The Usage of Domestic Water Filtration Systems in Malaysia

University of Southern Queensland
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying
The Usage of Domestic Water Filtration Systems in

Malaysia
A dissertation submitted by
LAW BEE BEE
In fulfillment of the requirements of
Courses ENG4111 and 4112 Research Project
towards the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering
Submitted: October, 2005

ABSTRACT
Water is closely related to human health as there is about 70% of water found in
human bodies. In the recent years, consumers are concern about the quality of tap
water due to the water pollution issues published in the mass media. Manufacturers
and distributors of domestic water treatment systems took this opportunity to
promote their own water filtration systems. Different types of domestic water
treatment systems have been introduced to the public.
In this research project, six types of domestic treatment methods were identified,
namely activated carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation
system, ultraviolet light system and combination unit. The theories and technologies
involved in each type of water treatment system are being studied. From the
literature review, the mechanisms involved are convincing and almost ideal. In order
to investigate the effectiveness of each water treatment system, laboratory
experiments have been conducted to justify the reported results.
The laboratory experiments take into account parameters such as apparent colour,
turbidity, total free chlorine, total aluminium, total iron and total chromium. Three
samples of each treatment method are collected in order to obtain the average value.
The percentage removal of each parameter is obtained by taking readings before and
after treatment. Then, the average value of percentage removal is calculated to
evaluate the efficiency of each treatment method. Hopefully this research project can
raise the interest of consumers to be more aware of the water quality that they
consume everyday and in choosing a correct domestic water treatment system that
suits their lifestyle requirement.
ii
ENG4111 & ENG4112 Research Project
Limitations of Use
The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering

and Surveying, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept
any responsibility for the truth, accuracy or completeness of material contained
within or associated with this dissertation.
Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the
risk of the Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of
Engineering and Surveying or the staff of the University of Southern Queensland.
This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity

beyond this exercise. The sole purpose of the course pair entitled "Research Project"
is to contribute to the overall education within the student’s chosen degree program.
This document, the associated hardware, software, drawings, and other material set
out in the associated appendices should not be used for any other purpose: if they
are so used, it is entirely at the risk of the user.
Prof G Baker
Dean
iii
Certification
I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analyses and
conclusions set out in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where
otherwise indicated and acknowledged.
I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for
assessment in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated.
LAW Bee Bee
Student Number: 0050027407
_____________________________
Signature
_____________________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Ernest Yoong for his patience and
guidance throughout this entire project. My supervisor had given me lots of advice
and suggestion from time to time on how to write this report.
I would like to thank my parents for their financial and moral support during this
project. Then, I would also like to thank individuals who had provided me the
information of various types of water treatment systems. I really appreciated their
kindly help.
I also want to thank all my readers who had spent their time in reading this report
patiently. Hopefully this report will provide them some knowledge in various
treatment systems and their filtration process.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Disclaimer Page iii
Certification Page iv
Acknowledgements v
List of Figures x
List of Tables xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Project Aims 2
1.2 Specific Objectives 2
1.3 Background 3
1.4 Dissertation Overview 4
CHAPTER 2 SAFE DRINKING WATER 6

2.1 Sources of Water 7
2.1.1 Surface Water 8
2.1.2 Groundwater 9
2.2 Physical Quality 10
2.2.1 Colour 11
2.2.2 Turbidity 11
2.2.3 Taste and Odour 12
2.2.4 Suspended Solids and Total Dissolved Solids 12
2.3 Chemical Quality 13
2.3.1 Arsenic 13
2.3.2 Cadmium 14
2.3.3 Chromium 14
2.3.4 Fluoride 14
2.3.5 Lead 15
2.3.6 Mercury 15
2.3.7 Pesticides 16
2.3.8 Trihalomethanes 16
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2.4 Other Parameters 17
2.4.1 pH 17
2.4.2 Hardness 17
2.4.3 Iron 17
2.5 Water Quality Standards 18
2.5.1 Comparison of Malaysian Drinking Standard and WHO Drinking 18
Standard
CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF DOMESTIC WATER FILTER 20

3.1 Activated Carbon Filter 22
3.1.1 Adsorption Mechanism 23
3.1.2 Case Study 1: Granular Activated Carbon Filter 25
3.1.3 Case Study 2: Powdered Activated Carbon Filter 26
3.2 Membrane Filter 27
3.2.1 Case Study 1: Point of entry (POE) 30
3.2.2 Case Study 2: Point of use (POU) 32
3.3 Reverse Osmosis 34
3.3.1 R.O. Membrane 35
3.3.2 Case Study 1: RO1 40
3.3.3 Case Study 2: RO2 41
3.4 Distillation 44
3.4.1 Case Study 1: Distillation 1 46
3.5 Ultraviolet Light (UV light) 48
3.5.1 Mechanism of UV Light 49
3.5.2 Case Study 1: UV1 52
3.6 Combination filter 53
3.6.1 Case Study 1: Combination 1 54
CHAPTER 4 SURVEY RESULTS 60

4.1 Statistical Results 61
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CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES 71
5.1 Sample collection, Preservation and Storage 71
5.1.1 Water Collection 72
5.1.2 Types of Containers 72
5.1.3 Storage and Preservation 72
5.2 Apparent Colour 73
5.2.1 Introduction 73
5.2.2 Equipment and Required Materials 74
5.2.3 Test Procedures 75
5.3 Turbidity 76
5.4 Total Free Chlorine 78
5.5 Total Aluminium 80
5.6 Total Chromium 82
5.7 Total Iron 84
CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 87

6.2 Turbidity 89
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6.6 Total Iron 93
CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 94

7.2 Turbidity 97
7.6 Total Iron 105
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 107

8.1 Conclusion 107
8.2 Further work 109
LIST OF REFERENCES 111
APPENDICES
Appendix A- Project Specification 114
Appendix B- Questionnaire 116
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Section withdrawals of surface water 9

Figure 2.2: Section withdrawals of groundwater 10
Figure 3.1: Adsorption process of activated carbon 23
Figure 3.2: Activated carbon filtering process 24
Figure 3.3: Arrangement of granular activated carbon filter 25
Figure 3.4: Powdered activated carbon cartridge 26
Figure 3.5: Two forms of separation in membrane filtration 29
Figure 3.6: Fiber membrane filtration process 30
Figure 3.7: Typical ceramic membrane 32
Figure 3.8: Osmosis and reverse osmosis process 34
Figure 3.9: Spiral wound membrane 36
Figure 3.10: Hollow fiber membrane 37
Figure 3.11: Typical counter top R.O. system 39
Figure 3.12: Typical under sink R.O. system arrangement 39
Figure 3.13: Typical arrangement of R.O. system 40
Figure 3.14: Components and process of a distiller 45
Figure 3.15: Typical countertop distiller 46
Figure 3.16: Disruption of DNA structure 50
Figure 3.17: Typical UV treatment arrangement 52
Figure 3.18: Arrangement of COM3 58
Figure 4.1: Satisfaction with supplied tap water 61
Figure 4.2: Boiling of tap water before consuming it 62
Figure 4.3: Problems of tap water 63
Figure 4.4: Installation of domestic water filter 64
Figure 4.5: Number of water filters installed 65
Figure 4.6: Testing of tap water before purchasing water filter 66
Figure 4.7: Types of domestic water filter 67
Figure 4.8: Reasons of installing water filter 68
Figure 4.9: Investment in water filters 69
Figure 5.1: Lovibond Colour Comparator 73
Figure 5.2: Hach Odyssey Spectrometer 74
x
Figure 5.3: 2100N Laboratory Turbidimeter 77
Figure 5.4: Hach 2100P Portable Turbidimeter 77
Figure 5.5: Aluminium testing 82
Figure 7.1: Percentage removal of colour for different treatment systems 95
Figure 7.2: Percentage removal of turbidity for different treatment systems 97
Figure 7.3: Percentage removal of chlorine for different treatment systems 99
Figure 7.4: Percentage removal of aluminium for different
treatment systems 101
Figure 7.5: Percentage removal of total chromium for different
filtration systems 103
Figure 7.6: Percentage removal of total iron for different filtration systems 105
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Comparison of Malaysian Drinking Standard and 18

WHO Drinking Standard
Table 3.1: Replacement parts of RO1 41
Table 3.2: Replacement parts of RO2 42
Table 3.3: Typical R.O. contamination rejection 43
Table 3.4: Replacement parts of COM2 56
Table 3.5: Brief comparisons of different types of water treatment systems 59
Table 5.1: Precision of Hach Odyssey spectrometer for measuring apparent 75
colour
Table 5.2: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey spectrometer for measuring apparent 75
colour
Table 5.3: Specifications of Model 2100N Turbidimeter for measuring turbidity 76
Table 5.4: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring free chlorine 78
Table 5.5: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring free chlorine 78
Table 5.6: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring aluminium 81
Table 5.7: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring aluminium 81
Table 5.8: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total chromium 83
Table 5.9: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total 83
chromium
Table 5.10: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total iron 85
Table 5.11: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total iron 85
Table 6.1: Experimental results for apparent colour for different filtration systems 88
Table 6.2: Experimental results for turbidity for different filtration systems 89
Table 6.3: Experimental results for total free chlorine for different filtration 90
systems
Table 6.4: Experimental results for total aluminium for different filtration 91
systems
Table 6.5: Experimental results for total chromium for different filtration 92
systems
Table 6.6: Experimental results for total iron for different filtration systems 93
xii
Table 7.1: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of apparent 95
Colour
Table 7.2: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of turbidity 97
Table 7.3: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total free 99
chlorine
Table 7.4: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of
aluminium 101
Table 7.5: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total 103
chromium
Table 7.6: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of
total iron 105
xiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Water is very important to human beings. We can live for a while without food but
we can not survive without water as there is about 70 % of water in our bodies.
Since water is closely related to our life, therefore we are concerned with the quality
of our supplied drinking water. In the past, consumers used the supplied water
without any doubts. In recent years, consumers focus on the safety of their tap water
due to the increasing numbers of complaints of water contamination.
In Malaysia, highland forests act as the natural water towers providing a clean
supply of fresh water for domestic, agricultural and industrial demands. There are
many unplanned and unsustainable developments in the highland forests in Malaysia
such as road building and excessive highland resort development. Excessive clearing
of forests and construction of highland road have lead to the contamination of water
supply.(Source:http://www.tve.org)
1
Manufacturers and distributors of domestic water filter systems have mushroomed in
the market. They have advertised their products in the mass media in order to attract
more consumers in buying it. Consumers are willing to spend money on the water
filter systems to assure that the tap water is always clean and safe for human
consumption.
1.1 Project Aims
The aim of this research project is to investigate the current use of domestic water
filters and compare the technologies of the various filtration systems.
This study will investigate various types of commonly used water filter such as
activated carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system,
ultraviolet light system and combination unit (i.e. combination of few treatment
methods into one unit).
This project also aimed at investigating the effectiveness of various water filters
through laboratory experiments.
1.2 Specific Objectives
The objectives of this research project are as below:
• Literature review about the water quality and method of measurement.
• Study the mechanism and technology behind a few popular types of domestic
water filter available in Malaysian market. Comparisons will be made based
on quality, technology, price and maintenance.
2
• Conduct a survey on public’s opinion about the supplied water quality, the
reasons households install water filter systems and gauge public attitude
towards these systems.
• Collect water samples and conduct lab tests to compare the quality of water
before and after treatment.
1.3 Background
Water filters have been introduced for many centuries; they are closely related to the
history of water. Water has become more contaminated with the growth of industry
and increase in population; human beings realized that water filters are needed in
order to provide pure and clean water for drinking and cooking purposes. This is
because we want to ensure that only the clean water is being consumed. Several
treatment alternatives have been introduced for water treatment.
According to the history, the use of water filters began more than 4000 years ago.
Early Sanskrit writings outlined some methods to generate pure water such as
boiling, placing hot metal instruments in water, exposing to sunlight and filtering
water through crude sand or charcoal filters. As early as 1500 years ago, Egyptians
recommended the application of coagulant alum to settle out the suspended solids
from water. (Source: www.historyofwaterfilters.com)
The famed father of medicine, Hippocrates conducted his own crude water filter.
The filter was a cloth bag used to trap any sentiments in the water when water was
poured through it. Several experiments in water purification were carried out during
the Middle Ages. However, there is lack of scientific innovations in this period of
time. Sir Francis Bacon in 1627 began the experiment of desalination of seawater;
his experiment did mark rejuvenation in water filter experimentation.
(Source: www.historyofwaterfilters.com)
3
During the 1800s, European began using slow sand filtration to remove taste and
odour from water. During 1960s, standard drinking water treatment techniques such
as aeration, flocculation and granular activated carbon adsorption were used for
removal of organic contaminants. In the 1970s and 1980s, membrane filtration was
used in reverse osmosis system.
Throughout the centuries, new technologies have developed and emerged in the
water treatment. The popular types of water filter used nowadays are activated
carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system,
ultraviolet light unit and combination unit. Currently, lead and disinfection
byproducts are the major concerns in regard to water quality. Chlorine byproducts
are harmful chemicals to humans’ health as they are cancer causing compounds. The
future of water filtration will focus on removal of both chemical substances and
microorganisms from drinking water.
1.4 Dissertation Overview
Chapter two of this research project focuses on the safety of drinking water for
human consumption. Sources of water, physical quality and chemical quality of
drinking water are discussed in this chapter. In chapter three, six types of domestic
water filtration systems are investigated, namely activated carbon, membrane,
reverse osmosis, distillation, ultraviolet light and combination. Comparisons of
various filtration systems are made based on the technologies, price, maintenance
and limitation.
The public survey results are analyzed in the chapter four based on the random
questionnaire of 100 respondents. The survey is to identify the public’s opinion
about the supplied water quality and the use of domestic water filtration systems in
Malaysian market nowadays.
4
Laboratory experiments such as apparent colour, turbidity, total iron, total chromium,
total aluminium and total chlorine are set out in chapter five. The equipments used,
materials required and test procedures are discussed in this chapter. The
experimental results of those parameters are outlined in the chapter six. Then, the
discussion and analysis of the experimental results of each parameter are given in
chapter seven.
5
CHAPTER 2
SAFE DRINKING WATER
Quality of drinking water depends on where we live, the source of the raw water, the
water supplier and exposure to contamination as the water travels from its source
through distribution system to our faucet. In Malaysia, water pollution is an
alarming issue to the public.
Quality of water becomes worse due to rapid development of the country. As

scientific techniques became more sophisticated, industries pumped more harmful
chemicals into the river and hence more impurities were found in drinking water.
Cities are the polluters of water with disposal sewerage, industrial effluent and
polluted urban runoff. Pesticides and animal wastes from farming also pollute the
water. Water pollution disrupts the water supply services, affects the human health
and destroys the aquatic lives and habitat. Drinking water should be colourless,
6
odourless, free from pathogenic organisms, not saline and free from chemical
compounds that may affect human health.
Due to the poor water quality, consumers often resort to the use of domestic water
filters. Therefore, to safe guard public health we need to know about the quality of
water in terms of physical and chemical properties. We have the technology and
ability to treat water to a high standard. However, owing to deteriorating water
delivery infrastructures i.e. reticulation, trunk mains and storage tanks, water
delivered at the household may be of a diminished quality due to intervening
contamination.
2.1 Sources of Water
Water is known as the universal solvent due to its ability to slowly dissolve anything
that comes into contact with. The total volume of water in the world remains
constant through the hydrological cycle. There is about 97.5 % of the world’s water
is sea water and only 2.5 % of the total volume is non-saline. Although it appears
that plenty of water in the world, but there is only very little which is readily
available for human consumption.
There is about 75 % of the fresh water locked up as ice-caps and glaciers, 24 % of it

appears as groundwater and less than 1 % of the total volume is found in lakes,
rivers and the soil. Public drinking water is generally taken from streams, rivers,
lakes or underground.
In general, water supply in Malaysia comes from two main resources, i.e. surface
water and groundwater. Each of these resources has its own advantages and
disadvantages as a source of drinking water.
7
2.1.1 Surface Water
Surface water is any water which is found flowing or standing on the surface such as
river, streams, ponds, lakes and reservoir. Origin of surface water is surface runoff,
direct precipitation, interflow and water table discharge.
Quality of surface water is dependent upon the geological factor. Waters from chalk
and limestone catchments result in hard waters, whereas impervious rocks such as
granite result in soft waters. Suspended solids content of surface water vary widely
depending on the season and flow.
During periods of heavy precipitation, the river water may be muddy and high in
bacterial content. Clay soils tend to produce muddy streams resulting in a change in
water quality due to the washing of silt into the streams. Forests retard run off and
tend to equalize stream flow.
In Malaysia, surface water is readily available throughout the year; it is abstracted

mainly for irrigation and domestic uses. Surface water represents 97 % of the total
water use. Pollution of surface water is inevitable; therefore it needs to be treated
carefully before being supplied to the consumers. The Figure 2.1 below shows the
withdrawals of surface water by different sectors in Malaysia.
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Sector withdrawals of surface water
Domestic
11%
Industry
13%
Agriculture
Industry
Domestic
Agriculture
76%
Figure 2.1: Sector withdrawals of surface water [www.pemsea.org]
2.1.2 Groundwater
Groundwater is the precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches
rock material that is saturated with water. In general, groundwater is much cheaper
than surface water as it does not require construction of reservoir or long pipelines.
Groundwater usually has better quality than surface water; it is usually free from
suspended solids, bacteria and other pathogens except in areas where it has been
affected by pollution.
Groundwater is not commonly used in Malaysia; it is limited to some pockets of the

coastal region and is generally exploited by rural people to supplement their piped
water supply. Groundwater only represents 3 % of the total water use.
In Malaysia, the potential aquifers may be found in alluvium and hard rock. In
alluvium, the aquifer occurs in layers of sand and gravel. This kind of aquifer is
capable to supply water in the range from 45 m3 to 100 m3 of water/ hour/ well.
In consolidated sediment, the aquifer occurs in openings form as a result of chemical

dissolution and in fractures in the rock body. Besides that, the aquifer also occurs in
9
rock fractures, bedding and voids between grains. In igneous and volcanic rock, the
aquifer occurs in rock fractures including joints and faults. This is not a good aquifer
as the discharge rate seldom exceeds 10 m3/ hour/ well. The Figure 2.2 below shows
the withdrawals of ground water by different sectors in Malaysia.
Sector withdrawals of groundwater
Agriculture
5%
Industry
33% Agriculture
Industry
Domestic Domestic
62%
Figure 2.2: Sector withdrawals of groundwater [www.pemsea.org]
2.2 Physical quality
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses
of sight, touch, taste or smell. Physical quality of water is referred to the
measurement of parameters such as colour, turbidity, taste, odour, suspended and
dissolved solids. Majority of the consumers always make sure that they only
consume water which has good physical quality.
Physical quality of water may not seriously affect human health in short term.
However, if we consume poor quality of water for long period of time, then there
will be detrimental effect to our health as the contaminants accumulated. Therefore,
10
we need to know about the causes and health effects of some physical parameters of
drinking water.
2.2.1 Colour
Drinking water should be colourless. Presence of colour in drinking water indicates

the presence of complex organic compounds, colloidal forms of iron and manganese,
or highly coloured industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, paper
production or food processing.
Iron oxides cause reddish water and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish
water. Presence of yellowish-brown colour may cause by organic debris such as
leaves, weeds or woods, where water picks up tannins, humic acid and humates.
Less than 2.5 mg/l of humic and fulvic acid in drinking water is considered safe for
human consumption. The acceptable colour in drinking water is less than 15 TCU
(True Colour Units). However, about half of Malaysian rivers contain more than 50
TCU. Colour in water can be reduced to acceptable level by conventional treatment
if the raw water does not contain more than 75 TCU.
2.2.2 Turbidity
Turbidity in drinking water is due to organic or inorganic impurities suspended in

water. The predominant suspended solids in Malaysian waters are consist of silt,
clay and finely divided organic matter. Household and industrial wastewater may
contain a wide variety of turbidity-producing material. Soaps, detergents and
emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that result in turbidity.
Maximum turbidity level allowed in drinking water is 5 NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units) whereas maximum acceptable raw water turbidity level is 1000
mg/l. Malaysian river waters have high turbidity, mostly of silt with 47 % of them
having more than 50 mg/l of suspended solids. The process of coagulation,
11
flocculation, sedimentation and filtration are able to reduce the turbidity in raw
water to acceptable level.
2.2.3 Taste and odour
Inorganic substances are likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odour but

organic material is likely to produce both taste and odour. Chlorination products are
also potential causes of taste and odour in water. Ammonia reacts with chlorine
would produce three chloramines, which are more odourous than free chlorine.
Chlorination of phenol can cause odour problems due to the formation of

chlorophenols. Algae can produce extra cellular products which are themselves
odourous. Taste and odour can be measured in unit of TON (Threshold Odour
Number).
2.2.4 Suspended Solids and Total Dissolved Solids
A suspended solid is the quantitative measurement of amount of particulate material

in water sample. It includes both organic and inorganic matters such as plankton,
clay and silt. These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the
erosive action of water flowing over surfaces.
Other suspended materials may come from domestic wastewater which contains
large quantities of organic suspended solids and industrial wastewater. Suspended
material is aesthetically unpleasant and provides adsorption sites for chemical and
biological agents.
A total dissolved solid is the quantitative measurement of dissolved salts in water.

Total dissolved solid has influence on quality of water in terms of taste and hardness.
Total dissolved solids in water are mainly due to calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, iron and manganese. Excessive total dissolved solids give water an
12
unpalatable mineral taste and hardness whereas extremely low total dissolved solids
may give flat taste. The acceptable value of total dissolved solids is 1000 mg/l.
2.3 Chemical quality
In the supplied drinking water, presence of inorganic substances at concentration

above certain levels may give rise to actual danger to human health. Inorganic
chemicals are generally found naturally only in certain groundwater or when
industrial contamination is present. Inorganic chemicals are derived from both
natural processes of chemical weathering, soil leaching and human activities.
Harmful inorganic chemical pollutants include arsenic, cadmium, chromium cyanide

and mercury. Arsenic is known to cause cancer and serious damage to the
circulatory system. Cadmium can damage kidneys whereas chromium can affect the
liver.
Organic substances from industry, agriculture and municipal effluents contribute
extensively to the pollution of water sources. Many contaminants are found through
chemical transformations of naturally occurring organic matter during water
disinfection like chlorine will convert humic substances to trihalometahnes.
2.3.1 Arsenic
In certain types of metalliferous ore area, the surface waters contain certain amount
of arsenic. It is mainly due to pollution of weed killers, pesticides containing arsenic
compounds or runoff from mining waste tips. The maximum allowable content of
arsenic is 0.05 mg/l. Arsenic concentration in Malaysian rivers and lakes are well
below 0.01 mg/l but some instances can be as high as 1.0 mg/l.
13
2.3.2 Cadmium
Cadmium is the environment results from industrial sources such as electroplating

facilities, textile manufacturing and chemical industries. Cadmium occurs as an
impurity in zinc and may enter tap water as a result of galvanized pipe corrosion.
Excessive exposure to cadmium has resulted in severe health effects. The maximum
allowable content of cadmium is 0.005 mg/l. Cadmium can be removed effectively
by coagulation at pH greater than 8.0 during water treatment.
2.3.3 Chromium
Chromium is widely distributed in soils and plants, but it is rare in natural waters.
Concentration of chromium in household tap water may increase due to plumbing
materials. Other potential sources are including fossil fuel combustion, solid waste
and sewage sludge incineration and cement plant emission.
Chromium (VI) is much more toxic than chromium (III) and does not have any
nutritional value. Chromium (VI) causes hemorrhage of the gastrointestinal tract,
ulceration of the nasal septum and respiratory cancer. The maximum allowable
value is 0.05 mg/l.
2.3.4 Fluoride
Fluoride is the most electronegative element; small amounts of fluoride are present
in most soils. Fluoride has been added to drinking water to reduce the potential for
dental caries. Fluoride content in Malaysian surface water is in the range of 0.02 to
0.78 mg/l.
Dental fluorosis appears when fluoride in drinking water is in the range of 1 to 2

mg/l. Fluoride levels of 0.6 to 0.9 mg/l can reduce dental caries formation. Crippling
14
fluorosis occurs when fluoride is in the range of 10 to 40 mg/l. The maximum
allowable value is in the range of 0.5 to 0.9 mg/l.
2.3.5 Lead
Lead concentration in natural waters is rarely more than 0.02 mg/l except in areas
where soft and acidic waters come into contact with galena or other lead ores. Lead
contamination in drinking water is mainly results from corrosion of lead pipes and
solders especially in areas of soft water.
Lead in solution is odourless, tasteless and colourless, which makes high levels in
drinking water undetectable unless chemically analysed. Lead is a cumulative body
poison to humans. Children, infants, foetuses in utero and pregnant women are most
sensitive to lead exposure. Lead can attack the nervous system and result in mental
retardation and behavioural abnormalities in the young and unborn. The maximum
allowable content of lead is 0.05 mg/l.
2.3.6 Mercury
Mercury occurs in drinking water as an inorganic salt and it is poorly absorbed into
the adult, but it is highly absorbed in infants and young children. Mercury is a toxic
element and has no beneficial physiological function in man.
Organic forms of mercury are readily absorbed and easily enter the central nervous
system, causing death or mental and motor dysfunctions. The maximum allowable
value is 0.001 mg/l. Organic mercury may be removed by activated carbon
adsorption.
15
2.3.7 Pesticides
Pesticides such as insecticides, herbicides and fungicides are widely used in

agriculture and public health. They include inorganic compounds such as DDT
dieldrin, aldrin and lindane; organophosphorus compound such as parathion and
malathion.
Pesticides include organic compounds which are potentially toxic even in small
amounts. Some organic compounds particularly the chlorinated hydrocarbons are
very resistant to chemical and biochemical degradation. Accidental discharges of
pesticides in bulk to water courses can be more serious causing fish death and
making it necessary for a temporary shut down of water intakes.
2.3.8 Trihalomethanes (THMs)
Chlorine has been used to disinfect drinking water since the beginning of the century.
Some of the organic compounds in water could react with the chlorine during
disinfection process at the treatment plant to form new, complex and dangerous
chemicals. Trihalomethanes (THMs) is one group of these which has attracted
considerable attention.
Four common THMs found in drinking water are chloroform,

bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform. THMs are only
found in raw water or treated water which are disinfected using chlorine. They are
considered carcinogens and therefore undesirable in drinking water. The most
effective ways of reducing THMs in drinking water are to reduce organic levels
before disinfection with chlorine and to restrict the use of chlorine prechlorination.
16
2.4 Other parameters
2.4.1 pH
Value of pH is the measurement of acidity and alkalinity of waters. Most of the

natural waters have pH value range from 4 to 9. Acidic water of low pH tends to be
more corrosive, water results a sour taste if the pH value is very low. Malaysian
river waters have pH value less than 7 with 60 % of them having value between 6.5
and 8.5. The recommended value for pH of water is in the range of 6.5 to 9.0.
2.4.2 Hardness
Hardness is the measure of polyvalent cation contents present in water due to

calcium, magnesium, strontium and barium. Total hardness consists of temporary
hardness and permanent hardness. Temporary hardness is precipitated by boiling and
forms the scale found inside kettles. Permanent hardness is due to calcium,
magnesium sulphates and chlorides which are not precipitated by heating.
According to the research, consumption of hard water may have some health
benefits. Consumption of water without mineral in long term may result in the
lowering of the bone calcium saturation level. In Malaysia, most of river waters are
soft with less than 60 mg/l of hardness. In raw water, hardness of up to 500 mg/l is
permitted.
2.4.3 Iron
Iron is found in raw water as a colloid in suspension or as a complex with other

mineral or organic substances. Iron is also found in distribution systems where the
water ha been in contact with iron pipes. Iron is likely to be precipitated in ferric
state, causing brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures. Large amounts of iron
result a bitter taste in drinking water and make water unpalatable. Iron can lead to
17
the accumulation of large deposits in a distribution system which can give rise to
iron bacteria and further deteriorate the water quality.
Levels of iron in most of the Malaysian river water are in the range of 1 to 5 mg/l.
However, the maximum allowable value is 0.3 mg/l. Therefore, water exceed the
acceptable limit needs to be treated. Iron salts can be reduced to the permissible
level by standard water treatment processes of aeration, coagulation and filtration,
pH adjustment, oxidation with chlorine and lime softening.
2.5 Water quality standards
Water for drinking and cooking should meet certain standards before it is supplied to
the consumer to ensure the human health. World Health Organization (WHO) has
outlined a standard for safe drinking water; all the parameters should not exceed the
maximum acceptable levels. Many countries have their own standards and WHO
standards are only a guideline to them. The parameters measured are divided into a
few categories. The comparison of WHO standards and Malaysian standards is
shown as below.
2.5.1 Comparison of Malaysian Drinking Standard and WHO Drinking

Standard
Parameter Malaysian standard WHO standard
Group I - Physical
Turbidity 5 NTU 5 NTU
Colour 15 TCU or HU 15 TCU
pH 6.5 – 9.0 6.5 – 8.5
Free residual chlorine Not less than 0.2 mg/l Not less than 1.0 mg/l
Combined residual chlorine Not less than 1.0 mg/l Not less than 1.0 mg/l
Group II - Inorganic
Total dissolved solids 1000 mg/l 1000 mg/l
CCE 0.5 mg/l 0.5 mg/l
18
Chloride 250 mg/l 250 mg/l
Anionic detergent MBAs 1 mg/l 1 mg/l
Ammonia as N 0.5 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Nitrate as N 10 mg/l 10 mg/l
Iron 0.3 mg/l 0.3 mg/l
Fluoride 0.5 – 0.9 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Hardness as CaCo3 500 mg/l 500 mg/l
Aluminium 0.2 mg/l 0.2 mg/l
Manganese 0.1 mg/l 0.1 mg/l
Group III
Mercury 0.001 mg/l 0.001 mg/l
Cadmium 0.005 mg/l 0.003 mg/l
Selenium 0.01 mg/l 0.01 mg/l
Arsenic 0.05 mg/l 0.01 mg/l
Cyanide 0.10 mg/l 0.07 mg/l
Lead 0.10 mg/l 0.01 mg/l
Chromium 0.05 mg/l 0.05 mg/l
Silver 0.05 mg/l 0.05 mg/l
Copper 1.0 mg/l -
Magnesium 150 mg/l 150 mg/l
Zinc 5 mg/l 5 mg/l
Sodium 200 mg/l 200 mg/l
Sulphate 400 mg/l 400 mg/l
Mineral oil 0.30 mg/l 0.3 mg/l
phenol 0.002 mg/l 0.03 mg/l
Chloroform 0.03 mg/l 0.03 mg/l
Group IV
Total biocides 0.1 mg/l 0.1 mg/l
Organochlorine pesticides:
Aldrin / dieldrin 0.03 µg/l 0.03 µg/l
Chlordane 0.3 µg/l 0.3 µg/l
DDT 0.001 mg/l 0.001 mg/l
Heptachloro & heptachloro
epoxide 0.1 µg/l 0.1 µg/l
Hexachlorobenzene 0.01 µg/l 0.01 µg/l
Lindane 0.003 mg/l 0.003 mg/l
Methoxychlor 0.03 mg/l 0.03 mg/l
Herbicides:
2, 4-D 0.1 mg/l 0.1 mg/l
Radioactivity:
Cross α 0.1 0.1
Cross β 1 1
Table 2.1: Comparison of Malaysian Drinking Standard and WHO Drinking Standard
19
CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF DOMESTIC WATER FILTER
In recent years, manufacturers and distributors of water treatment system have

mushroomed in the market. They introduced various types of water filters to
consumers. Most of the manufacturers claimed that their water filters are the most
effective system to remove contaminants from the supplied water. The development
of the nation and increase in standard of living become the important factors for
marketing these products.
Actually, each type of water treatment system is designed to treat specific water
quality problems. No single water treatment system is able to treat all the water
problems as all systems have their own limitation. Some of the common type of
water treatment systems sold in the market will be discussed here. The name of the
filter systems and the manufacturers will not be revealed as to protect their
confidentiality.
20
3.1 Activated Carbon Filter
The most common base materials used to produce carbon are wood, coal, and
coconut shell. These materials are subjected to carbonization process where the base
material is heated to the high temperature. In order to activate the carbon, base
material is subjected to a second heat and steam treatment.
Activated carbon is an adsorption medium where substances are attracted and

attached to the surface of the carbon particles. Household activated carbon filters can
be divided into granular activated carbon and powdered activated carbon. Granular
carbons made from coal are hard and dense; hence it can be pumped in water slurry
without appreciable deterioration. Powdered activated carbon is a coal-based
product activated at high temperature and then pulverized to a powder form.
The effectiveness of activated carbon filter depends on the following factors:
i) Physical properties:
The amount and distribution of pores determine how well contaminants are filtered.
Size of pores must large enough to admit contaminant molecules because
contaminants come in all different sizes.
ii) Chemical properties:

The surface of filter interacts chemically with organic molecules. The chemical
nature of adsorbing surface will affect the adsorption effectiveness. Different
chemical properties of carbon filters make them more or less attractive to various
contaminants.
iii) Contaminant properties:

Adsorption process is affected by concentration of organic contaminants. Most
organic chemicals are effectively adsorbed to carbon surface due to the similarity of
materials. Smaller organic molecules are held the tightest because they can fit into
smaller pores.
21
iv) Water temperature and pH:
Low pH value and low temperature result in better adsorption because organic
chemicals are in more adsorb able form.
v) Exposure time:
The longer the contact time of carbon surface with contaminants in water, the
greater amount of contaminant will be removed from water. Contact time can be
improved by increasing the amount of activated carbon and reducing the flow rate of
water through filter.
3.1.1 Adsorption Mechanism
Activated carbon is a porous material which has a high surface area for the
contaminant adsorption. Activated carbon removes contaminants in two mechanisms,
namely as adsorption process and catalytic reduction reaction.
Adsorption process is a process where the contaminants in water attached to the

surface of carbon. Adsorption involves both adsorbent and adsorbate. Adsorbent is
the adsorbing phase (carbon) and the material concentrated or adsorbed at the
surface is adsorbate. The most important characteristic of an adsorbent is the
quantity of adsorbate it can accumulate.
There are two principal types of adsorption, i.e. physical and chemical adsorption.
Physical adsorption is caused by Van der Waals forces and chemical adsorption is
commonly resulting in a transformation of the adsorbate.
22
Figure3.1: Adsorption process of activated carbon [www.activated-carbon.com]
Van der Waals forces are extremely short- ranged and sensitive to the distance
between carbon surface and adsorbate molecule. The attractive forces can be altered
by increasing the density of carbon or reducing the distance between carbon surface
and substance being adsorb.
When attractive forces between carbon surface and contaminant are stronger than
forces keeping contaminant dissolved in water, the organic materials will be
attached to the surface of carbon and therefore adsorption takes place.
Adsorption capacity is increases with surface area of the carbon adsorbent.

Therefore, larger surface area is preferable for providing larger adsorption capacity.
The resulting bond from chemical adsorption is usually greater than the bond that
derived from the physical van der Waals forces.
The degree of insolubility or degree of ‘dislike’ for water (hydrophobicity) of an

organic compound can influence the extent of adsorption significantly, where
increasing hydrophobicity usually increases the extent of adsorption. The greater the
23
solubility of the organic compound results in stronger bond and smaller extent of
adsorption.
The residual disinfectant such as chlorine can be removed by activated carbon

through a catalytic reduction reaction. Activated carbon acts as a reducing agent to
reduce chlorine to a non-oxidative chloride ion. Chemical reaction is involves in
transferring the electrons from carbon surface to chlorine. As carbon surfaces
become filled up, the effectiveness of removal will be reduced. The filter needs to be
replaced with a new cartridge.
Fig 3.2: Activated carbon filtering process [web1.msue.msu.edu]
24
3.1.2 Case Study 1: Granular Activated Carbon Filter
Figure 3.3: Arrangement of granular activated carbon filter [www.ionlight.com]
Mechanism:
Activated carbon surface are both hydrophobic (water hating) and oleophilic (oil
loving), where they hate water but love oil. This type of filter is used with a
sediment filter to remove larger particles such as dust and rust and therefore protects
the carbon filter from being clogged. Water flows through the sediment filter before
entering carbon filter. When water flows through the carbon filter, dissolved
organics in water are adsorbed to the carbon surface.
Cost:
This type of carbon filter costs about RM 130 per unit.
25
Maintenance:
Granulated activated carbon is not cleanable, therefore high solids or turbidity in raw
water will reduce its useful life. The filtering capacity of granular activated carbon is
about 6800 L. Therefore, the granulated activated carbon should be replaced at
intervals of 6800L usage to maintain at its optimal performance. The cartridge of
this filter costs about RM 20 per unit.
3.1.3 Case Study 2: Powdered Activated Carbon Filter
Figure 3.4: Powdered activated carbon cartridge
Mechanism:
This is a simple filtration system where only one cartridge is used to treat the water.
Carbon in powder form is fixed into a cartridge. Water enters the filter from the
bottom end and flows through the cartridge. The contaminants are attracted and
attached to the surface of carbon particles.
Cost:
This kind of powdered activated carbon filter costs about RM 150 per unit.
26
Maintenance:
Powdered activated carbon is also not cleanable. The filtering capacity of the
cartridge is 12800 L or it can last about 6 months, and then the old cartridge should
be replaced by a new one. The cartridge costs about RM 40 per unit.
Advantages and disadvantages:

Activated carbon is not a universal treatment, only limited number of contaminants
will be removed. Carbon filter can be used to remove organic contaminants, chlorine,
some organic chemicals such as trihalomethanes (THM), pesticides and industrial
solvents.
Carbon filters do not remove iron content and heavy metals such as silver, copper
and lead. Offensive taste, odour and colour in supplied water also can be removed
by carbon filter.
Activated carbon filters can be a breeding ground for microorganisms. Non-

pathogenic bacteria that do not cause diseases have been regularly found in carbon
filters. In order to flush out the bacteria that have been built up in the filter, let the
water run for 30 seconds prior to use especially if filter is not used for several days.
Some manufacturers add silver to carbon filters to prevent bacteria growth.
Activated carbon filters only suitable for use on bacteria free water.
3.2 Membrane Filter
Membrane filtration process has been used for many years in water treatment
process. The typical membrane materials used are polymer and ceramic.
Membrane is a thin film of porous material that allows water to pass through and
traps contaminants larger than pore size on the top surface of the membrane.
27
Membrane can be used to prevent larger and undesirable molecules such as virus,
bacteria, salt and metal.
Membranes are increasingly being used in water treatment process because:
• Membranes remove particulates by physical staining above a target size, so

they are able to remove microbial contaminants such as Giardia,
Cryptosporidium and viruses.
• Membranes may reduce the disinfection chemicals.
• Membranes are able to remove organic precursors and leading to more

biologically stable water.
Membranes can be classified into three main types, namely as micro filtration, ultra
filtration and nano filtration. Nano filtration (NF) is a lower pressure process that
removes substances with molecular weight above 100-500 and is capable of
removing hardness, pathogens and originally derived colour. Ultra filtration (UF) is
a low pressure process for removal of microorganisms, colloids, and high molecular
weight compounds while salts and water will pass through. Micro filtration (MF) is
similar to ultra filtration except that the pore size is slightly larger and operating
pressures are lower. Micro filtration can remove contaminants in the range of 0.025
to 10.0 µm from fluid by passage through the micro- porous medium.
There are two forms of separation in membrane filtration. One form is cross flow
separation and the other form is dead end filtration.
In cross flow separation, the fluid stream runs parallel to the membrane. There is
pressure differential across the membrane and the filtrate passes through the
membrane and the remainder continues across the membrane.
In dead end filtration, all the fluid will pass through the membrane; those particles
that cannot fit through the membrane pores are being stopped. The efficiency of
28
filtration is dependent on the pore size of the membrane. There are several
mechanisms by which a ceramic element filters out particles as a dead end filtration.
i) Direct interception or sieving:

Particles of 0.5 µm and larger run into a pore that is smaller than the topmost layer
particle of the ceramic are captured.
ii) Bridging:
Particles that smaller than 0.5 µm may be too small to be intercepted, however two
particles hitting the obstruction at the same time will form a bridge across the pore
adhering to each other. The topmost blocked layer can be removed with brush for
many times before the filter has to be changed.
iii) Initial impaction:

Particle flowing through the filter hits none porous surface barrier, it becomes
captured while the water flows around the barrier. (Source: Doulton Water Filter
Ceramic Candle and Cartridge Technologies)
(a) Dead end filtration (b) Cross flow separation
Figure 3.5: Two forms of separation in membrane filtration [www.Isbu.ac.uk]
29
Micro filtration has the largest pore size of membrane and it is operated at low
pressure. Micro filtration can remove Giardia and Cryptosporidium but is less
effective at removing viruses. Ultra filtration can remove microorganisms, colloids,
high molecular weight compounds, trihalomethane, disinfection products and some
ionic material. Nano filtration can remove hardness, pathogens and organically
derived colour.
Membrane filter can be used both at point of use (POU) and point of entry (POE).
Ceramic is the common material used as the membrane for point of use filter which
is located in the kitchen. Whereas fiber is the common material used as filter stem
for point of entry.
Fiber filters are usually made of cellulose, rayon or other thread like material spun
into a mesh with small pores. Fiber filters are designed to remove suspended solids
from fluid. This kind of filter is usually installed at the main pipe outside the house
to filter out the big particles before entering the piping systems in the house.
2.2.1 Case Study 1: Point Of Entry (POE)
Unwanted
Water Filtered
water
Filtered water contains

particles too small to be
trapped by the filter.
Suspended solids
accumulate on the
filter material
Figure 3.6: Fiber membrane filtration process [http://ianrpubs.unl.edu]
30
Mechanism:
Water flows into a cartridge at high pressure and makes its way into the fiber stem.
The tightly wrapped fibers form a cylinder around a tubular opening and pressure
forces water through the wrappings to the inner opening that leads to the faucet. The
fiber will then filter out the larger particles such as organic matter, sand, mud and
silt. After that, filtrate will pass to the opening that leads to the faucet. Normally, the
flow rate is high with higher pressure as it is on the main pipe.
Cost:
Membrane filter is quite cheap where the cost ranges from RM 75 to RM 200 per
unit.
Maintenance:
When the old fiber stem is worn out, then a new fiber stem has to be replaced.
Clogged filter can reduce the flow pressure of water and interrupt the water flow
into the house. The fiber stem is costs about RM 39 per unit. The life expectancy of
the filter is depends on the quality of feed water. More particles will be trapped in
finer mesh membrane compared to coarse mesh; therefore more frequent filter
change is required.

Fiber filters remove suspended solids in the water. They may not be effective in
removing dissolved solids, organic and chemical pollutants. The fiber used can
retain large amounts of suspended matter if maintained properly. However, drinking
water may contain very fine suspended material, which may be too small to be
removed by fiber filters.
Since this filter is exposed to the sunlight, it might encourage bacteria and algae
growth. This will contaminate further the water flowing through it. Bacteria will
affect health of the users and hence fiber filters need frequent replacement. If proper
attention is given to the filter, then it can stop the unwanted larger particles flow into
31
the house piping system. This system is economical since no electric energy is being
used during the filtration process.
Case Study 2: Point Of Use (POU)
Figure 3.7: Typical ceramic membrane [www.doultonusa.com]
Mechanism:
This filter used ceramic as the membrane to filter the feed water. The pressure and
flow rate of the water are relatively lower than the point of entry. Tap water will
flow into the filter via an input hose, and then the pressure in the cartridge will force
water into the ceramic stem to retain the unwanted contaminants. Ceramic filtration
technology is often called dead end filtration. The filtrate in the stem will flow out
through the output hose and use for cooking and drinking purposes.
32
Cost:
This kind of filter costs in the range from RM 165 – 300 per unit dependents upon
the brand of the filter.
Maintenance:
The ceramic stem should be brushed and washed regularly to prevent it from being
clogged. The ceramic will become thinner and thinner, and then users need to
replace the old stem with a new one. Normally, a ceramic stem can last for about 12
months depends on how frequent is the cleaning process.

This kind of filter is small in size; therefore it can fit easily at the kitchen. This filter
has simple mechanism and straightforward application; therefore it is very easy to
use by the consumers. It is also affordable and available in the current market.
The tiny pores of a ceramic filter element make it an extremely efficient filter for
removal of particulate matter and fine sediment from the water. This ceramic filter is
effective in removing mud, silt and other suspended matter. It is less effective in
removing dissolved solids, organic and chemical pollutants.
33
3.3 Reverse Osmosis
Normal Osmosis
Lower
Contaminant
Concentration
Semi permeable
Membrane
Higher Contaminant Direction of

Concentration Water Flow
Reverse Osmosis
Pressure
Membrane
Water Flow
Figure 3.8: Osmosis and reverse osmosis process [www.wqa.org]
34
Reverse osmosis is a water purification process where untreated water flows
thorough several filters and elements, and one of them is semi-permeable membrane.
Reverse osmosis system is effective in removing impurities in water such as heavy
metals, chemical toxin, pesticides, bacteria and viruses. This system is used to
separate the pure water from salt and other contaminants.
In order to understand the reverse osmosis system, we need to know about the
osmosis process first. For two aqueous solutions of different concentrations of
dissolved solids which are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, water will
pass through the membrane in the direction of more concentrated solution until both
sides of concentrations are reaching at equilibrium state. This process is called
osmosis.
In reverse osmosis process, pressure is applied to the more concentrated liquid in

order to reverse the direction of osmosis. Normal osmotic flow is forced through
semi- permeable membrane into less concentrated solutions. The flow is reversed
mechanically and concentrated solution is separated into water and dissolved solids.
Dirty water left behind is drained off at a constant rate capillary waste water
controller. Rejection efficiency of R.O. system is affected by both ionic charge and
concentration gradient. Rejection rates of single-charged ions are ranged in 90 to 96
%, whereas multi-charged ions having rejection rates exceeding 99 %. Rejection
efficiency is reducing as the concentration gradient increasing.
3.3.1 R.O. Membrane
The membrane used in R.O. system is a thin micro- porous surface that rejects all
impurities but only allows water molecules to pass through. The three types of
commonly used membranes are tubular, spiral wound and hollow fiber.
The two most common base materials used to produce membranes are cellulose
acetate and polyamide polymers. Polyamide polymer membranes produce both
35
higher rejection and flux; tolerate a wider pH range and higher continuous
temperature than cellulose acetate.
i) Spiral wound membrane:
Perforated Central Tube
Permeate Collection Material
Membrane
Feed Channel Spacer
Outer Wrap
Figure 3.9: Spiral wound membrane [http://trisep.com]
Spiral wound membrane is the most popular membranes used in household R.O.
systems. In the design of spiral wound, two flat sheets of membrane are placed back
to back to form an envelope that contains a porous sheet of material called a
permeate carrier. Then, envelope is glued together on three sides only. The fourth
side is attached to a perforated tube.
Water that passes through membrane is then flows along the permeate carrier toward
open end of envelope and leaves through permeate tube. The pores of membrane can
range from atomic dimensions (<10 angstroms) to 100+ microns. Membrane can
reject bacteria and 85 to 95 % of inorganic solids but it allows dissolved solids to
pass through.
36
ii) Hollow fiber membrane:
Permeate Flow
Process Feed Hollow Fiber

Flow Membranes
Figure 3.10: Hollow fiber membrane [www.kochmembrane.com]
Hollow fiber is one of the semi permeable membranes used in reverse osmosis
system. It is usually produced using aromatic polyamides or cellulose triacetate.
Membrane material is spun into hair like hollow fibers with outer diameter of
between 85 to 200 microns. The fibers are bundled together in either a U-shaped
configuration or straight configuration.
Pressure is applied to pump raw water through the distributor tube and flows
outward through the fiber bundle. The pressurized feed water permeates through the
wall of each hollow fiber and leaving the dissolved solids, organics and bacteria to
discharge as reject water.
The major disadvantage of the hollow fiber membrane is its susceptibility to fouling.
Therefore, feed water that containing turbidity, iron and manganese need to be
treated before passing through the hollow fiber.
37
The performance and life of membrane will be affected by the influent water supply.
i) Pressure:
Both the quantity and purity of product water will be affected by the pressure of feed
water. Lower product flow rate and lower product purity is caused by lower feed
water pressure.
ii) pH:
If the feed water is basic, acidic or unstable, it is recommended to use the wider pH
range membranes.
iii) Free chlorine and bacteria:

Cellulose acetate membranes require constant free chlorine to prevent bacteria
growth and damage. Polyamide and thin film membrane will be damaged by free
chlorine; therefore pre-carbon filter is used to remove chlorine from water.
iv) Temperature:
The performance of membrane is based on temperature of 25 ˚C. Quantity of
product water is reduces by 3 % for every 1 ˚C below 25 ˚C. Feed water should not
exceed 35 ˚C because most membranes damage at that temperature.
Household reverse osmosis systems in the market can be classified as undersink and
tabletop. Undersink system is much cheaper than tabletop. Household R.O. systems
usually can treat between 1 to 9 gallons of water. R.O. system is also equipped with
a booster pump to apply high pressure to the water and a tank is needed to store pure
water due to its slow operation.
38
Figure 3.11: Typical counter top R.O. system [http://yourwaterneeds.com]
Figure 3.12: Typical under sink R.O. system arrangement [www.edenengineering.com]
39
Figure 3.13: Typical arrangement of R.O. system [www.jousui-souchi.com]
3.2.2Case Study 1: RO1
Mechanism:
This reverse osmosis system consists of five elements as below:
• Stage 1: 5 micron sediment filter – this sediment filter is used to extract

larger sediment such as dirt and mud. It also used to prolong the life span of
the other elements in water filtration system.
• Stage 2: Pre-carbon – coconut based activated carbons are used to trap large
sediments and extract excessive contents of chlorine from the water supply.
• Stage 3: 1 micron sediment filter – this sediment provides a good filtration

level for extracting large and microscopic sediment. This element protects
and prolongs the life span of membrane.
40
• Stage 4: R.O. membrane – the membrane consists of a skin about 0.0001
microns and a support layer about 100 microns. This element only allows
water molecules to pass through.
• Stage 5: Post-carbon – this element removes the residue unpleasant smell and
maintains fresh water taste.
Cost:
This R.O. system costs about RM 2500 per unit.
Maintenance:
The frequency and cost of replacing parts are shown in the table below.
Filter Frequency Price

Sediment 5 micron Every 3 months RM 30
Pre-carbon Every 8 months RM 60
Sediment 1 microns Every 6 months RM 35
R.O. membrane Every 18 months RM 200
Post-carbon Every 8 months RM 70
Table 3.1: Replacement parts of RO1
3.3.3 Case Study 2: RO2
Mechanism:
This R.O. system is similar to the previous system, but this system consists of six
filters instead of typical five filters.
• Stage 1: Plus-sediment filter – reduces undissolved particles like dust and

rust from existing water supply and protects membrane and pre-carbon filter
from being clogged.
41
• Stage 2: Pre-carbon filter – reduces chlorine to prevent hydrolysis of
membrane and absorbs volatile organic compounds from water supply.
• Stage 3: TFC membrane filter – thin film composite membrane with pores of
up to 0.0001 micron used to reduce heavy metals and waterborne
microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria. Chlorine will destroy TCF
membrane; therefore it is always equipped with carbon pre-filter to remove
chlorine.
• Stage 4: Post-carbon filter – improves taste and odour in drinking water as

well as enhances anti-bacterial functions through its silver granular activated
carbon.
• Stage 5: Fine filter – minimizes contamination and reduces fine dust that
flows into storage tank by passing it first through post-carbon filter.
• Stage 6: Bio-ceramic – restraints breeding of any microorganisms inside

water tank and enhance sanitation.
Cost:
This six filtration system costs about RM 3100 per unit.
Maintenance:
Filter Frequency Price

Sediment filter 3 months RM 60
Pre-carbon filter 6 months RM 70
TFC membrane filter 24 months RM 300
Post-carbon filter 8 months RM 80
Fine filter 9 months RM 75
Bio-ceramic 12 months RM 80
Table 3.2: Replacement parts of RO2
42
Reverse osmosis treatment system can provide consumers with pure water, free from
any dissolved solids, organic and chemical matter and mineral. Some typical
removal rates for R.O. system are shown in the table below.
Chemical Rejection (%)

Sodium 85 – 93
Calcium 96 – 98
Magnesium 96 – 98
Iron 95 – 98
Lead 96 – 99
Fluoride 87 – 93
Nitrate 60 – 92
Copper 98 – 99
Arsenic 94 – 96
Mercury 96 – 98
Table 3.3: Typical R.O. contaminant rejection (source: www.cetsolar.com)
As R.O. system removes large amounts of beneficial minerals from the water, we
might lack of minerals in our body if we consume R.O. water for a long period of
time. Removal of alkaline mineral will produce acidic water. This may result in
pulling of minerals from our bone and teeth to form bicarbonates to neutralize the
acid in the body.
R.O. system wastes a lot of water, it only recovers 5 to 15 % of the water that
entering the system, and the remainder is discharged as waste water. The waste
water is contains rejected contaminants in supplied water.
R.O. system takes time in the treatment process, most of the point-of-use systems
produce less than 1 gallon of water per hour. R.O. system requires regular
43
maintenance and monitoring to perform satisfactorily over an extended period of
time. The maintenance cost can be considered very high.
3.4 Distillation
Distillation is a natural process that exists since the earth began. In natural,
distillation is responsible for the hydrologic cycle. Surface water on the earth’s
surface such as lakes, oceans and streams is evaporates into the atmosphere when it
is heated up by the sun. Impurities of the water are leaving behind during
evaporation process. As the vapor is cools, it is condenses and falls back to the earth
as rain, snow or other forms of precipitation.
Distillation is one of the earliest types of water treatment systems, and it is still a
popular treatment system until today. Distillation process is easy to understand and
it is one of the effective treatments to remove the water contaminants. Distillation in
water treatment also applied the same theory as natural distillation.
Distillation is a process to produce pure water by removing almost all impurities

from the water. Distillation process is able to remove nitrate, bacteria, sodium,
hardness, dissolved solids, most organic compound and heavy metals from water.
This process used distiller which is made of stainless steel, aluminium or plastic
materials, this is because they do not absorb impurities from water and easy to clean.
44
Water Supply
Inlet
Air Vent
Condensing
Coil
Evaporation Heating
Chamber Coil
Cooling Fan Impurities
Distilled Water
Drain
Figure 3.14: Components and process of a distiller [www.wqa.org]
Most of the household distillation systems use single stage distillers which are
simple in design and effective in contaminants removal. Tap water is heated to 100
˚C to kill bacteria and viruses by continuous boiling. Then, steam is rises and
leaving behind the impurities of water in the boiling chamber.
The low boiling gases will escape through the gaseous vent. Rising steam is then
passes into cooling section and condenses back into liquid. The condensed liquid
will flows into a storage container for drinking and cooking purposes. Household
distillers are not economical to distill water for other uses like flushing toilets,
bathing, washing clothes and cleaning due to its slow operation.
45
Figure 3.15: Typical countertop distiller [www.happyherbalist.com]
3.4.1 Case Study 1: Distillation 1
Mechanism:
Tap water is fed into the distiller, and then water is heated by heating element to the
boiling point. When the water reaches boiling point, steam is rises and contaminants
are leaves behind. Steam is rises and enters cooling coils, where it is cooled and
condensed back to the water. The pure water then flows into storage container.
Electric power is used to heat the tap water into steam.
Cost:
One set of distiller costs about RM 1000.
46
Maintenance:
Mineral and other residues accumulated in boiling chamber during boiling process
need to be removed periodically to ensure optimal performance. Mineral scales build
up from hard water need to remove by using acid type cleaner. The life span of a
distiller is depends on the levels of impurities in raw water supply, how often
distiller is operates and how often distiller is cleaned. Common repair for a distiller
is replacing of heating element.

Distillation process provides pure water that free of total dissolved solids,
contaminants, heavy metals, chlorine, pesticides, inorganic particles and minerals.
Distillation also removes bacteria and viruses from tap water at boiling point. No
filter cartridges need to be replaced in a distiller.
Similar to R.O. system, distillation process also removes large amounts of minerals
that needed by our human body such as calcium and magnesium. If we consumed
distilled water over a long period, it is detrimental to health of bones, teeth and
tissues. Since distilled water contains no minerals, it may taste flat when we
consume.
However, distilled water can help to dissolve the toxic poisons that accumulate in
our bodies, clean out the body cells and organs. Distilled water is suitable to
consume by patients who need to dissolve kidneys or gallstones. Distilled water is
enters the body and picks up mineral deposits accumulated in the joints or artery
walls and carry them out. This can help to decrease gallstones and kidney stones
until they can safely pass through their ducts.
Distillation can produce almost 99.5 % extremely pure water, but it is not effective
at removing volatile organic compounds because many of them re-condense back
into liquid. Bacteria can also accumulate in the cooling coils when a distiller has not
been used for a period of time.
47
Distiller uses electric power all the time to keep it operating, therefore the operating
cost for distillation units are generally higher than other forms of home water filter
such as activated carbon and membrane. Distiller takes time to purify water, it takes
about 8 hours to produce a few gallons of water; therefore it is limited to point-of-
use systems.
3.5 Ultraviolet Light (UV light)
Ultraviolet light is also one of the common techniques used in water treatment
systems. UV light has been used for many years as an environmental friendly route
to water disinfection. Sun is the main source of natural UV light on the earth. Apart
from sun, stars also produce some amount of UV light.
Earth’s atmosphere produces natural UV light when the very energetic particles
from sun strike the air molecules. UV light is invisible to human eye, the short wave
light having wavelength ranging from x-ray region (100 nm) to blue end of visible
light (400 nm).
The three distinct wavelengths of UV light are as below:
UV-A (400 nm – 315 nm):

It is referred to as ‘black light’. It represents the largest region portion of natural UV
light. It has the longest wavelength and the lowest energy.
UV-B (315 nm – 280 nm):

It is partially blocked by ozone layer. It is the most aggressive component of natural
UV light which responsible for sunburn.
UV-C (280 nm – 100 nm):

It is only encountered from artificial light sources since it is totally absorbed by
earth’s atmosphere.
48
Ultraviolet light used in water treatment system is aimed to kill the bacteria, viruses
and microorganisms in supplied water. The recent research in USA shown that 271
nm light to 263 nm light are the most effective UV wavelengths for deactivation of
particular target organisms. (Source:http://www.hanovia.com)
3.5.1 Mechanism of UV Light
A microorganism is made up of cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane, cells genetic

material and nucleic acid. When harmful microbes are exposed to the UV rays, their
nucleic acid will absorbs the UV energy which then scrambles their DNA structure.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of microorganisms is the main target of the UV light.
DNA is consists of a linear chain of nitrogen bases known as purines (adenine and
guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine). Sugar-phosphate components are
used to link these compounds along the chain. Adenine is always linked with
thymine in opposite by hydrogen bond and guanine is always paired with cytosine
by hydrogen bond.
Purine combines with pyrimidine to form base pairs. Hydrogen bond will be
ruptured when UV light is absorbed by pyrimidine bases. Disruption in DNA chain
means cell undergoes mitosis (cell division) and DNA is not be able to replicate
again. Therefore, microorganism is considered dead and it is harmful less to human
health.
49
Figure 3.16: Disruption of DNA structure [www.hanovia.com]
UV light is generated either from low pressure or medium pressure lamp. Low
pressure lamp usually has a single line output at 253.7 nm and medium pressure
lamp has a continuous output from 200 nm up to long wave visible light.
Most of the commercially available units use low pressure mercury vapor lamps.
The operation of these lamps is very similar to the fluorescent lighting with which
we are all familiar.
The effectiveness of UV light depends on quality of the feed water:
i) Suspended solids:
Suspended solids in feed water cause a shielding problem during the treatment
process, where microbes may pass through the sterilizer without actually expose to
the direct UV penetration. This problem can be resolved by using pre-filtration of at
least 5 microns.
50
ii) Iron and manganese:
Iron or manganese will cause staining on the lamp or quartz sleeve at levels as low
as 0.3 ppm of iron and 0.05 ppm of manganese. In order to eliminate the staining
problem, proper pretreatment is required.
iii) Calcium and magnesium:

Hard water will allow scale formation on the lamp or quartz sleeve. When there is
low flow rate, calcium and magnesium ions will tie up with carbonates and sulfates
to form hard scale which is builds up inside the sterilizer chamber and deposited on
lamp or sleeve.
iv) Other absorbing compounds:

The amount of UV energy that available to penetrate through the water is being
reduced when the feed water is contains humic and fumic acids.
v) Temperature:
The optimal operating temperature of UV lamp must be approximate 40 ˚C. UV
levels will fluctuate with excessively high or low temperature levels.
In water treatment systems, UV light is always enclosed in the quartz sleeve. There
are three purposes of using quartz sleeve:
• It is used to isolate the UV lamp from water, so that electrical contacts are
not shorted out by water.
• It is used to create a thermal barrier in order to allow the UV lamp to

maintain its ideal operating temperature.
• It is also used to allow optimum transmission of UV energy into the water.
51
Figure 3.17: Typical UV treatment arrangement [www.pure-pro.com]
3.5.2 Case Study 1: UV1
Mechanism:
This UV ray treatment system has three different components; they are control
circuit, power electronics and UV chamber. Consumer can control the intensity of
UV ray through the control circuit. UV lamp is enclosed in quartz sleeve. Water
enters one end of the sleeve, flows through the sleeve around UV lamp and then
exits the other end within a few second.
Water must flow very close to the UV light in a thin layer and at slow flow rate to
assure that bacteria and viruses are destroyed. Bacteria and viruses exposed to the
UV ray will be killed or rendered inactive.
Cost:
The ultraviolet light treatment system costs about RM 1300 per unit.
52
Maintenance:
Ultraviolet light water treatment system does not require much maintenance. The
sleeve does not need to replace unless it gets broken, but outside of the sleeve need
to be cleaned several times per year. UV lamp requires replacement once a year to
ensure its optimal performance.

UV light disinfection process does not use chemicals; therefore it leaves no smell or
taste in the treated water. It does not affect the minerals in water, so that consumers
are able to obtain the beneficial mineral from water. This system is effective in
killing all the bacteria, viruses and microorganism in water; therefore it can produce
bacteria free drinking water.
UV water treatment does not effective against lead, asbestos, chlorine and many
other organic chemicals. This system does not suitable for water with high levels of
suspended solids as these materials could shade bacteria from the direct UV rays.
Therefore some bacteria could still pass through the water and this is harmful to
human health if the water is consumed directly.
UV water treatment system requires electric current for operation, and it is also need
regular inspection and maintenance to ensure that the treated water is bacteria. This
system should use with other forms of water filter to provide clean and safe water to
consumers.
3.6 Combination Filter
Combination water treatment systems use a few kind of treatment into one. Filtrate
from these kinds of systems usually can be consumed straight away. The
combination filter consists of several cartridges, water need to pass through those
cartridges one by one and finally reach at consumers.
53
3.6.1 Case Study 1: Combination 1
Mechanism:
This treatment system consists of six filters as below:
• Filter1, ceramic membrane filter- pore size of 0.9 micron with silver element
used to filter the residues and bacteria in supply water.
• Filter 2, activated carbon filter- remove chlorine, odour, colour, organic

chemicals and remaining residue inside the water. It also prevents growth of
bacteria.
• Filters 3, silver carbon- enhances remove chlorine, organic chemicals and

prevent bacteria from breeding.
• Filter 4, sediment- resin bond cellulose used to filter multi chemical

compounds and suspended particles.
• Filter 5, post carbon- further improves any unpleasant smells of traces of

organic waste.
• Filter 6, bio-energy converter- to break molecules structure and provide

energy rays that regulate and active cells.
Cost:
One set of the treatment unit costs about RM 2500.
Maintenance:
Filter 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 need to be changed once a year. Consumers only need to
change filter 6 every two years.
54
This treatment system added silver to the activated carbon filter to prevent bacteria
growth, therefore boiling is not necessary. This system used activated carbon
repetitively; there are three activated carbon filters in the whole system of six filters.
With so many times of carbon filtration, no doubt the water is clean.
Mineral stones used in filter 6 are said to provide minerals and calcium to the
drinking water, but it is not sure that the stones are really omit minerals. It may
become the bacteria breeding ground which is harmful to human health.
Mechanism:
This combination treatment system is combining carbon filter with the ultra-violet
light. Carbon filter is shaped into a block stem and inserted into a cartridge. When
water flows into the cartridge, carbon filter is removes the chlorine, lead and organic
chemicals such as trihalomethanes. Besides that, carbon also improves the taste and
odour of drinking water.
After that, water will flow through the ultra-violet cartridge which puts out up to 80
millijoules of ultra-violet light to destroy the bacteria and viruses in drinking water.
Ultra-violet light is switches on when electro-magnetic connection is activated by
turning the tap.
Cost:
This type of water treatment system costs about RM 3000 per unit.
Maintenance:
55
Parts Frequency Price
Carbon block Every 12 months RM 275.00
UV light Every 12 months RM 344.00
Table 3.4: Replacement parts of COM2

This treatment system used only the activated carbon filter; therefore it does not
remove the beneficial minerals such as calcium, magnesium and fluoride from
drinking water. Bacteria and viruses are destroyed by ultra-violet light, so water can
be consumed directly.
Ultra-violet light is not on all the time; therefore it does not waste energy. This
system is equipped with monitor technology; it gives both audio and visual
indication when it is time for replacement.
The initial cost of this water treatment system is high; the maintenance costs are also
very high too. Not many consumers afford to invest in this type of water treatment
system due to its high cost.
This whole filtration system consists of three cartridges. The first cartridge is a
ceramic pre-filter while the second cartridge is consists of activated carbon filter.
The third cartridge totally has four different layers, namely KDF, calcium ionized
clay, energizing ceramic and natural mineral stones.
Mechanism:
• The first cartridge, ceramic pre-filter is used to block the suspended solids
like silt and clay in the supplied water just like any normal ceramic
membrane filter.
56
• The second cartridge, activated carbon is used to remove organic
contaminants, chlorine and some organic chemicals like explained previously.
• In third cartridge, the mineral stones are generally to replenish the essential
minerals like calcium into the water. This water filter is not only removes
water pollutants, chlorine, bacteria and harmful heavy metals in the water,
but it also further energizes the water by releasing essential minerals and
calcium ions into the water.
Cost:
One set of this filtration system costs about RM 1600.
Maintenance:
The changing frequency of cartridges is depends on the water quality and water
consumption rate. First cartridge needs to be clean frequently by using toothbrush
once the sediment is covering its surface.
Ceramic pre-filter will become thinner and thinner, consumers need to change it
when the carbon block inside ceramic pre-filter exposes to the surface. Normally,
ceramic pre-filter can last about one year. The second cartridge needs to be changed
every one year while the third cartridge needs to be changed every three years.

The application of KDF in this filtration system can remove contaminants such as
chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, iron, lead, calcium, mercury, arsenic and other inorganic
compounds.
KDF together with GAC can partially remove hardness, destroy fungi and algae, and
control bacteria growth. If contact time is sufficient, both GAC and KDF will clean
the feed water from most of the contaminants.
57
It is wondering that why this filtration system needs to be equipped with calcium
ionized clay, mineral stones and energizing ceramic. The manufacturer claimed that
these substances are able to provide minerals and release energy to the water. It is
probably a marketing tactic to lure in customers into believing its benefits to health.
This system is overpriced considering the technology involved.
Highly Effective Activated Carbon
PPF Filter
PPF Filter
KDF
Calcium Ionized Clay

Ceramic
Filter
Energizing Ceramic KDF
Activated
Carbon
Natural Mineral Stones
Input
Output PPF Filter
Highly Effective Activated Carbon
Figure 3.18: Arrangement of COM3 [www.nesh.com.my]
58
Required R.O. Ultraviolet Granular Carbon Powdered Distillation
Function unit activated block activated unit
carbon carbon
Absolute
filtration to 0.2 Yes No No No No Yes
microns
Removes chlorine Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Removes lead
and other heavy Yes No No No No Yes
metals
Removes organic
chemicals Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
Removes harmful
bacteria Yes Yes No No No Yes
Removes
Protozoan Cysts Yes No No No Yes Yes
Removes foul
tastes and odours No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Leaves essential
minerals intact No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Purifies on
demand, no tank No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
required
Operates at 25 psi
line pressure No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Operates without
chemicals Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Operates without
wasting water No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Low running cost
per gallon No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Operates without
electricity No No Yes Yes Yes No
Table 3.5: Brief comparisons of various types of water treatment systems
[www.bacfree.com]
59
CHAPTER 4
SURVEY RESULTS
A public survey was conducted in order to collect public’s opinion about the
supplied water quality and their understanding about the domestic water filtration
systems. There were 100 respondents.
This community questionnaire survey also aimed to study the reasons why
households install water filter systems and gauge public attitude towards these
systems. The public survey was done in the form of questionnaire. The questionnaire
form was delivered directly to the public to collect their feedback in order to do the
analysis. The results of the questionnaire are discussed further in this chapter.
60
4.1 Statistical Results
Question 1: Are you satisfied with the quality of tap water in your house?
Satisfaction with supplied tap water
Yes
24%
Yes
No
No
76%
Figure 4.1: Satisfaction with supplied tap water
From the Figure 4.1 above, 76 % of the respondents are not satisfied with the
supplied tap water and only 24 % of the respondents are satisfied with the current
supplied tap water. Quality of tap water is differs from place to place. The results
show that there is only small percentage of consumers satisfied with the quality of
water supplied by government.
The unsatisfied water quality issue may due to several reasons. Water pollution is
the main reason that causes unsatisfied water quality. Pollution rate in city is higher
than rural area; therefore water contamination problem is more serious than rural
area. Unsatisfied supplied water might also due to the distribution system that
carrying water to consumers at home rather than efficiency of treatment process at
water treatment center.
61
Question 2: Do you boil the tap water before consuming it?
Boiling of water before consuming
120
100
Percentage(%)
80
60
40
20
0
Yes No
Figure 4.2: Boiling of tap water before consuming
Refer to the Figure 4.2 above, the survey results show that all the respondents boil
the supplied tap water before consuming it and they would not drink water directly
from the water tap.
The result shows that consumers in this country do not trust the quality of tap water.
In Australia, majority of the consumers drink water directly from the tap, they are
confident with the tap water quality and drink water without boiling it.
62
Question 3: What are the problems with the locally supplied tap water do you
encountered?
Problems of Tap Water
100
90
80
Percentage(%)
70 62
60
50
40
30 25
20 9
10 4
0
Yellow ish Colour Contain Chlorine Smell Skin Irritation
Suspended
Solids
Figure 4.3: Problems of tap water
From the Figure 4.3 above, 62 respondents complained that the supplied tap water is
in yellowish colour. Presence of colour in water may due to the presence of organic
compounds and colloidal forms of iron and manganese. Other complaints are
chlorine smell 25 %, skin irritation 9 % and contain suspended solids 4 %.
Chlorine is the common disinfection used in the water treatment process in order to
disinfect the tap water. However, byproducts of the chlorine in drinking water might
bring side effects to the body systems as Thrihalomethane is the cancer-causing
compound.
63
Question 5: Do you use water filter at home?
Installation of domestic water filter
100
86
90
Number of Respodents
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 14
10
0
Yes No
Figure 4.4: Installation of domestic water filter
Refer to the Figure 4.4 above, the results show that 86 respondents have household
water treatment appliances at home, only 14 respondents do not install water filter at
home. More and more households installed domestic water filters to treat the
supplied tap water before consuming it.
In recent years, consumers begin to focus on the safety of their tap water due to the
increasing number of complaints on water contamination issue. This result shows
that in the consumers’ point of view, the supplied drinking water is no longer safe to
consume due to the water pollution issue.
64
Question 6: How many water filters do you installed in your house?
Number of water filters installed
100
90
Number of Respondents
80
70 64
60
50
40
30 22
20
10
0
One Two More than two
Figure 4.5: Number of water filters installed
From the Figure 4.5 above, 64 respondents of the total users have installed one unit
of water filter, 22 respondents have installed two water filters and no respondent
installed more than two units of water filter at home.
For the respondents with two units of water filters at home, one unit is installed at
the main pipe outside the house and the other unit is installed in the kitchen.
Respondents with one unit of water filter at home are installed their filters in the
kitchen. All of the consumers installed water filters in the kitchen; this is probably
because that kitchen is the main source of water for drinking and cooking.
65
Question 7: Do you test the tap water before purchasing the water filter?
Testing of tap water
100
90
Number of Respodents
80 75
70
60
50
40
30
20 11
10
0
Yes No
Figure 4.6: Testing of tap water before purchasing water filter
From the figure 4.6 above, most of the consumers did not carry out water testing
before purchasing the water filter. Actually, laboratory tests should be conducted on
the current supplied tap water in order to find out the water contamination level.
Base on the experimental results, consumers can make decision and choose a correct
water filter to overcome the water quality problems that encountered by them.
It is very important in choosing a correct water filter to suit the requirement.

Purchasing of wrong water filter is not only failed to remove the water contaminants,
but it will even worsen the water quality. However, identification of water quality
through laboratory experiments is not commonly practice in Malaysia.
Refer to the Figure 4.6, the results show that 11 respondents have been tested the tap
water before purchasing the water filter. However, they only carried out the simple
chlorine test. This simple test is not sufficient in determination of a correct water
filter to suit their requirement.
66
Question 10: What kind of water filters you are using?
Types of Domestic Water Filter
100
90
80
70
60
50
40 30
26
30
17
20 10
10 2 1
0
Activated Membrane Reverse Distillation UV Light Combination
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 4.7: Types of domestic water filter
Refer to the Figure 4.7 above; the most popular type of domestic water filter used by
consumers is activated carbon with 30 respondents. The second commonly used
water filter is combination filter with 26 respondents, followed by membrane,
reverse osmosis, distillation and ultraviolet light with 17, 10, 2 and 1 respondents
respectively.
There are several reasons that the consumers chose to install activated carbon filter.
The main reason might due to its cheaper price compare to other types of water
filters, therefore consumers are more affordable to install this kind of water filter.
Besides that, activated carbon is the easiest unit to install and maintain, the operating
costs are usually limited to filter replacement and their performance in removing
contaminants.
Combination filter users are on the rise because of the advertisement on the mass
media. Not many consumers install reverse osmosis treatment system at home. This
might due to its high initial and maintenance costs. Besides that, the maintenance
67
operation is more complex and it must be done by the operators. Distillation and
ultraviolet light treatment systems are remain unpopular in Malaysian market.
Question 11: Why are you buying the water filter?
Reasons of Installing Water Filter
100
90
80
70
60 52
50
40
30
20 14
7 10
10 3
0
Health reason Influenced by Affordable Complaints Advertisement
friends and published in
relatives mass media
Figure 4.8: Reasons of installing water filter
Refer to the Figure 4.8 above, the results show that 52 of the respondents said that
health is their main reason in choosing a water treatment system. As living standard
increases, bodies’ health becomes a priority in our lives.
We would like to improve our health by consuming clean and safe drinking water.
Many consumers aware that clean water plays an important role for our bodies’
health, therefore they chose to install water treatment system at home to make sure
the drinking water is always clean.
68
There are 14 respondents said that they are influenced by relatives and friends into
buying a water filter and 10 respondents said they bought water filter because of the
advertisement published in the mass media. From the figure 4.8 above, the results
show that 7 respondents installed water filter because of the water contamination
complaints published in the mass media and 3 respondents bought one because it is
affordable.
Question 12: How much would you spend on a water filter?
Investment in water filter
100
90
80
70
60 54
50
40
30 22
20 13 11
10
0
RM 100-500 RM 500-1000 RM 1000-1500 RM 1500 above
Figure 4.9: Investment in water filters
From the Figure 4.9 above, the results show that 54 respondents would only buy a
water filter in the range of RM 100 to RM 500. Most of the membrane filters and
activated carbon filters are in this price range. Therefore, membrane filters and
activated carbon filters become the main choice among the consumers.
This is followed by RM 500-1000, RM 1000-1500 and RM 1500 above with 22, 13

and 11 respondents respectively. Most of the reverse osmosis, distillation and
69
combination filters are priced above RM 1500 per unit. This high initial cost
becomes the reason that those water filters are not as common as membrane and
activated carbon filters. For normal uses, membrane and activated carbon filters are
sufficient provided that the water must be boiled before consuming.
The survey results also show that many consumers do not clean their water filter
often. Many consumers do not really know when the time to replace the filter parts
is. This negligence is due to ignorance. For example, a normal membrane filter
should be clean as least once a month to get rid of the mud and silt on the membrane
surface to maintain the efficiency of the filter. Activated carbon does not need to be
clean but the carbon filter need to be replaced every 6 months. All the filter parts
need to be changed according to the life span. If the consumers do not change the
old filter with a new one, then the efficiency of a water filter would be affected.
70
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
In order to investigate the effectiveness of different types of domestic water filter,

laboratory experiments have been conducted to measure several parameters of
drinking water. The tested parameters are apparent colour, turbidity, total suspended
solids, total free chlorine, total aluminium, total iron and total chromium.
5.1 Sample collection, Preservation and Storage
Correct sampling and storage are critical for accurate testing. Containers and
sampling devices need to be thoroughly clean to prevent carryover from the previous
samples.
71
5.1.1 Water Collection
Water samples are collected from various houses in Kuala Lumpur. Water samples
are taken from different types of water filter systems. Water is allowed to run for a
few minute before collecting the sample. The water samples need to be filled into
the containers slowly with a gentle stream to avoid turbulence and air bubbles. A
volume of 1.25 liter of treated and untreated water samples are colleted for the
laboratory tests.
5.1.2 Types of Containers
i. Polypropylene and polyethylene:

These are the commonly used and the least expensive containers.
ii. Quartz or TFE (tetrafluoroethylene):

These are the best containers but they are also the most expensive containers.
iii. Glass:
Glass is a good general- purpose container. Avoid using soft-glass containers to
collect samples for metals testing in the microgram-per-liter range.
5.1.3 Storage and Preservation
Water samples need to be tested as soon as possible after collection because

chemical and biological processes continue after collection. Analyzing the sample
immediately after collection can reduce the chance for error and hence obtain the
more accurate results. The water samples must be preserved if immediate analysis is
not possible. These water samples are tested in room temperature of about 25 ˚C to
30 ˚C unless stated.
72
5.2 Apparent Colour
5.2.1 Introduction
Colour of drinking water can be seen and judged with naked eye. Consumers will
consider water is dirty and not suitable for drinking if the water is yellowish or
brownish in colour. Pure water for consumption should be clear without any colour.
Apparent colour refers to colour of both dissolved and suspended matters in the
solution whereas true colour is the colour of solution without suspended matter.
The standard colour solutions are composed of potassium chloroplatine (K2 Pt Cl6)
tinted with small amounts of cobalt chloride. The colour produced by 1 mg/l of
platinum in combination with ½ mg/l of metallic cobalt is taken as 1 Standard
Colour Unit.
Figure 5.1: Lovibond Colour Comparator
73
Lovibond colour comparator is the equipment used to compare colour of the samples
with standard colour by giving the value in colour units. The water sample is
inserted into the holder, and then the value of colour is adjusted until colour of
sample equal to the standard colour.
Hach Odyssey spectrometer is a more accurate equipment to measure the apparent

colour of collected water samples. Measurement of apparent colour is chosen rather
than the true colour because samples colleted are not wastewater. The insignificant
amount of suspended solids in water can be ignored.
Figure 5.2: Hach Odyssey Spectrometer
5.2.2 Equipment and Required Materials
The laboratory equipment used is Hach Odyssey spectrometer with a few sample
cells. Distilled water is the material used to clean and rinse sample cells. The
74
precision and sensitivity of Hach Odyssey spectrometer are as stated in the tables
below.
Precision
Program 95 % confidence limits of distribution
125 245 – 255 units Pt-Co
Table 5.1: Precision of Hach Odyssey spectrometer for measuring apparent colour
Sensitivity
Program Portion of curve Δ Abs Δ Concentration
125 Entire range 0.010 17 Units Pt-Co
Table 5.2: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey spectrometer for measuring apparent colour
5.2.3 Test Procedures
1. A clean sample cell is rinsed with distilled water before it is filled with
distilled water. This cell is called a ‘blank’.
2. A second cell is rinsed and filled with collected water sample.
3. Both cells are wiped with a damp cloth followed by dry cloth to get rid of the
finger prints on the cells.
4. On the Hach Odyssey front menu, Hach Programs icon is pressed, followed
by 125 Colour, 465 nm and Start.
5. The blank cell is inserted into the cell holder in the Odyssey. The cover is
closed before Zero button is pressed.
6. The blank cell is removed before the sample cell is inserted into the cell
holder.
7. The Read button is pressed and the reading is recorded in units of Pt-Co
(Platinum-Cobalt).
8. The procedures are repeated for treated water sample.
75
5.3 Turbidity
5.3.1 Introduction
Turbidity of water indicates the interference of light passage through the water.
Presence of solids, organic particles, microorganisms or other materials in water can
block and adsorb the rays of light. Turbidimeter is the apparatus used for measuring
turbidity of water. Turbidity is measured as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units).
The turbidimeter is in the range from 0 to 4000 NTU in the nearest three decimal
places. Turbidimeter is operates on the nephelometric principle of turbidity
measurement. The optical system is consisted of a tungsten-filament lamp, lenses
and apertures to focus the light, a 90˚ detector, forward-scatter light detector and a
transmitted light detector. The microprocessor of instrument uses a mathematical
calculation to ratio signals from each detector.
The laboratory equipments used to measure turbidity is Hach 2100N Laboratory

Turbidimeter and its standard sample cells. Distilled water is used to clean and rinse
the sample cells.
The specifications for Model 2100N Turbidimeter is shown in the table below.
Specifications Model 2100N Turbidimeter

Range 0-4000 NTU
Accuracy +2 % of reading plus 0.01 NTU from 0-1000 NTU
Resolution 0.001 NTU on lowest range
Response Time 6.8 seconds with signal averaging off or 14 seconds with signal
averaging on.
Table 5.3: Specifications of Model 2100N Turbidimeter for measuring turbidity
76
Figure 5.3: 2100N Laboratory Turbidimeter
Figure 5.4: Hach 2100P Portable Turbidimeter
77
1. In order to measure turbidity, 30 ml of water sample is filled into the sample

cell. The sample cell needs to be handled by the top carefully. The sample
cell is then capped.
2. The sample cell is rinsed with distilled water before filling with water sample.
3. The sample cell needs to be clean to remove water spots and fingerprints.
4. Then, the sample cell is inserted into the cell holder of turbidimeter.
5. The reading in units of NTU is then recorded.
6. The procedures are then repeated for treated water sample.
5.4 Total Free Chlorine

5.4.1 Introduction
Chlorine is commonly used in disinfection of drinking water. It is effective in

preventing the spread of water-borne diseases. However, chlorine is also very
reactive towards the natural compounds present in water and therefore forming new,
complex and dangerous chemicals.
Hence, it is very important to monitor the concentration of chlorine in the form of

hypochlorite ion or hypochlorous acid as it may form harmful by-products. Chlorine
is easily detected with DPD (N, N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine) to form pink colour
which is proportional to the concentration of chlorine in the sample solution.
The equipment used for measuring the presence of chlorine is Hach Odyssey
Spectrometer. The required reagent is DPD Free Chlorine Powder Pillows. The
required apparatus is sample cell. The precision and sensitivity of Hach Odyssey
Spectrometer are shown in the tables below.
78
Precision
Program 95 % Confidence Limits of Distribution
80 1.00 – 1.14 mg/l Cl2
Table 5.4: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring free chlorine
Sensitivity
80 Entire range 0.010 0.02 mg/l Cl2
Table 5.5: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring free chlorine
1. Firstly, an empty cell is rinsed with distilled water and followed by the
sample to increase the accuracy of the test.
2. On the spectrometer, Hach Program button is pressed, and then followed by
80 Chlor.F&T and Start.
3. A sample cell is filled with 10 ml of sample and marked as blank cell.
4. The blank cell is wiped to get rid of fingerprints before placing in the
spectrometer.
5. Zero is touched and the display will show 0.00 mg/l Cl2.
6. Another empty cell is filled with 10 ml of water sample and one sachet of
DPD Free Chlorine Powder Pillow.
7. The cell is swirled for 20 seconds to mix the reagent with water.
8. The cell is placed into the spectrometer for reading within one minute.
9. The procedures are repeated for the treated water sample.
79
5.5 Total Aluminium
5.5.1 Introduction
Aluminium is found in nature as alumino silicates such as kaolin, clay, mica and
feldspar. Aluminium is common in treated drinking water especially water treated
with alum which acts as coagulant. Besides that, the presence of aluminium in
drinking water is also due to corrosion of aluminium tanks, pipes and utensils.
Most experts agree that high levels of aluminium in dialysis fluids and medication
are responsible for the dementia. Aluminium has also been associated with severe
diseases of the nervous system such as Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease) and Alzheimer’s disease, but the association is not
completely understood. Intake of large amounts of aluminium can also cause
osteomalacia (brittle or soft bones), glucose intolerance and cardiac arrest in humans.
(Source: http://www.esemag.com)
In this research project, the Hach Odyssey Spectrometer is used to measure the
aluminium levels in drinking water. Aluminium indicator combines with aluminium
in the water sample to form a red-orange colour. The intensity of colour is
proportional to the aluminium concentration. Ascorbic acid is added to remove iron
interference. The AluVer3 Aluminium Reagent which is packaged in powder form
shows exceptional stability and is applicable for fresh water applications.
5.5.2 Equipments and Required Materials
The equipment used for measuring the presence of aluminium is Hach Odyssey
Spectrometer. The required reagents are ascorbic acid, AluVer3 Aluminium Reagent
and Bleaching 3 Reagent Powder Pillow. The required apparatus are sample cells
and cylinder. The precision and sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer are
shown in the tables below.
80
Precision
Program 95 % Confidence Limits of Distribution
3+
10 0.383-0.417 mg/l Al
Table 5.6: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring aluminium
Sensitivity
Program Portion of Curve Δ Abs Δ Concentration
3+
10 Entire range 0.010 0.008 mg/l Al
Table 5.7: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring aluminium
1. Hach Program is touched, program 10 Aluminium is selected and Start is

touched.
2. 50 ml of water sample is filled into a cylinder.
3. Then, the content of one Ascorbic Acid Powder Pillow is added. Stopper.
The cylinder is inverted several times to dissolve the powder.
4. The content of one AluVer3 Aluminium Reagent Powder Pillow is added.
Stopper.
5. The cylinder is inverted repeatedly for one minute to dissolve the powder.
Undissolved powder will cause inconsistent results.
6. 25 ml of the mixture is poured into a 25 ml sample cell. This is the prepared
sample.
7. The content of one Bleaching 3 Reagent Powder Pillow is added to the
remaining 25 ml in the cylinder. Stopper.
8. The cylinder is shaken vigorously for 30 seconds.
9. 25 ml of the solution is pour into a second 25 ml cell. This is the blank cell.
10. The blank cell is wiped and placed into the cell holder after 15 minutes.
11. Zero is touched and the display will show 0.000 mg/l Al3+.
12. The prepared sample is wiped immediately and placed into the holder.
13. Read button is touched and result will appear in mg/l Al3+.
81
Figure 5.5: Aluminium testing
5.6 Total Chromium

5.6.1 Introduction
Chromium is one of the heavy metals presented in drinking water. Heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium are harmful to human’s health while
small amount of heavy metals such as zinc, copper, chromium, iron and manganese
are required in human bodies. However, the latter group can be toxic to our bodies if
they exceeded the acceptable limit.
Chromium can exist as Cr (II) through Cr (VI) in the environment, but Cr (III)
predominates in natural waters. Large amounts of chromium can cause ulcers,
kidney and liver damage and increase the risk of lung cancer.
In this research project, the total chromium content is determined by the 1, 5-

Diphenydrazide method. Trivalent chromium in the water sample is oxidized to the
82
hexavalent form by hypobromite ion under alkaline conditions.
Hach Odyssey Spectrometer is the equipment used to determine the presence of

chromium in drinking water. The required materials are Acid Reagent Powder
Pillows, ChromaVer 3 Chromium Reagent Powder Pillows, Chromium 1 Reagent
Powder Pillows and Chromium 2 Reagent Powder Pillows.
In addition, a hotplate, a beaker and a thermometer are also required in order to

prepare a hot bath. The precision and sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in
measuring total chromium are shown in the tables below.
Precision
100 0.24 – 0.26 mg/l Cr
Table 5.8: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total chromium
Sensitivity
100 Entire range 0.010 0.01 mg/l Cr
Table 5.9: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total chromium
1. Firstly, a beaker is filled half full with pipe water. Water is treated to
boiling state by using hotplate.
83
2. On the spectrometer, Hach Programs button is pressed, followed by 100
Chromium, Total and Start.
3. A round sample cell is filled with 25 ml of water sample and chromium 1
Reagent Powder Pillow is added into it.
4. Then, the sample cell is placed into a boiling water bath. The cap of the
cell is tightly closed to prevent water going into it.
5. The timer icon on the spectrometer is pressed to allow a five minutes
reaction. When the timer beeps, the cell is removed from the bath and
cooled down to 25˚C by using running tap water.
6. After that, one packet of Chromium 2 Reagent Powder Pillow is added
into the cell.
7. Then, an Acid Reagent Powder Pillow is added; the cell is capped and
inverted.
8. Chromium 3 Reagent Powder Pillow is added into the cell.
9. On the spectrometer, the time icon is pressed for a five minutes reaction.
10. When the timer beeps, a blank sample cell is prepared. The cell is
contains water sample only.
11. The blank cell is placed into the cell holder in the spectrometer.
12. Zero is touched and the display will show 0.00 mg/l Cr.
13. Then, the sample is placed into the spectrometer for reading.
5.7Total Iron
5.7.1 Introduction
Iron ions also known as ferrous ions, which are highly objectionable in domestic
water usage. Iron ions will produce brownish colour oxides when oxidized and leave
an unaesthetic condition with water uses. The most common method to test total iron
is by using photoelectric colorimeter or spectrometer to measure the intensity of
colour developed in a treated sample, which can be related to the concentration of
the test substance.
84
In this research project, the Hach Odyssey Spectrometer is used. The samples are
treated with FerroZinc Iron Reagent that converts all soluble iron and most insoluble
forms of iron in the sample to soluble ferrous iron. The ferrous iron reacts with the 1,
10 phenanthroline indicator which gives the sample a slight orange colour with the
presence of iron. This orange colour is proportion to the iron concentration in the
sample and can be read easily using the spectrometer in the units of mg/l Fe.
The equipment used is Hach Odyssey Spectrometer. FerroVer Iron Reagent Powder
Pillow is required to convert all soluble iron and most insoluble forms of iron in
water sample to soluble ferrous iron. The required apparatus are beaker and sample
cells. The precision and sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring
total iron are shown in the tables below.
Precision
265 0.989 – 1.011 mg/l Fe
Table 5.10: Precision of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total iron
Sensitivity
265 Entire range 0.010 0.022 mg/l Fe
Table 5.11: Sensitivity of Hach Odyssey Spectrometer in measuring total iron
85
1. Hach Program is clicked on the screen and followed by 265 Icon, FerroVer
button and Start button.
2. A sample cell is rinsed with distilled water and then filled with 10 ml of
water sample.
3. One sachet of FerroVer Iron Reagent Powder Pillow is added into the sample
cell. The cell is swirled to mix the reagent with water.
4. The timer icon is pressed to start a three minutes reaction period.
5. Then, another sample cell is rinsed with distilled water and filled with the
same water sample. The cell is labeled as blank.
6. When the timer beeps, the blank cell is placed in the cell holder.
7. Zero is touched and the display will show 0.00 mg/l Fe.
8. The blank cell is replaced with the prepared sample in the cell holder. The
reading is taken and recorded.
86
CHAPTER 6
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
From the laboratory experiments, all the raw data was recorded in the table forms.
Then, the percentage removal was calculated by using the following formula.
% removal = Value before treatment – Value after treatment

Value before treatment
The results are tabulated according to the parameters and types of filtration systems
used. Three samples are taken from three different locations for a variety of water
quality before treatment.
87
6.1 Apparent Colour
The results for apparent colour for different filtration systems are shown in the table
below.
Types of Samples Colour

filters No. Before After % removal
A1 23.00 3.00 86.96
Activated A2 35.00 9.00 77.14
Carbon A3 25.00 10.00 60.00
M1 12.00 7.00 41.67
Membrane M2 24.00 11.00 54.17
M3 28.00 14.00 50.00
R1 14.00 5.00 64.29
Reverse R2 6.00 4.00 33.33
Osmosis R3 14.00 6.00 57.14
D1 8.00 0.00 100
Distillation D2 26.00 0.02 99.92
D3 22.00 0.04 99.82
U1 11.00 8.00 27.27
UV Light U2 15.00 10.00 33.33
U3 21.00 16.00 23.81
C1 6.00 4.00 33.33
Combination C2 10.00 5.00 50.00
C3 14.00 2.00 85.71
Table 6.1: Experimental results for apparent colour for different filtration systems
88
6.2 Turbidity
The results for turbidity for different filtration systems are shown in the table below.
Types of Samples Turbidity

A1 3.26 0.21 93.56
Activated A2 4.20 0.40 90.48
Carbon A3 3.29 0.42 87.23
M1 2.38 0.90 62.18
Membrane M2 4.85 1.56 67.84
M3 0.90 0.44 51.11
R1 2.43 0.47 80.66
Reverse R2 1.69 0.22 86.98
Osmosis R3 0.77 0.22 71.43
D1 0.82 0.13 84.15
D3 1.73 0.30 82.66
U1 0.79 0.34 56.96
UV Light U2 2.26 1.23 45.58
U3 0.61 0.29 52.46
C1 1.61 0.65 59.63
Combination C2 3.19 1.52 52.35
C3 0.61 0.19 68.85
Table 6.2: Experimental results for turbidity for different filtration systems
89
6.3Total Free Chlorine
The results for total free chlorine for different filtration systems are shown in the
table below.
Types of Samples Total Free Chlorine

A1 0.28 0.03 89.29
Activated A2 0.43 0.01 97.67
Carbon A3 0.34 0.01 97.06
M1 0.37 0.05 86.49
Membrane M2 0.24 0.06 75.00
M3 0.01 0.00 100.00
R1 0.18 0.01 94.44
Reverse R2 0.01 0.00 100.00
Osmosis R3 0.44 0.02 95.45
D1 0.25 0.06 76.00
D3 0.02 0.01 50.00
U1 0.21 0.09 57.14
UV Light U2 0.15 0.08 46.67
U3 0.19 0.09 52.63
C1 0.31 0.01 96.77
C3 0.64 0.02 96.88
Table 6.3: Experimental results for total free chlorine for different filtration systems
90
6.4 Total Aluminium
The results for total aluminium for different filtration systems are shown in the table
below.
Types of Samples Total Aluminium

A1 0.058 0.042 27.59
Activated A2 0.084 0.053 36.90
Carbon A3 0.073 0.052 28.77
M1 0.135 0.048 64.44
Membrane M2 0.069 0.037 46.38
M3 0.075 0.031 58.67
R1 0.041 0.005 87.80
Reverse R2 0.015 0.006 60.00
Osmosis R3 0.077 0.015 80.52
D1 0.083 0.021 74.70
Distillation D2 0.114 0.042 63.16
D3 0.096 0.038 60.42
U1 0.082 0.065 20.73
UV Light U2 0.093 0.062 33.33
U3 0.035 0.022 37.14
C1 0.021 0.007 66.67
Combination C2 0.025 0.014 44.00
C3 0.028 0.012 57.14
Table 6.4: Experimental results for total aluminium for different filtration systems
91
6.5 Total Chromium
The results for total chromium for different filtration systems are shown in the table
below.
Types of Samples Total chromium

A1 0.08 0.06 33.33
Activated A2 0.08 0.06 25.00
Carbon A3 0.07 0.05 28.57
M1 0.07 0.06 14.29
Membrane M2 0.06 0.05 16.67
M3 0.07 0.05 28.57
R1 0.06 0.04 33.33
Reverse R2 0.08 0.05 37.50
Osmosis R3 0.07 0.05 28.57
D1 0.08 0.05 37.50
D3 0.09 0.05 44.44
U1 0.07 0.07 0.00
UV Light U2 0.09 0.07 22.22
U3 0.07 0.05 28.57
C1 0.07 0.04 42.86
C3 0.05 0.04 20.00
Table 6.5: Experimental results for total chromium for different filtration systems
92
6.6 Total Iron
The results for total iron for different filtration systems are shown in the table below.
Types of Samples Total iron

A1 0.07 0.05 28.57
Activated A2 0.06 0.03 50.00
Carbon A3 0.07 0.04 42.86
M1 0.08 0.05 37.50
Membrane M2 0.12 0.06 50.00
M3 0.07 0.02 71.43
R1 0.08 0.03 62.50
Reverse R2 0.07 0.02 71.43
Osmosis R3 0.10 0.03 70.00
D1 0.28 0.05 82.14
D3 0.09 0.03 66.67
U1 0.06 0.04 33.33
UV Light U2 0.04 0.03 25.00
U3 0.07 0.04 42.86
C1 0.04 0.01 75.00
C3 0.03 0.01 66.67
Table 6.6: Experimental results for total iron for different filtration systems
93
CHAPTER 7
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
From the experimental results tabulated in Chapter 6, the quality of water before and
after treatment is analyzed. The analysis is made based on the WHO and Malaysian
Drinking Water Standard as a guideline.
The highest and the lowest percentage removal are analyzed according to the
method of treatment used. The average percentage removal is calculated from the
readings obtained and the results are presented in the bar chart form. It can be seen
easily from the bar chart of the effectiveness in removing contaminants for each
treatment system.
94
7.1 Apparent Colour
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of apparent colour for each
treatment method are shown in the table below.
Types of filters Lowest % removal Highest % removal Average % removal

Activated carbon 60.00 86.96 74.7
Membrane 54.17 41.67 48.61
Reverse Osmosis 64.29 33.33 51.59
Distillation 99.82 100 99.91
UV Light 23.81 33.33 24.96
Combination 85.71 33.33 56.35
Table 7.1: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of apparent colour
% Removal of Colour
99.91
100
90
80 74.4
70
% Removal
60 56.36
48.61 51.59
50
40
24.96
30
20
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.1: Percentage removal of colour for different treatment systems
95
The results obtained from the laboratory test showed that colour of water samples
before treatment is differs from place to place. Water sample in some areas appeared
in yellowish colour which gave value above 30 Pt-Co, while water in some areas can
be considered clear with value less than 10 Pt-Co. However, the supplied tap water
is still considered unsatisfactory as the maximum permissible level in drinking water
is 15 True Colour Units (TCU).
The experimental results showed that distillation system is the best treatment method
in removing colour from drinking water. Distillation system removes almost 99.9 %
of colour and provides colourless drinking water for human consumption. This is
followed by activated carbon filter at 74.7 % of colour removal. Activated carbon
filter is proven to be an effective method in removing colour from drinking water.
Reverse osmosis system and combination treatment units give unsatisfactory results
as both treatment methods consist of activated carbon that should remove colour as
good as a simple activated carbon filter. Both treatment methods are expensive and
both mechanisms are expected to remove traces of colour.
Ultra violet light unit (UV) uses pre-filter before water is treated with UV light.
Therefore, it removes small percentage of colour from water. UV light treatment is
not expected to remove colour as the main concern for using UV light unit is to
remove microorganisms.
96
7.2 Turbidity
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of turbidity for each treatment
method are shown in the table below.
Types of filters Lowest % removal Highest % removal Average %

removal
Membrane 36.67 62.18 60.38
Distillation 82.66 91.85 86.22
UV Light 45.58 56.96 51.67
Combination 52.35 68.85 60.28
Table 7.2: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of turbidity
% Removal of Turbidity
100 90.42 86.22

90
79.69
80
70 60.38 60.28
% Removal
60 51.67
50
40
30
20
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.2: Percentage removal of turbidity for different treatment systems
97
Turbidity level in drinking water should not exceed 5 Nephelometric Turbidity Units
(NTU) according to WHO and Malaysian Drinking Water Standard. Turbidity level
in water is also varies from place to place. Some samples collected are with high
turbidity level which gave value above 4 NTU. However, most of the water samples
are fall in the range of 1.00 to 3.00 NTU. Only a few sample give turbidity level less
than 1.00 NTU.
The experimental results showed that activated carbon filter is the most effective
method in removing turbidity from drinking water. Activated carbon is known as a
natural absorbent for dissolved, colloidal and particulate matters that cause turbidity
in water. Distillation system is also a good method in removing turbidity from water.
Distillation system gives positive result that matches its mechanism of treating water.
Membrane filter gives satisfactory result in removing turbidity as compared with

colour. Turbidity may due to silt, clay or colloidal particles; ceramic stem of
membrane filter is able to retain those matters at the membrane surface and hence
results in low turbidity level in drinking water. Combination treatment unit is also
gives satisfactory result in removing turbidity. UV light treatment unit gives the
lowest percentage removal at 51.67 % as pre-filter is only able to remove certain
amounts of suspended matter from water.
98
7.3 Total Free Chlorine
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total free chlorine for each

removal
Membrane 75.00 100.00 87.16
UV Light 46.67 57.14 52.15
Combination 83.33 96.88 92.33
Table 7.3: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total free chlorine
% Removal of Chlorine
100 94.67 92.33

87.16 96.63
90
80
70 64.22
% Removal
60 52.15
50
40
30
20
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.3: Percentage removal of chlorine for different treatment systems
99
Residual chlorine is maintained in the distribution of water to ensure continues
disinfection throughout the distribution. Water samples collected give the free
chlorine concentration in the range from 0.01 to 0.64 mg/l.
Chlorine removal is essential in water treatment because chlorine and its by-product,
Trihalomethane (THM) is toxic to human’s health. Chlorine gives a displeasing
odour and it is corrosive when it presents in excessive amount.
All the treatment methods give a good percentage removal of chlorine at above 50 %
removal. However, reverse osmosis system is the most effective method in removing
chlorine from water at 96.63 % removal. Reverse osmosis system has been achieved
the expected result and hence provides drinking water with very low level of
chlorine. Activated carbon filter and combination units are also give positive result
in removing chlorine at 94.67 % and 92.33 % removal respectively.
Distillation system and UV light system are not very effective in removing chlorine
from drinking water as compared to other treatment methods. The result obtained is
disappointed because distillation system is expected to get rid of all constituents
from water.
100
7.4 Total Aluminium
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of aluminium for each

removal
Membrane 46.38 64.44 56.50
UV Light 20.73 37.14 30.40
Combination 44.00 66.67 55.94
Table 7.4: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of aluminium
% Removal of Aluminium
100
90
80 76.12
70 66.09
% Removal
60 56.5 55.94
50
40 31.09 30.4
30
20
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.4: Percentage removal of aluminium for different treatment systems
101
Aluminium level in drinking water should not exceed 0.2 mg/l according to the
WHO and Malaysian Drinking Water Standard. The aluminium levels of water
samples are in the range of 0.021 to 0.135 mg/l. The experimental results showed
that aluminium level in Malaysian tap water has met the Malaysian Drinking Water
Standard.
The experimental results also showed that not all the treatment methods give
satisfactory result in removing aluminium from drinking water. Among six treatment
methods, reverse osmosis system is the most effective method to remove aluminium
at 76.12 % removal. This is followed by distillation system at 66.09 %, combination
unit at 55.94 %, membrane filter at 56.5 %, activated carbon filter at 31.09 % and
UV light system at 30.4 % removal.
Reverse osmosis system and distillation system should give better result in removing
aluminium from water as both methods are expected to produce pure water after
treatment process. Activated carbon filter and UV light system are not the effective
methods in removing aluminium from water.
102
7.5 Total Chromium
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total chromium for each

removal
Membrane 14.29 28.57 19.84
UV Light 0.00 28.57 16.93
Combination 20.00 42.86 33.45
Table 7.5: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total chromium
% Removal of Total Chromium
100
90
80
70
% Removal
60
50 40.65
40 28.97 33.13 33.45
30 19.84
20 16.93
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.5: Percentage removal of total chromium for different filtration systems
103
The maximum allowable value for total chromium is 0.05 mg/l according to WHO
and Malaysian Drinking Water Standard. The experimental results showed that most
of the water samples have exceeded the permissible value. The highest recorded
value is 0.10 mg/l whereas the lowest recorded value is 0.05 mg/l. Chromium is a
toxic substance and it is detrimental to human health. This is an alarming issue as
our supplied tap water does not abide the water drinking standard.
All the treatment methods do not give a satisfactory result in removing total
chromium from water. The experimental results showed that distillation system is
the most effective method in removing total chromium compared with other
treatment methods at 40.65 % removal. This is followed by combination unit at
33.45 %, reverse osmosis system at 33.13 % activated carbon filter at 28.97 %,
membrane filter at 19.84 % and UV light system at 16.93 % removal.
Distillation system and reverse osmosis system do not give positive results as
expected. Theoretically, both methods should remove chromium from water as they
can remove heavy metals and provide pure water for human consumption. The
chromium level of some water samples is still exceeded the permissible value even
though after treatment process. The mentioned treatment methods are not be able to
remove all chromium in drinking water but at least the total chromium level has
been reduced.
104
7.6 Total Iron
The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total iron for each treatment
method are shown in the table below.

removal
Membrane 37.50 71.43 52.98
UV Light 25.00 42.86 33.73
Combination 55.56 75.00 65.74
Table 7.6: The lowest, highest and average percentage removals of total iron
% Removal of Total Iron
100
90
80 74.85
67.98 65.74
70
% Removal
60 52.9
50 40.48
40 33.73
30
20
10
0
Carbon Osmosis
Figure 7.6: Percentage removal of total iron for different filtration systems
105
The maximum allowable value of iron concentration in drinking water is 0.3 mg/l.
The recorded values of water samples before filtration treatment process are well
below the permissible value. Most water samples have values lower than 0.15 mg/l.
Samples from the same area may differ greatly in iron concentration. Types and
conditions of pipes used in the distribution system might lead to the varying
concentration in iron. Household with old rusted iron pipes may experience a higher
level in iron concentration as opposed to PVC pipes users.
Removal of total iron is more successful than chromium removal as each treatment
method gives higher percentage removal. Distillation system is the most effective
treatment method in removing total iron from water at 74.85 %. This is followed by
reverse osmosis system, combination unit, membrane filter, activated carbon filter
and UV light system at 67.98 %, 65.74 %, 52.98 %, 40.48 % and 33.73 % removal
respectively.
Reverse osmosis system and distillation system give unsatisfactory results again as
both methods should remove higher percentage of iron from water. Theoretically,
reverse osmosis system should remove 95 % to 98 % of iron from drinking water.
However this method does not achieve the expected result. Activated carbon filter
and UV light system are not the effective method for removal of iron.
106
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
8.1 Conclusion
This research project is focused on the currently used domestic water filtration
systems in Malaysian market. There is a need for consumers to have a better
understanding of the various filtration systems based on their technologies, price,
maintenance and limitation.
Nowadays, many consumers do not satisfy with the supplied tap water quality due to
the water contamination problems in the country. Most of the consumers
encountered problems such as turbidity, colour, excessive chlorine content, taste and
odour.
Both organic and inorganic substances at concentration above the acceptable levels
are detrimental to human’s bodies. Harmful chemical pollutants in water are arsenic,
107
chromium, cadmium, cyanide, mercury, lead and etc. Hence, manufacturers and
distributors of domestic filtration systems took this opportunity to introduce
consumers various methods to treat their tap water before consuming it.
Six types of domestic water filtration systems were studied in this research project.
These methods are activated carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system,
distillation system, UV light system and combination unit. Based on the case studies,
activated carbon filter and membrane filter are the common and cheaper methods
compared to other filtration systems. These types of filtration systems are commonly
used by consumers because they are easy to install and maintain. Reverse osmosis
system, distillation system, UV light system and combination unit are expensive and
require higher maintenance cost.
Laboratory experiments were conducted on water samples in order to rectify the

water quality issue. Some parameters of the collected tap water are exceeded the
permissible levels of WHO and Malaysian Drinking Water standards. All the
parameters should not exceed the allowable levels in order to ensure human’s health.
According to the experimental results, most treatment methods give high percentage
removal in parameters such as colour, turbidity and total free chlorine. On the
contrary, parameters such as total aluminium, total chromium and total iron are
harder to remove.
The average percentage removal of apparent colour using activated carbon filter,
membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system, UV light system and
combination unit are 74.7 %, 48.61 %, 51.59 %, 99.91 %, 24.96 % and 56.35 %
respectively. The average percentage removal of turbidity using activated carbon
filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system, UV light system
and combination unit are 90.42 %, 60.38 %, 79.69 %, 86.22 %, 51.67 % and 60.28
% respectively.
The percentage removal of total free chlorine using activated carbon filter,
membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system, UV light system and
combination unit are 94.67 %, 87.16 %, 96.63 %, 64.22 %, 52.15 % and 92.33 %
respectively. The average percentage removal of total aluminium using activated
108
carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system, UV light
system and combination unit are 31.09 %, 56.50 %, 76.12 %, 66.09 %, 30.40 % and
55.94 % respectively. The average percentage removal of total chromium using
activated carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation system,
UV light system and combination unit are 28.97 %, 19.84 %, 33.13 %, 40.65 %,
16.93% and 33.45 % respectively. The average percentage removal of total iron
using activated carbon filter, membrane filter, reverse osmosis system, distillation
system, UV light system and combination unit are 40.48 %, 52.98 %, 67.98 %,
74.85 %, 33.73 % and 65.74 % respectively.
From the results obtained, activated carbon filter is the most effective method in
removing turbidity from water. Distillation system is the most effective method in
removing colour, total chromium and total iron. On the other hand, reverse osmosis
system is the most effective method in removing chlorine and total aluminium. Not
all the treatment units give expected result as mentioned in the literature review.
Reverse osmosis system and distillation system do not remove all the impurities and
give only the pure water as mentioned. According to the experimental results,
percentage removal of some parameters especially the chemical substances is low.
We can conclude that a single water treatment system is not able to treat all the
water problems. Water filter is the simplest way to improve drinking water quality.
Although it cannot remove all the impurities from water but at least it can reduce the
concentration level in the water. Water filter requires maintenance on a regular basis
in order to maintain at its optimum performance. Without regular maintenance,
water filter is not able to provide clean water to us.
8.2 Further Work
For further work of this research project, I hope that students who are interested in
this topic would be able to carry out deeper research. In this research project, the
laboratory experiments are mainly focused on the physical properties and a few
109
chemical properties. For further research, laboratory experiments should focus on
the chemical properties of drinking water. This is because chemical substances
presented in drinking water are dangerous compounds to human’s health. We need
to investigate the effectiveness of various domestic filtration systems in removing
chemical substances from drinking water.
Besides that, biological aspect of the drinking water also should be taken into
consideration. Microorganisms, viruses and bacteria are major concern in regards to
the water quality. Drinking water should be free from all pathogenic microorganisms
as they are waterborne disease-causing organisms. More water samples should be
collected for the experiments in order to obtain accurate results.
On the other hand, consistency test of water parameters can be done to verify the
consistency of quality and treatment efficiency over a period of time. In order to
carry out the consistency test, one specific water treatment system with a single
source should be collected for few days, i.e. five days. Water samples are collect for
five consecutive days and test in the laboratory for the same parameters, i.e. colour,
turbidity, total aluminium, total chromium, total iron and total free chlorine. These
consistency tests are aimed at evaluating the consistency of supplied water quality
and treated water quality.
110
List of References
1. Bruce Seelig, Fred Bergsrud, Russell Derickson, February 1992, Treatment

Systems for Household Water Supplies-Activated Carbon Filtration [Online],
Available from
http://www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/h2oqual/wastsys/ae1029w.htm
[Viewed on 5 March 2005]
2. Gordon L. Culp, Russell L. Culp, 1974, New concepts in water purification,

Litton Educational Publishing, Inc
3. Gray N.F, Trinity College, University of Dublin, Ireland, 1994, Drinking

water quality and solutions, John Wiley & Sons Ltd
4. Hach Company, The Handbook, Portable Spectrometer, 2002, printed in the

U.S.A.
5. Hach Company, Model 2100N Laboratory Turbidimeter Instruction Manual,

2002, printed in the U.S.A.
6. HDR Engineering, Inc, Omaha, NE, 2001, Handbook of public water

systems, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, INC.
7. Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe, George Tchobanoglous, 1985,

Environmental Engineering, Mc Graw Hill International Editions
8. J. Mallevialle, I. H. Suffet, U. S. Chan, editor, 1992, Influence and removal

of organics in drinking water, Lewis Publishers.
9. Joseph N. Ryan and Marc Edwards, editor, 1994, Critical issues in water and
wastewater treatment, American Society of Civil Engineers
10. Mark J. Hammer, Professor of civil engineering, 1986, Water and

wastewater technology SI version, second edition, John Wiley & Sons.
111
11. MF 883 Activated Carbon Filters [Online], Available from
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/H20QL2/MF883.PDF
[Viewed on 5 March 2005 ]
12. Neil M. Ram, Russell F. Christman, Kenneth P. Cantor, 1990, Significance

and treatment of volatile organic compounds in water supplies, Lewis
Publishers, Inc.
13. Nesh 2000, Nesh Water Filter [Online] Available from http://www. nesh.
com.my [ Viewed on 10 March 2005 ]
14. Robert M. Clark, Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr., 1989, Granular activated carbon,
Lewis Publishers, Inc.
15. S. Vigneswaran, C. Visvanathan, 1995, Water treatment processes simple

options, CRC Press, Inc.
16. Thomas M. Missimer, 1994, Water supply development for membrane water
treatment facilities, Lewis Publishers, Inc.
17. Thomas R, Camp, Cam, Dresser & Mc Kee, Consulting Engineers, Boston,
1963, Water and its impurities, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Chapman
& Hall, Ltd, London.
18. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, American Water Works Association,

1990, Point of use/ entry treatment of drinking water, Noyes Data
Corporation.
19. W. Wesley Eckenfelder, Jr., Editor, Application of adsorption to wastewater

treatment, 1981, Enviro Press, Inc.
20. 1 March 2005, Which Whole of House Water Filter [online], Available from
http://www.ecologic-my.com [ Viewed on 10 March 2005 ]
112
21. Doulton Water Filter Candle and Cartridge Technologies [Online],
Available from http://www.doultonusa.com [Viewed on 17 August 2005]
22. Drinking water filters-reverse osmosis water purifier [Online], Available

from http://www.purewaterexpress.com/ro.htm [Viewed on 10 March 2005 ]
23. Excel Water Filter, n.d. [Online], Available from

http://www.excelwater.com/ [Viewed on 8 April 2005 ]
24. Hanovia World Class UV , n.d.[Online], Available from

http://www.hanovia.com/ [Viewed on 13 April 2005 ]
25. The History of water filters [Online], Available from

http://www.historyofwaterfilters.com [Viewed on 7 May 2005]
26. UV Water Treatment, n.d. [Online], Available from

http://www.cmhc_schl.gc.ca/en/burema/gesein/abhose_069.cfm
[Viewed on 13 April 2005]
113
APPENDIX A
114
ENG 4111/4112 Research Project

PROJECT SPECIFICATION
FOR : LAW BEE BEE

TOPIC : THE USAGE OF DOMESTIC WATER FILTRATION
SYSTEMS IN MALAYSIA
SUPERVISOR : Dr. Ernest Yoong
PROJECT AIM : This project investigates the current use of domestic water
filters in Kuala Lumpur. The study will also compare the
technologies of the various filtration systems.
PROGRAMME: Issue A, 11 March 2005

1. Study the reasons why households install water filter systems and gauge
public attitude towards these systems by carrying out a community
questionnaire survey.
2. Literature review of similar work by other researchers and show why this
investigation is relevant.
3. Collect and present data of supplied drinking water quality. This information
will be the basis of baselines values of municipal supplied drinking water.
4. Study different types of water filter available in the market base on their cost,
design and maintenance.
5. Make comparisons between the water filter systems.
6. Investigate the effectiveness of filter systems by carrying out lab test on the
filtered water.
AGREED:
_____________ (Student) ___________ (Supervisor)

LAW Bee Bee Dr. Ernest Yoong
(dated) 18/03/2005 (dated) 31/03/2005
115
APPENDIX B
116
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Are you satisfied with the quality of tap water in your house?
A. Yes
B. No
2. Do you boil the tap water before consume it?

A. Yes
B. No
3. What are the problems with the locally supplied tap water do you encountered?
A. Yellowish colour
B. Contain suspended solid
C. Chlorine smell
D. Skin irritation
F. Others___________
4. If the water is yellowish colour but told that it is still clean, will you consume it?
A. Yes
B. No
5. Do you use water filter at home?

A. Yes
B. No
6. How many water filters do you installed in your house?

A. One
B. Two
C. More than two
7. Do you test the tap water before purchasing the water filter?
A. Yes
B. No
8. Where is your water filter installed?
117
A. Outside home on the main pipe
B. In the kitchen
C. In the shower
D. Others____________
9. Do you have an understanding about the water filter you are using?
A. Yes
B. No
10. What kind of water filter you are using?

A. Activated carbon E. Distillation
B. Membrane filter F. Combination
C. Reverse osmosis G. Others_____________
D. UV ray
11. Why are you buying the water filter?

A. Health reasons
B. Advertisement
C. Affordable
D. Influence from friends, relatives or neighbors
E. News and complaints of water contamination in mass media
12. How much would you spend on a water filter?

A. RM 100 – 500
B. RM 500 – 1000
C. RM 1000 – 1500
D. Above RM 1500
13. Are you satisfied with the water filter you are using?
A. Yes
B. No
118
14. How often do you clean your water filter?
A. Weekly
B. Monthly
C. Every 3 months
D. Others__________
15. How often do you need to replace your filter parts?

A. Every 6 months
B. Every 1 year
C. Others_______________
16. How much do you spend to replace those parts?

A. RM 0 – 100
B. RM 100 – 200
C. RM 200 – 300
D. Above RM 300
119

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University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

The Usage of Domestic Water Filtration Systems in

LAW BEE BEE

In fulfillment of the requirements of

Courses ENG4111 and 4112 Research Project

towards the degree of

Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Submitted: October, 2005

Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

ENG4111 & ENG4112 Research Project

The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering

This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity

LAW Bee Bee

Student Number: 0050027407

CHAPTER 2 SAFE DRINKING WATER 6

CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF DOMESTIC WATER FILTER 20

CHAPTER 4 SURVEY RESULTS 60

CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 87

CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 94

7.1 Apparent Colour 95

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 107

LIST OF REFERENCES 111

Figure 2.1: Section withdrawals of surface water 9

Table 2.1: Comparison of Malaysian Drinking Standard and 18

1.1 Project Aims

1.2 Specific Objectives

The objectives of this research project are as below:

• Literature review about the water quality and method of measurement.

1.4 Dissertation Overview

SAFE DRINKING WATER

Quality of water becomes worse due to rapid development of the country. As

2.1 Sources of Water

There is about 75 % of the fresh water locked up as ice-caps and glaciers, 24 % of it

In Malaysia, surface water is readily available throughout the year; it is abstracted

Figure 2.1: Sector withdrawals of surface water [www.pemsea.org]

Groundwater is not commonly used in Malaysia; it is limited to some pockets of the

In consolidated sediment, the aquifer occurs in openings form as a result of chemical

Sector withdrawals of groundwater

Figure 2.2: Sector withdrawals of groundwater [www.pemsea.org]

2.2 Physical quality

Drinking water should be colourless. Presence of colour in drinking water indicates

Turbidity in drinking water is due to organic or inorganic impurities suspended in

2.2.3 Taste and odour

Inorganic substances are likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odour but

Chlorination of phenol can cause odour problems due to the formation of

2.2.4 Suspended Solids and Total Dissolved Solids

A suspended solid is the quantitative measurement of amount of particulate material

A total dissolved solid is the quantitative measurement of dissolved salts in water.

2.3 Chemical quality

In the supplied drinking water, presence of inorganic substances at concentration

Harmful inorganic chemical pollutants include arsenic, cadmium, chromium cyanide

Cadmium is the environment results from industrial sources such as electroplating

Dental fluorosis appears when fluoride in drinking water is in the range of 1 to 2

Pesticides such as insecticides, herbicides and fungicides are widely used in

2.3.8 Trihalomethanes (THMs)

Four common THMs found in drinking water are chloroform,

Value of pH is the measurement of acidity and alkalinity of waters. Most of the