Chapter Two - Nonferrous Alloys

Engineering Materials Nonferrous Alloys
CHAPTER TWO
NONFERROUS ALLOYS
The nonferrous metals include metal elements and alloys not based on iron. The most important
engineering metals in the nonferrous group are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and
zinc, and their alloys. Although the nonferrous metals as a group cannot match the strength of the steels,
certain nonferrous alloys have corrosion resistance and/or strength-to-weight ratios that make them
competitive with steels in moderate-to-high stress applications. In addition, many of the nonferrous
metals have properties other than mechanical that make them ideal for applications in which steel would
be quite unsuitable. For example, copper has one of the lowest electrical resistivities among metals and
is widely used for electrical wire. Aluminum is an excellent thermal conductor, and it is also one of the
most readily formed metals. Zinc has a relatively low melting point, so zinc is widely used in die casting
operations.
 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Basic data on the element copper (Cu) are presented in Table 1(b).
TABLE 1 (continued): (b) Copper.
Symbol: Cu Ore extracted from: Several: e.g., chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).
Atomic number: 29 Alloying elements: Tin (bronze), zinc (brass), aluminum, silicon,
Specific gravity: 8.96 nickel, and beryllium.
Crystal structure: FCC Typical applications:
Melting temperature: 1083○C Electrical conductors and components,
Elastic modulus: 110,000 MPa ammunition (brass), pots and pans,
jewelry, plumbing, marine applications,
heat exchangers, springs (Be-Cu).
Copper Production In ancient times, copper was available in nature as a free element. Today these
natural deposits are more difficult to find, and copper is now extracted from ores that are mostly
sulfides, such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). The ore is crushed, concentrated by flotation, and then
smelted. The resulting copper is called blister copper, which is between 98% and 99% pure.
Electrolysis is used to obtain higher purity levels suitable for commercial use.
Properties and Designation Scheme

Pure copper has a distinctive reddish-pink color, but its most distinguishing engineering property is its
low electrical resistivity—one of the lowest of all elements. Because of this property, and its relative
abundance in nature, commercially pure copper is widely used as an electrical conductor. (Note that
the conductivity of copper decreases significantly as alloying elements are added.) Cu is also an
excellent thermal conductor and it is corrosion resistant. All of these properties combine to make copper
one of the most important metals.
On the downside, the strength and hardness of copper are relatively low, especially when weight is
taken into account. Accordingly, to improve strength (as well as for other reasons), copper is frequently
alloyed. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin (typically about 90% Cu and 10% Sn), still widely used
today despite its ancient ancestry. Additional bronze alloys have been developed, based on other
elements than tin; these include aluminum bronzes, and silicon bronzes. Brass is another familiar
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copper alloy, composed of copper and zinc (typically around 65% Cu and 35% Zn). Some of the
common uses for brass alloys include costume jewelry, cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical
instruments, electronic packaging, and coins. The highest strength alloy of copper is beryllium-copper
(only about 2% Be). It can be heat treated to tensile strengths of 1035 MPa. Be-Cu alloys are used for
springs.
The designation of copper alloys is based on the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys
(UNS), which uses a five-digit number preceded by the letter C (C for copper). The alloys are processed
in wrought and cast forms, and the designation system includes both. Alloys that are so brittle that
forming or shaping by appreciable deformation is not possible typically are cast; these are classified as
cast alloys. However, those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are termed wrought alloys.
 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Aluminum and magnesium are light metals, and they are often specified in engineering applications for
this feature. Both elements are abundant on Earth, aluminum on land and magnesium in the sea,
although neither is easily extracted from their natural states. Properties and other data on aluminum are
listed in Table 1(c). Among the major metals, it is a relative newcomer, dating only to the late 1800s.
TABLE 1 (continued): (c) Aluminum.
Symbol: Al Principal ore: Bauxite (impure mix of Al2O3 and Al(OH)3).
Atomic number: 13 Alloying elements: Copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc.
Specific gravity: 2.7 Typical applications:
Crystal structure: FCC Containers (aluminum cans), wrapping foil,
○
Melting temperature: 660 C electrical conductors, pots and pans, parts for construction, aerospace,
Elastic modulus: 69,000 MPa automotive, and other uses in which light weight is important.
Aluminum Production
The principal aluminum ore is bauxite, which consists largely of hydrated aluminum oxide (Al2O3-
H2O) and other oxides. Extraction of the aluminum from bauxite can be summarized in three steps:
(1) Washing and crushing the ore into fine powders; (2) the Bayer process, in which the bauxite is
converted to pure alumina (Al2O3); and (3) electrolysis, in which the alumina is separated into
aluminum and oxygen gas (O2).
Properties and Designation Scheme

Aluminum has high electrical and thermal conductivity, and its resistance to corrosion is excellent
because of the formation of a hard, thin oxide surface film. Because aluminum has an FCC crystal
structure, its ductility is retained even at very low temperatures. Pure aluminum is relatively low in
strength, but it can be alloyed and heat treated to compete with some steels, especially when weight is
an important consideration. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature (660℃),
which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
The designation system for aluminum alloys is a four-digit code number. The system has two parts,
one for wrought aluminums and the other for cast aluminums. The difference is that a decimal point is
used after the third digit for cast aluminums.
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 PRECIPITATION HARDENING
Precipitation hardening involves the formation of fine particles (precipitates) that act to block the
movement of dislocations and thus strengthen and harden the metal. It is the principal heat treatment
for strengthening alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, and other nonferrous metals.
Precipitation hardening can also be used to strengthen certain steel alloys. When applied to steels, the
process is called maraging (an abbreviation of martensite and aging), and the steels are called maraging
steels. The necessary condition that determines whether an alloy system can be strengthened by
precipitation hardening is the presence of a sloping solvus line, as shown in the phase diagram of Figure
6. A composition that can be precipitation hardened is one that contains two phases at room
temperature, but which can be heated to a temperature that dissolves the second phase. Composition C
satisfies this requirement. The heat treatment process consists of three steps, illustrated in Figure 7:
(1) solution treatment, in which the alloy is heated to a temperature T0 above the solvus line into the
alpha phase region and held for a period sufficient to dissolve the beta phase; (2) quenching to room
temperature to create a supersaturated solid solution; and (3) precipitation treatment, in which the
alloy is heated to a temperature T2, to cause precipitation of fine particles of the beta phase. This third
step is called aging, and for this reason the whole heat treatment is sometimes called age hardening.
However, aging can occur in some alloys at room temperature, and so the term precipitation hardening
seems more precise for the three-step heat treatment process under discussion here. When the aging
step is performed at room temperature, it is called natural aging. When it is accomplished at an
elevated temperature, as in our figure, the term artificial aging is often used.
It is during the aging step that high strength and hardness are achieved in the alloy. The combination
of temperature and time during the precipitation treatment (aging) is critical in bringing out the desired
properties in the alloy.
Figure 6 Phase diagram of an alloy system consisting of metals A and B that can be precipitation hardened.
Figure 7 Schematic temperature-versus-time plot showing both solution and precipitation heat treatments for
precipitation hardening.
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Chapter Two - Nonferrous Alloys

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Chapter Two - Nonferrous Alloys

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Engineering Materials Nonferrous Alloys

 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Properties and Designation Scheme

 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Properties and Designation Scheme

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