
Industrial
Low Hazard Industrial F3 4 storey
Division B Appendix D-3 provides generic flame-spread ratings and smoke

developed classifications for several building materials, including for lumber
of a minimum thickness of 16 mm. For NLT, the flame-spread rating in
Appendix D-3 is a conservative value. Specific information on flame-spread
ratings for several Canadian wood species are made available by the Canadian
Wood Council (www.cwc.ca).
3.3 Fire Design

3.3.1 Acceptable Solutions
The NBC includes acceptable solutions for fire design of buildings in
Division B Parts 3 and 9. Currently, combustible construction is permitted
for buildings up to six storeys in building height (depending on occupancy
type). Table 3.2 provides a summary of maximum building height (by storey)
permitted for each occupancy category. Combustible construction in the

Chapter 3 Fire
form of wood-frame is permitted for all building categories except in Group

A Division 1 occupancies, where heavy timber construction is specifically
prescribed, and in Group B Division 1 occupancies, where noncombustible
construction is required.
Per the acceptable solutions of the NBC, NLT is permitted in the following cases:
• Any building permitted to be of combustible construction with

structural members required to have a 45-minute fire-resistance
rating or less. The NBC does not require the protection of
connections in this case.
• Any building permitted to be of combustible construction with
structural elements required to have a 1-hour fire-resistance rating.
The fire-resistance rating of structural elements may be determined
as described in this Guide in Section 3.2.1, using Appendix D-2.4 of
the NBC, standard fire-resistance tests, char calculations, or other
design methods.
• Roof assemblies of sprinklered buildings up to two storeys in building
height and structural members in the storey immediately below the
roof, regardless of the type of construction prescribed by the NBC.
• Solid lumber partitions (i.e. non-loadbearing walls) in buildings
required to be of non-combustible construction.
Consult a qualified fire protection engineer for calculation of fire-resistance

ratings above 45 minutes and for complex NLT design and/or NLT geometry
(e.g., staggered lumber boards resulting in uneven surfaces).
3.3.2 Building Code Alternative Solutions

Although any design not specified in Division B of the Code is by definition
an ‘alternative solution,’ in practice, alternative solutions fall into two
categories: simple alternative solutions that are relatively easy to apply, and
more complex performance-based designs.
Where NLT conforms to the prescriptive requirements of the NBC, the

approval process is usually simple. Generally, most AHJs are familiar with
wood design and heavy timber construction as prescribed by the acceptable
solutions of the Code.
Designers are increasingly using NLT in modern buildings beyond prescriptive

limits. Division C Section 2.3 of the NBC provides a mechanism for code
approval through the use of alternative solutions. This provision reflects

the NBC’s intent not to limit appropriate materials, design approaches, or
construction methods not covered by prescriptive requirements.
In general, an alternative solution is a compliance method intended to

demonstrate that a material, design, or method of construction that is not
specifically noted in Division B as an acceptable solution still achieves at least
the minimum level of performance required by Division B. This minimum
level of performance is defined in the areas described by the objectives and
functional statements attributed to the applicable acceptable solution. Intent
statements, typically available with the online version of the NBC, provide
further clarification.
The alternative solution approach involves working with an AHJ to identify

a non-compliant condition, develop an alternative solution, demonstrate
the minimum level of performance required by the code is achieved, and
ultimately gain approval. Depending on the level of complexity of the
alternative solution, the AHJ may request a third-party review.
Simple Alternative Solutions

For simple alternative solutions, where a condition not directly prescribed by
Division B is proposed, consider enhancing or adding fire safety measures
to balance the risks. Note that an alternative solution does not necessarily
need to propose mitigating features or “trade-offs”; it is simply required to
demonstrate that the intents, objectives, and functional statements of the
applicable acceptable solution are met by the proposed alternative solution.
Examples of possible enhanced fire safety measures include:
• Installation of a sprinkler system that may not be otherwise required

(i.e. an enhanced sprinkler);
• Enhanced fire resistance for structural elements;
• Enhanced compartmentalization within the building;
• Installation of non-combustible vertical exit enclosures; and
• Advanced analysis to demonstrate safety and/or robustness.
An example of a typical alternative solution is one where NLT construction

is proposed for an exterior wall located at property line with a limiting
distance of less than 1.2 m (4 ft.). The acceptable solution under Division
B Subsection 3.2.3 would prescribe that the wall be of noncombustible
construction even where the building is permitted to be of combustible
construction; however approaches involving inherent fire-resistance rating
and non-combustible cladding may be considered equivalent and acceptable

Chapter 3 Fire
as an alternative solution. In such a case, it may be advantageous to engage

in early discussion with the AHJ to convey the advantage of using similar
materials throughout the building to avoid differential shrinkage while still
providing the minimum level of performance.
Other examples of common alternative solutions related to the use of NLT

include the following:
• Exterior canopies using NLT in buildings required to be of

noncombustible construction;
• Roofs of two-storey portions of higher buildings required to be
noncombustible construction; and
• NLT construction in small areas of buildings required to be of
noncombustible construction.
3.3.3 Performance-Based Alternative Solutions

The NBC is an objective-based code, and AHJs expect that alternative
solutions demonstrate that the minimum level of performance required by
the code in the areas described by the objective and functional statements are
met. This process typically requires that the level of performance provided
by the alternative solution be compared to that provided by the provisions of
the acceptable solution. In certain cases, however, the proposed alternative
is so significantly outside the acceptable solutions of the building code that
a separate approval process other than described at Division C Section 2.3
may be required. This process typically occurs at the provincial level. In such
cases, the whole building may be analyzed to demonstrate that an acceptable
level of performance is provided. This may include demonstration design
objectives not necessarily addressed in the code. The approval process for
such an alternative solution may vary between provinces; for example, in BC,
there is an option to for approval through Site-Specific Regulation approved
by Ministerial Order.
The performance-based approach should be based on agreed-upon

performance goals and objectives, engineering analysis, and assessment of
alternatives against design goals and objectives using accepted engineering tools,
methodology, and performance criteria. This process may involve analysis from
first principles of fire design, risk analysis, computer modelling, and fire testing,
and often involves a third-party peer review. In such cases, the AHJ should be
engaged early in the design process to minimize impact on a project timeline.

The performance-based approach may be especially useful in the design
of tall buildings using NLT. Due to the inherent openings that may exist
between NLT laminations, special considerations may be required to address
smoke movement, interior finish and flame spread requirements, scissor stair
design, and elevator design among other considerations.
While the use of NLT is not uncommon in Canada, performance-based

design is. A performance-based design guide can be helpful to inform both
Figure 3.7: Internal Steel Plate Connection
designers and reviewers of the principles of such an approach. Examples of Buried Within Wood Member (Photo courtesy of
performance-based design guides and resources include the following: FPInnovations)
• Technical Guide for Design and Construction of Tall Wood

Buildings in Canada [2];
• Appendix D of the NBC;
• SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection
Analysis and Design of Buildings [5];
• ICC Performance-Based Code [6];
• International Fire Engineering Guidelines [7];
Figure 3.8: Internal Plate and Concealed
• National Performance Based Design Guide [8]. Fasteners (Photo courtesy of FPInnovations)
3.4 Additional Considerations

3.4.1 Connections
Where the NBC requires a fire-resistance rating for elements of the building
structure, vertical-load-resisting (i.e. gravity) connections are required to be
protected to provide a fire-resistance rating which is at least the same as the
rating for the structural elements they connect. Examples include burying
Figure 3.9: Structural Connection with Column
of connections within the structural wood member, providing sacrificial Cap at The Landing Building, Vancouver, BC
wood to cover connections (typically 40 mm of cover for a 1-hour fire rating, (Photo courtesy of GHL Consultants Ltd.)
as described in CSA O86), or installing gypsum board protection or other

approved materials. Connections may also be designed by direct connection
of the wood members with no fasteners. Such connections must be evaluated
for performance in fire. Refer to Figures 3.7 and 3.8 for examples of some
of these connection types. Historically, heavy timber connections for massive
wood members were composed of exposed steel or cast iron that also served
as column caps for load distribution [2]; refer to Figures 3.9 and 3.10.
Where NLT is used to conform to 45-minute combustible construction

requirements and it conforms to the definitions of heavy timber construction, Figure 3.10: Structural Connection with
Column cap at the Leckie Building, Vancouver,
the code recognizes that protection of steel connections is not warranted. BC (Photo courtesy of FPInnovations)

Chapter 3 Fire
Where NLT is used for fire-resistance ratings exceeding 45 minutes,

connections must be protected or tested to demonstrate the required fire
resistance is achieved. In some cases, failure of the connection will not cause
collapse, and protection of the connection may not be required; for example,
no fire-resistance is required for connections of elements that provide only
lateral load resistance.
3.4.2 Penetrations
Modern buildings typically contain an array of services that penetrate fire-
resistance-rated elements of the structure such as walls, floors, and shafts.
Where penetrations exist in fire-resistance-rated construction, the NBC
requires them to be cast-in-place or protected with firestop systems which
have been tested to CAN/ULC S115. Some provincial codes, such as those in
BC and Ontario, also permit penetrations to be “tightly-fitted.”
For exposed wood in general, fire testing has shown the importance of
insulating the wood from metal penetrations, as the hot metal can cause
unpredictable charring and allow passage of hot gasses and smoke [9]. There
are limited tested or listed firestop systems for NLT; however, designs tested for
CLT can reasonably be expected to perform similarly in NLT. Experience with
testing of penetrations in CLT has shown that metal pipes or fittings in contact
with timber cause charring, and metal must be separated from the wood by a
minimum of 12 mm (0.5 in.) of mineral wool. Refer to the latest edition of the
CLT Handbook [1] for additional details on penetration protection.
Similar experience with CLT testing has shown that plastic pipe penetrations
must account for the effect of charring, and firestopping materials typically
cannot be located on the underside of a timber floor. Joints built into NLT to
accommodate swelling during construction must also be firestopped (refer to
Chapter 4 for more).
3.4.3 Concealed Spaces

The NBC definition of heavy timber construction assumes the avoidance
of concealed spaces under floor and roof assemblies. While NLT may
not inherently include voids or concealed spaces, concealed spaces may be
created when NLT is used with dropped ceilings, furred walls, or raised
floors. Subsection 3.1.11 of the NBC addresses the protection of concealed
spaces through the use of fire blocks to limit the size of any concealed space.
Notwithstanding the NBC provisions, additional protection may be required
to limit the probability of fire spread in concealed spaces, depending on
the sprinkler standard applied. In general, buildings sprinklered to NFPA

13 require sprinkler protection in concealed spaces unless other conditions
also outlined in NFPA 13 are met, or an acceptable engineered alternative
solution is developed. In general, voids and concealed spaces require sprinkler
protection under the following conditions, as outlined by NFPA 13:
• When sprinkler protection is required per code (based on the height,

area, number of stories, fire resistance requirement, etc.);
• In cavities up to 4.5 m3 (160 ft3) that do not contain fire blocking or
fire stopping; and /or,
• When the cavity is not filled with noncombustible insulation.
Notable exceptions include:
• Certain residential buildings where NFPA 13R is the permitted

sprinkler standard; or,
• Where the fire blocking is equal to material used in NLT.
3.4.4 Construction Fire Safety

Fire safety during construction is not an objective of the NBC. It is regulated
by the National Fire Code and is typically the responsibility of the general
contractor. However, for complex alternative solutions and performance-
based designs that include an extensive use of wood beyond typical
applications, it is worth integrating as part initial design considerations.
Examples of resources that guidance on fire safety during construction and

which may inform initial design considerations are:
• Division B Part 8 of the NBC, “Safety Measures at Construction and

Demolition Sites”;
• Division B Section 5.6 of the National Fire Code;
• NFPA 241, “Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and
Demolition Operations” [10];
• Technical Guide for Design and Construction of Tall Wood
Buildings in Canada [2];
• Fire Safety During Construction for Five and Six Storey Wood
Buildings in Ontario: A Best Practice Guideline [11];
• “Construction Site Fire Safety: A Guide for Construction of Large
Buildings” – by Centre for Public Safety and Criminal Justice
Research, University of the Fraser Valley, 2015 (http://cjr.ufv.ca/
construction-site-fire-safety/) [12]; and,
• Municipal bulletins on construction fire safety.

Chapter 3 Fire
References
[1] Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. 2013. CLT handbook:
Crosslaminated timber. Pointe-Claire, Québec: FPInnovations
[2] FPInnovations Special Publication SP-55E, “Technical Guide for the

Design and Construction of Tall Wood Buildings in Canada”, 2014.
[3] Osborne, L., Fire Resistance of Long Span Composite Wood-

Concrete Floor Systems, FPInnovations, March 2015
[4] CSA Group, CSA O86, Engineering design in wood, May 2014
[5] Custer, Richard L.P. 2004. SFPE engineering guide to performance-based fire
protection: analysis and design of buildings. Massachusetts; Society of Fire
Protection Association.
[6] International Code Council. 2009. 2009 International codes: complete

collection. [Country Club Hills, IL]: International Code Council.
[7] International Fire Engineering Guidelines, 2005. Canberra, ACT:

ABCB for the Australian Government, State and Territories of
Australian Building Codes Board.
[8] National Institute of Building Sciences High Performance Building

Council. 2016. National performance based design guide. [Washington,
DC]: National Institute of Building Sciences.
[9] GHL Consultants. “Firestopping Test Witness Report for Nordic

Structures”. GHL File NEW-4830.01 26 September 2016
[10] National Fire Protection Association. 2013. NFPA 241: standard for
safeguarding construction, alteration, and demolition operations.
[11] “Fire Safety During Construction for Five and Six Storey Wood
Buildings in Ontario: A Best Practice Guideline.” May 2016. Accessed
October 04, 2017. http://www.mah.gov.on.ca/Page14861.aspx.
[12] University of the Fraser Valley. “Construction Site Fire Safety.” Centre
for Public Safety and Criminal Justice Research. May 28, 2015. Accessed
October 04, 2017. http://cjr.ufv.ca/construction-site-fire-safety/.

Above Mountain Equipment Co-op Head Office. Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Proscenium Architecture+Interiors. (Photo credit: Ed White Photographics)

Above East Village Presentation Centre, Calgary AB. Architecture: James KM Cheng Architects (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)

4 Structure
Nail-laminated timber (NLT) is a system that spans in one direction to resist

out-of-plane loading. Although its monolithic nature makes it a mass timber
system rather than a joist system, it can be conceptualized structurally as In This Chapter
dimension lumber joists spaced at the joist width (e.g. for 2x material, joists 4.1 Gravity Design Procedures
spaced at 38 mm [1-1/2 in.]). NLT can consist of any species, grade, and size 4.2 Lateral Load Design Procedures
of dimension lumber. Floors and roofs are typically sheathed on the top side 4.3 Connections
with plywood or OSB to carry in-plane shear caused by lateral loads. The 4.4 Additional Design Considerations
strength and serviceability of NLT for both gravity and lateral loads must 4.5 Specifications
meet the minimum requirements of applicable codes and standards. Given
timber’s high strength-to-weight ratio, serviceability requirements such as
deflections and vibrations often govern the design of NLT floors. Designing
for fire-resistance may also be a governing factor.
The guidance in this chapter is intended to cover design issues specific to

NLT. The reader is assumed to have a general working knowledge of wood
properties as well as design procedures according to CSA O86, the Canadian
standard for Engineering Design in Wood. CSA O86 clause references in this
chapter refer to the 2014 edition.
4.1 Gravity Design Procedures

To design for gravity loads, treat NLT as a built-up beam as shown in Figure
4.1. Follow the provisions in CSA O86, using general design requirements in
Clause 5 and equations for sawn lumber in Clause 6. Where NLT contains
butt-jointed laminations, additional modification factors are required beyond
those given in CSA O86 to account for reductions in strength and stiffness.
Exposure condition, either in service or in construction, can significantly

impact both the strength and the long-term deflections of NLT. It also
affects durability, as discussed in Chapter 5. Vibrations can govern the design
and should be checked when NLT is used for floors or occupied roofs.

Chapter 4 Str ucture
Where NLT is exposed and required to meet certain fire-resistance ratings,

determine post-fire capacities in accordance with the procedures outlined in
1.
Chapter 3 and Section 4.15.
CSA O86 Modification Factors

2.
3. Use modification factors for the design of N LT from CSA O86 Clause 6.
Factors that require clarification for NLT in lieu of i ndividual sawn lumber
Figure 4.1: NLT Cross-Section joists are discussed in this section. Apply the remaining modification factors
Key directly per CSA O86 provisions.
1. NLT depth (d)
2. Lamination thickness (blam) System Factor, KH
3. NLT panel width (b) NLT meets the requirements for Case 1 by definition; most NLT assemblies
also qualify as Case 2, provided the minimum requirements for sheathing
given in CSA O86 Clause 6.4.4.2 are met. Apply the appropriate Case 1 or
Case 2 KH factor given in CSA O86 Table 6.4.4. Only one system factor can
be used; do not apply the system factor for built-up beams.
Size Factor, KZ
Develop the size factor based on the individual lamination thickness (blam),
analogous to the typical design approach for built-up sawn lumber members.
Lateral Stability Factor, KL

Use a lateral stability factor of 1.0 except in rare cases where edge conditions or
large openings may create narrow sections of NLT with only a few laminations.
4.1.1 Additional Modification Factors

Additional modification factors are required in cases where NLT laminations
are butt jointed in between supports and/or NLT is fabricated from
laminations of varying depths.
Layup Factor (Klayup )

Butt jointing laminations between supports is a common approach to reduce
the cost of NLT, because it permits use of a variety of lumber lengths.
However, these modified layups result in reduced strength and stiffness that
must be accounted for in design.
Table 4.1 provides a number of layup types and the associated modification
factors for bending strength and stiffness. These factors provide a simplified
way to account for stress redistribution between the laminations. Some have
been derived based on CSA O86 Table 6.5.11.4 others are based on European
research [1], [2], [3].


Table 4.1 NLT LAYUP TYPES AND ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
LAYUP TYPE
Laminations continuous
and single span
Laminations continuous
and multi-span
2 edge courses min. 2 courses where joints align

supported on 2 supports (approx. 150mm or 6 in.)
max. 7 courses
Laminations with controlled
to be repeated
random butt joints over 4 or
more supports
ℓend.span
/2
No Butt Joints
610 mm (24 in.) minimum
ℓend.span ℓ
2 edge courses min. 2 courses where joints align

supported on 2 supports (approx. 150mm. or 6 in.)
max. 7 courses
Laminations with controlled to be repeated
random butt joints over fewer
than 4 supports
ℓend.span 1220 mm (48 in.) minimum

ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
NOTES
BENDING STRENGTH STIFFNESS
(KLAYUP.B) (KLAYUP.E)
Where:
d = NLT depth
E = modulus of elasticity
Klayup.b = 1.0 Klayup.E = 1.0 Maximum bending strength for a given
depth. Typical maximum length for ℓ = span
laminations of 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft.). s = nail spacing in direction of span,
wℓ2 5wℓ4 Longer laminations can be fabricated in millimeters
M= Δ= with NLGA SPS 1 finger joints.
8 384E (d3/12) w = uniformly distributed line load
Use consistent units, except where
specific units are noted.
Klayup.E = 1.0 Maximum bending strength and

Klayup.b = 1.0 stiffness for a given depth. Typical
maximum length for laminations of
wℓ4 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft.). Longer
wℓ2 Δ= laminations can be fabricated
M= 185E (d3/12)
8 with NLGA SPS 1 finger joints.
Klayup.b = 0.80 Klayup.E = 0.69 Maximum stiffness for a butt-jointed

system. Rules for joint locations are
given in CSA O86 Clause 6.5.11.3.2
wℓ2 0.0069wℓ4 and Table 6.5.11.4, and illustrated
M= Δ=
E (d3/12) in the adjacent figure.
10
(ℓ/d)1/4 wℓ2 Based on European research [2][3][4],

Klayup.b = 0.29 M= rules for joint locations per CSA O86
s1/9 8 should be amended as follows:
Where butt joints occur in the
for single span:
same general line, they must be
5wℓ 4
separated by a minimum of three
Δ=
(ℓ/d) 9/10
384E(d3/12) intervening laminations.
kkk Klayup.E =
12s1/5 Each lamination must extend over a
for double span: minimum of one support.
wℓ4 See Section 4.3.1 for minimum
Δ= nailing requirements.
185E(d3/12)

4. 2. 1. 3. Additional layup types are also possible; options such as combination simple/
two-span and mixed cantilever are described in the American Wood Council’s
publication on Tongue & Groove Roof Decking [4]. For these layups and
others not addressed here, or where the requirements noted are not met,
appropriate modification factors can be developed through a finite element
analysis using a grillage model. Figure 4.2 is an illustration of a grillage model,
where the laminations, modelled as beam members, are connected with shear
springs representing the nails. For more detail on the development of this
Figure 4.2: Grillage Model kind of model, including appropriate nail spring stiffness values, refer to
Key Kramer [1], Kramer [2], and Haller [3].
1. NLT lamination (modeled as beam element)
2. Spring between lams representing nails (model Cross-Section Factor (Ksection )
stiffness to match nail shear behaviour) Staggered NLT cross-sections can be used for architectural or acoustic
3. Break in lamination at butt joint (modeled
without connection to lam within the course) effect or to accommodate finish requirements, as discussed in Chapter 2. A
4. Support location (modeled as pinned supports common example of a staggered NLT cross-section with two alternating
at each lam) lamination depths is shown in Figure 4.3, though any number of depths
and patterns can be used. In some cases, staggered NLT can also be used to
accommodate venting as discussed in Chapter 5.
For these cross-sections, the variation in depth of the laminations is more

structurally complex than it initially appears. The nails do not provide sufficient
stiffness to create a fully composite system with all laminations reaching their
2. 1.
maximum bending capacity. Summing the capacity of all the laminations (deep
and shallow) is therefore not conservative. Instead, when the deeper lams reach
4. 3. their full capacity, only a portion of the shallower lams’ strength is engaged,
5.
based on their relative stiffnesses. The section strength and stiffness can be
ni blam i determined based on flat NLT of full depth (d1) modified in accordance with
6. x i=
bpanel Table 4.2. For NLT using more than two lamination depths, the shallowest
laminations, with the smallest contribution, can be ignored, or a similar
Figure 4.3: Staggered NLT Cross-Section approach based on relative stiffnesses can be developed.
Key
Table 4.2 STAGGERED NLT ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
1. NLT deep lamination depth (d1 )
2. NLT shallow lamination depth (d2 )
3. NLT deep lamination thickness (blam1 ) STIFFNESS (KSECTION.E) BENDING (KSECTION.B) SHEAR (KSECTION.V)
4. NLT shallow lamination thickness (blam2 )
3 3
5. NLT panel width (b) d2 d2
Ksection.E = X1+ X2 Ksection.b = X1+ X2 Ksection.v = X1
6. Ratio of lamination depths (xi ), where d1 d1
ni = the number of laminations of depth di
Note that Ksection is always less than 1.0 for staggered NLT and is intended to
modify stress and stiffness calculations based on the deeper laminations (i.e.
flat NLT with a constant depth of “d1”).

The factor provided for shear strength is simplified to account only for the deeper
laminations. This approach is conservative, but shear rarely governs the design.
4.1.2 Strength
Strength design of NLT floors and roofs is based on CSA O86 provisions
for bending moment resistance, shear resistance, and compressive resistance
perpendicular to grain (bearing).
Bending Moment
Design NLT for bending using CSA O86 provisions, ensuring the factored
bending moment (Mf) is less than the factored bending moment resistance
(Mr,NLT). Determine the bending capacity in accordance with CSA O86 Clause
6.5.4.1 modified by additional factors to account for layup type (Klayup) and
cross-section type (Ksection) as described in Section 4.1.2.
Mr.NLT = ϕFb S Kzb KL Klayup.b Ksection.b
Shear
Shear rarely governs the design of uniformly loaded NLT, but a review of the
design approach is provided for completeness. Design NLT for shear forces
using CSA O86 provisions, ensuring the factored shear force (Vf) is less than
the factored shear resistance (Vr.NLT). For shear design of NLT with controlled
random butt joints, calculate shear at interior supports as if all laminations
are continuous multi-span, and calculate shear at exterior supports as if all
laminations are single-span. Determine the shear capacity in accordance
with CSA O86 Clause 6.5.5.2 modified by an additional factor to account for
cross-section type (Ksection) as described in Section 4.1.2.
Vr,NLT = ϕ Fv (2/3) An Kzv Ksection.v
Design NLT with notches in accordance with CSA O86 Clause 6.5.5.3
modified by an additional factor to account for cross-section type (Ksection) as
described in Section 4.1.2.
Vr,NLT = ϕ Ff Ag Kn Ksection.v
Bearing
Bearing rarely governs the design of uniformly loaded NLT. Design NLT for
bearing using CSA O86 provisions, ensuring the factored bearing force (Qf) is
less than the factored compressive resistance (Qr.NLT) of the NLT perpendicular
to grain. For NLT with a staggered cross-section that requires a fire rating,

consider blocking within the gaps where bearing occurs to prevent char on the
top side of the support. Refer to Chapter 3 for further discussion of char.
Qr,NLT = ϕ Fcp Ab Kb Kzcp
4.1.3 Deflections
Analyze NLT deflections using a simplified beam analogy, and compare
the results to code-prescribed and/or project-specific limits. Base stiffness
properties on specified modulus of elasticity values given in CSA O86 Clause
6, adjusted in accordance with CSA O86 modification factors given in Clause
5.4.1 and additional factors described in Section 4.1.1.
bpaneld3
El = Es Klayup.EKsection.E
12
Creep and Long-Term Loading

Table 4.3 CREEP FACTORS Creep deflections from long-term loading are an important consideration for
the design of any wood member, as they can easily exceed short-term elastic
SERVICE CREEP
CLASS FACTOR deflection values. Pay special attention to situations with large dead loads or
1 1.6
sustained live loads, high ambient temperatures, highly variable humidity levels,
2 1.8
or any service conditions that will tend to increase wood’s moisture content.
CSA O86 addresses long term loading in Clause 5.4.3 but does not provide
3 3.0
specific guidance on calculating deflections in sawn lumber due to creep;
additional guidance can be found in the US and European wood codes and
design standards (National Design Specification for Wood Construction [5]
and Eurocode 5 [6], respectively). Eurocode provisions for creep are based on
three service conditions rather than simply “wet” and “dry”; they are designated
as Service Classes 1-3. Service Class 1 is defined as indoor conditions with
low humidity and wood moisture content not exceeding 12%. Service Class 2
is exterior to the building envelope but sheltered from direct rain and snow
exposure, and wood moisture content not exceeding 20%. Service Class 3 is
direct exposure to the elements and/or high humidity, with wood moisture
content of 20% or higher. In each of these cases, elastic deflections due to long-
term loads should be multiplied by the factors given in Table 4.3.
Moisture Service Condition

Use NLT only in dry or sheltered service conditions (Service Classes 1 and
2 according to the definitions given in the previous section). Wet service
conditions (Service Class 3) will create problems with durability and will
impact strength properties and long-term deflections.

Even if NLT is detailed for dry service conditions, the wood may still be
exposed to moisture during construction, particularly if moisture is not well
managed on site and the NLT is not allowed to dry after rain exposure. If the
NLT becomes wet, consider measures such as temporary shores to control
creep deflections that may occur, particularly in deflection-sensitive areas such
as cantilevers. In cases where creep during construction has already occurred,
take particular care with concrete topping slabs for the following reasons:
Concrete Ponding: Creep deformations developed prior to casting the

topping will result in ponding effects if the topping is poured to a fixed
elevation rather than a constant thickness.
Desorption: The topping prevents moisture evaporation from the top

surface of the NLT, reducing the drying rate of the NLT.
Increased Creep Loading: The concrete topping is a long-term load which

will increase the creep deflections.
Refer to Chapter 7 for more on moisture control during construction.
4.1.4 Vibration
Because of NLT’s high strength-to-weight ratio, vibrations become more
likely to govern floor design as spans increase. The stiffness of an NLT floor
with butt-jointed laminations should be calculated as discussed in Section
4.1.2. Beyond this modification, basic vibration design procedures for NLT
are based on loads, mass, damping, and stiffness, similar to any other type
of floor system. Discuss vibrations early in the project to determine the end
users’ expectations and set appropriate design criteria. Limits on vibrations
can vary widely, because occupancy and individual sensitivity to vibration
impact what a person views as “acceptable.”
Vibration-controlled floor spans have historically been designed using simple

approximations such as upper limits on elastic live load deflection (e.g. L/480
or L/600) or lower limits on the fundamental frequency of the floor system
(e.g. 6 Hz or 8 Hz). The typical span ranges given in Table 2.1 also factor
vibrations into account for occupancies that are not especially vibration
sensitive, such as offices. These rules of thumb and span ranges are useful
for preliminary design but should not be relied on exclusively. In some cases,
these guidelines may be too stringent, and in others they may be insufficient.
For any NLT floor with potential vibration concerns, perform a detailed
design by calculating maximum accelerations, which are a better performance
measure than deflections or frequencies. Pay particular attention to structural

1. supports and their effect on the overall performance of the floor. For example,
2.
NLT supported on walls will perform better than NLT with the same span
3. 4. supported on beams, because the beams will also contribute to vibrations. Non-
7. structural components such as floor build-ups and partition walls can also have
Flat NLT
6. a major influence on performance because of their effects on mass, stiffness,
and damping. In the absence of more specific information, a damping value
1.
2. of 3% for bare NLT is a reasonable lower limit, matching the value given for
3. 5. mechanically laminated timber (“Brettstapel”) in the German timber code [7].
7.
CSA O86 Annex A and NBC Structural Commentary D provide guidance
6.
Staggered NLT
on dynamic loading, frequencies, acceleration limits, and design strategies
to prevent or correct problems with floor vibrations. AISC’s design guide
Figure 4.4: Charred NLT Cross-Section
on vibrations of steel-framed structures [8] also provides a useful overview,
Key
and most of the content can be applied directly to NLT systems by using
1. Continuous air barrier such as concrete
topping the appropriate stiffness values in the equations. ISO 10137 [9] provides
2. Plywood/OSB diaphragm sheathing additional recommendations.
3. Remaining NLT depth (dfire )
4. Initial flat NLT depth (d) 4.1.5 Fire Design
5. Intial staggered NLT depth of As described in Chapter 3, NLT with an exposed soffit can meet fire-resistance
shallower lams (d2 )
6. Char depth (xc ) rating requirements in multiple ways. Where ratings are based on code-prescribed
7. Zero strength layer (xt ) minimum dimensions or on test data, structural calculations are not required.
In situations where ratings are calculated using char, the char rate should
1.
be based on project-specific fire modelling performed by a code or fire
2.
consultant. Refer to Section 3.2.2 for discussion or char. After subtracting
5.
3. 4. the depth of the char and zero strength layers, perform strength and stability
7.
checks with the revised NLT section depth, illustrated in Figure 4.4.
6.
NLT is often governed by deflections or vibrations; therefore the overall depth of
the NLT may not need to increase to achieve the required fire-resistance rating.
The layup modification factor for bending strength (Klayup,b ) described in Section
4.1.2 is still applicable for NLT with butt-jointed laminations in the char analysis
6.
case. The cross-section modification factor (Ksection,b ) need not be applied,
Figure 4.5: Bearing Reduction where Supported
on Exposed Charred Timber Beam however. The post-fire section for staggered NLT is based on the char and
Key zero-strength layer depths calculated for the shallowest lams, as illustrated in
1. Topping Figure 4.4. This simplified approach accounts for the char that occurs on three
2. Plywood/OSB diaphragm sheathing
sides for the portion of the deeper lams projecting below the shallower lams.
3. Initial bearing length (lb )
4. Remaining bearing length (lb.fire ) If the NLT is supported on an exposed wood member, such as a glued-
5. Remaining NLT depth (dfire )
laminated beam, check bearing based on the reduced bearing length of the
6. Char depth (xc )
7. Zero strength layer (xt ) NLT as shown in Figure 4.5.

4.2 Lateral Load Design 5.
1.
4.
Procedures 3. 8.
2.
8.
NLT is typically used in floor and roof applications; lateral design for NLT is
therefore often limited to providing diaphragm action. Though less common,
NLT can also be used for shear walls. In both cases, a separate layer of 7.
structure takes in-plane shear loads. Design shear walls and diaphragms based
on CSA O86, with additional guidance provided in the following sections. Panel Joint Perpendicular to NLT Span
4.2.1 Diaphragms 1.
In-plane load transfer across lamination joints is not well understood, nor is 5. 4.
the contribution of those joints to the in-plane shear and bending stiffness
3. 2.
of NLT. Relying on diaphragm capacities given in CSA O86 for plywood/
OSB diaphragms is an appropriate, conservative approach. Generally, the
6.
diaphragm can be considered fully blocked. CSA O86 also recognizes
diagonal lumber sheathing; this system is more common in historic structures
and is not addressed here. Panel Joint Parallel to NLT Span
Where over-framing or an inverted staggered cross section is provided to

Figure 4.6: Prefabricated NLT Panel
accommodate venting as discussed in Chapter 5, the connection between the Sheathed On-Site
plywood/OSB diaphragm and the NLT is provided in only one direction, and Key
the diaphragm should be designed as unblocked. Where additional blocking 1. NLT panel joint location
2. Plywood/OSB panel joint location with panel
between the staggered lams or over-framing is provided, a fully blocked edge nailing
diaphragm design is appropriate. Ensure continuity of the load path between 3. Field-installed plywood/OSB diaphragm with
the diaphragm and the vertical lateral-resisting elements. intermediate support nailing
4. Prefabricated NLT panel A
Distributing shear to the vertical lateral-resisting elements is more complex 5. Prefabricated NLT panel B
6. Toe nail at NLT interface where no expansion
than for typical joist floors. The connections between laminations likely create
gap is required
a stiffer diaphragm than a typical plywood/OSB diaphragm, but calculating 7. NLT support element
a semi-rigid diaphragm stiffness is difficult to do accurately; the analysis 8. Diaphragm nail edge distance requirements
per CSA 086
will be highly sensitive to assumptions about nail stiffness and load transfer
between laminations. A simplified approach to determine load distribution
is to perform two separate analyses, one assuming flexible diaphragms and
one assuming rigid diaphragms. A full envelope design (taking the worst case
from both analyses) may be overly conservative; use engineering judgment to
determine final design forces.

5. 6. Plywood/OSB
1. 2. 4.
Follow the approach provided in CSA O86 for fully blocked diaphragms
to design plywood/OSB and its fastening to the support structure. For
diaphragms with nail spacing that can be accommodated in a single line,
7. the plywood/OSB panel joints parallel to the direction of the NLT span
Diaphragm with single row of nails at panel edges should always be centred on an individual lamination to allow for proper load
transfer across the joint, as shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7. Where multiple
5. 6.
rows of fasteners are required at panel edges and boundaries, the NLT
1. 3. 4.
laminations must have sufficient nailing to transfer the shear load across the
8. joint. A simple approach is to provide equal nailing between the laminations
ASSY_VG_CYL_8-260
ASSY_VG_CYL_8-260 ASSY_VG_CYL_8-260
at the plywood/OSB panel splice locations to that provided between the

7.
plywood/OSB and the NLT at the diaphragm panel edges. Another common
Diaphragm with two rows of nails at panel edges approach is to provide long screw reinforcement (typically self-tapping
screws) at the NLT edges near plywood/OSB splices, as shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: Prefabricated Pre-Sheathed Panels
Key Chords and Collectors
1. Field-intalled Plywood/OSB Similar to the approach for light-frame diaphragms, chords and collectors in
2. Plywood/OSB splice location with single row
panel edge nailing
an NLT assembly should be designed for seismic loads of at least 1.2 times
3. Plywood/OSB splice location for diaphragm the diaphragm design load as per CSA O86 Clause 11.8.6; however, the
with two rows panel edge nailing forces need not exceed those determined using an RdRo of 1.3. The tension
4. Shop-installed plywood/OSB
diaphragm sheathing and compression forces in these chords and collectors can be resisted in a
5. Prefabricated NLT panel A number of ways. Using beams as axial force members is one option. If the
6. Prefabricated NLT panel B design does not include beams at the edges of the diaphragm, chord forces
7. NLT expansion gap location fire stopped
must be resisted within the floor assembly. One approach is to assume the
as required
8. Self-tapping screw pairs crossing plywood/ NLT laminations act as discrete tension and compression elements that resist
OSB splice location the full chord force at the extreme edges of the diaphragm.1 Design the NLT
laminations in this case as combined axial and bending members, with the
1. axial forces due to lateral loads and the bending forces due to gravity loads in a
2. given load combination; use the modification factors outlined in Section 4.1.1.
3. This approach requires careful consideration of load transfer across the
5. lamination joints within the discrete chord element, as shown in Figure 4.8.
4.
The design of NLT chords in the direction of the NLT span is relatively
straightforward. Design individual laminations as tension or compression
Figure 4.8: Effective Discrete Chord Element
elements, laterally restrained about the lamination weak axis (i.e. slenderness
Key
factor KC=1.0). Ensure the factored chord force is less than the individual
1. Diaphragm perimeter nailing
2. Plywood/OSB diaphragm sheathing
3. NLT
1 This approach ignores the potential contribution of laminations further inward and therefore
4. Built-up chord width
is conservative, but a pure linear elastic stress distribution in the NLT laminations would be inaccurate.
5. Chord fastening for load transfer Load transfer from the sheathing to the laminations occurs at discrete locations, primarily at the plywood/
OSB panel edges, rather than uniformly across the full diaphragm.

lamination factored resistance developed in accordance with CSA O86
Clauses 6.5.6 (compression) and 6.5.9 (tension).
If the outermost single lamination does not meet the strength requirements,
spread the load among multiple laminations as required. In such cases, ensure
the laminations are sufficiently nailed together and nailed to the plywood/OSB,
as shown in Figure 4.8. A simple approach is to provide equal nailing between
the edge laminations to that provided in the plywood/OSB at the diaphragm
boundary. Compression force transfer across the lamination butt joints is
provided by direct end-grain bearing. Transferring tension across a butt joint
is possible by transferring the force into the adjacent lamination and then back
into the original lamination on the other side of the joint, using nails in shear.
This load path becomes complicated where multiple laminations are needed
to resist the tension force and for layups with frequent butt joints in between
supports. Consider using light-gauge steel straps as a simpler approach.
For chords perpendicular to the direction of the NLT span, one option is to
provide a rim board to take both the tension and compression forces. Where
a single rim board does not provide sufficient tension strength, consider
using light-gauge steel straps. Where a single rim board does not provide
sufficient compression strength, another option is to resist the force with
perpendicular-to-grain bearing in the NLT laminations. Calculate the width
required to resist the compression force in accordance with CSA O86 Clause
6.5.7, and evaluate the result for reasonableness. Widths of over 150 mm (6
in.) may result in excessive crushing at the extreme edge of the diaphragm.
Relying on a rim board or perpendicular-to-grain bearing to resist chord
forces increases the flexibility of the diaphragm, which must be considered
in accordance with CSA O86 Clause 11.7.2. Chord-splice slip values must
be accounted for; in the case of perpendicular-to-grain bearing, the elastic
modulus is much lower than that for parallel-to-grain loading.
Design collector elements using the same approach. Where additional nailing is
difficult to locate accurately (for example at interior shear walls), consider using
separate elements such as beams, straps, or wall top plates as the collectors.
4.2.2 Shear Walls

NLT is not as commonly used for walls but can be designed as a vertical
lateral-resisting element. Similar to diaphragms, lateral capacity is provided
by plywood/OSB, which can be applied to either side of the wall. Follow the
approach provided in CSA O86 Clause 11 for blocked shear walls; special
detailing may be required to accommodate hold-down connections.

Above Mountain Equipment Co-op Head Office, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Proscenium Architecture+Interiors. (Photo credit: Ed White Photographics)
1. 2.
3. 4.3 Connections
A complete NLT design includes details and specifications for connections,
both within the NLT and from the NLT to its supports.
4.
4.3.1 NLT Connections

5. Provide requirements for NLT lamination nailing in the structural contract
documents. Where NLT is prefabricated in panels, also include requirements
Figure 4.9: Prefabricated NLT Panels with for panel-to-panel connections.
Varying Support Conditions
Key Lamination Nailing
1. Prefabricated NLT panel A Lamination-to-lamination nailing provides vertical shear transfer, forces
2. Prefabricated NLT panel B
the laminations to deflect equally, and pulls the laminations tight together.
3. Plywood/OSB diaphragm sheathing over
screw heads Recommended nailing for NLT fabricated with 2x lamination stock (38 mm
4. Self-tapping fully threaded screws inclined at [1-1/2 in.] actual thickness) is provided in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.10.
450
5. Proximate support

Table 4.4 MINIMUM LAMINATION NAILING
1.
NAILING PATTERN
NLT TYPE NLT DEPTH 76 MM (3 IN.) LONG, 3.76 MM 76 MM (3 IN.) LONG, 3.33 MM 3.
(0.148 IN.) DIAMETER NAILS* (0.128 IN.) DIAMETER NAILS*
Up to 140mm One row at 450 mm (18 in.) Two Rows

(6 in. nominal) o.c., staggered
Continuous
Laminations Greater than
Two rows at 450 mm (18 in.) 2.
140 mm (6 in.
o.c., staggered
nominal)
Up to 140mm One row at 175 mm (7 One row at 125 mm 3.
(6 in. nominal) in.) o.c., staggered (5 in.) o.c., staggered
Butt-Jointed One Row
Laminations** Greater than Two rows at 350 mm
Two rows at 250
Figure 4.10: Lamination Nailing
140mm (6 in. mm (10 in.) o.c.,
(14 in.) o.c., staggered
nominal) staggered Key
*Nails are smooth shank galvanized steel nails. 1. >140 mm (6 in. nominal)
**Provide two additional nails on each side of every butt joint. 2. ≤ 140 mm (6 in. nominal)
3. Nailing spacing
The use of 76 mm (3 in.) nails for 2x laminations is a departure from CSA Nailing in face layer
Nailing in layer beyond
O86 Clause 6.5.11.3.1, which requires 102 mm (4 in.) nails at 450 mm (18
in.) spacing in either one or two rows, depending on the lamination depth.2
3.
These nailing requirements are difficult or impossible to meet with standard 6.
pneumatic nailers, which are commonly used to fabricate NLT. If required by 1.
the authority having jurisdiction, the nail sizes and patterns proposed in Table 4.4 2. 5. 5.
and Figure 4.10 can be presented for approval on an engineering judgment basis.
For butt-jointed NLT, the structural purpose of the nails is to share vertical
4.
load among the laminations to provide continuity across the joints, loading
the nails in shear. In this case, the proposed alternative nailing matches the
shear strength of the standard-prescribed nailing. 1.
2. 5.
For continuous NLT, where all the lams are self-supporting, any load
transfer between the laminations that may be required to ensure deflection
compatibility is easily accomplished with plywood/OSB; the nails are not
4.
required to perform a structural purpose. In this case, the proposed nailing
provides a nominal clamping mechanism to ensure that any gaps between
Figure 4.11: NLT Connections to Wood Beam
laminations that result from shrinkage will remain small and well-distributed
Key
across the overall NLT width. In cases where NLT is required to have a fire- 1. Plywood/OSB installed over countersunk
resistance rating, preventing large gaps helps mitigate the risk of an integrity screws
or insulation failure, as described in Chapter 3. 2. NLT
3. Prefabricated NLT panel joint
4. Wood support beam
5. Self-tapping partially threaded screws with
countersunk heads
2 Nailing every course is required to meet the standard intent. 6. Self-tapping screw fastener end distance

1. 3. 9. Panel-to-Panel Connections
8. For prefabricated NLT, panel-to-panel connections are provided by the
2. plywood/OSB. In order to maintain diaphragm continuity and in-plane shear
transfer, plywood/OSB joints must be located a sufficient distance from NLT
5.
4. panel splices. For plywood/OSB joints parallel to the NLT span, the distance
7. must also be sufficient to prevent differential gravity deflection between NLT
6. panels. Refer to Figures 4.6 and 4.7 for examples of panel-to-panel connections.
For large areas of NLT, make allowances for swelling due to changing
NLT Span Perpendicular to
Shear Wall at Panel Joint moisture content during construction; these allowances are needed to avoid
1. inducing large stresses and deformations into the supporting structure. An
effective strategy is to leave a 38 mm (1-1/2 in.) gap (one lam) approximately
8.
2. every 6 m (20 ft.), as shown in Figure 4.7. After the building is operational
and the NLT reaches its equilibrium moisture content, as discussed in
5. Chapter 7, the gap can be filled if desired for aesthetics or to maintain fire
4.
7. separation between floors, as discussed in Chapter 3. Alternatively, if larger
gaps in the NLT are being provided for sprinklers, electrical, or mechanical
6.
services, these gaps can be used to accommodate swelling.
NLT Span Perpendicular to Shear Wall
For prefabricated NLT panels, support conditions may create discontinuities
1. in deflection between adjacent panels. In such cases, additional panel-to-panel
connections should be provided to create continuity in the overall deflected
2. shape of the floor or roof and to prevent withdrawal of the plywood/OSB
nails at the NLT panel joint. For example, one panel could be clear spanning
5. 5 m (16 ft.) while the adjacent panel could be supported on wood stud
4.
7. walls every 1.2 m (4 ft.) for closets. At the centre of the 5 m (16 ft.) span,
6.
the first panel will deflect more than the second panel if the two are not
sufficiently connected. Similarly, if a wall support is parallel to the NLT span,
NLT Span Parallel to Shear Wall as illustrated in Figure 4.9, the adjacent unsupported panel will experience a
larger deflection unless the two panels are tied together.
Figure 4.12: NLT Connection to Interior Wood
Shear Walls
4.3.2 Support Connections
Key
Detailing of connections between NLT and its supports varies with the type of
1. Diaphragm plywood/OSB sheathing
2. NLT load being transferred (gravity, uplift, lateral) and the type of support. Common
3. Prefabricated NLT panel joint supports include wood shear walls, wood beams, steel beams, and concrete walls.
4. Shear wall plywood/OSB edge nailing to
top plate Gravity Connections
5. Shear wall top plate with straps to act as drag For gravity cases, direct bearing of the NLT on the supporting element
6. Wood shear wall
is the most common approach for transferring load. If net uplift is not a
7. Screws through top plate to NLT
8. NLT bearing length concern, which is typical for floors and some roofs, nominal connections
9. Diaphragm plywood/OSB sheathing joint with with either self-tapping screws or nails ensure the NLT stays in place, as
diaphragm nailing

shown in Figures 4.11 through 4.16. For NLT built in place, minimum toenail
requirements are given in CSA O86 Clause 6.5.11.3.1. Prefabricated NLT 1.
panels, however, cannot be toenailed. One common approach is to provide
partially threaded self-tapping screws through the NLT into the support 2.
4.
beams, as shown in Figure 4.11. Alternately, at steel beam supports, provide
3.
screws up through the steel top flange into the NLT from below, as shown
in Figure 4.13. Screws installed vertically should be centred on laminations; Figure 4.13: NLT Connection to Steel Beam
another option is to install self-tapping screws on an angle so that multiple Key
laminations are engaged and the screws need not be located with precision. 1. NLT
2. Partially threaded screws
For inclined self-tapping screws installed through steel beam flanges, 45-degree
3. Steel support beam
washer heads are an economical way to accommodate the angle while ensuring 4. Minimum edge distance for ease of screw
proper bearing of the screw head on the steel. Design support connections installation
at minimum to provide equal lateral strength, shear stiffness, and withdrawal
capacity to the CSA O86 toenail requirements, calculated in accordance with
1.
CSA O86 provisions. If wind forces are sufficient to cause net uplift on the
7. 8. 2.
NLT, the fasteners must be designed to resist the uplift in withdrawal, subject
3.
to the minimum requirements listed previously. If beams are used as drag
5.
elements, design the screws to transfer the necessary forces into the beam. 4.
6.
Shear Walls
Where NLT is continuous over a wood shear wall below, the lateral load
NLT Span Perpendicular to Shear Wall
path between the plywood/OSB and the shear wall must pass through the
NLT lams. Typical connections where NLT passes over an interior shear wall
1.
are shown in Figure 4.12. Connections between NLT and perimeter walls
2.
are shown in Figure 4.14. For interior shear walls, provide screws from the
3.
underside of the top plate through the NLT. Similar to connections at beams,
5.
the screws should either be installed vertically and centred on the laminations, 4.
or installed on an angle to engage multiple laminations. For large lateral forces, 6.

inclined self-tapping screws will provide higher capacities by loading the screws
in tension rather than pure shear. Where drag elements are required beyond the NLT Span Parallel to Shear Wall
wall, use the same approach discussed for chords and collectors in Section 4.2.1.
Figure 4.14: NLT Connection to Exterior
Where NLT connects to a perimeter shear wall, make a direct connection Wood Shear Wall
between the horizontal and vertical plywood/OSB wherever possible. The Key
lateral load path should pass through the rim board, similar to any typical light- 1. Diaphragm plywood/OSB sheathing
2. NLT
frame wood building. Ensure that the vertical plywood/OSB is sufficiently
3. Toenail of edge lam/rim board to shear wall
nailed to both the wall framing and the NLT or rim board for the shear transfer. 4. Shear wall plywood/OSB edge nailing to top plate
5. Shear wall top plate with straps to act as drag
In cases where a perimeter shear wall continues past the NLT (balloon frame),
6. Wood shear wall
wood ledgers are an option, as shown in Figure 4.15. Provide a ledger connection 7. NLT rim board
to the shear wall designed for full transfer of the gravity and shear forces with either 8. NLT bearing length

nails or screws. In addition, provide tension ties between the top of the NLT and
1.
6. 4.
the shear wall to resist out-of-plane loading. Ensure the studs are blocked in line
2.
with the ledger to provide a direct load path to the plywood/OSB sheathing.
3.
For NLT connecting to a concrete wall, install a continuous wood ledger
7. at the top of the wall. For site-built NLT which is toenailed to the ledger,
5.
a single 2x is sufficient. For prefabricated NLT, install a thicker ledger to
accommodate self-tapping screw connections as shown in Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.15: NLT Support at Balloon-Framed
Wood Shear Wall
Key
4.4 Additional Design
1. Plywood/OSB diaphragm sheathing Considerations
2. NLT
3. Wood ledger connected to shear wall studs Give special consideration to NLT systems with concentrated loads, openings,
4. Self-tapping screws from NLT to ledger and cantilevers.
support
5. Double height wood shear wall (Balloon 4.4.1 Point Loads
framed)
6. Tension tie at top of NLT Point loads on NLT will be shared by multiple laminations but must be
7. Wood blocking for diaphragm shear transfer checked independently from uniform loads. Based on the authors’ engineering
into wall
judgment, a reasonable lower limit for the effective width of NLT resisting a
point load is 300 mm (12 in.), which accounts for load spreading throughout
the section depth plus 1-2 additional laminations on each side being engaged by
the nails. If the actual width of the load plus half the NLT depth (d/2) on each
side is greater than 300 mm (12 in.), use this larger dimension. Treat line loads
5.
4. parallel to the NLT span in a similar fashion. For large point loads or line loads
near supports, shear or bearing may govern the NLT design.
1.
4.4.2 Openings
2. NLT is a one-way system, which means that openings often require additional
6. analysis and reinforcement. Based on the authors’ engineering judgment,
this Guide defines small openings as 228 mm (9 in.) wide or less (up to
3.
6 laminations for NLT fabricated from 2x material); other openings are
considered large.
Small Openings (228mm [9 in.] wide or less)

Figure 4.16: NLT Connection to Concrete Wall
Small cores up to 76 mm (3 in.) diameter, such as for conduit or small pipes,
Key
can often be accommodated without reinforcement. For larger openings
1. NLT
2. Sill plate, depth to accept screws up to 228 mm (9 in.) wide, provide reinforcement with fully threaded self-
3. Concrete wall tapping screws or supplementary steel framing.
4. Diaphragm plywood/OSB over screw heads
5. Self-tapping partially threaded screws into sill
plate
6. Sill plate anchors to concrete wall

Fully threaded self-tapping screw reinforcement is a simple way to transfer
shear around an opening. Installing screws at a 45-degree angle allows the 1.
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
screws to act primarily in withdrawal, which is a stiffer and stronger load
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
path than the screws acting in shear. Design each screw for the appropriate 2.
withdrawal force associated with the lamination it supports. In addition
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
to the “basic” shear from the terminated lams, which is calculated based
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
ASSY_VG_CYL_6-140
on design loads, shear is also generated due to imposed deformation. The
terminated lams must deflect equally to the adjacent full-length courses, 3. 4.
which creates shear proportional to the equivalent uniform load required to Plan View of Opening
deflect the terminated lams the same amount as the continuous courses. In 2.
grillage model studies, discussed in Section 4.1.2, the additional shear can be
ASS
ASS
ASS
ASS
ASS
ASS
ASS
ASS
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
Y_V
G_C
G_C
G_C
G_C
G_C
G_C
G_C
G_C
YL_
YL_
YL_
YL_
YL_
YL_
YL_
YL_
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-20
0
0
significant. Refer to Figure 4.17 for an example of an opening reinforced with
fully threaded screws acting primarily in tension. The fastener pattern should
Section Beyond Opening
ensure that every terminated lamination is fully penetrated by at least one
screw, all screw heads are positioned outside the width of the opening, and Figure 4.17: Small Opening with Fully
Threaded Screw Reinforcing
the screw spacing meets the manufacturer’s minimum requirements.
Key
Steel reinforcement of small openings, as shown in Figure 4.18, is another 1. Self-tapping fully threaded screws inclined 450
2. Opening width
option. The steel framing acts as a beam, taking the end reactions from
3. Fastener edge distance
the terminated laminations and spreading them to the adjacent continuous 4. Fastener spacing
courses. Extend the supplementary framing at least half the width of the
opening on both sides, and check the laminations supporting the steel
framing for the additional load. Where exposed steel on the underside of
the NLT is undesirable for either architectural or fire-resistance purposes,
an angle can be provided as shown in Figure 4.18. If the vertical leg can be
embedded in a topping slab or other floor build-up, orient the leg upward
for easier fabrication and installation. If projection above the NLT cannot be
accommodated, the vertical leg can be oriented downward but will need to
be coped at the edges of the opening. Use self-tapping screws that penetrate
a minimum of 80% of the NLT depth. Alternately, Figure 4.18 (right) shows
a steel channel supporting the terminated lams through a simple bearing
connection with nominal screws provided. For this approach, the terminated
lams are supported by partially threaded self-tapping screws installed through
the horizontal leg and centred on each lamination. In either case, only the
top flange/horizontal leg is extended over the continuous courses to provide
support through bearing on each lamination; provide nominal attachment
with screws to each lamination.

S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
S S
0
S S
L
6 1 6 1
4.
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1
4.
6 1
S S S S
A
S S S S
Y
A
A
*
*
* *
* *
Y L
Y L
0
0
*
*
6 1 6 1
S S
0
S S
L
6 1 6 1
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
S S S S
Y
A
A
*
*
* *
* *
Y L
Y L
0
0
*
*
6 1 6 1
0
S S S S
L
6 1 6 1
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
2.
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
3.
L
6 1 6 1
S S
1.
S S
1.
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
S S S S 6 1 6 1
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
5.
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
2.
S S S S
5.
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
S S S S 6 1 6 1
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
S S S S
Y
A
A
*
*
* *
* *
Y L
Y L
0
0
*
*
6 1 6 1
0
L
L
S S S S 6 1 6 1
A
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
S S S S
Y
A
A
*
*
* *
* *
Y L
Y L
0
0
*
*
6 1 6 1
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
Plan View of Opening with Steel Angle Framing Plan View of Opening with Steel Channel Framing
S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
L
L
6 1 6 1
7.
6. 6.
8.
Section of Opening with Steel Angle Framing Section of Opening with Steel Channel Framing
Figure 4.18: Supplementary Steel Framing at Small Openings
Key Large Openings (Greater than 228 mm [9 in.])

1. Opening width Larger openings require additional framing in both directions to support
2. Steel support framing coped at edge of opening
to extend top plate only
the terminated laminations, because the adjacent laminations are insufficient
3. Self-tapping screws in withdrawal at opening to carry the load. If added beams below the NLT are not desired, consider
4. Nominal screws away from opening framing the opening within the depth of the NLT with steel members as
5. Bearing over supporting continuous shown in Figure 4.19. The members parallel to the NLT span extend from
laminations
6. Screw length of 80% of NLT depth support to support and can be concealed by providing a T-section with the
7. Upturn leg to close concrete topping pour if vertical web extending between laminations; provide nominal screws between
required
the top flange and the continuous courses. The steel members supporting the
8. Nominal screws from underside of NLT at
opening terminated lams can be detailed similar to those for small openings.
4.4.3 Overhangs
NLT cantilevers in the direction of the span are structurally straightforward;
cantilevering in the weak axis direction is more challenging. Short weak-axis
cantilevers can be accommodated using fully threaded self-tapping screws installed
at a 45-degree angle, similar to the screw-reinforced openings shown in Figure 4.17.
Based on the authors’ engineering judgment, a weak-axis cantilever of 228 mm (9
in., six lams for 2x material) is a reasonable limit for this type of detail.
NLT cantilevers that cross the building enclosure, such as eaves and entrance
canopies, require special attention. As discussed further in Chapter 5, best
practice is to extend the enclosure to encapsulate the overhang. However, this
strategy does not allow the NLT to remain exposed, which is often desirable
for aesthetic reasons. In cases such as these, ensure enclosure continuity
in one of two ways: provide some type of flexible sealant between each

lamination at the enclosure line, as discussed in Section 5.2.1, or provide 4.
a continuous break in the NLT and hang the cantilevered portion from S S S S S S S S
1.
S S S S S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6
L
6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1
outriggers installed above as shown in Figure 4.20.

S S S S S S S S S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
1 6 1 6 1 6
L
6 1 6 1 6 1
Providing sealant between each lam requires careful coordination with the 2.
3
fabricator and installer. One option is to leave all the laminations fully intact and S S S S S S S S S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
1 6 1 6 1 6
L
6 1 6 1 6 1
use a thin sealant tape at each interface. Although preferable from a structural
S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
A
Y
Y
*
*
*
*
0
0
1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6
L
6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1
strength and stiffness perspective, this strategy will create a “bulge” in the
Plan View of Opening
NLT at the enclosure line. Products are available with less than 3 mm (1/8 in.)
thickness, but even these will add up. Another option is to kerf each lamination
over its full height at the enclosure line and inject sealant into the kerfs. This 5.
approach eliminates the “bulge” problem but reduces the structural strength
and stiffness of the NLT, which must be accounted for in the design. Section Beyond Opening
Where NLT is hung from outriggers using self-tapping screws, as shown Figure 4.19: Supplementary Steel Framing at
Large Openings
in Figure 4.20, the NLT can span in either direction. Details with upstand
Key
outriggers such as these are especially susceptible to moisture and must be
1. Steel T-section spanning between supports
designed accordingly: if improperly detailed, the increase in tensile stress in 2. Opening width
the screw resulting from moisture-induced wood swelling could cause brittle 3. Steel framing at opening (channel or angle)
fracture of the screw. Where wood outriggers are provided, partially threaded 4. Nominal screws into NLT laminations
5. Screw length of 80% of NLT depth
screws ensure threads engage only in the NLT and not in the outrigger,
as shown in Figure 4.20. This approach will ensure that extreme cases of
swelling will result in crushing below the head of the screw, preventing excess 5. 2.
tensile stress in the screws. Capacity can be increased somewhat by providing
1.
washer head screws or using separate washers below the screw heads. If
steel outriggers are necessary, provide a compressible material between the 3. 7. 4.
outrigger and the plywood/OSB. The material should be strong enough

to resist the design loads on the connection but weak enough to crush or
Interior Exterior
deform sufficiently at a load below the screw’s tensile strength. 6.
4.5 Specifications 8.
Figure 4.20: Wood Outrigger Supports for

NLT does not have an accepted standard for production, so project NLT Overhang
specifications must help address this gap. The raw material is standardized via Key
the National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA), and some requirements for 1. Intermittent outrigger
2. Perimeter/Parapet member at outer edge
assembly (such as nailing and butt joint locations) are contained in CSA O86,
3. Interior NLT
but these standards are not sufficient to ensure proper quality control on 4. Exterior overhang NLT
NLT projects. Issue stand-alone NLT specifications as a complete resource 5. Self-tapping partially threaded washer or hex
for the fabricator and contractor teams. In particular, require the general head screws supporting NLT overhang
6. Structural support
contractor to submit a weather protection plan appropriate to the local
7. Insulation and air/vapor barrier
8. Building enclosure

climate and the specific project. Also outline all requirements for samples,
mock-ups, and site review.
Refer to Appendix B for a sample NLT specification section. This section is

intended for projects with prefabricated NLT panels but can be adapted for
site-built NLT.
References
[1] Krämer, V.; Trag- und Verformungsverhalten genagelter
Brettstapelelemente unter Querlast, Dissertation, February 2003.
[2] Krämer, V.; Load Carrying Capacity of Nail-Laminated Timber

Loaded Perpendicular to Its Plan, Structural Building Components
Associated, June 2004.
[3] P. Haller, “Experimental and numerical study of nailed laminated

timber elements for in-plane and transverse loading,” in World
Conference on Timber Engineering, Whistler BC, 2000.
[4] American Wood Council, Wood Construction Data 2 – Tongue & Groove
Roof Decking. Washington, DC, 2003.
[5] American Wood Council. 2014. NDS national design specification for wood
construction. Leesburg, VA: American Wood Council.
[6] Porteous, Jack, and Abdy Kermani. 2013. Structural timber design to
Eurocode 5. http://www.123library.org/book_details/?id=97124.
[7] DIN 1052:2008-12, Design of Timber Structures - General Rules

and Rules for Buildings, 2008.
[8] AISC Steel Design Guide 11 – Vibrations of Steel-Framed Structural

Systems Due to Human Activity, 2nd Edition, American Institute of
Steel Construction, 2016.
[9] ISO 10137:2007, Bases for design of structures – Serviceability of

buildings and walkways against vibrations, International organization
for standardization, 2007.

Above Tsingtao Pearl Visitor Centre, Qingdao, China. Architecture: Bohlin Cywinski Jackson. (Photo credit: Nic Lehoux)

Above Pitt River Middle School, Port Coquitlam, BC. Architecture: Perkins+Will. (Photo credit: Latreille Delage Photography)

5 Enclosure
Where NLT is used as part of the building enclosure, it works together

with several other components to manage heat flow, air flow, and moisture
loads. The design must account for climate specific conditions and building In This Chapter
occupancy conditions both during construction, and throughout the service 5.1 Managing Heat-flow
life of the building. Climate conditions across Canada vary widely (refer 5.2 Air-flow
to Figure 5.1). Accordingly, properties and placement of control layers 5.3 Water Vapour Transport
and components used with NLT will vary by project location. Careful 5.4 Liquid Water
consideration of enclosure interfaces and transitions is critical.
Figure 5.1: Climate Zones Across Canada based on NECB 2015 Heating Degree Days [1]

Chapter 5 Envelope
5.1 Managing Heat-flow

Managing heat-flow across the enclosure is important to reduce energy
consumption, minimize condensation risk, and increase occupant thermal
comfort. The National Energy Code of Canada for Buildings [1] or project-
specific energy targets will dictate the required thermal resistance (R-values)
or thermal transmittance (U-factors) for the enclosure assemblies. For
horizontal NLT assemblies, the heat flow path is predominantly across the
grain of each lamination and is controlled by the inherent thermal resistance
of the wood; the thermal insulation, other enclosure layers and surface air
films all provide resistance to heat flow. The overall effect is minimal in well
insulated buildings.
Wood has a relatively low thermal conductivity compared to other structural

building materials. Thermal conductivity and resistance values for common
NLT lamination thicknesses and sheathing types are detailed in Table
5.1A through Table 5.1C. Where the NLT lamination species is unknown,
the thermal conductivity and thermal resistance per thickness may be
approximated as 0.115 W/m*K (0.8 Btu-in/h-ft²-°F) and RSI-0.0087/mm
(R-1.25/inch), respectively [2].
In some climates, the mass of the NLT itself may contribute to moderating
or potentially reducing heating and cooling loads. NLT may also contribute to
overall thermal comfort as demonstrated in modeling exercises performed for
CLT, a mass timber product of similar mass [3].
To meet the minimum insulation R-value or maximum assembly U-factor

requirements of the NECB [1] provisions, thermal insulation is usually
required with NLT. In all climate zones, it is best practice to locate the
thermal insulation of NLT assembly on the outboard side of the NLT to
best protect the wood from temperature fluctuations and related changes in
moisture content. This stable environment will increase long-term durability.
Placing insulation on the outside also allows the NLT to remain exposed on
the interior as discussed in Chapter 2.

Table 5.1 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTANCE VALUES OF
COMMON NLT SOFTWOOD LAMINATIONS AND SHEATHING
A. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY VALUES FOR COMMON NLT

SOTWOOD SPECIES
THERMAL THERMAL RESISTANCE -
SPECIES CONDUCTIVITY RSI/MM (R/INCH)
W/mK (Btu-in/hft²°F) m²K/W (ft²°Fhr/Btu)
Spruce-Pine-Fir 0.12 (0.82) 0.0085 (1.22)

Douglas Fir-Larch 0.15 (1.01) 0.0069 (0.99)
Hemlock-Fir 0.12 (0.83) 0.0084 (1.21)
B. TYPICAL NLT LAMINATION R-VALUES

WOOD LAMINATION ACTUAL THICKNESS THERMAL RESISTANCE – RSI (R-VALUE)
NOMINAL DIMENSION MILLIMETERS (INCHES) m²K/W (ft²°Fhr/Btu)
2x4 89 (3.5) 0.61-0.75 (3.5-4.3)

2x6 140 (5.5) 0.97-1.18 (5.4-6.7)
2x8 184 (7.25) 1.26-1.56 (7.2-8.8)
2x10 235 (9.25) 1.61-1.99 (9.2-11.3)
C. TYPICAL SHEATHING R-VALUES

THERMAL
RSI/MM (R/INCH) THICKNESS RESISTANCE -
SHEATHING TYPE m²K/W (ft²°Fhr/Btu) MILLIMETERS RSI (R-VALUE)
(INCHES) m²K/W (ft²°Fhr/Btu)
13 mm (1/2) 0.14 (0.82)

Plywood –
0.0111 (1.6) 16 mm (5/8) 0.18 (1.0)
Douglas Fir
19 mm (3/4) 0.21 (1.2)
OSB 0.0098 (1.4) 11 mm (7/16) 0.11 (0.61)
*All material properties referenced from NECB 2015 Users Guide.
In a circumstance where all or a portion of the thermal insulation is located

on the interior side of the NLT, carefully evaluate the assemblies for long-
term moisture performance and durability. Table 5.2 describes conventional
and inverted roof membrane assemblies commonly used with NLT. Where
tapered roof insulation is used, calculating the assembly’s effective thermal
performance becomes more complex. Refer to RDH Building Science Inc
Technical Bulletin No. 005 for additional discussion for effective R-value
design tables [4]. For a simplified, conservative approach, the tapered portion
of the insulation could be neglected in the roof assembly calculation. Table
5.3 describes common NLT floor/soffit assemblies.

Chapter 5 Envelope
Table 5.2 CONVENTIONAL ROOF MEMBRANE ASSEMBLIES
CONVENTIONAL ROOF MEMBRANE ASSEMBLIES

TYPICAL ASSEMBLY LAYERS
DETAILS ASSEMBLY CONSIDERATIONS
(TOP TO BOTTOM)
Roof membrane
Sloped Over-Framing
Coverboard
Rigid insulation
Air/vapor control membrane/TMMS
Structural Plywood/OSB
Sloped over-framing, Air cavity, vented
to interior. (Refer to section 5.4.1)
NLT
Roof support (beyond)
The air and vapor control membrane may also serve as
a temporary moisture management system (TMMS), as
Roof membrane further discussed in Section 7.6. Carefully consider the
Coverboard vapor permeance of all assembly layers relative to the NLT
insulation
Tapered
Tapered rigid insulation and interior/exterior environmental conditions.

Structural Plywood/OSB The air and vapor control membrane is an applied
NLT membrane and exists on the warm side of the insulation.
Roof support (beyond)
Roof membrane
Sloped Structure
Coverboard
Rigid insulation
NLT
Sloped roof support (beyond)
INVERTED ROOF MEMBRANE ASSEMBLIES

TYPICAL ASSEMBLY LAYERS
DETAILS ASSEMBLY CONSIDERATIONS
(TOP TO BOTTOM)
Overburden/ballast
Sloped Over-Framing
Extruded polystyrene insulation

Drainage composite
Roof membrane/TMMS
Sloped over-framing
Air cavity, vented to interior
NLT The roof membrane and TMMS may be the same assembly
Structural support (beyond) component where they occur within the same location
in the assembly. Some structural sheathing substrates
Overburden/ballast or TMMS (where separate from the roof membrane) may
Extruded polystyrene insulation not provide an appropriate roof membrane substrate due
Tapered Insulation
Drainage composite to chemical or adhesion incompatibility; an additional

Roof membrane sheathing layer may be required. Evaluate the risks of
Coverboard construction phase moisture where the TMMS is not
Tapered rigid insulation located directly on the structural sheathing.
Air/Vapor Control Membrane/TMMS Carefully consider the vapor permeance of all
Structural Plywood/OSB assembly layers relative to the NLT and interior/exterior
NLT environmental conditions.
Structural support (beyond)
The fully adhered roof membrane typically serves as the
Overburden/ballast primary air and vapor control membrane.
Sloped Structure
Extruded polystyrene insulation

Drainage composite
Roof membrane/TMMS
NLT
Structural support (beyond)

Table 5.3 EXTERIOR SOFFIT ASSEMBLIES
FLOOR/SOFFIT ASSEMBLY
DETAIL TYPICAL ASSEMBLY LAYERS ASSEMBLY CONSIDERATIONS
(TOP TO BOTTOM)
Interior finish and acoustic

components The preferred air control layer of soffit assembly is the
structural plywood/OSB sheathing. This requires the
TMMS
sheathing to be continuosly sealed at joints and transitions
Air Permeable Insulation
Structural Plywood/OSB (air control to the air control layer at walls above and below. In smaller
layer) soffit applications, the air control layer may be an air barrier
NLT
membrane over sheathing at the underside of the soffit.
Air-permeable or -impermeable
Thermal insulation in this assembly may be batt, rigid board,
thermal insulation (between structure
or spray applied insulation to fit tightly to the structure.
beyond) A waterproof finish floor coating should be considered where
Air barrier membrane (vapor-
wet conditions or risk of plumbing failures exist at interior
permeable water-resistive barrier
space.
membrane optional) Carefully consider the vapor permeance of all assembly
Furring and vented cavity
layers relative to the NLT and interior/exterior environmental
conditions.
Exterior vented soffit panel
5.2 Air-flow
Managing air flow across the building enclosure is a requirement of the
National Building Code of Canada (NBC) [5], and is key for reducing energy
consumption, increasing thermal comfort, and minimizing the movement
of water vapor into an assembly (refer to Section 5.3 for more on managing
water vapor transport). Addressing air flow also minimizes the transfer of
sound, smoke, fire, and contaminants between environments.
Managing air flow across the building enclosure is accomplished by using

an air barrier system: a three-dimensional system of materials designed and
constructed to control air flow across the building enclosure. An air barrier
has five basic requirements as described by Straube [6]; consider these
requirements specific to NLT assemblies as follows:
Stiffness: The air barrier system must withstand the air pressure forces
acting on it without deforming or deflecting in such a way that inhibits the
system’s ability to perform as intended (refer to Figure 5.3). In a horizontal
NLT assembly, this is overcome by providing a fully adhered or constrained
Figure 5.2: Potential Deformation or
air barrier membrane, or by using the structural plywood/OSB over the NLT Deflection of Air Barrier System from
and continuously air sealing/taping joints and transitions. Forces of Air Pressure.
Impermeability: Air barrier systems must be impermeable to air flow.

Typically, NLT laminations alone are not part of the air barrier system. While
individual laminations may have a very low air permeability, the spaces or
gaps between each lamination and between laminations and sheathing allow

Chapter 5 Envelope
12. 12.
6. 6.
1. 3. 1.
11. 11.
10. 4. 15.
Roof Parapet (Option 1)
Roof Parapet (Option 2)

5.
13.
14.
4.
3.
16. 17. 16.
17.
3.
3.
4.
2.
17. 17.
2.
Exterior Soffit (Option 1)
Exterior Soffit (Option 2)
9.
15. 5.
6.
6.
4. 8. 7.
8. 7.
Figure 5.3: Example Horizontal NLT Assembly Details

Key
1. Typical roof assembly - Refer to Table 5.2.2. 7. Sheet metal drip flashing, shingle lapped by 13. Air/vapor control membrane, upturned at
2. Typical soffit assembly - Refer to Table 5.3.3. Item 4 parapet
3. Typical exterior wall assembly with drained 8. Soffit panel (often vented) 14. Air/vapor control membrane, continuous
(and often vented) cladding. 9. Approved smoke seal under parapet with a sealed lap over Item 4
4. Water-resistive and air barrier membrane, 10. Continuous air impermeable insulation 15. Air permeable insulation
shingle lapped and continuously taped/sealed 11. Roof membrane up parapet 16. Drywall
5. Air barrier transition seal 12. Sheet-metal coping over high temperature 17. Continuous air barrier system. Details may
6. Insect screen membrane and sloped treated blocking vary by climate zone and building use.

the passage of air. To address this, an air barrier system independent of the 1. 2.
NLT is needed. Often, continuously sealed sheathing or membranes are used 3.
as part of the air barrier system. 4.
Continuity: The materials within the air barrier system must form a 6.
5.
7.
continuous boundary. Ensure that the air barrier system of the NLT 8.
assembly is continuous at all joints and penetrations, and interfaces with other
9. 10.
assemblies. Refer to Figure 5.2 for example details. Where the NLT is part
of the air barrier system as shown in Figure 5.4, refer to Section 5.2.1 for 11.
guidance on special considerations.

Figure 5.4: Example Horizontal NLT Roof
Assembly to Soffit Transition Detail at Window
Strength: The air barrier system must be strong enough to transfer air Head
pressure differentials back to the structure. Where the NLT structure is
Key
strong enough to carry this load, the membrane and components that serve 1. Typical roof assembly. Refer to Table 5.2
as the air barrier system should be fully adhered or mechanically attached to 2. Typical roof temination detail
the NLT structure. 3. Insect screen
4. Air/vapor control/TMMS membrane
Durability: The air barrier system must perform over the service life of the 5. Sheet metal flashing with hemmed drip edge
building. The air barrier system must withstand temperature fluctuations, 6. NLT panel air seal
building movement, air pressure differentials, and environmental exposures (e.g. 7. Sheet metal closure flashing with crimp, sealed
to underside of exposed NLT
UV and site contaminants) which may occur during the building’s service life. 8. Water-resisitive and air barrier flashing
membrane
The five attributes detailed above are specific to building service life; however, 9. Continuous air barrier backer rod and pre-
if installed as part of the Temporary Moisture Management System (TMMS), formed sealant extrusion joint
10. Window system
air barrier materials must also be strong and durable during the construction
11. Continuous air barrier system.
phase to ensure long-term performance of the system. Carefully consider 12. Note: Details may vary on climate zone and
UV exposure, moisture exposure, wind pressures/gusts, and trade activities. building use.
The location of the air barrier membrane within typical NLT assemblies is
indicated in Tables 5.2 and 5.3.
5.2.1 Special Detail Considerations

In some instances, the NLT may become part of the air barrier system, such
as in a cantilevered condition as shown in Figure 5.4. In this instance, the
NLT extends through the primary enclosure plane and can allow air flow
across the enclosure, resulting in heat loss and movement of water vapour.
To manage this, carefully detail gaps between each lamination, between NLT
and structural sheathing, and between NLT and continuous blocking (e.g. a
fenestration or wall head). Successfully sealing these gaps for long-term air
barrier system performance can be challenging. The protruding NLT shown
in Figure 5.4 also creates a thermal bridge at the wall and/or window head
that should be considered.

Chapter 5 Envelope
The air sealing materials used within the Figure 5.4 detail need to withstand
mechanical pressures between each layer while maintaining continuity and
adhesion throughout shrinkage/swelling (refer to Appendix C). Preformed
butyl tape and expanding foam tape products shown in Figure 5.5 may
provide better performance when installed between laminations and between
sheathing and NLT interfaces. While preformed tapes are easier to control
throughout the fabrication process, they increase the overall gap dimension
Figure 5.5: NLT Panel with Preformed Tape between laminations and distort alignment. To maintain straightness and
overall uniform panel dimensions, it may be necessary to install tape or shims
throughout the NLT. Avoid sealant and spray foam products for air sealing
this transition; most of these products have a limited ability to accommodate
movement when sandwiched between materials, and can be difficult and
messy to install effectively during the fabrication and/or construction process.
Alternate soffit transitions, such as the outrigger support concept presented

in Section 4.4.3, may be considered. However, the NLT roof and soffit panel
interface, as shown in Figure 4.20, can allow air to infiltrate if air barrier tape
or membrane products are not carefully detailed. This transition can also be
difficult to execute due to construction sequencing and material limitations.
Furthermore, as discussed in Chapter 4, outrigger support connections can
be sensitive to moisture.
5.3 Water Vapour Transport

Managing water vapour transport across an NLT assembly is accomplished
with a water vapour control layer (e.g. vapour barrier), and by managing
air flow with an air barrier system. Air flow transports significantly larger
amounts of water vapour than water vapour diffusion alone; however, both
transport mechanisms should be carefully considered relative to the building’s
interior and exterior environmental conditions.
At thicknesses used for NLT laminations, wood has a water vapour

permeance value of less than 0.1 perm-inch. Although NLT laminations
are relatively vapour impermeable, gaps and checks within the laminations
minimize the effectiveness of the NLT to manage water vapour transport; air
flow can still occur through the joints as noted in Section 5.2.

To avoid water vapour accumulation within NLT and to ensure long-term
durability, consider the vapour impermeability of the NLT relative to the
assembly’s insulation and air barrier system layers and locations. The vapour
barrier control layer will vary with building occupancy; an example is shown
in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3.
Be aware that a vapour control layer and air barrier system in an NLT
assembly can limit the ability of the NLT to dry, should it become wet during
construction. Other low-permeability assembly layers and components can
also limit drying. Accordingly, it is important that NLT laminations and
sheathing are sufficiently dry prior to installing any subsequent enclosure
layers, exposure to liquid water during construction is limited, and that the
assembly is specifically designed for drying of construction moisture.
5.4 Liquid Water

NLT exposure to liquid water can occur both during construction and once
the building is in service. Exposure can increase the risk for:
Dimensional changes due to shrinkage and swelling: these changes

can disrupt gaps between the NLT laminations and/or between NLT and
penetrating or surrounding elements such as columns and wall structures.
Checking and warping due to rapid dimensional changes: the changes

can impact the aesthetic appearance of the NLT and/or disrupt panel
alignment with structural elements.
Corrosion of mechanical fasteners: corrosion may reduce the services life

of some fasteners or create unsightly staining.
Decay of the NLT lamination and sheathing: decay can impact the
serviceability of the NLT lamination and sheathing should prolonged
moisture exposure occur.
Accordingly, it is critical to minimize NLT moisture exposure and

maintain an NLT moisture content consistent with the in service
equilibrium moisture content.

Chapter 5 Envelope
2.
1. 5. 3.
4.
7. 7. 6. 7.
Vented Battens Sloped and Vented Over-Framing Staggered Lamination Depths
Figure 5.6: Venting Options for NLT Roof Assemblies*
Key
Liquid water at the roof is managed by the roof membrane; the location
1. Structural sheathing installed over intermittent
battens of this membrane and additional considerations are discussed in Tables 5.2
2. Structural installed over intermittent sleeper and 5.3. To help ensure the long-term performance of the NLT roof during
framing
3. Structural sheathing building occupancy, a durable, fully adhered (e.g. multi-ply) roof membrane
4. Intermittent battens, beyond installed on the NLT roof is recommended, especially where a TMMS is not
5. Intermittent sleeper framing beyond used (refer to Section 7.6). Refer to the local provincial roofing contractors
6. NLT laminations, staggered lamination depth association roofing practices manual or the roofing membrane manufacturer
7. NLT panel, vented
literature for more on best practices.
*In all cases venting occurs between the NLT
laminations and sheathing and is vented to the
building interior.
Floor assemblies are generally not exposed to liquid water during a building’s
service life except for plumbing and appliance failures and wet in-service
building conditions. Where the risk of wet interior conditions exists, consider
a waterproof floor coating over top of the plywood/OSB sheathing and,
where possible, provide a means for slope and drainage; avoid a waterproof
floor covering directly over the NLT. Managing liquid water at NLT soffit
assemblies is also accomplished by managing water at the adjacent perimeter
wall interfaces through the use of deflection mechanisms such as base-of-
wall sheet-metal flashings as shown in Figure 5.2.
When concrete toppings are to be installed at floor assemblies, maintain the

moisture content of the NLT below approximately 16 % prior to concrete
placement. Concrete toppings trap moisture within the NLT for extended
periods of time, so coatings or membranes on the top side of the NLT may
be necessary prior to concrete placement. Refer to Chapter 4 for structural
considerations for the placement of concrete topping.

5.4.1 Leak Detection and NLT Venting
Detecting a leak through the roof membrane is difficult because the NLT
can absorb moisture, and structural sheathing can further mask the presence
of water. The use of a leak detection system within the roof assembly,
vented NLT as described in Figure 5.5, or both, can help identify and locate
leaks, minimizing the risk of exposing the NLT to long-term moisture and
mitigating the associated effort and cost to dry it.
An active electronic leak detection system or vented panel is recommended

when a temporary roof membrane over the NLT is not provided, or when a
green roof system is used. Locate the leak detection system below the roof
membrane or as recommended by the roof manufacturer. Alternatively,
consider venting to facilitate drying the topside of the NLT to the interior.
When venting is used, locate the structural plywood/OSB on top of battens

or sloped over-framing. Either omit the TMMS within the assembly or
locate it on top of the structural plywood/OSB. Carefully consider the
implications of omitting or relocating the TMMS against the project specific
climate conditions discussed in Section 7.6. Finally, the air cavity vented
to the interior may exclude the NLT from the assembly effective thermal
performance calculations however, confirm with the local authority having
jurisdiction for energy code compliance requirements.
Where a clear air cavity vent space is not possible, consider another means
of leak detection or NLT drying. In such instances, consider the following
potential limitations:
• Fire code may require the air cavity to be filled with insulation,
negating the purpose of the vented cavity. Where this is required,
consider limiting the cavity insulation R-value to less than one third
of the total assembly insulation R-value, to minimize the risk of
condensation within the assembly.
• Some applications may not allow structural sheathing to be located
over top of the over-framing; if sheathing is located directly on
top of the NLT laminations, air from the vent will not be able to
effectively dry the NLT.
• Structural sheathing perimeter attachment requirements may prevent
a clear air cavity connection to the interior, negating the benefit of
venting the panel to the interior.

Chapter 5 Envelope
References
[1] Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, and Institute for
Research in Construction (Canada). 2015. National Energy Code of
Canada for Buildings, 2015. Ottawa, ON: National Research Council.
[2] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers. 2016. 2016 ASHRAE handbook: fundamentals. Atlanta, GA:
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Engineers.
[3] Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. 2013. CLT handbook: cross-
laminated timber. Pointe-Claire, Québec: FPInnovations.
[4] RDH. “Effective U-values (R-values) for Tapered Insulation.” RDH

Building Science Inc. Technical Bulletin No. 005 (2011): Feb. 2011. Web. 2
May 2017. http://rdh.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TB-5-
Tapered-InsulationwAppendix1.pdf
[5] Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, and National

Research Council of Canada. 2015. National building code of Canada,
2015. Ottawa, Ont: National Research Council Canada.
[6] Staube, John. “BSD-014: Air Flow Control in Buildings.” Building

Science Digests, October 15, 2007. https://buildingscience.com/
documents/digests/bsd-014-air-flow-control-in-buildings .


Above Tsleil-Waututh Administration & Health Centre, North Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Lubor Trubka Associates Architects
(Photo courtesy of naturallywood.com)

6 Supply and
Fabrication
6.1 Materials
Material selection and fabrication techniques will affect the finished aesthetic In This Chapter
and performance of any project. Understanding material attributes and the 6.1 Materials
NLT fabrication process helps inform all aspects of design and construction. 6.2 Tools and Equipment
Material supplies for NLT production include wood materials (lumber and 6.3 Fabrication Process
plywood/OSB) as well as fasteners and coatings. 6.4 Manufacturing Standards
6.1.1 Lumber
The primary factors in determining wood species and grades for NLT
are availability, cost, structural performance, and aesthetics. Consider the
following to inform lumber choices for NLT:
Lumber Grades and Species

Lumber species and grade affects both strength and appearance of NLT.
Colour, uniformity of appearance, and presence of visual defects differ
between species. In addition to aesthetic or structural considerations,
species also vary in other important ways. Species absorb and release water
at different rates, which should be considered if NLT will be exposed to
significant moisture during construction. Workability and hardness also differ
between species and generally relate to density; for instance, Douglas Fir is
more dense than SPF, which can result in more resistance when nailing or
cutting, although only slightly.
Grade also matters where NLT is exposed as an interior finish. For instance,
although visually graded No. 2 lumber may meet structural requirements,
a higher appearance grade can minimize visual defects (wane, holes, large

Chapter 6 Supply and Fabrication
Figure 6.1: NLT Showing Blue Staining from Beetle-Killed Wood (Photo Courtesy of Perkins+Will)
knots) to better address aesthetic criteria. Using Select Structural grade

lumber will provide improved structural properties while reducing visual
defects compared to No. 2 lumber, but availability may be limited, and Select
Structural is typically more expensive. Although visually graded lumber is
more common than Machine Stress Rated (MSR) lumber, MSR lumber can
improve the strength and stiffness of NLT.
Research and consider locally available lumber grades before ordering lumber
for NLT. In some regions, SPF includes a significant supply of beetle-killed
wood, which typically has blue stain through the grain, refer to Figure 6.1.
While staining is often acceptable and sometimes even desired as an aesthetic
feature, distributing it evenly throughout the NLT can be challenging.
Where high-quality, exposed NLT is desired, fabricators ordering No. 2 and

better material should expect to visually cull it for consistent quality and
anticipate a typical waste factor of 15% to 20%. To assist with visual culling
it may be helpful to identify visual characteristics of acceptable lumber in

Figure 6.2: Example of Aesthetic Grade Boards for NLT Panels (Photo Courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
advance to facilitate a consistent look. Refer to Figure 6.2 for an example of

board selection criteria for NLT panels used in the T3 project in Minneapolis.
Some lumber mills offer specific appearance grades in addition to visual
grading for structural performance. Request information on availability and
differences between appearance grades from local lumber suppliers. Some
higher appearance grades of lumber include Hi- Line (or Home Centre)
grade, and J Grade. J Grade is generally the highest quality of these options.
A waste factor of 5% to 10% is typical for higher appearance grades, which
may offset the increased cost of the lumber. The NLT Appearance Chart in
Appendix A provides further examples of different levels of visual quality.
Other important considerations for selecting grade and species include

fabrication efficiency and cost, such as labour required to grade and handle
extra material, and space required to store additional material and culled
lumber. Some lumber yards may agree to buy back culled lumber at a
reasonable rate if negotiated in advance.

Spliced Panels and Finger Jointing

Prefabricated panels less than 6 m (20 ft.) in length are typically made with
continuous boards cut to the panel length. Where longer panels are needed, either
create splices in the panel with a layup specific pattern or use finger-jointed lumber.
For panels created with layup patterns, often called “spliced” panels, shorter
length boards can be used, but fabrication complexity and cost will increase.
Refer to Section 4.1.2 for further discussion on structural design for spliced
panels and Section 6.3.1 for more on layup pattern fabrication.
Finger-jointed lumber is used widely for manufacturing other mass timber

products such as GLT and CLT; it can also be used for NLT where butt joints
are undesirable for structural or aesthetic reasons. Finger-jointed lumber
typically represents a 15% to 20% cost premium in some markets. Moreover,
Figure 6.3: Finger-jointed Lumber. (Photo
courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.) it can impact the amount of material required, as the thickness of finger-
jointed lumber will generally be 1.58 mm (1/16 in.) narrower than typical
dimension lumber. Structural requirements for the type of finger joint should
be assessed and specified by the structural engineer as not all finger joints
are intended for use in bending applications as per the ALSC finger jointing
standards. Appendix B provides a sample specification noting acceptable
finger joints. If finger-jointed lumber is used, the joints should be staggered
from one course to the next (refer to Figure 6.3).
Material Certification and Chain of Custody

Verification of environmentally responsible lumber and wood products is
managed by several third-party programs which require certification of forest
management, chain of custody, or both. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC),
Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI), and Programme for the Endorsement of
Forest Certification (PEFC) are a few of the common certification standards.
Projects pursuing LEED or other green building rating systems may require
wood certified by one of these programs. Certified lumber may be more
costly and can affect availability. Proof of chain-of-custody of the material is
usually required by most rating systems, and may include certification of the
manufacturing facility and supplier and/or installer.
Plywood/OSB
Standard construction grades of plywood or OSB are generally used over NLT
floors or roofs and on one or both sides of NLT walls. The plywood/OSB
provides vertical or horizontal diaphragm capacity and connects prefabricated
panels together with a continuous substrate. Requirements for plywood/OSB
thickness and layout should be described in the contract documents.

6.1.2 Fasteners
Assemble exposed NLT using galvanized nails to join laminations and for
fastening plywood/OSB. If non-galvanized nails are used, iron staining
will occur when exposed to moisture during construction. The structural
drawings and specifications will specify nail types and nailing patterns. If
nails longer than 76 mm (3 in.) are specified, they will require more expensive
pneumatic nailers and potentially a larger compressor. Although 8D (3.3 mm
[0.148 in.]) nails are commonly specified, engineers may specify 10D (3.7 mm
[0.131 in.]) nails; in such cases, expect a cost premium.
Self-tapping screws are often used to connect NLT to its supports and can
be used to reinforce panels at other conditions in panel assemblies such as
openings, overhangs, or weak-axis cantilevers. Where self-tapping screws
are needed, use zinc-plated screws to prevent iron staining; galvanizing this
type of screw reduces the strength of the steel, and is rare and expensive.
Although self-tapping screws have much higher structural capacity than nails,
requiring fewer per NLT panel, using screws will increase fabrication time,
increasing labour costs. For example, adding one pair of screws to every
course at a spacing of 305 mm (12 in.) on centre increases assembly time by a
factor of approximately three.
6.1.3 Coatings
Coatings include sealers and stains often applied to exposed faces of NLT
floors, roofs, and walls for aesthetic purposes. They can be applied in the
shop, on site, or both. While coatings can mitigate water staining, they will
not prevent swelling and are not an effective construction moisture control
system. Water staining is typically minimal for horizontal NLT even without
coatings, as the laminations create a natural drip edge every 38 mm (1-1/2 in.).
Site-applied coatings can be cost effective depending on size and complexity of
the project. Many different types of coatings are available and the appropriate
product is generally coordinated between the coating manufacturers and the
project architect. Penetrating coatings usually perform better than film building
coatings, as natural movement in the NLT panel with time can lead to shrinkage
or expansion and cracking in the film. For exterior panels, carefully consider
coating specification and maintenance requirements.

6.2 Tools and Equipment

The mechanisms for handling NLT panels in the shop are often the same
ones used on site. Consider lifting and handling strategies early, as the chosen
approach will impact shop setup and required equipment. Refer to Chapter 8
for more on lifting and handling.
6.2.1 Jigs
The best way to assemble NLT is on jigs made from pony walls, back and end
stops, and back fences as shown in Figure 6.4. Consider the following tips for
an efficient and comfortable setup:
Jig: Build pony walls at typical waist height 762 mm - 864 mm (30 in. to 34
in.) tall to provide a comfortable position for using a pneumatic nailer for
long periods of time. Different setups can be used to create NLT that is
curved in plan or warped in elevation.
Back Stop: Ensure a straight, sturdy back stop, built on top of the jig to
withstand continuous battering over the course of manufacturing. Consider
engineered wood (LSL or LVL) or steel angles. Unless the backstop is too
thick, fasten the first board of a panel from the back side of the backstop for
ease of panel removal after completion.
End Stop: Make the end stop straight and square with the back stop, built on
top of the jig similarly to the back stop.
Back Fence: Build a back fence where nailing stations are set up back to
back, to protect workers from misfired nails.
6.2.2 Fastening
Choose the appropriate nailer for the nails specified in the drawings. For
typical three-inch pneumatic power nailers, a single compressor with air
volume of 5 CFM should be used for every two pneumatic nailers. To
prevent tripping hazards and protect equipment, run air hoses overhead,
allowing them to drop down only over work stations wherever possible.
Where large self-tapping screws are used, high-torque drills capable of driving
large screws are required. Never use an impact drill to install these screws;
doing so may overdrive or damage the screws, compromising the strength
of the connection. Where predrilling is required (for example with larger
diameter screws) take care to drill the correct sized pilot hole.

Figure 6.4: NLT Fabrication Set-up (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
Where possible, identify zones where the NLT is expected to be cut after Table 6.1 SAW TYPES AND
CUTTING DEPTH
fabrication, for example at panel ends and openings; do not put nails in these
zones. Where plywood/OSB is shop installed, nail the plywood/OSB to the SAW SIZE MAXIMUM
AND TYPE VERTICAL DEPTH
NLT as specified in the structural drawings with a pneumatic nailer. Where
250 mm (10 in.) 89 mm
self-tapping screws are required, install them after cutting or take special care beam saw (3-1/2 in.)
to ensure no screws are present in the zones where cutting will occur as they 400 mm (16 in.) 165 mm
are difficult to cut through. beam saw (6-1/2 in.)
450 mm (18 in.) 187 mm
6.2.3 Cutting beam saw (7-3/8 in.)
After fabrication, cut NLT panels to length and provide other cuts that can Carpenter’s 406 mm
chainsaw* (16 in.)
be coordinated in advance such as notching panel corners at column locations
and cutting mechanical openings. Cutting panels in the shop helps prevent *A chainsaw is not recommended due to high
probability of cutting through nails.
erection delays on site. While it may be possible to identify zones without
nails in advance of cutting (refer to Section 6.2.2), the steel nails located
throughout NLT do present a challenge for cutting. For this reason, NLT
panels are not well suited for CNC fabrication.
Some circular saws can handle cutting through nails, however it is best
to consult a blade sharpening professional and select a blade that will cut
through small amounts of steel. Even specialized “nail-cutting” blades will
become dull and chipped but will last longer than standard wood blades.
Circular beam saws range in cutting depth, accordingly deep NLT panels may
need to be cut from both sides. Refer to Table 6.1 for saw types and sizes
with corresponding cut depths.

Cutting notches and penetrations is similar to cutting to length. Square

penetrations will need plunge cuts with a circular saw or a combination of
drilling holes and cutting with a reciprocating saw. Circular penetrations are
easily cut with a hole saw. Custom hole saw manufacturers can create saws up
to 330 mm (13 in.) diameter; while custom saws are expensive, they may be a
worthwhile investment if many identical penetrations are required.
6.2.4 Coating Application

Coatings are applied to the underside of NLT to add aesthetic quality to
exposed soffits or where NLT is used in exterior conditions. They typically do
not provide weather protection. The performance of coatings will vary with
species, along with resistance to decay.
Coatings may be applied in the shop or on site after the building is enclosed.
If applied on site, the most important considerations are accessibility and
coating ingredient attributes. Adequate ventilation may be difficult on some
sites so coatings with high VOC content may present a challenge for on-site
application. If coatings are applied in the shop, account for added lead time and
more stringent panel storage requirements. Avoid placing stickers and dunnage
on exposed sections of a panel, to ensure they do not affect the final appearance.
When applying coatings in the shop, pony walls or scaffolding built to a

height of between 1.8 m and 2 m (6 ft. and 6-1/2 ft.) make an effective
coating jig (refer to Figure 6.5). Assemble jig walls to mimic the final bearing
condition for panels so uniform coating can be achieved, avoiding exposed
stripes of uncoated panel. Rolling on coatings is easy and cost effective,
but spraying may also be considered. Where coating is applied on site, it is
typically done after the NLT is in place over the structural supports.
6.2.5 Temporary Moisture Management

System Installation
Where a temporary moisture management system (TMMS) requires partial
shop installation (refer to Section 7.6), allow additional time for application
and curing of the adhesive where necessary. The TMMS may require an
independent qualified installer; this should be coordinated with the supplier.
Take care during storage and shipping to ensure the pre-installed TMMS
is not damaged prior to panel installation. Refer to Chapter 7 for more on
storage and shipping approaches.

Figure 6.5: Shop Applied Coating on NLT (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
6.2.6 Panel Handling

After fabrication, panels may be handled in the shop using either an overhead
crane or forklifts and telehandlers.
Overhead Crane: Ensure an engineered lift plan is in place. Where

overhead cranes are used in fabrication, consider the site lifting strategy
early, allowing the same lifting plan to be re-used. Refer to Chapter 8 for
more on lifting requirements.
Forklifts and Telehandlers: Ensure that forks are clean and covered to
prevent damage to the panels. Use plastic covers are recommended, not
carpet or cardboard covers. Keep panel widths to a maximum of 1.8 m (6 ft.)
where overhead cranes are not available.

Figure 6.6: Combined NLT and Support Beams (Photo courtesy of Fast+Epp)

6.3 Fabrication Process
The pattern of individual boards within a panel, the presence or absence of
shop-applied plywood/OSB, and the layout of panels within a floor plate all
affect the fabrication process.
6.3.1 Board Placement and Splice Pattern

When placing boards, pay close attention to the board lengths and orientations.
Where NLT will be exposed in the finished space, choose the exposed face of
each lam with care. For boards with grading stamps present on the faces, ensure
the stamps are present on the non-exposed side of the NLT.
Panels longer than 6 m (20 ft.) can be created from shorter sections of boards
butt jointed to create continuous courses. The pattern of these joints is
called a splice or layup pattern. Different layup patterns affect the efficiency
of material usage as well as the structural capacity of the NLT. (Refer to
Section 4.1.2 for examples of layup patterns). The structural drawings may
supply a pattern or ask the fabricator to propose a pattern based on specified
requirements. In cases where the pattern is proposed by the fabricator, it must
be reviewed and approved by the structural engineer and architect before
production. Incorrect splice patterns can impact deflection and strength.
6.3.2 Plywood/OSB Installation

Plywood/OSB can be installed in the shop or on site. Shop installation
provides a limited amount of moisture protection and adds stiffness to the
panels, which can aid lifting. If plywood/OSB is installed in the shop, hold it
back from the NLT panel edges, allowing infill strips to be installed on site to
provide diaphragm continuity as shown in Figure 4.7. Site-applied plywood/
OSB requires less pre-planning and is most efficient with narrow panels. Take
care with site installation to place plywood/OSB joints per the structural
drawings. Refer to Sections 4.2.1 and 4.3.1 for more.
6.3.3 Plan Layout of Panels

Panels can be arranged in various ways within a roof or floor plate, with short
spans offering more options. Consider combining a single-span NLT deck
with its supporting beams in the shop. The combined beam/deck shipping
piece can be provided at every other span, and simple NLT panels can infill
the gaps as shown in Figure 6.6. This strategy will reduce the overall number
of crane picks required on site and can add out-of-plane stability to the
panels, though transporting the combined beam/deck pieces to site is less
efficient than shipping NLT panels alone.

6.4 Manufacturing Standards

Industry-wide manufacturing standards and tolerances for NLT do not exist.
The following criteria are based on past experience and provide an acceptable,
achievable level of quality. Refer to Appendix B for a sample specification
with additional quality control and assurance requirements.
6.4.1 Pre-Manufacturing Checks

Prior to fabrication, check moisture content, fastener type, and jig setup.
Moisture content (MC): The moisture content of kiln-dried (KD) lumber

is usually 12% - 16% but must be below 19% before NLT fabrication. Assess
the moisture content of purchased material soon after it is received, and again
before fabrication.
Fastener type: Incorrect nail diameter is the most common mistake. Also
ensure that nails are galvanized.
Jig setup: Even with solid back and end stops, check frequently to ensure the
jig remains square.
6.4.2 Tolerances
Reasonable manufacturing tolerances on panel width, length, and squareness
help speed erection and maximize the benefit of prefabricated NLT panels.
Refer to Appendix B for example tolerances for panel fabrication. Consider
the following:
Panel Width: To maintain a consistent panel width, it is important to check

width frequently during assembly, and use localized shimming or board planing.
Panel Length: Tight tolerances on length are easily met with accurate cutting
after the panel is nailed.
Out-of-Square: Square panels are easy to achieve by constructing and

maintaining a sturdy, square jig.
6.4.3 Quality Control and Documentation Review

Shop drawings are an important tool to communicate fabrication criteria
between the shop, the site, and the design team. Quality Control (QC)
checklists should supplement shop drawings. Panel mock-ups are also usually
required for architectural review and approval and can be the best way to
communicate finish quality.

Shop Drawings
To create 3D models and 2D shop drawings, CAD platforms such as
AutoCAD can be used, but timber-specific software packages such as
cadwork, hsbCAD, Dietrichs, and SEMA provide advantages when
automating shop drawing production. In most cases, 2D shop drawings will
be sufficient, but for larger and more complex projects, 3D and occasionally
4D modelling (including construction sequencing) is critical to schedule
Figure 6.7: 4D Sequencing with Navisworks
work and ensure coordination with other trades. Simulation platforms such for T3. T3, Minneapolis, MN. (Image courtesy of
as Navisworks may be helpful to merge models from different trades and StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
support clash detection (refer to Figure 6.7).
Accurate and efficient installation requires good shop drawings that clearly
communicate part numbering, placement, plan layout, and construction
details. Sequencing panels for installation should be considered in the pre-
construction phase. Identify panels required on site first, and work backwards
to plan and coordinate speed of manufacturing, panel storage, and truck
loading. Shop drawing packages, at a minimum, should include the following:
• Overall panel dimensions (including cuts and openings);

• Lumber species, size, and grade;
• Splice pattern (if applicable); and
• Fastener specifications and fastening pattern.
In some cases, fabricators may also be required to provide their own

engineering of the panels, including gravity and lateral design, which would
require an engineer’s stamp on the shop drawings. In all cases, shop drawings
require review and approval by the architect and engineer of record.
Quality Control Checklists

Quality Control (QC) checklists should include information regarding
appearance and tolerances.
Samples and Mock up Panels

Samples or larger mock-up panels are often required by the architect for review
and approval to ensure aesthetic requirements are met where NLT is exposed.
Mock-ups can often be incorporated into the main structure. Where this is
done, take care to protect the panel during storage until it can be installed. Refer
to Appendix B for sample specifications for mock-up requirements.

Above Tsleil-Waututh Administration & Health Centre, North Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Lubor Trubka Associates Architects
(Photo courtesy of naturallywood.com)

7 Construction
and Installation
7.1 Organization
The most appropriate panel organization strategy depends on the size, In This Chapter
location, and complexity of the project, but there are three common 7.1 Organization
approaches for the most efficient installation: 7.2 Shipping
7.3 Storage
• Just-in-time delivery;
7.4 Unloading
• Sorting and staging on site; and
7.5 Installation
• Off-site storage.
7.6 Construction Phase
Just-in-time delivery offers the greatest advantage. Where it is possible to Moisture Management
organize delivery just-in-time, load panels to allow for installation directly
from trailers, and use truck stacking diagrams to ensure correct loading
sequences for larger or more complex projects.
7.2 Shipping
Consider shipping constraints carefully to ensure the width, length, height,
and weight limitations of transporting loads can be accommodated.
Width: Optimum panels are 1.2 m or 2.4 m (4 ft. or 8 ft.) wide. Loads wider
than 3.5 m (11 ft.- 6 in.) require permits and generally have time-of-day
restrictions at the discretion of local transportation authorities.
Length: Panels up to 18.3 m (60 ft.) long can usually be transported without
restriction. Longer panels may require special trucks or permits.
Height: Maximum shipping height for a loaded truck is generally 4.1 m (13
ft.-6 in.) above the ground. Over-height permits may be allowed up to 4.3 m
(14 ft.-2 in.), but this is rare.

Chapter 7 Constr uction and Installation
Figure 7.1: Shipping with Dunnage and Stickers (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
Weight: Trailer capacities and local transport authorities also impose limits
on shipping. Typical tandem-axle trailers have a capacity of 20,000 kg to
23,000 kg (45,000 lbs to 50,000 lbs.), and typical triple-axle trailers have a
capacity of 25,000 kg to 27,000 kg (55,000 lbs to 60,000 lbs). Local transport
authority truck weight limits are usually 20,000 kg (45,000 lbs). Most
softwoods have a density of 480 kg/m3 to 560 kg/m3 (30 lbs to 35 lbs./ft.3),
which can be used to estimate panel weights with reasonable accuracy. For
more precise density values of specific species, refer to the NDS Supplement.
It is best practice to use clean, dry lumber as dunnage and stickers, to raise the
panels off the truck bed and separate them to allow air circulation, as shown
in Figure 7.1. To avoid staining, dunnage and stickers should be free of grade
stamps. Placing plastic, lumber wrap, or wax paper on the underside of panels
to protect them from dunnage and stickers is usually ineffective and can cause
moisture to accumulate.
Reducing the thickness of the dunnage and stickers can maximize the number
of panels that fit on a truck. Ensure the thickness of the dunnage is sufficient
to allow a fork between the panels. Most forklifts with fork extensions require
a minimum of 100 mm (4 in.) of clearance. Other lifting devices may require
the same consideration, or additional clearance between loaded panels to
avoid damage to the undersides.

7.3 Storage
Where NLT panels must be stored outside, panels should be stored off the
ground and properly tarped for moisture protection. At least two forms of
weather protection, such as lumber wrap and tarps, is highly recommended.
Where lumber wrap is provided around the entire panel, slit the underside
of the wrap to prevent moisture from being trapped inside the wrap. Ensure
the lumber wrap or tarps are opaque to prevent light from penetrating, as UV
Figure 7.2: Storage Set-up with Dunnage and
light will fade the panels where exposed, leaving visible discolouration where Stickers. (Photo courtesy StructureCraft
dunnage and stickers were in contact with the panels. Slope the top of panel Builders Inc.)
stacks to assist with drainage.
Renting trailers can be a good way to gain storage space during manufacturing
and to protect the panels from the elements, but the cost may add up quickly
for multiple trailers or in cases of schedule delays. Wherever the panels are
stored, the panel stacking sequence should match the install sequence to
prevent inefficiencies with repeat handling (refer to Figure 7.2).
Renting trailers can be a good way to gain storage space during manufacturing
and to protect the panels from the elements, but the cost may add up quickly
for multiple trailers or in cases of schedule delays. Wherever the panels are
stored, the panel stacking sequence should match the install sequence to
prevent inefficiencies with repeat handling (refer to Figure 7.2).
7.4 Unloading
When clean, dry forklift forks are used, no additional protection during
unloading should be required. If fork protection is desired, shrink wrap
over fork attachments offers the best fork protection without adding too
much thickness. Forklift damage to NLT panels can be costly and difficult to
remediate. Where cranes are used to unload/erect the panels, refer to Chapter
8 for erection engineering guidance. In either case, NLT-specific safety
requirements would follow standard safety rules for loading, offloading, and
general material handling.
7.5 Installation
The complexity of planning and coordination for NLT projects will vary
with the scale and size, which can range from small-scale residential buildings
to large multi-storey commercial projects. The typical installation sequence
involves placing the panels, support attachment, panel-to-panel connections,

and sheathing, and then installing integrated mechanical/electrical/plumbing

and other service runs within the NLT if necessary. A sequencing model is
shown in Figure 7.3. Refer to Chapter 4 for structural details and to Chapter 8
for more on erection requirements for stability.
Ensure the panels are placed per the structural drawings and details, which
may include gaps as shown in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. NLT panels are an
Figure 7.3: NLT Panel Installation Sequencing
Model (Image courtesy of StructureCraft engineered system; no notching or cutting is permitted without approval.
Builders Inc.) Where high-strength screws are used for the connection to supporting
structural elements, never use an impact drill, to avoid stripping the wood.
Refer to Section 6.2.2 for more on high-strength screw installation.
7.6 Construction Phase

Moisture Management
NLT has high potential for moisture entrapment at multiple locations:
prefabricated panel interfaces, lamination interfaces, splices, exposed end
grain, and the interface between NLT and plywood/OSB [1]. Moisture can be
properly managed during construction with the right design and construction
Figure 7.4: Installed Roof Panels with Gaps practices. A lack of proper care during the construction phase can affect
for Expansion. (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft
Builders)
aesthetics, structural capacity, dimensional tolerances, enclosure integrity, and
even indoor air quality.
Sources of construction phase moisture include rainfall and snow melt,

night-sky condensation, and plumbing leaks. Because moisture absorption
is not instantaneous, long-term or persistent exposure is likely to be more
problematic than the overall quantity of water [2]. When NLT assemblies are
subjected to long-term exposure or standing water, moisture can penetrate
deep within the wood, significantly increasing the time required for drying [1].
Attempting to fix this problem retroactively with tenting or large-scale drying
is costly and can delay the construction schedule.
Consider the following strategies alone or in combination to minimize the

risks associated with construction phase moisture:
• Provide a temporary moisture management system (TMMS) over

NLT (refer to section 7.6.1 for more);
• Schedule NLT installation during dry seasons;
• Coordinate shipping for just-in-time delivery and installation of
NLT panels;
Figure 7.5: NLT Install of Prefabricated • Increase the speed of erection including the installation of the roof
Pre-Sheathed Panels (Photo courtesy of Seagate
Structures Ltd.)
and roofing membrane;

Figure 7.6: Horizontal NLT Floor Panel Subjected to Snow (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
Snow melt was later cleared from the NLT TMMS to minimize moisture exposure.
• Minimize schedule delays between constructions of adjacent floor levels;

• Maximize panel size to decrease the number of site-installed TMMS
joints where they are most susceptible to leakage;
• Install enclosure components (e.g. temporary roof membranes, wall
WRB, etc.) in parallel or shortly following the structure.
The intent of any moisture management approach is to maintain a moisture

content of less than 16% on average, with a maximum of 19%. Temporary or
permanent membranes should not be applied unless the moisture content
of both the NLT laminations and the plywood/OSB is a maximum of
16%. Refer to The Guide for On-Site Moisture Management of Wood
Construction [3] for more on moisture management.
7.6.1 Temporary Moisture Management Systems

Roof assemblies may receive the greatest amount of moisture exposure
during the construction phase; however, floors are also susceptible to wetting
risks, such as shown in Figure 7.6, especially if construction schedule delays
occur. The use of temporary moisture management systems (TMMS) and
additional moisture management strategies at both roof and floor assemblies
can limit the risk of exposure to moisture during construction.
TMMS may include applied membranes, panel joint treatments, or both to

control construction phase moisture ingress. Membrane and joint treatment
products used in the system should be UV stable throughout the expected
exposure period.

Figure 7.7: Scheffer Climate Index (As updated by Morris and Wang [6] and modified by RDH Building Science Inc.)
The need for a TMMS will vary by project and is impacted by both seasonal
temperatures and frequency of rain events. One approach to determine an
effective TMMS is to use a climate index such as the Scheffer Climate Index
Map [2], [4]. Refer to Figure 7.7 for the four categories of climate indices
across Canada, and Table 7.1 for suggested temporary moisture management
systems for each climate index category.
In general, temporary moisture management systems are recommended in

areas with a climate index of 35 or greater, especially when construction is
scheduled during wet weather seasons. Areas with a climate index less than 35
may also benefit from a temporary moisture management membrane system,
and should be considered as a risk control strategy, as even mild moisture
exposure can cause swelling and shrinkage. It may be tempting to use a less
robust TMMS than the options presented in Table 7.1 as an initial cost saving
measure; however be careful to also consider the increased risk of exposing
the NLT to moisture and associated cost of moisture mitigation.
Scheffer Climate Indices (SCI) may vary based on local climates and
geographic features. Where specific conditions merit, calculate a project-
specific SCI using recent weather data acquired from the closest available

3. 4. 2. 2. 4.
1. 1.
5. 4. 3. 2. 2.
1. 1.
Field Applied TMMS and Joint Treatment Shop Applied TMMS with Field Applied Joints
Figure 7.8: Temporary Moisture Management System Joint Treatment Concepts
weather station. Refer to A New Decay Hazard Map for North America Key
Using the Scheffer Index by Morris and Wang [4] for more information and 1. Sheathing, NLT, and structure beyond
2. TMMS membrane
city-specific indexes.
3. TMMS joint treatment
In addition to the guidelines provided in Table 7.1, consider the ability of the 4. Movement gap per structural engineer
5. Sheathing per fire engineer
TMMS to accommodate construction activity without undue risk of workers
slipping, the system’s compatibility with any interfacing roof membranes
or flooring systems to be installed later in construction, and the TMMS
sensitivity to UV exposure relative to the project schedule. Where the TMMS
is also to be used as the permanent air barrier system and vapor control
layer, ensure the TMMS has the appropriate properties to function as these
elements and is repaired as needed prior to cover. Also consider that the
TMMS may impact the adhesion of a concrete topping slab.
Take care where fasteners penetrate through the TMMS at elements such as
fall arrest anchors (refer to Chapter 8), scaffolding supports, or structural
outriggers (refer to Chapter 4). Detail fastener penetrations through the
TMMS and consider additional protection for high rainfall areas. Any
removed fasteners or damaged TMMS areas should be promptly repaired.

Table 7.1 TEMPORARY MOISTURE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
PROTECTION LEVEL TMMS MEMBRANE / BENEFITS

JOINT TREATMENT
Factory applied field membrane prior to shipping minimizes errors and weather
Field Membrane: Fully adhered, limitations of on-site application.
vapor-impermeable waterproof
Field membrane may serve as part of permanent roof membrane or flooring underlay.
membrane on sheathing.
Allows for immediate installation of joint treatment following panel installation
Joint Treatment: Fully adhered
or welded membrane laps. (if skilled workers are available).
HIGH High durability of membrane laps where torched or welded.
Field Membrane: Precoated,

Precoated sheathing minimizes need for experienced membrane installers.
moisture-resistant bonded water-
repellent coating on sheathing. Sheathing and TMMS field membrane are combined into a single
Joint Treatment: Taped and/ fabrication step.
or sealed (e.g. flexible flashing
Allows immediate installation of joint treatment following panel installation.
membrane or tape).
MODERATE
Field Membrane: Fully adhered,
vapor-permeable and moisture- Factory applied field membrane prior to shipping minimizes errors and weather
resistant membrane on sheathing. limitations of on-site application.
Joint Treatment: Taped and/ Allows for immediate installation of joint treatment following panel installation if
or sealed (e.g. flexible flashing field membrane is pre-applied to sheathing.
membrane or tape).
MODERATE
Allows for immediate installation of joint treatment following panel installation.
Field Membrane: None. Exposed
plywood or OSB sheathing. Skilled/experienced workers not required for joint treatment installation.
Joint Treatment: Taped and/ Additional applications of water sealer may further increase water resistivity of
or sealed (e.g. flexible flashing the sheathing.
membrane or tape).
Cost effective compared to options with field membrane.
MODERATE
Field Membrane: None. Exposed

plywood or OSB sheathing Cost effective.
Joint Treatment: None. Exposed May minimize schedule impacts.
sheathing joints.
LOW
Accommodates sheathing installation at a later date or following site installation

Field Membrane: None. Exposed of overframing.
NLT laminations.
May minimize schedule impacts.
Joint Treatment: Not applicable.
Cost effective.
LOW
Field Membrane: Loose laid sheet

over sheathing.
Joint Treatment: Taped and/ Serves as short-term temporary protection for isolated areas.
or sealed (e.g. flexible flashing
membrane or tape).
ISOLATED AREAS ONLY
Field Membrane: Membrane

under sheathing and over NLT
laminations. Sheathing protects membrane from trade damage.
Joint Treatment: Varies.
ISOLATED AREAS ONLY

CHALLENGES / LIMITATIONS RECOMMENDED
CLIMATE INDEX / SEASON
Requires pre-coordination with subcontractor

installing TMMS.
All Climate Indices /
Can trap moisture within the NLT assembly and All Seasons
significantly reduce drying should water penetrate
the membrane
Sheathing attachment penetrates through TMMS

field membrane; taped/seal over fasteners.
May be susceptible to damage and/or adhesion Climate Index ≤ 70 /

failure due to trade activities. All Seasons
May have limited exposure time; ponding water

may result in water absorption and slow drying.
Requires pre-coordination with subcontractor

installing TMMS.
Climate Index ≤ 70 /
TMMS may be susceptible to damage and/or
All Seasons
adhesion failure due to trade activities.
May require skilled/experienced installer.
Some joint treatment products may not bond Climate Index ≤ 35 /

to damp or wet sheathing substrate. All Season
Joint treatment may be susceptible to damage Climate Index ≤ 70 /
and/or adhesion failure due to trade activities. Dry Seasons
System permits water migration between

Climate Index ≤ 35 /
sheathing joints and into the NLT in wet
All Season
weather conditions.
Option permits water migration between NLT in Climate Index ≤ 35 /

wet weather conditions. All Season
Low durability.
Difficult to seal.
Isolated Conditions
Typically slippery and dangerous to walk on. (evaluate for project specific
appropriateness)
Allows lateral moisture movement beneath
membrane.
TMMS is inaccessible for quality control review.
TMMS below sheathing is difficult to drain and Avoid

dry; traps moisture within NLT.

Figure 7.9: Fixed Tenting Installation (Photos courtesy of Fast+Epp)
7.6.2 Additional Strategies

Consider the following strategies to supplement or replace the chosen TMMS.
TMMS Joint Treatment: Install sheathing, field membrane, and/or joint

treatment (where used) at panel connections as soon as possible after
installation. This connection is critical for protecting against moisture intrusion
and providing a continuous TMMS. Example TMMS joint treatment concepts
based on panel-to-panel sheathing details are shown in Figure 7.8. In all
cases, the TMMS should extend continuously across the surface of the NLT.
Regardless of TMMS type, always design the system to accommodate possible
swelling during construction, as discussed in Chapter 4.
Water Deflection/Diversion Mechanisms: On all project sites where rain

or snowmelt may occur, temporary drains sealed to the TMMS will divert
water away from the NLT assemblies and supplement the TMMS. At the
building perimeter, provide protection to minimize water ingress through
openings and penetrations, which may cause puddling on the horizontal
assemblies. Close off perimeter wall cavities at the top; leaving the cavities
open may divert water onto lower floor areas. Install temporary protection at
roof parapets as well as at perimeter wall elements to avoid directing water
into the building.
Sheathing splines provide an easy pathway for water to migrate into the NLT.
Detail the splines with the TMMS field membrane and/or joint treatment as
soon after placement as possible, and before wet weather conditions occur.
Additionally, ensure any other water deflection/diversion mechanisms avoid
concentrating water at spline locations.

Tenting: For construction during the wet season in wet climates, or climates
prone to cold and snow, consider a temporary tent until the building is
enclosed as an alternative to a TMMS. Tents may be fixed or movable (refer
to Figure 7.9). Tenting represents the lowest risk in terms of moisture
impacts and can also facilitate wintertime construction; however, tents can be
costly and may hinder some installation strategies.
Drying: If NLT moisture content exceeds recommended limits in spite of

the TMMS applied, a strategy to dry the wood will be necessary. The overall
depth of the NLT and the extent of water intrusion will determine the most
effective strategy; deep assemblies require more aggressive tactics and more
time to dry. Where large dimension wood panels require drying, it is also
important to control the rate of drying to minimize checking.
Using natural ventilation to dry wet NLT is not effective; drying typically
occurs slowly and relies on natural heating from sun exposure, and air flow
from wind [3]. Active heating and dehumidifying are more effective but have
limited benefit in cases where there is a membrane on top of the assembly.
In these instances, heating and dehumidifying can lower the moisture

content of wood close to the underside of the NLT, but research suggests
the membrane slows the overall rate of drying; heat may be ineffective at
drying the plywood/OSB or moisture trapped just below it. Heating and
dehumidifying is most effective in combination with ventilation. Accordingly,
remove membranes and plywood/OSB whenever possible to allow drying of
both the top and bottom sides of the NLT. Tenting, as described previously,
can also help speed the process.
References
[1] Wang, Jieying. 2016. Wetting and Drying Performance and On-
Site Moisture Protection of Nail Laminated Timber Assemblies.
Publication 173-644. Vancouver, B.C., Canada: FPInnovations.
[2] Sheffer, Theodore C. “A Climate Index for Estimating Potential for

Decay in Wood Structures Above Ground.” Forest Products Journal,
Vol. 21, No. 10. (1971), 25-31.
[3] Wang, J. 2016. Guide for on-site moisture management of wood

construction. Publication 173-525. Vancouver, BC: FPInnnovations.
[4] Morris, P.I.; Wang, J. 2008. A new decay hazard map for North America
using the Scheffer Index. Document IRG/WP, 08-10672. Stockholm,
Sweden: International Research Group on Wood Protection.

Above Moutain Equipment Co-Op Head Office, Vancouver, BC. (Photo courtesy of www.naturallywood.com)

8 Erection
Engineering
NLT projects usually require specialty erection engineering for panel lifting,
fall arrest, and temporary structural stability. This engineering can be
performed by the structural engineer but is more often carried out by the In This Chapter
supplier’s or installer’s temporary works engineer. 8.1 Design Loads
8.2 Panel Lifting
For larger structures, an engineered, stamped, and sealed set of erection
8.3 Fall Arrest and
drawings should be in place prior to the start of work on site.
Horizontal Lifelines
8.4 Temporary Stability
8.1 Design Loads
Successful systems for lifting and temporary stability are based on accurate
design load calculations. Consider the following:
• IBC and Work Safe requirements for temporary stability,

construction loads per ASCE 37-14, and fall arrest loads;
• The impact of wind to increase forces in lifting systems.
Maximum wind speeds for panel lifting should be specified
by the erection engineer;
• Accurate panel weights, considering wood species and moisture
content of the NLT panel;
• Appropriate Dynamic Amplification Factors related to the lifting
mechanism being proposed (refer to Table 8.1.); and
• Accurate calculation of the panel’s centre of gravity and any impact
of asymmetric lifting.
Take care before specifying a specific load rating for any engineered lifting
system. Once a rating is stated, others may assume it to be valid even under
significantly different circumstances.

Chapter 8 Erection Engineering
Fig. 8.1 DYNAMIC ACCELERATION

FACTORS (F) [1] 8.2 Panel Lifting
LIFTING DYNAMIC COEFFICIENT Many systems for lifting NLT panels are available, ranging from simple lifting
DEVICE OF ACCELERATION F
with slings to pre-engineered systems using screws. Lifting drawings sealed
Fixed crane 1.1 ~ 1.3
by a professional engineer are required for many of these systems. Typical
Mobile crane 1.3 ~ 1.4
stamped lifting drawings can be re-used across projects, if they are reviewed
Bridge crane 1.2 ~ 1.6 for applicability with a registered professional engineer prior to re-use.
Lifting and
moving on 2.0 ~ 2.5 8.2.1 Engineering Considerations
flat terrain
Lifting capacities depend on many project-specific factors including wood
Lifting and
moving on 3.0 ~ 4.0 and + species, moisture content, panel shape or openings, and crane type. Specify
rough terrain and include the following information on panel lifting or erection drawings:
Weight: Loading and panel weights
Lifting Mechanism: Slings, spreader bars, and chain hoists can all be
components of the rigging system which attaches to pick points on panels.
Specifying allowable sling angles and required sling or chain capacities is
critical to a safe lifting plan. Specify use of tag lines to safely guide the panel
during lifting.
Lifting Point Connection Details: Specify associated reinforcing screws

if required.
Lifting Point Capacities and Assumptions: Account for wood species,

moisture content, panel build-up, type of lifting device, factor of safety, and
assumed dynamic amplification factor related to the specific lifting device or
crane being used.
Location of Lifting Points: Notches and non-rectangular panel shapes

modify the position of the centre of gravity; in these cases, typical lifting
point patterns must be rearranged to ensure panel stability during lifting.
Some panels may require so-called strong backs or reinforcement atop the
panel during lifting to avoid excessive deflection or damage to the panel until
it is fully supported in its final installed condition.
Screw Installation: Screws should never be installed with an impact drill. Do

not remove or reinstall screws. Do not reuse holes.

Stability of Support Structure: The support structure must be adequately
braced and connected prior to landing NLT panels, both to ensure sufficient
load-bearing capacity and to maintain panel alignment once set.
Minimum Connection from Panel into Support Structure: Prior to

walking on panels or attaching fall arrest anchor points, a minimum level of
connectivity is required between the NLT panel and the support structure.
8.2.2 Lifting Mechanisms

Many different lifting mechanisms are possible, and a registered professional
engineer should design an appropriate lifting mechanism for the project and
panel configuration.
Refer to Table 8.2 for some common approaches to lifting horizontal NLT
panels for floors or roofs, many of which include high-strength self-tapping
screws. Where these screws are used, place them centred on NLT laminations.
Screws of larger diameter should be predrilled.
Use the right tools, correctly calibrated to prevent stripping of the wood
during screw installation. Never use impact tools to avoid overdriving the
screw, breaking the screw, or stripping the holes. Generally these screws
cannot be re-used; consult with the supplier to confirm.
NLT wall panels with vertically oriented laminations and a horizontal top plate
require special lifting techniques. Consider the use of choked slings or screws
fastened through the top plate, or D-ring plates fastened to the sides of the
panel. It is important to consider load transfer between lams, although where
plywood/OSB is pre-installed on at least one side this is usually straightforward.
8.2.3 Pick Points

Distribute pick points such that the resulting lifting hook position lies over
the panel centre of gravity, minimizing eccentricities and any tendency for the
panel to tip in one direction. For asymmetric panels, a stable arrangement of
pick points can be determined by placing two, three, or four pick points on a
radius drawn from the panel centre of gravity. This radius should not be less
than one-quarter of the overall panel length.
When picking more than two lifting points from a single hook, use
appropriate compensation systems to ensure proper load distribution between
all pick points, and carefully consider effective loads on each pick point.

Fig. 8.2 LIFTING MECHANISM OPTIONS
LIFTING MECHANISM USE AND LOAD RANGES CONSIDERATIONS
Screwed in
Quick-connect system reduces
Quick-Release Anchors
cycle times.
Screws must be installed at
correct angle.
Common system for mid-range
panel weights. Local reinforcement of panel
is required.
Load is dependent on the
withdrawal capacity of high- For higher loaded connection,
strength screws. provide timber blocking fastened to
the top of the panel or a counterbore
into the panel to ensure lifting
screws are loaded in withdrawal only.
Screws penetrate pre-installed
TMMS.
Slings can be re-used.

Slings
Hook-up and release of panels
is slow.
Typical max width is 4 ft. (use of a
spreader bar can increase the
Simple system common for
sling angle).
narrow panels or tight spaces
(ex: shops). Sling angles less than 60°
increase lifting anchor force
Load is governed by sling
(impacts lift rating).
capacity and rigging
configuration. Difficult to remove slings, so
panels must be landed apart and
pulled together.
Potential for instability of the
panel if slings slip.
No penetration through the TMMS
(Photo courtesy of Seagate Structures Ltd.) (where applicable).
Screwed Plates with Lifting Rings D-ring plates and screws can be
re-used.
Can be time consuming to install.
Consider impact to dunnage during
Governed by plate dimension and shipping for pre-installed plates.
number of screws installed. Multiple plates required for a project
Used for higher load panels (or will impact the cost.
reduced number of pick points). Provide either swivel lift ring or
orient d-ring to pivot in same
direction as chains/slings.
Large number of penetrations into
the TMMS.

Figure 8.1: Point Arrest and Lifelines (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)
8.3 Fall Arrest and

Horizontal Lifelines
Temporary fall arrest systems atop horizontal NLT are an important part
of any installation plan, in addition to any fall arrest anchors required for
permanent conditions. Both of these systems can be fastened directly to
the NLT and provide sufficient capacity to meet OSHA requirements. They
require specific engineering, which is usually provided by the installer’s
engineer. Give special consideration to load transfer requirements from the
NLT to the supporting structure.
Panels that are covered with lumber wrap or adhesive membrane for weather
protection also become very slippery when wet, posing an additional hazard
during construction. For temporary fall arrest systems, D-plates can be
fastened directly to the NLT and used for both point arrests and life lines;
refer to Figure 8.1. Note that not all lifting systems are designed for fall arrest.
Fall arrest engineering should be done in addition to lift engineering.
Permanent fall arrest anchors typically impose larger loads on the structure
than temporary systems, because minimum clearances above the finished
roof increase the height of the anchors. Local reinforcement of the NLT

may be required at anchor locations to distribute the load to a sufficient

number of laminations. If the anchor locations are coordinated early enough,
reinforcing screws can be preinstalled in the NLT. In other cases, 45-degree
screws attaching the anchor base plate to the NLT can function both as
anchorage and as reinforcing. If fasteners for fall arrest anchors penetrate
either the permanent or temporary waterproofing membrane, consider their
impact on the integrity of the membrane.
8.4 Temporary Stability

To ensure proper alignment of elements before and after NLT installation,
temporary stability supports may be applied to the structure supporting NLT
floor panels as shown in Figure 8.2. NLT is heavier than light-frame wood
construction and therefore less susceptible to wind uplift, but lateral loads
such as horizontal fall arrest loads or seismic loads during construction must
be considered. Install a limited number of fasteners between the NLT and its
supports immediately to secure each panel in place.
If panels are stacked on the structure during installation, be sure to check the
weight of the panel stacks against the design loads for the structure.
Wall panels require restraint for temporary construction loading such as wind.
Shores are common and may take several forms, from custom built-up 38
mm x 140 mm (2x6) braces with adjustable turnbuckles at either end, to pre-
manufactured and adjustable metal shores.
References
[1] Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. 2013. CLT handbook: cross-
laminated timber. Pointe-Claire, Québec: FPInnovations.

Figure 8.2: Temporary Stability Supports (Photo courtesy of StructureCraft Builders Inc.)

Above UBC Bookstore, Vancouver, BC. Architecture: Office of Mcfarland Biggar Architects + Designers (Photo credit: Ema Peter)

Appendices
Appendices
A NLT Appearance Chart
B Sample Specification
C Swelling & Shrinkage of Wood

Appendices
Appendix A: NLT Appearance Chart
Figure A.1: Significant wane and knots, inconsistent colouration. Loose vertical tolerance on placement of laminations.
Figure A.2: Minimal wane, some knot holes, variable colouration. Tight vertical tolerance on placement of laminations.

Figure A.3: No wane, minimal knot holes, variable colouration. Tight vertical tolerance on placement of laminations.
Figure A.4: No wane, no knot holes, consistent colouration. Tight vertical tolerance on placement of laminations.

Appendices
Appendix B: Sample Specification
Project Name Section 06 15 29

Project Location NAIL-LAMINATED TIMBER
Date Page 1
Part 1 General
1.1 SECTION INCLUDES

.1 Solid dimension lumber floor and roof decking, prefabricated in panels.
.2 Floor and roof sheathing.
.3 Connection hardware.
1.2 RELATED SECTIONS

.1 Section 01 35 18 - Sustainable Design Requirements.
.2 Section 05 12 00 - Structural Steel Framing.
.3 Section 09 91 00 - Painting.
1.3 REFERENCES
.1 ASTM A153/A153M-16a - Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and
Steel Hardware.
.2 ASTM E488/E488M-15 - Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete
Elements.
.3 ASTM F1667-15 - Standard Specification for Driven Fasteners: Nails, Spikes, and Staples.
.4 CANPLY (Canadian Plywood Association) - Grading and certification.
.5 CSA O86-14 - Engineering Design in Wood.
.6 CSA O121-08(R2013) - Douglas Fir Plywood.
.7 CSA O141-05(R2014) - Softwood Lumber.
.8 ICC-ES ESR-1539 - Power-Driven Staples and Nails.
.9 NLGA (National Lumber Grades Authority) - Standard Grading Rules for Canadian Lumber,
2014 Edition.
.10 National Building Code of Canada 2015.
.11 For Projects overseen by a Construction Manager or Design-Build Contractor in lieu of a
General Contractor, references to “Contractor” shall apply to the relevant Subcontractor(s).
1.4 ACTION SUBMITTALS

.1 Product Data: For each type of factory-fabricated product. Submit proposed sealer for
review and approval.
.2 Shop Drawings: Connections and details, joint patterns, material specifications, and
finishes, including an erection layout.
.3 Provide a letter outlining steps to be taken during construction to ensure adequate weather
protection of wood structures.
.4 Sustainable Design: Per Section 01 35 18.

Date Page 2
1.5 INFORMATIONAL SUBMITTALS

.1 In lieu of grade stamping lumber exposed to view, submit manufacturer's certificate
certifying that products meet or exceed specified requirements.
.2 The fabricator and erector shall submit a QA/QC log of items such as but not limited to:
.1 Environmental conditions at all stages, such as during fabrication, storage,
transportation, erection and ideally until building is completely finished.
.2 Actual length, thickness and width of the panels. Length, width, thickness and
diagonal measurement are to be noted on top surface of panels.
.3 Site deliveries, including verified load manifests with notes of damaged or missing
materials and elements.
.4 Material and element install with sign off for QC on hardware/fastener installation.
.5 Equipment used, such as but not limited to torque drills (with torque clutch) for
screw installation through steel plates etc.
.6 Any changes or modifications.
.7 The inclusion of representative pictures within the log is required.
1.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE

.1 Perform Work in accordance with CSA O86 and the following agencies:
.1 Lumber Grading Agency: Certified by NLGA.
.2 Plywood Grading Agency: Certified by CANPLY.
.2 Build mockups to demonstrate aesthetic effects and set quality standards for materials and
execution.
.1 Build one complete NLT panel with a minimum width of 1.2 meters.
.2 Mockup must illustrate typical wood appearance, coating, and finish.
.3 Keep mockup available to view as the standard of Work for remaining fabrication.
.4 Approved mock-ups may become part of the completed Work if undisturbed at the
time of Substantial Completion.
.3 Build NLT panels in a shop environment for quality control. Shop fit panels during
fabrication. Review with Consultant prior to proceeding further.
1.7 DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND PROTECTION

.1 Store all materials and assembled NLT panels under cover with proper drainage. Take
particular care to protect exposed end grain. Protect from staining and damage at all times
during fabrication, transportation, and installation.
.2 Take all necessary precautions to keep NLT dry during and after installation, including
temporary sloping tarps and UV protection.
Part 2 Products
2.1 DIMENSION LUMBER

.1 Lumber Grading Rules: NLGA. All softwood lumber shall conform to CSA O141 and
CSA O86.

Appendices

Date Page 3
.2 Do not grade stamp lumber exposed to view. Deliver to site with certificates as to species,
grades, stress grades, seasoning, moisture content, and other evidence as required to
show compliance with the Specifications.
.3 Dress lumber, S4S, unless noted otherwise.
.4 Wood Members: SPF #1/#2 unless noted otherwise on the Drawings, 19% maximum
moisture content.
.5 Finger-Jointed Lumber: Conforming to NLGA SPS 1 and CSA O86.
2.2 SHEATHING
.1 Floor and Roof Sheathing: T&G Douglas Fir plywood, exterior grade, conforming to
CSA O121. Thickness as indicated, not less than 16mm.
.2 Factory mark panels to indicate compliance with applicable standard.
2.3 CONNECTORS
.1 Provide fasteners of size and type indicated that comply with requirements specified in this
article for material and manufacture. Provide fasteners with hot-dip zinc coating complying
with ASTM A153 or of Type 304 stainless steel.
.2 Nails, Spikes, and Staples: ASTM F1667.
.3 Power-Driven Fasteners: ICC-ES ESR-1539.
.4 Screws, Tight-Fit Pins and Bolts, Through-Bolts, Glued-In Rods, and Specialty Connectors:
As specified on the Drawings. All fasteners and connectors shall be hot-dip galvanized or
Type 304 stainless steel unless noted otherwise.
.5 Expansion Anchors: Anchor bolt and sleeve assembly with capability to sustain, without
failure, a load equal to six times the load imposed when installed in unit masonry
assemblies and equal to four times the load imposed when installed in concrete as
determined by testing per ASTM E488 conducted by a qualified independent testing and
inspecting agency.
.6 Metal Straps and Ties: Galvanized Simpson Strong-Tie straps or approved equal where
required.
.7 Structural Steel Connectors: As specified in Section 05 12 00. All steel and connectors shall
be hot dip galvanized unless noted otherwise. Fabricate steel hardware and connections
with joints neatly fitted, welded, and ground smooth. Test fit in shop.
2.4 M ISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS

.1 Moisture Barrier: Light gauge metal, asphalt-impregnated building paper, 6mm-thick
closed-cell foam gasket material, saturated felt roll roofing, or 6 mil polyethylene.
.2 Wood Sealer: As specified in Section 09 91 00. Sealer shall be compatible with indicated
finish. End sealer shall be effective in retarding the transmission of moisture at cross-grain
cuts.
2.5 PREFABRICATION
.1 Hand select members to ensure straightness and architectural-quality appearance.
.1 No wane, knot holes, grade stamps, or stains are permitted to be visible in the
completed structure.

Date Page 4
.2 Where pine beetle kill wood is specified, hand select all members to ensure beetle
staining is visible. Ensure staining is spatially distributed throughout panels; avoid
clusters of stained boards.
.3 Assume a minimum of 30% - 40% lumber rejection rate to achieve acceptable
appearance with #2-grade material. Higher grade material (e.g. J-grade or MSR
lumber) will reduce the rejection rate and may be substituted for #2-grade material
at Contractor’s option.
.2 Place soffits of timbers so the least number of checks and knots will be visible in the
completed structure.
.3 Placement tolerance for timber soffits is plus or minus 2mm.
.4 Arrange timbers in staggered pattern or aligned joint pattern as indicated on the Drawings.
.1 Staggered pattern: Stagger and nail together as indicated on the Drawings.
.2 Aligned joint pattern: Place timbers with joints centered over support members
below. No joints are to be visible from below. Nail together as indicated on the
Drawings.
.5 Use common steel wire nails unless noted otherwise. Make tight connections between
members. Install fasteners without splitting wood. Drive nails snug but do not countersink
nail heads unless noted otherwise.
.6 Substitution of common nails with power-driven nails of the same length and diameter is
acceptable. Substitution of power-driven nails of smaller diameter is permitted only with the
Consultant’s approval.
.7 Clearly mark top surface of panels for identification during erection.
.8 Apply a saturation coat of end sealer to ends and other cross-cut surfaces, keeping
surfaces flood coated for not less than 10 minutes.
.9 After end-coat sealing, apply a heavy saturation coat of penetrating sealer on surfaces of
each panel, or seal every lam prior to assembling.
2.6 FABRICATION TOLERANCES

.1 Soffit Elevation of Individual Laminations: plus or minus 1mm.
.2 Panel Width: plus or minus 6mm.
.3 Panel Length: plus or minus 3mm.
.4 For rectangular panels, the corner-to-corner diagonal measurements should not deviate
from each other by more than 3mm.
Part 3 Execution
3.1 EX AMINATION
.1 Confirm all dimensions prior to fabrication. Coordinate with shop drawings of other trades.
.2 Examine supporting construction in areas to receive decking, with Installer present, for
compliance with requirements, installation tolerances, and other conditions affecting
performance of the Work.
.3 Proceed with installation only after unsatisfactory conditions have been corrected.

Appendices

Date Page 5
3.2 INSTALLATION
.1 Provide temporary shores, guys, braces, and other supports during erection to keep NLT
secure and in alignment against wind loads, seismic loads, temporary construction loads,
and loads equal in intensity to design loads. Any failure to make proper and adequate
provisions for stresses during erection shall be solely the responsibility of the Installer.
Fasteners required for erection purposes are the responsibility of the Contractor and are to
be included in the bid.
.2 Fit NLT panels closely and accurately to required levels and lines without trimming, cutting,
or other modifications, unless approved in writing by the Consultant.
.3 Securely attach NLT to supports as indicated on the Drawings.
.4 Site cutting or boring of NLT, other than shown on the shop drawings, is not permitted
without written consent of the Consultant. Coat all field-cut openings with minimum two
coats of clear sealer.
.5 Provide sill gaskets below laminations and non-rigid vapour barrier sealant between
laminations where assembly passes over exterior walls.
.6 Provide moisture barrier at all locations where NLT abuts concrete or masonry construction.
.7 Provide gaps as required for construction tolerances and swelling. Details and locations
shall be discussed with and approved by the Consultant in writing prior to construction.
Gaps on the interior of the building are to be filled after the building is fully enclosed and
temperature-controlled.
3.3 SHEATHING INSTALLATION

.1 Do not use materials with defects that impair quality of sheathing or pieces that are too
small to use with minimum number of joints or optimum joint arrangement.
.2 Secure floor and roof sheathing with longer edge perpendicular to deck direction and with
end joints staggered.
.3 Locate sheathing joints away from gaps between panels.
.4 Fully engage tongue and groove edges where applicable.
.5 Coordinate sheathing installation with installation of materials installed over sheathing so
sheathing is not exposed to precipitation or left exposed at end of the work day when rain is
forecast.
3.4 REPAIRS AND FINISHING

.1 Prior to finishing, remove any stains, marks, or other damage that may have occurred
during construction.
.2 Provide field finish of panels as specified in Section 09 91 00.
.3 Final approval by Architect will be after installation of all decking. Remove and replace all
Work that does not conform to the standard of the approved mockup, at Architect’s request.
Replacement of defective Work is at Contractor’s expense.
3.5 ERECTION TOLERANCES

.1 For rectangular areas, the corner-to-corner diagonal measurements should not deviate from
each other by more than 13mm or 0.25% of the length of the shortest side of the rectangle,
whichever is greater.

Date Page 6
.2 Overall Surface Levelness (Floors and Flat Roofs): 6mm in 3 meters maximum.
.3 Elevation: plus or minus 10mm from theoretical.
.4 Joints: 5mm maximum gap between NLT panels unless noted otherwise.
END OF SECTION

Appendices
Appendix C: Swelling & Shrinkage of Wood
Wood is a natural material, therefore its properties vary with the direction
of the wood grain. As shown in Figure C.1, three directions of grain are
identified: radial, longitudinal, and tangential.
4.
1. Although there are no prescribed manufacturer standards for NLT, typical
softwood species used to construct NLT include Douglas Fir (DF) and
Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF). Different species have different physical properties,
2. 3.
including density and water vapor permeability.
As a natural hygroscopic material, wood experiences sorption and desorption;

Figure C.1: The Three Principal Axes
of Wood Grain its moisture content will change with exposure to both liquid water and water
Key vapor within the surrounding environment. Changes in moisture content
1. Radial at or below fiber saturation point affect wood dimensions and structural
2. Longitudinal
properties. With regard to water vapor, the equilibrium moisture content
3. Tangential
4. Fiber direction
(EMC) of wood will change with the temperature and relative humidity of
the surrounding environment. The relationship of EMC and relative humidity
at a given temperature is expressed as a sorption isotherm as shown in
Figure C.2.
30
30.0
25
25.0
Content(%)(%)
20
moisture content
20.0
Moisture
15
15.0
Equilibrium
Equilibrium
10
10.0
55.0
00.0
001 10 02 20 03 3004 40 05 5006 60 07 7008 8009 9001 100
00
Relative Humidity
Relative ( %)
humidity (%)
Figure C.2 Wood Moisture Sorption Isotherm at 200C.

Based on data from Forest Products Laboratory, USA. FPL (Forest Products Laboratory). 1999.
Wood Handbook--Wood as an Engineering Material. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-113. Madison, WI:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory

Lamination expansion due to swelling
Lamination position after NLT has returned to lower moisture
Figure C.3: Swelling and Shrinkage in Individual Laminations (Scale Exaggerated to Show
General Effect).
Wood will change dimensionally with changes in moisture content most in the
tangential direction, half as much in the radial direction, and a minimal amount
(0.1% to 0.2%) in the longitudinal direction (United States Departement of
Agriculture Forest Service, 2010). As longitudinal shrinkage/swelling is so small,
it is generally ignored in the design and construction of NLT panels. Expected
values of swelling can be calculated by estimating the material’s installation
moisture content and the maximum expected moisture content during a
heavy rain event. Typically these values range from 12% to approximately 28%
respectively. Values of shrinkage can be calculated by estimating the material’s
installation moisture content and the building’s equilibrium moisture content.
Typically, equilibrium values range from 8% to 12%.
When NLT gets wet, the wood fibers will fill with water and begin to swell.
When NLT dries out and finds stable humidity and temperature levels, the
individual laminations will shrink in cross section. When detailing NLT,
consider both swelling during the construction phase and shrinkage during
the first few years of building service life. This cycle can result in small gaps
between the NLT laminations as shown in Figure C.3.

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v1.

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide I

The Nail-Laminated Timber Design and Construction Guide (the “Guide”)

No part of this Guide may be reproduced, published, or transmitted for

The information contained in this Guide represents current research results

This Guide is designed to provide current and authoritative information, but is

Rebecca Holt Tanya Luthi Carla Dickof

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide III

IV Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Apparent Impact Isolation Class (AIIC)

Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC)

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide V

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Computer Numeric Control (CNC) Machine

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)

Dowel-Laminated Timber (DLT)

VI Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Engineered Wood Product

Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC), %

Fibre Saturation Point, %

Field Impact Isolation Class (FIIC)

Field Sound Transmission Class (FSTC)

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide VII

Flame Spread Rating

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Certified Wood

Glued-Laminated Timber (GLT)

Heavy Timber Construction

VIII Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Kiln-Dried (KD) Lumber

Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL)

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide IX

Machine Stress Rated (MSR) Lumber

Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT)

Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)

X Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

• 38 mm (1-1/2 in.) actual finished width = 2 in. nominal

Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)

Sound Transmission Class (STC)

Specific Heat Capacity

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XI

Structural Composite Lumber (SCL)

Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI)

Thermal Resistance, RSI (R-Value)

Temporary Moisture Management System (TMMS)

Visually Graded Lumber

XII Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XIII

XIV Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XV

6 Supply and Fabrication 82

XVI Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide

7 Construction & Installation 96

8 Erection Engineering 108

Nail-Laminated Timber Canadian Design & Constr uction Guide XVII

6 Supply and Fabrication 82

7 Construction & Installation 96

8 Erection Engineering 108