Swedish Wood CLT Handbook

The CLT Handbook
CLT structures – facts and planning

The CLT Handbook
CLT struc tures – facts
and planning
on material
C LT a s a c o n s t r u c t i
m s fo r C LT
Construc tion syste
c t u re s
D e s i g n i n g C LT s t r u
ions
Joints and connec t
F l o o r s t r u c t u re s
Wa l l s
C LT a n d f i re
C LT a n d s o u n d
t u re
C LT, h e a t a n d m o i s
embly
P u rc h a s i n g a n d a s s
The CLT Handbook is the result of a collaboration between Swedish suppliers of cross
laminated timber, CLT, and the industry body Swedish Wood. The CLT Handbook is part
of Swedish Wood’s investment in handbooks for building in wood. Other handbooks
that have been published are:
• Design of timber structures Volume 1, which deals with structural aspects of timber
constructions.
• Design of timber structures Volume 2, which contains rules and formulas according to
Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures Volume 3, which include examples of timber
constructions.
• The Glulam Handbook Volume 1, which deals with facts about glulam and planning
guidance.
• The Glulam Handbook Volume 2, which contains calculations for the structural
dimensioning of glulam.
• The Glulam Handbook Volume 3, which gives a number of example calculations for
the most common glulam structures.
Further knowledge, information and practical instructions on wood, CLT and timber
construction is available on TräGuiden, www.traguiden.se, which is constantly
updated with new knowledge and practical experiences. TräGuiden is an extensive
resource with tables, drawings and illustrations.
Welcome to www.traguiden.se!
Information on wood, glulam, CLT and timber construction can also be found at
www.svenskttra.se.
Stockholm, May 2019
Eric Borgström and Johan Fröbel

Svenskt Trä
Cover: Strandparken, Sundbyberg, Sweden.

Foreword
The aim of the CLT Handbook is to help construction planners to
design and plan structures using panels of cross laminated timber.
The handbook describes cross laminated timber, CLT, as a construction
material, as well as designs carried out using CLT. The CLT Handbook
provides guidance on designing and planning structures in CLT.
The CLT Handbook also presents some of today’s many applications
for CLT. The CLT Handbook is aimed at construction planners and
other actors in the field.
The CLT Handbook refers mainly to European construction standards

and the Eurocodes, which are Europe-wide structural design rules that
address verification of load-bearing capacity, stability and durability.
National adaptations have been made to the Eurocodes, based on
the member states’ particular conditions with regard to geology, climate
and culture. These national adaptations for Sweden are set out in
Boverket’s building regulations (BBR) and its general recommendations
on the application of European design standards, EKS 10 (BFS 2015:6).
EKS 10 also contains general rules on safety, controls, documentation
and changes to buildings.
Where the Swedish EKS 10 lacks rules or presents questionable design

methods, other methods have been suggested. When calculating
the properties and load-bearing capacity of CLT in different contexts,
methods based on research and best practice have therefore been used.
The authors have been responsible for interpreting building regulations,

research papers, industrial documents and so on, with a view to con-
veying current design practices. The material presented is only intended
to provide guidance; the final design responsibility lies with the struc-
tural engineer.
Skellefteå, May 2019
Anders Gustafsson
RISE Research Institutes of Sweden
The CLT Handbook 3

Installing CLT
The CLT Handbook
Table of contents
CLT as a construction material 8 Floor structures 90

1.1 Introduction 8 5.1 Floor structures – overview 91
1.2 Architect’s views on CLT 9 5.2 Deformations 94
1.3 CLT as a construction material 11 5.3 Deflection, sagging and vibrations 97
1.4 CLT in the eco-cycle 12 5.4 Fire safety 101
1.5 CLT manufacture 16 5.5 Acoustic performance 101
1.6 Properties 19 5.6 Example calculations 106
1.7 Where can you use CLT? 21
Walls 110
Design systems for CLT 24 6.1 Walls - overview 111
2.1 Floor structures and walls 25 6.2 Static design 112
2.2 CLT as a beam 26 6.3 Structure stability 115
2.3 CLT in shell structures 26 6.4 Fire 121
2.4 Initial design 27 6.5 Acoustic 121
6.6 Wall cross-sections 123
Design of CLT structures 30 6.7 Design and detailed solutions 124
3.1 Basis for design 30 6.8 Example calculations 127
3.2 Material properties of CLT 37
3.3 CLT design using beam theory 40 CLT and fire 133
3.4 CLT as two-dimensional load-bearing slabs 7.1 Wood and fire safety 133
or panels 63
7.2 Fire resistance of CLT 138
3.5 Design software for CLT 67
7.3 Design and details 140
3.6 Examples 68
7.4 Example 141
Joints and connections 72 CLT and sound 145

4.1 Joints and connections 72
8.1 Planning for acoustics 145
4.2 Design principles 73

8.2 Acoustics in CLT structures 151
4.3 Overview of joint types 74

8.3 Floor structures 151
4.4 Detailed solutions 75

8.4 Walls 154
4.5 Designing of connections 80

8.5 Points to bear in mind 156
The CLT Handbook 5

The CLT Handbook
CLT, heat and moisture 157

9.1 CLT and thermal storage,
moisture buffering 157
9.2 CLT and moisture-related movement 160
9.3 CLT and thermal insulation 160
Purchasing and assembly 164

10.1 Enquiry and purchasing 164
10.2 Handling CLT correctly 164
10.3 Protecting the structure during construction 170
10.4 Points to bear in mind 174
Symbols 176
References 181
Non-liability 184
Swedish Wood publications and websites 187
6 The CLT Handbook

Cottage, Skellefteå, Sweden.
The CLT Handbook 7

1.1 Introduction
CLT as a
construction material
1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 Architect’s view of CLT 9

1.1 Introduction
1.3 CLT as a construction material 11 Cross laminated timber, crosslam, CLT, X-Lam, BSP, mass timber and
multiply are common names for sheets, panels, posts and beams
1.4 CLT in the eco-cycle 12 made of glued boards or planks layered alternately at right-angles.
1.5 CLT manufacture 16 For the CLT Handbook, we have decided to use the term cross
1.5.1 Certified CLT 18 laminated timber and the abbreviation CLT. The clear majority of the
CLT bought in the Nordic countries is used as structural components
1.6 Properties 19
in the frames of multi-storey buildings, schools, nurseries, industrial
1.6.1 Strength properties 19
1.6.2 Thermal properties 19
premises, houses and special structures. Since CLT is a versatile prod-
1.6.3 Moisture-related movement 20 uct, it could also be used in a broad spectrum of applications. CLT are
1.6.4 Burning properties 20 currently used primarily for walls and floor structures. CLT is an eco-
1.6.5 Surface layer and surface treatment 20 friendly and recyclable construction material that, used correctly, has
a long service life. It can then be reused in new structures or inciner-
1.7 Where can you use CLT? 21
ated for energy recovery.
The distinguishing feature of CLT structural components such as
walls and floors is that they are often used as large surface panels.
The opportunity for sizeable cross-sections gives the components a
high load-bearing capacity and stiffness, which also makes the panels
useful for stabilising the building. The panels can be manufactured
with a high degree of prefabrication and their low self-weight brings
benefits in terms of groundwork, transport and assembly. The insula-
tion in an outer wall can largely be placed almost alongside without
any thermal bridges. The solid structure and the cladding material
usually used also provide good fire safety.
Modern manufacturing techniques combined with good strength
properties make CLT a useful construction material with unique
properties:
• The flexibility of CLT makes a valuable contribution to
the development of construction.
• High strength in relation to the self-weight of the material.
• Small manufacturing tolerances and good dimensional stability.
• Good load-bearing capacity in fire.
• Good thermal insulation capacity.
• Low self-weight, which means lower transport and assembly costs,
as well as lower foundation costs.
• Good capacity to tolerate chemically aggressive environments.
• Flexible production that even allows the manufacture of curved
surfaces.
Cabin, Kebnekaise, Sweden.
CLT structures are characterised by fast and simple assembly of pre-
fabricated surface and box units. The components can be joined
using simple and traditional methods such as nailing and screwing.
For more demanding structures, there are more advanced fixing
methods.
8 The CLT Handbook

1.2 Architect’s view of CLT
A CLT structure has full load-bearing capacity even before assembly

and, as with other timber structures, minor changes can be made
on-site using simple hand tools. Wood has been used in buildings for
centuries and is a material with extremely good durability if used
correctly. The Nordic countries have examples of wooden buildings
that are hundreds of years old!

It is said that forward-looking politicians in the alpine countries of
Europe came up with the idea of developing wood for modern
construction.
The question was: can we make a construction material from the
trees lining our valleys, rather than scraping ballast from the slopes
and river beds to produce concrete? This question was sent out to
the leading universities in Austria and a few years later, in the late
1990s, researchers unveiled Kreuzlagerholz, KLH, or CLT in English.
This marked the birth of a new construction material based on a cli-
mate-smart and ecological approach. An engineered construction
material that makes use of a raw material that is constantly growing
and renewable.
Now the world of construction had a material for architecture and
urban development that offered an alternative to stone, brick, steel
and concrete. Of course, wood is nothing new in building. Frames of
vertical and horizontal timber have formed solid walls in homes
since time immemorial. Post-and-plank structures, with horizontal
planks between posts, were developed when access to logs became
commercialised. Vertical planks and posts were an early method for
creating self-build homes of up to two floors. People have always had
Ventilation tower with CLT frame, Stockholm, Sweden.
an affinity with wood as a construction material, as it can be crafted
with all kinds of tools.
CLT allows for large-format wooden panels – it is possible to manu-
facture panels up to 4.80 m tall and 30 m long, with thicknesses of
around 60 – 500 mm. This enables architects to design a building
that comprises flat packs of prefabricated panels with precision holes
cut out for windows, doors and installations, which are then assem-
bled on the construction site. We are talking about industrial produc-
tion, under cover, with time-saving assembly on site. This is also the
case with the manufacture of box units, where floors, walls and ceil-
ings are produced in CLT.
CLT is an engineered material that can be used for architecture in
an industrialised way, with extensive prefabrication of components.
Elements based on wood can be processed all the way to the detailing
and surface finish. With modern digital technology offering new
choices and incredible precision, the construction world is no longer
tied to the site-bound, suboptimal building culture.
CLT furnishes interiors with surfaces that are ready to use. The floor
is pleasant to walk on, since wood immediately conveys warmth to
bare feet. Shelves can be screwed onto the walls without any problem.
Pictures can be hung, and things can be fixed to the ceiling with no
fuss. If the resident wants to add a doorway, there is usually plenty of
freedom to saw a new opening, where appropriate. And adding a
new window for extra daylight is generally just as straightforward.
CLT panels perform structurally like concrete components, but
with much lower self-weight. In terms of calculations, CLT counts as
a fully fledged structural sheet material, with known stresses from
The CLT Handbook 9

compression, tensile and shear forces in buildings. Issues of fire

safety can also be addressed, based on recognised research and devel-
opment as well as European standards.
In the event of a fire, the cross laminated timber panel chars on
the surface to create a protective layer, while retaining structural
integrity, so that people can be moved to safety in good time.
With all the excellent properties that CLT displays, it can be used
with confidence as a construction material. People have long put
their trust in wood. Our senses were no doubt trained up in wood
work, where a direct relationship with the material could be
established.
The architecture we want for our cities in the future will be built
around CLT frames. We are often keen to see that buildings are made
of wood, with exposed wooden surfaces. It is now perfectly possible
to make the buildings rise over many floors. CLT can also form the
load-bearing structure on the exterior, allowing for façades in a
Summer house under construction, Öland, Sweden. different material. It is all a matter of where the buildings fit into
the cityscape and what local adaptations are required.
A useful option that CLT structures allow is densification, with new
developments that slot comfortably into the existing built
environment. Newbuilds assembled in kit form can be erected in a
short space of time, and this time-saving construction method can be
tailored well to local conditions.
Architecture that makes use of CLT can embrace a design language
that is exciting and surprising, since wood conveys the spirit that
architects and developers want for their projects, in terms of
planning, function and appearance. Additional potential for CLT lies
in new alliances with other materials, such as reinforced concrete,
glass and steel.
Such composites can provide answers to structural challenges
concerning floor structures and stability. Historically, timber-frame
houses bear witness to the opportunities for the constructive com
bination of different materials.
A challenge for the future is to achieve energy-efficient cities with
Summer house made of CLT, Öland, Sweden. buildings that face the sun and generate their own energy. The fact
that CLT forms a climate-smart carbon sink in structures, while
allowing attractive solar panels to be mounted on the façade and
roof, is good news for future architecture. And remember that
various types of building in the cityscape can be made using CLT
construction kits. The housing we need to build for the young, the
old and new arrivals, city halls, schools, preschools, cultural centres,
sports halls, bus and train depots, department stores and shopping
centres, hotels and restaurants – all this architecture can be built
around CLT.
A point always in its favour is that CLT advances the cause of
industrial manufacture using a material that is renewable and easy
to work with. It opens the way for an industry equipped with digital
power and automation that can be used for products that benefit
humanity, bringing diversity and rich experiences to architecture and
urban planning. This is an architectural material that embodies our
desire to make the planet more sustainable for us, our children and
our children’s children.
Finally. It has also been shown that people sleep better in rooms
that use wood in floors, walls and ceilings – a material that breathes
and maintains an active relationship with the seasons and relative
humidity. Sustainably.
10 The CLT Handbook

1.3 CLT as a construction material
1.3 CLT as a construction

material
Cross laminated timber, CLT, is a highly engineered wood product
that is excellent for all sorts of different structures. CLT’s composition
and method of manufacture offer huge opportunities, since the panel
can be glued and worked into almost any shape and size. Since the raw
material is fully renewable, CLT has a good environmental profile.
Cross laminated timber has excellent strength and stiffness proper-
ties, which mean that CLT panels can compete with other more tradi-
tional structural materials in high-rise buildings. In relation to their
own weight, CLT panels have a higher load-bearing capacity than
most other construction materials, which is why large structures can
Inre Hamnen, Sundsvall, Sweden.
be built to withstand high loads. Since the cross-section can take on
any shape and the geometry of the panel can be varied, even bent
into a plane curve, there are extensive opportunities to use wood in
a new way. CLT is already being used in many different types of struc- Volume of manufactured CLT in Europe (m3)
ture: houses, high-rise blocks, halls, sports arenas and bridges. With 700,000
suitable designs and detailing, plus protection from the climate, pos-
600,000
sibly with a surface treatment, CLT can be used for these and many
other structures. 500,000
CLT was introduced into Sweden as an engineered wood in the late 400,000
1990s, by which time Central Europe had been manufacturing CLT
panels for several years. Among the first major developments in 300,000
Sweden to use CLT was the Inre Hamnen in Sundsvall, which was 200,000
completed in 2006. Since then, the technology has really taken off,
100,000
so that now Sweden produces around 200,000 cubic metres of CLT
panels each year. Sweden currently have four suppliers of CLT, and 0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
the use of CLT panels is growing year-on-year. Demand for and pro-
Year
duction of CLT is also rising in the rest of Europe and globally. It is
predicted that by 2018, around 0.6 – 1 million cubic metres of CLT Figure 1.1 Development of CLT in Europe
will be produced annually around the world, see figure 1.1. 1990 – 1995 Concepts, patents and proposals presented
Intensive research and development is currently underway regard- in European trade journals.
ing CLT manufacture and building with CLT. Developers and contrac- 1996 – 2000 Prototypes and components developed for
tors almost everywhere in the world are also beginning to realise the the Swedish market.
potential of building with wood. In Vancouver, London, Milan and 2000 – 2004 First deliveries for small-scale projects in
many other cities, housing, offices and public buildings, some up to Sweden.
14 – 24 storeys high, are either in the planning or construction 2004 – 2005 First taller wooden buildings in CLT built in
phase. Sweden.
2005 – 2014 More and more projects built using CLT.
2015 – Forecast for the whole of Europe.
The CLT Handbook 11

1.4 CLT in the eco-cycle

Forests in Sweden are managed according to the principles of sustain-
able forestry. Use of wood is therefore beneficial from an environ-
mental and climate point of view, compared with other construction
materials. Firstly, manufacturing CLT is an energy efficient process.
Secondly, the by-products (wood shavings and wood waste) are used
to produce energy, which is used to heat the drying kilns, for exam-
ple, thus reducing the need for fossil energy during manufacture.
Sustainable forestry means that the extraction from the forest does
not exceed growth, the raw material is constantly regenerated, and
the wood can be returned to the eco-cycle without adding harmful
greenhouse gases to the climate.
Eco-cycle
CO2 O2
Photosynthesis
Solar
energy
Carbon storage
CO2
Production
Recovery heat
and power
Wood waste
Chips and shavings

recycled, e.g. wood
pellets, energy
Boards
Re-use of wooden packaging
Figure 1.2 Eco-cycle of wood products carbon dioxide. The ecocycle of the products includes reuse, repair and
The eco-cycle comprises two parts. One relates to the forest and the recycling. When these products reach the end of their life, the carbon
other to the products. The forest gains its vitality from the sun. Through dioxide is released into the atmosphere as the waste decays or is recycled
photosynthesis, solar energy is absorbed and reacts with carbon dioxide as bioenergy. The carbon dioxide is then again captured by the trees and
(CO2) to produce nutrients for the growing trees. The forest’s products converted into nutrients and new building blocks for their growth.
contain carbon (C) that has been absorbed by the trees in the form of
12 The CLT Handbook

Building with wood is positive for the climate. To minimise the envi-
ronmental impact of construction and to contribute to a sustainable
society, every opportunity to use renewable materials must be seized
with both hands. For the construction and property sector, this means
considering the production and operational phase, both of which
affect the environment. As solutions in the operational phase become
increasingly energy-efficient, the manufacturing and building process
takes on greater weight when judging the environmental impact of
a building over its entire life. Life cycle analyses of built objects have
shown that emissions can be reduced by using wood in the structural
frame instead of other materials.
Standards and methods for assessing a building’s environmental
impact are based mostly around standards as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001.
Then there are the standards for life cycle analyses (LCA). The stand-
ards provide an opportunity to document a building’s sustainability
over its lifetime, and in the building’s different phases. Table 1.1
states which parts of the construction process should be considered
when assessing environmental impact.
As part of a European project, several life cycle assessments were Spruce plant.
carried out on a four-storey building that used different construction
techniques. The models used in the study were a site-built timber-frame;
a concrete frame, cast on site, with timber-frame curtain walls; box
units with timber frame; surface units with load-bearing CLT panels;
and glulam post and beam frame with timber-frame walls. The last
three models were also modelled as a design that met the Swedish
Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR) 2012, and as a design that met
the passive house requirements set out by the Forum for Energy-
efficient Buildings (FEBY). The calculations related to a complete
model of the building, including the foundation slab, but excluding
interior fittings and lifts.
Table 1.1 Environmental assessment of a building.
Life cycle information about the building Other information

A 1-3 A 4-5 B 1-7 C 1-4 D
Production Construction Operation End of life Other environmental
information
A1 Raw material A4 Transport B1 Use C1 Demolition Pros and cons outside the
A2 Transport A5 Foundation and B2 Care and maintenance C2 Transport system parameters, e.g.
A3 Manufacture erection plus installations B3 Repairs C3 Waste management environmental certification,
on site B4 Replacement C4 Final processing energy recovery from
B5 Renovation and wood.
retrofitting
B6 Energy
B7 Water
Upstream Central Downstream
Detailed information if Detailed information about B1 – B5 as per appendix with standard times for Report any environmental
possible, otherwise from manufacture of carcass, maintenance and repairs. Energy use from energy information or other
construction database. transport to and on calculation C1–C4, scenario for waste management using relevant information about
construction site, energy current methods. the project.
use and waste when
constructing the building.
Source: Tyréns AB
The positive properties of wood
Wood is a natural and renewable material that is produced locally for minimum transport needs. The by-products from
production are used to generate energy, and the production process creates minimal waste. The material stores carbon
dioxide throughout its lifetime, and at the end of its life it can be used as biofuel to replace fossil fuels.
It is possible, for example, to create a lightweight extension on existing foundations, which saves materials, and this is reported
in module A. With lightweight movable walls, a retrofit can be completed without any major impact, and this is reported in
module B5. And if you can reuse beams or structural elements, that brings considerable savings and can be reported in module D.
The CLT Handbook 13

Figure 1.3 presents figures for some of these alternatives with regard

to their impact on greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, expressed as
carbon dioxide equivalents, in the production phase, from raw mate-
rial extraction all the way to the finished product or component from
the factory.
The results show a difference between the three wood building
options, albeit a relatively small one. The emissions are somewhat
higher for buildings designed to current standards, which is probably
due mainly to the quantity of insulation used in walls and under
the foundation slab, plus the use of more plastic-based materials.
The difference between the standard design and the passive house
design for the modern alternatives is mainly attributable to an in-
creased amount of insulation.
The building with a concrete frame uses concrete, cast on site, for
the foundation slab, the floor structure and the load-bearing walls,
Spruce forest.
which explains the significantly higher carbon emissions, while emis-
sions from mineral wool, plasterboard and wood materials are lower
than for the wood-based options. The difference in emissions is in
the order of 100 kg/m2. Translating that to an apartment of 100 m2,
the difference is around 10 tonnes of carbon dioxide, CO2, or around
the same amount as a new car emits from 80,000 – 100,000 km of
driving.
A CLT building differs from buildings using traditional concrete
and steel techniques, since the wood material contains a large quan-
tity of carbon compounds, which are stored for the entire life of the
building. Figure 1.4 on page 15 shows the calculation of emissions for
the other life cycle phases too, as well as emissions from energy con-
sumption for heating and hot water over 100 years of the building’s
operation.
Carbon emissions (kg CO2 eq/m2 housing development)

300.00 Other
Windows
Filler
250.00
Wood materials
Plastic and glue
200.00 Rockwool
Concrete
Doors
150.00
Asphalt
Wall paint
100.00 Steel
Glass
Plasterboard
50.00
0.00
Timber Concrete frame, Box units, Box units, CLT CLT surface
frame curtain walls timber frame timber frame, surface units units,
in wood passive house passive house
Figure 1.3 Greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide equivalents, CO2 eq) from the production phase for six different designs of a four-storey building.
Standard means a building insulated to Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR) 2012 and passive house means a building insulated according to the passive
house standard issued by the Forum for Energy-efficient Buildings (FEBY).
14 The CLT Handbook

The concrete alternative also stores large quantities of carbon in

the constituent wood material, for example in the wooden structure
of the curtain walls, fixtures and interior wood surfaces. Another fac-
tor to bear in mind is that, at the demolition stage, the wood material
can be used as energy. In figure 1.4 shows the amount of emissions
that can be avoided if one assumes that the wood material replaces
coal in energy production.
The bar chart, see figure 1.4, also indicates major differences between
buildings that meet the passive house standard and “normal” build-
ings. The parameters that are assumed to be different are amount of
insulation, better airtightness and more low-energy installations.
The carbon emissions calculations assume that the district heating
system is based largely on bioenergy. In this scenario, emissions from
100 years of operation are the same size as in the production phase for
passive houses and around two to three times the size for the other
buildings. The calculation also considers the difference that arises
from differing thermal inertia for the various structural frames, but
with all of them having the same U-value in the building envelope and
otherwise being assumed to be the same, the difference is marginal for
residential buildings. Finally, the absorption of carbon dioxide during
the building’s operational phase through carbonation of the concrete
is also included.
A crucial factor for a building’s environmental impact is the service
life of the building and its constituent parts. In this case, the assump-
tion has been that there is no difference between the different alter-
natives with regard to service life or intervals for renovation, mainte-
nance and replacement of materials and components. The judgement
has been made that the overall differences lie in the structural frame,
which is not expected to require any maintenance over the life of Älvsbacka Strand, Skellefteå, Sweden.
the building, while all exterior and interior surface layers have been
assumed to be the same for each alternative.
Carbon emissions (kg CO2 eq/m2 housing development)
Box units,
timber frame
600.00
Box units,
timber frame,
passive house
400.00 CLT surface units

CLT surface units,
passive house
Timber frame
200.00
Concrete frame
Use phase concrete
Carbonation Benefits over
with curtain walls
(Module B1) system limits
(Module D)
0.00
Production phase Building Operating energy Use phase End phase
(Modules (Modules (Module B6) Maintenance (Modules
A1–A3) A4 and A5) (Module B2) C1–C4)
-200.00
-400.00
Figure 1.4 Greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide equivalents, CO2 eq) from the building’s life cycle for six different designs of a four-storey building.
The two end columns represent alternative scenarios regarding end use of the wood material. Standard means a building insulated to Boverket’s Building
Regulations (BBR) 2012 and passive house means a building insulated according to the passive house standard issued by the Forum for
Energy-efficient Buildings (FEBY). For a clarification of the modules, see table 1.1, page 13.
The CLT Handbook 15
1.5 CLT manufacture
1.5 CLT manufacture
thickness, t
len CLT is a construction material comprising at least three layers of
gth
,l glued boards or planks made from coniferous or deciduous wood,
with each layer placed at 90 degrees to the next. CLT is manufactured
to standard SS-EN 16351 and has to comply with the product proper-
ties that the CLT manufacturer has declared in its European
Technical Approval, ETA.
b
th,
wid
Table 1.2 Common strength classes and dimensions of boards and planks used
Figure 1.5 CLT panel to manufacture CLT.
Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness, t 20 – 45 mm 20 – 60 mm
Width, b 80 – 200 mm 40 – 300 mm
Strength class C14 – C30 –
Width to thickness ratio 4:1 –
Table 1.3 Common dimensions for CLT panels. Parameters see also figure 1.5.
Parameter Commonplace Available

Thickness, t 80 – 300 mm 60 – 500 mm
Width, w 1,20 – 3,00 m up to 4.80 m
Length, l 16 m up to 30 m
No. of layers 3, 5, 7, 9 up to 25
CLT panels are made up of boards or planks with a thickness of

20 – 60 mm. These boards and planks also go by the name of lami-
nates or lamellae, but the CLT Handbook will continue to use the
general term board. The raw material is timber that has been
strength graded to standard SS-EN 14081-1. Each CLT manufacturer
has their own standard thicknesses and strength classes. Similarly,
the cross-section and the orientation of the layers differ from manu-
facturer to manufacturer. In Sweden, spruce and pine are the usual
wood choices, but others may be used. The timber tends to be deliv-
ered dried and strength graded direct from the sawmill.
The moisture content in the boards must be between 8 % and 15 %
when they are glued together, with the precise level determined by
the glue being used and the end use of the product. The moisture
content must not vary by more than around 5 % between adjacent
boards. The strength of the bond is best when the moisture content is
close to the equilibrium value in the finished structure, which also
minimises any splitting in the wood. A certain amount of splitting is
unavoidable in wood and it generally has no harmful effect on the
performance of the structure.
The cross-section of CLT usually comprises boards of the same
CLT panels ready for packaging and delivery. strength class in the main direction of the load. To make best use of
the timber’s strength, wood of higher strength is commonly used in
the surface layer of the cross-section and in the main direction of the
load, where the stresses are normally greatest. During manufacture,
it is therefore necessary to have the space to store boards of at least
two different strength classes at the same time.
The manufacture of CLT uses more or less the same process, see
figure 1.6, page 17, no matter where it is made or by whom.
16 The CLT Handbook

1.5 CLT manufacture
Firstly, the individual boards are finger-jointed to create long boards.

Once the glue in the finger joints has hardened, the flat sides of
the boards are planed and then immediately sent for gluing into sheets.
The batches of boards are transferred to the gluing line and assembled
into large sheets, which are pressed together under the necessary
pressure. The glue then needs to harden for a set time, which depends
on the type of glue and the temperature and moisture conditions in
the gluing hall. The compression uses two main methods: vacuum
and hydraulic. Vacuum compression provides a steady pressure, even
on non-level surfaces, but the pressure is low.
Hydraulic compression may involve cold or hot pressing. After
the gluing comes the final finishing of the components in a CNC
machine, which may involve sawing edges, milling channels for
installations, drilling holes and preparing for joints and fixings. Finishing a CLT panel in a CNC machine,
The visible surfaces of each panel are polished, and finally the com- CNC = Computer Numerical Control.
ponents are checked visually and labelled before they are packaged
and loaded up for transport to a construction site or warehouse.
O2
CO2
Solar energy
Photosynthesis
Recycling, Production of
e.g. energy boards
recovery
Chips and shavings recycled,
Construction e.g. wood pellets, energy
Re-use
Drying
Packaging
Strength grading
Finishing
Finger-jointing
Gluing under
pressure
Application Planing
of glue
Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of

the CLT production process.
The CLT Handbook 17

1.5 CLT manufacture
1.5.1 Certified CLT

Suppliers of construction products must be able to verify the proper-
ties that they claim apply to their products, so that buyers can be
confident that the products are compliant. To ensure this, an increas-
ing number of construction products are now certified. As a result of
European standardisation, the certification process is the same in all
European countries.
Certified CLT is CLT that has been manufactured under controlled
conditions and whose properties have been verified. The finger-joint-
ing technique allows for the manufacture of very large panels, with
the size and length limited firstly by the transport options and sec-
ondly by the CLT manufacturer’s premises and equipment.
Manufacturing CLT requires considerable precision, not least regard-
ing the milling of the finger joints, glue preparation and application,
Manufacturing of CLT-wall.
pressure and timing. For CLT, gluing is usually the critical factor in
ensuring the requisite quality and strength. The quality of the glued
finger joints and layers is therefore constantly monitored through
internal checks. In-house controls take place on a rolling basis to
ensure that the products maintain consistent, high quality, and this
involves taking regular samples to check for strength and delamina-
tion. These internal controls are verified by an approved third-party
organisation.
An accredited control body issues certification, checks and verifies
the company’s internal controls and makes unannounced inspection
visits to manufacturers.
The CE mark is a product label within the EU. A product that car-
ries the CE mark may be sold in the European Economic Area (EEA –
the 28 EU countries plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) without
The CE mark is used in any additional documentation. The CE mark on a product shows that
various product areas. the manufacturer has complied with the basic requirements set out
in the EU directives that govern this area. The precondition for com-
pulsory CE marking is the existence of a harmonised standard. Work
is currently underway (2017) to create a harmonised standard for
CLT. This means that for CE marked panels of CLT for construction
purposes, the properties must be specified and verified in line with,
for example, the requirements in standard SS-EN 16351 Timber struc-
tures – Cross laminated timber - Requirements.
The standard states which documents are required for verification.
To prove that CLT products meet the requirements in SS-EN 16351,
they must be accompanied by a performance declaration. See also the
section on References, page 183.
CLT panels have been in use since the 1990s, despite the lack of
a harmonised standard. Since the standard is still new and has not
become harmonised, there are several companies that have certified
their products in accordance with the European Technical Assess
ment (ETA). An ETA is like a harmonised standard in that it contains
instructions on verification procedures, for example for certification,
type approval and control of manufacturing.
18 The CLT Handbook

1.6 Properties
1.6 Properties
1.6.1 Strength properties
CLT displays major similarities with other wood products in terms of
its strength properties:
• The strength varies according to the angle between the stress and
the fibre direction, making it an orthotropic material.
• The strength falls as the moisture content rises.
• The strength falls as the length of time under load rises.
• The material properties vary both within one component and
between different components.
The structure of CLT, with its perpendicular layered boards, evens out
the variations in the wood and reduces the property differences. The
strength of a CLT product is determined to a large extent by the com-
position of the cross-section. As with other structural components in
wood and in a construction context, stiffness is often a design value.
For CLT, the tensile strength of the surface boards and the rolling
shear strength of the transverse layers are crucial in the breaking
phase. In the use phase, the composition of the cross-section is an
even greater determinant of what results can be achieved. In compar-
ison with wooden decks such as stress-laminated timber decks, which
are often used in bridge designs, CLT exhibits lower stiffness in the
main direction of load for panels of the same thickness. A CLT panel
can, however, take substantially higher loads across the main direc-
tion of load.
The basis for the static design of CLT and wooden structures in gen-
Testing of strength of CLT.
eral is a characteristic strength or stiffness value, determined via test-
ing under laboratory conditions and via a set number of samples.
Normally, strength calculations in a design are based on the lower
5 % fractile, which is the value that is statistically undershot in 5
cases out of 100. Knowing the characteristic strength value, the
design value for the individual case is then determined using various
partial coefficients and conversion factors. Characteristic stiffness val-
ues such as modulus of elasticity and shear modulus are determined
in a similar way, but taking the average value as the starting point,
rather than the 5 % fractile.
1.6.2 Thermal properties

Wood has very small temperature movements, compared with many
other materials. The thermal conductivity and thermal capacity of CLT
is practically the same as for solid wood. The thermal conductivity,
which describes the material’s insulating capacity, is significantly bet-
ter than for concrete and steel. The practical value for thermal con-
ductivity for spruce is 0.11 W/(m °C) at a right-angle to the fibres and
0.24 W/(m °C) parallel with the fibres, while for pine the equivalent
values are 0.12 W/(m °C) and 0.26 W/(m °C), respectively. In practice,
a value of 0.12 – 0.13 W/(m °C) tends to be used for CLT. CLT has a
relatively high specific thermal capacity, which is usually stated as
around 1600 J/(kg °C). When building with CLT panels, the large
quantity of wood influences the indoor climate by levelling out cli-
mate variations. The scale of this effect is determined by the other
constituent materials, the ventilation system and the inbuilt regula-
tion and control technology.
The CLT Handbook 19

1.6 Properties
1.6.3 Moisture-related movement

100 –
0.1 mm CLT expands when the moisture content increases and contracts
when the moisture content falls. The alternating layers of boards
mean, however, that the wood in CLT panels expands and contracts
less across the fibre direction than ordinary solid wood does. CLT is
100 – 1.4 mm
manufactured under controlled conditions from boards and planks
with a moisture content of between 6 % and 15 %. The question of
how much less the expansion and contraction will be compared with
ordinary solid wood is determined by the number and thickness of
the layers. Products made from CLT are usually manufactured with
a target moisture content of 12 %. This means that individual CLT
products are to have a moisture content of no more than 16 % on
mm delivery. The moisture content of CLT will gradually achieve equilib-
.1
0 –0 rium with the ambient relative humidity (RH) and follow its variation
10
over the year. Depending on where the building is located, which part
in the construction, heated or cold building, the moisture content
Figure 1.7 Approximate contraction and expansion of a CLT
will vary in the element between about 4 – 5 % over the year.
panel per 100 mm when drying from 20 % to 10 % moisture
content. An uninsulated CLT panel or an insulated hollow core structure in
CLT placed in a roof or outer wall will be subject to varying moisture
conditions – warm and dry on the inside and cold and damp on
the outside – which means that the component may tend to expand
on the outside and contract on the inside, taking on a bowed shape.
This is a peculiarity that the structural engineer should bear in mind
at the planning stage.
1.6.4 Fire properties

CLT and structures made from CLT have good, predictable properties
when it comes to fire. CLT is a flammable material, but in combina-
tion with other materials, the required load-bearing capacity can be
maintained during the fire. Wood is slow to catch fire and it burns
slowly. The way the heat develops during a fire is often crucial in
determining whether the fire will spread or burn out. The charcoal
layer that forms on the surface of CLT in a fire protects the inner parts,
and the penetration rate for wood is generally around 0.6 – 1.1 mm
per minute. You can read more about how to design for fire, load fac-
tors and how further fire protection can be achieved with supple-
mentary layers in chapter 7, CLT and fire, page 133.
Charcoal layer Pyrolysis zone Normal wood
Figure 1.8 Fire penetration 1.6.5 Classes and surface treatment

CLT panels are primarily considered structural components whose
key properties are strength, stiffness and durability. Standard products
meet normal appearance requirements, as long as they are handled
with sufficient care in transit and on the construction site.
When the CLT panels are taken out of the glue press, they have
minor irregularities along the sides, which are duly removed.
The smooth surface is usually of sufficient quality and further finish-
ing is not required.
If the design specifies exposed surfaces, boards should be chosen
based on the requirements placed on the surfaces. Most CLT manu-
facturers have a few different appearance classes to choose from and
different ways of naming these, such as Exposed surface, Industrial
surface and Non-exposed surface. CLT panels can then be surface
treated on site just like ordinary wood, using woodstains, paints, var-
nishes or oils. Table 1.4, page 21, show examples of what may occur
and what is not permitted for different appearance classes.
20 The CLT Handbook

1.7 Where can you use CLT?
Table 1.4 Appearance classes, example
Appearance class May occur Not permitted Example of surface

Exposed Few pitch pockets under Enclosed bark, open scars, firm/
surface 3 × 40 mm2 soft rot, pith, insect attack, wane,
Black knot less than 10 mm knot hole, decayed knot, encased
Sound knot less than 10 mm knot, notches, splits (not seasoning
checks), visible glue
Industrial Few pitch pockets under Bark-encased scars, open scars,

surface 3 × 40 mm2 firm/soft rot, insect attack, wane,
Black knot less than 20 mm decayed knot, encased knot, splits
Dead knot less than 20 mm (not seasoning checks), eye-
Sound knot, pith, knot hole, minor catching knot clusters
occurrence of notches, visible glue
Not exposed Pitch pockets, knot holes, black Firm rot, soft rot
surface knots, decayed knots, dead knots,
notches, encased knots, sound
knots, pith, splits, insect attack,
visible glue, colour differences
between boards, blue stain to a
lesser extent.

Wood is an eco-friendly and recyclable construction material that,
used correctly, has a long service life. It can be reused in new struc-
tures or incinerated for energy recovery. Wood is light in relation to
its strength, as well as being easy to handle and work with. Wood has
a good capacity for thermal insulation and thermal storage. Structural
components made from CLT are used primarily for walls and floor
structures, but CLT panels may be used for a wide range of different
applications, from small to large scale.
The characteristic feature of structural components in CLT – for
walls and floor structures – is their size. Large cross-sectional areas
ensure that CLT components have a high load-bearing capacity and
stiffness, making them suitable for stabilising the building. The panels
are available with a high degree of prefabrication and their low weight
brings benefits in terms of groundwork, transport and assembly.
Making holes and attaching fixings is simple and straightforward.
The insulation layer in an outer wall runs all the way through, with Example of compact living, Virserum, Sweden.
no thermal bridges. The solid structure and the cladding material
usually used provide good fire safety. CLT frames are light in compar-
ison with frames made of concrete, for example. To achieve good
sound insulation in floors and walls, multilayered structures there-
fore must be used.
Apartment balconies, access balconies and mezzanine floors, not to
mention lift shafts and stairwells, are other areas where CLT is used to
great effect. CLT slabs for these applications provide a host of benefits
compared with building using either concrete components or a regular
timber frame. Their low weight makes these wooden slabs or panels
significantly easier to handle than the equivalent concrete. Fixings
and groundwork are also made easier, which is of benefit when
redeveloping existing buildings. Mezzanine floors made from CLT are
often a good choice, as they allow older industrial buildings with
high ceilings to be divided up into several storeys.
6-storey apartment block, Fristad, Sweden.
The CLT Handbook 21

Due to the low weight of CLT, reconstruction can often be carried out
without reinforcing the foundations. Another advantage of the low
weight is transport and lifting during construction. A CLT frame is
also a good option for densification projects and vertical extensions to
existing buildings for the same reason, and because CLT can handle
large spans.
Wood is sometimes the only sustainable alternative in certain con-
texts, such as buildings where the material is exposed to an aggressive
environment or where the mechanical wear is too much for other
materials, which would only last a short time or no time at all.
Multi-storey car parks can be appropriately designed around
a load-bearing structure comprising posts and beams of glulam, with
floor slabs and ramps made from load-bearing CLT. A 17 m wide
parking deck, comprising two rows of parking spaces separated by
a driving lane, can be formed from solid CLT slabs or slabs reinforced
on the underside with glulam beams.
To prevent flames from spreading along the ceiling, the wooden
surface can be protected on the underside with fireproofing paint,
for example. Alternatively, wood wool panels can be an alternative.
Beams or screens angled downwards can also slow the spread of fire
and smoke along the ceiling.
CLT offers infinite possibilities, limited only by the designer’s imag-
ination. Everything from the boards around an indoor riding arena to
large stairwells or ventilation towers are examples where CLT panels
are the ideal, and sometimes only reasonable, choice.
CLT panels have the specific ability to combine load-bearing capac-
ity and screening, which means that the product can be used for bal-
ustrades and screens in environments where the surface material is
subject to major mechanical wear.
Balconies made of CLT, Inre Hamnen, Sundsvall, Sweden.
Example of a roof structure with load-bearing and stabilising Car park with load-bearing CLT slabs, Skellefteå, Sweden.
CLT panels, which also contribute to a good indoor climate.
22 The CLT Handbook

Indoor riding arena with walls and boards in CLT, Sätra, Sweden.
Ulls Hus, Uppsala, Sweden. Stepped ledges provide standing room or seating, forming
stands in sports venues and halls, Järfälla, Sweden.
The CLT Handbook 23

Design systems for CLT
Design systems for CLT
2.1 Floor structures and walls 25 CLT panels allow for a new way of building with wood. This chapter
presents a few basic CLT structures – from basic systems using panels
2.2 CLT as a beam 26
on two supports to shell structures, all of which exploit the unique
2.3 CLT in shell structures 26 opportunities of CLT in different ways and to varying degrees. The
choice of structural system is influenced primarily by the building’s
2.4 Initial design 27
design, function and budget. Limitations in terms of production or
2.4.1 Floor structures 27
2.4.2 Walls 28
transport can also be determining factors in some cases.
When planning structures in CLT, there are a few recommendations

that should be kept in mind:
• CLT should be seen as an orthotropic panel with three mutually
perpendicular planes of symmetry, with different properties in
each direction.
• CLT can be subjected to forces perpendicular to the source, as well
as axial forces (compression and tensile forces in parallel with
the surface), see figure 2.1 and figure 2.2.
• Tension perpendicular to the fibre direction caused by loads or
shrinkage should be avoided.
• For short lengths, the shear forces in the transverse layer are often
critical.
• Eccentricity and torsion should be avoided.
• Three-dimensional construction systems are often optimum in
terms of stability and safety.
CLT panels with a load perpendicular to the surface can be designed

and executed as panels with one or two main load-bearing directions.
The distribution of forces is determined by the thickness and strength
of the boards. The most common approach is to have the strongest
load-bearing direction parallel with the boards in the outer layer.
It is easiest to apply regular beam theory and design a CLT panel with
a load perpendicular to the panel as a simply supported panel on two
or more supports. With short spans, the impact of the shear deforma-
tion on the total deflection increases and should be taken into account
in the design.
Trussed CLT roof, Flyinge Riding School, Lund, Sweden.
Figure 2.1 Design principle with Figure 2.2 Design principle with

self-supporting roof CLT-panels. trussed roof CLT-panels.
24 The CLT Handbook

2.1 Floor structures and walls
2.1 Floor structures and walls

CLT as a floor structure must take vertical loads such as imposed load
and self-weight and transfer them to the supports. The floor panel
can also handle horizontal loads such as wind load. In its most com-
mon form, a CLT structure are panels placed on two supports.
The supports may run along the whole length of the panel or be
point supports at set intervals. For floor structures or similar structures
with relatively small spans, panels of an even thickness are preferable,
but there may be economic grounds to reinforce the panels with glu-
lam beams, for example, to create a T-cross-section. Deflection or
vibrations is often critical design factor for floor structures.
CLT panels can be load-bearing in one or more directions. If it is
load-bearing in one direction, it can be designed as a simply supported
panel strip. If it is designed to have two load-bearing directions, it
can be considered as a three or four-sided supported panel.
Although the load-bearing boards in the main direction of the load
have the greatest effect on the panel’s properties, account must be
taken of transverse layers in deformation and tension calculations.
Rolling shear fractures can occur in CLT when the wood fibres roll or
slide between each other under shear stress across the fibres, and this
results in greater shear deformations and lower shear force capacity.
Geometry and manufacture are therefore of major importance, and
boards with no edge glueing or tongue and groove and with a width
to thickness ratio of less than four are considered to have bigger risk
for shear failures. CLT panels combined with glulam beams.
Composite floor structures in wood and concrete, see figure 2.3, Intermediate floor structure in car park, Skellefteå, Sweden.
have been in use for a long time. The principal for these floor struc-
tures is that the compression forces are absorbed by the top concrete
slab and most of the tensile forces are absorbed by the underlying
wooden structure. This places major demands on the way the wood
and concrete are joined together. If wood and concrete are com-
pletely bonded to each other, the cross-section only has one neutral
axle and the strain will be constant across the whole cross-section.
However, if no shear forces are transferred between the wood and
the concrete, the floor structure is considered to comprise of two
individual parts.
Installations are a vital part of a building, and in many cases they
affect the design of the load-bearing components. When large holes
are made in timber structures, some form of reinforcement is often
required in order to lead forces past the installation holes. CLT panels
have the advantage that even with large holes, they can often distrib- Example of holes cut in CLT. The structure of the panels
ute and transfer the forces to the adjacent structures without the provides wide scope for architectural design flourishes and
adaptation to the client’s wishes and requirements.
need for extra reinforcement.
Wall panels in CLT generally have a good load-bearing capacity.
The vertical load in a wall panel can be seen as a linear load and pan- Concrete
els with a thickness of 80 mm can be designed to take loads of over
100 kN/m. If possible, an intermediate floor structure that uses a wall
for support should be centred as well as possible in order to avoid or
minimise any moment of eccentricity. It is, however, uncommon for
the vertical load to be entirely centric, so this should be taken into
account when designing wall panels. For wall panels with large win-
dow openings, it should be noted that the panels between the win-
dows should be treated as columns with a buckling length equivalent
to the height of the storey.
CLT panel
Figure 2.3 Composite floor structure.
The CLT Handbook 25

2.2 CLT as a beam
2.3 CLT as a shell structure
2.2 CLT as a beam

CLT can be used as a beam to support floors or roofs of CLT. The beams
require bracing, which can be achieved by screwing the floor or roof
panel firmly into the beam. Beams can also be used to stiffen floor,
roof or wall panels. CLT beams can usefully be made with increased
dimensions and/or strength in the layer that runs longitudinally as
this carries the load, while the intermediate layers largely provide
dimensional stability. Another advantage of CLT panels is the integral
door and window lintels that are gained automatically when the
openings are cut out of the CLT-panels. In most cases these will
have sufficient load-bearing capacity and further reinforcement will
generally not be required.
CLT panel acting as an integral lintel above a door opening,

2.3 CLT as a shell structure
Hyttkammaren, Falun, Sweden.
CLT offers huge opportunities to use different types of shell struc-
tures for advanced designs and large, post-free spaces. Depending on
the manufacturing procedure, curved and bent components can be
produced to some extent. To date, CLT panels have only been used
for shell structures to a limited extent, but a number of projects have
been completed. Such shell components, which are largely subject to
normal forces or bending, are used primarily for special roof
structures.
Combining several shell components of the same type can create
many different roof shapes. Relatively common shell designs include
conoid and hyperbolic paraboloid (HP-shell). A valuable property of
these two is that they can be created using straight lines and they can
therefore easily be built up from one or more intersecting layers of
boards.
Music pavilion, Fristad, Sweden.
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 2.4 CLT that serves multiple functions: load-bearing, Figure 2.5 Examples of shell structures.
stabilising and enclosure. a) Hyperbolic paraboloid (HP) shell
b) Shells that intersect each other
c) Hyperbolic paraboloid
d) Hyperbolic paraboloid
26 The CLT Handbook

2.4 Initial design
2.4 Initial design

This part of the CLT Handbook gives a short overview of the dimen-
sions that can be expected for a specific designed load. The diagrams
below show approximate spans and permitted vertical loads for a few
common types of floor structures and wall panels made from CLT.
The values have been calculated on the basis of design standard
Eurocode 5, including the national annex.
The diagrams in figures 2.6 – 2.9 are intended for use in determin-
ing initial design dimensions, for example in an early stage of plan-
ning, and do not offer a replacement for ultimate design at a later
stage. For more accurate structural design, see chapter 3, page 30.
2.4.1 Floor structures

The diagram below shows the panel thickness for different spans.
The figures in the diagram relate to service class 1 and are to be con-
sidered approximations, since the structure of the CLT panels and the
strength grade affect the stiffness of the panels. For absolute accuracy,
always contact the CLT manufacturer for the relevant strength and
stiffness values.
L (m) Multi-storey building, Finland.

9.0
8.0 Self-weight flooring

qe = 25 kg/m2
qe = 50 kg/m2
qe = 100 kg/m2
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
t
1.0 L
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t (mm)
Figure 2.6 The figures are for a floor structure with a span of L and a thickness of
t in service class 1, with a typical domestic load of 2.0 kN/m2. Deviation requirement
L/300 and a deviation < 20 mm and fundamental frequency > 8 Hz. The self-weight
of the ceiling and flooring at a total of 25, 50 and 100 kg/m2 has been included. Since
the serviceability limit is a design value, the diagram is independent of safety class.
The case of fire load has not been taken into account.
The CLT Handbook 27

2.4 Initial design
2.4.2 Walls
The diagrams show the permitted vertical load Nd per metre of length
under different distributed loads qd and for different wall heights le.
The design values in the diagram are to be considered approxima-
tions, since the structure of the CLT panels and the strength grade
affect the load-bearing capacity of the panels. In the case of high uti-
lisation of the load-bearing capacity, always contact the CLT manufac-
turer for the relevant strength and stiffness values. The diagrams
relate to safety class 3, service class 1 or 2 and a load duration class of
medium term (M). The fire load factor has not been taken into
account.
Nd (kN/m)
180
Nd = Fd · bx
Fd
160
140
qd
le
120
bx
100
qd =
80 0–
1.5
kN/
m
60 qd
=3
.0
kN
/m
40
20
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
le (m)
Figure 2.7 Design value for centric vertical load for CLT wall panel with a thickness
of 80 millimetres designed for safety class 3, load duration class medium term (M)
for vertical load and short term (S) for transverse load and service class 1 or 2.
28 The CLT Handbook

2.4 Initial design
Nd (kN/m)
320
Nd = Fd · bx
Fd
270
qd
le
220
bx
170
qd =
0 –1
.5 kN
/m
qd =
120 3.0 k
N/m
70
20
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
le (m)
for vertical load and short term (S) for transverse load and service class 1 or 2.2.
Nd (kN/m)
470
Fd Nd = Fd · bx
420
qd
le
370
bx
320
270
qd =
0–
3 .0 k
N/m
220
170
120
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
le (m)
for vertical load and short term (S) for transverse load and service class 1 or 2.
The CLT Handbook 29

3.1 Basis for design
Design of CLT
structures
3.1 Basis for design 30 The basic principle when designing structures using the partial factor
3.1.1 Load effects 31 method is to verify that the design value for load effect Ed for a spe-
3.1.2 Safety classes 32 cific structural component is less than the design value for the resist-
3.1.3 Load duration and service classes 33 ance Rd:
3.1.4 Design resistance and stiffness 34
3.1.5 Partial factor and modification factors 35
3.1.6 System effect 36
where:
3.2 Material properties of CLT 37
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as internal
3.3 CLT design using beam theory 40 force, moment or a vector representing several internal
3.3.1 Definition of directions 40 forces or moments.
3.3.2 Cross-section quantities for 3-layer and 5-layer Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance.
panels 45
3.3.3 Non-symmetrical cross-section and layers with

different modulus of elasticity 47
3.3.4 Effective cross-section values 48
3.3.5 Designing in the ultimate limit state 52
3.3.6 Designing in the serviceability limit state 60
Eurocodes have been used in Europe since 2010. New Eurocodes are
expected to be in place by 2021 that will include the design of CLT.
3.4 CLT as two-dimensional load-bearing slabs In the meantime, design methods will be refined and developed via
or panel 63 bodies such as the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
3.4.1 Orthotropic slab with effective thicknesses 63 and its working groups.
3.4.2 Orthotropic shell with direct determination of Designers of load-bearing structures in CLT can basically choose
stiffness matrix 64
between two options for planning their designs – either design
3.5 Design software for CLT 67 the cross-section based on the properties of the laminates in the CLT
or use the tables of properties drawn up and published by the CLT
3.6 Examples 68
manufacturers.
3.6.1 Cross-section properties and deflection for
5-layer symmetrical panel 68
Since a structure’s behaviour often differs during normal use
3.6.2 Cross-section properties and deflection for and under loads close to failure, designs are created in the ultimate
5-layer non-symmetrical panel 70 limit state and in the serviceability limit state. The limit state means
the state in which a structure or part of a structure just meets the set
requirements.
When designing in the ultimate limit state, the structure must
have a comfortable margin against failure if it is used in the manner
it was designed for. The prevailing building regulations determine
what is considered a comfortable margin. When designing in the ser-
viceability limit state, there are not usually any compulsory require-
ments in the standards. In most cases, recommendations are made,
and it is left to the developer or their experts to decide what is
acceptable.
The risk of achieving a certain limit state, for example a failure in
the structure, depends on circumstantial uncertainties, such as:
• the probability of the assumed loads being exceeded.
• the probability of the load-bearing capacity is overestimated .
Normally, both the external effect of loads and the structure’s

load-bearing capacity can be seen as random variables. If you know
the distribution functions for these variables, it is therefore possible
30 The CLT Handbook

to calculate the failure risk with the help of probability theory meth-
ods. Knowledge of these distribution functions is, however, inade-
quate, particularly for the extremities, which are often crucial for
the results.
In practice, this means using different standard functions, usually
the normal distribution and the Weibull distribution. The failure risk
calculated in this way becomes purely theoretical and the method is
thus actually not useful for practical designing. Although probability
theory methods may not be practical for designing in an individual
case, they can be useful for comparisons, for example between differ-
ent materials or between different design types. Probability theory
methods are therefore of great importance as tools for calibrating
other, simpler methods, such as the partial factor method.
Design rules for load-bearing buildings focus in the first instance on
limiting the risk of a failure. In addition, there is a desire to ensure
that the building works satisfactorily in normal use.
The building standards specify the acceptable verification methods,
i.e. the methods for establishing compliance with the set require-
ments. The standards also state the conditions relating to loads,
strength and so on that must form the basis for the design process.
Just like other construction materials, CLT structures are calculated
and designed in line with prevailing standards. The Eurocodes and
Boverket’s EKS series of regulations form the Swedish rules for verifi-
cation of structural resistance, serviceability and durability. The EKS
regulations set out the nationally selected Swedish parameters for
the application of the Eurocodes. The national options are based, for
example, on varying national factors relating to geology, climate,
lifestyle and safety levels. The standards are based on the partial fac-
tor method, which is the calculation method applied to load-bearing
structures in most of countries in Europe. This method means that
the structures are checked in two limit states – the ultimate limit
state and the serviceability limit state. In the ultimate limit state,
the structures are checked to ensure that they are sufficiently safe
against failure. In the serviceability limit state, the structures are
checked to ensure that they do not suffer deformations of such a scale
that they fail to meet the performance levels required from the struc-
tures. Checks should also be focused on vibrations and resonance fre-
quency in floor structures.
Designing in line with the Eurocodes assumes that:

• The structures are designed by qualified and experienced people.
• Factories, workshops and construction sites are subject to proper
manufacturing controls.
• The materials and products are used as prescribed in the Eurocodes
or in relevant material or product descriptions.
• The extent and intervals of building maintenance are appropriate
for achieving the intended performance and service life.
• The building is used in accordance with the assumptions made in
the design phase.
Elefantenpark, Zürich, Switzerland.
3.1.1 Load effects
Load effect refers to deformations, moment, shear force or any other
cross-sectional force caused by a load. The design value for load
effects is determined based on the design values for the loads in
question, placed in the least favourable load positions.
The CLT Handbook 31

A structure is usually designed not for one load but for different load
combinations. A leading action (with its full value) is combined with
other potential interacting actions (with reduced values) to obtain a
design load case.
Reduced loads are obtained by reducing the characteristic value Q
by the factors ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 which are described as follows:
• The combination value (ψ0Q) is used for verification in the ultimate
limit state and for the characteristic combinations for an irreversible
serviceability limit state (the consequences of the loads exceeding a
certain serviceability limit continue once the loads have ceased to act).
• The frequent value (ψ1Q) is used for verification in the ultimate limit
state for accidental loads and for a reversible serviceability limit state.
The frequent value is exceeded around 1 percent of the time.
• The quasi-permanent value (ψ2Q) is used to estimate long term actions
in the serviceability limit state, such as deflection or splitting, and to
take account of variable loads in accidental combinations in the ulti-
Erection of walls made of CLT, Bromma Blocks, mate limit state. The quasi-permanent value equates to the average
Stockholm, Sweden.
time of the variable load.
The factor ψ2 can also be a factor that converts short term actions into
equivalent permanent actions when designing for long term effects such
as shrinkage. SS-EN 1990 defines combination rules for loads for differ-
ent design situations, and EKS states the nationally adopted values for
Sweden. The following general equation 3.1 applies, for example, to the
design of lasting or temporary design situations in the ultimate limit
state:
3.1
where:
Gk,j is the characteristic value for the permanent action j.
γG,j is the partial factor for the permanent action j.
Qk,1 is the characteristic value for a variable leading action 1.
γQ,1 is the partial factor relating to Qk,1.
Qk,i is the characteristic value for the interacting variable action i.
ψ0,i is the reduction factor for the combination value for the
variable action i.
γQ,i is the partial factor for the variable action i.
3.1.2 Safety classes

The risk that a structural failure will cause serious personal injury var-
ies depending on what the building is used for and the function of the
different components of the building. The risk of personal injury is
greater, for example, if there is a bending failure in a roof beam than if
there is a bending failure in a wall stud, and the risk is greater if the
beam is holding up the roof of a sports hall than if it is in a timber
warehouse.
In Sweden, these differences are considered by categorising load-bear-
ing structures into different safety classes, depending on the conse-
quences that a structural failure would have. The division into safety
classes is part of the Swedish national annex to the Eurocodes.
When designing, using the partial factor method according to EKS in
the ultimate limit state, the safety class for a building component is to
be considered using the partial factor γd as shown in table 3.1, page 33.
In the serviceability limit state, however, no distinction is drawn
between the safety classes.
32 The CLT Handbook

Table 3.1 Partial factor for safety class, γd, when designing in the ultimate limit state.
Class Scope Partial factor, γd

Safety class 1 (low), little risk of serious personal injury 0.83
Safety class 2 (normal), some risk of serious personal injury 0.91
Safety class 3 (high), major risk of serious personal injury 1.0
3.1.3 Load duration and service classes

The stiffness and load-bearing capacity of a timber structure is
dependent to a high degree on the duration of the loads that act on
the structure. During the design process, a distinction is therefore
made between loads of different duration, for example permanent
actions such as self-weight, and actions with a variable intensity over
the lifetime of the building, such as imposed load. The imposed load
are normally divided into long-, medium- and short term actions.
Sometimes accidental actions also occur, such as impacts. The build-
ing regulations state modification factors for the strength and stiffness Moisture Relative
values, with reference to the load duration class. content (%) humidity, RH (%)
Resistance is calculated based on the material values applicable to 35
the action in a combination of actions that has the shortest duration.
Deflection is calculated as the sum of the deflection contributions 30
from the constituent actions – each calculated regarding the duration
of the individual load.
The duration class or action type to which a load should be assigned 25
depends to a certain extent on geographic, climatic and cultural con- 100
ditions. Snow load is, for example, considered a long term or medi-
20
um-term action in Sweden, Norway and Finland, while Denmark and
much of the rest of Europe treat snow load as a short term action.
Like the load duration, the moisture content of the wood has a 15
major impact on the material’s strength and stiffness. Dry wood is 80
both stronger and stiffer than damp wood. The building regulations
handle this by defining several service classes, each defined by a par- 10
ticular moisture content interval within the range that is typical for 60
buildings. The building regulations state modification factors for the
5
strength and stiffness values, with reference to the load duration class. 40
The final moisture content of the wood in a structure is determined by 20
its surroundings, temperature and relative humidity (RH), which will 0
also vary over the service life of the structure, see figure 3.1. 0 20 40 60 80 100
It is the structural engineer’s task, based on the conditions in the Air temperature (°C )
individual case, to determine which service class a structural compo-
nent should be assigned to. The CLT Handbook provides guidance by Figure 3.1 The equilibrium moisture content in wood as a
giving examples for common components. function of temperature at different relative humidity (RH)
levels.
Service class 1 is characterised by an environment where the relative
humidity (RH) exceeds 65 % for only a few weeks per year. This
equates to an average moisture content in the CLT that only exceeds
12 % for short periods.
Components in this class include:
• Ceiling joists and roof structures in cold but ventilated loft spaces
above regularly heated premises.
• Wall panels in external walls in regularly heated buildings, if they
are protected by ventilated and drained cladding.
• Floor structures over crawlspace ventilated with indoor air.
• Frames in well-ventilated indoor pools, ice rinks and insulated
riding arenas.
The CLT Handbook 33

Service class 2 is characterised by an environment where the relative

humidity (RH) exceeds 85 % for only a few weeks per year. This equates
to an average moisture content in the CLT that only exceeds 20 % for
short periods.
Components in this class include:
• Floor over crawlspace, ventilated with outdoor air.
• CLT structures in premises or buildings that are not permanently
heated, such as holiday homes, cold stores, not insulated riding
arenas and other buildings.
• CLT structures in badly ventilated indoor pools.
Service class 3 is characterised by an environment that gives a mois-

ture content that exceeds the level in service class 2.
This class includes:
• CLT structures in premises or buildings with moisture-producing
operations or moisture-producing storage.
• CLT structures that are entirely unprotected against dampness or
in direct contact with the ground.
CLT panels manufactured to the standards of the CE Mark are not

intended for use in service class 3, see also section 3.1.5, page 35.
3.1.4 Design resistance and stiffness

Designing in the ultimate limit state
Design resistance in the ultimate limit state is determined based on a
strength design value. This is calculated by dividing the characteristic
value fk, adjusted to account for the duration and service class using
the partial factor γM for uncertainty in the material:
One family house made of CLT, Skara, Sweden.
3.2
where:
f k is the characteristic strength value.
kmod is a modification factor that takes account of service class and
load duration, see table 3.3, page 36.
γM is a partial factor for material properties, see table 3.2, page 35.
The modification factor kmod is determined based on the duration of

the shortest lasting action type in the design load combination. The
characteristic values for strength and the conversion factors for dif-
ferent cases are stated in the prevailing norms and standards.
Designing in the serviceability limit state

When designing in the serviceability limit state, it must be proven
that the structure has sufficient stiffness to ensure that unwanted
vibrations or deformations that degrade the building component’s
function do not occur. The stiffness of CLT panels and slabs is
affected by various factors, such as load duration and the material’s
moisture content and temperature.
When designing for deformations, account is taken of the above by
adjusting the stiffness values based on the service class.
Since we are normally more interested in an accurate estimate of
the size of the deformation than on a value that is most likely to lie
on the safe side, it is normally used average values of the stiffness in
the serviceability limits state design.
Stair with handrail milled in the CLT wall panel. The Eurocodes state that if the load case comprises multiple actions
of different durations, the deformation is calculated as the sum of
34 The CLT Handbook

the deformation contributions from the different actions. Each of

the contributions is calculated using the material values correspond-
ing to the duration of the respective actions.
The material design values in the serviceability limit state are
achieved by first adjusting the value for modulus of elasticity, for
example, with reference to the service class. The result is then
divided by the partial factor γM for uncertainties in the material. As
a rule, γM = 1.0 is the value used when designing in the serviceability
limit state.
When calculating deformations in the serviceability limit state
for structures comprising parts or components with different time-
dependency, the mean value for the final modulus of elasticity,
Emean,fin, the shear modulus, Gmean,fin, and the slip modulus, Kser,fin,
are calculated with the help of the following expressions:
3.3
3.4
3.5
where:
Emean is the mean value of the modulus of elasticity.
Gmean is the mean value of the shear modulus.
Kser is the slip modulus. Boards for the production of CLT.
kdef is a modification factor for creep deformation that takes
account of the service class.
3.1.5 Partial factor and

modification factors
The partial factor γM depends in part on the degree of control during
design and manufacture, but also on the material’s homogeneity.
The value of the partial factor γM for material properties is usually
stated in the national annexes to the Eurocode and differs from coun-
try to country. Some countries currently use the same value for CLT
as for glulam, while other countries use the values for structural tim-
ber. No specific value has been chosen for CLT in Sweden. Depending
on your interpretation, 1.25 or 1.3 should be used if the CLT will be
used in a building that will be erected in Sweden. The recommended
value is 1.25 according to table 3.2. If designing CLT for a project in
another country, that country’s chosen value should be used in line
with their prevailing Eurocode national annex.
The next generation of Eurocodes will provide more in-depth
calculation rules for CLT structures and thus the material factors and Table 3.2 Examples of partial factor γM
when designing CLT.
factors for CLT will be more harmonised among the different
countries. CLT is not currently used in environments with higher Country γM
moisture levels than those that occur in service classes 1 and 2. Sweden 1.25
Moisture affects CLT panels by causing local deformations, swelling Norway 1.15
and shrinkage, which can have a negative impact on the CLT’s load-
Austria 1.25
bearing capacity and on joints and fixings.
Germany 1.3
The CLT Handbook 35

Table 3.3 Values for k mod for CLT.
Service class Load-duration class

Permanent (P) Long term (L) Medium term (M) Short term (S) Instantaneous (I)
1 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1
2 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1
3 – – – – –
Table 3.4 Values for kdef for CLT. When it comes to load duration, tests show similar behaviours for
CLT as for glulam and structural timber. It is therefore appropriate to
Service class Deformation modification factors,
kdef assume that the modification factor kmod is the same for CLT as for
glulam and structural timber, see table 3.3.
No. of layers No. of layers
≤7 >7 The modification factor for deformation, kdef, depends on the service
class and the number of board layers, and affects the properties of CLT
1 0.85 0.8
panels, see table 3.4. This factor is usually stated in the CLT manufactur-
2 1.1 1.0
er’s product sheet or in the manufacturer’s European Technical
3 – – Approval (ETA).
3.1.6 System effect

Compared with components made from structural timber, the equiv-
alent components in CLT have greater average strength and less of a
spread of strength values. The strength of structural timber is deter-
mined by the weakest cross-section, which is usually at a knot, finger
joint or similar irregularity. The variation between difference pieces
of timber is therefore considerable. CLT, on the other hand, mixes
boards of different strengths and the risk of the weakest cross-sections
ksys coinciding in the same direction and layer is small. This is often
1.16 referred to as the system effect.
1.14
When designing CLT components, the characteristic strength and
stiffness of the constituent boards is sometimes used. The system
1.12
strength is particularly pronounced for the bending and tensile effect
1.10 of CLT, where multiple parallel boards can interact. Calculations on
1.08 the characteristic strength of the boards, CLT components are likely
1.06 to have a somewhat higher characteristic strength, as it is not just
one but several boards that are being bent or pulled at the same
1.04
time. No strength classes have yet been developed for CLT, and so
1.02 the bending and tensile strength can be increased with the help of
1.00 a system effect factor, ksys.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Different approval documents and handbooks may list different
Effective width (m) values for ksys, from 0.9 up to 1.2. The factor is determined based on
Figure 3.2 System strength factor k sys for the number of boards in tension and on the extent of the samples,
CLT for different effective widths. when determining the properties of the panel. Since it is hard to
know at an early stage how many boards there are in a cross-section,
ksys can be determined as follows:
3.6
where b is the effective width of the cross-section in m.
36 The CLT Handbook

3.2 Material properties of CLT

CLT comprises at least three and usually a maximum of seven layers
of boards, each layer perpendicular to the next, where the cross-section
is usually symmetrical with an odd number of layers. This give us
a component with high transverse stiffness and small moisture-
related deformations. As a rule, the different layers of boards have
the same thickness, but sometimes the inner layers may be thicker
or thinner. The layers may also comprise two bonded boards in the
same direction. The layers of boards are usually glued together, but
other bonding systems also occur (nails, dowels), although these
products are not called cross laminated timber, CLT. Some CLT manu-
facturers glue the edges of the boards, and some make CLT with nine
or more layers. CLT tends to be made from soft wood, but there are
CLT manufacturers who use other wood species.
The maximum dimensions of the panels are usually around 7-layer CLT block made from spruce.
3 × 16 m2, but this varies depending on the CLT manufacturer, and
some can make even larger panels. The moisture content for the con-
stituent material should be 8 – 14 % and it should be tailored to the
intended area of use. The boards is sorted according to set strength
classes and finger-jointed timber is used. If finger-jointed timber is not
used, this should be considered when designing the components. The
CLT manufacturers take account of this in their reported strength
values.
The ultimate properties of the CLT panels are determined by the
properties of the constituent boards, but also by the system strength,
as mentioned above. The boards used commonly have effect properties
in accordance with SS-EN 338 or values reported and verified by the
CLT manufacturer.
There are several theories and methods that are accurate and that
can be used to calculate the properties of CLT. 3-layer CLT panel made from birch.
Table 3.5 Material properties for strength graded timber used for CLT.
Board properties C14 C16 C24 C30

Characteristic strength values (MPa)
Bending strength fm,k 14 16 24 30
Tensile strength along the grain ft,0,k 7.2 8.5 14.5 19
Tensile strength perpendicular to the grain ft,90,k 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Compressive strength along the grain fc,0,k 16 17 21 24
Compressive strength perpendicular to the grain fc,90,k 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7
Shear strength fv,k 3.0 3.2 4.0 4.0
Stiffness values (MPa)
Mean value of modulus of elasticity, along the grain Em,0,mean 7,000 8,000 11,000 12,000
Fifth percentile value of modulus of elasticity, along the grain Em,0,05 4,700 5,400 7,400 8,000
Mean value of modulus of elasticity, perpendicular to the grain Em,90,mean 230 270 370 400
Mean value of the shear modulus G mean 440 500 690 750
Density (kg/m ) 3
Fifth percentile volume of density ρk 290 310 350 380

Mean density ρmean 350 370 420 460
The CLT Handbook 37

Table 3.6 Examples of characteristic strength values for CLT panels based on the strength properties of the timber boards.
About directions, see section 3.3.1, page 40.
Characteristic strength values CLT panels with CLT panels with C30 in main
only C24 (MPa) direction of load and C14 across
main direction of load (MPa)
Bending strength fm,x,k 24 30
fm,y,k 24 14
Tension strength, in plane ft,0,x,k 14.5 19
ft,0,y,k 14.5 7.2
Tension strength, perpendicular to the ft,90,x,k 0.4 0.4
plane
ft,90,y,k 0.4 0.4
Compression strength, in plane fc,0,x,k 21 24
fc,0,y,k 21 16
Compression strength, perpendicular to fc,90,z,k 2.5 2.7
the plane
Shear strength, longitudinal shear fv,090,xlay,k 4 4
fv,090,ylay,k 4 3
Shear strength, rolling shear fv,9090,xlay,k 1.1 1)
or 0.7 2)
1.1 1)
or 0.7 2)
fv,9090,ylay,k 1.1 1)
or 0.7 2)
1.1 1)
or 0.7 2)
1)
Used for CLT panels with edge-glued boards or where the board thickness is less than 45 mm
and the width to thickness ratio for the boards is equal to or greater than 4.
2)
Used for CLT panels where the boards are not edge-glued and where the width to thickness ratio
for the boards is less than 4, or where grooves have been cut into the boards.
Table 3.7 Examples of characteristic stiffness values for CLT panels based on the stiffness properties of the timber boards.
About directions, see section 3.3.1, page 40.
Characteristic stiffness values CLT panels with only C24 CLT panels with C30 in main
(MPa) direction of load and C14 across
main direction of load (MPa)
Mean value of modulus of elasticity E 0,x,mean 11,000 12,000
E90,x,mean 0 1)
or 400 2)
0 1)
or 400 2)
E 0,y,mean 11,000 7,000
E90,y,mean 0 1)
or 400 2)
0 1)
or 280 2)
Fifth percentile value of modulus of E 0,x,05 7,400 8,000
elasticity
E 0,y,05 7,400 4,700
Mean value of modulus of shear G 090,xlay,mean 690 750
G 090,ylay,mean 690 440
Mean value of modulus of rolling shear G 9090,xlay,mean 50 50
G 9090,ylay,mean 50 50
Used for CLT panels without edge-glued boards.

1)
May be used for CLT panels with edge-glued boards.

2)
Table 3.8 Density of CLT panels.
Density CLT panels with only C24 CLT panels with C30 in main
(kg/m3) direction of load and C14 across
main direction of load (kg/m3)
Characteristic value ρxlam,k 350 approx. 350
Mean value ρxlam,mean 420 approx. 420
38 The CLT Handbook

As part of the process of obtaining approval of CLT products, the

boards properties are determined via many samples and using calcu-
lation methods and stated boundary conditions, the CLT manufactur-
ers calculate the load-bearing capacity of the CLT panels for different
cross-sections.
A structural engineer designing CLT should therefore make use of
the CLT manufacturer’s recommendations concerning material prop-
erties and methods, as far as possible.
According to SS-EN 16351, the mechanical properties of CLT can be
determined using the following options:
• By determining and reporting the cross-sectional structure and
relevant material properties of the constituent boards.
• By testing the CLT component and reporting the cross-sectional
structure and relevant material properties of the constituent
boards.
According to SS-EN 16351, as with other construction products, the

CLT manufacturer must declare the properties of its products. If the
method is used of declaring the CLT panel’s properties based on
standardised board properties according to SS-EN 338 together with
an calculation method, the values obtained are as set out in table 3.6,
page 38, and table 3.7, page 38.
This means that the stiffness and strength of a CLT panel are deter-
mined by the stiffness and strength of the layer. The values are deter-
mined for different axes, described as:
• x-axis – parallel with or along the main bearing direction of the
CLT panel (usually along the grain of the top layer).
• y-axis – perpendicular to or across the main bearing direction of
the CLT panel.
• z-axis – perpendicular to or across the x-y plane of the CLT panel. Training facilities for dogs, Rosersberg, Sweden.
See also section 3.3.1, page 40.
The density of CLT panels can be set at 1.1 times the density of the
constituent boards in the ultimate limit state and 1.0 times the den-
sity of the boards in the serviceability limit state. For CLT panels in
which different strengths are used in the different layers, the density
for the lowest strength class should be used when calculating joints.
Load calculations usually use a density of between 450 and
550 kg/m3 for CLT panels.
The CLT Handbook 39

3.3 CLT design using beam theory
3.3 CLT design using beam

theory
y If there is a clear main load direction, a CLT panel can be treated like
Ny x a beam, as is often the case. The designing can then in principle
Vy apply beam theory.
My
Vx
Nx
Mx z
Mz
Vz
Nz 3.3.1 Definition of directions
CLT and products made from CLT can distribute loads in three main
Figure 3.3 Definition of main axes and main directions.
directions, along the longitudinal axis (x-axis), along the transverse
axis (y-axis) and perpendicular to the plane (z-axis).
The current standard for CLT, SS-EN 16351, uses the following des-
ignations, which are also used in this chapter. See also figure 3.3 and
σmz,y 90 figure 3.4:
σmz,x • the x-axis is parallel with the grain of the outermost layer of
90 boards and this is also known as the global axis in the x-direction.
0 This does not necessarily mean that the greatest bearing capacity
occurs along the x-axis.
z • the y-axis is perpendicular to the grain of the outermost layer of
Mz boards, and this is also known as the global axis in the y-direction.
0 • the z-axis is perpendicular to the x-y plane and runs along the
thickness of the panel. It is also known as the global axis in the
90 z-direction.
90 • 0 represents local axes for boards or layers, parallel with the grain.
y
• 90 represents local axes for boards or layers, perpendicular to the
grain.
x • 090 represents the local plane with a direction of 0 and 90, e.g.
shear in a plane parallel with the grain and perpendicular to
Figure 3.4 View of a CLT wall panel, main axes and local axes.
the grain.
• 9090 represents the local plane with a direction of 90 and 90, e.g.
shear in a plane perpendicular to the grain in both directions.
The following section assumes a symmetrical cross-section and that

y
the modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the grain is negligible, i.e.
E mm90 = 0. It is further assumed that the modulus of elasticity parallel
x
with the grain is the same for all the boards and is designated E0. For
z the mechanical properties of CLT with non-symmetrical cross-sections
#5
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
#4 and heterogeneous cross-sections, see section 3.3.3, page 47.

by
zs
a5
#3
a2 a4
#2
hCLT
Designations
zs
a1
#1
The modulus of elasticity per layer is designated as follows:
bx E0 is the modulus of elasticity for a layer parallel with the grain.
Figure 3.5 Definition of numbering for CLT cross-section
E0,mean is the mean value in line with SS-EN 338.
with main load along the x-axis. Ex,i is the modulus of elasticity along the x-axis for the layer i.
Ey,j is the modulus of elasticity along the y-axis for the layer j.
Ex,1 = Ex,3 = Ex,5 = … = E0,xlay,mean = E0

Ey,2 = Ey,4 = … = E0,ylay,mean = E0
Ex,2 = Ex,4 = … = E90,ylay,mean = 0
Ey,1 = Ey,3 = Ey,5= … = E90,xlay,mean = 0
The shear modulus per layer is designated as follows:

Gx,i is the shear modulus along the x-axis for the layer i.
Gy,j is the shear modulus along the y-axis for the layer j.
40 The CLT Handbook

Gx,1 = Gx,3 = Gx,5 = … = G090,xlay,mean = G0

Gy,2 = Gy,4 = … = G090,ylay,mean = G0
Gx,2 = Gx,4 = … = G9090,ylay,mean = G90
Gy,1 = Gy,3 = Gy,5 = … = G9090,xlay,mean = G90
The component’s thickness, hCLT, and centre of gravity, zs, can be

written as, see figure 3.5, page 40:
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
For CLT panels, the axes parallel with the panel are designated with
an x and perpendicular to the panel with a y. This must be accounted
for with care when designing CLT as a floor component or as a shell
component. The stiffness properties indicated with 0 and 90 refer to
the properties of the boards and not to the CLT as a homogeneous
component.
The shear force capacity is dependent primarily on the rolling shear ABBA museum, Stockholm, Sweden.
strength of the transverse layer. The associated net static moments can
be written as::
3.11
3.12
Table 3.9 Cross-section properties of CLT panels. Definitions see figure 3.3, figure 3.4 and figure 3.5, page 40.
Property Parallel with main direction of load Perpendicular to main direction of load
Gross area
Net area
Net, moment of inertia With rotation about the y-axis With rotation about the x-axis:
With rotation about the z-axis: With rotation about the z-axis:
Net, section modulus
The CLT Handbook 41

where:
mL is the designation for the transverse layer nearest to
the panel’s centre of gravity.
bx, by is the width of the board layer.
t i is the thickness of the board layer.
ai is the distance between the centre of the board layer and
the CLT panel’s neutral axis.
Eref is the chosen reference value for modulus of elasticity.
Ex,i, Ey,i is the board layer’s modulus of elasticity.
In specific cases, it may be necessary to also calculate the compo-

nent’s shear force capacity for the longitudinal layer, where the static
moments can be written as follows:
If the panel’s centre of gravity lies in the layer in question:
3.13
3.14
If the panel’s centre of gravity does not lie in the layer in question:
Boards to be used for CLT panels.
3.15
3.16
where:
kL is the designation for the longitudinal layer nearest to
the panel’s centre of gravity.
ak is the distance from the neutral axis to the centre of gravity
of the layer in question.
t k is the thickness of the layer in question.
Shear capacity in calculation of deformation:
3.17
3.18
See table 3.10, page 43 for shear correction factor κ.
For different layer thicknesses, if the ratio G0 ⁄ G90 > 0 or E90 > 0,
the shear correction factor can be calculated as:
42 The CLT Handbook

3.19
Table 3.10 contains the shear correction factor calculated for a number

of CLT panels with different cross-sections.
Table 3.10 Shear correction factor κ along the x-axis and y-axis. Assumptions for the properties in the table are: simply supported CLT slab,
boards of strength class C24, widths bx = b y = 1,0 m, E0,mean = 11.000 MPa, E90,mean = 0 MPa, G 090,mean = 650 MPa and G 9090,mean = 50 MPa.
Dimension Thickness per layer Strength class per layer Shear correction factor
h CLT t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 κx κy
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (SS-EN 338) – –
60 20 20 20 C24 C24 C24 0.163 0.722
70 20 30 20 C24 C24 C24 0.161 0.756
80 20 40 20 C24 C24 C24 0.168 0.774
80 30 20 30 C24 C24 C24 0.178 0.677
90 30 30 30 C24 C24 C24 0.163 0.722
100 30 40 30 C24 C24 C24 0.161 0.747
100 40 20 40 C24 C24 C24 0.196 0.637
110 40 30 40 C24 C24 C24 0.172 0.691
120 40 40 40 C24 C24 C24 0.163 0.722
100 20 20 20 20 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.194 0.152
120 20 30 20 30 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.197 0.169
140 20 40 20 40 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.208 0.189
110 20 20 30 20 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.212 0.150
130 20 30 30 30 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.207 0.156
150 20 40 30 40 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.213 0.166
120 20 20 40 20 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.234 0.157
140 20 30 40 30 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.221 0.153
160 20 40 40 40 20 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.221 0.157
120 30 20 20 20 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.188 0.147
140 30 30 20 30 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.184 0.165
160 30 40 20 40 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.189 0.186
130 30 20 30 20 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.204 0.146
150 30 30 30 30 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.194 0.152
170 30 40 30 40 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.195 0.163
140 30 20 40 20 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.221 0.152
160 30 30 40 30 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.206 0.150
180 30 40 40 40 30 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.203 0.155
140 40 20 20 20 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.189 0.142
160 40 30 20 30 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.179 0.162
180 40 40 20 40 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.179 0.182
150 40 20 30 20 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.203 0.141
170 40 30 30 30 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.189 0.149
190 40 40 30 40 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.186 0.160
160 40 20 40 20 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.219 0.147
180 40 30 40 30 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.199 0.146
200 40 40 40 40 40 C24 C24 C24 C24 C24 0.194 0.152
The CLT Handbook 43

z Calculation of torsional resistance and torsional moment of inertia
t3
The torsional resistance of CLT depends on the gross cross-section.
y For vertical posts and CLT panels with a risk of rotation or torsional
hCLT
instability, the resistance to torsion should be checked. The moment of
bx inertia for torsion, Itor,CLT and the cross-section’s torsional resistance,
t1
Wtor,CLT can be written as:
z
t3 3.20
x
hCLT
by
t1
3.21
Figure 3.6 Definition of dimensions and
numbering for a cross-section of 3-layer CLT
panels with the direction of the effective
span along the x-axis and the y-axis 3.22
respectively.
3.23
where:
hCLT is the thickness of the CLT panel.

b x is the width and x-direction of the CLT panel.
b y is the width and y-direction of the CLT panel.
with the following factors:
The equations do not apply to beams of CLT with a thickness greater

than the width of the component.
44 The CLT Handbook

Polar moment of inertia

The polar moment of inertia relates to the linear distribution of the
torsion-induced shear stresses from the centre of the rectangular sur-
face to the outer edge. The polar moment of inertia Ip is somewhat
larger than the torsional moment of inertia It, as the shear stresses
are not linear when the component is twisted:
3.25
where bl,x and bl,y are the boards’ width along the x- and y-axis
respectively.
For bl,x = bl,y = bl (bonded surfaces between boards along the x- and
y-axis):
3.26
3.27
Multi-storey building, Sundbyberg, Sweden.
3.3.2 Cross-section properties for

3-layer and 5-layer CLT panels
There are all sorts of opportunities to vary the cross-sectional struc-
ture of the CLT panel. It is this structure that determines the proper-
ties of the CLT panel. Below are the quantities for several different
structures for 3-layer and 5-layer panels, see table 3.11, table 3.12,
page 46, and table 3.13, page 47.
Table 3.11 Cross-section properties for 3-layer CLT panels as in figure 3.6.

Conditions: ktor = 0.65 (slits between boards), widths bx and b y = 1.0 m
Dimension Thickness per Cross-section Surfaces Bending along y-axis Bending along x-axis
(mm) layer (mm) (mm) (cm2) (cm4, cm3) (cm4, cm3)
h CLT t1 t2 t3 hx hy zS A x,net Ay,net A CLT Ix,net Wx,net S R,x,net Iy,net Wy,net S R,y,net
60 20 20 20 40 20 30 400 200 600 1,733 578 400 67 22 0
70 20 30 20 40 30 35 400 300 700 2,633 752 500 225 64 0
80 20 40 20 40 40 40 400 400 800 3,733 933 600 533 133 0
80 30 20 30 60 20 40 600 200 800 4,200 1,050 750 67 17 0
90 30 30 30 60 30 45 600 300 900 5,850 1,300 900 225 50 0
100 30 40 30 60 40 50 600 400 1,000 7,800 1,560 1,050 533 107 0
100 40 20 40 80 20 50 800 200 1,000 8,267 1,653 1,200 67 13 0
110 40 30 40 80 30 55 800 300 1,100 10,867 1,976 1,400 225 41 0
120 40 40 40 80 40 60 800 400 1,200 13,867 2,311 1,600 533 89 0
The CLT Handbook 45

Table 3.12 Input data for 5-layer CLT panels as in figure 3.7.

Conditions: ktor = 0.65 (slits between boards), widths bx and b y = 1.0 m.
No. Dimension Thickness per layer Cross-section Weight and area

(mm) (mm) (mm) (kg/m2, cm2)
h CLT t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 hx hy zS gmean gk A x,net Ay,net A CLT
1 100 20 20 20 20 20 60 40 50 42 39 600 400 1,000
2 120 20 30 20 30 20 60 60 60 50 46 600 600 1,200
3 140 20 40 20 40 20 60 80 70 59 54 600 800 1,400
4 110 20 20 30 20 20 70 40 55 46 42 700 400 1,100
5 130 20 30 30 30 20 70 60 65 55 50 700 600 1,300
6 150 20 40 30 40 20 70 80 75 63 58 700 800 1,500
7 120 20 20 40 20 20 80 40 60 50 46 800 400 1,200
8 140 20 30 40 30 20 80 60 70 59 54 800 600 1,400
9 160 20 40 40 40 20 80 80 80 67 62 800 800 1,600
10 120 30 20 20 20 30 80 40 60 50 46 800 400 1,200
11 140 30 30 20 30 30 80 60 70 59 54 800 600 1,400
12 160 30 40 20 40 30 80 80 80 67 62 800 800 1,600
13 130 30 20 30 20 30 90 40 65 55 50 900 400 1,300
14 150 30 30 30 30 30 90 60 75 63 58 900 600 1,500
15 170 30 40 30 40 30 90 80 85 71 66 900 800 1,700
16 140 30 20 40 20 30 100 40 70 59 54 1,000 400 1,400
17 160 30 30 40 30 30 100 60 80 67 62 1,000 600 1,600
18 180 30 40 40 40 30 100 80 90 76 70 1,000 800 1,800
19 140 40 20 20 20 40 100 40 70 59 54 1,000 400 1,400
20 160 40 30 20 30 40 100 60 80 67 62 1,000 600 1,600
21 180 40 40 20 40 40 100 80 90 76 70 1,000 800 1,800
22 150 40 20 30 20 40 110 40 75 63 58 1,100 400 1,500
23 170 40 30 30 30 40 110 60 85 71 66 1,100 600 1,700
24 190 40 40 30 40 40 110 80 95 80 73 1,100 800 1,900
25 160 40 20 40 20 40 120 40 80 67 62 1,200 400 1,600
26 180 40 30 40 30 40 120 60 90 76 70 1,200 600 1,800
27 200 40 40 40 40 40 120 80 100 84 77 1,200 800 2,000
z
t5
y
hCLT
bx
t1
z
t5
x
hCLT
by
t1
Figure 3.7 Definition of dimensions and numbering for

a cross-section of 5-layer CLT panels with the direction of
the effective span along the x-axis and the y-axis respectively.
46 The CLT Handbook

Table 3.13 Cross-section properties for 5-layer CLT panels as in figure 3.7, page 47.

Conditions: ktor = 0.65 (slits between boards), widths bx and b y = 1.0 m.
No. Dimension Thickness per layer Bending along y-axis (cm4, cm3) Bending along x-axis
(mm) (mm) (cm4, cm3)
h CLT t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Ix,net Wx,net S R,x,net Iy,net Wy,net S R,y,net
1 100 20 20 20 20 20 6,600 1,320 800 1,733 346.7 400
2 120 20 30 20 30 20 10,200 1,700 1,000 4,200 700.0 750
3 140 20 40 20 40 20 14,600 2,086 1,200 8,267 1,181.0 1,200
4 110 20 20 30 20 20 8,458 1,538 900 2,633 478.8 500
5 130 20 30 30 30 20 12,458 1,917 1,100 5,850 900.0 900
6 150 20 40 30 40 20 17,258 2,301 1,300 10,867 1,448.9 1,400
7 120 20 20 40 20 20 10,667 1,778 1,000 3,733 622.2 600
8 140 20 30 40 30 20 15,067 2,152 1,200 7,800 1,114.3 1,050
9 160 20 40 40 40 20 20,267 2,533 1,400 13,867 1,733.0 1,600
10 120 30 20 20 20 30 12,667 2,111 1,350 1,733 289.0 400
11 140 30 30 20 30 30 18,667 2,667 1,650 4,200 600.0 750
12 160 30 40 20 40 30 25,867 3,233 1,950 8,267 1,033.0 1,200
13 130 30 20 30 20 30 15,675 2,411 1,500 2,633 405.0 500
14 150 30 30 30 30 30 22,275 2,970 1,800 5,850 780.0 900
15 170 30 40 30 40 30 30,075 3,538 2,100 10,867 1,278.0 1,400
16 140 30 20 40 20 30 19,133 2,733 1,650 3,733 533.0 600
17 160 30 30 40 30 30 26,333 3,292 1,950 7,800 975.0 1,050
18 180 30 40 40 40 30 34,733 3,859 2,250 13,867 1,541.0 1,600
19 140 40 20 20 20 40 21,133 3,019 2,000 1,733 248.0 400
20 160 40 30 20 30 40 29,933 3,742 2,400 4,200 525.0 750
21 180 40 40 20 40 40 40,333 4,482 2,800 8,267 919.0 1,200
22 150 40 20 30 20 40 25,492 3,399 2,200 2,633 351.0 500
23 170 40 30 30 30 40 35,092 4,128 2,600 5,850 688.0 900
24 190 40 40 30 40 40 46,292 4,873 3,000 10,867 1,144.0 1,400
25 160 40 20 40 20 40 30,400 3,800 2,400 3,733 467.0 600
26 180 40 30 40 30 40 40,800 4,533 2,800 7,800 867.0 1,050
27 200 40 40 40 40 40 52,800 5,280 3,200 13,867 1,387.0 1,600
3.3.3 Non-symmetrical cross-section and

layers with different modulus of elasticity z
Non-symmetrical cross-sections, see figure 3.8, may occur, although

t5
they should be avoided as they increase the risk of varied deforma- o5

tions and moisture-related movement. Below is a general method for
a5
o4
t4
a3 a4
calculating cross-section quantities, see the equations 3.28–3.31, page 48 y

t3
for non-symmetrical cross-sections.

a2
o3 zs
a1
t2
o2
o1
t1
bx
Figure 3.8 Structure and numbering of a non-symmetrical

cross-section.
The CLT Handbook 47

The centre of gravity of the cross-section is determined as follows:

• A reference layer is determined with Eref as the modulus of
elasticity.
• Calculate the centre of gravity for each layer from the lower edge
of the cross-section, o1, o2, o3, …oi.
• Calculate the z-coordinate from the lower edge of the cross-section:
3.28
• Now the distance ai between the centre of each layer and the CLT
panel’s neutral axis can be determined:
Calculate the net area, with the load along the x-axis:
3.29
Calculate the net-moment of inertia, with the load along the x-axis:
3.30
Calculate the moment of resistance, with the load along the x-axis:
3.31
With zu = zs and zo = h − |zs|
When determining the stress under the moment of resistance My,d

the following can be used:
where:
E i is the modulus of elasticity of the individual layer.
Eref is the chosen reference value for modulus of elasticity.
3.3.4 Effective cross-section

Shear deformation makes up a significant part of the total deforma-
tion in CLT panels. Eurocode 5, annex B describes the Gamma
method, where deformations from shear forces are addressed in a
simplified way. For pure bending, the bending stiffness is calculated
with the net cross-section and is designated EInet. The Gamma method
instead introduces an effective moment of inertia, Ief, in the
calculation.
The formulas for the Gamma method in Eurocode 5 can be used for
cross-sections with 3- and 5-layer panels. The theory in both cases
Cabin, Kebnekaise, Sweden. takes the second longitudinal layer from the upper side as the base
48 The CLT Handbook

layer. The adjacent layers are flexibly connected to the base layer and
each layer’s “Steiner” part is reduced by a Gamma value that depends
on the span and the transverse layers. For cross-sections with two
transverse layers, the associated formulas result in non-symmetrical
sub-results. The method is easily implemented for 3- and 5-layer com-
ponents but requires more in-depth calculations for layers of 7 or
more.
For this method, the cross-section values are dependent on the
component’s length or span lref is therefore named as a reference
length which depends on the length and support system of the beam:
• for a simply supported beam with a single span, lref = L. y
t3
a3
• for a simply supported continuous beam with at least two spans, lref = x
hCLT
0.8 · L (L is the specific span in question).
• for a cantilevered beam
a1
t1
z
lref = 2 · L (L is the length of the cantilever).
Figure 3.9 Definition of layers and directions.
3-layer CLT
The CLT panel may have layers of different thicknesses and strength
classes, see figure 3.9.
When calculating cross-section sizes, the following process and
equations 3.32 – 3.35 can be used.
• Each layer is numbered from 1 to n from the bottom up.
• C alculate the Gamma values. γ3 only needs to be calculated for
the longitudinal layers, i.e. layer 1 and layer 3. The transverse layer
is not counted:
3.32
3.33
• Calculate the distance a: a1, a3. Only a1 and a3 for the longitudinal lay-
ers 1 and 3 need to be calculated. The transverse layer is not included:
for symmetrical cross-sections and boards of the same strength class:
for symmetrical cross-sections and boards of the same strength class:
• Calculate the effective moment of inertia as follows:
3.34
The CLT Handbook 49

For symmetrical cross-sections (t1 = t3) and the same strength the
equation is:
3.35
y
x
z #5 t2 t3 t4 t5 5-layer CLT
zö
#4 The CLT panel may have layers of different thicknesses and strength
a5
a2 a4
hCLT
#3 classes, see figure 3.10.
#2 • Each layer is numbered from 1 to n from the bottom up.
a1
zu
#1 • Calculate the Gamma values. γ3 only needs to be calculated for the

t1
longitudinal layers, i.e. layers 1, 3 and 5. The transverse layers are

Figure 3.10 Designations for a 5-layer CLT. not included and the Gamma value is worked out using equations
3.36 – 3.38:
3.36
3.37
3.38
For symmetrical cross-sections (t1 = t3 = t5) and the same strength, γ1 = γ5.
• Calculate the distance ai. Only a1, a3 and a5 for the longitudinal
layers 1, 3 and 5 need to be calculated:
Table 3.14 Effective cross-section properties for 3-layer CLT as in figure 3.11, page 51.

lref is the span for a simply supported CLT, bx = 1.0 metre. Boards in strength class C24. Bending about the y-axis.
Dimension Layer thickness Weight lref = 2 m lref = 2.5 m lref = 3 m

(mm) (mm) (kg/m2) (cm4) (cm4) (cm) (cm4) (cm) (cm4) (cm)
h CLT t1 t2 t3 gmean gk Ix,full Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef
60 20 20 20 25 23 1,800 1,591 1.99 1,636 2.02 1,663 2.04
70 20 30 20 29 27 2,858 2,326 2.41 2,418 2.46 2,475 2.49
80 20 40 20 34 31 4,267 3,188 2.82 3,342 2.89 3,442 2.93
80 30 20 30 34 31 4,267 3,739 2.50 3,877 2.54 3,963 2.57
90 30 30 30 38 35 6,075 4,964 2.88 5,207 2.95 5,368 2.99
100 30 40 30 42 39 8,333 6,350 3.25 6,719 3.35 6,975 3.41
100 40 20 40 42 39 8,333 7,177 3.00 7,484 3.06 7,684 3.10
50 The CLT Handbook

For symmetrical cross-section (t1 = t3 = t5) and same grade, a3 = 0.
• Calculate the effective moment of inertia using equations 3.39 and

3.40:
3.39
Cross-section CLT.
For symmetrical cross-section (t1 = t3 = t5) and same grade:
3.40
Effective radius of inertia

When checking structures where there is a risk of buckling, the effect
of shearing in the transverse layer should also be considered. This is
done by calculating the effective buckling length le as the reference
length lref, based on the effective moment of inertia Ief, see equations
3.41 and 3.42:
3.42
Multi-storey house, Sundbyberg, Sweden.

Table 3.14 Cont. >>>
lref = 4 m lref = 5 m lref = 6 m

(cm4) (cm) (cm4) (cm) (cm4) (cm)
Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef
z
1,692 2.06 1,706 2.07 1,714 2.07
t3
2,539 2.52 2,571 2.54 2,590 2.54

y
hCLT
3,557 2.98 3,616 3.01 3,650 3.02

4,059 2.60 4,107 2.62 4,135 2.63 bx
t1
5,556 3.04 5,654 3.07 5,711 3.09

7,285 3.48 7,453 3.52 7,552 3.55 Figure 3.11 Definition of dimensions and numbering for
a cross-section of 3-layer CLT panels with bending about
7,914 3.15 8,033 3.17 8,101 3.18 the y-axis.
The CLT Handbook 51

Table 3.15 Effective cross-section properties for 5-layer CLT panels as in figure 3.12, page 53.
lref is the span for a simply supported CLT, bx = 1.0 m. Boards in strength class C24. Bending about the y-axis.
Dimension Layer thickness Weight lref = 2,5 m lref = 3 m lref = 4 m

(mm)
(mm) (kg/m ) 2
(cm ) 4
(cm )4
(cm) (cm )4
(cm) (cm4) (cm)
h CLT t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 gmean gk Ix,full Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef
100 20 20 20 20 20 42.0 38.5 8,333 5,819 3.11 6,037 3.17 6,270 3.23
120 20 30 20 30 20 50.4 46.2 14,400 8,475 3.76 8,935 3.86 9,447 3.97
140 20 40 20 40 20 58.8 53.9 22,867 11,468 4.37 12,270 4.52 13,190 4.69
110 20 20 30 20 20 46.2 42.4 11,092 7,470 3.27 7,745 3.33 8,041 3.39
130 20 30 30 30 20 54.6 50.1 18,308 10,371 3.85 10,928 3.95 11,547 4.06
150 20 40 30 40 20 63.0 57.8 28,125 13,583 4.41 14,524 4.56 15,603 4.72
120 20 20 40 20 20 50.4 46.2 14,400 9,447 3.44 9,787 3.50 10,152 3.56
140 20 30 40 30 20 58.8 53.9 22,867 12,583 3.97 13,246 4.07 13,982 4.18
160 20 40 40 40 20 67.2 61.6 34,133 16,004 4.47 17,096 4.62 18,347 4.79
120 30 20 20 20 30 50.4 46.2 14,400 10,571 3.64 11,130 3.73 11,752 3.83
140 30 30 20 30 30 58.8 53.9 22,867 14,343 4.23 15,429 4.39 16,691 4.57
160 30 40 20 40 30 67.2 61.6 34,133 18,408 4.80 20,175 5.02 22,317 5.28
130 30 20 30 20 30 54.6 50.1 18,308 13,088 3.81 13,778 3.91 14,546 4.02
150 30 30 30 30 30 63.0 57.8 28,125 17,130 4.36 18,422 4.52 19,924 4.71
170 30 40 30 40 30 71.4 65.5 40,942 21,425 4.88 23,474 5.11 25,958 5.37
140 30 20 40 20 30 58.8 53.9 22,867 16,003 4.00 16,838 4.10 17,767 4.22
160 30 30 40 30 30 67.2 61.6 34,133 20,295 4.51 21,811 4.67 23,574 4.86
180 30 40 40 40 30 75.6 69.3 48,600 24,803 4.98 27,156 5.21 30,007 5.48
140 40 20 20 20 40 58.8 53.9 22,867 16,784 4.10 17,898 4.23 19,175 4.38
160 40 30 20 30 40 67.2 61.6 34,133 21,460 4.63 23,467 4.84 25,900 5.09
180 40 40 20 40 40 75.6 69.3 48,600 26,328 5.13 29,416 5.42 33,340 5.77
150 40 20 30 20 40 63.0 57.8 28,125 20,229 4.29 21,577 4.43 23,122 4.58
170 40 30 30 30 40 71.4 65.5 40,942 25,147 4.78 27,503 5.00 30,358 5.25
190 40 40 30 40 40 79.8 73.2 57,158 30,215 5.24 33,759 5.54 38,264 5.90
160 40 20 40 20 40 67.2 61.6 34,133 24,136 4.48 25,741 4.63 27,580 4.79
180 40 30 40 30 40 75.6 69.3 48,600 29,266 4.94 31,999 5.16 35,310 5.42
200 40 40 40 40 40 84.0 77.0 66,667 34,508 5.36 38,541 5.67 43,666 6.03
3.3.5 Designing in the ultimate limit state

Control of tension in the CLT plane
For a CLT panel subjected to tension parallel with the surface layer,
see figure 3.13, use equation 3.43:
3.43
where:
y Ft,x,d Ft,x,d is the design value for tension along the x-axis.
x Ax,net is the cross-section’s effective net area along the x-axis.
ft,0,xlay,d is the tensile strength design value for boards along the x-axis.
Ft,x,d
z ft,0,xlay,k is the characteristic tensile strength for boards along the x-axis.
ksys is a system factor, see section 3.1.6, page 36.
Figure 3.13 CLT panels with tension parallel with surface kmod is a modification factor, see section 3.1.5, page 35.
layer.
γ M is the partial factor for the material, see section 3.1.5, page 35.
52 The CLT Handbook

t5
Table 3.15 Cont. >>>
lref = 5 m lref = 6 m lref = 7 m lref = 8 m

y
hCLT
(cm )4
(cm) (cm )4
(cm) (cm )4
(cm) (cm4) (cm)
Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef Ix,ef ix,ef bx
t1
6,385 3.26 6,449 3.28 6,489 3.29 6,514 3.30
9,705 4.02 9,851 4.05 9,941 4.07 10,001 4.08 Figure 3.12 Definition of dimensions and numbering for
a cross-section of 5-layer CLT panel with bending about
13,664 4.77 13,937 4.82 14,107 4.85 14,219 4.87
the y-axis.
8,186 3.42 8,268 3.44 8,317 3.45 8,350 3.45
11,859 4.12 12,036 4.15 12,145 4.17 12,217 4.18
16,160 4.80 16,480 4.85 16,680 4.88 16,812 4.90
10,331 3.59 10,431 3.61 10,493 3.62 10,533 3.63
14,353 4.24 14,564 4.27 14,694 4.29 14,779 4.30
18,993 4.87 19,364 4.92 19,596 4.95 19,749 4.97
12,065 3.88 12,242 3.91 12,352 3.93 12,424 3.94
17,351 4.66 17,732 4.71 17,971 4.74 18,129 4.76
23,474 5.42 24,156 5.49 24,587 5.54 24,875 5.58
14,932 4.07 15,151 4.10 15,287 4.12 15,376 4.13
20,709 4.80 21,163 4.85 21,447 4.88 21,635 4.90
27,300 5.51 28,091 5.59 28,591 5.64 28,925 5.67
18,234 4.27 18,499 4.30 18,663 4.32 18,771 4.33
24,495 4.95 25,028 5.00 25,361 5.04 25,582 5.06
31,548 5.62 32,455 5.70 33,029 5.75 33,413 5.78
19,834 4.45 20,213 4.50 20,449 4.52 20,605 4.54
27,215 5.22 27,990 5.29 28,479 5.34 28,807 5.37
35,551 5.96 36,883 6.07 37,738 6.14 38,315 6.19
23,919 4.66 24,378 4.71 24,663 4.74 24,852 4.75
31,901 5.39 32,810 5.46 33,385 5.51 33,769 5.54
40,801 6.09 42,331 6.20 43,312 6.27 43,975 6.32
28,529 4.88 29,074 4.92 29,414 4.95 29,639 4.97
37,100 5.56 38,154 5.64 38,821 5.69 39,267 5.72
46,553 6.23 48,294 6.34 49,410 6.42 50,164 6.47
For a CLT subjected to tension perpendicular to the surface layer,

see figure 3.14, use equation 3.44:
3.44
where:
Ft,y,d is the design value for tension along the y-axis. Ft,y,d y
Ay,net is the cross-section’s effective net area along the y-axis. x
ft,0,ylay,d is the tensile strength design value for boards along the y-axis.
ft,0,ylay,k is the characteristic tensile strength for boards along the y-axis. Ft,y,d
z
Figure 3.14 CLT panel with tension perpendicular to
the surface layer.
The CLT Handbook 53

Control of compression in the CLT plane without risk of buckling

y Fc,x,d
For a CLT panel subjected to compression parallel with the surface
x layer, see figure 3.15, use equation 3.45:
Fc,x,d
z 3.45
Figure 3.15 CLT panel with compressive
force parallel with surface layer.
where:
Fc,x,d is the design value for compression force along the x-axis.
Ax,net is the cross-section’s effective net area along the x-axis.
fc,0,xlay,d is the compression strength design value for boards along
the x-axis.
fc,0,xlay,k is the characteristic compression strength for boards along
the x-axis.
kmod is a modification factor, see section 3.1.5, page 35.
For a CLT panel subjected to compression force perpendicular to the

Ft,y,d y
surface layer, see figure 3.16, use equation 3.46:
x
Ft,y,d 3.46
z
Figure 3.16 CLT panel with compression force
perpendicular to the surface layer. where:
Fc,y,d is the design value for compression force along the y-axis.
Ay,net is the cross-section’s effective net area along the y-axis.
fc,0,ylay,d is the compression strength design value for boards along
the y-axis.
fc,0,ylay,k is the characteristic compression strength for boards along
Fc,z,d the y-axis.
y
Control of compression stress perpendicular to the CLT plane
x
For a CLT panel subjected to compression force perpendicular to its
plane, see figure 3.17, use equation 3.47:
z
Fc,z,d
3.47
Figure 3.17 CLT panel with compression force
perpendicular to its plane.
where:
Fc,z,d is the design value for compression force perpendicular to
the grain.
Aef is the effective contact area with compression force perpen-
dicular to the grain.
fc,90,xlay,d
is the design value for compression strength perpendicular
to the grain.
hCLT
fc,90,xlay,k
is the characteristic value for compression strength perpen-
dicular to the grain.
kc,90 is a factor that takes account of how the load acts and the
degree of compression.
b
2·hCLT kmod is a modification factor, see section 3.1.5, page 35.

30 30
b
The effective contact area and kc,90 factor depend on the location of the
30
load, see figure 3.18, and work is ongoing to establish values for kc,90.
Figure 3.18 Effective contact area for compressive forces
perpendicular to the CLT’s plane. The edge values apply within Tests conducted to date show that the values stated in table 3.16 can
the distance 2 h CLT from the edge. be applied.
54 The CLT Handbook

Table 3.16 Contact area A in mm2 and b in mm plus value of kc,90.
Location Direction Contact area, A ef kc,90

Central – A ef = A tryck + (30 + 30)b 1.9
At edge Parallel with grain A ef = A tryck + (30 + 30)b 1.0 – 1.5
Perpendicular to grain A ef = A tryck + 30b 1.5
At corner – A ef = A tryck + 30b 1.3
Tests conducted to date show that the values stated in table 3.16

can be applied.
z My,d
Checking bending stress in the CLT panel’s plane z
For a CLT panel or CLT slab subject to bending moment about its
y
y-axis, see figure 3.19, use equation 3.48:
x
x
3.48
My,d
σmy,d
where:
My,d is the moment design value about the y-axis. Figure 3.19 Bending stresses in CLT panel with moment
Wx,net is the panel’s net moment of resistance about y-axis.
fm,0,xlay,d is the bending strength design value.
fm,0,xlay,k is the characteristic bending strength.
ksys is a system factor, see section 3.1.6, page 36.
kmod is a modification factor, see section 3.1.5, page 35. Mx,d
y
x
For a panel or slab subject to bending moment about its x-axis, Mx,d
see figure 3.20, use equation 3.49: z
z
3.49
y
where:
Mx,d is the moment design value about the x-axis. σm,x,d
Wy,net is the panel’s net moment of resistance.
fm,ylay,d is the bending strength design value. Figure 3.20 Bending stresses in CLT panel with moment
fm,ylay,k is the characteristic bending strength. about x-axis.
Control of bending stress in a CLT wall panel or CLT beam t3

For a CLT wall panel or CLT beam subject to a bending moment about
its z-axis, see figure 3.21, in the direction of the x-axis, use equation 3.50:
3.50 a
Mz,d
where: z
Mz,d is the moment design value about the z-axis. x
Wz,x,net is the panel’s net moment of resistance. y
fm,xlay,d is the bending strength design value.
h
fm,xlay,k is the characteristic bending strength. Mz,d

t1
Figure 3.21 CLT panel with moment about z-axis.
The CLT Handbook 55

3.50 b
where:
t i is the thickness of boards about the x-axis.
h is the height of the whole CLT panel or CLT beam.
For a CLT wall panel or CLT beam subject to a bending moment about
x Mz,d its z-axis as in figure 3.22, in the direction of the y-axis, use equation 3.51:
z
3.51
y
where:
h
Mz,d is the moment design value about the z-axis.

Wz,y,net is the panel’s net moment of resistance.
Mz,d
t2 fm,ylay,d is the bending strength design value.
fm,ylay,k is the characteristic bending strength.
Figure 3.22 CLT panel with bending

moment about z-axis. 3.52
where:
ti is the thickness of boards along the y-axis.
h is the height of the whole CLT panel or CLT beam.
If there is a small ratio between the CLT panel or beam’s length, L,

and height, h, beam theory with linear stress distribution does not
apply. Deviations become noticeable from L ⁄ h ≤ 4.
Combined bending in two directions

For CLT components used for load-bearing roofs or similar structures
with no buckling risk, bending stresses may occur in the plane along the
same axis, and then the strength should be verified using equation 3.53:
3.53
where:
σm,y,d and σm,z,d are the bending stress design values about
the main axes.
fm,xlay,d are the corresponding bending strengths.
3.54
where:
My,d and Mz,d are the design values for the moment about
the main axes.
Wx,net and Wz,x,net are the corresponding moments of resistance.
Control of shear stress perpendicular to the plane

Shear stresses occur in CLT panels subject to shear forces perpendicu-
lar to the CLT panel. Since the CLT panel comprises longitudinal and
transverse boards, both directions should be checked.
56 The CLT Handbook

The sheer strength (rolling shear strength) across the grain is often
significantly lower than with the grain.
For a 5-layer CLT panel or beam subject to shear forces, Vxz,d and Vyz,d
respectively, see figure 3.23 and figure 3.24, the following applies:
a) Verification of the shear parallel to the grain in layer 3 in Vxz,d z

figure 3.23 and layer 2 or 4 in figure 3.24:
z
3.55 y #5 τv,xz,d
#4
#3 x
x #2
where: #1 τRv,xz,d
Vxz,d is the design shear force.
Sx,net is the panel’s net static moment.
fv,090,ylay,d is the design value for the longitudinal shear strength Vxz,d
of the boards. Figure 3.23 Shear stresses from shear force Vxz,d in CLT panel.
fv,090,ylay,k is the characteristic longitudinal shear strength
of the boards.
For a 5-layer CLT panel or beam subject to the shear force Vyz,d, see
figure 3.23, the greatest shear stress is found in and around layer 3 for
a symmetrical 5-layer panel, see equation 3.56. This stress must, above
all, be verified against the rolling shear strength. z
Vyz,d z
b) Verification of rolling shear strength (shear across the grain) in
y #5 τv,yz,d
layer 2 or 4 in figure 3.23 and in layer 3 in figure 3.24: #4
#3 y
x #2 τRv,yz,d
3.56 #1
Vyz,d
where: Figure 3.24 Shear stresses from shear force Vyz,d in CLT panel.
Vyz,d is the design shear force.
SR,y,net is the panel’s net static moment.
fv,9090,xlay,d is the design value for the rolling shear strength
of the boards.
fv,9090,xlay,k is the characteristic rolling shear strength of the boards.
When designing CLT, account does not need to be taken of splits in

the CLT panels, since the structure of glued boards layered in alter-
nating directions prevents and minimises the risk that splits will
occur and spread. If a structure has a small panel width b, under cer-
tain circumstances it may need to be reduced by the factor kcr = 0,67,
using the equation bef = kcr ∙ b.
Control of shear strength in the CLT plane

CLT panels are often used in stabilising structures. Where wind loads
are absorbed by stabilising panels, for example, shear forces Vxy and
Vyx occur in the CLT panel’s plane. Since the CLT panels can handle
loads in several directions, the strengths should be checked for the
whole CLT panel (panel shear) and the constituent layers in the CLT
panel (layer shear). Account must also be taken of whether the
boards are glued on the edges and whether there are splits in the
boards along the direction of the grain. The sheer strength in the CLT
panel’s plane varies depending on edge gluing and split formation.
Here, the strength of CLT panels is stated without edge-glued boards
or with split boards.
The CLT Handbook 57

Vyx,d When checking the whole CLT panel for panel shear, see figure 3.25,
τv,yx,d use equations 3.57 and 3.58:
3.57
Vxy,d
Vxy,d
where:
τv,xy,d
Vxy,d is the design shear force.
y
t5 Ax,net is the panel’s net area.
t t4
t1t2
3
Vyx,d fv,090,xlay,d is the design value for longitudinal shear strength.
x
fv,090,xlay,k is the characteristic longitudinal shear strenght.
z
Figure 3.25 Shear stresses in relation to layer γ M is the partial factor for the material, see section 3.1.5, page 35.
thickness in CLT panel.
and:
3.58
where:
Vyx,d is the design shear force.
Ay,net is the panel’s net area.
fv,090,ylay,d is the design value for longitudinal shear strength.
fv,090,ylay,k is the characteristic longitudinal shear strength.
Note that shear stresses in CLT panels are distributed evenly over
the net cross-section and not quadratically, which is why the shear
stress is calculated without the factor 1.5 that is used for rectangular
cross-sections under the beam theory.
Cross-lamination of the layers means that the sheer stress in relation
to layer thickness is expressed in equation 3.59:
3.59
with:
3.60
and:
Vyx,d
3.61
Vxy,d
l Shear between layers, see figure 3.26, in a CLT panel is determined by
Vxy,d
the strength of the bond between the transverse and longitudinal
y boards. The shear stress can be expressed using equation 3.62:
τmz,d
x 3.62
Vyx,d
z bl,x
bl,y where:
Mt,d is the moment design value.
Figure 3.26 Shear stress between the layers W p is the board’s polar moment of inertia.
of a CLT panel. n t is the number of bonded surfaces in the panel.
fmz,9090,d is the design shear strength.
fmz,9090,k is the characteristic shear strength.
58 The CLT Handbook

For example, equation 3.63 applies for a 3-layer CLT panel as in

figure 3.26, page 58, for the calculation of torque in the plane:
3.63
where:
l is the distance between the roll centre and the force, Vx,d.
n t is the number of bonded surfaces of size bl,x ∙ bl,y.
In this case nt = 2 bonded layers · 5 boards on x-axis · 5 boards on

y-axis = 50.
The polar moment of inertia can be expressed using equation 3.64:
3.64
with:
3.65
and with bl,x and bl,y for the width of the layers on the x- and y-axis.
For quadratic bonded surfaces, bl,x = bl,y = bl, use equation 3.66:
3.66 Nd = Fd · bx
Fd
If the width of the boards is unknown, the width can be assumed to

be 80 mm.
x x
Checking buckling in walls and posts
The following section in this chapter shows how CLT is used as wall z
y
le
qd
panels and posts, and how the lowest necessary strength can be
determined in line with Eurocode 5. As with the other Eurocodes,
posts are designed in Eurocode 5 with the help of linear buckling
theory. Non-linear effects or the theories of other systems are taken
into account in designs with the help of a strength-related reduction
factor kc. When checking buckling in CLT wall panels and posts, bx
there are basically two different loads that can occur, pure axial
compression and transverse loads, see figure 3.27. If these loads are Figure 3.27 CLT wall panel subject to transverse load and
combined, the expression using equations 3.67 and 3.68 must be met: compressive force.
3.67
3.68
with:
where the expression for the reduction factor kc,y can be written
using equation 3.69:
3.69
The CLT Handbook 59

where:
3.70
is the relative slenderness factor for buckling about the y-axis.
is the slenderness factor and where ix,ef is the slenderness radius

(see also section 3.3.4, page 48) and L is the buckling length.
with:
with bx in metres and as in figure 3.27, page 59.
In cases where λrel,y < 0.3 the risk of buckling is almost non-existent
and then it is necessary to verify the following correlation:
3.71
Bridge made of glulam-trusses and roof made of CLT.
3.3.6 Designing in the serviceability

limit state
Designing in the serviceability limit state usually includes checks on
deflection, sagging and vibrations for floor slabs. In some cases, it
may also be necessary to check for long term deformations. When
determining the properties of the CLT slab, based on the properties of
the constituent boards, there are basically four different theories:
• The Timoshenko beam theory
• The Gamma method
• The Composite method
• SAV or the Kreuzinger theory.
The differences between the methods are mainly apparent when

calculating deflections in the serviceability limit state. However, all
the theories deliver relatively similar results in the end. Below is
a brief comparison of the different methods to calculate deformation.
Deflection calculation according to Timoshenko

A simply supported CLT floor slab can in most cases be a single-span
simply supported flat strip between two or more supports.
60 The CLT Handbook

The floor structure is subject to characteristic permanent load and

characteristic variable load, considered in most cases to have a medium
term duration. Deflection due to moments and shear force can be
expressed using equation 3.72, with M̅ and V ̅ as vectors for the forces
according to the principle of virtual work:
3.72
For a simply supported floor strip with free span L and distributed load
q, the deflection in the mid-field can be expressed using equation 3.73:
3.73
For a simply supported floor strip with free span L and point load P,
the deflection in the mid-field can be expressed using equation 3.74:
3.74
where:
3.75
and:
3.76
Floor made of CLT, Älta, Sweden.
where κ is a shear correction factor, see section 3.3.1 and table 3.10, page 43.
Deflection calculation according to the Gamma method

The Gamma method is the method described in Eurocode 5 and cal-
culation of the deflection for a beam in line with Euler-Bernoulli can
be expressed using equation 3.77:
3.77
3.78
where EIef can be calculated in line with section 3.3.4, page 48.
The Gamma method is a relatively well-known and widely used

method, as it is presented in Eurocode 5, annex B. It is easy to imple-
ment manually in simple calculation programs. The method can be
hard to use with slabs over multiple supports and where the CLT
panel has more than five layers. Major differences in accuracy can
occur.
The CLT Handbook 61

Deflection calculations according to the Composite method

The deflection calculation for a beam in line with Euler-Bernoulli can
be expressed using equation 3.79:
3.79
3.80
3.81
with k1 as follows:
• for a panel with two supports in the main direction of load
(x-axis):
3.82
• for a panel with two supports in the secondary direction of load

(y-axis):
3.83
Geschworner house, Falun, Sweden.

For a 5-layer CLT panel, am is the thickness of the whole panel, am−4
is the thickness of the middle layer and am−2 is the thickness of
the panel minus the thickness of the outer layers.
The method is well-known and used to design plywood structures.
It is easy to implement manually in simple calculation programs.
The method does not take account of shear deformations and is best
suited to structures with larger spans, L > 30 ∙ CLT panel thickness.
Deflection calculation according to SAV or the Kreuzinger theory

This method shares many similarities with the Timoshenko beam
theory. It takes account of shear deformations but depends on the
shear correction factor, k.
The general calculation formula for deflection of a beam can be
expressed using equation 3.84:
3.84
3.85
62 The CLT Handbook

3.4 CLT as two-dimensional
load-bearing slabs or panels
3.86
with the following:
3.87
3.88
with:
Walkway of glulam and CLT, Uppsala, Sweden.

For rectangular cross-sections k = 1.2.
The method is accurate for various load cases and geometric systems
and is easy to use even for CLT slabs with many layers. It is best suited
to structures with spans where L > 8 ∙ CLT slab thickness.

In cases with multiple load directions, such as point support, angle
support, openings, local area loads and so on, the biaxial loading
effect of the panel must be considered. There are two common models,
lattice (grid) and orthotropic CLT panel as presented in section 3.4.1.
In this case, the cross-section values are stated for CLT as a shell
component. Tiered seating made of CLT, Uppsala, Sweden.
One of the most exciting properties for CLT components becomes
apparent when they are used as shell components. Instead of being
considered a one-dimensional structural component like a beam or
post, CLT components can act in two dimensions. They can either act
as a slab and take loads in different directions or as a panel and trans-
fer shear forces and axial forces at the same time. The modelling
based on stiffness values collected in a matrix makes it easier to
exploit all the properties of the CLT. Designing should be based on the
level of force or the load-bearing capacity, since these two-dimen-
sional models lack the representation of internal stresses for individ-
ual layers.
3.4.1 Orthotropic slab with effective

thicknesses
The effective moment of inertia in both directions Ix,ef and Iy,ef is
determined and converted into total effective panel thicknesses dx,ef
and dy,ef.
3.89
The CLT Handbook 63

3.4.2 Orthotropic shell with direct

determination of stiffness matrix
nyz Based on the Timoshenko beam theory with shear correction factors as
y set out in section 3.3.1, page 40, the stiffness values for shell components
nxy mx x my that may bend under shear force can be determined independently of
nyx
the static system with cross-section values in both directions, according
nx mxy
myx ny to Reissner-Mindlin.
z
nxz
Material strength for CLT shell components
Figure 3.28 Definition of main axes and main direction for The following stiffness matrix can be established for orthotropic shell
shell components.
components p:
CLT
where:
[D11 – D33] describes the bending and torsion properties
(CLT slab)
[D44 – D55] describes the shear stiffness properties (CLT slab)
[D66 – D88] describes the sheet stiffness properties (CLT panel)
Bending and torsion properties (CLT slab) are usually measured

in kNm per meter:
becomes the equation:
3.90
3.91
3.92
3.93
64 The CLT Handbook

Note:
Shear stiffness properties (CLT slab) are usually measured in kN/m:
3.94
3.95
To calculate and view values for shear correction factors κx and κy,
see section 3.3, page 40.
Sheet stiffness properties (CLT panel) are usually measured in:
3.96 CLT
3.97
3.98
GS,mean is the shear modulus for the whole cross-section of the CLT
component, according to Silly, 2010
and represents the effect of transverse expansion on longitudinal

axial force, usually assuming that ν = 0 and thus D67 = 0 and similarly
D76 = 0.
Verifying material strength

The ratio between forces and displacements is defined in matrix form
using equation 3.99 and can be used successfully in FEM calculation
software:
3.99
CLT
The CLT Handbook 65

ϕ and u represent rotation and displacement of the centre of gravity for

the component’s surface in directions as shown in figure 3.28, page 64.
Equation 3.99, page 65, gives both forces and deformations, and
stresses in the material can be calculated on this basis.
Bending moment about x-axis and y-axis
mx,E,d is the design bending moment in kNm/m.

mx,R,d is the design bending capacity in kNm/m
and is calculated as:
Assembly of walls made of CLT, Portvakten Växjö, Sweden.

my,E,d is the design bending moment in kNm/m.
my,R,d is the design bending capacity in kNm/m
Shear force in the x-z plane and the y-z plane
nxz,E,d is the design shear force in kN/m.

nxz,R,d is the design shear capacity in kN/m
nyz,E,d is the design shear force in kN/m.

nyz,R,d is the design shear capacity in kN/m
Torsional moment in the x-y plane or the y-x plane
mxy,E,d is the design torsional moment in kNm/m.

mxy,R,d is the design torsional capacity in kNm/m
Note: mxy = myx if bx = by
Axial force along the x-axis and the y-axis
nx,E,d is the design axial force in kN/m.

nx,R,d is the design axial capacity in kN/m
66 The CLT Handbook
3.5 Design software for CLT
for tension and
for compression.
ny,E,d is the design axial force in kN/m.

ny,R,d is the design axial capacity in kN/m
Ulls house, Uppsala, Sweden.

for tension and
for compression.
Shear force in the x-y plane or the y-x plane
nxy,E,d is the design shear force in the CLT panel’s plane in kN/m.
nxy,R,d is the design shear capacity in kN/m.
3.5 Design software for CLT

Software for CLT calculations in one dimension
In the programs, CLT components are shown as one-dimensional ele-
ments, i.e. a beam or a post. There are some calculation programs
that were not developed by suppliers and some programmes devel-
oped directly by CLT manufacturers. Both types of software are based
on CLT’s properties as set out in the ETAs from the CLT manufactur-
ers. With the introduction of product standard SS-EN 16351, it is pos-
sible to calculate CLT components without any ties to suppliers.
There are simple programs developed using Java or Excel, for exam-
ple, that are tailored to Eurocode 5. The programs let users design CLT
components in the ultimate and serviceability limit states. Methods
have been implemented to conduct analyses in the serviceability limit
state, in line with the methods presented in the CLT Handbook.
The programs are often built using different modules, such as a floor
structure module and a wall module, where only one component is
calculated at a time. Geometries and loads are stated, but they are
usually restricted to the most common cases. The input data regarding
such factors as number of spans, skew load distribution and point
loads can have certain limitations. The type of joint is also rarely
selectable and is instead always modelled as a pinned joint.
This software also lacks the option of accounting for multi-dimen-
sional geometry with holes or skew design.
The CLT Handbook 67

3.5 Design software for CLT calculations
b/2
oy
x
ox
b/2 F
F
b/2
F
b/2 F
F
b
y1
b
b
y2 b
Figure 3.29 Example of a grid made up of members with different properties in different directions in a frame program.
Software for CLT calculations in multiple dimensions

There are several design programs that include CLT as a selectable
material. Below is some of the commercial software that is currently
available and used by many CLT manufacturers and designers.
• Abaqus – General program primarily for research and education

environments.
• RFEM – General program for calculations and designing a 3D
environment. Regulations and requirements from Eurocodes and
EKS are incorporated into the software and modules for CLT or
equivalent materials are available as an add-on.
• Solid-Works – General program for calculations and design in a
3D environment.
Figure 3.30 Example of what makes up a stiffness matrix for
• StatCon Structure – For designing beams and posts in line with
orthotropic surfaces.
Eurocode 5. The properties of panels from CLT manufacturers are
incorporated into the software.
• StruSoft FEM-Design – General program for calculations and
design in 3D.
Several CLT manufacturers have also developed their own design pro-
grams that are tailored to their own products.
3.6 Examples
3.6.1 Properties and deflection for 5-layer
symmetrical CLT slab
The CLT panel made of 5 layers as in table 3.17, page 69, and figure 3.31,
page 69, with a total thickness hCLT = 140 mm. The calculation is based
on a CLT slab with a width bx = 1.0 m.
68 The CLT Handbook

3.6 Examples
Table 3.17 Structure of 5-layer symmetrical CLT panel.

Layer Direction Thickness (mm) Strength class y
5 Long, x-axis 20 C24
4 Trans, y-axis 40 C24 x
3 Long, x-axis 20 C24 z
#5
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
2 Trans, y-axis 40 C24
#4
by
zs
a5
1 Long, x-axis 20 C24 #3
a2 a4
hCLT
#2
zs
a1
#1
Material values: bx
E0 = 11,000 MPa for timber in strength class C24,
E90 = 0 MPa, G090 = 650 MPa and G9090 = 50 MPa. Figure 3.31 Definition of directions and measurements.
Table 3.18 Properties of 5-layer symmetrical CLT panel as above. a1 = a5 = 60 mm, a2 = a4 = 30 mm, a3 = 0 mm.
Property Calculation formula Application for example

Centre of gravity (mm)
CLT
Net moment of inertia

(mm4)
Net moment of
resistance (mm3)
Longitudinal shear
capacity (kN) CLT . as in table 3.10, page 43
CLT .
Deflection at 5 kN
centric point load for
free span L = 6 m, using
Timoshenko
CLT
. . .
Deflection at 3 kN/m,
free span
L = 6 m, using
Timoshenko CLT
. . .
Effective moment of
inertia (mm4), free span .
lref = 6 m
Deflection at 5 kN,
centric point load,free
span L = 6 m, using .
Gamma method
Deflection at 3 kN/m,
free span
L = 6 m, using .
Gamma method
The CLT Handbook 69

3.6 Examples
3.6.2 Cross-section properties for 5-layer

non-symmetrical CLT panel
The CLT panel is made up of 5 layers as in table 3.19 and figure 3.32
with a total thickness hCLT = 160 mm. The calculation is based on a
CLT panel with a width bx = 1.0 m.
Table 3.19 Structure of 5-layer non-symmetrical CLT slab.
Layer Direction Thickness (mm) Strength class

y
5 Long, x-axis 20 C24
x 4 Trans, y-axis 30 C16
z 3 Long, x-axis 40 C16

#5 2 Trans, y-axis 30 C16
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
#4
by
zs
a5
#3 1 Long, x-axis 40 C24

a2 a4
#2
hCLT
zs
a1
#1
bx Material values:
E0 = 11,000 MPa for timber in strength class C24 = Eref
Figure 3.32 Definition of directions and measurements.
E0 = 8,000 MPa for C16,
E90 = 0 MPa, G090 = 650 MPa and G9090 = 50 MPa.
Calculation of centre of gravity, zs, is conducted using values in

table 3.20, where oi is the distance from the lower edge to the centre
of the layer:
Table 3.20 Calculation of centre of gravity.
in bx ti Ei ⁄ E ref (Ei ⁄ E ref) · bx· ti oi (Ei ⁄ E ref) · bx· ti · o i

(mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3)
5 1,000 20 1.0 20 · 103 150 3,000 · 103
3 1,000 40 0.73 29.2 · 10 3
90 2,628 · 103
1 1,000 40 1.0 40 · 103 20 800 · 103
Total 89.2 · 103 6,428 · 103
Calculation of net moment of inertia, Ix,net, is conducted using values

in table 3.21, where ai = oi − zs:
Table 3.21 Calculation of moment of inertia.
in bx ti Ei ⁄ E ref (Ei ⁄ E ref) · (bx· ti3⁄12) ai (Ei ⁄ E ref) · bx· ti · ai2
(mm) (mm) (mm4) (mm) (mm4)
5 1,000 20 1.0 67 · 104 77,9 12,137 · 103
3 1,000 40 0.73 389 · 10 4
17,9 936 · 103
1 1,000 40 1.0 533 · 104 −52,1 10,858 · 103
Total 989 · 10 4
23,931 · 103
70 The CLT Handbook

3.6 Examples
Calculation of net moment of resistance, Wx,net, is conducted for

the distances zu and zo for the lower and upper edges:
CLT
.
CLT
The CLT Handbook 71

4.1 Design of joints and connections
Joints and connections
4.1 Joints and connections 72 Joints and their design usually have a major impact on a structure’s
properties. The joints affect its load-bearing capacity, stability and its
4.2 Design principles 73
properties about fire and acoustics. The design of the joints also
4.3 Overview of joint types 74 affects the type of failure that can occur. By designing and forming
4.3.1 Wood screws, screws and dowels 74 the joints correctly, you can design the structure to avoid failures
4.3.2 Standard metal plates and brackets 75 happening without warning. This can be achieved if the joints are
4.4 4.4 Detailed solutions 75
designed so that the final failure is preceded by large and visible
4.4.1 Joints in the CLT plane 75 deformations caused by movement in the steel components of the
4.4.2 Surface joints in the CLT plane 76 joints in what is known as ductile behaviour.
4.4.3 Connections to beams 76 The clear majority of joints in CLT structures make use of wood
4.4.4 Wall to wall connections 77 screws, metal plates and brackets along with anchor nails or anchor
4.4.5 Wall to floor connections 78 screws. The market offers a wide variety of self-drilling wood screws
4.4.6 Wall to foundation, wall to
of various lengths that can be used directly for load-transferring
roof connections 79
joints. There is also a diverse range of standard metal plates and
4.5 Design of connections 80 brackets for various purposes.
4.5.1 Nail and screw joints, general 80 When designing wooden structures, the planners need to take sev-
4.5.2 Designing shear resistance for self-drilling wood eral factors into account. These factors include the duration of the
screws in CLT 80
load, the service class and the load’s direction in relation to the
4.5.3 Designing withdrawal capacity for self-drilling
wood screws in CLT 82
grain. The load direction is extra important as CLT is made up of sev-
4.5.4 Designing nail plates for CLT 84 eral layers of boards in different directions. When designing wood
4.5.5 Permitted edge and centre spacing for nails, joints, it is also vital that the structural engineer is familiar with the
wood screws and dowels 88 material’s orthotropy and its hygroscopic properties.
4.1 Joints and connections

5
A CLT building has many different joints and connecting details.
Even a simple structural frame in CLT has several different nodes
3
that require joint solutions, see figure 4.1. Each type of joint can be
designed in many ways and technical advances mean that more and
more new fixings are coming onto the market. New fixings specifi-
cally for CLT are also constantly being developed. This chapter pro-
2 vides a brief description of the different joint types, each with a gen-
4 eral outline of how to design such a joint. From a financial point of
view, it is usually best to employ joint solutions that use fasteners
and plates from the standard range.
Figure 4.1 Joints in a CLT frame.

1. Joint between wall panel and foundation.
2. Joint between post and floor slab.
3. Joint between wall panel and floor slab.
4. Joint between wall panel and roof.
5. Joint between ridge beam and roof.
72 The CLT Handbook

4.2 Design principles
4.2 Design principles

Joints tend to be a structure’s weak point. It is therefore particularly FEd
important to carefully consider how a joint works statically, but
also to look at the joint’s effect on other functions. Joints are the
load-bearing parts whose task is to connect different components of α
the structural structure. The structure’s system lines should normally
Fv,Ed,2 Fv,Ed,1
he
coincide with the lines for the centre of mass of the structural ele-
h
ments. It is also usually assumed that these meet in either rigid or
pin joints.
The structural engineer must understand how the joint transfers Figure 4.2 Risk of peeling caused by load perpendicular to
forces and make this force transfer possible through careful design. the grain.
The structural engineer’s first task is to calculate the forces and
moments, before the joint can be designed. These forces and moments
then must be transferred by the joint, and it is essential that correct
mechanical models are used in this context.
Wood is a hygroscopic material with moisture-related movement.
This is a key factor to consider when designing joints so that the
wood is allowed to expand and contract as humidity levels change,
without internal stresses becoming too great. Since wood’s tensile
strength perpendicular to the grain is relatively low, the timber could
split when it dries out. The moisture-related movement is small in
fixings and joints for CLT and CLT tends to be used for applications
Fax,d Fax,d
where this is not a problem.
The current design rules contain the modification factors kmod and
kdef, which take into account the fact that the strength decreases, and α = 90 α=0
the deformation increases when the moisture content rises.
There remains a lack of supporting data and established principles Figure 4.3 The withdrawal capacity of wood screws varies
for CLT in a number of the connecting situations that can occur. greatly, depending on whether they are positioned in a layer of
However, drawing on sound judgement and experience from tradi- boards whose grain is perpendicular to or parallel.
tional wooden structures, most cases can be resolved. A situation
where there is a clear risk of peeling, for example, is when a fastener
causes stress perpendicular to the grain, as shown in figure 4.2. When
fixing into a CLT panel, the risk of a peeling failure is reduced, since
the transverse layer of boards will usually spread out the tensile
force. If the risk of peeling is checked using the same methods as for
structural timber or glulam, the load-bearing capacity of the joint is
thus underestimated.
Since CLT panels contain boards with a grain that runs in different
directions (mostly with a difference of 90 degrees), it is crucial to be
aware of the positioning of the fixings, so you avoid fixings in end
wood or too short a fixing. The joint often causes a reduction in the
design area and a weakening of the cross-section, due to the penetrat-
ing screws, inset plates and dowels.
The CLT Handbook 73

4.3 Overview of joint types

There are many different types of fixings that can be used in design-
ing joints between CLT walls and floor slabs or joints between other
materials and CLT. Long self-drilling wood screws are commonly used
in joints between CLT panels but other traditional fixings such as
nails, inset plates and nail plates are also widely used. There are also
several more innovative solutions such as glued-in rods, advanced
package solutions that cover all corner solutions, including assembly
fixings and systems for invisible load-transferring joints. The new sys-
tems often rely on a high degree of prefabrication of CLT panels and
the fact that CNC machines are used to design fixings.
4.3.1 Wood screws, screws and dowels

Joints using special wood screws, universal screws or wood construction
screws, are simple solutions that are widely used for fastening CLT.
The popularity of wood screws is due in part to their capacity to handle
both shear forces and tensile forces, along with their ease of use on
the construction site without pre-drilling. Self-drilling wood screws
are made in diameters from 4 mm to 13 mm and in lengths of up to
1,000 mm. They are designed according to their area of use. For joints
that use nail plates or other standard metal brackets, it is common to
use anchor nails or anchor screws.
Anchor nail. Used in combination with metal plates.
Anchor screw. Used in combination with metal plates.
Roof made of glulam and CLT.

Wood construction screw. With specially designed threads. No need for pre-drilling.
Universal screw. With upper and lower threads to anchor two pieces of wood.
Self-drilling dowel. Used to assemble inset steel plates in wooden structures.
Figure 4.4 Examples of nails, wood screws and dowels that are used in CLT-joints.
Screws and dowels are commonly used in large wooden structures,

particularly for joints with large shear forces. When using screws and
dowels in CLT structures, specific consideration must be given to the
positioning, as there is a risk of the fastener being inserted into gaps
between the boards when using non-edge-glued CLT panels. To trans-
fer major shear forces, there are solutions that employ steel sleeves
in the form of cylindrical rings, see figure 4.12, page 76.
74 The CLT Handbook

4.4 Detailed solutions
4.3.2 Standard metal plates and brackets

Standard metal plates and brackets are an important type of fixing
for joining floor slabs and wall panels in CLT, for example. There are
all sorts of angle brackets to choose between, from brackets that
handle large tensile forces to brackets that are designed to mainly
transfer shear forces.
Angled nail plate

Angled nail plates can be used for joints between floor slabs and wall
panels, or for abutted joints under a moderate load. They are made from
hot dip galvanised or stainless steel with a thickness of 2 to 4 mm and Figure 4.5 Steel Angled Bracket.
a hole diameter of 5 mm for anchor nails or anchor screws, see figure 4.5.
Angle brackets
Angle brackets are often used for abutted joints in CLT. They can also
be used to fasten CLT to concrete and are available in many dimen-
sions for adaptation to the load in question. They are made from hot
dip galvanised or stainless steel with a thickness of 2 to 3 mm and a
hole diameter of 5 mm for anchor nails or anchor screws and larger
holes for expansion screws, see figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 Heavy Duty Angle Bracket.
Nail plates
Nail plates are a good option for moderate forces. Punched nail plates
come in many variants. Punched plates are usually the most cost-
effective alternative to drilled plates. The punching of plates requires
the plate thickness not to exceed the hole diameter. The hole should
be around 1 mm larger than the diameter of the fastener. The nail
plates can be cast into the concrete slab or welded to cast weld plates,
see figure 4.32, page 85.
Wood screws

Details in the chapter show principle solutions.
Plywood or LVL
4.4.1 Joints in the CLT plane Figure 4.7 Joint with loose tongue.
Joints between CLT panels can be executed in several different ways:
joint with loose tongue, single or double cover plate, half-lap, and
Wood screws
similar solutions. The cover plate may be plywood, LVL, planed wood
or steel plate. Below is a brief description of various principles. Plywood or LVL
Joints with a loose tongue are a common solution, see figure 4.7.

The tongue can be screwed or nailed together and is a joint with two
faces. The joint can also employ double tongues, which creates four Figure 4.8 Joint with single cover plate.
faces. The joint can transfer forces along and across the CLT’s plane.
Joints with double cover plates increase the capacity of the struc- Wood screws
ture and the joint to transfer shear forces, see figure 4.9. The cover Plywood or LVL
plates can be screwed or nailed in place and form a joint with one
face per cover plate. The joint can also transfer minor moments.
Plywood or LVL
Wood screws
Figure 4.9 Joint with double cover plates.
The CLT Handbook 75

Half-lap joints are a tried and tested method in wood construction, see
Vd figure 4.10. The simplicity of the method when combined with self-
Vd
drilling wood screws makes for rapid assembly. The joint can transfer
forces along and across the CLT’s plane.
Nd Nd Joints with single cover plate and reinforcement with long self-
drilling wood screws, see figure 4.11.
Figure 4.10 Half-lap joint. Joints with connecting steel sleeves together with fully threaded or
glued-in screws, or wood screws, are another method that has been
developed, see figure 4.12. The screws are inserted by the CLT
Vd manufacturer, so that the steel sleeve with notches can easily be
Vd
fitted on the construction site. The withdrawal strength of the
Vd threaded or glued-in screws has proven to be a design factor for this
type of joint. The joints can be designed for large shear forces along
Nd Nd
the length of the joint.
Vd Joints with specialist fixings are available in various forms designed

Figure 4.11 Joint with single cover plate and skew screwing. specifically for joining wooden structures, see figure 4.13. Many of the
fixing systems are based on various hook systems.
Stålhylsa The hook systems involve steel or aluminium brackets being
screwed to the CLT wall panels so that the panels can then be fitted
together. The number of brackets and their size determine the overall
capacity of the joint.
4.4.2 Surface joints in the CLT plane

Figure 4.12 Joint with connecting steel sleeves and wood
screws. Joints along the CLT panel’s plane that transfer moments to a certain
degree can be achieved if cover plates are added to the top and bot-
tom of the CLT panels, see figures 4.14 and 4.15. The cover plates can
also be placed in the outermost layers of the boards, see figure 4.9,
page 75. This allows smooth surfaces to be achieved but with less of
a moment of resistance since the inner levers are reduced. The
Figure 4.13 Joint with specialist fixing with skewed wood load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the joint also depends on the
screws. number of screws and the material chosen for the joint. With sur-
face-mounted cover plates, around 50 percent of the forces can be
transferred, as compared with non-jointed CLT panels.
Md
4.4.3 Connections to beams
Vd CLT panels are often used for large floor slabs, where the middle is
Figure 4.14 Foint in direction of main load.
made up of underlying or integrated beams. The design can be
arranged in various ways, with a few of the possibilities presented
below.
A common way to bridge gaps in the floor slab for openings and
where you want smooth and even surfaces top and bottom is to set
Md steels into the CLT structure, see figures 4.16 a) – c), page 77. To achieve
Vd smooth surfaces, the structure is built over or covered with panels of
Figure 4.15 Joint perpendicular to main load. plywood or LVL. The panels can in some cases be designed to transfer
compression and tensile forces along the floor slab’s plane, see figures
4.16 b) – d), page 77. In cases where it can be accepted that there is no
space for the joist within the thickness of the CLT panel, a very
common solution is to use glulam beams, see figure 4.16 d). Glulam
beams are also a frequent solution as internal support for continuous
CLT panels, see figure 4.16 e), page 77.
76 The CLT Handbook

a) Vd Vd
Nd Nd
Vd Vd
b)
Nd Nd
c) Vd Vd
Nd Nd
d) Vd Vd
Nd Nd
e) Vd Vd
Figure 4.16 Examples of connections to beams.
4.4.4 Wall to wall connections

Wall panels can in principle be joined with wood screws, angle
brackets or concealed specialist fixings. Self-drilling wood screws and
angle brackets are the most common choice but there are also other, Figure 4.17 Joint using screws, horizontal cross-section.
more innovative, options. Additional features may be needed to
improve the joints’ properties regarding fire and sound.
The simplest way of joining CLT to another wooden surface is usu-
ally to use self-drilling wood screws, see figure 4.17. It is, however,
crucial to check the positioning of the screws so that they are not
screwed only into end wood, i.e. parallel with the grain. To minimise
the risk of this, and in cases where screwing is only possible from
the side, skew screwing may be an alternative.
Another simple system is to use angle brackets or angled nail
plates, see figure 4.18. This method is effective at transferring shear
forces. It is, however, less suitable for exposed surfaces. The market
also offers specially designed fixings, both visible and invisible.
Figure 4.18 Joint using angle brackets, horizontal cross-
section.
The CLT Handbook 77

Figure 4.19 Joint Figure 4.20 Joint Figure 4.21 Joint Figure 4.22 Joint Figure 4.23 Joint
between wall panel and between wall panel and between wall panels between wall panels and between wall panel and
floor slab using long wood floor slab using angle and floor slab using fully floor slab using slotted-in floor slab using angle
screws. bracket. threaded screws and steel plates. bracket.
dowels.
4.4.5 Wall to floor connections

The simplest method of joining a wall panel to a floor slab is to use
long self-drilling screws. These can be inserted through the floor
structure above directly into the CLT panel below. The wall panel
above is in turn connected with skew screwing. Instead of long wood
screws, angle brackets can be used. Additions may be needed to
improve the joints with regard to fire and sound.
Joints between a wall panel and a floor slab can be jointed with
long self-drilling wood screws, see figure 4.19. The method is simple,
but care must be taken not to screw into end wood and to ensure
that the necessary anchoring lengths are achieved.
Joints between a wall panel and a floor slab can also be jointed
with angle brackets or nail plate angled brackets, see figure 4.20.
Angle brackets tend to be more tolerant of shear forces than screwing
is. The brackets can be fixed in place using anchor nails or anchor
screws.
Joints between wall panels and floor slabs can also be jointed with
long or short fully threaded screws, see figure 4.21. Short glued-in
screws in each end of the wall panel combined with thread sleeves
create an assembly system that is tailored to CLT panels. Rods the
length of the wall height can be used to lead forces of lift down to
the foundation.
inset fixings, see figure 4.22. Inset fixings, where the fixings are first
screwed into the CLT, are concealed inside the wall panels and fixed
in place with dowels.
a longitudinal angle bracket, see figure 4.23. Alternatively, the design
of the CLT slab may include underlying wood or steel studs or longi-
tudinal timbers.
78 The CLT Handbook

4.4.6 Wall to foundation, wall to roof

connections
Wall panel connections used in CLT structures normally form
non-moment-absorbing joints. The wall panel can be connected to
the foundation by casting brackets into the concrete slab or welding
them to fixing plates that are cast into the concrete. Alternatively,
the brackets can be anchored in the concrete using expansion screws
or chemical anchors. Wall ends that sit directly on concrete, brick,
lightweight blocks or other hygroscopic material should be fitted
with a moisture barrier.
A simple and common way to connect to the foundation is to use
a nail plate or angle bracket, see figure 4.24. The brackets are fitted
using nails or screws. This type of connection is suitable for both
large and small horizontal forces. The brackets can be left exposed or
concealed. Figure 4.24 Connecting to the foundation using angle
Wall panels can also be connected to the foundation using a fixed bracket.
wooden guide rail, see figure 4.25. The CLT panel is placed on or
against the guide rail and secured to it using skew screwing or some
other method.
When attaching wall panels to roofs, practically all the connecting
options mentioned in section 4.4.5 can be used. The simplest form of
connection and the most common is to use self-drilling wood screws,
see figure 4.26.
Figure 4.25 Connecting to the foundation using wooden guide rail.
a) b) c)
Figure 4.26 Connecting wall panel and glulam ridge beam to CLT roof.
The CLT Handbook 79

4.5 Design of joints
4.5 Design of connections

4.5.1 Nail and screw joints, general
The values and methods presented in this chapter are largely based
on the values and methods developed by Uibel and Blass 2006–2007.
In most cases, manufacturers of wood screws, nails and brackets will
provide their own characteristic values for their products, based on
testing. Screw joints are designed according to the shear forces and
tensile forces that are transferred by those joints. Compression forces
are normally transferred via contact pressure between the wooden
components but may also be transferred via the screw joints.
When designing joints, the following failure modes should be
checked:
Assembly of CLT-walls. • Shear of the screw joint.
• Withdrawal and pull through of the wood screws.
• Interacting shear and withdrawal of the wood screws.
• Shear and tension on the wood screws (failure of steel material).
• Compression in the joint perpendicular to the grain.
The joint’s load-bearing capacity is designed in line with Eurocode 5,

chapter 8.2 for shear forces and Eurocode 5, chapter 8.7 for withdrawal
forces. The interaction between shear forces and withdrawal forces is
designed in line with Eurocode 5, chapter 8.3. The load-bearing capacity
of the screw steel is checked in accordance with Eurocode 3 or with
instructions from the manufacturer. Consideration must also be given
to peeling and any block shear failure. If using the instructions in
Eurocode 5 or The Glulam Handbook Part 2 for this, the values you get
will generally be on the safe side due to the composition of the CLT.
4.5.2 Designing shear resistance for

self-drilling wood screws in CLT
CLT is unusual, compared with construction timber and glulam,
since the connection takes place in a sheet with two “main directions”
for the fibres. This means that account must be taken of the board
layers that are being fixed into. The results of the calculations will
vary depending on the structure of the layer.
Uibel and Blass have developed a couple of models for calculating
Screw joint, CLT.
characteristic embedment strength, fh,k perpendicular to the plane.
The design models are empirical, based on several tests. Self-drilling
wood screws are the most common method of connection when
building with CLT. The equations stated below are based on a large
number of tests with wood screws with a minimum tensile strength
of fu,k = 800 N/mm2. They apply to structures with predominantly
static loads. Separate assessments should be carried out for dynamic
loads
Shear resistance of self-drilling wood screws perpendicular to

the CLT panel’s plane
The shear resistance of wood screws is determined largely by
the embedment strength of the CLT.
80 The CLT Handbook

To calculate the embedment strength of a fully threaded wood screw,

equation 4.1 can be used:
4.1
where:
fh,k characteristic embedment strength.
d the wood screw’s minimum diameter in millimetres
Figure 4.27 Principle for
(minimum value of inner thread diameter and diameter of calculating embedment strength
smooth shank). for wood screws perpendicular to
ρk characteristic dry density of wood. the CLT panel’s plane.
The equation is valid under the following conditions:

• wood screw diameter d ≥ 6 mm Table 4.1 Embedment strength, fh,k for certain screw
diameters. Wood screw perpendicular to the panel’s
• board thickness t ≥ 9 mm
plane, fully threaded wood screw and wood material with
• the wood screw’s effective length in the CLT panel must cover characteristic density of 350 kg/m3.
at least three board layers.
Wood screw diameter Embedment strength, fh,k
d (mm) (N/mm2)
When calculating the load-bearing capacity of the joint, Johansen’s
theory under Eurocode 5 should be used. For a joint with a group of 6 15.8
wood screws, no reduction in the number of wood screws is required. 7 15.1
The structure of the CLT panel prevents brittle fractures and splitting. 8 14.5
However, this assumes that a minimum distance is maintained 9 14.0
between the wood screws.
10 13.6
Shear resistance of self-drilling wood screws in the CLT panel’s edge

The load-bearing capacity of wood screws under a shear force in the
CLT panel’s edge is calculated using equation 4.2 and is valid under
the conditions stated below. It applies to wood screws perpendicular
to the grain and to wood screws parallel with the grain.
4.2
Figure 4.28 Principle for

where: calculating embedment strength
fh,k characteristic embedment strength. for wood screws perpendicular to
def the wood screw’s minimum diameter in millimetres the CLT panel’s edges.
(minimum value of inner thread diameter and diameter of
smooth shank).
Table 4.2 Embedment strength, fh,k for certain
The equation is valid under the following conditions: screw diameters. Wood screw in edge of CLT panel,
• wood screw diameter d ≥ 8 mm fully threaded wood screw and wood material with
• effective anchor length, lef ≥ 10 ∙ d mm characteristic density of 350 kg/m3.
• gaps between boards < 6 mm. Wood screw diameter Embedment strength, fh,k
d (mm) (N/mm2)
When calculating the load-bearing capacity of the joint, Johansen’s 8 7.1
theory under Eurocode 5 should be used. For a joint with a group of 9 6.7
wood screws, no reduction in the number of wood screws is required,
10 6.3
as in equation 4.3. The structure of the panel prevents brittle fractures
and splitting. However, this assumes that a minimum distance is main-
tained between the wood screws and is valid for wood screws with cen-
tre spacing ≥ 10d. No reduction is required for centre spacing ≥ 14d.
4.3
where:
nef is the effective no. of wood screws.
n is the no. of wood screws that interact in the joint.
The CLT Handbook 81

4.5.3 Designing withdrawal capacity for

self-drilling wood screws in CLT
When calculating characteristic withdrawal capacity, Fax,Rk, for self-
drilling wood screws, equation 4.4 can generally be used. Equation 4.4
is based on test results and takes account of any gaps between the
boards. The characteristic density of the wood material should
amount to ρk ≈ 350 kg/m3.
4.4
where:
Fax,R,k is the characteristic withdrawal capacity.
d is the wood screw’s outer thread diameter in millimetres.
ρk is the characteristic density of CLT when connecting
Transport of CLT panels at the manufacturer. perpendicular to the plane and the characteristic density
for the relevant boards when connecting along the edge,
usually ρk ≈ 350 kg/m3.
x is the angle between the wood screw’s axis and the wood grain.
lef is the wood screw’s effective anchor length in the wood;
a minimum effective anchor length of lef,min = 4d is required.
The anchor length only relates to the threaded part of the wood
screw:
4.5
where:
ttot n is the no. of wood screws that interact in the joint.
t
Withdrawal capacity of wood screws in edge
The withdrawal capacity of wood screws in the edge of CLT panels
can be calculated using equation 4.6 and applies under the stated con-
ditions. Two different cases can occur, wood screws perpendicular to
the grain and wood screws parallel with the grain.
For connections perpendicular to the grain, a conservative assump-
lef
tion is made, since the wood screws are not placed with any certainty
in the midline of the cross-section. The factor for the wood screw’s
relation to the grain, x, is therefore set at zero, which gives:
4.6
Fax,d Fax,d
where:
α = 90 α=0 d is the wood screw’s thread diameter in millimetres.
lef is the effective anchor length.
Figure 4.29 Wood screw in edge of panel, perpendicular to
the grain and parallel with the grain.
• outer thread diameter for wood screw, d ≥ 8 mm
• effective anchor length, lef ≥ 10 ∙ d
• more than two wood screws per connection
• thickness of board into which screw is driven, t ≥ 3 ∙ d
• total board thickness, ttot ≥ 10 ∙ d
• characteristic density, ρk ≈ 350 kg/m3.
82 The CLT Handbook

Table 4.3 Characteristic withdrawal capacity, Fax,Rk for certain wood screw

diameters and lengths. Wood screw in edge of CLT panel, anchor length as in
table and wood material characteristic density of 350 kg/m3.
Wood screw Anchor length, Characteristic withdrawal capacity,

diameter d (mm) lef (mm) Fax,Rk (kN)
8 50 3.7
8 100 6.9
10 50 4.4
10 100 8.2
Connections for load-bearing purposes that are made parallel to the

grain should be avoided, as at the time of publishing The CLT Handbook
only a few long term tests have been carried out. The suggestion is to
screw within the board layer with parallel fibres, but with the wood
screws angled at around 30 degrees. This means that the wood screws Assembly of a summer house, Skellefteå, Sweden.
will cut through several fibres, which will increase the load-bearing
capacity of each wood screw. The other suggestion is to reduce the
characteristic withdrawal capacity when skew screwing (30-degree
screw angle) by a factor of 0.5 and to insert the screws in pairs.
Tables 4.4 and 4.5 states the characteristic withdrawal capacity of
skew screwed joints and the necessary correction regarding the num-
ber of pairs of wood screws. The figures in the tables are based on the
assumption that the centre spacing of the wood screws is not less
than a1 = a2 = 5d. The thickness of the CLT panels, t1 and t2, should be
greater than 10d and 81 respectively, see figure 4.30.
Table 4.4 Characteristic withdrawal capacity, Fax,Rk for skew screwed joints

(30° screw angle, two screws). Wood screw in edge of CLT panel, anchor length
as in table and wood material characteristic density of 350 kg/m3.
Wood screw Anchor length, Characteristic withdrawal capacity,

diameter d (mm) lef (mm) Fax,Rk. Screw pairs 30° screw angle,
reduction of 50 percent (kN)
8 50 3.7
8 100 6.9
10 50 4.4
10 100 8.2
Table 4.5 Correction factor depending on no. of skew screwed screw pairs t1

that interact in the joint.
No. of screw 1 2 4 8 12 16
pairs
l ef
Factor 1.15 1.07 1.00 0.93 0.90 0.87

l ef,2
If the connection is a node between transverse and longitudinal CLT

panels (e.g. in a corner) or an internal wall that joints to an exterior
t2
wall panel, the ratio between the wood screw anchor lengths should be:
4.7 30°
where: Fax,Rk
lef,2 is the wood screw’s anchor length in the transverse CLT
Figure 4.30 Skew screwed joint.
panel.
lef is the wood screw’s anchor length in the longitudinal CLT
panel.
The CLT Handbook 83

Withdrawal capacity for wood screws perpendicular to the plane

The withdrawal capacity for wood screws placed perpendicular to
the surface of the CLT panel is calculated using equation 4.8 under
the conditions stated below:
4.8
where:
d is the wood screw’s outer thread diameter in millimetres.
lef is the effective anchor length.

• outer thread diameter for wood screw, d ≥ 6 mm
Figure 4.31 Principle for calculating withdrawal capacity for • nominal diameter, d1 ≥ 0.6 ∙ d
wood screws perpendicular to the CLT panel’s plane. • effective anchor length, lef ≥ 8 ∙ d
• more than two wood screws per connection
• anchor length must cover at least 3 board layers
• total board thickness, ttot ≥ 10 ∙ d
• characteristic density, ρk ≈ 350 kg/m3.
Tables 4.6 and 4.7 states the characteristic withdrawal capacity of

certain wood screw types and the necessary correction regarding
the number of pairs of wood screws. The figures in the tables are
based on the assumption that the centre spacing of the wood screws
is not less than a1 = a2 = 5d. The thickness of the CLT panels, t1 and t2,
should be greater than 10d and 8d respectively, see figure 4.30, page 83.
Table 4.6 Characteristic withdrawal capacity, Fax,Rk for certain wood screw

diameters and anchor lengths. Wood screw perpendicular to plane of CLT panel,
anchor length as in table and wood material characteristic density of 350 kg/m3.
Wood screw Anchor length, Characteristic withdrawal

diameter d (mm) lef (mm) capacity, Fax,Rk (kN)
8 50 5.5
8 100 10.3
8 140 13.9
10 50 6.6
10 100 12.3
10 140 16.7
Table 4.7 Correction factor depending on no. of screw pairs interacting in joint.
No. of screws 2 4 8 12 16
Factor 1.07 1.00 0.93 0.90 0.87
4.5.4 Designing nail plates for CLT

Wall panels can be connected to foundations or to each other using
steel plates. Plates with varying hole patterns, thicknesses and fin-
ishes can be ordered from manufacturers that sell punched plates
and brackets. The price is usually lowest if the holes are punched,
which means that the thickness of the metal plate must not exceed
the diameter of the holes. The holes should be around 1 mm larger
than the outer diameter of the fastener.
84 The CLT Handbook

Control of steel plate

This type of joint transfers vertical compression forces via contact
between the CLT panel and the foundation. The nails transfer the
horizontal force FE,y and any vertical tensile force FE,x to the steel
plate, which in turn channels them down to the foundation, see
figure 4.32. Fixing plates cast into concrete or plates that are welded
to cast weld plates are usually considered to be a fixed foundation
bracket.
The following failure modes should be checked:

• shear stress in CLT
• block shear, see Eurocode 5, Appendix A
• steel plate failures caused by moment, axial force and shear force
(both gross cross-section and net cross-section)
• buckling of the steel plate caused by axial force.
When checking the shear of the nailed connection, the horizontal

force and any vertical tensile force are assumed to act at the nail
group’s centre of mass. The resulting force FE is then as set out in
equation 4.9:
4.9
To determine the number of nails, values for the capacity per fas-
tener, Fv,Rd are used as set out in Eurocode 5 or verified values from
the manufacturer. For nails with a diameter of less than 8 mm, the Innovative joint solutions, X-RAD.
load-bearing capacity is the same, whatever the direction of the force.
The number of nails, n, can thus be determined using equation 4.10:
4.10
If the centre spacing of the nails in the direction of the grain is set at
a minimum of 14d, you do not need to limit the effective number of
nails in a row, see Eurocode 5, table 8.1. If standardised nail plates are FE,x
used, the distance is also determined by the whole pattern of the
plate.
Block shear failure in the joint can be checked in accordance with
FE,y
Eurocode 5, Appendix A. If the steel plate is subject to a vertical and
a horizontal force, the eccentricity of the horizontal force causes a
e2
bending moment. In the steel plate’s fixed cross-section, the moment

becomes:
e1
4.11
In the rows of holes with the greatest stress, the following applies:
4.12
Stresses in the steel plate’s different cross-sections are calculated

based on the moment and the vertical and horizontal forces. If the Figure 4.32 Connecting of CLT panel using steel plates.
steel plate is thin, it may be necessary to check the risk of the plate Schematic diagram. The plates can be fastened using nails or
buckling. If the spacing of the fastenings in the steel plate is executed wood screws.
as recommended, this does not need to be checked. Therefore, the
distance between the holes in the plate and between the first row of
holes and the foundation should not exceed the lesser of 14t (t is the
plate thickness) or 200 mm. The plate’s connection to the foundation
should also be checked.
The CLT Handbook 85

Control of steel
Steel plates are checked in line with Eurocode 3 – Design of steel
structures. Various failures may occur in steel plates: tensile, com-
pression, shear and bending failures, a combination of these and
hole edge failures, although hole edge failures with standard dimen-
sions are uncommon.
In the case of tensile failures in steel plate, the whole cross-section
and the net cross-section (the part of the cross-section that remains
once the holes for the fasteners have been considered) are controlled.
Load-bearing capacity Npl,Rd for the whole cross-section can be
calculated using equation 4.13:
4.13
The load-bearing capacity Nu,Rd for the net cross-section is:
4.14
4.15
where:
Supported roof of CLT, Flyinge, Lund, Sweden. fy is the yield point for the steel material.
f u is the endurance limit for the steel material.
A is the gross area of the steel plate’s cross-section.
Anet is the net area of the steel plate (through a row of holes).
γM0 is the partial factor for the material, here 1.0.
Compression failure in the steel plate is checked and the load-bearing

capacity under stress Nc,Rd is calculated using equation 4.16:
4.16
where:
fy is the yield point for the steel material.
Buckling of the steel plate does not need to be checked if the distance
between the fasteners is less than a1 and where a1 can be expressed:
4.17
where:
t is the thickness of the steel plate.
ε is a dimensionless factor for determining the cross-section
class of the steel plate.
If the distance between the fasteners is greater than a1, the plate is
checked by treating it as a compressed post with a buckling length of
0.6a1.
86 The CLT Handbook

Bending failures in the steel plate are checked and the load-bearing
capacity Mc,Rd during bending when the cross-section is fully plastic is
calculated using equation 4.18, for moment rotating about a centre of
mass for a cross-section:
4.18
where:
Wpl is the plastic bending resistance of the steel plate.
f y is the yield point for the steel material.
For a rectangular cross-section:
4.19
where:
h is the height of the cross-section
b is the width of the cross-section. Staircases made of CLT.
The effect of the holes in the compressed zone does not need to be
considered if the holes are filled with a fastener. In the tensile zone,
the holes do not need to be considered as long as the following is met:
4.20
4.21
where:
f u is the endurance limit for the steel material.
Anet is the net area of the steel plate (through a row of holes).
Shear failure in the steel plate is checked and load-bearing capacity

Vc,Rd calculated using equation 4.22 if the whole cross-section becomes
fully plastic:
4.22
where:
A v is the shear area of the steel plate’s cross-section.
The failure criterion in equation 4.23 can be used when the steel plate
is subject to simultaneous axial forces and shear force:
4.23
The CLT Handbook 87

where:
σx,Ed is the design value for axial stress along the length of
the steel plate.
σy,Ed is the design value for axial stress perpendicular to
the length of the steel plate.
τEd is the design value for shear stress.
f y is the yield point for the steel material.
4.5.5 Permitted edge and centre spacing

for nails, wood screws and dowels
To fully exploit the load-bearing capacity and avoid peeling, certain
requirements concerning edge spacing and centre spacing between
the fasteners must be met. Details of edge spacing and centre spacing
can be found in tables 4.8 – 4.11, page 89, and figures 4.33 – 4.34.
The values stated assume that the grain and the direction of the
force are parallel with or perpendicular to the system lines of the joint.
a1 a1
a2
a2
a2
a3,t a3,c Edge

a4,c
α α
F α
F
End
a4,t
F
End
Edge
Figure 4.33 Minimum centre spacing and edge spacing for nails, wood screws and dowels in the CLT panel’s plane.
a4,c a4,c a4,c a4,c
a 3,c a 3,t
a1
a 3,t a 3,c
F
F
t t
ttot ttot
Figure 4.34 Minimum centre spacing and end/edge spacing for nails, wood screws and dowels in the CLT panel’s edge.
88 The CLT Handbook

Table 4.8 Minimum centre spacing and end/edge spacing for self-drilling wood screws in the CLT panel’s plane.
Wood screws with outer diameter ≥ 8 mm. See figure 4.33, page 88.
Designation Spacing
Centre spacing
Parallel with grain a1 4d
Perpendicular to grain a2 2.5d
End/edge spacing
Loaded end a3,t 6d
Unloaded end a3,c 6d
Loaded edge a4,t 6d
Unloaded edge a4,c 2.5d
Table 4.9 Minimum centre spacing and end/edge spacing for nails and dowels in the CLT panel’s plane
and a load parallel with the grain of the outer board layer. Designations, see table 4.8. See figure 4.33, page 88.
Fastener a1 a2 a3,t a3,c a4,t a4,c

Nail (3+3 cosα)d 3d (7+3 cosα)d 6d (3+3 cosα)d 3d
Dowel (3+3 cosα)d 4d 5d 4d sinα 3d 3d
(min. 3d)
α angle between load direction and grain of outer board layer.
Table 4.10 Minimum centre spacing and end/edge spacing for self-drilling wood screws in the CLT panel’s
edge with outer diameter ≥ 8 mm. See figure 4.34, page 88.
Designation Spacing
Centre spacing
Parallel with grain a1 10d
Perpendicular to grain a2 3d
End/edge spacing
Loaded end, parallel with grain a3,t 12d
Unloaded end, parallel with grain a3,c 7d
Loaded edge, perpendicular to grain a4,t 12d
Unloaded edge, perpendicular to grain a4,c 5d
Table 4.11 Minimum wood thicknesses. See figure 4.34, page 88.
Fastener Minimum thickness of Minimum total thickness Minimum wood thickness

loaded board layer ttot and anchor length
t (mm) (mm)
(mm)
Wood screw d > 8 mm: 3d 10d 10d
d ≤ 8 mm: 2d
Dowel 8d 6d 5d
The CLT Handbook 89

Floor structures
Floor structures
5.1 Floor structures – overview 91 Floor structures and their design often have a major impact on
5.1.1 Flat floor structure 91 the perception of a building and its interior environment. The design
5.1.2 Cassette and hollow floor structure 92 of the floor affects the whole structure’s load-bearing capacity and
5.1.3 Composite floor structure 92 stability, as well as its fire safety and acoustic properties. A good
5.2 Deformations 94 design will give you a floor structure that is quiet, stable and com-
5.2.1 Deflection in the floor structure 94 fortable. By CLT floor structure, we mean one that is constructed
5.2.2 Load combinations 96 almost entirely from cross laminated timber. There are various ways
5.2.3 Calculation methods 96 to construct a CLT floor structure, which can be grouped into three
5.3 Sagging and vibrations 97
main categories.
5.3.1 Damping 98 • Slab floor structure
5.3.2 Calculation method 98 • Cassette and hollow floor structure
• Composite floor structure.
5.4 Fire safety 101
5.5 Acoustic performance 101 A floor structure comprises a CLT slab that, if necessary, can have
cladding panels and insulation added. A cassette floor is a CLT slab with
5.6 Details 104
added web joists to provide extra stiffness. In a hollow floor structure,
5.7 Example calculations 106 spaced web joists are sandwiched between two CLT slabs to create
5.7.1 Checking floor structures 106 a hollow unit. A composite floor involves CLT slabs working in concert
with a cast concrete slab. All these types are suitable for prefabrication.
Multi-storey building, Sundbyberg, Sweden.
90 The CLT Handbook

5.1 Floor structures – overview
When designing wooden structures, the planners need to take

a number of factors into account. These factors include load dura-
tion, service class and the load’s direction in relation to the grain,
a particularly important consideration since CLT is made up of layers
of boards in different directions. When designing wood joints, it is
also vital that the structural engineer is well-versed in the material’s
orthotropy and its hygroscopic properties.
5.1 Floor structures Figure 5.1 Flat floor structure.
– overview
A floor structure is a generally horizontal load-bearing structural ele-
ment that separates the different storeys of a building above and/or
below it. A floor structure comprises a load-bearing part that is usually
accompanied by a further separating layer and finally a surface layer
in the form of carpet or wood flooring and a ceiling. The floor struc-
ture needs to be designed for horizontal and vertical loads such as
self-weight, imposed load, snow load and wind load, individually or
in combination. Similarly, regulatory requirements concerning defor-
mation, sagging and vibrations must also be met. The floor structure
must also be designed so that it complies with requirements concern-
ing fire safety, sound and thermal insulation.
5.1.1 Flat floor structure

A flat floor structure in CLT is the simplest form of floor structure.
The CLT panel alone takes up all the load and distributes it to
the underlying structure. The composition of the panel, in terms of
number and thickness of layers, is determined by the requirements
for the end result. To meet sound and fire safety requirements,
the CLT panel will usually have to be complemented with additional
constructions on the top, bottom or sometimes both.
The cross laminated boards of the CLT slab give the floor structure
high transverse stiffness with little in the way of moisture-related
movement. For housing and offices, spans as set out in table 5.1 can
be expected. These values are intended for use in determining initial
design values and do not offer a replacement for full calculations.
Table 5.1 Maximum permitted spans in serviceability limit state for a few different CLT floors. Stated spans meet deflection requirement
≤ L/300 or ≤ L/600 and deflection < 20 mm plus fundamental frequency f1 > -8 Hz. Self-weight is included for subceiling and flooring
totalling 25 kg/m2. The table applies for a simply supported floor structure and continuous floor structure over two spans in service class 1.
Design Thickness No. of layers Self-weight Maximum span (m)

(mm) (kg/m2)
L/300 L/600
100 3 55 3.7 2.8
140 5 90 4.2 3.2
L
160 5 105 5.3 4.1
100 3 55 3.9 1) 3.3

140 5 90 4.5 1) 3.8
L L
160 5 105 5.2 1)
4.8
Sagging design factor.

1)
The CLT Handbook 91

~500
Figure 5.2 Example of a cassette floor, with CLT slab reinforced by glulam web joists and flanges Figure 5.3 Hollow floor structure.
plus a suspended ceiling.
5.1.2 Cassette and hollow floor structure

Bonding glulam joists to the underside or top of the CLT slab enables
the floor structure to handle larger loads and longer spans. The floor
structure comprises a CLT slab and web joists with or without
flanges. The wooden elements often must be added to in order to
meet sound and fire safety requirements. The voids in the floor struc-
ture can be filled with mineral wool insulation, for example, and
the underside can be fitted with a sprung suspended ceiling of plaster
board on battens. Even better acoustic solutions can be achieved if
the sub ceiling can be kept entirely separate from the floor structure
above. Pipes and cables can also be run through the voids.
A hollow CLT floor structure is one where the top and bottom slabs
have been joined together with spaced web joists that form a void.
Hollow CLT floor structures can be designed so that they can handle
long spans and large loads. CLT hollow floors are not currently used
to any great extent in Sweden.
5.1.3 Composite floor structure

Concrete
This type of floor structure mainly comprises two parts, a CLT slab on
the underside and a cast concrete slab on the top.
Usually, some form of shear connector is used to join the wood sec-
tion to the concrete section and so increase the bending stiffness of
the structure. From a static point of view, this type of structure is
highly efficient, as you make optimum use of the materials’ proper-
ties, i.e. the compressive strength of the concrete and the tensile
strength of the wood. A composite floor structure has considerably
higher bending stiffness than an equivalent wooden floor structure
of the same height. This means that larger spans can be built when
CLT slab
wood is used together with concrete. In addition, the dynamic prop-
erties are generally better in a composite floor structure than in an
Figure 5.4 Composite floor structure in two parts, schematic. equivalent wooden floor structure, since the damping effect is often
greater in the former.
Another positive aspect of this type of structure is the stiffness of
the concrete slab in the floor structure’s plane, which means that
horizontal loads caused, for example, by wind can be spread evenly
across the vertical load-bearing components such as posts and walls.
The acoustics are also often better with a composite floor structure
and a traditional wooden floor structure.
92 The CLT Handbook

Concrete
Strain diagram for

Concrete
no incomplete complete
interaction interaction interaction
- - -
+ - + -
Reinforcement
+ + + CLT slab
Shear connector
CLT slab
Figure 5.5 Strain diagram of composite floor structure with varying degree of Figure 5.6 Composite floor structure in CLT and concrete,
interaction. The strains shown in the figure are caused only by bending moment. with shear connector of type HBV, Holz-Beton-Verbund.
Composite floor structure with incomplete interaction

It tends to be difficult to achieve complete interaction between wood
and concrete. This section briefly describes composite components
with incomplete interaction, where the transfer of shear forces
between the wood and concrete parts causes more than negligible
sliding in the joint. Figure 5.4, see page 92, shows part of a simply sup-
ported floor structure that comprises two parts, a CLT slab and a con-
crete slab, with incomplete interaction.
Figure 5.5 shows that in the deformed state a displacement has
occurred in the joint between the component parts. This displace-
ment varies from zero at the midspan to a peak value at the supports.
This displacement generates forces in the shear connectors that join
the two parts of the floor structure. If you have a sufficiently large
number of shear connectors and/or choose shear connectors with
extremely high shear stiffness, sliding between the wood and con-
crete is negligible, which means that full interaction between the
materials can be assumed when designing the floor structure. On the
other hand, where the number of shear connectors is very small, and
their shear stiffness is low, the sliding between the two materials can
occur almost unhindered, which means that no interaction at all can
be assumed in designing the floor structure. In normal cases, the
shear stiffness of the shear connectors is neither infinite nor zero,
but somewhere in between, creating incomplete interaction, see Principle of interaction between wood and concrete
figure 5.5. with shear connector of type HBV.
The shear connectors have a critical impact on the function of the
floor structure. The choice of shear connectors should be a compro-
mise between effectiveness and economy: the shear connectors must
be as stiff as possible and at the same time quick and easy to install.
There are a number of shear connectors that meet these require-
ments to a lesser or greater extent. These include:
• Shear connector with perforated steel plate.
• Shear connector with special screws.
• Shear connector via a large notch in the top face of the CLT slab.
A shear connector of type HBV, Holz-Beton-Verbund is a special

stretched net steel plate that is inserted longitudinally into the top
face of the wooden component. The most common method is to
have perforated steel plates bonded to the CLT slab with a polyure-
thane or epoxy glue, see figure 5.6.
The CLT Handbook 93

5.2 Deformations
Another simple way to ensure good interaction between wood and

Concrete concrete is to cut a notch out of the CLT slab’s upper face. Sometimes
a few screws are also screwed into the notch. The main purpose of
Screw, e.g.
the screws is to take up any tensile force that occurs between the sec-
French wood screw
tions of wood and concrete when the floor structure is put under a
load, see figure 5.7.
Designing composite floor structures: principles and rules of thumb

Composite floor structures made from CLT and concrete are suitable
for spans of 6 – 12 m. A preliminary value for the total cross-section
Reinforcement
height htot can be calculated as htot ≈ L ⁄ 25, where L is the span of the
floor structure. The thickness of the concrete slab hb is normally
Notch in CLT chosen as hb ≈ 0.4 × htot, making the thickness of the CLT slab
CLT slab hCLT ≈ 0.6 × htot. During the preliminary design of the floor structure,
where checks of the dynamic properties are usually crucial, it can be
Figure 5.7 Composite floor structure in CLT and concrete, assumed that the level of interaction is around 85 percent and
where the interaction is achieved via a notch in the upper face
70 percent when using shear connectors as set out in figure 5.6,
of the CLT slab.
page 93 and figure 5.7 respectively.
In other words, it is assumed that the composite floor structure in
question has an effective bending stiffness that is respectively around
85 % and 75 % of the bending stiffness in a corresponding floor struc-
ture that has full interaction – depending on the choice of shear
connector.
Designing in the ultimate limit state is mostly done in two stages.
The first stage is to calculate the cross-sectional properties and corre-
sponding stresses in the wood and in the concrete, using the modulus
of elasticity for short-term loads.
The second stage involves checking the cross-section about the
materials’ long-term properties. Here account must be taken of
the fact that concrete generally shrinks more than wood, which
means that the load uptake mechanism in the composite floor struc-
ture changes under long-term load, with consequent “unloading” on
the concrete section and corresponding “loading” on the wooden sec-
tion. In other words, at any given cross-section in the floor structure
and after a certain period of load, the bending stresses in the concrete
reduce while the corresponding bending stresses in the wood increase.
Account is taken of long-term effects by reducing the modulus of
elasticity by the associated creep coefficients stated in Eurocode 2 and
Eurocode 5, for concrete and wood respectively. This stage is often
critical for the design in the ultimate limit state.
5.2 Deformations
5.2.1 Deflection in the floor structure
CLT that is used for apartment-separating floor structures is designed
according to the prevailing national standards. The serviceability
limit state is usually the design determiner for CLT floor structures
under normal loads in housing and offices. The utilisation of load-
bearing capacity in floor structures is usually less than 50 percent.
When designing in the serviceability limit state, deformations, sagging
and vibrations should be considered. The floor should be an ortho-
tropic slab with different strength and stiffness properties in both
directions.
For most designs, the load comprises a permanent component G and
a variable component Qi. For wooden structures, where the variable
loads dominate, deflection varies during the lifetime of the structure.
94 The CLT Handbook

5.2 Deformations
wc
winst
wfin
wnet, fin
wcreep
Figure 5.8 Definitions of deflection.

w inst is instantaneous deflection.
wcreep is deflection caused by creep.
wc is any pre-camber.
wfin is final deflection.
wnet,fin is final net deflection.
Office building with bearing structure of CLT,

For a structural component subject to a constant load during its life- Älta, Sweden.
time, deflection is determined based on the initial deflection, winst,
the material’s creep, wcreep, and the deformation factor, kdef, which is
determined by the moisture content of the wood material and the
variation in that moisture content.
5.1
The final deformation for permanent actions can thus be expressed as:
5.2
and for variable actions:
5.3
Since the shrinkage (creep) depends on the length of time during

which the load is active, the factor ψ2 has been introduced to describe
this effect. For floor structures, it is typical to use service class 1
(kdef = 0.8 or 0.85) and quasi-permanent values for variable actions.
A specific deflection limit can be chosen based on functional
requirements or for visual reasons. Experience has shown that the
deflection requirement L ⁄ 300 (Wnet, fin) is the lowest acceptable value
with a small safety margin. When designing floor structures in stor-
age spaces it is, however, often acceptable to permit deflections in
the order of L ⁄ 200 – L ⁄ 150 (Wnet, fin). Table 5.2 shows recommended
deflection criteria.
Table 5.2 Examples of deflection limits for various load combinations.
Structural component winst wnet,fin wfin

Recommendations as set out in Eurocode 5
Beam with two supports (max 20 mm) L/300-L/500 L/250-L/350 L/150-L/300
Recommendations based on literature and
experience
Floor structure (max 20 mm) L/400-L/600 L/300 L/200-L/250
The CLT Handbook 95

5.2 Deformations
5.2.2 Load combinations

When making deformation calculations, checks should be performed
based on the loads that are expected to apply for the structure in
question. For floor structures there are generally three different load
combinations that may be relevant: characteristic, frequent and
quasi-permanent. The load combinations usually used are expressed
in equations 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6.
Characteristic combination is normally used when short-term
deformations, winst, are calculated:
5.4
Frequent combination is used to estimate reversible effects:
5.5
Parking structure made of glulam and CLT,
Skellefteå, Sweden.
Quasi-permanent combination is used to determine long-term effects
in the form of creep in the final deformation:
5.6
where:
Gk,j are load effects of permanent actions.
Qk,1 is the variable leading action.
ψ0,i, ψ1,1, ψ2,i are load combination factors.
Qk,i are other variable actions.
5.2.3 Calculation methods

The deflection calculations for floor structures are performed using a
number of load combinations, and in many cases, CAD makes it easier
to determine the structure’s deformations. The simplest method of
calculating a flat plate floor structure’s deflection due to self-weight
and external load is to treat the slab as strips resting on two supports.
The floor slab’s deflection can then be calculated using the imposed
moment. If the ratio between the span, L, and the slab’s thickness, hCLT,
is less than 10, greater account must be taken of the shear
deformation.
For a floor structure that is simply supported on two supports, the
deflection in the middle of the span due to bending moment can be
calculated using equation 5.7:
5.7
where:
q is evenly distributed load.
L is floor span.
E is floor structure’s modulus of elasticity, see section 3.3.1,
page 40.
Inet is floor structure’s moment of inertia, see table 3.9, page 41.
The deflection of a moment-loaded floor structure or slab is obtained

not only from the bending moment but also from shear forces.
The proportion of the shear deformation depends on the slab’s modu-
lus of elasticity E, the panel’s shear modulus G and the ratio between
96 The CLT Handbook

5.3 Deflection and vibrations
the slab’s thickness hCLT and the span L. For CLT slabs, the ratio E ⁄G is
approximately 15 – 30 and in practice hCLT ⁄ L usually falls within the
range 0.02 – 004, which leads to a shear deformation of 5 – 20 per-
cent of the bending deformation. The shear deformation should be
considered even for short spans.
The shear deformation’s contribution ws to the total deformation
can be calculating using equation 5.8:
5.8
5.3 Deflection, sagging

and vibrations
Dynamic effects that occur, for example when people walk on a floor, Roof made of glulam and CLT.
affect our perception of the structure’s quality.
The function of the floor structure is affected by a host of different
factors such as the floor structure’s mass, span, stiffness, load distri-
bution and composition. CLT floor structures can be even more bene-
ficial in contexts where the floor structures can to some extent be
four-sided supported slabs that thus distribute the dynamic loads
sidewards, which can dampen the vibrations that arise.
Vibrations caused by people are a problem that occurs in the use
phase. People walking around on a floor often tolerate greater vibra-
tions than people who are sitting still, reading or writing. Vibrations
may be felt by the person causing them, or it might be the activities
of others that cause the vibrations. Vibrations can thus be separated
according to the following definitions:
• Floor sagging describes the experience of a self-generated vibration
or deflection in the floor caused by a single movement.
• Oscillation describes how a person perceives floor vibrations
caused by other people.
Deflection is usually only a problem for light floor structures and

ones that deform under a concentrated load. These floors are com-
mon in lightweight structures with a wooden frame and in other
buildings with wooden floor structures. In terms of the response of
a floor system, sagging involves static deflection and impulse velocity
response, while disturbing oscillations involve impulse velocity
response and stationary resonant response.
One method for taking vibrations into account is to verify that the
structure’s lowest fundamental frequency, at peak energy, is higher
than the excitation frequency, i.e. avoiding the load coinciding with
the response frequencies. Practically, this can be done by increasing
the stiffness, reducing the mass or reducing the span. It is usually
easier to increase the construction materials’ ratio of strength to
mass than to increase the stiffness to mass ratio.
Alternatively, the damping in the floor structure can be increased.
This tends, however, to be a complex and expensive option.
It is also important to note that floor slabs can transfer vibrations
between different rooms. When using continuous slabs, the vibra-
tions are transferred from one room to another and this can be dis-
turbing even though no problems are noticed in the room from
which the vibrations originate. Vibrations from a neighbouring room
are often felt to be more irritating than when the source of the vibra-
tions is in the same room.
The CLT Handbook 97

5.3.1 Damping
For wooden floor structures, the relative damping as set out in
Eurocode 5 should be assumed to be 1 percent, unless other values
have been shown to be more suitable. The relative damping for a CLT
slab can therefore be estimated at around 1 percent. It is best to
achieve as high a value as possible to reduce the risk of discomfort.
There are relatively few studies of damping in CLT floor structures,
but experience shows that the damping is probably higher for the
finished floor, see table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Suggested values for relative damping in floor structures made from
wood and CLT.
Material and composition Relative damping

Wooden floor structure 1.0 percent
Bonded boards with cast layer 2.0 percent
Composite structure with nailed wooden joists and cast 3.0 percent
layer
Multi-storey building, Bergen, Norway. CLT floor structure with or without additional lightweight 2.5 percent
top layer, two-sided supported
CLT floor structure with cast layer, two-sided supported 2.5 percent
CLT floor structure with cast layer, four-sided supported 3.5 percent
CLT floor structure with cast layer, four-sided supported on 4.0 percent
stud walls
5.3.2 Calculation method

A CLT floor structure can be treated as a two-dimensional thin slab.
In many cases, the slab’s static stiffness properties are sufficient to
achieve satisfactory performance regarding to vibrations.
The key factors that determine the quality of the floor structure are
the load’s frequency range and size plus the floor’s self-weight, stiff-
ness and damping. Floor slabs in CLT usually have higher self-weight
than a traditional wooden floor structure made from joists. A CLT
slab can be an orthotropic slab with different stiffnesses in each
load-bearing direction.
A CLT floor structure can be simply designed using beam theory.
Eurocode 5 sets out a simplified method for judging a floor struc-
ture’s inclination to oscillate. This method involves calculating the
static deflection for a wooden floor structure under the effect of a
point load of 1 kN that simulates a footstep. The load acts in the mid-
dle of a simply supported beam and the deflection must not exceed
a set value. CLT floor slabs for residential buildings can be designed
and checked schematically in accordance with Eurocode 5:
• Determine the fundamental frequency. If the fundamental fre-

quency is lower than 8 Hz a special assessment is required, but if it
is higher the calculations are performed as described below.
• Determine the required quality of the floor structure by determin-
ing threshold values for a and b, see figure 5.9.
98 The CLT Handbook

• Check the stiffness by calculating the deflection, w, for a point

load, F, of 1 kN and compare with the recommended value in
accordance with equation 5.9:
5.9
where w is the maximum vertical instantaneous deflection of

a vertical concentrated static force F.
• Check the impulse velocity response v against the chosen floor

structure quality using equation 5.10:
5.10
where:
v is the floor structure’s impulse velocity response, which can
be calculated using equation 5.15, page 100, for a rectangular
floor structure. This is the maximum vertical initial velocity
in m/s due to an ideal impact of 1 Ns applied where it has
the greatest effect. Vibration components over 40 Hz can be
ignored.
ζ is relative damping, see table 5.3, page 98.
f1 is initial fundamental frequency, which can be calculated
using equation 5.14, page 100.
b is a factor set at 100 m/(Ns2).
b (m/(Ns2))
The deflection criteria in this relatively basic method vary in differ- 160
ent regulations and handbooks.
140
The static load that simulates force during walking is 1 kN and acts
Better function
at the middle of the floor structure. The deflection, a, should not 120
exceed a set value and the quality of the floor structure is determined
based on the requirements. For Swedish conditions, Boverket has 100
Worse function
chosen the following recommendations: 80
a = 1.5 mm/kN and b = 100 m/(Ns2). People are sensitive to vibrations
below 8 Hz and so to avoid disturbing vibrations, the floor structure’s 60
fundamental frequency should not be lower than this value. However,
40
vibrations over 8 Hz can also be disturbing.
The impulse velocity response is a partial indicator of how disturb- 20
ing the vibrations will be. The permitted impulse velocity response
depends on the floor structure’s fundamental frequency and damp- 0
ing but should be as low as possible. Where CLT floor structures are 0 1 2 3 4 5
a (mm/kN)
designed for the requirements deflection ≤ L ⁄ 300 and fundamental
frequency f1 > 8 Hz, the impulse velocity response will fall within the Figure 5.9 Recommended threshold values a and b and
range that is seen as positive in terms of oscillation and vibration. recommended correlation between a and b according to
Eurocode 5.
Calculation of deflection
Deflection from a point load placed in the middle of a 1 m wide flat
strip that is treated like a beam can be calculated using equation 5.11:
5.11
where:
w is the calculated deflection for point load P.
L is the floor span.
EIef is the floor structure’s bending stiffness.
The CLT Handbook 99

Equation 5.11 gives the value for deflection for load-bearing in one

direction. However, a CLT slab has two load-bearing directions and
the stiffness of the floor structure in both directions can therefore be
used, with the deflection determined using equation 5.12:
5.12
where Bef is a load distribution factor that can be calculated using

equation 5.13:
5.13
where:
(EI)L is the bending stiffness in the floor structure’s stiffest
direction.
(EI)B is the bending stiffness perpendicular to the stiffest direction.
L is the length in the stiffest direction.
Calculation of fundamental frequency, f1

The lowest fundamental frequency of a floor structure that is treated
as a beam is usually calculated using equation 5.14:
5.14
where:
f1 is the lowest fundamental frequency.
L is the floor span.
direction.
m is the floor structure’s mass per metre.
Calculation of impulse velocity response

For a rectangular floor structure of dimensions B × L, simply sup-
ported along its four sides, v can be estimated using equation 5.15:
5.15
where:
v is the impulse velocity response, [m/Ns2].
B is the floor width, [m].
Summer house, Skellefteå, Sweden.
L is the floor span, [m].
m is the floor structure’s mass per unit of area, [kg/m2].
n40 is the number of first-order modes with fundamental
frequencies of up to 40 Hz and calculated using:
5.16
where:
direction [Nm2/m].
(EI)B is the bending stiffness perpendicular to the stiffest
direction [Nm2/m], (EI)B < (EI)L.
100 The CLT Handbook

5.4 Fire
5.5 Sound
5.4 Fire safety

To achieve the desired fire resistance classification, it is important to
7
choose and assemble the materials correctly. Different fire resistance
classifications can be obtained by adding plasterboard or a suspended
hef
ceiling and/or flooring as a complement to the floor structure. There 5
are several ceiling designs, which can be heavy, light, insulating and/
hCLT
or absorbent. The ceilings can be rigidly fixed, suspended on sprung
d0
fixings or self-supporting. Housing usually has fixed ceilings that 3
cannot be opened. They usually comprise one or two layers of
dchar
plasterboard over battens and insulation. They can either be built on
site or delivered pre-fabricated. They have a load-bearing frame that 1
is often filled with insulation and parts of the installations can be
pre-assembled. Delivery to the construction site should coincide with
delivery of the floor structure. In housing, the ceiling is sometimes
self-supporting since the spans are smaller and the internal walls can
be used as supports.
Floor structures made from CLT slabs with or without additional
cladding on the underside lose their load-bearing capacity at differ- Figure 5.10 Effective cross-section, h ef, charcoal layer, d char
ent times when exposed to fire. The floor structure’s remaining and non-load-bearing layer, d 0 for a cross-section subjected
to fire.
load-bearing capacity is determined by the remaining effective
cross-section, hef. The effective cross-section is determined by the way
the layer of charcoal, dchar, develops and the non-load-bearing layer
beneath the charcoal, d0.
Chapter 7, CLT and fire, see page 133, presents underlying data for cal-
culations of several different cross-sectional constructions.
5.5 Acoustic performance

To achieve the required acoustic performance, it is important to
choose and assemble the materials correctly. Sub ceilings are used to
improve sound insulation between different parts of a building, but
also to hide installations for electricity, ventilation, water and sewer-
age. Different acoustic requirements can be met by adding plaster-
board, a sub ceiling and/or flooring as a complement to the floor
structure.
A flooring layer can be added in the form of joists and boarding or
using concrete. The choice depends on the requirements that must be
met. Generally, the concrete option is not as thick, while the floor
structure’s self-weight is higher. Both options can be used in residen-
tial and office buildings. To help with the choice, which really comes
down to the context, you simply must weigh up the pros and cons of
each option.
There are many different types of ceiling, which can be heavy,
light, insulating and/or absorbent. The ceilings can be rigidly fixed,
suspended on sprung fixings or self-supporting. Self-supporting ceil-
ings provide the best sound insulation. A sprung suspended ceiling
offers acceptable sound insulation, but it is not as good as a self-sup-
porting ceiling. However, in office environments for example, a sus-
pended ceiling may be preferable due to the long spans.
Housing usually has heavier, fixed ceilings that cannot be opened.
They usually comprise one or two layers of plasterboard over battens
and insulation. They can either be built on site or delivered as
pre-fabricated surface units.
The CLT Handbook 101

5.5 Sound
In housing, the surface units are normally self-supporting since

the spans are smaller and the internal walls can be used as supports
for the units. From the time of assembly until the internal walls are
erected, the surface units rest on temporary supports, known as
props.
Office blocks tend to have lightweight, openable suspended ceilings
that are fitted on site once all the cables and pipes have been installed
above. These ceilings are usually only absorbent, but types that are
both absorbent and insulating do exist. Table 5.4 presents the sound
values for certain designs of ceiling and/or flooring combined with
a flat plate floor structure. L is the impact sound level and D is the
airborne sound insulation. The ideal is to have as low a value as
possible for impact sound level and as high a value as possible for
airborne sound insulation. The sound levels are given in dB and the
values in brackets relate to the adaptation values CI,50-2500 and C50-3150.
See also table 8.14, page 153.
Table 5.4 Acoustic performance for different types of floor structure with CLT slabs. The table also shows which sound insulation classes
(A–D) can be expected for various floor structure designs. The values and classes should considered as approximate and further additions
may be required in order to achieve them. Contributions from flanking transmission must also be considered.
Floor structure type Material (mm) Total height Weight Vertical sound insulation (dB)
(mm) (kg/m2)
Impact Airborne
sound sound
level, L insulation, D
Floor structure type 1 390 92 63 (+7) 56 (-6)
110 CLT slab
220 fixed joists Residential houses sound – D
2 × 95 insulation insulation class 2)
34 battens Offices sound insulation A A
2 × 13 plasterboard class 3)

80 concrete
30 impact sound insulation, Residential houses C C
dynamic stiffness ≤: 9 MN/m3 sound insulation class 2)
200 CLT slab Offices sound insulation A A
class 3)

80 concrete
30 impact insulation, Residential houses B A
200 mm CLT slab Offices sound insulation A A
120 suspended ceiling joists 80 insulation class 3)
2 × 15 plasterboard, density ≥ 1050 kg/m3

80 concrete
30 mm impact insulation, Residential houses A A
30 mm impact insulation,
Offices sound insulation A A
dynamic stiffness ≤: 12 MN/m3
class 3)
120 washed gravel
200 CLT slab
2 × 15 plasterboard, density ≥ 1050 kg/m3
1)
Value not available. Cont >>>
2)
Space outside home to space inside home.
3)
From space to space for private work or conversations.

5.5 Sound
Cont >>>
Floor structure type Material (mm) Total height Weight Vertical sound insulation (dB)
(mm) (kg/m2)
Impact Airborne
sound sound
level, L insulation, D
Floor structure type 5 266 130 64 1)
13 mm plasterboard, floating

3 foam Residential houses – –
200 CLT slab sound insulation class 2)
50 heavy insulation, density ≥ 100 kg/m3
Offices sound insulation B –
class 3)
CLT slab
50 heavy insulation, density ≥ 100 kg/m3 Residential houses – –
sound insulation class 2)
Not suitable for offices – –
14 wood flooring
3 foam Residential houses – –
22 fibreboard, floating sound insulation class 2)
12 impact insulation, damping 4 dB
Offices sound insulation B –
13 plasterboard, screwed
class 3)
200 CLT slab
50 heavy insulation, density ≥ 100 kg/m3

14 wood flooring
3 foam Residential houses D D
22 fibreboard, floating sound insulation class 2)
20 impact insulation, damping 4 dB
Offices sound insulation B B
22 fibreboard
class 3)
95 floor joists
95 insulation
25 sylodyn
200 mm CLT slab

14 wood flooring
3 foam Residential houses B A
13 plasterboard sound insulation class 2)
22 fibreboard
20 impact insulation
class 3)
80 washed gravel, 8-11 mm
200 CLT slab
Floor structure type 10 413 130 56 52

14 wood flooring
2x13 plasterboard Residential houses C C
22 fibreboard sound insulation class 2)
beams with struts
200 insulation
class 3)
130 CLT slab
13 plasterboard
Floor structure type 11 493 145 56 56

14 wood flooring
2x13 plasterboard Residential houses B B
22 fibreboard sound insulation class 2)
beams with struts
260 insulation
class 3)
160 CLT slab
13 plasterboard
1)
Value not available.
2)
Space outside home to space inside home.
3)
From space to space for private work or conversations.

5.6 Example calculations
5.6 Details
The structure of a building consists, among other things, of several
connections between walls / beams, walls / walls or walls / ceilings.
Depends on the fire and sound requirements imposed on the building
and the structural parts the design may vary. Figures 5.11 – 5.15 show
several principle solutions. Figure 5.11 – 5.13 shows solutions where
Cladding the major part of the insulating layers are placed on the under
Vertical battens
the CLT slab plate and Figures 5.14 – 5.15, page 105, show solutions
Wind protection layer
Thermal insulation where the insulating layer are placed both on the top and under
Vapour retarder the CLT slab.
CLT panel
Internal cladding
Sealing Flooring
Screw Impact insulation layer
CLT slab
Sound insulation layer
Sealing
Figure 5.11 Vertical section for building without higher requirements.
CLT slab reinforced with glulam

beams
Screw
Sealing
Sylomer, sound
Flooring insulation layer
Screws Impact insulation layer
CLT slab Ceiling applied at site

Sound insulation layer
Sealing External wall with
bearing panels of CLT
CLT slab
Internal cladding
Figure 5.12 Vertical section for building without higher requirements, Figure 5.13 Vertical section for building with high requirements,
premises, regarding sound insulation. Joint flooring to bearing inner wall. regarding sound insulation. Joint flooring and external wall.

Insulation
CLT panel
Angle bracket Internal layers
Sylomer
Concrete
Impact insulation layer
CLT slab
Fire insulation Suspended ceiling
Figure 5.14 Vertical section for building with high demands, regarding sound insulation.
Joint flooring to load-bearing apartment separating wall.
Cladding
Vertical battens
Wind protection layer
Thermal insulation
CLT panel
Internal cladding
Angle bracket
Sylomer
Concrete
Impact insulation layer
CLT slab
Suspended ceiling
Figure 5.15 Vertical section for building with high demands regarding sound insulation.
Joint to exterior wall.

5.7 Example
5.7.1 Design of floor structure
Simply supported floor structure of length L = 4.5 m and load and
load effects as set out in table 5.5, page 107, service class 1.
Loads:
Self-weight gk = 1.1 kN/m2
Imposed load qk = 2.0 kN/m2
The floor structure comprises a 5-layer CLT panel with a thickness of

40 + 20 + 40 + 20 + 40 = 160 mm and with all the layers of boards in
strength class C24. Service class 1, safety class 3 (γd = 1).
For CLT with boards only of strength class C24, the following
applies in line with table 3.7, page 38:
E0,x,0.05 = 7,400 MPa
E0,x,0,05 = 7 400 MPa
E0,x,mean = 11 000 MPa
G9090,xlay,mean = 50 MPa
Using table 3.6, page 38:

Example of floor structure.
fm,k = 24 MPa
fv,k = 4 MPa
With γ mm = 1.25 according to table 3.2, page 35, and kmod = 0.8 accord-
ing to table 3.3, page 36 (imposed load is leading action = medium
load duration) the design strengths become:
Calculations:
Cross-sectional dimensions for different sizes of 5-layer CLT panels
can be found in table 3.12, page 46 and in table 3.14, page 50 for CLT
panels with boards in strength class C24. Cross-sectional properties
can also be calculated for a strip bx = 1.0 m of the board using
table 5.6, page 107:
Design load combination for vertical load for a strip

bx = 1,0 m:

Moment
Design moment for a single-span beam of length L = 4.5 m:
Shear force
Design shear force:
Table 5.5 Loads and load factors.
Load kN/m2 γg , γ Q Load duration k mod Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2

gk 1.1 0.89 ∙ 1.35 Permanent 0.6 - - -
qk 2.0 1.5 Medium duration 0.8 0.70 0.50 0.30
Table 5.6 Properties of 5-layer symmetrical CLT panel, strip of width bx = 1.0 m. Slab thickness 160 mm (40/20/40/20/40).
Property Calculation formula Application to example

Net cross-section area
(mm2)
(mm4)
Net moment of
resistance (mm3)
Static moment of rolling

shear (mm3)
Static moment of
longitudinal shear
(mm3)
Effective moment of
inertia (cm4) for span
L = 4.5 m

Deformations
Short-term deformation of characteristic load:
Final deformation because of creep on quasi-permanent action:
for service class 1, in line with table 3.4, page 36.
Vibrations
The lowest fundamental frequency, f1, for floor structures is
calculated as:
One family house, Nacka, Sweden.
Control the stiffness by calculating the deflection, w, for a point load,

F = 1 kN and compare with the largest permitted value a = 1.5 mm
according to EKS.

Check the impulse velocity response v with b = 100 according to EKS,

and with damping of 2.5 percent in line with table 5.3, page 98.
Floor structures of width B = 4.5 m, simply supported along four

sides:
where:
IL , IB is the surface moment of inertia for bending about the y and
x axis respectively, in line with table 3.13, page 47.
Balconies made of CLT, Växjö, Sweden.

6.1 Walls
Walls
6.1 Walls – overview 111 Walls are often part of a building’s load-bearing structure, but in
6.1.1 Load-bearing external and internal walls 111 many instances their task is only protection and separation. In many
6.1.2 Non-load-bearing internal walls 112 cases, CLT panels are a clear option, as they can serve as a load bearer
6.2 Static design 112
while also performing a separating function.
6.2.1 CLT and load-bearing capacity 112 A wall of CLT panels can be anything from a single large surface
6.2.2 Load combinations 112 unit to composite units of multiple smaller surface units. The size of
6.2.3 Load-bearing capacity and stiffness 113 the wall units is limited in the main part by the practicalities of han-
dling and the transport and craning options, but also by manufactur-
6.3 Structure stability 115
6.3.1 Deformation of individual and composite CLT
ing capacity. CLT walls are built up as panels with a thickness of
panels 115 60 mm to 300 mm, which means that it is possible to manufacture
6.3.2 Structure stability 116 long, storey-height ceiling wall units with considerable load-bearing
capacity. To reduce the risk of large components becoming weak lat-
6.4 Fire 121
erally, they can be stiffened with external timbers. In terms of trans-
6.5 Acoustic 121 port, the height of the components should be less than 3.6 m,
although in exceptional cases surface units up to 4 m tall can be
6.6 Wall cross-sections 123
transported, and the length should not exceed 12 m. Larger units
6.7 Design and detailed solutions 124 can, however, be transported on a trailer or using specialist transport.
6.7.1 Connections wall tofoundation 124 Storey-height walls of CLT panels normally weigh between 25 kg/m2
6.7.2 Connections wall to floor 125 and 130 kg/m2 depending on the design. Walls are usually delivered
6.7.3 Connections wall to roof joists 126 with fitted lifting straps or prepared for craning in some other way.
6.7.4 Connections external wall to window 126
The wall may be made entirely from CLT or supplemented with
6.7.5 Connections in external wall corners 127
insulation, façade material, windows and doors. In most cases, exter-
6.8 Example calculations 127 nal walls are supplemented with further layers of insulation and
6.8.1 Wall panel with openings – control of façade cladding. The smooth surface of the CLT panel provides a good
buckling 127 underlay for other panels.
6.8.2 Beam over opening, supported by posts 129
Internal walls are designed according to need and application.
The wall may be load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Internal partition
walls separating apartments have to meet particular requirements
concerning sound insulation and fire resistance, while bathroom
walls also have to be designed so that they meet tough standards of
moisture-saftey. To ensure the moisture-saftey, it is important that
the connection with other building components is designed correctly,
so that transit damage can be avoided.
Common panel thicknesses and compositions are listed in table 6.1.
Other types of panel can be manufactured on demand. Ask the CLT
manufacturers about your requirements.
Table 6.1 Common dimensions for CLT used for load-bearing and non-load-
bearing walls. Approximate design values for line load for a 3 m high wall with a
load duration class of medium term (M), service class 1 or 2 and safety class 2.
Thickness No. of layers Self-weight Load value q Rd

(mm) (kg/m2) (kN/m)
80 3 40 100
100 5 50 175
120 5 60 320

6.1 Walls – overview
Cross-section through load-bearing CLT wall. CLT panels ready for finishing. CLT panels ready for supplementary layers.
6.1 Walls – overview

6.1.1 Load-bearing external and internal walls
The main task of load-bearing external walls, as well as forming
a building envelope, is to take up vertical loads from floor structures
above and to transfer wind load to stabilising building components. In
cases where the walls are involved in stabilising the structural frame,
they also must take up the horizontal loads in the wall’s plane. Wind
load and internally acting loads such as railing load and live load cause
bending moments for which the wall must be designed. The fire load
factor can, in many situations, be a defining design factor and means
that the thickness of the CLT panel can rarely be less than 70 mm.
From outside in: 13–15 plasterboard

25 horizontal glulam cladding 100 CLT panel
34 × 70 vertical battens 70 insulation
Wind protection sheeting 10 air gap
Vertical studs and insulation 70 insulation
80 CLT panel 100 CLT panel
Vapour retarder 13–15 plasterboard
Horizontal studs and insulation
Internal cladding
Figure 6.1 Example of external wall structure using Figure 6.2 Example of partition wall between apartments
load-bearing CLT panel. using load-bearing CLT panel.

6.2 Static design
The finished wall can be manufactured industrially in its entirety

or built on site, based on the prefabricated CLT panel. The principle
structure is the same in both cases. CLT panels are commonly supple-
mented with a wind-proof layer, a heat-insulation layer and a vapour
barrier or vapour retarder. Internally, the CLT panel can be fitted
directly with interior plasterboard or additional insulation. A less
insulated, or uninsulated, gap on the inside may be preferable as it
can serve as space for installations. If the fire safety requirements
are met, there is an opportunity to leave the CLT panel exposed on
the interior. Externally, the wind protection is distanced from the CLT
panel with studs or spacing battens.
Load-bearing internal walls usually have just one main task, to lead
vertical loads down to the underlying structure or to the foundations.
In contrast to an external wall, a load-bearing internal wall often must
tolerate the effect of fire from both sides at the same time, where the
wall is located within the same fire compartment. If other requirements
are met, internal walls can successfully be made from exposed CLT.
6.1.2 Non-load-bearing internal walls

Internal walls are designed differently, depending on their type. In most
cases, the desire is for a wall in its simplest form, which generally
means a stud wall. CLT can be chosen for internal walls that are not
load bearing, where a heat and moisture-resistant frame is required.
Internal party walls must meet particular requirements concerning
sound insulation and fire resistance, while bathroom walls also have
to be designed so that they meet tough standards of moisture-proofing.
CLT panels are also used for internal walls in buildings where high
mechanical strength and resistance to external actions are required,
such as in sports halls and stables.
External wall made of CLT.
6.2 Static design

6.2.1 CLT and load-bearing capacity
CLT panels that are affected by vertical loads and moments, for exam-
ple from eccentric loads from floor structures or wind load, are to be
designed as bending and compression members. In most cases, the
deformation occurs in the structure’s weak direction, and so the rules
for bending and compression columns can be applied. Mass timber
structures under compression can be designed as CLT in line with
Eurocode 5. For the slender CLT panels, the stability factor is usually
critical for the wall’s load-bearing capacity. Bearing pressure on the
wall’s ends and against sills and floor structures must also be checked.
6.2.2 Load combinations

When designing walls, there are three main variable loads to consider:
imposed load, snow load and wind load. The design should be checked
based on each of these loads being considered a leading action. A wall
is usually checked in the ultimate limit state and the design value for
load effect Ed of the load combination is calculated using equation 6.1 as
stated in the Eurocode (SS-EN 1990, equation 6.10b) and applicable EKS:
6.1

6.2 Static design
where:
γ d is the partial factor for safety class.
G k is the load effect of permanent actions.
Qk,1 is the variable leading action.
Ψ is the load combination factor.
Qk,i are other variable actions.
6.2.3 Load-bearing capacity and stiffness

The load-bearing capacity and stiffness of walls made from CLT pan-
els is generally calculated on the basis that normal forces and bend-
ing moment are taken up only by the panel, and not by a secondary
composite structure. There are two options for designing CLT panels:
designing with the help of available diagrams or tables and designing
through calculation. Diagrams and tables should however be used
primarily for initial design values.
Designing with the help of available diagrams or tables

Since most CLT manufacturers provide design help for their products,
it can be a good idea to make use of these tools. Many manufactur-
ers, for example, use design diagrams like figure 6.3. When using
these tools, it is important to note the conditions for which the stated
values apply. Check the safety class, load duration, service class, sup-
port system, and note whether account has been taken of any eccen-
tric load.
a) Determine the design loads in the ultimate limit state, i.e. the
design value for vertical load Fd and transverse load qd for the load
case in question. Walls do not usually require designing in the ser-
viceability limit state.
Assembly of CLT walls.
b) Determine the wall’s buckling length, le.
Nd (kN/m)
180
Nd = Fd · bx
Fd
160
140
qd
le
120
bx
100
qd =
80 0 –1
.5 k
N/m
60 qd
=3
.0
kN
/m
40
20
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
le (m)
Figure 6.3 Permitted vertical load for CLT panels with a thickness of 80 mm.

6.2 Static design
c) Determine the load-bearing capacity using design diagrams.

The diagram in figure 6.3, for example, shows the calculation for a load
duration class of medium term (M) for vertical load and short term (S)
for transverse load, service class 1 or 2 and safety class 3, plus the loads
on the wall are taken to be centric. For walls under eccentric loads, a
supplement is made to the horizontal load equating to the additional
moment arising from the load’s eccentricity. The load-bearing capacity
is compared with the design value for vertical load Fd.
Designing through calculation (see also section 3.3.5, page 52)

a) Determine the design loads in the ultimate limit state, i.e. the
design value for vertical load Fd and transverse load qd for the load
case in question.
b) Calculate the design load effects.

Building for boats, Skellefteå, Sweden.
Determine the design value for normal force, Nd based on the load
conditions in question, which may be bearing loads from a floor struc-
ture, for example.
Determine the design moment:
6.2
where:
l e is the wall’s buckling length.
q d is the design value for transverse load.
In a normal case, the wall’s buckling length is the same as the wall’s
true height. When calculating the design moment, the contributing
moment from vertical loads due to the eccentricity of the supports
must also be considered.
The bending stresses that arise are calculated as follows:
6.3
where:
My,d is the moment design value.
Wx,net is the panel’s net moment of resistance.
c) Control of cross-section in the case of pure axial compression

According to the principles of the Eurocodes, wall panels are designed
using linear buckling theory. Non-linear effects (effects of other sys-
tems) are considered in designs with the help of a strength-related
reduction factor kc. The condition that must be met in equation 6.4 is:
6.4
where:
Ax,net is the wall’s net cross-section, i.e. the vertical board layers.
kc is a reduction factor that accounts for the buckling risk.
fc,0,xlay,d is the design value for the strength parallel with the grain.
d) Control of cross-section in the case of combined bending and

axial compression
Theoretically, in a load-bearing wall panel axial compression and
bending can occur simultaneously about both axes. In most cases,
however, there is only one direction that is of interest when design-
ing for compression and bending.

6.3 Frame stability
Table 6.2 Example of characteristic strength and stiffness values for CLT panels when calculating in the ultimate limit state.
The E0.05 values are based on the gross area of the whole cross-section. Other values relate to the net area.
Thickness Bending, modulus of Compression fc,k Bending fm,k

(mm) elasticity E0,05 (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
80 (3-layer) 9,500 21 24
100 (3-layer) 8,600 21 24
120 (5-layer) 9,450 21 24
The condition that must be met in equation 6.5 is:
6.5
where:
σc,x,d is the design value for the compression stress.
σm,y,d is the design value for the bending stress about the panel’s
y-axis.
fm,xlay,d is the design value for the panel’s bending strength
(usually about the panel’s y-axis).
Examples of characteristic strength and stiffness values that can be

used in calculations, if no data is available from the CLT manufac-
turer, can be found in table 6.2.
6.3 Structure stability

6.3.1 Deformation of individual
and segmented CLT walls
CLT panels are ideally suited to building stabilisation, as they have high
stiffness and load-bearing capacity. In a building, loads are normally δshear
transferred from the floor structure to stabilising walls. A full wall
often comprises multiple wall panels that are connected with vertical
Fd
joints. The wall unit is exposed to a horizontal load in the wall unit’s
plane that causes shear stresses and bending stresses. The stresses in the
material, combined with displacements in the joints, give a total defor-
mation in the panel’s plane due to the horizontal load. In normal cases,
the deformation in joints and connections is a design value.
h
If the whole panel’s shear modulus, Gmean and modulus of elasticity,

Emean are known, the total deformation, δtot can be expressed as:
shear bend join

6.6
b
Deformation due to shear forces, see figure 6.4, can be expressed
using equation 6.7: Figure 6.4 CLT panel deformation due
to shear forces.
shear
6.7
where:
Fd is the design value for the horizontal load acting on the panel.
h is the panel’s height.
b is the panel’s width.
Gmean is the panel’s shear modulus.
t is the panel’s total thickness.

6.3 Frame stability
δbend
Fd The panel’s deformation due to moment, see figure 6.5, can be

6.8
bend
h
where:
Fd is the design value for the horizontal load acting on
the panel.
b
Emean is the panel’s modulus of elasticity.
I is the panel’s moment of inertia.
Figure 6.5 CLT panel deformation due to moment.
The panel’s deformation due to displacements in the joints,
see figure 6.6, can be expressed using equation 6.9:
Fd δjoin
6.9
join
where:
b is the panel’s width.
h
γ is the angle change in radians.
6.10
γ
b
where:
F d is the design value for horizontal load.
Figure 6.6 CLT panel deformation due to joint Kser is the stiffness of the joint.
displacements.
The stiffness values for the joint and the stiffness of the panel are
determined by the design of the connection and the structure of the
Table 6.3 Characteristic values per screw pair in ultimate panels. Manufacturers and suppliers of screws and fixings can, in
limit state and serviceability limit state for a connection many cases, provide data on stiffness values. Table 6.3 and table 6.4
that comprises Spax 5 × 40 wood screws, or equivalents, state approximate values for a few different connections and panels.
and a plywood strip 12 × 60 of strength P30. The centre Control of shear stresses, see section 3.3.5, page 52.
spacing between the wood screws must be greater than
40 mm, with values empirically sourced.
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state

6.3.2 Structure stability
FRk K ser Single homes and other small buildings with no more than two sto-
1.5 1) 0.5 2) reys and in less exposed locations do not need to be checked using
calculations. Sufficient stability can usually be achieved simply with
Max. load at 9 mm deformation.
1)
external walls and partition walls comprising studs and sheet clad-
2)
The stiffness value applies to deformations up to 2 mm.
ding. Certain parts of the building with open plan layouts or with
large expanses of glazing should, however, be checked.
A high-rise block in wood tends to be stabilised against horizontal
Table 6.4 Properties of CLT panels for calculation in the
serviceability limit state with loading in the wall panel’s
loads by using walls and floor structures as stiff, force-absorbing pan-
plane. The stiffness values are based on the gross area of els. In some cases, long ties that stretch from the foundations to the
the whole cross-section. top floor structure may be needed to achieve sufficient stability and
anchoring.
Panel Shear modulus Modulus of elasticity
thickness G mean Em,0,mean The wind load against the building’s walls and roof is led in via
(mm) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) the floor structures and on to the stabilising walls of the building.
80 (3-layer) 400 6,400 The external walls lead half of the load to the upper floor structure
and half of the load to the lower floor structure. The diaphragm
100 (3-layer) 400 5,700
action in the floor structure distributes the load to the supporting
120 (5-layer) 400 6,200
walls. The stabilising walls must have enough load-bearing capacity

6.3 Frame stability
B/6
and stiffness that they can transfer both shear forces and vertical lift
and compression forces. In buildings with multiple floors, it is com-
mon try to use all the walls to stabilise the building. It is not uncom-
mon for the stabilising walls to be placed so that a torsional moment
is caused by wind load on the façade. This moment can be taken up
by a wall placed perpendicular to the stabilising walls for this wind
direction. The walls are subject to both compression and tensile
Fwin
G
forces at each end.
Core
Checking overturning and sliding
The building must be controlled for both an overturning moment
and a horizontal ground reaction. When checking overturning and
sliding, the building is usually treated as a single unit, including the
foundations. This places requirements on the connection between e
the stabilising superstructure and the foundations. B
Overturning is checked by calculating that the building’s self-
weight is sufficient to counter the wind load’s overturning moment. Figure 6.7 Checking for overturning.
A simple and reassuring way to ascertain safety against overturning
is to check whether the load results for the vertical ground reaction
lie within the building’s core limit. The core limit can be assumed to
lie approximately within a sixth of the building’s width, measured
from the centre line, see figure 6.7.
If the self-weight of the building and foundations does not provide
sufficient resistance to overturning, the design of the building must
be changed by increasing the self-weight or anchoring the founda-
tions into the ground below. The self-weight is to be reduced by a fac-
tor of 0.9 in line with prevailing standards, since the self-weight
should be favourable in this case.
Securing the design against sliding at the foundations is not usu-
ally a major problem. It is checked by ensuring that the sheer stress
between the foundation slab and the ground does not exceed the
sheer strength, which is determined by the undrained shear strength
of the soil when building on cohesive soil, or the material’s inner
angle of friction when building on frictional soil.
Diaphragm action
The distribution of the loads between the stabilising walls depends
on the relationship between the stiffness of the floor structure and
the stiffness of the walls.
Normally, the floor slab is entirely stiff as compared with the wall
panels, which means that the distribution of the loads between the
walls depends on the placement of the walls and the integral stiffness Figure 6.8 Diagram of load transfer stabilising wall panels.
of the walls.
In the case of frame systems with stabilising walls in CLT and weak
floor structures (e.g. non-reinforced beam floors), the floor structures
should be weak, which means that the loads are transferred based
only on the placement of the walls. For CLT slabs, wind loads can be
distributed to stabilising walls based on the stiffness of the floor slab.
For buildings that are non-symmetrical in terms of the location = =
and stiffness of the stabilising walls, the wall panels in the building’s
other direction are included in the stability calculation to take
account of the twisting that occurs in the floor structure,
see figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 Diagram of load distribution in a non-symmetrical

building.

6.3 Frame stability
Load Load on floor Load on Load on The horizontal forces that walls and floor structures must resist when
distribution structure walls foundations stabilising multi-storey buildings are shown in figure 6.10. The wind
load is distributed to the upper and lower floor structure. If the wind
HD HD
D D
load is constant across the whole height, all the floor structures
(except the floor structures of the top floor and ground floor) are sub-
HC HC+HD
ject to the same forces.
C
The shear force in the wall panels will, however, increase, the fur-
C
HB HB+HC+HD ther down the building you come, since the horizontal loads are
B
added storey by storey.

Since it must be possible for the forces that occur to be fully trans-
B
HA HA+HB+HC+HD ferred between walls and floor structures and led down to the
A
ground, the nodes must be designed for this.

Figure 6.10 Stresses on floor slabs and wall panels.
The calculation of the diaphragm action can be written as:
1. Determine horizontal loads on the windward and leeward side and
the sway forces.
2. Determine horizontal loads for each floor structure.
3. Determine horizontal loads for each stabilising wall.
4. Check the floor structures’ shear resistance for components and
component joints.
5. Check the walls’ shear resistance for components and component
joints.
6. Check connections between walls and floor structures for horizon-
tal shear forces.
7. Check nodes for vertical tensile and compression forces.
8. Check the risk of progressive collapse.
9. Check horizontal deformations.
Horizontal anchoring between wall and floor structure

Some form of mechanical connection is usually required to achieve
sufficient shear resistance between the stabilising wall panels and
the floor slabs.
In those exceptional cases where the risk of progressive collapse
does not need to be considered, the friction between the components
can be counted in order to transfer the horizontal forces between sta-
bilising structural components.
For supported floor structures, the connection between the floor
a) b) structure and the wall resting on top must be designed for a shear
force equivalent to the horizontal load on the wall above it. For sus-
Figure 6.11 Transfer of horizontal forces between wall panels pended floor structures, the connection between the floor structure
and floor slabs for supported and suspended floor structures. and the wall needs to be designed for the horizontal force that the
floor structure transfers to the respective underlying stabilising wall,
see figure 6.11.
Horizontal wind load transferred via floor structure
Vertical anchoring between wall and floor structure
Horizontal loads that are transferred to stabilising walls will cause
both horizontal and vertical reaction forces in the lower edges of the
walls due to the overturning moment. The wall can be prevented
from lifting by loading the wall or through an anchor. The wall can
also be prevented from lifting through connections to adjacent
Shear force anchored wall panels. The design of the anchor for a wall panel thus
depends on the size of the horizontal force that the wall has to resist,
Anchoring force Compression force
the weight of the structures above, and the wall’s connection with
Figure 6.12 Force equilibrium for stabilising wall panel. adjacent walls.
Walls with openings can be designed either in a simplified form or
through a full analysis. In the simplified method, each full-height

wall section with no openings is considered a separate, completely Horizontal wind load transferred via floor structure
anchored wall panel. In a full analysis, the total load-bearing capacity
is calculated, including wall sections above and below openings.
The simplified method means that in most cases anchors are also
required at the openings, see 6.13.
A full analysis can mean that anchors are not needed at openings.
If anchors are to be omitted, the CLT panels above and below the
openings must have sufficient bending and shear resistance. This can
be verified through testing or detailed calculations. Ancho- Com- Ancho- Com-
The vertical reaction forces from the stabilising walls above affect ring pression ring pression
force force force force
the need for and design of any anchors. This means that the anchor-
ing force becomes greater, the lower down in the building you go. Figure 6.13 Force equilibrium using simplified method for
Where there is a need for an anchor, it is important that the force stabilising wall panel with opening.
can be lead directly down to the ground below. There are different
types of anchors that can achieve this, including anchor rods and var-
ious forms of angle bracket. The anchors should normally should be
prestressed to a certain extent to compensate for the long-term defor-
mations that occur over the lifetime of the building
Calculation process for checking lift:

1. Determine vertical reaction forces caused by horizontal load for
each wall panel.
2. Determine distribution of self-weight for each wall panel.
3. Check whether lift occurs for each wall panel and provide anchor-
ing if necessary.
In taller buildings, the total compression forces can be much larger,

which can lead to the strength perpendicular to the grain in the
underlying CLT panels, floor beams or other connecting details being
exceeded. A check of the compression capacity of the nodes must
therefore be carried out using equation 6.11:
6.11
where:
σc,90,d is the design compression perpendicular to the grain.
Fc,d is the design value for the total compression force from the
structures above.
A is the compression loaded area. With CLT, do not choose a
length of more than ¼ of the total wall length, and only
include the wall surface parallel to the grain, where com-
pression perpendicular to the grain occurs, unless a load-dis-
tributing intermediate layer is used.
fc,90,d is the design value for compressive strength perpendicular
to the grain.
The load case that gives the greatest stresses depends on the geo-
metry, use and geographic location of the building. A check should
usually be carried out for the following load cases:
• Wind with a characteristic value (leading action) and the combina-
tion value for snow load and imposed load.
• Imposed load with a characteristic value (leading action) and the
combination value for snow load and wind load.
• Snow load with a characteristic value (leading action) and the com-
bination value for wind load and imposed load.

Progressive collapse
With buildings that have a load-bearing structure of CLT, it is usually
not appropriate to design individual components for other constitu-
ent parts of the frame to resist accidental loads (e.g. explosive or
impact loads). Instead, the composite frame system should be
designed so that individual components can be knocked out without
this leading to progressive collapse. The size and location of damaged
areas can be determined using the principles set out in the relevant
standards.
When designing for progressive collapse, the building’s overall sta-
bility after primary damage and the building’s structural continuity
should both be checked. The overall stability of a building with pri-
mary damage is usually no problem for construction systems using
CLT, since several stabilising walls are usually included in the stabili-
sation system. There is therefore plenty of scope to redistribute loads
if a certain component is taken out of action.
Horizontal deformation
When calculating the horizontal deformations in a CLT structural
system, both deformations in the individual structural components
and deformations in the connections are considered. Since CLT pan-
Example of external wall. els are mostly extremely stiff, the greatest deformations occur in the
joints.
In practice, it has been shown that the deformations in the service-
ability limit state do not usually cause any problems and this check is
therefore not usually carried out. There is a general lack of simple
calculation methods for this type of check. However, with tall build-
ings of more than 8 – 10 storeys, it may be relevant to check hori-
zontal defamation. There are commonly hidden capacity reserves
that are not included in the design calculations, for example non-
load-bearing walls or stabilising internal walls, which also contribute
to the stiffness of the building. Research is currently underway in
these areas.
The calculation process for a rough check of deformations may be

as follows:
1. Determine the stress in the serviceability limit state for the walls
and connections in each line of stabilising wall.
2. Determine the deformations in the individual walls based on
approximate calculation formulae.
3. Determine the deformations in the individual connections
based on approximate calculation formulae (see, for example,
Eurocode 5, “joint slip modulus”).
Example of partitional wall.
4. Calculate the total deformation across the entire height of
the building along the wall line with the greatest load and
check against set requirements (e.g. h⁄500, according to what has
previously been stated in the standards). Also check the individual
storeys.
5. If necessary, determine the deformations in the individual floor
structures based on approximate calculation formulae.

6.4 Fire
6.5 Acoustic
6.4 Fire
When designing the bearing system, high reliability is also required Table 6.5 Example of CLT walls that meet the require
regarding fire safety. If the requirements for class E (integrity) and ments for fire resistance, EI, over different periods.
The fire resistance applies on condition that the CLT panels
class I (insulation) during a fire are met, load-bearing reserves in the
are fixed to an adjacent structure.
global structure may be drawn on. An example of this is that a post
in a fire compartment can be designed for lower fire resistance than Fire resistance Panel thickness
other load-bearing parts of the fire compartment on condition that classification (mm)
there is an alternative way to take up the load. When stabilising a EI60 80 (3-layer)
high-rise building, the diaphragm action and stability of the building EI90 120 (5-layer)
will often have to be ensured, even if the diaphragm action is par-
tially reduced in a fire.
Fire safety is usually designed into building structures at compo-
nent level, which involves taking an individual look at each struc-
tural component, such as walls, floor structures and posts, irrespec-
tive of any restraint in the supports. This corresponds to the same
conditions as in fire safety testing. There are theoretical models for
CLT panels, where the composition of the panel in terms of alternat-
ing layers is critical for the load-bearing capacity.
The charring rate of coniferous wood is 0.65 – 0.80 mm/minute
according to Eurocode 5. In a fire, an asymmetry occurs regarding the
geometry and mechanical properties that usually form the basis of
the design, read more in chapter 7, page 133. Table 6.5 contains a sum-
mary of the fire resistance classification for certain CLT wall panels.
6.5 Acoustic
CLT panels are orthotropic, which means they have different stiffness
in different directions. This makes the ambient sound insulation signif-
icantly different from other homogeneous materials. Figure 6.14 pro-
vides an example of measured sound insulation in two different struc-
tures, both using mass timber with a thickness of 65 mm. The difference
is that one is a weaker nailed wall panel and the other is a CLT wall
panel.
The lower stiffness of the nailed wall provides better sound insulation:
Dw + C50-3150 is 34 dB for the nailed wall and 30 dB for the bonded wall.
Sound reduction index (dB)

80
70
60
50 Nailed wall
CLT
40
30
20
10
0
50 200 800 3,150 Frequency (Hz)
Figure 6.14 Sound reduction index measured in a laboratory for single mass
timber panels with a thickness of 65 mm and a nailed or a bonded structure, in the
frequency range 50 – 3,150 Hz.

6.5 Acoustic
Extremely high sound insulation can be achieved with a double

structure. Figure 6.15 shows the weighted sound reduction index for a
double structure comprising two 65 mm thick CLT panels, where the
gap is filled with insulation. The results have been obtained through
interpolation from measurements for a 100, 150 and 200 mm gap.
The lines on the graph are based on laboratory measurements and,
like the other data in this section, include no safety margins. The
panel thicknesses used here are also not standard thicknesses.
Double walls provide sufficient sound insulation for situations
with very high demands, including everything from housing to
music rooms in schools. Single walls, on the other hand, do not gen-
erate particularly good values and therefore cannot normally be used
where there are sound insulation requirements. One should, how-
ever, bear in mind that the sound insulation curves are steady and do
not have any frequency ranges with particularly poor insulation. This
means it is not inconceivable that the single walls could be used as
partition walls in apartment blocks.
Weighted sound reduction index (dB)

100
90
80
Thickness 105 mm
70
60 Thickness 65 mm
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 120 140 160 180 200
Clear distance between wall panels (mm)
Figure 6.15 Weighted sound reduction, Rw,50-3150, for a double wall using CLT
panels of thicknesses 105 mm and 65 mm. The values obtained from laboratory
measurements, without any safety margins.
Table 6.6 Weighted sound reduction for single and double CLT wall panels.
Wall type Panel thickness (mm) Air gap between Insulation thickness Rw,50-3150
walls (mm) (mm) (dB)
Single sheet of CLT 65 – – 31 (-1)
Single sheet of CLT 105 – – 34 (-1)
Double sheet of CLT 2 × 65 10 2 × 70 55 (-3)
Double sheet of CLT 2 × 65 10 2 × 95 58 (-2)

6.6 Wall cross-sections
6.6 Wall cross-sections

When it comes to the composition of external walls, many options
and preferences come into play. Exposed on the inside, internal layer
for installations, lightweight insulation between studs or thick insu-
lation and just long wood screws to fix the façade layer in place –
these are just some of the possible combinations. Several different
variations on the composition of external walls are presented below.
The stated values are to be taken as a guide only.
Table 6.7 Selection of external wall designs.
Wall type Material (mm) U-value Total Fire class Ljudisolering

[W/m2K] thickness Dw (C;Ctr)
(mm)
Wall type 1 0.25 314 REI60 38 (-1;-4)

22 external cladding
34 battens
Wind protection
120 heavy insulation
80 CLT panel
Vapour retarder
45 studs and insulation
13 plasterboard
Wall type 2 0.15 409 REI60 41 (-;-)

34 battens
Wind protection
Vapour retarder
100 CLT panel
13 plasterboard
Wall type 3 0.25 291 REI60 51 (-3;-9)

34 battens
Wind protection
95 insulation
Vapour retarder
80 CLT panel
15 fire-resistant plasterboard
Wall type 4 0.10 567 REI90 52 (-;-)

34 battens
Wind protection
170 vertical studs and insulation 170
horizontal studs and insulation
Vapour retarder
100 CLT panel
2 × 13 mm plasterboard

6.7 Design and detailed solutions
Partition walls are required to provide separation between two apart-

ments in terms of fire and sound, and often party walls also must
handle vertical and horizontal loads. The composition of party walls
using CLT can, in principle, be divided into two alternatives: double
CLT wall panels and single CLT wall panels that are encased in stud
structures. Several different variations on the composition of party
walls are presented below. The stated values are to be taken as a
guide only. See also table 8.15, page 155.
Table 6.8 Selection of partition wall designs.
Wall type Material (mm) Total thickness Fire class Sound insulation
(mm) Dw (C;Ctr)
Wall type 1 216 REI60 56 (-;-)

13 plasterboard
80 CLT panel
30 insulation
80 CLT panel
13 plasterboard
Wall type 2 327 REI90 62 (-;-)

22 × 13 plasterboard
100 CLT panel
30 insulation
100 CLT panel
2 × 13 plasterboard
6.7 Design and detailed

solutions
6.7.1 Connections wall to foundation
There are various ways to connect an external wall to the foundation.
Where the wall is built up on the construction site, a CLT panel is
delivered and then fitted with insulation, weatherproofing, façade
cladding, windows and doors on site. Adding additional layers on site
offers excellent opportunities to conceal the fixings. When a wall is
prefabricated, the delivered product includes installation, weather-
proofing and possibly façade cladding, depending on type, plus win-
dows and doors as required. A common method of fixing a wall in
place is to attach a sole plate to the foundations to serve as both
a fixing and a guide rail for the wall. The CLT panel is then screwed
from the inside into the sole plate fixed to the concrete slab, see
figure 6.16, page 125. A waterproof strip must be placed on top of
the sole plate to provide a good seal against the lower edge of the
prefabricated wall.

The highest lift and shear forces tend to occur in the connection
between the wall and the foundations. To meet the requirements
concerning the connections’ load-bearing capacity and weatherproof-
ing, it is important that the foundations are made with very small
dimensional tolerances. Having very little unevenness in the founda-
tions also makes the fitting of the mass timber components more effi-
cient. For more information on fixings, see section 4.4.6, page 79.
6.7.2 Connections wall to floor structure

The connection between a load-bearing wall and a floor structure is
the node that most often must meet a large number of functions:
transferring loads both vertically and horizontally, while at the same
time meeting the physical requirements concerning weatherproofing
and insulation, as well as the fire safety and sound requirements. There
are, in principle, two methods for connecting the floor structure and
a wall: the supported floor structure and the suspended floor structure.
With a supported floor structure, see figure 6.17, the floor structure
rests on the load-bearing wall below. The advantage of placing the floor
structure on the wall is primarily the ease of construction and the fact
that the vertical load comes down centrically on the load-bearing wall.
The CLT floor slab is placed on the load-bearing CLT wall panel. A
flanking transmission strip is placed between the floor and the wall,
taking account of the bearing pressure. The floor slab is fixed to the
underlying wall with an angle bracket or wood screws. The number
of screws and fixings is determined by the conditions that apply for
the building in question. If a supplementary layer is required to meet
the fire safety and sound classifications, it may be possible for this to
be included in the floor structure delivery so that only minor additions
are required on site.
Depending on the requirements concerning sound insulation, sur-
face layer and so on, the top of the floor structure in a bathroom may
be finished with gypsum flooring, waterproofing and tiles/carpet, see
chapter 8, page 145. In other rooms, the floor may be finished with car-
pet or wood flooring.
Finishing strip fitted on site Installations gap
Moisture barrier
Finishing strips
fitted on site
Figure 6.16 Connecting prefabricated external CLT wall to Figure 6.17 Solution for floor structure
concrete slab. supported on external wall.

With a suspended floor, the connection involves placing the floor

structure between the load-bearing walls. The floor is suspended on
specially designed hangers or on a support beam fixed along the wall.
The benefit of using suspended floor structures is that flanking
transmission strips of lower density and load-bearing capacity can be
used, which saves money. For taller buildings with major vertical
loads, it can be difficult to find flanking transmission strips with
enough load-bearing capacity. Another advantage over supported
floor structures is that you have less wood subject to large vertical
loads perpendicular to the grain.
6.7.3 Connections walls to roof joists

Roof joists and CLT panels can be connected using angle brackets, truss
hangers or skew screwing directly into the CLT panels. The bearing
pressure between a traditional roof structure and the CLT panel can
be relatively large, since the wall panel is relatively thin and the roof’s
tie beams are usually only 45 mm timbers. To distribute the bearing
pressure, the roof truss can have glued and nailed wooden cover
plates added.
Moisture-proofing and thermal insulation are achieved by continu-
ing the wall structure up into the roof, with external moisture pro-
tection provided by the external cladding, air gap and diffusion-open
vapour control membrane. Internally, the wall’s vapour control
membrane is connected to the vapour control membrane of the roof.
6.7.4 Connections external wall to window

CLT panels provide great freedom when it comes to designing the way
windows, doors and fixings are mounted. When mounting windows
and doors, there are basically two main solutions: mounting directly
Figure 6.18 Example of connection and fixing to rafters. Figure 6.19 Design principle for window mounting.

6.8 Example
in the CLT panel or attaching an external frame or angle bracket to

the CLT panel so that a window can be mounted on that. Windows and
doors can be fitted in the traditional way, usually following the connec-
tion instructions set out in AMA Hus and RA Hus. The vapour retarder
is sandwiched against the retainer strip and supplemented in the reveal.
The seal is supplemented internally with sealant.
A drop apron is fitted against the wooden supporting frame.
The nailing battens and the horizontal stud below the window sill
are positioned so that the window flashing has a good slope on it.
6.7.5 Connections external wall corners

A load-bearing CLT frame offers extensive options when it comes to
designing the structure of external corners. Supplementary studs and
insulation may be added on site or prefabricated together with the
load-bearing CLT panel. The wind protection is screwed or clamped
into place against the studs.

6.8.1 Wall panel with openings
– control of buckling
Background:
A vertically loaded external wall on the ground floor of a two-storey
building has a height le = 2.95 m and a width b0 = 4.54 m. The wall
has two windows and the effective wall width without windows is
bef = 2.40 m, see figure 6.21 and figure 6.22, page 128.
The design load from the roof, the wall and the floor structure
above the wall is Fd = 30 kN/m. Wind pressure across the wall is
qd = 2.4 kN/m2. The wall comprises a 3-layer panel of CLT, thickness
3 × 30 = 90 mm, with all the layers of boards meeting strength class
C24. Service class 1, safety class 3 (γd = 1).
For CLT with boards only of strength class C24, the following applies,
in line with table 3.7, page 38:
E0,x,0,05 = 7,400 MPa
E0,x,mean = 11,000 MPa
Fd
bef
b0
Figure 6.20 Design principle for corners of external walls, horizontal Figure 6.21 Wall panel with openings.
cross-section.

6.8 Examples
Nd = Fd · bx Using table 3.6, page 38 the following applies:

Fd fm,k = 24 MPa
fc,0,k = 21 MPa
With γM = 1.25 as in table 3.2, page 35, and kmod = 0.9 as in table 3.3,

x x page 36 (wind load leading action = short-term load), the design
z strengths are:
y
le
qd
bx
Figure 6.22 Part of a wall panel.

Calculations:
Cross-sectional dimensions for different sizes of 3-layer CLT panels
can be found in table 3.11, page 45 and in table 3.13, page 47 for CLT
panels with boards in strength class C24. Cross-sectional properties
can also be calculated for a strip bx = 1.0 m of the board, see table 6.9.
Buckling is checked in the ultimate limit state:
Table 6.9 Properties of 3-layer symmetrical CLT panel, strip of width bx = 1.0 m. Panel thickness 90 mm (30/30/30).
Property Calculation formula Application in example

Centre of gravity
(mm)
Cross-section area
(mm2)
(mm4)
Net moment of
resistance (mm3)
Gamma values
.
Effective moment of
resistance (mm4) .
Effective radius of
gyration i0,ef
.
Slenderness factor λy
.
.

6.8 Examples
Reduction factor kc,y can be expressed as:
where:
where:
Openings in the wall cause larger loads on the remaining sections of

the wall. As a rule, it is possible to assume an evenly spread load on
the wall sections between the windows. Loads are distributed to the
effective width bef with factor fb:
Portvakten, Växjö, Sweden.
The vertical load is calculated for a 1.0 m strip of effective width bef:
Moment of the wind load:
The wall can handle the stresses from the compression and moment,
with a capacity utilisation of 46 percent.
6.8.2 Beam over opening,

supported by posts
With a reducing span to height ratio, linear stress distribution under
beam theory no longer applies. Non-linear behaviour becomes
noticeable in wall beams with around l ⁄ h ≤ 4, and must be taken
into account at l ⁄ h ≤ 2. Edge stresses when calculating using plate
theory depend on the load on the upper and lower sections of the
panel and on the l ⁄ h ratio.
In continuous systems, the shear deformation affects the internal
forces. The moment at the supports reduces and the moment in
the midfield increases. It is therefore recommended that moment and
bending stresses are determined based on a simply supported beam
along the longest span. Reaction forces and shear forces can be deter-
mined based on a continuous beam.

6.8 Examples
Table 6.10 Loads and load factors.
Last kN/m2 γg , γ Q Duration class k mod Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2

gk 11.7 0.89 ∙ 1.35 Permanent (P) 0.6 - - -
nk 6.00 1.5 Medium (M) 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.3
sk 3.50 1.5 Medium (M) 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.2
Background:
A vertically and horizontally loaded wall panel, with two spans of
lengths l1 = 4.5 m and l2 = 6.5 m and height h = 3 m, see figure 6.23.
Loads:
• The self-weight from the roof above the wall is gk = 4.0 kN/m and from
the wall and floor structure along the lower edge it is gk = 7.7 kN/m.
• The imposed load acting on the lower edge is nk = 6.0 kN/m.
• The snow load acting on the upper edge is sk = 3.5 kN/m.
• Loads and load factors as in table 6.10.
The wall comprises a 5-layer CLT panel with a thickness of

30 + 20 + 30 + 20 + 30 = 130 mm and with all the boards in strength
class C24. Service class 1, safety class 3 (γd = 1).
For CLT with boards only of strength class C24, the following applies,
in line with table 3.7, page 38:
E0,x,0.05 = 7 400 MPa
E0,x,mean = 11 000 MPa
According to table 3.6, page 38:

fm,k = 24 MPa
fc,0,k = 21 MPa
fv,k = 4 MPa
With γM = 1.25 in line with table 3.2, page 35 and kmod = 0.8 in line
with table 3.3, page 36 (imposed load leading action = medium term),
the design strengths become:
y
h
A B C
l1 l2
Figure 6.23 Wall panel on supporting posts.

6.8 Examples
Calculations:
Design load combination for vertical load:
h
30º
Moment
h/4
Design moment for a single-span beam of length l2 = 6.5 m:
A B C
Figure 6.24 Load spread from support reaction.

The cross-section during bending is calculated for the horizontal
layers, i.e. only the layers of boards in the bearing direction:
with dz = total board thickness for the horizontal layers:
Shear force
Design shear force:
with dz = total board thickness for the horizontal layers::
Table 6.11 Properties of 5-layer symmetrical CLT panel, strip of width bx = 1.0 m. Panel thickness 130 mm (30/20/30/20/30).
Property Calculation formula Application to example

Cross-section
area
(mm2)
Gamma values
Effective
moment of
resistance
(mm4)
Radius of
gyration
ix,ef
Slenderness
factor
λy

6.8 Examples
Compressive force
Load spreading from supports is calculated for an angle of 30° out
from the support up to the height h/4.
Support reaction:
Load spreading:
This means that the load reaction spreads to a width of 0.86 m with
a force of:
Checks on buckling are made for a strip of 1.0 m, which gives the force:
Control of buckling
The properties of the 5-layer panel are set out in table 6.11, page 131.
Buckling is checked in the ultimate limit state:
Interior with CLT and glulam beams.
Reduction factor kc,y can be expressed as:
where:
where:
The wall is able to handle the compressive force, with a capacity

utilisation of 41 percent.

7.1 CLT and fire safety
CLT and fire safety
Since the mid-1990s, there has been a transition to functional 7.1 Wood and fire safety 133
requirements in fire safety regulations. This has been sparked by 7.1.1 Fire safety in buildings – two key phases 134
extensive studies that have increased knowledge of fire safety behav- 7.1.2 Fire safety requirements in building regulations
iour in wooden materials and wooden structures. Wooden structures 135
7.1.3 Design loads in event of fire 136
can now be designed for fire safety using new calculation models.
7.2 Fire resistance in CLT 138
7.2.1 Charring 138
7.1 Wood and fire safety 7.2.2 Effective cross-section 138
7.3 Details 140

If an exposed non-fire-retardant-treated wooden surface is exposed to 7.3.1 Conduits 140
the effects of fire, it will ignite. The burning then continues inwards,
7.4 Example calculations 141
but at a largely constant speed. The penetration rate is slow since
7.4.1 Unprotected floor slab 141
the char layer that forms provides thermal insulation and combats 7.4.2 Protected floor slab 142
the heat flow from the source of the fire to the pyrolysis zone. The 7.4.3 Unprotected wall panel 143
pyrolysis zone is subject to temperatures of between around 250 °C 7.4.4 Protected wall panel 143
and 350 °C and it is here that flammable gases are formed and then
diffuse through the char layer until they encounter oxygen on the
surface and begin to burn. A clear boundary forms between the char
layer and the residual cross-section at 300 °C, see figure 7.1. The pene-
tration of the burning is greater at wide splits and external corners.
The wood’s good properties in a fire are mainly because it “protects
itself ” via the char layer, but sometimes extra cladding is required to
provide additional fireproofing.
The temperature in the unburned parts of a large-scale wooden
structure remain largely unaffected even under prolonged exposure
to fire.
Temperatures more than 100 °C only occur in a narrow zone
around 10 mm deep immediately beneath the char layer, but strength
and stiffness are significantly lower there than in the unaffected wood.
Thermal balance
External effect
Expulsion of hot gases
Surface thermal radiation

Volatile gases
(cooling through convection)
Internal effect
Convection, radiation
Conduction
Surface splits and erodes and erodes
Unaffected wood Pyrolysis zone Charred layer
Figure 7.1 The phenomenon of the charring process.

7.1 Wood and fire safety
During a fire, a large proportion of the heat is transferred via mass

transfer primarily through diffusion of fire gases. When these gases
move inwards, the temperature rises until the wood begins to decom-
pose and char, while the gases in the charred zone dampen the tem-
perature rise in the glowing char layer. Just before the charred layer
is a layer where the temperature is not high enough for charring to
occur, but the properties of the wood are nevertheless affected.
Standard SS-EN 1995-1-2 suggests a reduction in the wood material’s
mechanical properties by introducing reduction coefficients, but this
method is not recommended. Instead the reduced cross-section
method in SS-EN 1995-1-2 should be used.
Methods for calculating the fire resistance of CLT are not included
in the current version of SS-EN 1995-1-2, but will appear in the next
version, based in part on the European handbook Fire Safety in Timber
Buildings, see section 7.2, page 138.
Metallic fasteners such as nails, wood screws, dowels and so on can
contribute to a higher thermal flow in the wood and increase burning.
Nordoster school, Norway.
7.1.1 Fire safety in buildings

– two key phases
There are two key phases for fire in buildings, the initial course of
the fire, with its related requirements concerning surface materials,
and the fully developed fire and the associated requirements relating
to the structural frame, see figure 7.2.
In the initial phase of the fire, the building’s contents, i.e. furniture
and fittings, have the greatest significance, but these are not regulated
in building standards. Surface materials on walls and ceilings can help,
particularly in evacuation routes and similar spaces where loose items
should not be present. Restrictions on the use of combustible surface
materials in evacuation routes can therefore be found in most coun-
tries’ building standards. Once a fire has fully developed, i.e. flashover
has occurred in a room, the fire resistance of the walls and floor
structure become important in limiting the fire to the place of origin.
Wooden structures can achieve high fire resistance, although the fire
behaviour of exposed wooden surfaces does not meet the highest fire
safety requirements.
Temperature
Fully developed fire
Initial phase Flashover Cooling
Time
Furniture and surface materials Structural element

(fires resistance)
Figure 7.2 Fire development in buildings includes two main phases, the initial fire
with its requirements concerning the fire safety properties of surface materials, and
the fully developed fire, with its related requirements concerning the fire resistance
of structural elements.

7.1.2 Fire safety requirements

in building regulations
Fire safety requirements for buildings relate to both surface materials
and the structural frame.
General requirements
Fire safety in buildings must be planned, implemented and verified
based on simplified or analytical design methods. Simplified design
means that the developer meets the regulations via the solutions and
methods stated in the Swedish Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR).
Analytical design means that the developer meets the regulations in
some other way and verifies this by conducting a qualitative assess-
ment, scenario analysis or quantitative risk analysis.
The requirements that apply to a building are determined by build-
ing classes Br 0 – Br 3 for entire buildings and depend primarily on
the evacuation options and how great a risk there is of serious personal
Sporthall, Svenljunga, Sweden.
injury in the event of a fire occurring. Factors such as the building’s
size, number of floors and use, for example housing, affects the
building class. Building classes Br 0 – Br 3 are defined in BBR based Table 7.1 Building classes as defined in BBR based on fire
on fire protection needs, see table 7.1. protection needs.
There is also a division of buildings into occupancy classes 1 – 6
Building Definition
that must be considered.
class
Br 0 Buildings with extremely high fire protection
Fire safety requirements concerning frame and structural elements
requirements, new class introduced in 2012.
Structural elements must meet the following fire safety functions: Building > 16 storeys must be designed
R Load-bearing capacity analytically.
E Integrity (airtightness) Br 1 Buildings with high fire protection
I Insulation. requirements, primarily buildings > 2 storeys.
Br 2 Buildings with moderate fire protection
The designations can be combined and accompanied by a time require requirements , primarily buildings with 1 – 2
ment: 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240 or 360 minutes. The figures state storeys.
the time in minutes that the building component must be able to Br 3 Buildings with low fire protection
resist the effect of a standard fire, without losing its load-bearing and requirements , primarily single-storey
separating function. A load-bearing separating wall may, for example, buildings.
need to meet requirement REI 60, which means that it needs to resist
a standard fire for 60 minutes regarding all three functions.
Where the structure needs to handle a mechanical impact, the
classification will include the letter M. The designation REI 90-M thus
states that the structure can handle the mechanical effect while at
the same time meeting the load-bearing, integrity and temperature
requirements for 90 minutes for a standard fire. The structure’s
mechanical strength is determined by the occupancy of the premises,
with CLT able in most cases to meet the set requirements simply with
the dimensions achieved when designing in the fire load case.
According to national Swedish regulations, load-bearing structures
must be designed so that there is a comfortable safety margin against
failure even during exposure to fire. This is proven by calculating the
load-bearing capacity under realistic conditions relating, for example,
to the temperature progression (known as the natural fire method).
Calculation methods for natural fires are complex for structures and
so a simplified and standardised method is used, where the tempera-
ture time curve follows a given reference (standard fire exposure).
The support structure is thus built up of fire safety classified elements
designed for standard fire exposure of different durations, in accord-
ance with national regulations.

Fire safety requirements for building products

A surface is defined as the visible outer part of a building’s structure or
component that may be exposed in a fire’s early phase, with the surface
class indicating the capacity to prevent or delay flashover and develop-
ment of smoke. The surface may be an untreated wooden surface.
Building construction materials are divided into European fire safety
classes, see table 7.2. Examples of fire safety classes for certain construc-
tion materials are also shown in the table.
Class B is the highest class that can be achieved for combustible
products and class D equates to the properties of untreated wood
cladding.
Ceilings in fireproof buildings (building class Br 1) should have a sur-
face material of class B and walls of class C. Fire resistant buildings
(building class Br 2) should have surface materials in class C for the
ceiling and class D on the walls. In both cases, ceilings should have a
substrate in a non-combustible material, such as gypsum plasterboard
or some other non-combustible sheet material.
CLT at the manufacturer. Surface material class D can be used primarily in building class Br 3,
for example a single-family house. Other building classes require a sur-
face material of class B or C, which can be achieved with fire retardant
treatment. However, if the building has a sprinkler system, a class D
surface material can also be used in taller and larger buildings. In
addition, this offers extremely safe accommodation, since sprinklers
allow time for evacuation and thus save lives.
Floorings have similar European fire safety classes, ranging from
Af l–Ff l. Spruce mass timber floors can achieve class Cf l, while the class
for pine is Df l.
7.1.3 Design loads in event of fire

The design load for a structural element in the fire load case is the
accidental load, and the structure’s load-bearing capacity in a fire must
be verified for every element by meeting the criterion in equation 7.1:
7.1
where:
Ad,f is the design value for a load in a fire.
Rd,f is the load-bearing capacity under the same conditions.
t is the duration of the fire’s effect.
Table 7.2 European surface material classes excluding floorings.
Main class Smoke class Droplet class Requirements relate to FIGRA Examples of products
(W/s)
Non- SBI Low
combustible flammability
A1 – – x − − − Stone, glass, steel

A2 s1, s2 or s3 d0, d1 or d2 x x − ≤ 120 Plasterboard (thin paper), mineral wool
B s1, s2 or s3 d0, d1 or d2 − x x ≤ 120 Plasterboard (thick paper), fireproofed wood
C s1, s2 or s3 d0, d1 or d2 − x x ≤ 250 Wallpaper on plasterboard, fireproofed wood
D s1, s2 or s3 d0, d1 or d2 − x x ≤ 750 Wood, CLT and wood-based panels
E − − or d2 − − x − Certain synthetic materials
F − − − − − − No fire safety class decided
SBI = Single Burning Item, SS-EN 13823, main method for surface materials excluding floorings.
FIGRA = Fire Growth Rate, key parameter for fire safety classes using the SBI method.

When designing in the fire load case, use the load combination in
equation 7.2, in line with Eurocode 0 and EKS 10:
7.2
ηfi
where: 0.8
G k is the characteristic value for permanent actions. 0.7
Qk,1 is the characteristic value for the leading variable action. ψfi = 0.9
Qk,i is the characteristic value for the other variable actions. 0.6 ψfi = 0.7
ψ1,1 is the combination factor for the leading variable action.
0.5 ψfi = 0.5
ψ2,I is the general combination factor for the other variable
actions. 0.4
ψfi = 0.2
The combination factors ψ are determined by the different load cate- 0.3
gories of the structural elements and they usually range between 0 0.2
and 0.7. The choice of combination factor must be given considera- 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
tion if the structural element’s maximum load can be expected to ξ = Qk,1⁄Gk
occur in a fire situation, such as in a library, archive or warehouse. Figure 7.3 Examples of variation in reduction factor ηfi
A simplified method is to verify the structure’s load-bearing capac- with load ratio ξ = Q k,1 ⁄G k.
ity in the fire load case based on a reduced load, as set out in SS-EN
1995-1-2, section 2.4.2, where the load effect in a fire sd,fi for an individ-
ual structural element is calculated using equation 7.3:
7.3
where:
Ed is the design load effect when designing for normal
temperature.
ηfi is the reduction factor for design load in a fire depending on
the load ratio ξ = Qk,1 ⁄Gk and the combination factor ψfi for
frequent values for variable actions. The recommended figure
for general calculations is ηfi = 0.6. Under an imposed load
in category E as set out in Eurocode 1 (areas susceptible to
accumulation of goods, including access areas), the recom-
mended value is ηfi = 0.7. The reduction factor ηfi can be
lower for lightweight floor structures.
For mechanical load-bearing capacity in the fire load case, the design
values for strength and stiffness are to be determined using equations
7.4 – 7.7:
7.4, 7.5
7.6, 7.7
where:
fd,fi is the design strength in a fire.
Sd,fi is the design stiffness in a fire.
f20 is the 20 % fractile strength at normal temperature.
S20 is the 20 % fractile stiffness at normal temperature.
kmod,fi is the load duration and moisture modification factor in a
fire. Recommended value of 1.0 when using method with
reduced cross-section.
γM,fi is the partial factor for wood in a fire. Recommended value 1.0.
kfi Factor for converting 5 % fractile to 20 % fractile. For cross
laminated wood (CLT), kfi = 1,15.

7.2 Fire resistance in CLT
7.2 Fire resistance of CLT

For CLT panels that comprise an odd number of layers of set thick-
i=n
nesses, the connections between two layers are assumed to be able to
i = n -1
transfer shear forces under the effect of fire. When modelling CLT
i=3 panels regarding bending, the outer layers and layers parallel with
i=2 the outer layers are usually considered to be load-bearing. Transverse
i=1 layers are not considered directly load-bearing, but they help to
transfer shear forces between the layers in the longitudinal direction.
a) Cross-section at normal temperature.
A fire safety calculation method for CLT is not included in SS-EN
1995-1-2. The European handbook Fire Safety in Timber Buildings
≥ 15 mm
applies the effective cross-section method to calculate fire resistance

in CLT structures. In this method, account is taken of the reduction
in strength of the non-load-bearing layers in a fire. Thermal simula-
i=n
tion and testing of CLT in a fire shows that the non-load-bearing layer
hef
i = n -1 in CLT is not constant. The principles for a simplified model for vari-
ous cross-sections are presented in figures 7.4 a) and b).
hKLT
i=3
7.2.1 Charring
≥ 3 mm
i=2
d0
dchar
i=1 If a layer of cross laminated timber,(CLT) is made up of edge-glued

boards or if the gap between two boards is less than 2 mm, one-
dimensional charring should be used, as set out in equation 7.8:
7.8
b) Residual cross-section h ef, char layer d char and non-

where:
load-bearing layer d 0 for single-sided fire exposure. β0 is 0.65 mm/min and is a one-dimensional charring rate in
a standard fire.
Figure 7.4 CLT cross-section. t is the fire exposure time.
If the gaps between the boards are greater than or equal to 2 mm, but
Heat-resistant Non-heat-resistant less than 6 mm, a notional charring rate should be used, as set out in
adhesive adhesive
equation 7.9:
7.9
25 mm
i=5
i=4
25 mm
According to SS-EN 1995-1-2, table 3.1 notional charring rates for wood

β0 with a rectangular cross-section that is exposed to fire on three or
hKLT
2β0 i=3
β0 four sides can be set at:
2β0 i=2
i=1 β n is 0.7 mm/min for softwood glulam and LVL.

β0 β0
β n is 0.8 mm/min for softwood construction timber (CLT).
βn is the equivalent design charring rate, which includes
the effect of rounded corners and splits.
There are two possible scenarios for charring of CLT. With a mela-
mine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) adhesive (with no delamination), the
charring occurs at a rate of β0 in the same way as for construction
Figure 7.5 Charring, CLT with no delamination and
CLT with delimination. timber. With some polyurethane (PUR) adhesives (with delamination),
the charring rate for the first 25 mm of each board is doubled, giving
2β0, see figure 7.5.
7.2.2 Effective cross-section

The design method for load-bearing capacity as presented below fol-
lows the general principles in the method for a reduced cross-section,
whereby the original cross-section is reduced by an effective charring
depth def. The effect of temperature increases on the material’s prop-

7.2 Fire resistance in CLT
erties is considered by part of the cross-section, d0, not being included

in the effective residual cross-section, hef. See equations 7.10 and 7.11:
7.10
or:
7.11
Tables 7.3 – 7.5 contain several formulae for the non-load-bearing

layer d0 which are based on test results and thermal simulations.
Table 7.3 Non-load-bearing layer, d 0, for t = 0 – 120 minutes for CLT panel with 3 layers.
Fire on Floor slab Wall panel

Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface 1)
(mm) Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface1) (mm)
Panel’s side under tension Not relevant Not relevant
CLT
.
Panel’s side under

compression . .
CLT
. CLT
CLT
. CLT
. .
1)
The values can also be used for t > tf, where tf is the time when the protection ceases to function, known as the failure time.

Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface 1) (mm) Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface1) (mm)
Panel’s side under tension 75 mm ≤ h CLT ≤ 100 mm Not relevant Not relevant
CLT
CLT
h CLT > 100 mm
CLT
Panel’s side under

compression
CLT CLT
.
1)

Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface 1) (mm) Unprotected surface (mm) Protected surface1) (mm)
Panel’s side under tension 105 mm ≤ h CLT ≤ 175 mm Same as unprotected Not relevant Not relevant
surface
CLT
.
h CLT > 175 mm
Panel’s side under 105 mm ≤ h CLT ≤ 175 mm Same as unprotected 105 mm ≤ h CLT ≤ 175 mm Same as
compression surface unprotected surface
CLT
. CLT
.
h CLT > 175 mm h CLT > 175 mm
1)

For CLT used in floor structures, the simplified method has been
adapted to the results of simulations, where the best conformity was
achieved between 20 percent and 40 percent of the load-bearing capac-
ity at normal temperature for up to 120 minutes in a standard fire.
The equivalent design for walls was performed for the load condi-
tion 30 percent of load-bearing capacity.
The method should not be used for fire conditions of longer than
two hours. The fire protection effect of cladding (panels and insula-
tion on the side exposed to fire) are considered as set out in SS-EN
1995-1-2. If the remainder of a load-bearing layer is less than 3 mm,
it should not be included in the calculation of effective residual
cross-section, hef.
d0 is determined by:
• No. of layers.
• Thickness of CLT panel.
• Type of stress, tension or compression on the side exposed to fire.
• Temperature gradient beneath char layer, i.e. whether the layer is
protected or unprotected.
For CLT panels that are exposed to fire on one side, the values for
the thickness of the non-load-bearing layers, d0, are taken from tables
7.3 – 7.5, page 139. When exposed to fire, wooden walls bend out
from the fire, which means that tensile stresses can only arise on the
non-exposed side of the wall, and thus d0 is only stated for fire expo-
sure on the compressed side. Walls that are exposed to fire on both
sides should be designed using test-related base values.
Office building made of CLT, Älta, Sweden.

7.3 Design and details
The structural details are important for a wooden building’s fire
safety. Wooden structures have a predictable behaviour pattern in
a fire, but structural details must be carefully designed to ensure
the complete fire safety of the building. The features that directly
affect building with CLT are usually cavities in walls, eaves and con-
duits for installations.
When planning and designing against fire, the location of fire
barriers must be taken into account, in eaves, in façade cavities, in
and around conduits and between apartments. There are a number
of different products and systems that can be used as fire barriers.
There are sealants for sealing openings and joints around electrical
cables and conduits and through fire compartment separating
elements such as walls and floors. Most are certified only for non-
combustible structures, but many of these products should also be
usable in wooden structures, for example fire retardant sealant,
fireproofing tape, fireproof collars/wraps, intumescent sleeves, panels
and dampers. Details see also chapter 5.6, page 104.
7.3.1 Conduits
The choice of sealant should be based on the design of the structural
component and the installations that are being channelled through
it. CLT is a combustible material and this must be taken into account
when designing conduits. Some of the types that can be used include:
• Intumescent pipe sleeves are steel tubes lined with a material that
expands when heated.

7.4 Details
• Intumescent collars provide a fireproof seal around combustible

pipes running through fire compartments and comprise a metal
casing with an inner layer of a material that expands and prevents
the spread of fire.
• Sealants designed for wood. The fire safety class of the sealant
depends on which materials can be combined.
• Fireproof panels are used for large conduits and are often combined
with sealants. Fire safety classes EI 60 – EI 120 are available, with
the class determined by the thickness of the panels.
Fire testing of cable conduits with sealant in wooden structures has

shown that:
• Joints must be completely filled through the full thickness of
the element.
• Gaps between cabling and the hole diameter must be sealed.
• For bundles of more than five cables, special systems or non-
combustible insulation must be used.
• For smokeproof joints and connections, permanently elastic
sealant should be used.
When it comes to larger conduits for ventilation or plumbing installa-

tions, the same systems can be used for CLT as for other wood con- Example of sealed conduits running
struction systems, see for example Brandsäkra trähus, version 3 (Fire through a CLT floor structure.
Resistant Wooden Buildings 3). Toilets, wash basins and floor drains 1 2 3 3 4 2 5
must be plumbed in without compromising fire resistance. Insulation
material must be secured in place, so it does not fall down in a fire.
7.4 Examples
7.4.1 Unprotected floor structure
Design method for a CLT slab used for a floor structure. An unpro- Figure 7.6 Examples of fireproofing.
tected floor slab comprising 7-layer CLT with boards 19 mm thick, 1. Cladding.
exposed to fire from the underside and with less than a 2 mm gap 2. Protection board.
3. Conduit.
between the boards. Determine the effective slab thickness after 4. Sealant.
60 minutes of fire exposure. 5. CLT.
.
a) No char ablation (The adhesive used for bonding between
≥ 25 mm
laminations is fully effective in fire)
Charring depth after 60 minutes:

i=n
hef
i = n -1
hCLT
Non-load-bearing layer for fire on side under tension, according to i=3

≥ 3 mm
i=2
d0
dchar
i=1
Effective depth:
Since the effect of the fire reaches in as far as a transverse, non-load- Figure 7.7 Effective cross-section height, h ef.
bearing layer (layer 4), the remaining effective residual cross-section
will comprise the three layers 5, 6 and 7, see principle in figure 7.7.

7.4 Details
b) Ablation of char layer (char layer not in place)
The failure time for layer 1 is set as equalling the time when layer 2
begins to char:
k3 as set out in SS-EN 1995-1-2.
Non-load-bearing layer for fire on side under tension, according to

Residual cross-section:
The residual cross-section is 49.3 mm for the unprotected floor slab.
7.4.2 Protected floor structure

Design method for a CLT slab used for a floor structure. The CLT slab
is protected by a 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard panel of type F. The
failure time for the plasterboard according to the plasterboard manu-
Limnologen, Växjö, Sweden. facturer is tf = 45 minutes. The floor slab comprises 7-layer CLT made
from boards 19 mm thick, and is exposed to fire from the underside.
Determine the effective slab thickness after 60 minutes
No char ablation (The adhesive used for bonding between lamina-

tions is fully effective in fire)
Skyddsfaktorerna för en gipsskiva av typ F kan enligt SS-EN 1995-1-2

skrivas som:
The time limit ta can be calculated in line with SS-EN 1995-1-2 as:
Non-load-bearing layer for fire on side under tension, according to


7.4 Details
By protecting the floor slab on the underside with a 12.5 mm gypsum

plasterboard panel of type F, the residual cross-section instead becomes
80 mm.
7.4.3 Unprotected wall panel

Design method for a CLT panel used for a load-bearing wall. A wall
panel comprising 5-layer CLT made from boards 19 mm thick,
exposed to fire from one side. The calculation assumes that no
delamination occurs. Determine the effective panel thickness after
30 minutes:
Non-load-bearing layer for fire on side under compression, according

to table 7.4, page 139: CLT panels ready for supplementary layers.
The effect of the fire reaches in as far as the first transverse layer
(layer 2). This means that around 57 mm of the wall panel remains
and that the remaining load-bearing capacity is provided by two ver-
tical layers.
7.4.4 Protected wall panel

Design method for a CLT panel used for a load-bearing wall. A wall
panel comprising 5-layer CLT made from boards 19 mm thick,
exposed to fire from one side for 60 minutes. The CLT panel’s inner
side is protected from fire by a 15 mm gypsum plasterboard panel of
type F. The failure time for the plasterboard according to the plaster-
board manufacturer is tf = 45 minutes.
Table 7.6 Characteristic load-bearing capacity of CLT wall panels exposed to fire on one side.
CLT panel and supplementary layers Load-bearing Load-bearing Load-bearing

capacity after capacity after capacity after
30 min (kN/m) 60 min (kN/m) 90 min (kN/m)
5 × 19 mm in cold state; 277 kN/m – – –
5 × 19 mm + GtA 13 159 6,5 –
5 × 19 mm + GtF 15 159 82 0.6
5 × 19 mm + GtF 15 + GtA 13 159 159 154
5 × 19 mm + GtF 15 + 15 GtF 15 159 159 159
5 × 19 mm + GtA 13 + mineral wool 45 159 159 6,1
Background: CLT panel 5 × 19 mm, height 2.8 m, centric load, no side loads, timber in all layers has
minimum strength class of C24. Load-bearing capacity in cold state 277 kN/m. Failure time for gypsum
plasterboard (Gt):GtA tf = 21 minutes, GtF tf = 45 minutes, GtF + GtA tf = 80 minutes.

7.4 Details
. .
According to SS-EN 1995-1-2, the protection factors for a gypsum

plasterboard panel of type F can be expressed as:
The time limit ta can be calculated in line with SS-EN 1995-1-2 as:
. .
s
.
Non-load-bearing layer for fire on side under compression, according

to table 7.4, page 139:
Inre Hamnen, Sundsvall, Sweden.
This means that two vertical layers remain, with one layer fully
intact and around 11 mm of the other vertical layer remaining after
60 minutes of fire. Both layers are load-bearing.

8.1 Planning for acoustics
CLT and sound
Sound and sound insulation should be considered at an early stage of 8.1 Planning for acoustics 145
the design process, but implementation in the manufacturing phases 8.1.1 Sound requirements in building regulations 147
or on the construction site is naturally also important in achieving
8.2 Acoustics in CLT structures 151
a good sound environment. The development of methods, solutions
and not least measurements in finished CLT buildings shows that 8.3 Floor structures 151
a good sound environment can be achieved. 8.3.1 Flat plate floor structure with and without
Since the circumstances vary from object to object, it is vital to sub ceiling 152
consider at as early a stage as possible what requirements and expec- 8.4 Walls 154
tations apply for the building and what acoustic needs must be met,
and then to select a suitable sound insulation class. It is important 8.5 Points to bear in mind 156
that these design adaptations are made in collaboration with acoustic

engineers.

Sound can manifest itself in many different forms. In this context,
sound means pressure variations that occur in the air and that are
perceptible by the human ear. The strength of a sound in air is a
form of pressure, which is why it is denoted in N/m2 or in Pascals. To
make things easier, a logarithmic decibel scale has been developed
that is directly related to the pressure. When a sound’s strength is
stated in decibels (dB), the corresponding value is called the sound
pressure level. The sound pressure level is defined such that 0 dB Costs of noise
roughly equates to the weakest sound the human ear can pick up. In countermeasures
addition, a change of 1 dB is around the lowest change that can be
Planning phase
heard under favourable conditions, while a change of 8 – 10 dB is
Design and
usually said to correspond to a doubling or halving of the subjective
procurement
perception of the sound. phase
Circumstances vary from project to project, so it is essential to
Production phase
establish early on what activities will take place in the building and
what acoustic requirements and needs exist, before selecting a suita- Use phase
ble sound insulation class. The cost of rectifying acoustic problems
due to faulty planning, errors in implementation and other errone-
ous assessments rises sharply as you move towards the use phase.
The planning and design of building acoustics usually involves five Low Acoustic quality High
acoustic areas: impact sound insulation, airborne sound insulation,
Figure 8.1 Costs of noise countermeasures in different
room acoustics, sound from traffic and other external sources and phases.
sound from installations. This chapter focuses on impact sound and
airborne sound.

Airborne sound insulation, see figure 8.2, is a measure of how much

sound travels from one space to another. The higher the sound insula-
tion value, D, the better the sound quality. The impact sound level, see
figure 8.3, is a measure of how much sound can be heard in a room
when a standardised hammer device strikes the floor in another room.
The higher the impact sound value, L, the better the sound quality.
The human ear identifies different frequencies of sound as being a
different strength. To account for this, a modified, or weighted, sound
pressure level was introduced, and this is now often simply referred to
as the sound level. The Aweighted sound pressure level is commonly
used, with the designation LA and decibels (dB) as the unit.
Requirements for peak noise levels are usually expressed with the
Aweighting. Table 8.1 gives a summary of various designations and
Figure 8.2 Examples of different transmission routes for symbols, along with definitions that are used in the field of building
airborne sound. acoustics.
Table 8.1 Summary of designations with accompanying definitions in the field

of building acoustics.
Term Definition
Airborne Insulation against airborne sound such as speech. As high a value
sound as possible is desirable.
insulation
D nT Sound level difference, a measure of a building’s ability to insulate
a room against airborne sound from another room or from
outside. Standardised to a reverberation time of 0.5 s.
D nT,w,50 Weighted standardised sound level difference with spectrum
adaptation term [dB], an abbreviated way of expressing D nT,w +
C50-3150.
D nT,w,100 Weighted standardised sound level difference [dB], an abbreviated
Figure 8.3 Examples of different transmission routes for way of expressing D nT,w + C.
impact sound.
D nT,A,tr Weighted standardised sound level difference with spectrum
adaptation term for sound from mixed road traffic and suchlike
[dB], an abbreviated way of expressing D ls,2m,nT,w + Ctr.
R' w Weighted sound reduction in buildings.
Impact Structure-related sound that arises from vibrations such as
sound footsteps. As low a value as possible is desirable.
Speakers used for testing airborne
sound insulation. LnT Impact sound level, a measure of a building’s ability to insulate a
room against structure-borne sound from another room or from
outside. Standardised to a reverberation time of 0.5 s.
LnT,w,50 Weighted standardised impact sound level [dB], an abbreviated
way of expressing LnT,w + C I,50-2500. If the adaptation term C I,50-2500
is negative, it should be set at zero.
LpAeq,nT Equivalent A-weighted sound level [dB], during the time that
the sound occurs more than temporarily. Standardised to a
reverberation time of 0.5 s.
LpAFmax,nT Maximum A-weighted sound level F (FAST) [dB], for intermittent
and more than temporarily occurring short sounds. Standardised
to a reverberation time of 0.5 s.
T Reverberation time, the time it takes for the sound pressure level
to fall by 60 dB after the sound has been turned off. Relates to T20.
Machine used for testing impact
Direct Sound that passes directly through the separating structure.
sound level.
transmission
Flanking Sound that transfers via another part of the structure.
transmission
To understand what the designations mean in real life, tables have

been drawn up that state the subjective perception of different impact
sound levels, for example, see table 8.2, page 147.

Table 8.2 Subjective perception of different impact sound levels for lightweight structures with good impact sound
damping at low frequencies (C I,50-2500 max 4 dB).
L´n,w Slow walking Slow walking Fast Fast Children’s Children’s Gymnastics,
L´nT,w in soft shoes in heeled walking/ walking/ play/ play/ heavy thuds,
shoes running in running in jumping jumping etc.
soft shoes heeled shoes “normal” “advanced”
64
60
56
52
48 –
44 – –
40 – – –
Heard.
Can be heard, but not disturbing in normal circumstances.
– Not heard but can be felt.
Source: Boverket’s handbook Bullerskydd i bostäder och lokaler
8.1.1 Sound requirements in building

regulations
The Swedish Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR) set a general
requirement that a building’s sound environment must be designed
so that residents and users are effectively protected against noise.
Table 8.3 Lowest sound level difference and highest impact sound level in homes where special
sound insulation measures do not need to be taken, corresponding to sound insulation class C.
For other situations and full information, see the current standards from Boverket.
Type of space Sound level difference DnT,w,50 Impact sound level LnT,w,50
between the spaces (dB) in the space (dB)
From space outside home to space inside home. 52 561)
From stairwell and corridor into home. 52 62
From businesses and services and shared garages into home. 56 52
From access balcony, stairwell or corridor with door or 44 / 40 / 38
3) 4)
62
window to spaces for sleep, rest or daily social interaction2).
1)
From bathrooms and storerooms to homes, measured on floor area immediately inside front door (approx. 1 m2).
2)
For airborne sound, relates to D nT,w,100.
3)
Relates to a shared corridor, separated from other spaces, that leads to spaces for sleep and rest, for example in student
accommodation and sheltered housing for the elderly.
4)
Relates to spaces outside homes where significant footfall and high sound levels can be assumed to occur on a more than
temporary basis, e.g. from postboxes or lifts.
Table 8.4 Designing a building’s sound insulation to combat external sound sources.
For other situations and full information, see the current standards from Boverket.
Type of space Equivalent sound level from Maximum sound level

traffic or other external sound at night,
source, LpAeq,nT (dB) 2) LpAFmax,nT (dB) 3)
Sound insulation is determined based on set sound levels
outdoors so that the following sound levels indoors are not
exceeded 1).
Spaces for sleep, rest or daily social interaction. 30 45
Spaces for cooking or personal hygiene. 35 –
1)
The type of design may be simplified or detailed in line with SS-EN 12354-3.
2)
Relates to design 24-hour equivalent sound level.
3)
Relates to design maximum sound level that can be assumed to occur on a more than temporary basis on an average night.

In its general recommendations, BBR states several minimum thresh-

old levels for housing and non-residential buildings. The recommen-
dations also state that if better acoustic conditions are required,
sound insulation class A or B can be selected in line with SS 25267
for housing and SS 25268 for non-residential buildings.
The lowest approved values regarding airborne and impact sound
can sometimes be set too low. The standards SS 25267 and SS 25268
list several quality levels from sound insulation classes A to D. The
developer decides on which sound insulation classes to use in the
planning phase and later, in consultation primarily with acoustics
experts. A requirement that is set too high can, in many cases, incur
an unrealistic cost. Today it is common for housing developers to aim
for sound insulation class B.
Table 8.5 Sound insulation classes.
Sound class Quality

A Used where an extremely high-quality sound environment is a priority.
B Suitable for spaces and activities where a better sound environment is a priority.
C Represents the minimum requirements in Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR). According to a
questionnaire, around 20 percent of residents may to some extent feel disturbed by sound in their home
when the general recommendations in BBR are met.
D Low sound standard, used only where the use of sound insulation class C causes unreasonable consequences.
A decision on use of sound insulation class D usually requires approval from the local authorities.
Since circumstances vary from object to object, it is essential to iden-

tify early on what acoustic needs exist, before selecting a suitable
sound insulation class. The sound insulation class clearly shows what
values must be met in the various sound categories. For each sound
insulation class there is a lowest approved value for airborne sound
level and impact sound level, see tables 8.6 and 8.7, page 149.
Sometimes there may be a good reason to deviate from the values in
the tables.
Table 8.6 Lowest weighted standardised airborne sound level difference, DnT,w,50 in dB in line with Boverket’s Building
Regulations (BBR)
Type of space Sound class (dB)

A B C D
From space outside home to space inside home. 60 56 52 48 1)
From stairwell and corridor into home. 52 4) 48 4) 52 40
From businesses and services and shared garages into 60 60 56 52
home.
From access balcony, stairwell or corridor with door or 52 48 44/402)/383) –
window to spaces for sleep, rest or daily social interaction.
1)
For airborne sound, relates to D nT,w,100.
2) Relates to a shared corridor, separated from other spaces, that leads to spaces for sleep and rest, for example in student
accommodation and sheltered housing for the elderly.
3) Relates to spaces outside homes where significant footfall and high sound levels can be assumed to occur on a more than
temporary basis, e.g. from postboxes or lifts.
4) From spaces outside the home, where the sound level can be expected to be low, for example separate floor with entrance
door to max four apartments and max 0.5 s reverberation time, it is acceptable to have D nT,w,100 = 44 dB.

Table 8.7 Highest weighted standardised impact sound level, LnT,w,50 in dB in line with Boverket’s Building Regulations (BBR).
Type of space Sound class (dB)

A B C D
From space outside home to space inside home. 48 52 56 1) 60 2)
From stairwell and corridor into home. 48 52 62 62 2)
From businesses and services and shared garages into 44 48 52 56
home.
From access balcony, stairwell or corridor with door or 58 62 62 66 2)
window to spaces for sleep, rest or daily social interaction 1).
From bathrooms and storerooms to homes, measured on floor area immediately inside front door (approx. 1 m2).
1)
2)
Requirement relates to L' nT,w.
The equivalent values for school and office buildings are set out in
tables 8.8 – 8.11. Recommended values for school and office buildings
are set out in various standards, with the final choice of levels deter
mined by the activity in question and the neighbouring activities.
Other key factors to consider for school and office buildings are
values such as reverberation time, equivalent sound level from
installations and design sound level from traffic and other external
sound sources.
Table 8.8 Lowest weighted sound reduction index in building, R’w, for educational premises:
schools, preschools and leisure-time centres.
Type of space From other space From corridor

Sound class (dB) Sound class (dB)
A B C D A B C D
To spaces for full classroom teaching. 48 44 44 40 44 40 40 30
To spaces for teaching or student work in small groups. 44 1) 44 1) 44 1) 40 1) 40 1) 40 1) 40 1) 30 1)
To spaces for teaching or student work in small groups. 40 35 35 30 – – – –
For separating structure with door from other teaching space, values 5 dB lower are acceptable.
1)
Table 8.9 Highest weighted standardised impact sound level, L’nT,w, for educational premises:
schools, preschools and leisure-time centres

A B C D A B C D
Spaces for assembly of more than 50 people 1). 48 48 52 – 40 44 48 56
Spaces for full classroom teaching 1). 56 56 60 – 52 52 56 60
Other teaching spaces. 60 60 64 – 56 56 60 64
For sound insulation classes A and B, L’nT,w + C I,50-2500 must also meet the set threshold values.
1)

Table 8.10 Lowest weighted sound reduction index in building, R’w, for offices.

A B C D A B C D
To spaces for individual work or conversations. 40 35 35 – 35 30 30 –
To spaces that require moderate confidentiality or privacy. 48 44 44 40 40 1) 35 1) 35 1) 30
To spaces that require high confidentiality. 52 52 48 48 44 44 40 40
To spaces used by other tenants. 52 52 48 44 52 52 48 44
1)
For separating structures with large glazed sections that provide a clear view of what is happening outside, values 5 dB lower
are acceptable.
Table 8.11 Highest weighted standardised impact sound level, LnT,w, in dB for offices.
Type of space From spaces with low From spaces with high
impact sound load impact sound load
A B C D A B C D
To spaces for presentations to more than 20 or so people. 52 60 60 – 48 56 56 64
To spaces for individual work or conversations. 68 – – – 64 64 68 –
To spaces with a demand to remain undisturbed. 64 – – – 60 60 64 –
From and to someone else’s activity. 64 1)
64 1)
68 1)
– 60 1)
60 1)
68 1)
–
1)
The requirement relates to normalised impact sound level, L’n,w.
At the final inspection, it is common to hand over documents verify-

ing compliance with the acoustic requirements. The verification may
take the form of measurements or of checks in the design and imple-
mentation phases, or a combination of the two. The inspection plan
sets out which verification method is to be used. Finally, the scope of
the verification is decided in an agreement between the developer
and the contractor.
Airborne sound insulation can, to some extent, be checked via
visual inspection. Airborne sound insulation tests may need to be
performed on party walls between apartments, following standard-
ised procedures. Impact sound insulation can also be checked via
visual inspection in the form of checks that the chosen flooring
matches the technical specifications. In cases of uncertainty, random
checks should be carried out, with the inspection plan stating which
structures were involved.
Example of a vibration-damping intermediate layer.

8.2 Acoustics in CLT structures
8.3 Floor structures
8.2 Acoustics in CLT structures

As with other lightweight structures, low-frequency sound is difficult
to insulate against in CLT structures. It is therefore important to design
a high-performance floor structure, since it is difficult to rectify any
problems retrospectively. Floor structures can handle normal spans
using the CLT slab thicknesses that are available on the market. In
the case of long spans and where there is a need to stiffen up the slab,
load-bearing, lightweight interior walls can be used for the loads that
occur in the serviceability limit state, plus sagging and vibrations. In
Example of a steel bearing that reduces flanking transmission.
this case, direct sound transmission between the apartments must
also be taken into consideration.
In most cases, flanking transmission must be minimised in order to
achieve a good sound environment, see figure 8.2, page 146. There are,
1
in principle, two methods for this: vibration damping using flanking 3
transmission barriers or separate inner cladding of load-bearing ele- 2
1 4
ments. A combination of these methods can also be used.
Flanking transmission barriers are used to reduce the vibrations
5
primarily in a vertical direction. They tend to involve elastic isolation
strips that are fitted to create a separation between the floors and so
reduce the transfer of sound, while still permitting the transfer of Element joint
static forces. Flanking transmission barriers may take various forms.
Good results have been achieved not only with elastic barriers, but 6
also non-elastic barriers in the form of steel bearings. An elastic joint
must be able to absorb any forces of lift. The fixings needed for this
must, however, not compromise the joint’s acoustic function.
8.3 Floor structures 2 4 7
1
A floor structure must meet several demands at the same time,
including sound insulation, but also load-bearing capacity, fire resist- Figure 8.4 Example of connection floor to external wall.
ance and so on. Double structures are usually required to achieve 1. CLT panel
2. Insulation
a high level of sound insulation and meet all the other needs as well.
3. Wind protection
It is better for the acoustics if the floor structure is constructed in two 4. Batten
sections that are acoustically entirely separate from each other and 5. Exterior cladding
from load-bearing walls. 6. Steel bearing to reduce flanking transmission
The sound created by footsteps or walking is spread via the upper 7. Gypsum plasterboard
part of the floor structure and transferred to load-bearing walls in the
form of vibrations. These vibrations radiate out as undesirable sound
into neighbouring rooms and are known as flanking transmission.
Impact sound also generates high energy at low frequencies, particu-
larly in lightweight structures. Normally a structure with good
impact sound insulation will normally also meet the requirements
for airborne sound.

8.3.1 Flat plate floor structure with and

without sub ceiling
Sound requirements concerning structural components and between
structural components must be met in all directions, both horizon-
tally and vertically. Usually the vertical direction is the design factor.
Determining acoustic properties and assessing the sound insulation
capacity of different structures is complex and the stated values are
often based on empirical tests and measurements in completed struc-
tures. Numerous experiments and tests have been conducted over
the past decade and manufacturers now have experience from several
completed buildings.
For example, experiments were performed in a test house to com-
pare the importance of different supplementary material layers
A test house designed for sound measurements, under conditions that are as realistic as possible. The test house com-
comprising 3 – 4 units. prised two rooms on two storeys (length 3.8 m, width 3.4 m, internal
height 2.5 m) with floor and wall structures as set out in table 8.12.
Sound measurements were taken for many different designs. The
standard design borders on today’s approved values. Airborne sound
insulation can be improved by adding additional layers of gypsum
plasterboard to the freestanding stud wall. Establishing asymmetry in
the partition wall creates better conditions for improving horizontal
airborne sound insulation. Horizontally, sound insulation class A can
be achieved regarding impact sound levels. Vertically, impact sound
levels corresponding to sound insulation class C are achieved.
There are naturally a wide variety of options for designing floor
structures with CLT slabs as the load-bearing element. Below are sev-
eral different floor structure solutions for which sound measure-
ments have been conducted down to 20 Hz. The measurement values
depend on several factors, such as design, room size and so on, so the
stated values are to be taken as a guide only. See also table 5.4, page 102.
Table 8.12 Structures in the test house.
Building component Structure in basic format

Floor structure 170 mm CLT slab, suspended + 24 × 40 mm2 elastomer
+ 195 mm self-supporting framework with insulation + 2 × 13 mm plasterboard
Outer wall 120 mm CLT panel + 70 mm studs, separate 70 mm insulation
+ 12 mm plywood panel + 13 mm plasterboard
Inner wall 13 mm plasterboard + 12 mm plywood + 70 mm insulation
70 mm studs, separate + 100 mm CLT panel + 70 mm studs, separate 70 mm
insulation + 12 mm plywood + 13 mm plasterboard
Table 8.13 Results of sound measurements.
Impact sound level Airborne sound insulation

LnT,w,50 DnT,w,50
Design as in table 8.12 56 dB (class C) 52 dB (class C) Vertical
48 dB (class A) 51 dB (–) Horizontal
Extra gypsum plasterboard, walls 57 dB (–) 54 dB (class C) Vertical
43 dB (class A) 56 dB (class B) Horizontal
Extra structure inner wall, 45 mm, 56 dB (class C) 52 dB (class C) Vertical
asymmetrical orextra gypsum
42 – 48 dB (class A) 53 – 56 dB (class C/B) Horizontal
plasterboard on all walls

Table 8.14 Selection of floor structure designs.
Floor structure type Material (mm) Total height Weight Impact sound Airborne
(mm) (kg) Ln,w (CI,50-2500) sound
(dB) Dw (C 50-3150)
(dB)
Floor type 1 449 130 ≤ 54 ≥ 56

140 CLT slab
70 insulation
45 × 220 studs, self-supporting
2 × 95 insulation
28 battens
2 × 13 gypsum plasterboard
Floor type 2 421 155 ≤ 54 (+6) ≥ 52 (–4)

14 wood flooring
3 foam underlay
22 fibreboard
20 acoustic matting
22 fibreboard
95 floor joists
95 insulation
25 Sylodyn
220 CLT slab
Floor type 3 372 245 ≤ 44 (+6) ≥ 63 (-1)

14 wood flooring
3 foam underlay
13 plasterboard
22 fibreboard
20 acoustic matting
80 washed gravel
220 CLT slab
Floor type 4 310 270 52 (+5) 63 (–8)

80 concrete
30 acoustic matting
dynamic stiffness ≤: 9 MN/m3 200
CLT slab
Floor type 5 460 310 33 (+17) 79 (–14)

80 concrete
30 acoustic matting
dynamic stiffness ≤: 9 MN/m3
200 CLT slab
120 suspended ceiling joists
80 insulation
2 × 15 gypsum plasterboard
Floor type 6 453 460 40 (+4) 75 (-7)

80 concrete
2 × 20 acoustic matting, dynamic
stiffness ≤: 12 MN/m3
120 washed gravel
200 CLT slab
13 plasterboard

8.4 Walls
8.4 Walls
Where structures are not subject to sound insulation requirements,
a CLT panel can be used without any extra additions. The construc-
tion of the CLT means that acceptable values are achieved even with
3-layer panels.
Like stud walls, walls made from CLT panels are lightweight walls,
compared with heavy structural materials such as concrete and brick.
Since mass influences sound insulation, the number of supplementary
layers has crucial relevance from an acoustic perspective, but good
sound insulation can also be achieved by utilising double structures.
A simple CLT wall can be expected to provide airborne sound insu-
lation as shown in figure 8.5.
A good double structure comprises double sheets of CLT separated
by a cavity partially filled with insulation. The level of sound insula-
tion provided depends on the mass and stiffness of the CLT panels,
the distance between the panels and the type of insulation used. The
distance between the CLT panels should be at least 100 mm, although
a greater distance between the panels ensures better sound insulation
properties. To avoid resonance between the CLT panels, the resonance
frequency, f0, should be lower than 35 Hz for party walls, to achieve
a good sound environment.
When it comes to the composition of external and party walls,
many options and preferences come into play. Exposed on the inside,
internal layer for installations, lightweight insulation between studs
or thick insulation and just long wood screws to fix the façade layer
in place – these are just some of the possible combinations. The
composition of party walls using CLT can, in principle, be divided
into two alternatives: double CLT wall panels and single CLT wall
panels that are encased in stud structures. In table 8.15, page 155 sev-
eral different types of external walls and partition walls are presented.
The values stated in table 8.15 are to be taken as a guide only. See also
table 6.7, page 123 and table 6.8, page 124.
Weighted sound reduction index Weighted sound reduction index

(dB) (dB)
35 65
34
33 mm
5
kness 10
32
60 an el thic
31 CLT p
30
m
s 65 m
29 icknes
nel th
55 CLT pa
28
27
26
25 50
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 100 120 140 160 180 200
CLT panel thickness Distance between CLT panels
(mm) (mm)
Figure 8.5 Weighted sound reduction index (D w+C50-3150) for CLT panels. Figure 8.6 Weighted sound reduction index (D w + C50-3150) for CLT
The curve is based on laboratory measurements of walls 65 mm and panels. The curve is based on laboratory measurements of walls 65 mm
105 mm thick. The weighted sound reduction index excluding adaptation and 105 mm thick. The weighted sound reduction index excluding
term will be 1 dB higher. adaptation term will be 1 dB higher

8.4 Walls
Table 8.15 Selection of wall designs.
Wall type Material (mm) Total thickness Airborne sound Fire safety class/
(mm) Dw, (C, Ctr) (dB) U-value (W/m2 °C)
External wall type 1 412 D' w = 48 – 55 EI90 / 0.15

22 exterior cladding
22 battens
Wind barrier
12 × 70 plywood
70 heavy insulation
145 studs
70 + 70 insulation
Vapour retarder
120 CLT panel
External wall type 2 384 D' w = 52 EI90 / 0.15

22 exterior cladding
27 × 97 LVL, c600
Vapour retarder
120 CLT panel
Internal partition wall type 1 300 – 350 ≥ 52 (100 mm between CLT panels) EI60 (fire on one side)
15 fire-resistant plasterboard or
80 CLT panel ≥ 48 (50 mm between CLT panels)
45 – 70 insulation ≥ 56 (170 mm between CLT panels)
20 cavity ≥ 58 (200 mm between CLT panels)
45 – 70 insulation
80 CLT panel
Internal partition wall type 2 376 ≥ 55 (100 mm between CLT panels) EI60 (fire on one side)
13 plasterboard or
120 CLT panel ≥ 50 (50 mm between CLT panels)
45 insulation ≥ 60 (170 mm between CLT panels)
20 cavity ≥ 61 (200 mm between CLT panels)
45 insulation
120 CLT panel
13 plasterboard
Internal partition wall type 3 370 D' w+C50-3150 ≥ 60 EI60 (fire on one side
2 x 15 fire-resistant plasterboard
70 CLT panel
170 loose fill insulation
70 CLT panel
2 x 15 fire-resistant plasterboard

8.5 Points to bear in mind

At an early stage, map out the conditions and discuss layout issues
based on SS 25267 and SS 25268, and go through the acoustic wishes
and requirements. Convert the wishes and requirements into a sound
insulation class and clear design instructions. Rules of thumb for tall
buildings include:
In the planning and design phase:

• Use the minimum requirements set out in Boverket’s Building
Regulations (BBR), sound insulation class C, but work towards
sound insulation class B with an extra focus on low frequencies.
• Prioritise impact sound insulation.
• Minimise spans.
• Plan for a slightly thicker floor structure than is traditional.
• Load-bearing floor structures should have vibration damping in
the sub ceiling or flooring.
• Design nodes regarding sound and document them clearly.
Multi-storey building, Skellefteå, Sweden. • Space for installations.
• Calculate and clearly document the placement and density of
flanking transmission strips.
• Avoid placing vibrating equipment or heavy installations on light-
weight floor structures. If possible, place these on an isolated
plinth on the foundation slab.
In the construction phase:

• Inform workers and subcontractors about the importance of
precise work in achieving good acoustic standards.
• Check that there are no “short-circuits” between load-bearing
elements and vibration-damping elements.
• Conduct control measurements and visual inspections before
encasing.
• Always check the floor structure and take sound measurements, in
good time before completion.

9.1 CLT and thermal mass,
moisture buffering
CLT, heat and moisture
Building engineering physics is the science of heat, air, moisture and 9.1 CLT and thermal mass, moisture buffering 157
sound in buildings. Much of the science focuses on flows and how
heat, air, sound and moisture spread and travel through building
9.2 CLT and moisture-related movement 160
components and buildings. Using a CLT structural frame presents 9.3 CLT and thermal insulation 160
many benefits in terms of indoor climate and energy. With the right
design and attention to the CLT frame’s properties, the cost of instal-
lations can be kept lower than for many other construction systems.
A good indoor climate has a major impact on the people who spend
time in the building.
The Nordic climate generally requires a building to be heated to
achieve a pleasant climate indoors. When heat is emitted by installa-
tions or devices and people, for example in offices, cooling may also
be necessary at certain times. Cooling may also be needed in the
summer, when the sun and high outdoor temperatures heat up the
building. In a room enclosed by walls, a floor and a ceiling that have
a high capacity to store heat, like those that use CLT, the temperature
will be evened out over the course of the day. As the building compo-
nent cools down, the air is warmed up and conversely as the building
component absorbs heat, the air is cooled down. The condition for
getting the benefit of this equilibrium effect and the energy savings
it brings is that you must be happy for the indoor temperature to
fluctuate by a few degrees up and down. If the temperature is strictly
controlled, the heating will start as soon as the temperature falls just
a little bit, and similarly the cooling will be triggered when the tem-
perature rises, which leads to greater energy consumption.

moisture buffering
It is well known that log cabins with thick, solid wood walls have
a pleasant indoor climate. Many measurements and computer simu-
lations have been carried out to establish whether this translates to
the indoor climate in buildings with a CLT frame or similar frame
and what effect it has on energy efficiency. The results indicate that
such buildings are pleasant to live in, while energy consumption for
heating is low. It is possible to achieve a significant reduction in
energy consumption for heating, compared with stud walls and light-
Office building, Älta, Sweden.
weight floor structures.
The wood’s low thermal conductivity also makes the surface of
floors and walls pleasant to touch. Since there are few thermal bridges
and the wooden surfaces do not feel cold, the indoor temperature
can be lowered by up a couple of degrees while still retaining that
pleasant feel. The room is also quicker to heat up after getting cool.

moisture buffering
Table 9.1 Material data for some common construction materials.
Material Thermal conductivity (λ) Specific thermal diffusivity (a) Heat capacity (c)
(W/m °C) (m2/s) (J/kg °C)
CLT 0.13 0.19 ∙ 10-6 1,600
Lightweight 0.14 0.28 ∙ 10-6 500
concrete
Mineral wool 0.04 0.30 ∙ 10-6 120
Plasterboard 0.25 0.31 ∙ 10-6 720
Brick 0.6 0.44 ∙ 10-6 1,350
Concrete 1.7 1.00 ∙ 10-6 1,000
Table 9.2 Periodic penetration depth for a temperature The thermal mass of building carcasses, i.e. their capacity to store
cycle of 24 hours for various materials. heat, and the benefits of thermal mass are determined by several fac-
Material Periodic penetration depth tors: material, construction method, airtightness, phase shift and so
(mm) on. The optimum scenario is to store the quantity of heat that you
Wood 70 would otherwise have lost in the exchange of air. High standards are
also required from other parts of the building envelope. The enve-
Plasterboard 90
lope must be airtight and well insulated to prevent heat from disap-
Lightweight 90
pearing through the wall. Installations such as ventilation and the
concrete
regulation of radiators must also be adapted to make best use of the
Brick 110
thermal mass.
Concrete 140 A material’s capacity to store heat depends on its weight and its
Mineral wool 160 specific heat capacity, see table 9.1. In comparison to other materials,
Stone (granite) 210 wood has a high thermal mass thanks to its high specific heat capac-
ity, c, despite its low density. Specific heat capacity is defined as the
amount of heat in Watts (W) or Joules (J) that is required to raise the
temperature of one kilo of the material by one degree. Thermal con-
ductivity, λ, is a material property that indicates how readily heat is
transported within a material. This translates as the material’s ther-
mal insulation capacity. Another measure that is of interest is ther-
mal diffusivity, a, which indicates how quickly a temperature change
spreads in the material.
When it comes to storing heat in sunlit interior walls, for example,
penetration depth is also significant, since it expresses how much of
the material is active during a set time. The periodic penetration depth
for various materials is shown in table 9.2.
A further benefit that can be ascribed to mass timber outer walls,
because of their high thermal capacity and low thermal conductivity,
is phase shift, η, which occurs between the temperatures of the outside
and inside of the wall. Phase shift describes the time within which the
highest daytime temperature transfers from the outside to the inside
through a building component, bringing the room’s indoor tempera-
ture in line with the outdoor temperature. In a mass timber wall, it
takes a long time for the peak heat on the outside of the wall to reach
inside, as long as 12 hours in fact. To ensure a large phase shift in the
outer wall, the temperature conductivity, a, in units of (m kg °C) ⁄J,
needs to be low. This should not be confused with a in table 9.1.
The temperature conductivity can be expressed using equation 9.1:
9.1
where:
t is the wall thickness in metres.
c is the wall’s heat capacity in J/(kg °C).

moisture buffering
Phase shift ɳ (h)

(°C)
30
Outside Building Inside
Δta
20 Δtoi
10
24 6 12 18 24 6 12 18 24 (Time)
Figure 9.1 Graph of phase shift and amplitude change for a wall structure.
Source: BSPhandbuch.
To achieve the same phase shift in a stone wall, it would need to be

around twice as thick as a mass timber wall.
When describing the temperature changes in an outer wall, it is
interesting to look at the change in amplitude of the temperature in
the wall and the phase shift. It is then possible to study the exterior
wall’s external surface temperature and the exterior wall’s internal
surface temperature. In principle, this can be described as in figure 9.1.
The amplitude attenuation θ can be calculated using equation 9.2:
9.2
where:
Δta is the temperature amplitude outdoors in °C.
Δtoi is the temperature amplitude indoors in °C.
Ƞ is the phase shift in hours.
The values that are often sought are an amplitude attenuation that
is greater than 3.3 for external walls and greater than 5.0 for roofs.
For example, θ = Δta ⁄ Δtoi = 25 °C ⁄ 5 °C = 5. At the same time, the phase
shift should be greater than 10 hours to achieve a pleasant indoor
climate.
It is possible to influence the phase shift and amplitude attenuation,
depending on how the structure is constructed and what constituent
materials are chosen, see table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Temperaturens fasförskjutning beroende av väggens uppbyggnad.
Väggtyp Thermal transmittance (U ) Effective storage mass (m) Phase shift (η) (h) Amplitude attenuation (θ)
(mm) (W/m2 °C) (kg/m2)
120 CLT 0.88 31 7.8 3.76
95 mineral wool 0.32 38 10.7 23.8
120 CLT
95 mineral wool 0.22 48 16.3 60.8
120 CLT
50 mineral wool
15 plasterboard

9.2 CLT and moisture-related movement
9.3 CLT and thermal insulation
Design against condensation

The task of the external walls is to maintain a temperature difference
between the indoor air and the outdoor air. The building envelope is
subject to major climate variations, which means that moisture con-
ditions will vary, while the increasing thickness of insulation also
carries a risk of condensation within the structures. Moisture calcula-
tion programs are available to help assess the risk of interior conden-
sation. A structure can be considered to meet the requirements if
condensation does not occur or if the condensed water can be led
away over time. Alternatively, the amount of condensation may be so
small compared with the material’s capacity to store the condensed
moisture until it can evaporate away that no damage can be expected
to occur. A mass timber frame has the capacity to store moisture.
The local moisture content in the wood material should, however,
Pavilion with curved CLT, Austria.
remain below 18 % to prevent rot and microbial growth.
To avoid diffusion through a wall or roof structure, some form of
vapour barrier is commonly used. CLT panels with at least 5 layers
and a thickness of more than 70 mm can in many cases function as
a vapour retarder, removing the need for an extra layer to prevent
diffusion through the structure. It does, however, require that the
joins between floor structure and wall, or wall and wall, for example,
can be designed in a way that achieves the requisite airtightness.
9.2 CLT and moisture-related

movement
When the wood’s moisture content changes, the wood’s volume also
changes. The wood either swells or shrinks. This dimensional change
differs across the different directions in the wood. It is negligible with
Table 9.4 Moisture-related dimensional changes in wood. the grain, greatest in the tangential direction and somewhat less in
the radial direction, see table 9.4.
Material: Percentage dimensional
Pine and spruce change for a 1 % change Considering the wood’s moisture-related movement, it is important
in moisture content for an encased component to have a moisture content that matches
Parallel with grain 0.01 – 0.02 the environment in the finished building as closely as possible.
CLT panels have more or less the same moisture-related movement
In radial direction 0.19
as plywood panels. Depending on how great a proportion of the fibres
In tangential direction 0.36
are oriented in each direction, the swelling or shrinkage in the CLT
Average across the grain 0.24 panel’s plane will amount to around 0,016 – 0,023 % per percentage
change in the moisture content, which is negligibly more than for
wood parallel to the grain. See also chapter 1.6.3, page 20.

When CLT panels are used in an external wall, they are usually
accompanied by insulation and a façade layer. The façade is there to
achieve a stationary climate in other parts of the wall. Under station-
ary conditions, for example during the long winter periods, the heat
flow through the wall is determined only by its thermal transmittance
value, known as the U-value. The U-value is the inverse value of
the total thermal resistance, R, in a building component. A CLT panel
has an insulating effect and has few thermal bridges. CLT is usually
placed against the warm side, with the flat surface providing a good
substrate for supplementary layers of full-coverage insulation.

Wood has good thermal insulation properties, but additional insula-

tion is required to meet modern standards for the building envelope.
A CLT frame makes an excellent pairing with another form of wood-
based insulation, since both materials have similar physical proper-
ties, but mineral wool insulation is the most common insulation
material in Sweden. Ongoing research shows that mass timber frames
can have a positive impact on a building’s energy consumption.
The U-value or thermal transmittance coefficient states how much
heat flows through 1 m2 of wall for a temperature difference of 1 °C
between the warm and the cold side.
The thermal conductivity of wood depends on the wood’s density
and moisture content. For dried pine and spruce with a moisture con-
tent of around 12 % the thermal conductivity, known as the lambda
value, λ = 0.10 – 0.12 W/m °C, which is about three times the value
for traditional insulation. For practical purposes, the value used
tends to be λ = 0.13 – 0.14 W/m °C.
To determine a structure’s insulating capacity, the following pro-
cess can be used:
a) Determine the thermal conductivity, λ, for all the constituent

materials, see table 9.5. Other values can be sourced from product
sheets, handbooks or standards
b) Determine the thermal resistance, R, for air gaps and the surface
resistance values, Rsi and Rse. Standard SS-EN ISO 6946 differenti-
Insulation of CLT wall.
ates between three different types of air gap, see table 9.6
Table 9.5 Thermal conductivity for various materials.
Material Thermal conductivity, λ (W/m°C)

Insulation 0.040
Wood 0.14
Fibreboard 0.14
Plasterboard 0.25
Concrete 1.7
Table 9.6 Thermal resistance for different air gaps.
Air gap Thermal resistance, R (m2 °C/W)

Unventilated air gaps < 0.18
Poorly ventilated air gaps < 0.15
Well ventilated air gaps 0
Table 9.7 Surface resistance for various building components.
Building Internal surface resistance, External surface resistance,

component R si (m2 °C/W) R se (m2 °C/W)
Walls 0.13 0.04
Ceiling 0.10 0.04
Floor 0.17 0.04
Table 9.8 Examples of correction factors for external walls.
Building component ΔU (W/m2 °C)

External wall with an insulating layer with studs 0.01
External wall with intersecting studs 0

c) Determine correction factors, ΔU, for fixings, gaps and crevices,
where:
ΔUf is a correction factor for extra heat flow due to small fixings
in the structure. This is usually negligible, particularly for
wooden structures.
ΔUg is a correction factor that takes account of normal errors
when assembling the structure.
d) Calculate the thermal transmittance coefficient for whole

structures.
If the structure only contains homogeneous layers, the thermal

resistance of each layer is calculated and added together, after which
the U-value can be calculated using equations 9.3 – 9.5:
9.3
9.4
9.5
When calculating the U-value for a structure that contains non-

homogeneous layers such as studs in an insulation layer, there are
two ways to calculate the thermal transmittance coefficient according
to SS-EN 6946, the U-value method and the λ-value method. The cal-
culations give a lower and an upper value for the total thermal resist-
ance, R. The thermal resistance used to produce the U-value is then
the average value of the two thermal resistance figures obtained
previously.
Weighting under the U-value method uses areas perpendicular to
the heat flow, while under the λ-value method the weighting pro-
duces a new λ-value for each non-homogeneous layer.
Example:
A wall with the following composition: 13 mm plasterboard, 100 mm
Figure 9.2 Cross-section external wall. CLT panel, vapour retarder, 170 mm sheet insulation with 12 % studs,
wind barrier, 34 mm air gap, horizontal glulam cladding, see figure 9.2.
Weighting under the U-value method uses areas perpendicular to

the heat flow. In this case, we only have two areas in the non-
homogeneous layer, wood and insulation.
Four U-values are calculated, and the process begins by totalling up

the resistances for the two cases. The thermal resistance figures for
the plasterboard and the CLT panel are always included, plus the two
surface resistance figures, and they all add up to:

Case 1: Area A1, timber studs
Case 2: Area A2, sheet insulation:
The U-values are weighted together using the areas:
which gives:
Under the λ-value method a new weighted λ-value is created for each
non-homogeneous layer. The proportion of wood in the non-homo
geneous layer is 0.12:
The R-value is thus:
. Multi-storey building, Finland.

0.901 4.342
.
The average value for the two methods gives:
4.608 4.342
4.475
And then the U-value comes out as:
0.223

10.1 Enquiry and purchasing
10.2 Handling CLT correctly
Purchasing and assembly
10.1 Enquiry and purchasing 164

10.2 Handling CLT correctly 164
10.1 Enquiry and purchasing
10.2.1 Delivery, acceptance and storage 165
The enquiry should contain all the relevant information that the CLT
10.2.2 General principles for lifting and handling CLT
panels 169
manufacturer needs in order to provide a complete quotation. In
10.2.3 Self-weight of components and dynamic addition to the price, questions about the material’s strength class
effects 167 and appearance grade, dimensions and weight, delivery times and so
10.2.4 Example: Designing the fixing of anchor screws on have to be answered. If you want the supplier to be involved in
for lifting 169 the design work, this should be made clear in the request for a quota-
10.2.5 Frame stabilisation during construction 169 tion. In many cases, it can be beneficial to send plans and cross-sec-
10.3 Protecting the structure during tional views to the suppliers, in order to receive suggestions about
construction 170 the division and optimisation of deliveries.
10.3.1 Weather protection during construction 170 A well-built CLT structure depends on a correct and consistent
10.3.2 Controls and monitoring 171 description. To achieve an efficient and fault-free delivery, it is impor-
10.4 Points to bear in mind 174 tant to submit as detailed an enquiry as possible. Some of the elements
that should be included in an enquiry are listed in table 10.1.
The CLT components are delivered with the specified dimensional
accuracy. It is crucial to take this into account so that the components
can be tied in with site-built structures. These should have the same
tolerances as the CLT components and if this is not possible, the plan-
ning needs to take account of that fact. Suspended floor structures,
the type that are hung between the walls, require considerable preci-
sion during the setting out. It has to be made crystal clear to the per-
son responsible for the setting out work just what tolerances apply.

Like all construction products, CLT panels and components need to
be stored and handled carefully, a factor that has a significant impact
not only on the durability and design, but also on the project’s
Table 10.1 List of information that should be included in
finances and planning.
an enquiry for CLT.
An important question on all building projects is how to handle
Text the weather protection during construction, and how to avoid the
Component list and clear order of assembly for risk of future damage caused by moisture. The question of how to
identification. protect the building work from the elements should be given high
No. of units. For different units, specify no. of units and priority in the planning work. A major advantage of building in
design. wood is the short construction time. To get maximum benefit from
Dimensions and tolerances should be clearly stated. this, the wood should be protected from moisture, so that no drying
If exposed surfaces are required, state the appearance is required on the construction site. The basic rule of thumb in this
grade, see example page 21. context is that structural elements that are sensitive to the weather,
State whether a different wood is required.1) such as prefabricated structural components, should be encased for
their protection as quickly as possible. If it is not possible to encase
Specific preferences concerning packaging, e.g. individual
wrapping, loading order, edge protectors for craning, etc. these elements immediately, they should be provided with temporary
weather protection that is as effective as possible. When scheduling a
1)
Availability should be checked before the enquiry is project, there is some scope to steer the planning towards prioritising
submitted. the quick encasement of moisture-sensitive structure elements.

The time of year and the local climate in the place where the con-
struction project will take place also have an influence. Planning
delivery and assembly in a way that ensures quick and efficient work
is also crucial in minimising moisture problems.
10.2.1 Delivery, acceptance and storage

CLT components have relatively low self-weight and their compact
form makes them easy to load, transport and unload efficiently. In
Sweden, shipments can usually have the following overall dimensions
without requiring special transport permits: 24 m long, 2.6 m wide
and 4.5 m high. This means that there is usually no problem trans-
porting CLT components in their full format. It is customary for
the transport service to be bought from the manufacturer of the CLT
panels or prefabricated CLT components. It is important that the com
ponents are loaded in the right order, so they can then be unloaded
in the order that they will be assembled. Each component should be
clearly labelled, so that it can be easily tracked on an assembly plan.
The CLT manufacturer should be given clear details about the
order of assembly and should have access to the assembly plan in Wall units ready for delivery.
order to obtain an accurate overall picture of the assembly work.
The following should also be observed:
• Plan the assembly well ahead of unloading to avoid time-consuming
rearranging.
• Check that the packaging is intact.
• Check that the number of components and the dimensions match
the order and the delivery note.
• Check the delivery and note any visible damage.
• Conduct a random check of the moisture content in a number of
places using an electrical resistance moisture meter with insulated
hammer electrodes, to get an indication that the moisture content
matches the order.
• Check that the CLT components are clear of soil and dirt.
• Avoid temporary storage and, if possible, assemble directly from
the truck.
• Do not place CLT components where there is a risk of soiling and
splashing from guttering or traffic, for example.
• Make sure the storage location is in the shade in spring, summer
and autumn. Sunlight makes the surfaces of packaged CLT hotter
Packages of CLT.
than the ambient temperature, which can lead to splitting or con-
densation, which in turn increases the risk of microbial growth.
• Rest the components on clean supports, at least 300 mm off
the ground or the floor, to provide good ventilation. Make sure you
have enough supports to stop the CLT components bending.
• The substrate should be dry and level, so the CLT components are
not subject to stresses that can cause lasting deformations.
A delivery of CLT normally has a moisture content of no more than

16 % on delivery from the CLT manufacturer. CLT panels or complete
structural units are usually transported in protective wrap. If the pack-
aging is fully sealed, the products can be stored outside under a tarpau-
lin for a short time. If the packaging is broken (even minor tears), it
should be repaired or removed completely, and the CLT should con-
tinue to be stored in a dry and warm place if it will be used indoors.
CLT that will be used in unheated buildings or in an outdoor climate,
protected under a roof, can be stored in a cold area, well protected from
rainfall. Read more in section 10.3, page 171 and in section 10.4, page 174.

10.2.2 General principles for lifting and

handling CLT panels
There are also important health and safety issues to consider when
assembling the components. It is, for example, vital that wall units
are quickly anchored and braced. Other key issues are the risk of fall-
ing and slipping. It is often not practically possible to have safety rail-
ings in place during the actual assembly, which is a risk in itself.
The alternative is to use safety lines.
A number of different methods are available for lifting and han-
dling CLT panels. The system that should be used is usually up to
the CLT manufacturer, but the building contractor should also be
consulted. Various types of webbing slings, steel wire ropes and steel
chains are commonly used, but the load-bearing capacity should
always be checked beforehand.
Floor and wall units are usually lifted with the help of special eyes
and lifting yokes. The lifting equipment must be designed so that all
the loads are statically determinate. This is to ensure an even distri-
bution of the load across all the lifting points.
Just as there are multiple manufacturers of CLT, there are a num-
ber of different suppliers of material for lifting and handling prefab-
ricated components. The suppliers of the CLT components will usu-
ally have a standard method that they use, and that can determine
the number of lifting points and so on.
Using bolts and load-distributing washers is seen as the safest way
to make lifting points in a floor slab. Bolts do, however, must pene-
trate the surface, and if that surface is intended to be left exposed,
the holes will need filling afterwards. The holes also need filling to
ensure compliance with sound, waterproofing and fire safety require-
ments. Another common method is to use spherical head lifting
Assembly of CLT floor. anchors, which are fixed in place with wood screws.
With wall units, simple slings are usually threaded through holes
made in the CLT panel. Once the unit is fixed in place, the sling can
then easily be removed.
Wall units commonly come with two or four lifting points, depend-
ing on the weight and shape of the unit. Wall units with two lifting
points should be lifted using a two-leg chain sling with safety hooks.
Wall units with four points should be lifted with four safety hooks
and wire ropes.
Figure 10.1 Example of a statically determinate system for handling floor and Figure 10.2 Diagram of a spherical
wall units. head lifting anchor with an angled
lifting screw.

Spherical head lifting anchors fixed with wood screws. Lifting a prefabricated wall unit.
Lifting instructions for wall units

Before work on the wall units begins, the following equipment
should be in place on the construction site:
• 4-leg chain sling, including hooks.
• Chain block hoists connected to a webbing strap for adjustment.
• Centre of gravity details from the CLT manufacturer.
Check chains, hooks and chain blocks on a daily basis. If possible, lift
the units into place and assemble direct from the truck. Begin wall
assembly by hanging two parts of the chain and shortening one part
by around 1.5 m. Attach the chain block to this part. The walls are
connected individually by chain to one lifting strap and the chain
block’s hook is connected to the other lifting strap. The wall is
adjusted to bring it vertical, in order to distribute the weight and
make assembly easier.
10.2.3 Self-weight of components and

dynamic effects
The self-weight of floor and wall units depends on the degree of pre- Table 10.2 Guide values for self-weight for certain
fabrication, the constituent materials and the size. Self-weight is not wall units.
usually a problem, since even pre-clad CLT panels are relatively light Type Self-weight,
in relation to other similar products. When assembling large units, average
wind conditions should be taken into account, with wall panels usually CLT general 500 kg/m3
considered to be thin and unstable if the lengths exceed 8 – 10 m.
CLT panel, 70 mm 35 kg/m2
The type and size of the crane depends on the design and weight of
CLT panel, 180 mm 90 kg/m2
the CLT unit. Dynamic effects can occur when lifting such compo-
nents. This can be accounted for by adding a supplement to the verti- CLT panel, complete external wall 110-150 kg/m2
cal self-weight.
The size of that supplement is determined in part by the crane type
and lifting speed, and is set out in standards SS-EN 1990 and SS-EN
1991-3. For commonly occurring construction cranes, the supplement
is around 10 – 20 %.

10.2.4 Example: Designing the fixing of

anchor screws for lifting
Calculations are based on Eurocode 5. The ratio between load and
load-bearing capacity must meet the requirement represented by
equation 10.1:
10.1
The characteristic withdrawal capacity of a wood screw skewed at

an angle α is determined using equation 10.2 and equation 10.3:
10.2
. . .
10.3 .
where:
fax,k is the characteristic withdrawal strength perpendicular to
the grain, in N/mm2.
d is the outer thread diameter, in mm.
lef is the depth of wood penetration for the threaded part, in mm.
kd is the minimum of d ⁄ 8 or 1.
α is the angle between the wood screw’s axis and the wood
grain, with α ≥ 30°.
Installation of prefabricated box unit. ρk is the characteristic density of the CLT, in kg/m3.
The design value for withdrawal capacity is determined using

equation 10.4:
FEd 10.4
α where:
kmod is a modification factor, here for load duration class short
term (S).
γM is the partial factor for the material, here 1.3.
Design load FEd is determined based on the unit’s self-weight and

Figure 10.3 Principle for fixing a spherical head
any additional dynamic supplement. Design self-weight Gd can be
lifting anchor.
10.5
where:
γSd is the partial factor for uncertainty in the calculation model.
γG,j is the partial factor for permanent action.
γQ,1 is the partial factor for variable action.
φ 2 is a dynamic factor.
10.6
where:
φ2,min a factor determined by the crane type.
β2 is a factor determined by the crane type.
νh is the crane’s lifting speed.

The vertical component at an incline of 45° is obtained as follows
10.7
where:
n is the no. of lifting points.
The force component in the lifting direction according to

equation 10.8 will thus be:
10.8
The ultimate tensile strength of the wood screws should also be

checked, for example using equations 10.9 – 10.11:
10.9
10.10
10.11
where:
ftens,k is the characteristic strength of the wood screws under
a tensile load, a figure provided by the screw manufacturer.
nef is the effective no. of wood screws n using nef = n0,9.
10.2.5 Frame stabilisation during

construction
If the frame components are lifted into the structure directly on
delivery, then that completes the first step in the assembly. Since the
assembly of CLT components is a new process for most building con-
tractors, it can be good to have representatives of the CLT manufac-
turers on site when the assembly begins. This assistance will make
the start of the assembly work as effective as possible, since the ques-
tions that arise early on can be resolved there and then, without
unnecessary delays being caused.
A clear assembly plan should be drawn up in advance. It is com-
mon for such a plan to be put together via consultation between the
project’s structural engineer and the CLT manufacturer. The plan
should list the assembly order and weight of the components. The
numbering must be easy to compare with the labelling on the com-
ponent. When assembling wall units, instructions for temporary
bracing must be available.
Frame stabilisation is particularly important for buildings taller Stabilising using braces during construction.
than two storeys. The walls and floor structures are normally used to
stabilise the frame. These are connected together to form a stabilising
system using various types of fixings and anchors. The connections
have to not only hold the structural components in place but also
transfer large horizontal and vertical loads. It is therefore important
that the instructions in the construction documents are followed
carefully when it comes to which fixings and anchors should be used
and how these are used in assembly.

10.3 Protecting the structure
during construction
The anchors should normally should be prestressed to a certain

extent to compensate for the long-term deformations that occur over
the course of construction. The anchors are usually fitted storey by
storey as the structural frame is built up. As the building is raised up
and more and more material is fixed in place, the anchors can lose
their tension due to vertical shifting. Once all the storeys are in place,
it is therefore essential to check that the anchors are under tension
and not loose. If the anchors are loose, they must be tightened up.
Fire safety and sound issues create certain demands in the assem-
bly phase, particularly in multi-storey buildings, which require high
acoustic and fire safety standards. Once again, it is important that
the construction documents are followed carefully.

during construction
10.3.1 Weather protection during con-
struction
The benefits of working under the cover of a full temporary shelter
are clear, but some cases require such protection more than others,
depending on the nature of the building and the construction
method. Depending on the production method and degree of prefab-
rication, there are different ways to achieve a moisture-proof con-
struction process that takes account of the quality requirements
demanded by the client and the authorities in the most cost-effective
way. If a building has a high degree of prefabrication and sensitive
details, a full temporary shelter is the best alternative overall. On
another project with a low degree of prefabrication, a simpler shelter
or basic use of tarpaulins may be preferable for financial reasons.
Building without weather protection

If the CLT frame is erected without weather protection, the structure
must be temporarily protected with tarpaulins or some other tempo-
rary rain cover. This method is best suited to CLT that is built with-
out any form of cladding, as this allows any drying to occur. It also
requires good planning concerning drainage, protection of end-grain
wood, methods for drying out damp surfaces and follow-up in the
form of inspection plans and other documentation.
If the building comprises both floor structures and load-bearing
walls in CLT, the walls should be assembled as quickly as possible.
This forms a volume that is easier to protect with a plastic or tarpau-
lin roof until the next floor structure is in place. The top edge of the
CLT walls must be protected particular carefully, since end-grain
wood will otherwise be exposed to moisture. In some cases, the fin-
Prefabricated wall units being unwrapped for assembly. ished roof can be used to provide temporary shelter, lifting it off and
on. This is mainly applicable if the building is not too large or tall. A
construction crane will also usually have to be on site to make this a
cost-effective method. The exception is a single-family house, where
a hoist will usually suffice. Bear in mind that the roof must be tem-
porarily anchored down to avoid the risk of it blowing off.

during construction
Building with weather protection

There are various different systems for weather protection that covers
the façade and roof, depending on the situation.
• Weather protection on façade scaffolding

Weather protection is achieved by attaching plastic sheeting to the
outside of the scaffolding, which is anchored to the structural
frame of the building. This solution is suitable for frames with a
low degree of prefabrication and frames with more prefabrication,
as the weather protection follows the building upwards and can be
combined with a roof cover or just a simple temporary floor cover.
This falls outside the Swedish Work Environment Authority’s
definition of weather protection, but it is still widely used. The
sheeting creates considerable windage and it is critical to fully
check that the scaffolding is properly anchored in place. When
designing fixing points, account must be taken of how the sheeting
is attached to the scaffolding. A common method is to attach the
sheeting using straps that are designed to give way under a certain Example with no weather protection,
Moholt 5050, Trondheim, Norway.
load.
• Fixed or wheeled temporary roofing

Fixed temporary roofing usually comprises aluminium lattice
beams stabilised with struts. The dimensions and load-bearing
capacity are crucial in determining how the solution works under
wind and snow loads. The frame is covered with PVC sheeting or
alternatively with plastic or metal panels.
A wheeled temporary roof is similar to the fixed version, but can
be moved on wheels that run on tracks or rails. The weather pro-
tection can be split up into sections that can be fully or partly
wheeled along the same rails, or that sit on parallel rails, with the
sections overlapping one another. The fact that the weather protec-
tion can be opened up makes this solution good for lifting in Tent with crane.
materials.
• Climbing weather protection

Climbing weather protection is based on mast structures that fol-
low the building upwards, storey by storey. Climbing weather pro-
tection can include suspended working platforms, and also an
internal overhead crane to transport materials from the gable
ends, replacing the need for an external crane. This type of
weather protection has been used on several wood construction
projects in Sweden.
10.3.2 Controls and monitoring

Buildings must be designed so that moisture does not cause damage,
odours or microbial growth that might affect health and hygiene.
This is a responsibility that the developer and the property owner
have towards those who use the building, under Boverket’s Building
Regulations (BBR). To meet this requirement, it is important to con-
duct regular moisture controls on delivered and assembled construc-
tion products. This is usually taken care of by the contractor in the
form of on-site inspections.
The on-site inspections should be preceded by a moisture-proofing
proposal that states what needs to be checked and what moisture
levels may be considered acceptable. This proposal should then
be submitted to the person responsible for the inspections, and to
Example of climbing weather protection for dry construction
with a high degree of prefabrication.

during construction
the contractor, so that it can be used as the basis for their planning of
on-site inspections. The proposal should set out control points for
measuring moisture before encasing. Details that should be covered
include:
• Which parts of the building should be checked.
• The values for
- checked moisture levels used in the planning.
- highest permitted moisture level.
- critical moisture level.
• A visual inspection before encasing moisture-sensitive materials
and products. The moisture levels should be checked by taking
measurements and they should not exceed the highest permitted
moisture levels. If continued drying is required, this needs to be
possible after encasing.
The assessment can be made using the following criteria:

Elevator shaft of CLT.
• If the checked moisture level is less than or equal to the highest
permitted moisture level, the measurement results fulfil the
requirement. A visual check should also be carried out before the
control point is approved.
• If the control measurement shows that the highest permitted mois-
ture level is exceeded, but not the critical moisture level, the ele-
ment should be dried out and a new moisture check carried out
before encasing.
• If the control measurement shows that the critical moisture levels
are exceeded, a damage check should be carried out and any mois-
ture damage rectified. A new moisture check should then be car-
ried out before encasing.
Measuring moisture
Just like other materials, CLT needs to be stored and handled care-
fully, a factor that can have a significant impact not only on the
design of the structure, but also on the project’s finances and plan-
ning. CLT is usually wrapped up for delivery in order to protect it
from rain, sun, dirt and ground-level moisture in transit, and during
storage and assembly.
It is vital to check the moisture content of the material on delivery
of the goods, and also over the course of construction if moisture has
penetrated into the structure. There are various ways to measure
moisture levels, depending on the needs and circumstances.
Table 10.3, page 173, sets out which methods are suitable in different
situations. Each method has its pros and cons, but the most common
method, and the one best suited to a construction site, is electrical
resistance using an electrical resistance moisture meter with insu-
lated hammer electrodes or an attached sensor.
Inspect and use Check CLT Moisture meter Check

checklists moisture content
Figure 10.4 Key principles for protecting wood products.

during construction
Table 10.3 Different methods of measuring moisture content in CLT.
Measurement method Value Suitable Log Measures Measures Measures Quick

expressed for field at different moisture moisture
as1) measurements depths content below 5 %
above 25 %
Capacitance % MC x x
Attached sensor % MC x x x x
Electrical resistance % MC x x x x
Dry weight method % MC x x x
Relative humidity % MC x x x
1)
MC = moisture content
Source: Fukt i trä för byggindustrin.
A suggested procedure for measuring using an electrical resistance

moisture meter with insulated hammer electrodes is as follows:
• Check that the meter is calibrated using a calibration block.
• Measure the temperature in the wood with the integral tempera-
ture sensor or estimate the temperature with a separate
thermometer.
• The temperature settings on the meter can then be set to the tem-
perature of the wood. If the instrument does not compensate for
temperature, the measurement value must be adjusted afterwards.
• Select wood type.
• Check the moisture content by inserting the electrodes to the
required measurement depth. Avoid measuring close to a layer of
adhesive. It is recommended to measure around 20 mm up the
wall unit, so as not to be measuring the end-grain wood. The extent
of the measuring is set out in the planning documents and the
results are logged in the inspection plan. If the moisture content is
higher than the desired level, regular checks should be carried out
during drying until the desired moisture content is achieved.
• When measuring bulky items, it can be difficult to insert long elec-
trodes. It may therefore be necessary to pre-drill holes and then
tap in the electrodes for the last centimetre.
Measuring average moisture content of Measuring surface moisture Press the tips of the electrodes down into
CLT – resistance method. content of CLT– lay the electrodes the sapwood (lighter).
against the surface, parallel
with the end.
Press
0.3 times
the CLT board’s
thickness.
20-30º
m m
0 m nd 0 m nd
30 the e 30 the e
m m
fro fro
Longitudinal direction of surface board
0.3 times the CLT’s width The lower part of the electrode can be
from the edge. filed down to achieve the correct angle.
Figure 10.5 Measuring average moisture content and surface moisture content.


Like regular wood, CLT is an organic product that, used correctly, has
good natural resistance while also being part of the natural ecocycle.
The structure needs to be protected over the intended lifetime of
the building, but it is also important that all the materials are pro-
tected during construction. To make the checks on the construction
material easier, it can be a good idea to have lists of points to bear in
mind. Below are some of the points that might apply for CLT.
General
• It is most practical to report moisture in wood as moisture content.
• Moisture absorption and drying via air humidity take around
the same time.
• Absorption of free water is much faster than drying, which can
only be achieved via air humidity.
Assembly roof, Sundbyberg, Sweden.
• Absorption of free water via end-grain wood is many times faster
than via other wood surfaces.
• Moisture-related movement can cause major quality problems.
These issues can, however, also occur due to very dry environments.
• A good rule of thumb is that the width and thickness of a piece of
timber shrinks or swells 0.25 % per percentage point of moisture
content. A CLT member exhibits less moisture-related movement,
see figure 1.7, page 20.
• The risk of mould growth can begin at around 75 % relative
humidity (RF) if it is very warm. At low temperatures, the relative
Protect from Use supports and Keep CLT for
humidity can be much higher. Mould grows on the surface of
precipitation make sure the outdoor use venti
ground is drained lated and protected wood and does not affect its strength.
• Soiled wood is more likely to see mould growth, since dirt often
contains both spores and nutrients.
• The humidity level is not the only factor that affects mould growth.
Nutrients in the surface, temperature, pH, UV light, time and the
amount of spores also play a role.
• Mould growth can be a precursor to other, more serious attacks.
• Rot can begin to develop when the moisture content in the wood is
Protect from dirt Protect from sun Check that the
packaging is intact higher than the fibre saturation point (30 %). The wood-decaying
fungi break down the strength of the wood.
• Paint on the surface of wood extends the drying out process.
If there are cracks in the paint layer, the wood will easily absorb
water during rain, while the drying will take a very long time,
leading to fungal growth.
Handling CLT
Check the quality Ventilation under Stack CLT on • When ordering CLT, always state your moisture content
tarpaulin stickers if it gets
requirements.
damp
• Do not use CLT if it has faults.
• Too high a moisture content in the CLT can cause microbial growth,
plus checks and deformation can occur.
• CLT may take on moisture in transit and storage, as well as on
the construction site. It is therefore important to always carry out
an acceptance check.
Stack CLT on stickers
if it gets damp
Figure 10.6 A few key principles for protecting

CLT products.

• Always have an electrical resistance moisture meter with insulated

hammer electrodes on site, and carry out acceptance checks and
ongoing checks during the construction process.
• CLT that is delivered with a moisture content that is lower than
the outdoor climate’s equilibrium moisture content should be
fully wrapped, or stored in a special area that can retain the low
moisture content of the wood – for example a heated storage area
or a space with a dehumidifier.
• If a surface is going to be left exposed on completion, it should be
handled with care. Avoid walking on the surface, and use clean
gloves and lifting slings.
Measuring moisture
• The dry weight method is the reference method for measuring
the moisture content.
• Use an electrical resistance moisture meter with insulated hammer
electrodes to check the moisture content on the construction site.
• No electrical resistance moisture meter with insulated hammer Assembly of summer house, Skellefteå, Sweden.
electrodes can measure moisture contents higher than the fibre
saturation point (30 %).
• Low moisture content, such as 6 – 8 %, can be difficult to measure.
• The measurement error in the field, when using an electrical
resistance moisture meter with insulated hammer electrodes, is
around ± 2.6 % over the whole moisture content span.
• The function of an electrical resistance moisture meter with insu-
lated hammer electrodes should be checked using a calibration
block.
• It is recommended that acceptance checks are carried out in two
stages:
1) first a simple one, and if this measurement suggests that
the moisture content might be off;
2) conduct a more exhaustive measurement.
• The measurement depth varies and generally measurements are
taken at several depths in one measuring point. It is not possible
to check by touch whether wood is dry. The surface of damp wood
can still feel dry to the touch.
Drawing up an inspection plan and choosing measurement points

• Always draw up an inspection plan.
• Work through the questions why, what and how.
• Always make a preliminary assessment of the structure before
measuring.
• Tailor the report to the person who will be reading it.
• Ultimately, the choice of measuring points is always determined by
conditions on site.
• Always look for the weakest points. Every structure has its own
weaknesses, which may not appear in other similar structures.
• Look for the greatest risk of moisture absorption and the poorest
drying conditions.
• Measuring moisture in the CLT is just one part of an inspection
programme.

Symbols
Symbols
Symbol Explanation F v,w,Ed Design shear force on web

Latin upper case letters Fx,Ed Design value of a force in the x-direction
A Cross-sectional area F y,Ed Design value of a force in the y-direction
A ef Effective area of contact surface between a nail plate Fx,Rd Design value of a plate’s load capacity in the x-direction
and the underlying wood; effective contact area with
force perpendicular to the grain F y,Rd Design value of a plate’s load capacity in the y-direction
Af Cross-sectional area of a flange Fx,Rk The plate’s characteristic load capacity in the
x-direction
A net,t Net cross-sectional area perpendicular to the grain
F y,Rk The plate’s characteristic load capacity in the
A net,v Net shear area parallel with the grain y-direction
C Spring constant G 0,05 Shear modulus, 5 percent fractile
E 0,05 Modulus of elasticity, 5 percent fractile Gd Shear modulus, design value
Ed Modulus of elasticity, design value
G mean Shear modulus, mean value
Emean Modulus of elasticity, mean value
H Total height of a roof truss
Emean,fin Modulus of elasticity, final mean value
If Moment of inertia of a flange
F Force
I tor Torsional moment of inertia
FA,Ed Design force on a nail plate acting in the centre of
Iz Torsional moment of inertia about the weaker axis
gravity of the effective area
FA,min,d Minimum design force on a nail plate acting in the K ser Slip modulus
centre of gravity of the effective area K ser,fin Slip modulus at the final condition
Fax,Ed Design axial force on a fastener Ku Slip modulus for the ultimate limit state at the
Fax,Rd Design value of the axial withdrawal capacity of the instantaneous condition
fastener Lnet,t Net width of cross-sectional area perpendicular
Fax,Rk Characteristic axial withdrawal capacity of the fastener to the grain
Fc Compressive action or force Lnet,v Net length of failure area under shear stress
Fd Design value of a force M A,Ed Design moment
Fd,ser Design force at the serviceability limit state M ap,d Design moment in the apex zone
F f,Rd Design load capacity per fastener in a wall unit Md Design moment
F i,c,Ed Design compressive reaction force at the end of a wall My,Rk Characteristic yield moment of fastener
panel N Axial force
F i,t,Ed Design tensile reaction force at the end of a wall panel
R 90,d Design splitting capacity
F i,vert,Ed Vertical load on a wall
R 90,k Characteristic splitting capacity
F i,v,Rd Design resistance under diaphragm action for
R ax,d Design load capacity of an axially loaded connection
constituent component i or wall i
R ax,k Characteristic load capacity of an axially loaded
F la Transverse load
connection
FM,Ed Design force from a design moment
R ax,α,k Characteristic load capacity at an angle α to
Ft Tensile force the grain
F t,Rk Characteristic value for tensile load capacity of a Rd Design value of load capacity
connection
R ef,k Effective characteristic load capacity of a connection
F v,0,Rk Characteristic load capacity of a screw with washer
along the grain R iv,d Design shear load capacity of a wall
F v,Ed Design shear force per shear plane of fastener; Rk Characteristic load capacity
horizontal design effect on a wall panel R sp,k Characteristic splitting capacity
F v,Rd Design shear load capacity per shear plane for a Rto,k Characteristic load capacity of a serrated washer
fastener; design shear load capacity
Rv,d Design shear load capacity of a wall
F v,Rk Characteristic shear load capacity per shear plane
for a fastener V Shear force; volume

Symbols
Vu, Vl Shear forces in the upper and lower part of a beam with fh,k Characteristic embedment strength
a hole
fhead,k Characteristic pull-through strength of fastener
Wy Moment of resistance about the y-axis
f1 Fundamental frequency
Xd Design value of a material strength property
fm,k Characteristic bending strength
Xk Characteristic value of a material strength property
fm,y,d Design bending strength about the principal y-axis
Latin lower case letters
fm,z,d Design bending strength about the principal z-axis
a Distance
fm,α,d Design bending strength at an angle α to the grain
a1 Spacing, parallel to the grain, of fasteners within one
ft,0,d Design tensile strength along the grain
row
ft,0,k Characteristic tensile strength along the grain
a1,CG Minimum end distance to centre of gravity for wood
screws in each section of timber ft,90,d Design tensile strength perpendicular to the grain
a2 Spacing, perpendicular to the grain, between rows of ft,w,d Design tensile strength of the web
fasteners
fu,k Characteristic tensile strength of screw
a2,CG Minimum edge distance to centre of gravity for wood
fv,0,d Design panel shear strength
screws in each section of timber
fv,ax,α,k Characteristic withdrawal strength at an angle α to the
a3,c Distance between fasteners and an unloaded end
grain
a3,t Distance between fasteners and a loaded end
fv,ax,90,k Characteristic withdrawal strength perpendicular to the
a4,c Distance between fasteners and an unloaded edge grain
a4,t Distance between fasteners and a loaded edge fv,d Design shear strength
a bow Maximum initial bow imperfection in a section of timber h Height; wall height
in a truss
h ap Height of the apex zone
a bow,perm Maximum permitted bow imperfection in a section of
timber in a truss hd Hole depth
adev Maximum positional deviation for a truss he Embedment depth; distance to loaded edge
adev,perm Maximum permitted positional deviation for a truss h ef Effective height
b Width h f,c Height of compression flange
bi Width of panel i or wall i h f,t Height of tension flange
b net Clear distance between studs h rl Distance from lower edge of hole to lower edge of
component
bw Web width
h ru Distance from upper edge of hole to upper edge of
d Diameter; outer diameter of thread component
d1 Diameter of centre hole of a washer; inner diameter of hw Web height
thread
i Notch inclination
dc Washer diameter
kc,y, kc,z Instability factor
d ef Effective diameter
kcr Cracking factor for shear load capacity
dh Connector’s head diameter
kcrit Factor used for lateral buckling
fh,i,k Characteristic embedment strength of timber member i
kd Dimension factor for a panel
fa,0,0 Characteristic anchorage strength per surface unit for α
= 0° and β = 0° kdef Deformation factor
fa,90,90 Characteristic anchorage strength per surface unit for α kdis Factor for taking account of the stress distribution in an
= 90° and β = 90° apex zone
fa,α,β,k Characteristic anchorage strength kf,1, kf,2, kf,3 Correction factors for bracing resistance
fax,k Characteristic withdrawal strength for the point of a kh Height factor

nail; characteristic withdrawal strength ki,q Uniformly distributed load factor
fc,0,d Design compressive strength along the grain km Factor for the redistribution of bending stresses in a
fc,w,d Design compressive strength of a web cross-section
ff,c,d Design compressive strength of a flange kmod Factor for duration of load and moisture content
kn Factor for wall cladding
fc,90,k Characteristic compressive strength perpendicular to
the grain
kr Reduction factor
ff,t,d Design tensile strength of a flange

Symbols
kR,red Reduction factor for load capacity Greek lower case letters
ks Fastener spacing factor; correction factor for spring α Angle between x-direction and force in a nail plate;
constant angle between force and grain; angle between load and
edge (or ends) subject to load
k s,red Reduction factor for mutual spacing
β Angle between grain and force for a nail plate
k shape Factor depending on the shape of the cross-section
βc Straightness factor
k sys System strength factor
γ Angle between the x-direction for a nail plate and the
kv Reduction factor for notched beams
main direction of the wooden
kvol Volume factor
γM Partial factor for material properties also accounting for
ky eller kz Instability factor model uncertainties and dimensional variations
la,min Minimum anchor length for a glued-in rod λy Slenderness ratio for bending about the y-axis
l, L Span; contact length λz Slenderness ratio for bending about the z-axis
lA Distance from a hole to the centre line of the λrel,y Relative slenderness ratio for bending about the y-axis
component support
λrel,z Relative slenderness ratio for bending about the z-axis
lef Effective length; effective distribution length
ρk Characteristic density
lV Distance from a hole to the end of the component
ρm Mean density
lZ Centre spacing between holes
σc,0,d Design compressive stress along the grain
m Mass per unit area
σc,α,d Design compressive stress at an angle α to the grain
n40 Number of frequencies below 40 Hz
σf,c,d Mean design compressive stress in a flange
n ef Effective number of fasteners
σf,c,max,d Design compressive stress of the extreme fibres in a
pd Distributed load flange
qi Equivalent uniformly distributed load σf,t,d Mean design tensile stress in a flange
r Radius of curvature σf,t,max,d Design tensile strength of the extreme fibres in a flange
s Spacing σm,crit Critical bending stress
s0 Basic fastener spacing σm,y,d Design bending stress about the principal y-axis
rin Inner radius of a curve σm,z,d Design bending stress about the principal z-axis
t Thickness σm,α,d Design bending stress at an angle α to the grain
tpen Penetration depth σN Normal stress
ucreep Creep deformation σt,0,d Design tensile stress along the grain
u fin Final deformation σt,90,d Design tensile stress perpendicular to the grain
u fin,G Final deformation for a permanent action G σw,c,d Design compressive stress in a web
u fin,Q,1 Final deformation for a leading variable action Q 1 σw,t,d Design tensile stress in a web
u fin,Q,i Final deformation for accompanying variable actions Q i τd Design shear stress
u inst Instantaneous deformation τF,d Design anchor stress, axial force
u inst,G Instantaneous deformation for a permanent action G τM,d Design anchor stress, moment
u inst,Q,1 Instantaneous deformation for a leading variable action τtor,d Design torsional shear stress
Q1
ψ0 Factor for the combination value of variable actions
u inst,Q,i Instantaneous deformation for accompanying variable
actions Q i ψ1 Factor for the frequent value of a variable action
wc Pre-camber ψ2 Factor for the quasi-permanent value of a variable

action
wcreep Creep deflection
ζ Relative damping
wfin Final deflection
w inst Instantaneous deflection
wnet,fin Net final deflection
v Unit impulse velocity response

Symbols
CLT-specific E90,x,mean Mean modulus of elasticity for a panel perpendicular to

A x,net Net cross-sectional area normal, x-axis the global x-direction
A y,net Net cross-sectional area normal, y-axis E 0,y,mean Mean modulus of elasticity for a panel in the global
y-direction
fc,0,x,k Characteristic compressive strength of panel along
x-axis. E90,y,mean Mean modulus of elasticity for a panel perpendicular to
the global y-direction
fc,0,y,k Characteristic compressive strength of panel along
y-axis. E 0,x,0,05 Modulus of elasticity’s 5 percent fractile for a panel in
the global x-direction
fc,90,xy,k Characteristic compressive strength perpendicular to
E 0,y,0,05 Modulus of elasticity’s 5 percent fractile for a panel in
the plane of the panel
the global y-direction
G R,mean Rolling shear modulus, mean value
G 090,xlay,mean Mean shear modulus along boards in the global
fm,x,k Characteristic bending strength of CLT panel in global x-direction
x-direction.
G 090,ylay,mean Mean shear modulus along boards in the global
fm,y,k Characteristic bending strength of CLT panel in global y-direction
y-direction.
G 9090,xlay,mean Mean shear modulus along boards in the global
ft,0,x,k Characteristic tensile strength of panel in global x-direction (rolling shear modulus)
x-direction. G 9090,ylay,mean Mean shear modulus along boards in the global
ft,0,y,k Characteristic tensile strength of panel in global y-direction (rolling shear modulus)
y-direction. I t,0, CLT Torsional moment of inertia about the x-axis
ft,90,x,k Characteristic tensile strength perpendicular to the I t,90, CLT Torsional moment of inertia about the y-axis
ft,90,y,k plane of the panel
Ix,net Net moment of inertia for deflection about the y-axis
fc,0,xlay,k Characteristic compressive strength along the grain for
boards in the global x-direction. I y,net Net moment of inertia for deflection about the x-axis
Ix,ef Effective moment of inertia for deflection about the
fc,0,ylay,k Characteristic compressive strength along the grain for
y-axis
boards in the global y-direction.
I y,ef Effective moment of inertia for deflection about the
fc,90,xlay,k Characteristic compressive strength perpendicular to
x-axis
the grain for boards in the global x-direction.
ix,ef Effective radius of gyration for deflection about the
fc,90,ylay,k Characteristic compressive strength perpendicular to
y-axis
the grain for boards in the global y-direction.
i y,ef Effective radius of gyration for deflection about the
fm,xlay,k Characteristic bending strength for boards in the global x-axis
x-direction.
κx Shear correction factor equating to deflection about
fm,ylay,k Characteristic bending strength for boards in the global the y-axis
y-direction.
κy Shear correction factor equating to deflection about
ft,0,xlay,k Characteristic tensile strength for boards in the global the x-axis
x-direction.
Sx,net Net static moment or net shear resistance
ft,0,ylay,k Characteristic tensile strength for boards in the global
y-direction. S y,net Net static moment or net shear resistance
fv,090,xlay,k Characteristic shear strength for longitudinal boards in

the x-direction
fv,090,ylay,k Characteristic shear strength for longitudinal boards in
the y-direction
fv,9090,xlay,k Characteristic shear strength for transverse boards in
the x-direction
fv,9090,ylay,k Characteristic shear strength for transverse boards in
the y-direction
E 0,x,mean Mean modulus of elasticity for a panel in the global
x-direction

Ceiling of CLT on load-bearing glulam.

Bibliography
Bibliography
General
Boverkets byggregler, BFS 2011:6 med ändringar t.o.m. BFS 2015:3. Boverkets författningssamling, BFS 2015:6 EKS 10.
BSP handbuch, Holz-Massivbauweise in Brettsperrholz, 2010. CLT handbook, FP Innovation, Canada, 2011.
Focus Solid Timber Solutions – European Conference on Cross Laminated Timber, Graz, 2013.
Handbok – Bygge med Massivtreelement, Norsk Treteknisk Institutt, 2007.
Massivträ. Handboken, Industrikonsortiet Massivträ, 2002.
Wallner-Novak M., Koppelhuber J., Pock K.: Cross-Laminated Timber Structural Design, Basic design and engineering
principles according to Eurocode, pro:Holz, 2014.
Chapter 1 – CLT as a construction material

Eriksson P.: Comparative LCAs for wood and other construction methods, Proceedings of the 8th WCTE, Lahti, Finland, 2004.
Gustafsson A., Eriksson P-E., Engström S., Wik T., Serrano E.: Handbok för beställare och projektörer av flervånings
bostadshus i trä. SP report 2012:70, 2013.
Peñaloza D., Norén J., Eriksson P.: Life Cycle Assessment of Different Building Systems: The Wälluden Case Study,
SP Report 2013:07, 2013.
Chapter 2 – Construction systems for CLT

Betjka I., Lam F.: Cross laminated timber as innovative building material. Proceedings of the CSCE Annual Conference
in Quebec, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2008.
Schickhofer G.: Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) in Europe – from Conception to Implementation, presentation,
University of British Columbia, Department of Wood, Science, Vancouver, Canada 2010.
Chapter 3 – Designing structures in CLT

Fellmoser P., Blass H.J.: Influence of rolling shear modulus on strength and stiffness of structural bonded timber elements.
In Proceeding of CIB-W18 Meeting, Edinburgh, 2004.
Schickhofer G., Bogensperger T., Moosbrugger T.: BSPhandbuch – Holz-Massivbauweise in Brettsperrholz, Nachweise
auf Basis des neuen europaischen Normenkonzepts, 2. Auflage, Graz: Verlag der Technischen Universitat Graz, 2010.
Chapter 4 – Joints and connections

Uibel T., Blass H.J.: Load carrying capacity of joints with dowel type fasteners in solid wood panels, Paper presented
at the 40th meeting of the Working Commission W18-Timber Structures, International Council for Research and
Innovation in Building and Construction, Bled, Slovenia, 2007.
Uibel T., Blass H.J.: Edge joints with dowel type fasteners in solid wood panels, Paper presented at the 40th meeting
of the Working Commission W18-Timber Structures, International Council for Research and Innovation in Building
and Construction, Bled, Slovenia, 2007.
Wallner-Novak M., Koppelhuber J., Pock K.: Cross-Laminated Timber Structural Design, Basic design and engineering
principles according to Eurocode, pro:Holz, 2014.

Bibliography
Chapter 5 – Floor structures

Blass H.J., Ehlebeck J., Kreutzinger H., Steck, G.: Erläuterungen zu DIN 1052:2004-08; Entwurf, Berechnung und Bemessung
von Holzbauwerken, 1. Auflage, Hrsg.: DGfH Innovations- und Service GmbH, München, 2004.
Östman et al: Brandsäkra trähus – Nordisk-baltisk kunskapsöversikt och vägledning, version 3
Hamm P., Richter A.: Personeninduzierte Schwingungen bei Holzdecken – Neue Erkenntnisse fuhren zu neuen
Bemessungsregeln, Ingenieurholzbau – Karlsruher Tage: Forschung fur die Praxis, Universität Karlsruhe, 2009.
Ohlsson S.: Serviceability criteria – especially floor vibrations criteria. 1991 International timber engineering conference.
TRADA vol.1 58–65, 1991.
Ohlsson S.: Svikt, svängningar och styvhet hos bjälklag – dimensioneringsmetoder, 1994.
Chapter 6 – Walls
Associerede Ingeniörer ApS: Massivtrae i byggeriet, Traebranchens Oplysningsråd, 2001.
Bergdahl U., Ottosson E., Stigson Malmborg B.: Plattgrundläggning, SGI, Svensk Byggtjänst, 1993.
Olsson C., Holm G.: Pålgrundläggning, SIG, Svensk Byggtjänst, 1993.
Chapter 7 – CLT and fire safety

Boverkets allmänna råd om brandbelastning, BFS 2013:11 – BBRBE 1.
BrandEx Brandtätningar AB, Brandtätningar, http://www.brandex.se/brandtatningar.asp [14.02.2013], 2013.
Brandskydd, Passivt brandskydd ofta beroende av rätt byggmaterial,
http://brandskydd.tv/2012/08/10/passivt-brandskydd-ofta-beroende-av-ratt-byggmaterial, [08.05.2013], 2012.
Eriksson P-E, Nord T och Östman, B: Kartläggning av brandincidenter i flervåningshus med trästomme
– Erfarenheter från 20 års brukande, SP Report 2016:12, 2016.
Klippel M., Schmid J., Frangi A.: Fire Design of CLT, pp 101–122 in Proceedings of the Joint Conference of COST
Actions FP1402 & 1404. Cross Laminated Timber – A competitive wood product for visionary and fire safe buildings.
KTH Building Materials, Stockholm 10 March 2016.
Schaffer E.L.: Charring rate of selected woods – transverse to grain. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Forest Products Laboratory, Research paper FPL 69, Madison, USA, 1967.
Stein R., Werther N., Winter S.: Konstruktionskatalog für Gebäude in Holzbauweise unter Berücksichtigung
bauordnungsrechtlicher und versicherungstechnischer Aspekte. Technische Universität München, 2013.
Teibinger M., Matzinger I.: Fire-resistant sealing in timber construction. Planning brochure. Issue 38 of the HFA Schriftreihe,
Holzforschung Austria, 2012.
Östman, Mikkola, Stein, Frangi, König, Dhima, Hakkarainen, Bregulla: Fire safety in timber buildings. Technical guideline
for Europe. SP Report 2010:19, Stockholm, 2010.
Östman et al: Brandsäkra trähus – Nordisk-baltisk kunskapsöversikt och vägledning, version 3, SP Report 2012:18,
Stockholm, 2012.
Chapter 8 – CLT and acoustic

Bostäder och nya ljudkrav, Boverkets Byggkostnadsforum, 2007.
Hagberg K.: Tre exempel på akustiklösningar i träbyggande. En skrift för små och medelstora byggföretag som vill bygga
med lätta stomsystem, SBUF, 2013.
Larsson K., Simmons C.: Vägledning för mätning av ljudnivå i rum med stöd av SS_EN ISO 10052/16032,
SP report 2015:2, 2015.
Ljunggren F.: Arbetsrapport Nr 20, Ljud- och vibrationsmätningar i testhus, Luleå University of Technology, 2016.
Ljunggren S.: Ljudisolering i trähus – en handbok för konstruktörer. SP Report 2011:10, 2011

Bibliography
Chapter 9 – CLT, heat and moisture

Construction with Cross-Laminated Timber in Multi-Storey Buildings, Guidelines, Holz Forschung Austria, 2013.
Hagentoft C-E.: Introduction to Building Physics, 2001.
Holzbausysteme, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Holz e.V. Duesseldorf, 2000.
Ståhl F.: Thermal properties of building materials and their influence on the energy efficiency, 2009.
Werner: Brettstapelbauweise. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Holz e.V. Duesseldorf.
Chapter 10 – Purchasing and assembly

Esping B., Salin J-G., Brander P.: Fukt i trä för byggindustrin, Fuktegenskaper, krav, hantering och mätning, SP Trätek, 2005.
Van Riemsdijk J.: Lyftredskap för KL-trä, hantering av horisontella och vertikala element i massivträ, 2014.
Degree project Chalmers University of Technology, 2014:23
References for standards

SS 25267:2015 Acoustics – Sound classification of spaces in buildings – Dwellings, SIS Förlag AB ,2015.
SS 25268 Acoustics – Sound classification of spaces in buildings – Institutional premises, rooms for education,
preschools and leisure-time centres, rooms for office work and hotels, SISA Förlag AB, 2007
SS-EN 338:2016 Structural timber – Strength classes, SIS Förlag AB, 2016
SS-EN 1990/A1:2005/AC:2010 Eurocode – Basis of structural design, SIS Förlag AB, 2010
SS-EN 1991-1-1/AC:2009, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures- Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings, SIS Förlag AB, 2009.
SS-EN 1992-1-1:2005/A1:2014, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures- Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,
SIS Förlag AB, 2014.
SS-EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2009, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures- Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,
SS-EN 1994-1-2:2005, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures – Part 1-2: General rules
– Structural fire design, SIS Förlag AB, 2008.
SS-EN 1995-1-1:2004/A2:2014: Design of timber structures – Part 1-1: General – Common rules and rules for buildings,
SS-EN 1995-1-2:2004/AC:2010: Design of timber structures – Part 1-2: General – Structural fire design, SIS Förlag AB, 2010.
SS-EN 13017-1:2001 Solid wood panels. Classification by surface appearance. Solid wood panels – Part 1:
Softwood, SIS Förlag AB, 2001.
SS-EN 13501-1:2007+A1:2009 Fire classification of construction products and building elements – Part 2:
Classification using test data from reaction to fire tests. SIS Förlag AB, 2009.
SS-EN 13501-2: 2007+A1:2009 Fire classification of construction products and building elements – Part 2:
Classification using data from fire resistance tests, excluding ventilation services. SIS Förlag AB, 2009.
SS-EN 14080:2013 Timber structures. Glued laminated timber and glued solid timber. Requirements, SIS Förlag AB, 2013.
SS-EN 14081-1:2016 Timber structures. Strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section – Part 1:
General requirements, SIS Förlag AB, 2016.
SS-EN 15804:2012 Sustainability of construction works. Environmental product declarations. Core rules for the product
category of construction products, SIS Förlag AB, 2013.
SS-EN 15978:2011 Sustainability of construction works. Assessment of environmental performance of buildings
– Calculation method, SIS Förlag AB, 2016.
SS-EN 16351:2015 Timber structures. Cross laminated timber. Requirements, SIS Förlag AB 2015.

Non-liability
SS-EN ISO 717-1:2013. Acoustics – Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements – Part 1:
Airborne sound insulation, SIS Förlag AB, 2013.
SS-EN ISO 717-2:2013. Acoustics – Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements – Part 2:
Impact sound insulation, SIS Förlag AB, 2013.
SS-EN ISO 3382-2:2008/AC:2009. Acoustics – Measurement of room acoustic parameters – Part 2:
Reverberation time in ordinary rooms, SIS Förlag AB, 2009.
SS-EN ISO 6946:2007. Building components and building elements – Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance
– Calculation method, SIS Förlag AB 2007.
SS-EN ISO 9001:2008/AC:2009. Quality management systems – Requirements, SIS Förlag AB, 2009.
SS-EN ISO 14001:2015. Environmental management systems – Requirements with guidance for use, SIS Förlag AB, 2015.
SS-EN ISO 14040:2006. Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework,
SS-EN ISO 14044:2006. Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines,
SS-EN ISO 14025:2010. Environmental labels and declarations – Type III environmental declarations
– Principals and procedures, SIS Förlag AB, 2010.
SS-EN ISO 16032:2004. Acoustics – Measurement of sound pressure level from service equipment in buildings
– Engineering method, 2004.
SS-EN ISO 16283:2014 Acoustics – Field measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements
– Part 1: Airborne sound insulation (ISO 16283-1:2014), 2014.
SS-EN ISO 16283-2:2015. Acoustics – Field measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements
– Part 2: Impact sound insulation, 2015.
Non-liability
By using the content of The CLT Handbook, you agree to the terms of use below. All information in The CLT Handbook
is provided for information purposes only and should not be seen as entering into an advisory or professional relationship
with the reader.
All information is provided in its present state and without any form of guarantee, to the extent permitted by
prevailing legislation. Although the publisher has taken all reasonable steps to try and provide reliable information in
The CLT Handbook, the publisher does not guarantee that the content is free from errors, mistakes and/or omissions,
or that the content is up to date and relevant to the user’s needs.
The publisher, Föreningen Sveriges Skogsindustrier, also provides no guarantees for any outcomes arising from use of
the information contained in The CLT Handbook. All use of information in The CLT Handbook is the user’s own responsibility
and is done at the user’s risk.
Föreningen Sveriges Skogsindustrier owns the rights to the content of The CLT Handbook. The content is protected under
copyright law. Misuse will be subject to a penalty. Copying of the content is prohibited.
Föreningen Sveriges Skogsindustrier accepts no liability for any damage or injury that may arise due to the content of
The CLT Handbook.

Interior with CLT and glulam.

The CLT Handbook Illustrations
Vendela Martinac – Thelander Arkitektur & Design AB
© Föreningen Sveriges Skogsindustrier, Cornelia Thelander – Thelander Arkitektur & Design AB
2019 First edition
Foto
Publisher Photos
Johan Ardefors, page 42
Skogsindustrierna
baraBild, page 61, 95, 140, 157
Svenskt Trä
Per Bergqvist, page 32, 35, 106, 120, 129, 144, 156, 174
Box 55525
Eric Bogström, page 19, 31
102 04 STOCKHOLM
Mattias Brännström, page 41, 62, 80 lower, 87
Tel: 08-762 72 60
Patrik Degerman, page 7, 15, 21 table, 71, 96, 100, 114, 172
Fax: 08-762 79 90
Tommy Durath, page 66
E-post: [email protected]
Åke E.son Lindman, page 9, 34, 45, 51 lower, 86, 90, 108, 109,
www.svenskttra.se
112, 142
Mats Ekevad, page 23 lower right, 25 lower
Andreas Falk, page 24
Johan Fröbel, page 165 lower
Project managers Anders Gustafsson, page 16, 17, 22 upper, 25 upper, 37, 85, 93,
Johan Fröbel – Swedish Wood 111, 141, 143, 146, 170, 171 middle
Anders Gustafsson – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Kennet Gustafsson, page 165 upper
Tomas Gustafsson, page 161, 167 right
Editors Thomas Harrysson, page 23 lower left, 67
Eric Borgström – Swedish Wood Svanthe Harström, page 11 Bertil Hertzberg, page 21 upper
Johan Fröbel – Swedish Wood Holzbau Unterrainer, page 160
Sören Håkanlind, page 60
Lead author Peter Jacobsson, page 152
Anders Gustafsson – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Joakim Kröger, page 23 upper
Per Kårehed, page 135
Co-authors Pierre Landel, page 21 lower, 26 upper
Roberto Crocetti – Faculty of Engineering, Lund University LEVA Husfabrik, page 22 lower left
Alar Just – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Bengt Lind, page 8
Pierre Landel – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Peter Lindbom, page 39, 180
Jörgen Olsson – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Jonas Lundqvist, page 83, 175
Anna Pousette – RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Martinson, page 4, 63, 166, 167 left
Magnus Silfverhielm – AIX Arkitekter Murman Architects, page 48
Birgit Östman – Linnaeus University Per Myrehed, page 22 lower right
Hideyuki Nasu, page 171 lower
Reference group and fact checkers Rasmus Norlander, page 1
Eric Borgström – Swedish Wood Jimmy Ruljeff, page 150
Henrik Danielsson – Limträteknik i Falun AB/ Faculty of Dagfinn Sagen, page 171 upper
Engineering, Lund University Magnus Silfverhielm, page 10
Mattias Brännström – Renewinn AB Skanska, page 169
Mats Ekevad – Luleå University of Technology Swedish Wood, page 13, 14
Johan Fröbel – Swedish Wood Stora Enso, page 18, 27, 51 upper, 65, 74, 80 upper, 82, 97, 113,
Melker Johansson – Tyréns AB 132, 136, 163, 168,185
Thomas Johansson – Moelven Töreboda AB Synlig.no, page 134
Rune Karlsson – Rune Karlsson Byggprojektering i Hedemora David Valldeby, page 98
Greger Lindgren – Martinsons Group AB Birgit Östman, page 26 upper
Daniel Wilded – Martinsons Group AB
Graphic design and production
Contributors ProService Kommunikation AB
Bengt Friberg – ProService Kommunikation AB
Lotta Olsson – ProService Kommunikation AB ISBN 978-91-983214-4-3
Marie Åsell – Swedish Wood
186 KL-trähandbok
Publications and websites from Swedish Wood
Publications
Order via www.swedishwood.com/publications.
dbook
The CLT Han
CLT struc tures
– facts and
planning Grading
of sawn timbe
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according
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1
Architecture in wood The CLT Handbook Grading

Presentation of CLT structures – A guide about sawn
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tion mat
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C LT a s a e m s fo r
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Construc r u c t u re s
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the shortlisted entries facts and planning. timber in Europe

Wa l l s
f i re
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sound
C LT a n d i s t u re
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P u rc h a s i
from the 2016 In English/Swedish. according to EN 1611-1.

Timber Prize. 188 pages. Format A4. Also in Swedish.
In English/Swedish. 84 pages. Format A5.
168 pages. Format A4.
ber structures ber structures ber structures

Design of tim Design of tim Design of tim
Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3
aspects of las
Structural Rules and formu ode 5 Examples
ruction Euroc
timber const 2:2016 according to 2:2016 2:2016
EDITION EDITION EDITION
Design of timber Design of timber Design of timber

structures Volume 1
Introduc tion
Struc tural
to design
properti es
struc tural
and design
process
of sawn timber
timber element
and engineer
s in ULS
ed wood
produc ts
structures Volume 2
General concept es
Material
Bending
properti
A xial loading
s
tion subjec
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structures Volume 3
Design of Cross sec
d stresses
Structural aspects of Rules and formulas

ted to combine or cur ved shape
Examples.
timber joints tion subjec
Design of s Cross sec cross sec
tion limit state
(ULS)
timber element with varying the ultimate
Compos ite 1 1 Member s Design in 3 1
stabiliza tion – Volume ty limit states timber joints – Volume
Horizont al ty timber structures Ser viceabili fastener s Design of s timber structures
Design of Design of
ser viceabili with metal timber element
Design for for housing Connec tions Compos ite
systems ms stabiliza tion
Timber building for infrastru
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systems ser viceabili
Struc tural Bracing Design for
timber construction. according to Euro- Also in Swedish.

Also in Swedish. code 5. Also in Swedish. 64 pages. Format A4.
316 pages. Format A4. 64 pages. Format A4.
Websites
www.swedishwood.com www.woodcampus.co.uk
Swedish Wood works to promote knowledge, inspiration and development Box 55525
in the field of wood, wood products and wood construction. The aim is to 102 04 Stockholm
increase the use of wood in Sweden and in selected markets abroad through Tel: 08-762 72 60
information and inspiration. Swedish Wood also focuses on raising the profile
Fax: 08-762 79 90
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[email protected]
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industry. ISBN 978-91-983214-4-3
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The CLT Handbook

CLT structures – facts and planning

Stockholm, May 2019

Eric Borgström and Johan Fröbel

Cover: Strandparken, Sundbyberg, Sweden.

The CLT Handbook refers mainly to European construction standards

Where the Swedish EKS 10 lacks rules or presents questionable design

The authors have been responsible for interpreting building regulations,

Skellefteå, May 2019

The CLT Handbook 3

CLT as a construction material 8 Floor structures 90

1.2 Architect’s views on CLT 9 5.2 Deformations 94

1.3 CLT as a construction material 11 5.3 Deflection, sagging and vibrations 97

1.4 CLT in the eco-cycle 12 5.4 Fire safety 101

1.5 CLT manufacture 16 5.5 Acoustic performance 101

1.6 Properties 19 5.6 Example calculations 106

1.7 Where can you use CLT? 21

2.1 Floor structures and walls 25 6.2 Static design 112

2.2 CLT as a beam 26 6.3 Structure stability 115

2.3 CLT in shell structures 26 6.4 Fire 121

2.4 Initial design 27 6.5 Acoustic 121

6.6 Wall cross-sections 123

Design of CLT structures 30 6.7 Design and detailed solutions 124

3.1 Basis for design 30 6.8 Example calculations 127

3.2 Material properties of CLT 37

Joints and connections 72 CLT and sound 145

4.2 Design principles 73

4.3 Overview of joint types 74

4.4 Detailed solutions 75

4.5 Designing of connections 80

The CLT Handbook 5

CLT, heat and moisture 157

9.3 CLT and thermal insulation 160

Purchasing and assembly 164

10.2 Handling CLT correctly 164

10.3 Protecting the structure during construction 170

10.4 Points to bear in mind 174

Swedish Wood publications and websites 187

6 The CLT Handbook

The CLT Handbook 7

1.2 Architect’s view of CLT 9

8 The CLT Handbook

A CLT structure has full load-bearing capacity even before assembly

1.2 Architect’s view of CLT

The CLT Handbook 9

compression, tensile and shear forces in buildings. Issues of fire

10 The CLT Handbook

1.3 CLT as a construction

The CLT Handbook 11

1.4 CLT in the eco-cycle

Chips and shavings

Re-use of wooden packaging

12 The CLT Handbook

Table 1.1 Environmental assessment of a building.

Life cycle information about the building Other information

The CLT Handbook 13

Figure 1.3 presents figures for some of these alternatives with regard

Carbon emissions (kg CO2 eq/m2 housing development)

14 The CLT Handbook

The concrete alternative also stores large quantities of carbon in

1.6 Properties 19 5.6 Example calculations 106

3.1 Basis for design 30 6.8 Example calculations 127

3.2 Material properties of CLT 37