CAD / CAM / CIM

Answers
By
Mr. B. Guruprasad
Asst. Professor, Mechanical
 CAD/CAM/CIM

BACHELOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by
B.GURUPRASAD, M.E.,
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
 “People are often unreasonable and self-
self-centered.
Forgive them anyway.
 If you are kind, people may accuse you of ulterior
motives.
Be kind anyway.
 If you are honest, people may cheat you.
Be honest anyway.
 If you kind happiness, people may be jealous.
Be happy anyway.
 The good you do today may be forgotten tomorrow.
Do good anyway.
 Give the world the best you have and it may never be
enough.
Give your best anyway.
 For you see, in the end, it is between you and God.
 it was never between you and them any way”
 UNIT - I
 CAD/CAM is a term which means computer-
computer-
aided design and computer aided
manufacturing.
 It is the technology concemed with the use of
digital computers to perform certain functions
in design and production
 CAD/CAM will provide the technology base for
the computer integrated factory of the future.
“Computer--aided design (CAD) can be defined
“Computer
as the use of computer systems to assist in
the creation, modification, analysis, or
optimization of a design
 The computer systems consist of the
hardware and software to perform the
specialized design functions required
by the particular user firm. The CAD
hardware typically includes the
computer, one or more graphics
display terminals, keyboards and other
peripheral equipment
 Stress--strain analysis of components,
Stress
 Dynamic response of mechanisms,
heat--transfer calculations, and
heat
numerical control part program ming
 The collection of application programs will
vary from one user firm to the next because
their product lines, manufacturing
processes, and customer markets are
different. These factors give rise to
differences in CAD system requirements
 Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) can
be defined as the use of computer systems
to plan, manage, and control the operations
of a manufacturing plant through either
direct or indirect computer interface with
the plants production resources
 the applications of computer-
computer-aided
manufacturing fall into two broad
categories
 Computer monitoring and control:
 Manufacturing support applications:
These are the indirect applications in which
the computer is used in support of the
production operations in the plant, but there
is no direct interface between the computer
and the manufacturing process
 Numerical control part programming
by computers:
Control programs are prepared for
automated machine tools.
 Computer--automated process
Computer
planning:
The computer prepares a listing of the
operation sequence required to process a
particular product or component:
 Computer genenerated work standards:
standards: The
computer determines the time standard for a
particular production operation.

 Production scheduling:.
scheduling:. The computer
determines an appropriate schedule for meeting
production requirements.

 Material reouiremenrs planning:.

planning:. The computer
is used to determine when to order raw materials
and purchased components and how many should
be ordered to achieve the production schedule.

 Shop floor control: In this CAM application, data

are collected from the factory to determine
progress of the various production shop orders
Product Cycle and CAD/CAM
 The cycle is driven by customers and markets which demand
the product.

 It is realistic to think of these as a large collection of diverse

industrial and consumer markets rather than one monolithic
market.

 Depending on the particular consumer group, there will be

differences in the way the product cycle is activated. In some
cases, the design functions are performed by the customer
and the product is manufactured by a different firm.

 In other cases, design and manufacturing is Accomplished by

the same firm. Whatever the case, the product cycle begins
with a concept, an idea for a product. This concept is
cultivated, refined, analyzed, Improved, and translated into a
plan for the product through the design engineering process.

 The plan is documented by drafting a set of engineering

drawings showing how the product is made and providing a
set of specifications indicating how the product should
perform
 The next activities involve the manufacture
of the product. A process plan is formulated
which specifies the sequence of production
operations required to make the product.

 New equipment and tools must sometimes

be acquired to produce the new product.

 Scheduling provides a plan that commits the

company to the manufacture of certain
quantities of the product by certain dates.

 Once all of these plans are formulated, the

product goes into production, followed by
quality testing, and delivery to the customer
CAD/CAM and the new
Environment
 How do CAD/CAM
systems work?
• Developing NC code requires an understanding of:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
3. Process plans
4. Tolerances
5. Fixturing
• Most CAD/CAM systems provide access to:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
CAD/CAM Support

 AutoCAD 200i
 Pro Engineer 2001
 MasterCAM
 Compute aided design and automated
drafting are utilized in the
conceptualization, design, and
documentation of the product.
Computers are used in process planning
and scheduling to perform these
functions more efficiently.
 Computers are used in production to
monitor and control the manufacturing
operations. In quality control, computers
are used to perform inspections and
performance tests on the product and its
components
 CAD/CAM is the digital computer. its inherent speed
and storage capacity have made it possible to
achieve the advances in image processing, realtime
process control, and a multitude of other important
functions that are simply too complex and time
consuming to from manual .

 if The modem digital computer is an electronic

machine that can perform mathematical and logical
calculations and data processing functions in
accordance with a predetermined program of
instructions.

There are three basic hardware components of a

general purpose digital computer.

1.Central processing unit (CPU)

2. Memory
3. Input/output (I/O) section
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The central processing unit (CPU)
regulates the operation of all system
components and performs the
arithmetic and logical operations on
the data. To accom­plish these
functions, the CPU consists of two
operating units:
 Control unit
 Arithmetic--logic unit (ALU)
Arithmetic
The control unit coordinates the various operations specified
by the program instructions. These operations include
receiving data which enter the computer and deciding how
and when the data should be processed. The control unit
directs the operation of the arithmetic-
arithmetic-logic unit.

It sends data to the ALU and tells the ALU what functions to
perform on the data and where to store the results. The
capability of the control unit to accomplish these operations
is provided by a set of instruc­tions called an executive
program which is stored in memory.

The arithmetic and logic unit performs operations such as

addition, subtractions, and comparisons. These operations
are carried out on data in binary form. The logic section can
also be used to alter the sequence in which instructions are
executed when certain conditions are indicated and to
perform other functions, such as editing and masking data
for arithmetic operations.
 TYPES OF MEMORY
 The memory section consists of binary
storage units which are organized into
bytes (there are typically 8 bits per
byte).
 A byte is a convenient size for the
computer to handle. Computer words
can typically be 4, 8, 12, 16, 32, or 64
bits long.
 Main memory (primary storage)
 Auxiliary memory (secondary storage
 Main memory (primary storage):

 Main data storage, such as magnetic core or solid-

solid-
state memory.

 This storage is characterized by its close proximity

to the CPU, fast access rate, relatively low storage
capacity, and very high cost compared to other
forms of memory.
 Control storage, which commonly contains the
microprograms that assist the CPU circuitry in
performing its functions
 Local storage, the high-
high-speed working registers
used in the arithmetic and logical operations.
 Auxiliary memory (secondary storage):
 Sequential access storage:
A sequential access storage unit is
dis­tinguished by the fact that to read one
particular record in the file, all records
preceding it must also be read.

 Direct access storage:

With this storage method, individual records can
be located and read immediately without reading
any other records.
 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
 Instructions are communicated to the
computer in the form of binary words.,
executing a program, the computer
interprets the configuration of bits as
an instruction to perform electronic
operations
 The binary-
binary-coded instructions that
computers can understand are called
machine language
 Three levels of computer programming
languages:
 1.Machine language
 2.Assembly language
 3.Procedure--oriented (high-
3.Procedure (high-level)
languages
 Machine languages:
 The language used by the computer is
called machine language. It is written in
binary, with each instruction containing an
operation code and an operand (Memory
address)
 The programmer must be familiar with the
specific compute system since machine
language instructions are different for each
computer
 Programming in machine language is
tedious, complicated, and time consuming
 Hence, English-
English-like mnemonics for each
binary instruction
 Assembly languages:
 These are considered to be low-
low-level
languages.
 The programmer must be very
knowledgeable about the computer
and equipment being pro­grammed
 Low--level languages are the most
Low
efficient in terms of fast execution on
the computer
 High-level languages:
High-
 Ex. Fortran
 It consist of English-
English-like statements and traditional
mathematical symbols. Each high-high-level statement is
equivalent to many instructs.
 A program written on one computer can be run on a
different computer without significant modifications to
the program.
 The advantage of high-
high-level languages is that it is not
necessary for the programmer to be familiar with
machine language. The program is written as »
English/mathematical symbol like algorithm to solve a
problem.
 Like assembly languages, high-
high-level languages must
also be converted into machine code. This is
accomplished by special program called a compiler
 high-level language used to program
high-
automatic machine tools.
 1.The large mainframe computer
 2.The minicomputer
 3.The microcomputer
 The large mainframe computer is
distinguished by its cost, capacity, and
function.
 The price of a new corporate general-
general-
purpose computer can run into
millions of dollars.
 The main memory capacity is several
orders of magnitude larger than the
minicomputer, and the speed with
which computations can be made is
several times the speed of a
minicomputer or microcomputer
 Minicomputers:
 are smaller versions of the large
mainframe computers. Greater
computational power into the same
physical size.
 same computational power into a
smaller size
 A microcomputer:
 Uses a microprocessor as the basic
central processing unit.
 The microprocessor consists of
integrated circuits contained on LSI
chips.
 The LS chips can be manufactured in
large quantities very inexpensively.
 The micropro­cessor is capable of
performing virtually all the functions of
the conventional CPU.
 The programmable controller (PC) :
 Relay control systems were typically used to
regulate the operation of production
equipment.
 The problems with electromechanical relays
are their physical size and programming
inflexibility.
 The programmable controller could perform
the same functions as a relay logic system
with greater flexibility and lower space
requirements.
 Wiring charts called "ladder diagrams"
 The programmable controller (PC) :
 There are several fundamental reasons for implementing a
CAD/CAM

To increase the productivity of the designer:

This is accomplished by the designer to visualize the product

and its component subassemblies and by reducing the time
required in synthesizing, analyzing, and document. This
productivity improvement translates not only into lower
design but also into shorter project completion times.

To improve the quality of design:

A CAD system permits a more rough engineering analysis and

a larger number of design alternatives can be done. Design
errors are also reduced through the greater accuracy
provided. These factors lead to a better design.
To improve communications.

Use of a CAD system provides better engineering

drawings, more standardization in the drawings,
better documentation -. fewer drawing errors, and
greater legibility.

To create a data base for manufacturing.

In the process of creating the documentation for

the product design (geometries and dimensions of
the product components, material specifications for
components, bill of materials, etc.)of the required
data base to manufacture the product is also
created
THE DESIGN PROCESS:

Recognition of need
Definition of problem
Synthesis
Analysis and optimization
Evaluation
Presentation
 Recognition of need
 This might be the identification of
some defect in a current machine
design by an engineer.
 the perception of a new product
marketing opportunity by a
salesperson
Definition of problem

 Definition of the problem involves

through specification of the item to be
designed.
 This specification includes physical,
functional characteristics, cost, quality,
and operating per­formance
Synthesis
 Synthesis and analysis are closely related and
highly iterative in the design process. A certain
component or subsystem of the overall system is
conceptualized by the designer, subjected to
analysis, improved through this analysis procedure,
and redesigned .
 The process is repeated until the design has been
optimized within the constraints imposed on the
designer. The components and subsystems are
syn­thesized into the final overall system in a
similar iterative manner
Evaluation

 Evaluation is concerned with measuring the

design against the specifications established
in the problem definition phase.

 This evaluation often requires the

fabrication and testing of a prototype model
to assess operating performance, quality,
reliability, and other criteria.
Presentation

 The final phase in the design process

is the presentation of the design. This
includes documentation of the design
by means of drawings, material
specifications, assembly lists, and so
on.
The Design Process : Then and Now
Geometric Modeling:

 1. points,lines,circles etc.,
 Scaling,rotation,transformations,editing
 Finally desired shape arrived
 2D,2 1/2 D, 3D modeling
Engg.Analysis

 Stress-Strain analysis
Stress-
 Heat transfer analysis
 Dynamic Behaviour
 Analysis of Mass properties
 Finite Element Analysis
3D Model with Mesh

FE Model Summary

Description Quantity

Total Nodes 24987

Total Elements 16370

Total Body Elements 16370

Design review and
evaluation
 The designer can zoom in on part design details and magnify
the image on the graphics screen for close scrutiny

 One of the most interesting evaluation features available on

some computer-aided design systems is kinematics. The
available kinematics packages provide the capability to
animate' the motion of simple designed mechanisms such as
hinged components and linkages.

 This involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which

there is a risk that the components of the assembly may
occupy the same space.

 This risk occurs in the design of large chemical plants, air-

separation cold boxes, and other complicated piping
structures
 Automated drafting:
 Automated drafting involves the
creation of hard-copy engineering
drawings directly from the CAD data
base.
 CAD systems can increase productivity
in the drafting function by roughly five
times over manual drafting
Automated drafting:

 Dimensioning, generation of crosshatched

areas, scaling of the drawing, a capability to
develop sectional views and enlarged views
of particular part.

 The ability to rotate the part or to perform

other transformations of the image oblique,
isometric, or perspective views.

 Most CAD systems are capable of generate

six views of the part.
CAD/CAM DATA BASE
Benefits of Computer aided
Design:
 Productivity improvement in design
 Shorter lead time
 Design analysis
 Fewer design errors
 Greater accuracy in design calculations
 Standardization of design, drafting and
documentation procedures
 Drawings are more understandable
 Improved procedures for engineering changes
 Benefits in manufacturing
Checklist of Potential Benefits
 Improved engineering productivity
 Shorter lead times
 Reduced engineering personnel requirements
 Customer modifications are easier to make
 Faster response to requests for quotations
 Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
 Minimized transcription errors
 Improved accuracy of design
 In analysis, easier recognition of component interactions
 Provides better functional analysis to reduce prototype testing
 Assistance in preparation of documentation
 Designs have more standardization
 Better designs provided
 Improved productivity in tool design
 Better knowledge of costs provided
 Reduced training time for routine drafting tasks and NC part programming
 Fewer errors in NC part programming
 Provides the potential for using more existing parts and tooling
 Helps ensure designs are appropriate to existing manufacturing techniques
 Saves materials and machining time by optimization algorithms
 Provides operational results on the status of work in progress
 Makes the management of design personnel on projects more effective
 Assistance in inspection of complicated parts
 Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among
engineers, designers, drafters, management, and different project groups
Benefits in manufacturing
 Tool and fixture design for manufacturing
 Numerical control part programming
 Computer-aided process planning
 Assembly lists (generated by CAD) for
production
 Computer-aided inspection
 Robotics planning
 Group technology
 Shorter manufacturing lead times through
better scheduling
DESIGN WORKSTATION

 It must interface with the central processing unit.

 It must generate a steady graphic image for the
user.
 It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic
image.
 It must translate computer commands into
operating functions.
 It must facilitate communication between the user
and the system.
 Graphics terminal
 Operator Input devices
Image generation in
computer graphics
 Nearly all computer graphics terminals available today use the
cathode ray tube (CRT) as the display device. Television sets use a
form of the same device as the picture tube.
 A heated cathode emits a high-speed electron beam onto a
phosphor-coated glass screen The electrons energize the phosphor
coating, causing it to glow at the points where the beam makes
contact.
 By focusing the electron beam, changing its intensity. and controlling
its point of contact against the phosphor coating through the use of
a deflector system, the beam can be made to generate a picture on
the CRT screen.
 There are two basic techniques used in current computer graphics
terminals for generating the image on the CRT screen. They are:
 1. Stroke writing
 2. Raster scan
 The stroke-writing system
uses an electron beam which
operates like a pencil.

 create a line image on the

CRT screen- The image is
constructed out of a sequence
of straight-line segments.

 Each line segment is drawn

on the screen by directing the
beam to move from one point
on the screen to the next,
where each point is defined
by its x and y coordinates.
 In the raster scan approach,
the viewing screen is
divided into a large number
of discrete phosphor picture
elements, called pixels.
 Each pixel on the screen can
be made to glow with a
different brightness. Color
screens provide for the
pixels to have different
colors as well as brightness.
 During operation, an
electron beam creates the
image by sweeping along a
horizontal line on the screen
from left to right and
energizing the pixels in that
line during the sweep.
Operator input devices

 1.Cursor control devices

 2.Digitizers
 3.Alphanumeric and other key board
terminals
Cursor control

 Thumb wheels
 Direction keys on a keyboard
 Joy sticks
 Tracker ball
 Light pen
 Electronic tablet/pen
Digitizers
 The digitizer is an operator input device which
consists of a large, smooth board (same as to a
mechanical drawing board) and an electronic
tracking device which can be moved over the
surface to follow existing lines. It is a common
technique in CAD systems for taking x, y
coordinates from a paper drawing.
 The digitizer can be used to digitize line drawings.
The user can input data from a rough schematic or
large layout drawing and edit the drawing to the
desired level of accuracy and detail. The digitizer
can also be used to freehand a new design, with
subsequent editing to finalize the drawing
Keyboard terminals

 The alphanumeric terminal is used to

enter commands, functions, and
supplemental data to the CAD system.
This information is displayed for
verification on the CRT or typed on
paper. The system also communicates
back to the user in a similar manner.
Menu listings, program listings, error
messages
Plotters and Output
devices
 Pen plotters
 Hard copy units
 Electrostatic plotters
 Computer – output to microfilm (COM)
units
 The drum plotter, is generally
the least expensive.
 It uses a round drum, usually
mounted horizontally, and a
slide which can be moved
along a track mounted axially
with respect to the drum.
 The paper is attached to the
drum and the pen is mounted
on the slide.
 The relative motion between
pen and paper is achieved by
coordinating the rotation of
the drum with the motion of
the slide.

 The drum plotter is fast and it

can make drawings of virtually
unlimited length.

 The width, however, is limited

by the length of the drum.
The flat-bed plotter, is more expensive.
It uses a flat drawing surface to which
the paper is attached.

On some models, the surface is

horizontal, while other models use a
drawing surface which is mounted in a
nearly vertical orientation to conserve
floor space.

Parallel tracks are located on two sides

of the flat surface. A bridge is driven
along these tracks to provide the ^-
coordinate motion.

Attached to the bridge is another track,

on which rides a writing head.
 Computer Graphics Software and
Database
Ground rules:
 Simplicity: The graphics software should be easy to use.

 Consistency: The package should operate in a consistent and

predictable way to the user

 Completeness: There should be no inconvenient omissions in

the set of graphics functions

 Robustness: The graphics system should be tolerant of minor

instances of misuse by the operator

 Performance: Within limitations imposed by the system

hardware, the performance should be exploited as much as
possible by software. Graphics programs should be efficient
and speed of response should be fast and consistent

 Economy: Graphics programs should not be so large or

expensive as to make their use prohibitive.
Model of Graphics
software configuration
Funtions of GSC

 1.Generation of graphic elements

 2.Transformations
 3.Display control and windowing
functions
 4.Segmenting functions
 5.User input functions
 1. A graphic element in computer
graphics is a basic image entity such
as a dot (or point), line segment,
circle, and so forth. The collection of
elements in the system could also
include alphanumeric characters and
special symbols
 2. Transformations are used to change
the image on the display screen and to
reposition the item in the data base.
Transformations are applied to the
graphic elements in order to aid the
user in constructing an application
model.
 3.This function set provides the user with
the ability to view the image from the
desired angle and at the desired
magnification. In effect, it makes use of
various transformations to display the
application model the way the user wants it
shown. This is sometimes referred to as
windowing because the graphics screen is
like a window being used to observe the
graphics model.
 4. Segmenting functions provide users with
the capability to selectively replace, delete,
or otherwise modify portions of the image.
The term "segment" refers to a particular
portion of the image which has been
identified for purposes of modifying it. The
segment may define a single element or
logical grouping of elements thai can be
modified as a unit.
 5.
5.User input functions constitute a
critical set of functions in the graphics
package because they permit the
operator to enter commands or data
to the system. The entry is
accomplished by means of operator
input devices
Constructing the
Geometry
 1. First method each new element is
being called but before it is added to
the model, the user can specify its
size, its position, and its orientation.
These specifications are necessary to
form the model to the proper shape
and scale
 2. The
T geometric construction process
is that graphics elements can be
subtracted as well as added.
 3. During model building is the
capability to group several elements
together into units which are
sometimes called cells. Ex. Bolts
 A+B = C
Editing the geometry

 A computer-aided design system

provides editing capabilities to make
corrections and adjustments in the
geometric model. When developing
the model, the user must be able to
delete, move, copy, and rotate
components of the model. The editing
procedure involves selecting the
desired portion of the model.
TRANSFORMATIONS -2D
 The matrix (2, 5) would be interpreted to be a point which is 2 units
from the origin in the x-direction and 5 units from the origin in the y-
direction.

 TRANSLATION- Translation involves moving the element from one

location to another.

 (x’ , y’)=(x , y) + T

Where, x’= x + m , y’=y + n

x’,y’= coordinates of the translated point
x,y = coordinates of the original point
m,n=movements x and y direction
SCALING

 Scaling of an element is used to

enlarge it or reduce its size. The
scaling need not necessarily be done
equally in the x and y directions. For
example, a circle could be transformed
into an ellipse by using unequal x and
y scaling factors.
ROTATION

 In this transformation, the points of an

object are rotated about the origin by
an angle.
TRANSFORMATIONS -3D
 TRANSLATION

T= (m,n,p)
 SCALING

S= m 0 0
0n0
00p
 Rotation :
Rz= cos ø - sin ø 0
sin ø cosø 0
0 0 1
Ry= cos ø 0 sin ø
0 1 0

-sin ø 0 cosø
Rx = 1 0 0
0 cosø – sin ø

0 sin ø cosø
Concatenation
 During the editing process when a graphic model is
being developed, the use of concatenated
transformations is quite common.

 1.Rotation of the element about an arbitrary point

in the element

 2. Magnifying the element but maintaining the

location of one of its points in the same location
Concatenation
 In the first case, the sequence of
transformations would be: translation to the
origin, then rotation about the origin, then
translation back to the original location.
 In the second case, the element would be
scaled (magnified) followed by a translation
to locate the desired point as needed.
 The objective of concatenation is to
accomplish a series of image manipulations
as a single transformation.
Wire frame modeling

 For objects in which there are curved

surfaces, contour lines can be added,
as shown in Figure, to indicate the
contour. The image assumes the
appearance of a frame constructed out
of wire.hence the name "wire-frame"
model.
Wire frame modeling
Solid models

 An improvement over wire-frame

models. In this approach, the models
are displayed as solid objects to the
viewer, with very little risk of
misinterpretation. When color is added
to the image, the resulting picture
becomes strikingly realistic
 1. Constructive solid geometry (CSG
or C-rep), also called the building-
block approach
 2. Boundary representation (B-rep)
CSG or C Rep

 The user would sketch the various

views of the object (front, side, and
top, more views if needed), drawing
interconnecting lines among the views
to establish their relationship. Various
transformations and other specialized
editing procedures are used to refine
the model to the desired shape
CSG or C Rep

 The C-
C-rep systems usually have a significant
procedural advantage in the initial
formulation of the model. It is relatively
easy to construct a precise solid model out
of regular solid primitives by adding,
Subtracting, and intersecting the
components.
 Less storage But more computation reqd.
B-rep
 Unusual shapes are encountered
during design and drawing.
 Ex. Air craft, Turbines, Boilers,
Automobile
 Less storage and less computation
reqd.
 Easy to convert to B rep and Wire
frame model.
 UNIT - II
Numerical control defined
 Numerical control can be defined as a
form of programmable automation in
which the process is controlled by
numbers, letters, and symbols. In NC,
the numbers form a program of
instructions designed for a particular
work part or job
BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN NC SYSTEM

1.Program of instructions
2.Controller unit (or) machine control
unit (MCU)
3.Machine tool or other controlled
process
Program of instructions
 The program of instructions is the
detailed step-by-step set of directions
which tell the machine tool what to
do.
 It is coded in numerical or symbolic
form on some type of input medium
that can be interpreted by the
controller unit.
 The most common input medium
today is 1” wide punched tape
Controller unit
 The second basic component of the NC
system is the controller unit.
 This consists of the electronics and
hardware that read and interpret the
program of instructions and convert it into
mechanical actions of the machine tool.
 The typical elements of a conventional NC
controller unit include the tape reader, a
data buffer, signal output channels to the
machine tool, feedback channels from the
machine tool.
Controller unit
 The tape reader is an electromechanical
device for winding and reading the punched
tape containing the program of instructions.
The data contained on the tape are read
into the data buffer.

 The signal output channels are connected to

the servomotors and other controls in the
machine tool. Through these channels, the
instructions are sent to the machine tool
from the controller unit
Machine tool
 The third basic component of an NC system
is the machine tool or other controlled
process.
 It is the part of the NC system which
performs useful work.
 In the most common example of an NC
system, one designed to perform machining
operations, the machine tool consists of the
worktable and spindle as well as the motors
and controls necessary to drive them.
 It also includes the cutting tools, work
fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment
needed in the machining operation
Machine tool
THE NC PROCEDURE

 1. Process planning

The engineering drawing of the work part

must be interpreted in terms of the
manufacturing processes to be used. This
step is referred to as process planning and it
is concerned with the preparation of a route
sheet. The route sheet is a listing of the
sequence of operations which must be
performed on the work part. It is called a
route sheet.
2. Part programming
 A part programmer plans the process for the portions of the job to
be accomplished by NC. Part programmers are knowledgeable about
the machining process and they have been trained to program for
numerical control. They are responsible for planning the sequence of
machining steps to be performed by NC and to document these in a
special format.

 Manual part programming

 Computer-assisted part programming

 In manual part programming, the machining instructions are

prepared on a form called a part program manuscript. The
manuscript is a listing of the relative cutter/work piece positions
which must be followed to machine the part.

 In computer-assisted part programming, much of the tedious

computational work required in manual part programming is
transferred to the computer. This is especially appropriate for
complex work piece geometries and jobs with many machining steps.
Use of the computer in these situations results in significant savings
in part programming time
3. Tape preparation
 A punched tape is prepared from the part
programmer's NC process plan. In manual part
programming, the punched tape is prepared
directly from the part program manuscript on a
type writer like device equipped with tape punching
capability.

 In computer-assisted part programming, the

computer interprets the list of part programming
instructions, performs the necessary calculations to
convert this into a detailed set of machine tool
motion commands, and then controls a tape punch
device to prepare the tape for the specific NC
machine.
4. Tape verification.

 After the punched tape has been

prepared, a method is usually provided
for checking the accuracy of the tape.
Sometimes the tape is checked by
running it through a computer
program which plots the various tool
movements (or table movements) on
paper.
5. Production
 This involves ordering the raw work parts,
specifying and preparing the tooling and any special
fixturing that may be required, and setting up the
NC machine tool for the job.

 The machine tool operator's function during

production to load the raw work part in the
machine and establish the starting position of the
cutting tool relative to the work piece.

 The NC system then takes over and machines the

part according to the instructions on tape. When
the part is completed, the operator removes it
from/the machine and loads the next part.
 NC COORDINATE SYSTEMS
 In order for the part programmer to plan the
sequence of positions and movements of the
cutting tool relative to the work piece, it is
necessary to establish a standard axis
system by which the relative positions can
be specified.

 Two axes, x and y, are defined in the plane

of the table, as shown in Fig. The z axis is
perpendicular to this plane and movement in
the z direction is controlled by the vertical
motion of the spindle. The positive and
negative directions of motion of tool relative
to table along these axes are as shown in
Fig.

 NC drill presses are classified as either two-

axis or three-axis machines, depending on
whether or not they have the capability to
control the z axis.
Fixed zero
 The programmer must determine the position of
the tool relative to the origin (zero point) of the
coordinate system.
 NC machines have either of two methods for
specifying the zero point.
 The first possibility is for the machine to have a
fixed zero. In this case, the origin is always located
at the same position on the machine table. Usually,
that position is the southwest corner (lower left-
hand corner) of the table and all tool locations will
be defined by positive x and y coordinates.
Floating zero
 The second and more common feature
on modern NC machines allows the
machine operator to set the zero point
at any position on the machine table.
This feature is called floating zero. The
part programmer is the one who
decides where the zero point should
be located. The decision is based on
part programming convenience
Absolute positioning and
incremental positioning

 Absolute positioning means

that the tool locations are
always defined in relation
to the zero point.

 incremental positioning
means that the next tool
location must be defined
with reference to the
previous tool location.
NC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

 1. Point-to-point
 2. Straight cut
 3. Contouring
Point-to-point NC
 Point-to-point (PTP) is also sometimes
called a positioning system. In PTP, the
objective of the machine tool control
system is to move the cutting tool to a
predefined location.

 The speed or path by which this

movement is accomplished is not
important in point-to-point NC.

 Once the tool reaches the desired

location, the machining operation is
performed at that position.

 Positioning systems are the simplest

machine tool control systems and are
therefore the least expensive of the three
types.

 However, for certain processes, such as

drilling operations and spot welding, PTP
is perfectly suited to the task.
Straight-cut NC
 Moving the cutting tool parallel
to one of the major axes at a
controlled rate suitable for
machining.

 It is therefore appropriate for

performing milling operations to
fabricate work pieces of
rectangular configurations.

 With this type of NC system it is

not possible to combine
movements in more than a
single axis direction.

 Therefore, angular cuts on the

work piece would not be
possible. An example of a
straight-cut operation is shown
in Figure
Contouring NC
 Contouring is the most complex, the
most flexible, and the most
expensive type of machine tool
control.

 It is capable of performing both FTP

and straight-cut operations.

 In addition, the distinguishing

feature of contouring NC systems is
their capacity for simultaneous
control of more than one axis
movement of the machine tool.

 The path of the cutter is

continuously controlled to generate
the desired geometry of the work
piece.

 In order to machine a curved path in

a numerical control contouring
system, the direction of the feed
rate must continuously be changed
so as to follow the path.

 This is accomplished by breaking the

curved path into very short straight-
line segments that approximate the
curve.
APPLICATIONS OF
NUMERICAL CONTROL
Milling, Drilling, Boring, Turning, Grinding, Sawing

 Within the machining category, NC machine tools are

appropriate for certain jobs like:
1. Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes.
2. The part geometry is complex.
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its
processing.
4. Much metal needs to be removed.
5. Engineering design changes are likely.
6. Close tolerances must be held on the work part.
7. It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be
costly.
8. The parts require 100% inspection
ECONOMICS OF NUMERICAL
CONTROL
 Advantages of NC
 1. Reduced nonproductive time: Numerical control has little
or no effect on the basic metal cutting (or other
manufacturing) process.

 NC can increase the proportion of time the machine is

engaged in the actual process. It accomplishes this by means
of fewer setups, less time in setting up, reduced work-piece
handling time, automatic tool changes on some machines,
and so on.

 2. Reduced fixturing: NC requires fixtures which are simpler

and less costly to fabricate because the positioning is done by
the NC tape rather than the jig or fixture.
 3. Reduced manufacturing lead time:

 Because jobs can be set up more quickly with NC and fewer

setups are generally required with NC, the lead time to deliver
a job to the customer is reduced.

 4.Greater manufacturing flexibility:

 With numerical control it is less difficult to adapt to

engineering design changes, alterations of the production
schedule, changeovers in jobs for rush orders.

 5. Improved quality control:

 NC is ideal for complicated work parts where the chances of

human mistakes are high. Numerical control produces parts
with greater accuracy, reduced scrap, and lower inspection
requirements.
 6.Reduced inventory. Owing to fewer setups
and shorter lead times with numerical
control, the amount of inventory carried by
the company is reduced.
 7. Reduced floor space requirements.
Since one NC machining center can often
accomplish the production of several
conventional machines, the amount of floor
space required in an NC shop is usually less
than in a conventional shop.
Disadvantages of NC

 1. Higher investment cost. Numerical control machine tools represent a

more sophisticated and complex technology. This technology costs more to
buy than its non-NC counterpart. The higher cost requires manufacturing
managements to use these machines more aggressively than ordinary
equipment. High machine utilization is essential in order to get reasonable
returns on investment. Machine shops must operate their NC machines two or
three shifts per day to achieve this high machine utilization.

 2. Higher maintenance cost. Because NC is a more complex technology and

because NC machines are used harder, the maintenance problem becomes
more acute. Although the reliability of NC systems has been improved over
the years, maintenance costs for NC machines will generally be higher than
for conventional machine tools.

 3. Finding and/or training NC personnel. Certain aspects of numerical

control shop operations require a higher skill level than conventional
operations. Part programmers and NC maintenance personnel are two skill
areas where available personnel are in short supply. The problems of finding,
hiring, and training these people must be considered a disadvantage to the
NC shop.
Languages:
 APT (Automatically Programmed Tools). The
APT language was the product of the MIT
developmental work on NC programming systems.

 Although first intended as a contouring language,

modern versions of APT can be used for both
positioning and continuous-path programming in up
to five axes.

 Versions of APT for particular processes include

APTURN (for lathe operations), APTMIL (for milling
and drilling operations), and APTPOINT (for point-
to-point operations).
 ADAPT (ADaptation of APT). Several part programming
languages are based directly on the APT program. One of these is
ADAPT, which was developed by IBM under Air Force contract. It
was intended to provide many of the features of APT but to utilize a
smaller computer.

The full APT program requires a computing system that would have
been considered large by the standards of the 1960s. This precluded
its use by many small and medium-sized firms that did not have
access to a large computer.

ADAPT is not as powerful as APT, but it can be used to program for

both positioning and contouring jobs.

 EXAPT (Extended subset of APT). This was developed in

Germany starting around 1964 and is based on the APT language.

There are three, versions: EXAPT I—designed for positioning (drilling

and also straight-cut milling), EXAPT II—designed for turning, and
EXAPT III—designed for limited contouring operations.

One of the important features of EXAPT is that it attempts to

compute optimum feeds and speeds automatically.
 UNI APT. The UNIAPT package represents another
attempt to adapt the APT language to use on
smaller computers. The name derives from the
developer, the United Computing Corp. of Carson,
California.
 Their efforts have provided a limited version of APT
to be implemented on minicomputers, thus allowing
many smaller shops to possess computer-assisted
programming capacity.
 SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language
Internally Translated). This is a proprietary
system intended for Sundstrand's machine tools. It
can handle up to five-axis positioning and
possesses contouring capability as well.
 One of the unusual features of SPLIT is that the
postprocessor is built into the program. Each
machine tool uses its own SPLIT package, thus
obviating the need for a special postprocessor.
Apt language:
 APT is not only an NC language; it is also the computer program that
performs the calculations to generate cutter positions based on APT
statements

 APT is a three-dimensional system that can be used to control up to five axes.

We will limit our discussion to the more familiar three axes, x, y, and z, and
exclude rotational coordinates. APT can be used to control a variety of
different machining operations. We will cover only drilling and milling
applications. There are over 400 words in the APT vocabulary. (3rhere are
four types of statements in the APT language:

 1. Geometry statements. These define the geometric elements that

comprise the work part. They are also sometimes called definition statements.
 2. Motion statements. These are used to describe the path taken by the
cutting tool.
 3. Post processor statements. These apply to the specific machine tool and
control system. They are used to specify feeds and speeds and to actuate
other features of the machine.
 4. Auxiliary statements. These are miscellaneous statements used to
identify the part, tool, tolerances, and so on.
Advantages of NC programming:
 1. Savings in geometry definition. Since the part geometry
data have already been created during design using the
CAD/CAM graphics system, the part programmer is not
required to redefine the geometry of the part. This can be a
time-consuming procedure in conventional APT programming.

 2. Immediate visual verification. The graphics terminal

provides a display of the tool path for immediate verification
by the part programmer. Most programming errors can be
detected by the user and corrected at the time the error is
made. With conventional APT or other NC language, there is a
delay between writing the program and the
verification/correction process.

 3. Use of automatic programming routines. For common

part programming situations such as profiling and pocketing,
the use of automatic MACRO-type routines yields a significant
reduction in part programming time.
 4. One-of-a-kind jobs. Because the part
programming time is significantly reduced when
using a CAD/CAM system, numerical control
becomes an economically attractive method for
producing one-of-a-kind jobs. Without CAD/CAM,
the time required to prepare the part program
represents a significant obstacle which often
precludes the use of NC for one/off production.

 5. Integration with other related functions. There

is the obvious opportunity to integrate the product
design function with part programming. Other
opportunities for functional integration within
manufacturing also exist. These include tool design,
process planning, preparation of operator and setup
instructions, grouping of parts into families for
programming convenience,
VOICE NC PROGRAMMING
 Voice programming of NC machines (abbreviated VNC) involves vocal
communication of the machining procedure to a voice-input NC tape-
preparation system.

 VNC allows the programmer to avoid steps such as writing the

program by hand, keypunching or typing, and manual verification.

 One of the principal companies specializing in voice-input systems is

Threshold Technology, Inc., of Delran, New Jersey.

 To perform the part programming process with VNC, the operator

speaks into a headband microphone designed to reduce background
acoustical noise.

 Communication of the programming instructions is in shop language

with such terms as "turn," "thread," and "mill line," together with
numbers to provide dimensional and coordinate data.

 Before the voice-input system can be used, it must be "trained" to

recognize and accept the individual programmer's voice pattern.
 This is accomplished by repeating each word of the
vocabulary about five times to provide a reference set which
can subsequently be compared to voice commands given
during actual programming.

 The entire vocabulary for the Threshold system contains

about 100 words.

 Most NC programming jobs can be completed by using about

30 of these vocabulary words.
 In talking to the system, the programmer must isolate each
word by pausing before and after the word.

 The pause must be only one-tenth of a second or longer. This

allows the speech recognition system to identify boundaries
for the uttered command so that its wave characteristics can
be compared with words in the reference set for that
programmer.

 Typical word input rates under this restriction are claimed to

be about 70 per minute.
Problems with NC
 1. Part programming mistakes.

In preparing the punched tape, part programming mistakes are common. The mistakes
can be either syntax or numerical errors, and it is not uncommon for three or more
passes to be required before the NC tape is correct. Another related problem in part
programming is to achieve the best sequence of processing steps. This is mainly a
problem in manual part programming. Some of the computer-assisted part programming
languages provide aids to achieve the best operation sequences.

 2. Non optimal speeds and feeds.

In conventional numerical control, the control system does not provide the opportunity
to make changes in speeds and feeds during the cutting process. As a consequence, the
programmer must set the speeds and feeds for worst-case conditions. The result is lower
than optimum productivity.

 3. Punched tape.

Another problem related to programming is the tape itself. Paper tape is especially
fragile, and its susceptibility to wear and tear causes it to be an unreliable NC component
for repeated use in the shop. More durable tape materials, such as Mylar, are utilized to
help overcome this difficulty. However, these materials are relatively expensive
 Problems with NC
 4. Tape reader.
The tape reader that interprets the punched tape is generally
acknowledged among NC users to be the least reliable
hardware component of the machine. When a breakdown is
encountered on an NC machine, the maintenance personnel
usually begin their search for the problem with the tape
reader.
 5. Controller.
The conventional NC controller unit is hard-wired. This means
that its control features cannot be easily altered to
incorporate improvements into the unit. Use of a computer as
the control device would provide the flexibility to make
improvements in such features as circular interpolation when
better software becomes available.
 6. Management information.
The conventional NC system is not equipped to provide timely
information on operational performance to management. Such
information might include piece counts, machine breakdowns,
and tool changes.
 NC CONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

 The hardware technology in NC controls has

changed dramatically over the years. At least
seven generations of controller hardware can be
identified.
 1. Vacuum tubes (circa 1952)
 2. Electromechanical relays (circa 1955)
 3. Discrete semiconductors (circa 1960)
 4. Integrated circuits (circa 1965)
 5. Direct numerical control (circa 1968)
 6. Computer numerical control (circa 1970)
 7. Microprocessors and microcomputers (circa 1975)
Functions of CNC
 There are a number of functions which CNC
is designed to perform. Several of these
functions would be either impossible or very
difficult to accomplish with conventional NC.
The principal functions of CNC are:
 1. Machine tool control
 2. In-process compensation
 3. Improved programming and operating
features
 4. Diagnostics
 (MACHINE TOOL CONTROL. The primary
function of the CNC system is control of the
machine tool. This involves conversion of
the part program instructions into machine
tool motions through the computer interface
and servo systems

 This fact has lead to the development of

two alternative controller designs in CNC:
 1. Hybrid CNC
 2. Straight CNC
 In the hybrid CNC system, the
controller consists of the soft-wired
computer plus hard-wired logic
circuits. The hard-wired components
perform those functions which they do
best, such as feed rate generation
and circular interpolation.

 The computer performs the remaining

control functions plus other duties not
normally associated with a
conventional hard-wired controller.

 There are several reasons for the

popularity of the hybrid CNC
configuration. As mentioned
previously, certain NC functions can
be performed more efficiently with the
hard-wired circuits.
 The straight CNC system uses a computer
to perform all the NC functions.
 The only hard-wired elements are those
required to interface the computer with the
machine tool and the operator's console.
 Interpolation, tool position feedback, and all
other functions are performed by computer
software
 Accordingly, the computer required in a
straight CNC system must be more powerful
than that needed for a hybrid system.

 The advantage gained in the straight CNC

configuration is additional flexibility.

 It is possible to make changes in the

interpolation programs, whereas the logic
contained in the hard-wired circuits of
hybrid CNC cannot be altered.
In-Process Compensation.
 A function closely related to machine tool control is in-process
compensation. (This involves the dynamic correction of the
machine tool motions for changes or errors which occur during
processing)

 Some of the options included within the category of CNC in-process

compensation are:

 Adjustments for errors sensed by in-process inspection probes and

gauges.

 Recomputation of axis positions when an inspection probe is used to

locate a datum reference on a work part. 'Offset adjustments for tool
radius and length.

 Adaptive control adjustments to speed and/or feed. Computation of

predicted tool life and selection of alternative tooling when indicated.
Improved programming and
operating features
 The flexibility of soft-wired control has permitted the introduction of
many convenient programming and operating features.) Included
among these features are the following:

 Editing of part programs at the machine. This permits correction or

optimization of the program.

 graphic display of the tool path to verify the tape.

 Various types of interpolation: circular, parabolic, and cubic

interpolation.

 Support of both U.S. customary units and metric units (International

System). Use of specially written subroutines.

 Manual data input (MDI).

 Local storage of more than one part program.

Diagnostics
 NC machine tools are complex and expensive systems.

 The complexity increases the risk of component failures which lead

to system downtime. It also requires that the maintenance personnel
be trained to a higher level of proficiency in order to make repairs.

 The higher cost of NC provides a motivation to avoid downtime as

much as possible.

 CNC machines are often equipped with a diagnostics capability to

assist in maintaining and repairing the system.

 These diagnostics features are still undergoing development and

future systems will be much more powerful in their capabilities than
current CNC units.

 Ideally, the diagnostics subsystem would accomplish several

functions.
 First, the subsystem would be able to identify the
reason for a downtime occurrence so that the
maintenance personnel could make repairs more
quickly.

 Second, the diagnostics subsystem., would be alert to

signs that indicate the imminent failure of a certain
component. Hence maintenance personnel could
replace the faulty component during a scheduled
downtime, thus avoiding an unplanned interruption of
production.

 A third possible function which goes beyond the

normal diagnostics capability is for the CNC system to
contain a certain amount of redundancy of
components which are considered unreliable.

 When one of these components fails, the diagnostics

subsystem would automatically disconnect the faulty
component and activate the redundant component.
Repairs could thus be accomplished without any
breaks in normal operations.
Advantages of CNC

 1. The part program tape and tape reader are

used only once to enter the program into
computer memory. This results in improved
reliability, since the tape reader is commonly
considered the least reliable component of a
conventional NC system.
 2. Tape editing at the machine site. The NC
tape can be corrected and even optimized (e.g.,
tool path, speeds, and feeds) during tape try
out at the site of the machine tool.
 3. Metric conversion. CNC can accommodate
conversion of tapes prepared in units of inches
into the International System of units.
 4. Greater flexibility. One of the more significant
advantages of CNC over conventional NC is its
flexibility. This flexibility provides the opportunity to
introduce new control options (e.g., new interpolation
schemes) with relative ease at low cost. The risk of
obsolescence of the CNC system is thereby reduced.

 5. User-written programs. One of the possibilities

not originally anticipated for CNC was the generation of
specialized programs by the user. These programs
generally take the form of MACRO subroutines stored
in CNC memory which can be called by the part
program to execute frequently used cutting sequences.

 6. Total manufacturing system. CNC is more

compatible with the use of a computerized factory-wide
manufacturing system. One of the stepping stones
toward such a system is the concept of direct
numerical control.
DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL

 Direct numerical control can be defined as a manufacturing

system in which a number of machines are controlled by a
computer through direct connection and in real time.

 The tape reader is omitted in DNC, thus relieving the system

of its least reliable component. Instead of using the tape
reader, the part program is transmitted to the machine tool
directly from the computer memory.

 In principle, one large computer can be used to control more

than 100 separate machines. The DNC computer is designed
to provide instructions to each machine tool on demand.
When the machine needs control commands, they are
communicated to it immediately. DNC also involves data
collection and processing from the machine tool back to the
computer.
 Components of a DNC
system
 1.Central computer
 2.Bulk memory, which
stores the NC part
programs
 3.Telecommunication lines
 4.Machine tools
Advantages of DNC
 1.Elimination of punched tapes and tape readers.
Direct numerical control eliminates the least reliable element
in the conventional NC system. In some DNC systems, the
hard-wired control unit is also eliminated, and replaced by a
special machine control unit designed to be more compatible
with DNC operation.

 2.Greater computational capability and flexibility.

The large DNC computer provides the opportunity to perform
the computational and data processing functions more
effectively than traditional NC. Because these functions are
implemented with software rather than with hard-wired
devices, there exists the flexibility to alter and improve the
method by which these functions are carried out.

 3.Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files.

This compares with the more manually oriented storage of
punched tapes in conventional NC.
 4.Programs stored as CLFILE.

Storage of part programs in DNC is generally in the form of

cutter path data rather than post processed programs for
specific machine tools. Storing of the programs in this more
general format affords the flexibility in production scheduling
to process a job on any of several different machine tools.

 5.Reporting of shop performance.

One of the important features in DNC involves the collection,

processing, and reporting of production performance data
from the NC machines.

 6.Establishes the framework for the evolution of the future

computer-automated factory.

The direct numerical control concept represents a first step in

the development of production plants which will be managed
by computer systems.
Working of an CNC:
Automation using CAM
Computer Aided Manufacturing
 UNIT -III
Important questions:
UNIT--IV
UNIT

Group Technology
Group Technology

 Group technology concept works on the

principle of integration of identical parts
components to get economic advantage.
 It is a philosophy which implies that
identical or components are grouped
together on the basis of design and
manufacturing
 This group of parts or components is called
part family
Group Technology
Group Technology
Group Technology
Group Technology
 Components or parts are classified in
families.
 Work loads are balanced between
production groups.
 Production groups are clearly identifiable on
the shop floor.
 Each group works with a significant degree
of autonomy.
 Short cycle flow control to order the parts
which are to be made by each group
Group Technology
Group Technology
Group Technology
Group Technology
Group Technology
 First major limitation of group
technology system is cost of
implementation is high.
 Rearranging or reorganizing of
machines is very difficult and time
consuming process.
 There are large numbers of group
technology codes.
 It may not be suitable when very wide
varieties of product.
Group Technology: Types
 Visual inspection:
 The visual inspection method is the least
sophisticated and least expensive.
 It involves the classification of parts into
families by looking at either the physical
parts or photographs and arranging them
into similar groupings.
 This method is generally considered to be
the least accurate of the three.
Group Technology: Types
 Production flow Analysis (PFA) is a method
of identifying part families and associated
machine tools groupings by analyzing the
route sheets for parts produced in a given
shop. It groups together the parts that have
similar operation sequences and machine
routings.
 The disadvantage of PFA is that it accepts
the validity of existing route sheets, with no
consideration given to whether these
process plans are logical or consistent.
Group Technology:Types

 Parts classification and coding system

 The third method, parts classification
and coding, is the most time
consulting and complicated of the
three methods. However, it is the
most frequently applied method and is
generally recognized to be the most
powerful of the three.
Parts classification and
Coding:
 This method of grouping parts into families involves
an examination of the individual design and/or
manufacturing attributes of each part. The
attributes of the part are uniquely identified by
means of a code number. This classification and
coding may be carried out on the entire list of
active parts of the firm, or a sampling process may
be used to establish the part families. For example,
parts produced in the shop during a certain given
time period could be examined to identify part
family categories
Parts classification and
Coding:
 Many parts classification and coding systems have
been developed throughout the world, and there
are several commercially available packages being
sold to industrial concerns. It should be noted that
none of them has been universally adopted. One of
the reasons for this is that a classification and
coding system should be custom-engineered for a
given company or industry. One system may be
best for one company while a different system is
more suited to another company.
Coding system structure:

 1.Hierarchical structure
 2.Chain-type structure
 3.Hybrid structure, a combination of
hierarchical and chain-type structures
Coding system structure
 1.Hierarchical structure
 the interpretation of each succeeding
symbol depends on the value of the
preceding symbols.
 Other names commonly used for this
structure are mono code and tree structure.
 The hierarchical code provides a relatively
compact structure which conveys much
information about the part in a limited
number of digits.
Coding system structure
 2.Chain-type structure
 the interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is
fixed and does not depend on the value of
preceding digits.
 Another name commonly given to this structure is
poly code.
 The problem associated with poly codes is that they
tend to be relatively long.
 the use of a poly code allows for convenient
identification of specific part attributes. This can be
helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing
requirements
Coding system structure
 3.Hybrid structure

 A combination of hierarchical and chain-type structures

 Most of the commercial parts coding systems used in industry
are a combination of the two pure structures.
 The hybrid structure is an attempt to achieve the best
features of mono codes and poly codes.
 Hybrid codes are typically constructed as a series of short poly
codes. Within each of these shorter chains, the digits are
independent.
 This hybrid coding seems to best serve the needs of both
design and production.
Three parts classfication
and coding systems:
 1. Opitz system
 2. MICLASS system
 3. CODE system
Three parts classfication
and coding systems:
 The Opitz coding system uses the following digit sequence:
 12345 6789 ABCD
 The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended
by adding four more digits.
 The first nine digits are intended to convey both design and
manufacturing data.
 The general interpretation of the nine digits is indicated in Fig.
 The first five digits, 12345, are called the "form code" and
describe the primary design attributes of the part. The next
four digits, 6789, constitute the "supplementary code'
 It indicates some of the attributes that would be of use to
manufacturing (dimensions, work material, starting raw work
piece shape and accuracy).
 The extra four digits, ABCD, are referred to as the "secondary
code" and are intended to identify the production operation
type and sequence.
Three parts classfication
and coding systems
 2. MICLASS system(Metal Institute Classification System)

 The MICLASS system was developed to help automate and

standardize a number of design, production, and management
functions. These include:
 Standardization of engineering drawings
 Retrieval of drawings according to classification number
 Standardization of process routing
 Automated process planning
 Selection of parts for processing on particular groups of
machine tools
 Machine tool investment analysis
 The MICLASS classification number can range from 12 to 30
digits. The first 12 digits are a universal code that can be
applied to any part.
 Up to 18 additional digits can be used to code data that are
specific to the particular company or industry.
2. MICLASS system(Metal Institute
Classification System)

 The workpart attributes coded in the first 12 digits of the MICLASS

number are as follows:
 1st digit Main shape
 2nd and 3rd digits Shape elements
 4th digit Position of shape elements
 5th,and 6th digits Main dimensions
 7th digit Dimension ratio
 8th digit Auxiliary dimension
 9th and 10th digits Tolerance codes
 1th and 12th digits Material codes
 One of the unique features of the MICLASS system is that parts can
be coded using a computer interactively.
 To classify a given part design, the user responds to a series of
questions asked by the computer. The number of questions depends
on the complexity of the part.
Three parts classfication and
coding systems
 3. CODE system
 The CODE system is a parts classification
 Its most universal application is in design engineering for
retrieval of part design data, applications in manufacturing
process planning, purchasing, tool design, and inventory
control.

 The CODE number has eight digits. For each digit there are 16
possible values (zero through 9 and A through F) which are
used to describe the part's design and manufacturing
characteristics. The initial digit position indicates the 6 basic
geometry of the part and is called the Major Division of the
CODE system.
 This digit would be used to specify whether the shape was a
cylinder, flat piece, block, or other. The interpretation of the
remaining seven digits depends on the value of the first digit,
but these remaining digits form a chain-type structure. Hence
the CODE system possesses a hybrid structure
Group Technology
Machine Cells
 The composite part concept:
 Part families are defined by the fact that their members have similar
design and manufacturing attributes. The composite part concept
takes this part family definition to its logical conclusion.

 It conceives of a hypothetical part that represents all of the design

and corresponding manufacturing attributes possessed by the
various individuals in the family.

 A machine cell would be designed to provide all seven machining

capabilities. The machine, fixtures, and tools would be set up for
efficient flow of work-parts through the cell.

 A part with all seven attributes, such as the composite part of Fig.
would go through all seven processing steps
Group Technology
Machine Cells
 The composite part concept:
Group Technology: Types
of Machine Cells
 Single machine cell
 Group machine layout
 Row line design
Group Technology: Types
of Machine Cells
 Single machine cell
 The single machine approach can be
used for work parts whose attributes
allow them to be made on basically
one type of process, such as turning
or milling.
Group Technology: Types
of Machine Cells
 Group machine layout
 The group machine layout is a cell design in
which several machines are used together,
with no provision for conveyorized parts
movement between the machines. The cell
contains the machines needed to produce a
certain family of parts, and the machines
are organized with the proper fixtures,
tools, and operators to efficiently produce
the parts family
Group Technology: Types
of Machine Cells
 Row line design
 The flow line cell design is a group of
machines connected by a conveyor system.
Although this design approaches the
efficiency of an automated transfer line.
 The limitation of the flow line layout is that
all the parts in the family must be processed
through the machines in the same
sequence.
Benefits of Group
Technology
 Product design
 Tooling and setups
 Materials handling
 Production and inventory control
 Employee satisfation
 Process planning procedures
CAPP: Advantages
 1. Process rationalization.
 Computer-automated preparation of operation
routings is more likely to be consistent,
logical, and optimal than its manual
counterpart.
 The process plans will be consistent because
the same computer software is being used by
all planners.
 The process plans tend to be more logical and
optimal because the company has presumably
incorporated the experience and judgment of
its best manufacturing people into the process
planning computer software.
CAPP: Advantages

 2.Increased productivity of process

planners.
 With computer-aided process planning,
there is reduced clerical effort, fewer errors
are made, and the planners have immediate
access to the process planning data base.
 These benefits translate into higher
productivity of the process planners.
CAPP: Advantages

 3.Reduced turnaround time.

 with the CAPP system, the process
planner is able to prepare a route
sheet for a new part in less time
compared to manual preparation
 This leads to an overall reduction in
manufacturing lead time.
CAPP: Advantages

 4.Improved legibility.
 The computer-prepared document is
neater and easier to read than
manually written route sheets.
 CAPP systems employ standard text,
which facilitates interpretation of the
process plan in the factory.
CAPP: Advantages

 5. Incorporation of other application

programs.
 The process planning system can be
designed to operate in conjunction
with other software packages to
automate many of the time-consuming
manufacturing support functions.
Traditional Process
planning:
 There are variations in the level of detail
found in route sheets among different
companies and industries.
 Individual engineers each have their own
opinions about what constitutes the best
routing.
 Accordingly, there are differences among
the operation sequences developed by
various planners.
Traditional Process
planning:
 Problem of variability among planners, there are
often difficulties in the conventional process
planning procedure.
 New machine tools in the factory render old
routings less than optimal.
 Machine breakdowns force shop personnel to use
temporary routings, and these become the
documented routings even after the machine is
repaired.
 For these reasons and others, a significant
proportion of the total number of process plans
used in manufacturing are not optimal
Automated Process
Planning:
 This system offers the potential for reducing the
routine clerical work of manufacturing engineers.
 At the same time, it provides the opportunity to
generate production routings which are rational,
consistent, and perhaps even optimal.
 There are:
 1.Retrieval-type CAPP systems (also called variant
systems)
 2. Generative CAPP systems
Automated Process
Planning:
 1.Retrieval-type CAPP systems
 In this approach, the parts produced
in the plant are grouped into part
families, distinguished according to
their manufacturing characteristics;
For each part family, a standard
process plan is established.
1.Retrieval-type CAPP
systems
 In this approach, the parts produced in the plant are grouped into part families, distinguished according
to their manufacturing characteristics; For each part family, a standard process plan is established. The
standard process plan is stored in computer files and then retrieved for new workparts which belong to
that family. Some form of parts classification and coding system is required to organize the computer
files and to permit efficient retrieval of the appropriate process plan for a new workpart. For some new
parts, editing of the existing process plan may be required. This is done when the manufacturing
requirements of the new part are slightly different from the standard. The machine routing may be the
same for the new part, but the specific operations required at each machine may be different. The
complete process plan must document the operations as well as the sequence of machines through
which the part must be routed. Because of the alterations that are made in the retrieved process plan,
these CAPP systems are sometimes also called by the name "variant system."
 Figure 13.1 will help to explain the procedure used in a retrieval process planning system. The user
wouid initiate the procedure by entering the part code number at a computer terminal.(The CAPP
program then searches the part family matrix file to determine if a match exists. If the file contains an
identical code number, the standard machine routing and operation sequence are retrieved from the
respective computer files for display to the user. The standard process plan is examined by the user to
permit any necessary editing of the plan to make it compatible with the new part design. After editing,
the process plan formatter prepares the paper document in the proper form.
 If an exact match cannot be found between the code numbers in the computer file and the code
number for the new part, the user may search the machine routing file and the operation sequence file
for similar parts that could be used to develop the plan for the new part
1.Retrieval-type CAPP
systems
Generative Process
planning systems:
 In this process planning, the use of the
computer to create an individual process
plan from scratch automatically and without
human assistance.
 The computer would employ a set of
algorithms to progress through the various
technical and logical decisions towards a
final plan for manufacturing.
Machinability Data
Systems:
Computerized machinability
data systems:

 Data base systems

 Mathematical model systems
Computer generated time
standards:

 Wage incentives
 Estimating and job costing
 Production scheduling and capacity
planning
 Measurement of worker performance
Production planning and control:
UNIT--V
UNIT
 Robotics
Four types:
Six degrees of freedom
 Technical features:
 Work Volume:
Phy.confu,size,limits of its arm, joint manipulations
 Precision movement:
Spatial resolution,Accuracy,Repeatability
 Speed of movement
 Weight--carrying capacity
Weight
 Type of drive system:
Hydraulic,Electric motor,Pneumatic
Programming the Robot:
 Manual method:
Simpler robots
Pick and place operations
programming is adequate

 Walk through method:

Movement recorded in memory
Position sequence ?
Spray painting
Welding robots
 Lead through method:
Teach the pendent
Movement recorded in memory
Easy and convenience

 Off line programming:

Similar to NC part programming
higher utilization of Robot
Robot Programming
Languages:

 Based on the production sequences

End Effectors:

 Grippers
 Tools and effectors
Grippers
 Tools and effectors
Spot welding gun
Arc welding tools
Spray painting gun
Drilling spindle
grinders
Robotic Sensors:

 Vision Sensors
 Tactile and proximity Sensors
 Voice sensors
Vision Sensors:
 Robot vision is made possible by means of a video camera, a
sufficient light source, and a computer programmed to process
image data.

 The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed position

above the robot so that its field of vision includes the robot's work
volume.

 The computer software enables (In- vision system to sense the

presence of an object and its position and orientation.

 Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following
kinds of operations

Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on the conveyor

Recognize particular pans which are intermixed with other objects.

Perform visual inspection

Tactile and proximity Sensors
 Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to
respond to contact forces between itself and other objects
within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into
two types:

1. Touch sensors
2. Stress sensors (also called force sensors)

 Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact

has been made with an object. A simple micro switch can
serve the purpose of a touch sensor.

 Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of the

contact force. Strain gage devices are typically employed in
force-measuring sensors.

 Potential uses of robots with tactile sensing capabilities would

be in assembly and inspection operations.
Tactile and proximity Sensors

 In assembly, the robot could perform delicate part alignment

and joining operations.

 In inspection, touch sensing would be useful in gauging

operations and dimensional-measuring activities.

 Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close

to another object.

 On a robot, the proximity sensors would be located on or near

the end effectors.
Voice sensors
 Another area of robotics research is voice sensing
or voice programming.

 Voice programming can be defined as the oral

communication of commands to the robot or other
machine.

 The robot controller is equipped with a speech

recognition system which analyzes the voice input
and compares it with a set of stored word patterns.

 When a match is found between the input and the

stored vocabulary word, the robot performs some
action which corresponds to that word.
Robot Applications:
 Welding
Spray painting
Inspection
Inspection
Robo - Assembly
Material handling
Material handling
 “Your attempt may fail,

But never fail to make an attempt”.