The Science and Engineering

of Materials
Donald R. Askeland – Pradeep P. Phulé

Chapter 13 – Nonferrous Alloys

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 Objectives of Chapter 13
 Explore the properties and applications of
Cu, Al, and Ti alloys in load-bearing
applications.

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 Chapter Outline
 13.1 Aluminum Alloys
 13.2 Magnesium and Beryllium Alloys
 13.3 Copper Alloys
 13.4 Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
 13.5 Titanium Alloys
 13.6 Refractory and Precious Metals

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 Section 13.1
Aluminum Alloys
 Hall-Heroult process - An electrolytic process by which
aluminum is extracted from its ore.
 Temper designation (degree of strengthening) - A
shorthand notation using letters and numbers to
describe the processing of an alloy. H tempers refer to
cold-worked alloys; T tempers refer to age-hardening
treatments.

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Figure 13.1
Production of
aluminum in an
electrolytic cell.

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Figure 13.2 (a) FeAl3 inclusions in annealed 1100
aluminum ( 350). (b) Mg2Si precipitates in annealed
5457 aluminum alloy ( 75). (From ASM Handbook,
Vol. 7, (1972), ASM International, Materials Park, OH
44073.)

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Figure 13.3 Portion of the aluminum-magnesium

phase diagram.

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Figure 13.4 (a) Sand-cast 443 aluminum alloy containing
coarse silicon and inclusions. (b) Permanent-mold 443 alloy
containing fine dendrite cells and fine silicon due to faster
cooling. (c) Die-cast 443 alloy with a still finer microstructure
( 350). (From ASM Handbook, Vol. 7, (1972), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)

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 Example 13.1
Strength-to-Weight Ratio in Design
A steel cable 0.5 in. in diameter has a yield strength of 70,000
psi. The density of steel is about 7.87 g/cm3. Based on the data
in Table 13-5, determine (a) the maximum load that the steel
cable can support, (b) the diameter of a cold-worked
aluminum-manganese alloy (3004-H 18) required to support
the same load as the steel, and (c) the weight per foot of the
steel cable versus the aluminum alloy cable.

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Example 13.1 SOLUTION
a. Load = F = σy  A = 70.000 (π/4) (0.5 in.)2 = 13,744 lb
b. The yield strength of the aluminum alloy is 36,000 psi.
Thus:
A = (π/4)d2 = F/σy = 13,744/36,000 = 0.38 in.2
d = 0.697 in.
Density of steel = ρ = 7.87 g/cm3 = 0.284 lb/in.3
Density of aluminum = ρ = 2.70 g/cm3 = 0.097 lb/in3
c. Weight of steel = Alρ = (π/4)(0.5in)2(12)(0284)
= 0.669 lb/ft
Weight of aluminum = Alρ = (π/4)(0.697)2 (2) (12)
(0.097) = 0.444 lb/ft
Although the yield strength of the aluminum is lower than
that of the steel and the cable must be larger in diameter,
the aluminum cable weighs only about half as much as the
steel cable. When comparing materials, a proper factor-of-
safety should also be included during design.
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 Example 13.2
Design of an Aluminum Recycling Process
Design a method for recycling aluminum alloys used for beverage
cans.
Example 13.2 SOLUTION
One approach to recycling the cans is to separate the two alloys from
the cans. The cans are shredded, then heated to remove the lacquer
that helps protect the cans during use. We could then further shred
the material at a temperature where the 5182 alloy begins to melt.
The small pieces of 5182 can therefore be separated by passing the
material through a screen. The two separated alloys can then be
melted, cast, and rolled into new can stock.
An alternative method would be to simply remelt the cans.
Once the cans have been remelted, we could bubble chlorine gas
through the liquid alloy. The chlorine reacts selectively with the
magnesium, removing it as a chloride. The remaining liquid can then
be adjusted to the proper composition and be recycled as 3004 alloy.
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 Example 13.3
Design/Materials Selection for
a Cryogenic Tank
Design the material to be used to contain liquid hydrogen fuel
for the space shuttle.
Example 13.3 SOLUTION
Liquid hydrogen is stored below 253oC; therefore, our tank must
have good cryogenic properties.
Lightweight aluminum would appear to be a good choice.
Aluminum does not show a ductile to brittle transition. Because
of its good ductility, we expect aluminum to also have good
fracture toughness, particularly when the alloy is in the
annealed condition.
One of the most common cryogenic aluminum alloys is
5083-O. Aluminum-lithium alloys are also being considered for
low-temperature applications to take advantage of their even
lower density.
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 Example 13.4
Design of a Casting Process for Wheels
Design a casting process to produce automotive wheels having
reduced weight and consistent and uniform properties.
Example 13.4 SOLUTION
Thixocasting process in which the material is stirred
during solidification, producing a partly liquid, partly solid structure
that behaves as a solid when no external force is applied, yet flows
as a liquid under pressure. We would select an alloy with a wide-
freezing range so that a significant portion of the solidification
process occurs by the growth of dendrites. A hypoeutectic
aluminum-silicon alloy might be appropriate. In the thixocasting
process, the dendrites are broken up by stirring during
solidification. The billet is later reheated to cause melting of just
the eutectic portion of the alloy, and it is then forced into the mold
in its semi-solid condition at a temperature below the liquidus
temperature.
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 Section 13.2
Magnesium and Beryllium Alloys
 Magnesium alloys are used in aerospace applications,
high-speed machinery, and transportation and materials
handling equipment.
 Instrument grade beryllium is used in inertial guidance
systems where the elastic deformation must be minimal;
structural grades are used in aerospace applications; and
nuclear applications take advantage of the transparency
of beryllium to electromagnetic radiation. Beryllium is
expensive, brittle, reactive, and toxic.

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 Magnesium Alloys
 Magnesium, which is often extracted electrolytically from
concentrated magnesium chloride in seawater,
 Lighter than aluminum with a density of 1.74 g/cm3, and it
melts at a slightly lower temperature than aluminum.
 In many environments, the corrosion resistance of magnesium
approaches that of aluminum; however, exposure to salts, such
as that near a marine environment, causes rapid deterioration.
 Although magnesium alloys are not as strong as aluminum
alloys, their specific strengths are comparable, magnesium alloys
are used in aerospace applications, high-speed machinery, and
transportation and materials handling equipment.
 Magnesium, however, has a low modulus of elasticity (6.5 * 106
psi or 45 Gpa) and poor resistance to fatigue, creep, and wear.
 Magnesium also poses a hazard during casting and machining,
since it combines easily with oxygen and burns.
 The response of magnesium to strengthening mechanisms is
relatively poor.
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phase diagram.
Figure 13.5 The
magnesium-aluminum

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 Beryllium Alloys
 Beryllium is lighter than aluminum, with a density of 1.848
g/cm3, yet it is stiffer than steel, with a modulus of elasticity
of 42 * 10e6 psi (290 GPa).
 Beryllium alloys, which have yield strengths of 30,000 to
50,000 psi (200–350 MPa), have high specific strengths and
maintain both strength and stiffness to high temperatures.
 Instrument grade beryllium is used in inertial guidance
systems where the elastic deformation must be minimal;
structural grades are used in aerospace applications; and
nuclear applications take advantage of the transparency of
beryllium to electromagnetic radiation.
 Unfortunately, beryllium is expensive (Table 14-1), brittle,
reactive, and toxic.
 Its production is quite complicated, and hence, the applications
of Be alloys are very limited.
 Beryllium oxide (BeO), which is also toxic in a powder form, is
used to make high-thermal conductivity ceramics.
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 Section 13.3
Copper Alloys
 Copper occurs in nature as elemental copper and was
extracted successfully from minerals long before iron, since
the relatively lower temperatures required for the extraction
could be achieved more easily.
 Copper is typically produced by a pyrometallurgical (high
temperature) process.
 The copper ore containing high-sulfur contents is
concentrated, then converted into a molten immiscible liquid
containing copper sulfide-iron sulfide and is known as a
copper matte.
 This is done in a flash smelter. In a separate reactor,
known as a copper converter, oxygen introduced to the
matte converts the iron sulfide to iron oxide and the copper
sulfide to an impure copper called blister copper, which is
then purified electrolytically.
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 Section 13.3
Copper Alloys
 Blister copper - An impure form of copper obtained during
the copper refining process.
 Brass - A group of copper-based alloys, normally
containing zinc as the major alloying element.
 Bronze - Generally, copper alloys containing tin, can
contain other elements.
 Lead-Copper Alloys - Virtually any of the wrought alloys
may contain up to 4.5% Pb. The lead forms a monotectic
reaction with copper and produces tiny lead spheres as the
last liquid to solidify. The lead improves machining
characteristics. Use of lead-copper alloys, however, has a
major environmental impact and, consequently, new alloys
that are lead free have been developed. The following two
examples illustrate the use of copper-based alloys.
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Properties and Applications of
Copper based Alloys
 Copper-based alloys have higher densities than steels.
 Although the yield strength of some alloys is high, their
specific strength is typically less than that of aluminum
or magnesium alloys. These alloys have better resistance
to fatigue, creep, and wear than the lightweight
aluminum and magnesium alloys.
 Many of these alloys have excellent ductility, corrosion
resistance, electrical and thermal conductivity, and most
can easily be joined or fabricated into useful shapes.
 Applications for copper-based alloys include electrical
components (such as wire), pumps, valves, and
plumbing parts , where these properties are used to
advantage

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 Example 13.5
Design/Materials Selection
for an Electrical Switch
Design the contacts for a switch or relay that opens and closes
a high-current electrical circuit.
Example 13.5 SOLUTION
When the switch or relay opens and closes, contact between
the conductive surfaces can cause wear and result in poor
contact and arcing.
Therefore, our design must provide for both good
electrical conductivity and good wear resistance. A relatively
pure copper alloy dispersion strengthened with a hard phase
that does not disturb the copper lattice would, perhaps, be
ideal. In a Cu-Al2O3 alloy, the hard ceramic-oxide particles
provide wear resistance but do not interfere with the electrical
conductivity of the copper matrix.
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 Section 13.4
Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
 Nickel and cobalt alloys are used for corrosion
protection and for high-temperature resistance,
taking advantage of their high melting points
and high strengths.
 Nickel is FCC and has good formability; cobalt
is an allotropic metal, with an FCC structure
above 417°C and an HCP structure at lower
temperatures.
 Special cobalt alloys are used for exceptional
wear resistance and, because of resistance to
human body fluids, for prosthetic devices.
 Typical alloys and their applications are listed
in Table 13-8. 30 30
 Section 13.4
Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
 Superalloys - A group of nickel,
iron-nickel, and cobalt-based alloys
that have exceptional heat
resistance, creep resistance, and
corrosion resistance.

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effect of

based alloys.
several nickel-

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Figure 13.7 The

tensile strength of
temperature on the
Figure 13.8 (a) Microstructure of a superalloy, with
carbides at the grain boundaries and γ΄ precipitates in
the matrix ( 15,000). (b) Microstructure of a superalloy
aged at two temperatures, producing both large and
small cubical γ΄ precipitates ( 10,000). (ASM
Handbook, Vol. 9, Metallography and Microstructure
(1985), ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)

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 Section 13.5
Titanium Alloys
 Titanium’s excellent corrosion resistance provides
applications in chemical processing equipment, marine
components, and biomedical implants such as hip
prostheses.
 Titanium is an important aerospace material, finding
applications as airframe and jet engine components.
 Titanium alloys are considered biocompatible (i.e., they
are not rejected by the body). By developing porous
coatings of bone-like ceramic compositions known as
hydroxyapatite, it may be possible to make titanium
implants bioactive (i.e., the natural bone can grow into
the hydroxyapatite coating).

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Figure 13.10
Portions of the
phase diagrams for
(a) titanium-tin,
(b) titanium-
aluminum, (c)
titanium-
molybdenum, and
(d) titanium-
manganese.

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selected
the yield
strength of
The effect of
Figure 13.11

titanium alloys.
temperature on

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 Example 13.8
Design of a Heat Exchanger
Design a 5-ft-diameter, 30-ft-long heat exchanger
for the petrochemical industry (Figure 13.15).

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein
under license.

Figure 13.15 Sketch of a heat exchanger using

titanium tubes (for Example 13.8).

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Example 13.8 SOLUTION
Provided that the maximum operating temperature is below
535oC so that the oxide film is stable, titanium might be a
good choice to provide corrosion resistance at elevated
temperatures. A commercially pure titanium provides the
best corrosion resistance.
Pure titanium also provides superior forming and
welding characteristics and would, therefore, be our most
logical selection. If pure titanium does not provide
sufficient strength, an alternative is an alpha titanium alloy,
still providing good corrosion resistance, forming
characteristics, and weldability but also somewhat
improved strength.

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 Example 13.9
Design of a Connecting Rod

Design a high-performance connecting rod for the engine

of a racing automobile (Figure 13.16).

Figure 13.16 Sketch of

connecting rod (for
Example 13.9).

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Example 13.9 SOLUTION

To achieve high strengths, we might consider an alpha-

beta titanium alloy. Because of its availability, the Ti-6%
Al-4% V alloy is a good choice. The alloy is heated to
about 1065oC, which is in the all-β portion of the phase
diagram.
When the heat treatment is performed in the all-β
region, the tempered martensite has an acicular structure,
which reduces the rate of growth of any fatigue cracks that
might develop.

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 Example 13.10
Materials for Hip Prosthesis
What type of a material would you choose for an implant to be
used for a total hip replacement implant?
Example 13.10 SOLUTION
We need to consider the following factors: biocompatibility,
corrosion resistance, high-fracture toughness, excellent
fatigue life, and wear resistance.
These requirements suggest 316 stainless steel or Ti-
6% Al-4% V. Titanium is bio-compatible and would be a better
choice. Perhaps a composite material in which the stem is
made from a Ti-6% Al-4% V alloy and a head that is made
from a wear-resistant, corrosion resistant, and fractured tough
ceramic, such as alumina, may be an answer.
Another option is to coat the implant with a material
like porous hydroxyapatite to encourage bone growth.
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 Section 13.6
Refractory and Precious Metals
 Refractory metals – These include tungsten,
molybdenum, tantalum, and niobium (or columbium),
have exceptionally high-melting temperatures (above
1925oC) and, consequently, have the potential for high-
temperature service.
 Applications of Refractory metals include filaments for
light bulbs, rocket nozzles, nuclear power generators,
tantalum- and niobium-based electronic capacitors, and
chemical processing equipment.
 Precious Metals - These include gold, silver, palladium,
platinum, and rhodium.From an engineering viewpoint,
these materials resist corrosion and make very good
conductors of electricity.

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