November 2017

INSIDE:
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2017 Strategic Directions:
Natural Gas Industry Report
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 ISSN 1747-1826

CONTENTS
03 Comment
NOVEMBER 2017
33 Starting up LNG plants smoothly
Davide De Bacco, Saipem SPA, Italy, presents some of the main challenges that have
been or could be encountered during the commissioning and start-up of base load
05 LNG news LNG Plants.

10 Emerging opportunities for 39 That’s classified

Leo Karistios, Lloyd’s Register, Greece, outlines a number of recently-announced LNG
LNG in Asia projects that the classification society is working on.
Richard Mortimer, Arup, Hong Kong, explores how LNG is becoming
the fuel of choice across Asia as energy demand increases rapidly.
43 Test objectives
Rishi Agrawal, Gas Entec, South Korea, details innovation in
commissioning/cold/gas/regasification trials in the FLNG terminal and vessel
markets.

46 Lifetime optimisation
Pascal Freko, Reinhold Hölzl, Axel Lehmacher, Alexander Woitalka and
Teodor Todorov, Linde Engineering Division, Linde AG, Germany, demonstrate how to
optimise plate-fin heat exchangers’ lifetime.

50 Pushing Boundaries
Florian Picard, Fives Cryo, France, presents a new heat exchanger technology to the
market.

57 Cool it down
10 Curtis Lovelace and Craig Kedrowski, Stellar Energy, USA, explain how LNG plant
performance and stability can be improved with the use of turbine inlet air chilling.

61 Perfect performance
16 Electrifying global markets Maksym Kulitsa, Independent FSRU consultant, and David Wood,
Shawn Hoffart, Alap Shah and Javid Talib, Black & Veatch, USA, DWA Energy Limited, UK, explain how to improve DFDE low-duty compressor
identify how LNG-to-power and floating solutions are igniting the performance on FSRUs with 700-mbarg pressure-rated LNG tanks.
global market.
67 Keeping amine in the treating system
20 Site selection matters Ralph H. Weiland, Optimized Gas Treating, Inc., USA, looks at how to prevent amine
Rafael Hernandez, Magnolia LNG, USA, looks at the importance of site losses in gas treatment systems.
selection in controlling LNG plant construction and infrastructure costs.
72 15 facts on... emerging LNG markets
25 An innovative design for
enhanced safety
Sylvain Ringot, Dunkerque LNG, France, outlines how the
Dunkerque LNG terminal entered into commercial operation as a
model of safety in the LNG industry.
ON THIS MONT
MONTH’S
29 Eyes in the sky
cOVER
David Williams, Texo Drone Survey & Inspection Ltd, UK,
presents the latest drone technology set to revolutionise Hilli Episeyo FLNG | Credit:
the monitoring and maintenance of LNG plants. Golar LNG. This innovative
solution brings a faster and
more cost effective alternative
to address the competitive
global demand for energy. The
Hilli Episeyo conversion includes
topside installation by Keppel
Shipyard using Black & Veatch’s
PRICO® technology and topside
design and supply.

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 JOSEPH GREEN
EDITOR

COMMENT he South China Sea is an important trade route for

T LNG, and in 2016, almost 40% of global LNG trade, or

approximately 4.7 trillion ft3, passed through.
The latest report by the US Energy
Information Administration1 (EIA) details the critical role
the South China Sea plays in LNG trade flows, namely, the
going through the South China Sea in 2016. Just over half
of all of Japan’s LNG imports in 2016 were shipped by way
of the South China Sea. Similarly, about two-thirds of the
LNG imported by South Korea was shipped through the
importance of the trade route for Malaysia and Qatar. South China Sea that year.
The two major LNG exporters accounted for more than More than two-thirds of China’s LNG imports and more
60% of total South China Sea LNG volumes in 2016. Just than 90% of Taiwan’s LNG imports passed through the
under half of Qatar’s global LNG shipments moved through South China Sea in 2016. Total imports of LNG to China
the South China Sea in 2016. As Malaysia’s only LNG export have more than doubled over the previous five years, from
plant stands on the South China Sea coast, all of Malaysia’s 0.56 trillion ft3 in 2011 to 1.20 trillion ft3 in 2016.
LNG exports pass through the South China Sea. With these Based on projections in the International Energy
figures in mind, the importance of the trade route cannot be Outlook 2017, EIA predicts that China will surpass
understated. South Korea as the world’s second-largest LNG importer
Multiple other smaller LNG exporters also use by 2018 and go close to matching Japan’s level of LNG
South China Sea trade routes to reach their destinations. In imports by 2040. If reports are to be believed, the country
2016, Oman, Brunei, and the UAE shipped between 84% and has recently been in talks with both Russia and the US
100% of their total LNG exports through the South China Sea. to increase imports, as traders aim to grab a chunk of the
Much attention has been paid recently to LNG demand and lucrative, growing business of exporting gas to China.
supply dynamics and the impact of potentially lower demand In this month’s regional report on ‘emerging markets’,
growth on LNG prices. Could emerging markets such as these Arup explore emerging opportunities for LNG in Asia, with
be key to the growth in demand that producers will be hoping a focus on the increasing influence of China in the import
to see in the coming years? market. A hot topic at the moment, new and emerging
Other LNG exporters in the region, such as Australia markets are offering hope to producers looking to contract
and Indonesia, are utilising other trade routes to reach LNG their LNG in the coming years, under the shadow of a
markets. In 2016, approximately 23% of Australian LNG exports potentially oversupplied market. With China’s imports
and around 29% of Indonesian LNG exports were shipped expected to continue to rise, and new players entering
through the South China Sea. The majority of the remaining the market, the busy South China Sea is only going to get
LNG exports from Australia and Indonesia passed to the east busier.
of the Philippines and Taiwan, avoiding the South China Sea I hope you enjoy this issue of LNG Industry, and if you
on the way to customers in Japan, South Korea, and northern picked up a copy at the CWC World LNG Summit in Lisbon
China. then don’t forget to visit www.lngindustry.com to subscribe
The four LNG importers with the largest volumes passing and receive all the latest news from the global LNG
through the South China Sea are Japan, South Korea, China, industry.
and Taiwan, together accounting for 94% of total LNG volumes 1. www.eia.gov/todayinenergy

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 TRI-CON
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 LNGNEWS
The Netherlands Norway
CB&I announces Q3 2017 Skangas first small scale
results LNG loading at Statoil
B&I have reported net income of US$10 million, or terminal
C US$0.10 per diluted share, in Q3 2017, compared to net
kangas has successfully completed the first small scale
income of US$121.8 million, or US$1.20 per diluted share, in
Q3 2016.
S LNG loading at the Statoil operated LNG plant at Melkøya
island outside Hammerfest in Norway. Statoil delivered the
Net income for Q3 2017 was impacted by restructuring
cargo of 100 GWh to Skangas’ vessel Coral Energy.
charges of US$27 million, or US$0.17 per share, related to the
“This terminal is an addition to our existing LNG sources.
company’s cost reduction program, and excess interest expense Having several LNG sources supports our customers and
of US$22 million, or US$0.14 per share, due to accelerated us with additional security of supply and it increases our
amortisation of debt issuance costs. opportunities,” says Kimmo Rahkamo, CEO of Skangas.
Continuing operations consist of CB&I’s Engineering & “In addition, a future possible supply alternative from the
Construction (E&C) and Fabrication Services businesses. The northern part of Norway could make it easier to open up for
results of the company’s Technology and former Engineered new deliveries along the entire coast of Norway”.
Products and Capital Services operations have been classified The operation was conducted on the large scale jetty at
as discontinued operations for all periods presented. Melkøya LNG plant. The jetty is constructed for conventional
“We have made significant progress on the decisive actions sized LNG vessels. As a comparison Skangas’ vessel
we announced last quarter, including our cost reduction program, Coral Energy is a small to medium scale LNG carrier with
the continued improvement of our project execution and risk a capacity of 15 600 m3. In the Nordics her main task is to
management processes, and the intended sale of our technology serve Skangas’ customers and terminals with LNG.
operations,” said Patrick K. Mullen, President and CEO of CB&I. The LNG from Melkøya was delivered to Skangas’
“Our cost reduction program is on track, with a positive impact terminal in Lysekil, Sweden where Skangas has a LNG
on our financial performance already apparent. We are also terminal serving one of their major customers.
extremely pleased with the sale process for our technology It is the gas from the Snøhvit field that arrives at
operations and the interest from bidders on developing a Melkøya terminal where it is converted into LNG. Conversion
long-term strategic alliance with CB&I.” to LNG makes it possible to transport gas by purpose-built
“Our results this quarter were impacted by unusual items vessels and therefore industries can use gas as energy
totaling US$49 million, or US$0.31 per share. We experienced although they are not connected to a gas grid.
continued cost pressure during the quarter, primarily on the Earlier this year Statoil and Skangas also made the
IPL and Calpine power projects, with execution on our other first small scale LNG loading at the Klaipeda Terminal
projects continuing as planned. New awards were lower than in Lithuania. Skangas continues to deliver LNG to
expected, primarily within E&C, due to the delay of certain key Statoil’s supply vessels from several bases in Norway. In
projects. However, we have a significant pipeline and anticipate Northern Europe, Skangas’ new LNG bunker vessel Coralius
a strong fourth quarter and first half of 2018 for new awards.” makes LNG increasingly available for the marine market.

USA
Air Liquide signs contract with LNG supplier in the US
ir Liquide Engineering & Construction has been selected technology for small to medium scale plants will enable
A by Kinetrex Energy to upgrade their North Plant LNG
production unit in Indianapolis, IN, USA, by replacing the
Kinetrex Energy to increase the plant capacity and leverage
its existing assets for clean fuel solutions. The upgraded
cold box with the SmartfinT M proprietary technology. LNG plant, using Air Liquide technology, is expected to start
This state-of-the-art, single mixed-refrigerant operation by the end of 2018.

November 2017 5
 LNGNEWS
USA The Netherlands
Chevron announce Q3 Chart commissions Shell
financial results LNG fuelling station
hevron Corporation have reported earnings of hart continues to develop natural gas vehicle fuelling
C US$2.0 billion (US$1.03 per share – diluted)
for Q3 2017, compared with US$1.3 billion
C infrastructure in The Netherlands with the opening of a
Shell LNG truck refuelling station in Waddinxveen, close to
(US$0.68 per share – diluted) in Q3 2016. the port city of Rotterdam. Since Chart engineers completed
Included in the quarter was a gain on an asset commissioning the site has averaged 10 vehicles per day and
sale of US$675 million and an asset write-off of dispensed approximately 1500 kg of LNG.
US$220 million. Foreign currency effects decreased The Waddinxveen station operates 24/7, incorporates fueling
earnings in Q3 2017 by US$112 million, compared with of conventional fuels and LNG in the same area and is open to
an increase of US$72 million a year earlier. both the general public and Shell’s fleet customers. As you’d
Sales and other operating revenues in Q3 2017 expect, the LNG section includes all of Chart’s latest technical
were US$34 billion, compared to US$29 billion in the features for optimum safety, reliability and convenience with
year-ago period. zero emissions to atmosphere. It is controlled and maintained
“We continue to see improvement in the underlying through a remote monitoring system and proprietary ‘Saturation
pattern of earnings and cash flow,” said Chairman and on the Fly’ concept eliminates additional pre-cooling.
CEO John Watson. “Cash flow is at a positive inflection The station is equipped to serve all types of trucks and
point, with oil and gas production increasing and capital buses with saturated or cold liquid from 0 to 8 bar. The
spending falling,” Watson added. “We’re completing Dynaflow 3000 dispenser facilitates venting and fueling through
projects that have been under construction and ramping one liquid line and can also fuel Volvo trucks fitted with the
up production, notably at our Gorgon LNG Project in HPDI Euro VI engine. Like its counterparts installed at all
Australia. And our shale and tight rock drilling activity in other Chart supplied Shell LNG stations, the Dynaflow 3000
the Permian Basin is exceeding expectations. We expect Dispensers are MID certified and designed for a safe and precise
this pattern to continue,” Watson commented. “Earlier fueling operation.
this month, we announced first LNG production from The fueling process is fully intuitive and an experienced
our Wheatstone LNG development in Australia.” driver can fill a vehicle in approximately 3 minutes.

News Highlights

X Cove Point LNG to begin LNG

production in November
X FLNG expected to be the game changer for
the liquefaction industry
X NOVATEK sign MOU with CDB

Visit our website for more news: www.lngindustry.com

6 November 2017
LNGNEWS
UK China
Gasconsult awards FLNG The People’s Republic
development contract to of China wins bid for
CB&I International Gas Union
Presidency
asconsult, the UK based supplier of a
G proprietary and patented methane cycle
liquefaction technology, has announced that it is L i Yalan of The People’s Republic of China
has been announced as IGU President from 2021 – 2024.
has awarded a contract to LNG engineer CB&I for As part of the winning bid, the City of Beijing will also
the development of its ZR-LNG liquefaction process. host the World Gas Conference (WGC) in 2024 – the landmark
The work is being co-funded under the British event for the Natural Gas Industry held every three years
Government’s Innovate UK scheme and the work in the country holding the Presidency of the IGU. The event
will be performed from CB&I’s Paddington, UK boasts influential speakers from within and outside the
offices. The work will comprise design development gas industry, along with key policy makers who will present
of the ZR-LNG process for a gas turbine driven their views on the most important technical, commercial
FLNG application based on multiple single train and strategic issues and opportunities facing the natural gas
modules of nominal 1.5 million and 1.0 million industry.
tpy capacity. To comply with the objectives of the As part of the Presidency, The People’s Republic of
Innovate UK grant regarding technology application China will take the lead in furthering the mission of IGU
in developing countries, the work will also include to advocate gas as an integral part of a sustainable global
a pre-feasibility study of a land based Coal Seam energy system, and to promote the political, technical and
Gas LNG plant in Botswana. The Botswana work economic progress of the gas industry.
will be performed by OTC, a Johannesburg based “This is an extremely exciting time for the gas industry,
engineering company. and we strongly believe that the People’s Republic of
The advantages of ZR-LNG include high China are perfectly placed to lead the IGU in the important
energy efficiency, low capital and operating cost, role it plays in advocating the use of natural gas,” said
higher project returns and simplicity of operation. David Carroll, the current IGU President. “Under their
Specifically, the ZR-LNG process requires no leadership, the industry can continue to build on the
external refrigerants, using the methane feedgas as great work that has already been done bringing together
the refrigerant medium and eliminating refrigerant companies, policy makers and other external stakeholders
extraction or storage equipment. Refrigerant supply to fully promote and understand the essential – and
logistics to remote locations are eliminated and sustainable – role gas plays as part of the future energy
there are no refrigerant make-up costs. Absence of mix.”
a liquid hydrocarbon refrigerant inventory reduces Before Madam Li Yalan assumes the role of
fire and blast risk, enhancing safety. All equipment President, she will serve the IGU as Vice President when
is available from multiple vendors and the design Joo-Myung Kang of Korea will assume the Presidency of the
concept has already been validated by BP and IGU following the World Gas Conference in Washington D.C.,
several large E&C companies active in LNG. 25 – 29 June, 2018.
Speaking on award of the contracts to CB&I The next instalment of the WGC in Washington D.C.
and OTC, Bill Howe, CEO of Gasconsult said “This will mark the culmination of the USA Presidency, under the
is a major step forward for Gasconsult as the work theme ‘Fuelling the Future’. For the first time in the 85-year
will provide significant engineering information of history of IGU, the World Gas Conference will be held in a
relevance to project developers and allow Gasconsult country that is both the world’s largest gas producing and
to be fully responsive during the technology consuming nation – the USA. Held in the nation’s capital,
assessment phase of LNG projects. LNG is a preferred Washington D.C., it is ideally positioned to bring together
future energy source arising from its lower carbon energy policy experts and industry leaders from around the
and sulfur emissions than coal and oil.” world.

November 2017 7
 LNGNEWS Curaçao
Australia Wärtsilä awarded contract
Origin Energy release to supply LNG fuelled power
quarterly production report plant to Aqualectra
for September 2017 he technology group Wärtsilä was awarded the contract

rigin Energy Limited has released its quarterly production

T to supply a 39 MW power plant to Aqualectra, the utility
company of the Caribbean island of Curaçao.
O report for the quarter ended 30 September 2017.
Origin’s quarterly production of 89.1 PJs was stable
The turnkey project will provide much needed additional
generating capacity and provide Aqualectra with the fast
compared to the June quarter, reflecting a sustained level starting capacity and flexibility needed to add more wind
of production following completion of the 90 day two-train power capacity to the island’s system. The company already has
operational test at Australia Pacific LNG. more than 46 MW of installed generating capacity from wind
Compared to the corresponding period in FY2016, energy and plans to add more renewable energy generation in
Origin’s quarterly production increased by 20%. This primarily the near future. The order with Wärtsilä was booked in October.
reflected increased LNG production by Australia Pacific LNG The new plant will operate on four Wärtsilä 34DF dual-fuel
and increased production at Otway. engines running initially on heavy fuel oil (HFO), but switching
Revenue for the September Quarter 2017 was to LNG at a later date. The Wärtsilä solution will add needed
US$678.6 million, an increase of 1% compared to the June reliability to the grid, and when running on LNG will notably
quarter and a 58% increase on the corresponding period in reduce the utility’s environmental impact. The plant will be
FY2016, reflecting higher production at Australia Pacific LNG equipped with continuous emissions monitoring capability.
and higher realised prices across all products. “The reality is, we need more generating capacity to meet
During the quarter, Origin entered into an agreement to our growing demand for energy. And, given the focus we have
sell its conventional upstream oil and gas business, Lattice put on increasing our renewable capacity, we are conscious
Energy, to Beach Energy for US$1.6 million. The transaction of the fact that the output from wind power and solar are
is effective as at 1 July 2017 with completion subject to inevitably intermittent. Hence our requirement for a plant
satisfaction of customary conditions, including appprovals that can start quickly and ramp up to full output in a matter
from the New Zealand Minister of Energy and Resources and of minutes. The flexibility provided by the Wärtsilä engines
the New Zealand Overseas Investment Office. will allow the necessary balancing, and is just what we need,”
Origin CEO Frank Calabria said, “We reached another explained Mr. Darick Jonis, Acting CEO of Aqualectra.
major milestone during the quarter announcing the sale of The Wärtsilä equipment is scheduled to be delivered in
Lattice Energy, which delivers on our commitment to simplify mid-2018, and the plant is expected to be fully operational in
our business and reduce debt.” November of that year.

28 - 01 November/December 2017 12 - 14 December 2017 27 - 28 February 2018

CWC World LNG Summit Turbomachinery & Pump LNG US Summit
Lisbon, Portugal Symposia Houston, USA
world.cwclng.com Houston, USA lng-usa.com
tps.tamu.edu

29 - 30 November 2017 29 - 31 January 2018 04 - 08 June 2018

Tank Storage Germany European Gas Conference Posidonia 2018
Hamburg, Germany Vienna, Austria Athens, Greece
www.easyfairs.com/ www.europeangas-conference.com posidonia-events.com
tank-storage-germany-2017

8 November 2017
 At the Core
of LNG

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WKH¶VDQGDUHIDFLOLWDWLQJWKHH[SRUWRI1RUWK$PHULFDQVKDOHJDVWRGD\

E-mail: [email protected]
www.chart-ec.com
 emerging
opportunities
for lng in asia

10
 Richard Mortimer, Arup, Hong Kong, explores
how LNG is becoming the fuel of choice across
Asia as energy demand increases rapidly.
apid growth in energy demand across Asia is seeing Japan and Korea have long relied on LNG for energy

R LNG become the fuel of choice. Driven by expanding

populations, rising standards of living, and sprawling
urbanisation, demand will only keep growing. With LNG
security and power generation, but the industry is now
seeing a change across Asia. China, India, Indonesia, the
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Bangladesh have
production and transportation at an all-time high, Asia followed suit with the recent introduction of gas into their
is seeing new opportunities for both land-based import import markets and are helping to drive demand across the
terminals as well as floating storage and regasification region. As these countries increase the demand for the
units (FSRUs). transitional fuel, new ways of bringing new large scale
This trend is set to keep on going, with energy growth power generation online quickly also needs to be found to
predictions for Asia much higher than the rest of the world. meet these needs.

11
 The natural choice its energy mix, and it is why China’s predicted gas demand
While locally available coal is still an attractive option in is outpacing other fuels.
terms of fuel cost, LNG is lower in carbon and particulate The drop in the oil price and the gradual but increasing
emissions. While it is still a fossil fuel, gas is recognised as de-linkage between LNG and oil pricing, alongside
the intermediate step between where the world is today discoveries of shale gas in the USA and China, means that
and where it needs to be in 30 – 50 years time. LNG is also becoming more affordable (e.g. the landed LNG
Renewables will have an increasing role to play in this price in Japan has dropped from over US$15/million Btu in
future market, however Asia’s need for large scale early 2015 to below US$6/million Btu in mid-2016 and has
generating capacity is immediate. LNG comes at a scale only recently risen to above US$8/million Btu). The oil price
and development rate not currently possible with is not expected to rise substantially any time soon, but
renewables, coal or nuclear; coal-fired plants take up to ten demand for gas is rising much more rapidly, so there is
years to go from plan to operation and nuclear can take up pressure from buyers and sellers to de-link the prices of
to 20 years. these two commodities.
Then there is the not-insignificant matter of cost. LNG also lends itself well to particular geographies.
Renewable costs are coming down but, as Australia has Indonesia is the fourth most populated country in the
found, countries need to be careful in making intermittent world, with people spread out across numerous islands and
renewables their base supply. The recent blackout events in demand for energy rising rapidly (the per capita
South Australia which have led to Elon Musk’s commitment consumption of electricity in Indonesia is expected to rise
to building the largest battery in the world ‘in 100 days or by over 25% from 2015 to 2020). How can one provide
it is free’, have revealed the pitfalls of relying too heavily power efficiently across a country like this? Regional LNG
on renewables (which are intermittent in nature) for base import facilities linked to gas-to-power stations provide an
power load. This is why China is making gas a key part of ideal solution and where distances are short, pipelines
from receiving terminals to other gas-to-power stations
located close to population clusters make sense.
Against this backdrop, it is no surprise that many
companies are looking at installing LNG import facilities.

Growth in FSRUs
As LNG becomes the fuel of choice across Asia, the region
is seeing a change in the way gas is transported and
stored. Until recently, the traditional approach has been to
use land-based terminals. However, floating systems have
become more popular over the last decade. Their price
relative to land-based systems has come down and they
can also be implemented much faster than land based
terminals for those facing immediate demands.
Identifying a site for a land-based terminal, obtaining
Figure 1. LNG vessel the Methane Mickie Harper at QCLNG. the necessary permits and approvals and then constructing
Copyright QCG.
the facilities all takes time – easily five years or more.
Compare this to bringing a FSRU to a
port. With minimal engineering work you
can create a suitable environment for
mooring the FSRU and connecting it to
shore with a pipeline. This is cheaper
and, more importantly, much quicker. An
onshore gas-to-power plant can typically
be developed in 12 – 18 months. A new
build FSRU is probably around a three
year delivery and a conversion of an
existing LNG carrier to a FSRU is less
efficient but much quicker at probably
around 18 months.
Floating terminals offer other
benefits, such as secure and flexible
operations – especially in areas where
local politics and the potential for future
gas development are less certain. They
are, by their nature, easy to relocate to
other opportunities.
Converting LNG carriers into FSRUs,
Figure 2. Near shore LNG. instead of waiting for new ones to be
built in Korean shipyards, can make the

12 November 2017
Who developed the world’s first LNG tanker?
Who opened up the Asia-Pacific market by exporting LNG to Japan in 1969?
Who licensed their Optimized Cascade® Process for four of the last seven
LNG projects in Australia? (Hint: It’s the same liquefaction technology that is expected
to produce nearly 25% of the world’s LNG by 2021.)

One Answer: ConocoPhillips

With all that expertise and experience in LNG,

shouldn’t you be talking to ConocoPhillips, too?

Liquefied Natural Gas

To learn more, visit lnglicensing.conocophillips.com.
Optimized Cascade® is a registered trademark of ConocoPhillips Company in the United States and certain other countries.
© ConocoPhillips Company. 2017. All rights reserved.
 floating storage options even more commercially attractive. – as is the supply of shipbuilding companies. But for the
However, care needs to be taken to ensure the candidate moment there remains plenty of potential for FSRU growth.
vessel will deliver the required operational performance Overall, it is new markets – such as the Philippines and
and be serviceable in the long term. Arup is assessing the Indonesia – that will fuel future growth in LNG. While
viability of such conversions, including reduced cost and growth in traditional markets such as Japan has been
shorter schedule of converted vessels against the efficiency stagnant and indeed is even expected to decline over the
of a tailor-made FSRU. Aspects specific to FSRU/FSUs like next two years, other emerging Asian LNG consumers are
containment system, offloading system, available deck seeing imported volumes of LNG growing at over 20%
space, berthing and mooring configuration etc. are year-on-year e.g. China’s LNG imports in January 2017 were
considered during the evaluation. The decision of almost 40% higher than in January 2016. As more regional
converting LNG carriers into floating storage options is LNG import facilities are constructed and commissioned in
driven by factors like suitability of the candidate LNG the Asia region, this increased demand will start to
carrier, intended design life of the terminal, location of the counteract the short-term surplus currently affecting the
terminal and prevailing metocean condition, terminal market.
utilisation and future operating strategy. That leaves the question of how to secure long-term
There is innovation in land-based storage too. New, demand. To address this challenge, major LNG producers
cost-effective solutions for land-based storage that allow such as Shell are looking at an integrated model. Instead of
for future expansion have been developed to serve smaller simply supplying LNG, they will work with partners to build
facilities. These include the cost-effective modular a receiving terminal or FSRU together with an onshore
single-containment tanks that Arup are also developing for gas-to-power plant that will then provide them with
small to mid-sized applications. decades of demand for their LNG.
Until now, another challenge has been the liquidity of
Diverse opportunities the market. Traditional importers like Japan have often
While LNG-to-power remains the most significant demand been tied into offtake agreements lasting decades, with
in the Asia region, there are other applications for LNG destination clauses stipulating where the LNG must be
hubs – such as break bulking and bunkering. Singapore is delivered. But the Japanese government has now said
looking to set itself up as a regional hub for LNG trading destination clauses are anti-competitive. This has opened
using on-shore receiving tanks. It will typically receive the door for established offtakers like Japan, whose
large cargoes from LNG suppliers in countries such as domestic demand is plateauing as more nuclear facilities
Australia or Qatar, and then reload the LNG onto smaller are being brought back online, to negotiate for the LNG
vessels to distribute to smaller regional markets. By they were locked into purchasing to be resupplied directly
breaking down large shipments in this way, the hub will into a market where demand is increasing, such as the
benefit from economies of scale in supply while charging Philippines.
a premium to the regional users for smaller loads. The Effectively, buyers can still honour the long-term
regional users will also benefit because they would have contract even though their own demand has changed by
had to pay a much larger premium to get one of the LNG supplying the LNG they are committed to taking into
suppliers to supply them directly with a much smaller another market. In the current buyers’ market, they have
cargo than they would typically handle. been able to successfully renegotiate these clauses. This
The provision of strategically placed bunkering is creating a new dynamic in the market that was
facilities offers another opportunity in the shipping previously prevented by the highly restrictive destination
industry’s move to reduce carbon emissions. Replacing the clauses, and opening up opportunities for them to trade
current heavy fuel oil engines with LNG engines would LNG with new receiving facilities in places such as the
make a major contribution to reducing carbon emissions Philippines.
and some cargo and passenger ships are already running Taking advantage of such opportunities could be harder
dual-fuel systems. The lack of such facilities and where power companies are state-owned. Government
supporting infrastructure is presently holding back the organisations may be slower to move, particularly where
progress of their development and popularity. There is there is political deadlock, and the market will undoubtedly
potential for LNG terminals to provide bunkering facilities be slower to evolve in these countries.
across Asia and even worldwide. With more options for In other cases more opportunities for LNG are being
refuelling, more ships would be likely to convert to created by government policies. For example, South Korea
LNG – creating more demand. has announced that it will stop building nuclear plants.
Our recent work at Arup has included AALNG’s proposed Will it look to LNG to plug the gap in energy supply? And
terminal in Probolinggo, Indonesia, which is ideally suited will it be able to act quickly enough to get more
to refuelling vessels. The proposed terminal will use a LNG generation online? These questions are yet to be answered.
carrier conversion as a FSRU sited on a 2.5 km jetty. It will
have multiple purposes, including gas supply to the region, Global investments from Asia
break bulking and bunkering. Whatever the challenges, there are undoubtedly exciting
opportunities for LNG in Asia today. Not least is the
Market challenges chance the region has to lead the world in LNG. We’re
There are certainly challenges on the horizon for the already supporting LNG projects globally from Asia and
LNG market in Asia. The supply of LNG carriers for expect this trend to continue as investment reaches an
transportation, or conversion to floating storage, is limited all-time high.

14 November 2017
 GLOBAL
MARKETS
Shawn Hoffart,
Alap Shah and Javid Talib,
Black & Veatch,
USA, identify how
LNG-to-power and floating
solutions are igniting the
global market.

16
 ast untapped resources, low prices and throughout Asia, Africa and South America. But for all

V growing global demand for cleaner energy

continue to fuel optimism across the
North American natural gas industry, according to
the liquefaction units needed to export LNG from
North America, intake and regasification
infrastructure is needed in market destinations.
Black & Veatch’s 2017 Strategic Directions: Natural Looking to take advantage of the LNG oversupply
Gas Industry Report. Each year, Black & Veatch and low pricing, many developing regions are now
surveys qualified industry representatives and leaders establishing gas-to-power markets that can
on key industry issues and trends and provides expert accommodate imported supply. Particularly in regions
insights and potential solutions. that have historically run on diesel fuel oil,
This year’s report is notable as it demonstrates a converting to gas power can carry additional
particularly bullish outlook for the industry overall, economic and environmental benefits. In some areas,
and for LNG – particularly LNG-to-power and FLNG conversions can cut electric costs in half.
development. Nearly 58% of survey respondents
stated they are optimistic or very optimistic on Benefits of integrated
near-term growth (between now and 2020) and 64% LNG-to-power facilities
stated they were optimistic or very optimistic on Indeed, it is a lucrative time to invest in gas-to-power
long-term growth (between 2020 and 2030) as projects, but developing long-term stable markets
shown in Figure 1. will rely heavily on effectively moving LNG to these
To facilitate industry growth, infrastructure emerging regions and economical configuration
investment is critical. While pipeline capacity in of gas-fired generation infrastructure. However,
North America is the consensus top infrastructure for long-term deployment success, investors in
investment need, it is notable that 42% of developing projects must consider the economics of
respondents believe expanded LNG liquefaction converting power generation from fuel oil to LNG,
capacity is necessary to meet the industry’s growth evolving global trades and, where applicable, the
potential (Figure 2) and fuel emerging economies commercial viability of FLNG solutions.

17
 If LNG import and natural gas-based combined cycle plants formed by eBRASIL and Golar Power. The plant will include
are integrated properly, energy providers can experience up to a advanced technology gas turbines that run on LNG power. It will
10% increase in power generation capacity and increased power be the largest natural gas power station in South America when
plant efficiency with a minimum cost impact. There is a fully commissioned in 2019.
significant reduction in a project’s overall capital cost, gain in Similar to projects in Puerto Rico and Brazil, Indonesia could
efficiency of LNG import facilities, as well as added gain from co-locating LNG and power infrastructure but will
environmental benefits. In locations with colder winters, an require additional planning considerations, collaboration with
additional benefit is that vapourised LNG is warm enough to local governments and engagement with non-traditional
meet distribution pipeline minimum supply temperatures for stakeholders for successful deployment. Unlike landlocked areas,
more efficient transport to power consumers. co-located facilities in Indonesia can use and share heat, water
In Puerto Rico, the Peñuelas plant project is helping cut the and cold energy. The power plant can work as a ‘sink’ for the LNG
country’s reliance on oil and coal. Commissioned in 2000, cold produced in the vapourisation process. This way, less
Black & Veatch supported the development of Ecoeléctrica’s seawater is required to regasify LNG, thereby reducing capital,
combined cycle plant and LNG regasification plants, the first operating costs and impacts to the environment.
project to produce electricity with natural gas in the territory. The Integrated LNG-to-power projects can be complex
regasification facility utilises waste heat vapourisation which endeavours, and successful deployment will require
also helps power the combined cycle turbine operation – one of well-defined plans established early in development.
the most efficient methods to regasify LNG. Comprehensive project design can also help capture necessary
For island nations like Indonesia, planning for integrated funding for LNG supply and import infrastructure for maximum
LNG receiving terminals and gas-fired generation can help return on investments.
balance energy portfolios and meet environmental regulations.
However, more LNG infrastructure development is needed to Floating solutions cut costs,
meet these objectives and increase access to gas supply across environmental impacts
the country. FLNG applications carry several advantages versus onshore LNG
In Brazil, a 1516 MW combined cycle power plant is being import terminals for their flexibility and quicker deployment
built in conjunction with a new floating natural gas storage and schedules. FLNG and FSRU projects negate the necessity to
regasification unit (FSRU). The Porto de Sergipe plant is being consider shoreline impacts, size and complexity considerations in
built by Centrais Elétricas de Sergipe (CELSE), a consortium development.
In India, Black & Veatch is supporting Swan LNG Private
Limited in developing the country’s first FLNG project in
Gujarat. The Jafrabad project includes the construction of a jetty
topside that will receive LNG supply from ships and onshore
regasification facilities. The new FSRU will be moored to a
fixed jetty and will regasify imported LNG to enable
distribution by pipeline and road tanker. When completed in
2020, the project will significantly boost the country’s LNG
import capacity and help develop the Indian gas market, which
is projected to be one of the fastest growing in the world
during the next two decades.
The LNG-to-Power Independent Power Procurement Program
(LNGIPPP) underway in South Africa is also providing a
framework for similar projects that may be ideal for deploying
floating solutions. Closed cycle gas turbine projects in
Richards Bay and the Coega Industrial Development Zone are
Figure 1. Outlook on the future growth of the global oil and slated to add up to 3000 MW of power capacity. Both ports will
gas industry. Source: Black & Veatch. be equipped with LNG import and regasification facilities.
Existing transmission infrastructure and the need to move new
power supply are important factors for each project site’s
generation and storage elements.
Floating solutions in South Africa can reduce execution and
start-up time, mitigate siting constraints and allow for the
shipment of gas to multiple locations. Business decisions must
be carefully weighed, and sound planning and implementation,
supported by proven project controls and management, can
enable gas to become a more prominent, economically viable
energy source for South Africa.

Commercial considerations of
FLNG
Figure 2. 42% of respondents believe expanded LNG The ability to sell offtake gas through floating solutions has
liquefaction capacity is necessary to meet the industry’s
attracted the attention of producers and investors alike. Floating
growth potential. Source: Black & Veatch.
applications typically require fewer resources than onshore

18 November 2017
facilities and have the added capability of being able to be
transported to nearly any location. Current market trends point
to smaller-scale projects being more profitable in the long-term,
but regardless of size, developing a sustainable business model
will involve overcoming financing hurdles.
Given the current price environment, it is not surprising that
industry respondents identified ‘commercial viability’ as the top
driver for making FLNG investment decisions, followed by
implementation costs and global LNG market trends (Figure 3).
These drivers further suggest that cost and speed of delivery are
top priorities for investors.
To make projects more commercially viable, developers are
partnering with engineering, construction and technology
providers that can configure FLNG solutions that assure returns.
Black & Veatch’s patented PRICO® process, for instance, can
liquefy natural gas more cost-efficiently and get to market faster
than traditional technologies. PRICO® has been applied to the
Exmar Caribbean FLNG project, which successfully completed
performance testing in November 2016. Exmar is currently
discussing several deployment opportunities for the supply from
this project. Figure 3. Industry respondents identified ‘commercial
viability’ as the top driver for making FLNG investment
Initial FLNG developments focused on building massive
decisions. Source: Black & Veatch.
facilities that could move and process large quantities of LNG
(5 million tpy and up), requiring significant capital investments in
the vicinity of US$10 billion or more. These commitments could
only be afforded by a few independent oil companies (IOCs) and
national oil companies (NOCs) who were willing to take on risks
associated with still fairly nascent FLNG concepts. The capital
expenditure (CAPEX) dollar per ton of production was extremely
high at more than US$3 billion/million tpy, however, LNG prices
were higher a few years ago which made the model seem more
economically sound at the time.
Global LNG prices have since dropped considerably and
developers are taking lessons learned from projects that have
been recently commissioned. As such, FLNG project planning is
evolving to meet these market conditions and smaller-scale
models are gaining traction. Survey respondents also believe
these projects will be the most lucrative – nearly a third (29%)
believe that the LNG production ‘sweet spot’ most dominant in
the market will be between 3 – 4 million tpy (Figure 4).
The new project model typically involves the development of
a small to mid-scale liquefaction facility moored in protected
waters, or to a jetty where gas is processed at a nearby offshore Figure 4. Nearly a third of respondents believe that the
LNG production ‘sweet spot’ most dominant in the market
field or liquefied from an existing pipeline onshore. These
will be between 3 – 4 million tpy. Source: Black & Veatch.
simpler nearshore FLNG configurations can be deployed with
less permitting requirements and shorter schedules than the
industry’s initial FLNG initiatives.
The smaller-scale approach also enables investors and owners Planning for the future
to mitigate project risks by developing their FLNG solutions in The need and demand for LNG in global markets, and
blocks rather than as a single, large CAPEX-heavy megaproject. The subsequent need for flexible delivery technology, shows no
phased approach allows developers to build out projects in stages. signs of fading. Markets in nearly every continent are looking
For example, instead of taking on a large, 12 million tpy project, to use natural gas power to diversify energy portfolios and
they can start with a 3 million tpy block and construct subsequent support economic development. The viability of LNG from a price
phases as market and economic conditions warrant. This approach perspective incentivises nations that solely run on fuel oil or
provides for easier project management and financing, as well as limited existing infrastructure for fossil fuels.
variable sales commitment volumes. Today’s challenging market demands new levels of flexibility
Ophir Energy, for example, is awarding contracts for projects – flexible size and/or capacity, flexible business models and
phase-by-phase, in the case they need to disconnect supply from flexible financing solutions. FLNG, LNG processing and
any of their three vessels. In May 2017, the organisation awarded LNG-to-power represent the technology needed for the evolving
the midstream construction contract for the Fortuna FLNG market. Each provide the flexibility needed to accommodate
project which will channel gas from their offshore ‘block R’ unique environmental constraints, scalability, and evolving
development. operational needs.

November 2017 19
 Site
selection
matters
nvariably, all LNG projects are measured
Rafael Hernandez,
Magnolia LNG, USA, I by the widely-used industry benchmark of
US$/million tpy to compare project costs against
historical and planned projects throughout their
development phases. Typically, each project originates
looks at the importance with an established US$/million tpy target during
early feasibility studies to support financial modelling.
of site selection in Although it is a simple task to compute US$/million
tpy from public announcements of project total cost
controlling LNG plant divided by stated LNG plant capacities, what scope
of work is included in the total dollar amount can be
construction and difficult, if not impossible, to decipher. Regardless, one
thing is certain; the published dollar amount for project
infrastructure costs. costs will need to account for and should include a

20
substantiated amount for temporary construction and
permanent infrastructure that will be required for the
project, exclusively driven by the selected location of
the site. It is reasonable to deduce that selecting a site
location requiring minimal infrastructure development
will result in a lower total US$/million tpy for the
project independent of plant capacity. Nevertheless,
the site selection process is not necessarily the first or
only criteria evaluated when planning the development
of an LNG facility. In today’s challenging LNG market
economics, it is critical to step outside the box and
reprioritise the site selection process as the industry
strives for facilities with the lowest US$/million tpy.
This is of increased importance in locations facing

21
 relatively high construction cost environments, such as the infrastructure developments, had overall costs in the range
US, Australia and Canada. of US$250/million tpy – US$700/million tpy1 (equivalent to
approximately US$340/million tpy – US$1050/million tpy
Brief history of LNG in 2017 dollars). Fast forward to the 2010s where some
An LNG facility is comprised of the liquefaction train(s) and recently completed greenfield projects in Australia, Africa,
associated infrastructure of LNG storage, marine facilities, and Papua New Guinea had final project costs that ranged
balance of plant and construction facilities. A typical onshore from US$2300/million tpy to US$4050/million tpy.2 Currently
LNG facility also needs to have access to feed gas via proposed LNG projects in East Africa and Western Canada,
pipelines, utilities (i.e. power, water, communications), and be which are in remote sites with the need for extensive
located adjacent to a body of water suitable to handle LNG infrastructure and immense logistical challenges, have
ships, as well as to facilitate the transportation and delivery estimated values in the range of US$2000/million tpy –
of materials and equipment required for construction. US$2667/million tpy,2 and have had difficulty reaching a
Historically, LNG projects have been constructed in close final investment decision (FID), partly as a result of these
proximity to the stranded gas reserves that were being costs. Some estimated costs for these projects have reached
monetised, which often resulted in these developments a point where they are no longer viable or competitive in
being sited in remote and harsh site environments. The today’s challenging LNG market, and have been ‘shelved’
majority of these projects were located far from established or recently cancelled as is the case with Petronas’
towns or developed communities and had no access to a Pacific Northwest LNG project in British Columbia (B.C.),
skilled labour force. These LNG projects needed to develop Canada.
all associated temporary infrastructure and implement an
extensive logistics programme, to accommodate imported Transition to North America
labour and materials, prior to the start of construction of the Starting in 2012 with Cheniere’s Sabine Pass liquefaction
permanent facility itself. Essentially, LNG projects had to project in Cameron Parish, Louisiana, US, a new wave
construct a self-supported ‘small city’ or ‘village’, including of LNG projects started being developed in the US by
site preparation and roads, a material offloading facility, adding liquefaction capacity to existing ‘brownfield’ LNG
workers’ camp and facilities, power generation, and water regasification terminals. These regasification terminals were
and wastewater treatment plants before the first permanent constructed in the mid to late 2000s when it was forecasted
plant installation commenced. These installations not only that the US would be importing LNG to supply its increasing
added anywhere from 12 to 18 months to the overall project domestic demand. Due to unanticipated changes in the
schedule, but they were a major contributor to the overall market, these regasification terminals were ‘mothballed’ or
capital cost of the projects. idled in a ‘cooled down’ state following commissioning, and
were never placed into full commercial operation. Additional
LNG today breakthroughs in hydraulic fracturing (fracking) technology
LNG greenfield projects constructed in the 1990s and and the US’s emergence as global leader in natural gas
2000s, mostly located in remote locations with substantial production3 presented a unique reversal of opportunity for

Figure 1. Artist’s rendition of the Magnolia LNG project site.

22 November 2017
 the LNG industry. With the addition of liquefaction capacity, being the only greenfield facility), 10 LNG projects pending
these dormant import terminals are being converted into FERC approval and four in pre-filing. Out of the 18 proposed
bi-directional facilities that can either import or export LNG brownfield and greenfield projects, 16 are located along the
as the market or industry dictates, effectively marking a US Gulf Coast.4
transition of LNG development to North America. So why such a delta in US$/million tpy costs for projects
Cheniere’s Sabine Pass liquefaction project was the first in the US versus other locations? One of the key
brownfield conversion, which, due to its existing LNG differentiators between the US projects and other proposed
storage, marine facilities, and infrastructure, has been able to projects is their respective site locations. Many of the US
achieve the lowest reported US$/million tpy cost for projects projects are located in industrial areas with extensive
under construction in the US at US$556/million tpy2. Soon infrastructure in place and have access to reliable supplies
after, brownfield LNG conversions followed at other US of power, gas, and other utilities. These projects are also in
regasification terminals: Cameron LNG, Freeport LNG, close proximity to population centres with available housing
Cove Point LNG and Southern LNG with estimated capital and a reliable and proven skilled workforce, eliminating the
costs ranging from nearly US$600/million tpy to need for labour transportation, temporary infrastructure,
US$1060/million tpy.2 Cheniere is also constructing the such as worker camps, and associated power generation and
Corpus Christi LNG project – a new greenfield facility in water and wastewater treatment facilities. Most of these
Texas consisting of liquefaction trains, LNG storage, marine project sites have suitable water access and relatively short
facilities, and infrastructure, with a current reported capital distances to reach the Gulf of Mexico via established
cost of US$870/million tpy.2 shipping channels for LNG ships, minimising the (sometimes
With capital costs of less than US$1060/million tpy for substantial) marine infrastructure costs. In addition, the US
US brownfield and greenfield projects, substantially less has a proven and robust regulatory and permitting process,
than the recently completed Australian projects and the supportive pro-business communities and government, and,
proposed Western Canada and Africa projects, it is easy to notably, lower inherent security risks when compared to
understand why there is a long list of proposed projects other countries.
planned along the US Gulf Coast. Along the US Gulf Coast, however, not all projects
proposed or in current development have the same site
Why the US? characteristics. Many of the current proposed projects are
In the US, as of 1 May 2017, there were four LNG projects missing one or more of the key features that define a site as
approved by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission a ‘good’ site from a construction standpoint. For example, the
(FERC) that had not started construction (Magnolia LNG need for extensive soil preparation or soil stabilisation must

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 achieve their full scope project
capital cost targets due to
construction challenges on the
selected sites.

Conclusion
Site selection is vital to controlling
LNG plant construction and
infrastructure costs, which, in turn,
can drive the financial viability of
a project. LNG Limited seeks to
develop a geographically diverse
portfolio of LNG export facilities
by identifying and securing the
best strategically located sites
Figure 2. Plot of Magnolia LNG project site located adjacent to existing LNG canal, that enable delivery of industry
turning basin, material offloading facility and staging area. leading low cost solutions. LNG
Limited’s successful implementation
of its stringent site selection
be considered. What is the size of the footprint for the criteria fully considering construction costs on Magnolia
project? Does it include sufficient areas for laydown, staging LNG, coupled with its proprietary OSMR® technology and
and temporary facilities, or must these be provided modular execution, results in a project that has been able
elsewhere? Clearly, the more land to develop, the greater the to achieve a binding and guaranteed lump sum turnkey
cost. Will any wetlands be affected/disturbed? Are there (LSTK) engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)
existing material offloading facilities close to the site for contract of US$544/million tpy and an overall capital cost
material deliveries or must these be constructed also? Does of US$635/million tpy5 including owner’s cost. Presently,
the site need to be elevated or have flood protection dikes Magnolia LNG, with its industry leading US$/million tpy and a
constructed to address a potential hurricane storm flood fully permitted site, is the only project from the second wave
surge? How far from the site is the electrical power tie-in of proposed US brownfield or greenfield projects that is ready
and is it reliable, or will a dedicated power plant be for execution. Magnolia LNG selected 115 acres of industrial
necessary? How far is the site from the nearest town and fire land adjacent to the established Calcasieu River Industrial
and emergency services? Will park and ride and bussing Canal as its site for the project as illustrated in Figures 1
services be required to transport thousands of craft workers and 2. The canal has an existing turning basin and both are
during construction, or will a worker camp be required to dredged to a draft of nominally 42 ft. This allows the project
offset long commutes? Are there multiple roads to the to build a marine berth for LNG ships with topsides located
facility and will there be access after a major storm or on land solely by excavating and dredging a pocket within the
hurricane? How long after a major storm before the LNG property boundary versus constructing a long and expensive
plant can be accessed safely? jetty and trestle. In addition, an existing material offloading
In today’s economically competitive LNG market, simply facility and staging area is located adjacent to the site on the
finding a site near water is insufficient to render it turning basin. The site elevation is approximately 28 ft above
economically attractive. Even in a preferred location along sea level, above the 500 year flood surge, and does not need
the US Gulf Coast, responses of ‘yes’ to many of the above a flood protection dike or any soil to be imported to raise the
questions can have a substantial impact to the final total site elevation. The permanent electrical power tie-in is located
capital cost for a specific project. Costs are relatively higher under two miles away and the site has an existing feed gas
for greenfield projects when comparing to brownfield pipeline, water pipeline and temporary construction power
projects due to absence of shared facilities, such as storage within its property boundaries. The site’s close proximity to
and loading. Nevertheless, many currently proposed the community of Lake Charles, within a half hour commute to
greenfield projects have reported capital cost aspirations the site, is an attractive incentive for the area’s proven skilled
estimates of US$600/million tpy, US$500/million tpy and workforce. The project will also benefit from the extensive
even targets as low as US$450/million tpy. These low local and regional oil and gas service industry for construction
US$/million tpy aspirations may in some cases be driven by equipment and supplies, operations laboratory support and
challenging LNG market conditions representing targets fire and emergency response.
needed to support financial modelling rather than
representing realistic expectations. Close inspection of References
construction-related costs associated with selected sites can 1. SONGHURST, B., ‘LNG Plant Cost Escalation’, The Oxford
provide clues as to the viability of such estimates. Many of Institute for Energy Studies (OIES), (February 2014).
these estimates seem overly aggressive as supported by the 2. CORKHILL, M., ‘LNG Project Costs and the Luck of the
‘best in class’ US$556/million tpy delivered to-date by Draw’, LNG World Shipping, (January 2016).
Cheniere’s Sabine Pass liquefaction project on a brownfield 3. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) Website.
site. By applying realistic assessments to the above 4. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Website.
questions and considerations, many new greenfield projects 5. Liquefied Natural Gas Limited, Investor Presentation,
with less than optimum sites may find they are unable to (August 2017).

24 November 2017
 An
innovative
design
for
enhanced
safety

Sylvain Ringot,
Dunkerque LNG,
France, outlines how the
Dunkerque LNG terminal
entered into commercial
operation as a model of safety Figure 1. Aerial view of the
in the LNG industry. Dunkerque LNG terminal. Copyright
Dunkerque LNG – Happy Day.

n 1 January 2017, the Dunkerque LNG terminal together at the start of the design stage, and very soon after,

O entered into commercial operations after five years of

construction. The 13 billion m3/year of gas terminal
is a model of safety in the LNG industry: Borrowing proven
Dunkerque LNG, a company dedicated to the project, was
founded. Dunkerque LNG, a 65% subsidiary of EDF, 25% of
Fluxys and 10% of Total, is now the terminal’s owner and
technologies tested in other terminals and designed from the operator.
beginning in order to enhance the reduction of risk and of EDF’s strong engineering expertise and Fluxys’ expertise
gravity of potential incidents. in LNG for more than 30 years have been combined to tackle
EDF’s reputation as an energy company focusing on safety operating constraints after the design phase.
was at stake: It was the first large scale gas facility designed In addition, the design of the terminal does not
and executed entirely under the EDF Group’s planning and incorporate any one-of-a-kind technologies to avoid
management. To accomplish this, a project team was put associated risks.

25
 A design tailor-made for of arms, which are sensitive devices on a terminal with a
operation single jetty.
Ensuring that the terminal design fits operating constraints z Pipe-ways and equipment have been distributed to
was a priority from the beginning of the project. be accessible with an eye to roundsmen but also
Including the future operation manager in the project maintenance operations.
team from the beginning of the initial studies in 2007
z Fixed and travelling cranes make lifts for maintenance of
ensured that operating constraints would be taken into
pumps and compressors with no need for mobile cranes,
account. At that stage of the project, his task was to
which cause many operating incidents.
incorporate the operating experience feedback into
decision-making and into specialised safety reviews z The tank platform is designed for manipulating devices
(LOPA, HAZOP, etc.). (pumps, valves, actuators, frames) via a fixed crane
Later, as soon as the final investment decision was taken, installed on the dome as well as dedicated supports
the operating team has started to grow to reach its full size (safety valves).
approximately one year before commercial start-up.
This early recruitment of operators made it possible to An innovative design for safety
prepare operating procedures and to train operators as detailed The Dunkerque LNG terminal was the first upper-tier SEVESO
studies progressed, and also meant that the future operator’s establishment authorised in France after regulatory changes
maintenance and operating teams could monitor the work’s following the AZF accident.
execution. This made it easier to take over the facility as soon The demanding regulation and the EDF Group’s
as it was put into service. Because the operator participated in environmental/safety culture led to the introduction, starting
engineering reviews, there was stronger checking of operability with the terminal’s design and founded on accidentology
and maintainability aspects of the installations. (including accidentology shared within the LNG industry), of a
This decision to consider operating constraints from the few innovative concepts with the goal to minimise the risk
beginning led to some specifics about the Dunkerque LNG level of the establishment.
terminal design: Collection of safety valves: All safety valves (Pressure
z The upper platform’s jetty has no process equipment Safety Valves and Thermal Safety Valves) in the terminal are
and/or pipework, as they laid on a lower level. This collected, either towards the evaporation grid (Boil-Off Gas) or
decision allowed very easy operation and maintenance towards the flare system, depending on the flow rate and the
design of the valves. By limiting all risk of uncontrolled
emissions of gas into the atmosphere, this configuration
reduces the terminal’s environmental impact in terms of
Key characteristics of the
greenhouse gas discharge. Aside from the environmental
Dunkerque LNG terminal aspect, this choice reduces the size of ATEX zones and
therefore risks to workers.
The Dunkerque LNG terminal, connected directly to two LNG collection channels: All LNG and BOG pipes circulate
markets, France and Belgium, has an annual regasification in pipe-ways. A channel located near the LNG pipes allows for
capacity of 13 billion m3 of gas, representing around 20% any potential LNG leakage to be collected. It can then direct
of France and Belgium’s annual natural gas consumption. this LNG to a retention area fitted with foam generators. This
This makes it the second-largest terminal in continental ensures that no LNG stagnates near equipment and limits the
Europe. The Dunkirk LNG terminal, installed on a 56 ha need to protect the equipment against thermal flux. Finally,
platform at Dunkirk’s western port, is equipped with: such containment of accidental spreading of LNG limits the
z • A landing stage that allows the largest methane size of vapour clouds that follow vapourisation of LNG and
tankers (267 000 m3) to unload/reload at a maximum makes it easier to predict intervention teams’ areas of focus in
flow rate of 14 000 m3/h for unloading and the event of a major incident, as it determines where the
4000 m3/h for reloading. Modifications are under way collected and retained LNG will be located.
which will allow the Dunkirk LNG terminal to reach a Over-filling of tanks: this accident scenario is probably
maximum flow rate of 8800 m3/h (LNG) for reloading. among the most serious that could arise in an LNG terminal.
The rise in internal pressure could destroy the tanks’ walls
z • Three LNG tanks, each with a storage capacity of
and cause the roof panels to collapse, leading to a massive
200 000 m3 of LNG.
loss in containment. Therefore, two special provisions have
z • Ten Open Rack Vapourisers (ORV) sending been implemented in the terminal’s tanks in addition to the
7000 m3(N)/h to 1.95 million m3(N)/h of natural gas usual provisions (safety valves, vent valve, gauging, etc.)
into the transmission system. z Every tank’s dome is frangible. According to the tank
z • A 5 km underwater tunnel built between the designer’s calculations, an increase in pressure of about
Gravelines nuclear power plant and the Dunkirk LNG 700 mbar inside the tank creates enough cracks in the
terminal, which brings in a portion of the lukewarm dome’s concrete that internal overpressure is released
water discharged by the nuclear power plan to the into the atmosphere. At this same pressure, the walls
LNG terminal. Given the North Sea water temperature, remain undamaged, ensuring that the LNG is retained.
this industrial synergy saves the equivalent of the However, the maximum service pressure of the tanks
annual gas consumption of the Dunkirk metropolitan remains identical to the value usually maintained, and
area. pressure tests of the tank have been carried out without
difficulty.

26 November 2017
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 Independence of protective systems: In addition to
the operating system supervised by the operator, three
independent systems ensure that installations are
protected from deviations in physical parameters or
when an abnormal situation is detected – they set off
an automatic protection of installations.
Register for safety action: The devil is in the details.
So as to check that safety was being taken into account
throughout the project’s lifetime, all observations with
safety implications were tracked from the beginning of
the project up to receipt of the installations via a
single register – the Safety Action Follow-up Register
(SAFUR).
The contractor in charge of the process aspect was
tasked with keeping this register up to date. This made
it possible to measure how safety was being accounted
Figure 2. Aerial view of the Dunkerque LNG terminal’s process zone.
for in detailed studies (number of new points opened)
Copyright Dunkerque LNG – Happy Day.
and whether all project owner requests were being
properly accounted for (by effectively closing
observations). The existence of this register made it
possible to check contractors’ attention to safety as they
developed their studies.

Dropped-off ideas
For time reasons, a few ideas for simplification were not
implemented in this project.
The spacing between an ORV and the HP pump has been
kept around 40 m, even though a larger reduction was
targeted, or even to incorporate the HP pump and the heat
exchanger panels into a single concrete support assembly,
which would have required a more in-depth study of the
degassing systems and of the continued cooling of the pumps
and LNG systems. The possible reductions in line weights
Figure 3. 3D Image of the LNG channels. would have perhaps made this study profitable.
A ‘conventional’ reincorporation system has been adopted.
Without going so far as to turn to liquefaction solutions
z Furthermore, in addition to the usual automatic actions
integrated into tanks, the condensation time for gas bubbles
performed on the upper LNG level, a patented arrangement
in an LNG flow, under usual speed conditions as well as under
allows very high levels to be detected. This detector
the pressure and temperature of an LNG terminal’s pipework
is made up of three temperature probes placed at the
– less than one second – must make it possible to postulate
altimetry corresponding to the tanks’ very, very, very high
‘on-line’ reincorporation, potentially followed by a degassing
(HHH) level. A dedicated small flow of natural gas maintains
tank that would be passive so as to guarantee the protection
its temperature at a value much higher than that of the
of the LP LNG pumps.
LNG, while an increase in the level of LNG would bring
Developing this type of arrangement would allow to
their temperature down to -160ºC. Besides, a dedicated
suppress ion on the drum on each associated control loop,
device allows to test them from outside the tank.
which are complicated to apply and have caused industrial
Absence of High Pressure LNG header: Each of the incidents recorded at several LNG reception terminals. The
ten high-pressure (HP) pumps is devoted to a single ORV. study of such a system could be carried out in collaboration
Regasification is structured into five groups of two Pump/ORV with other LNG actors to mitigate previous drawbacks.
sets, all identical. This arrangement makes it possible to avoid
shared HP pipelines of large diameter and their associated Conclusion
risks, as these groups of equipment are fed with low pressure The safety and security of people and assets, an absolute
(LP) LNG. priority for the three shareholders in Dunkerque LNG, has
As a result, the number of HP valves in the terminal is been taken into account ever since the design of the terminal
reduced: Isolation during maintenance is carried out from LP was begun. The innovative solutions implemented allowed
LNG and from natural gas systems. Furthermore, the Dunkerque LNG on 1 January 2017 to put into service an
maximum HP flows to be considered in risk assessment are on industrial asset that is highly reliable in terms of safety,
the order of 200 tph instead of 3000 tph in the case of a which is a key satisfactory factor for its two customers EDF
single HP header. and TOTAL, engaged for a 20 year period in regasification
ORVs are reliable enough so that this arrangement does subscription. For the next 50 years of operations, Dunkerque
not reduce the availability of the terminal’s regasification LNG knows it can rely every day on the expertise of its partner
function. The seawater pumps, however, remain standardised. Fluxys.

28 November 2017
 Eyes in the sky
evelopments in UAV technology for LNG inspection
David Williams, Texo Drone Survey
& Inspection Ltd, UK, presents
the latest drone technology set to
D services and aerial survey work have been extensive
over recent years, and the pace of progress remains
unrelenting. The technology has transformed monitoring and
maintenance regimes, adding greater commercial value and
revolutionise the monitoring and engineering accuracy – and proving itself against so many
long-established ways of working by allowing assets to be
maintenance of LNG plants. inspected while they are live.

Figure 1. Industrial UAV Inspection.

29
 The UAV inspection method avoids the need for Supporting planning in
rope-access inspections and associated costly asset shutdowns and turnarounds
shutdowns, saving time and money as well as removing the The efficiency of planned shutdowns can be further
risks of working at height. The accessibility and capability of improved by using UAV inspection to precisely identify
the mission-critical data gathered for asset integrity the condition and specification of parts that may need
inspections has been a ‘game changer’ for the LNG industry. to be replaced. Parts and components are all too often
It is not just the savings in terms of time and cost-efficiency simply not available off the shelf and have to be specially
that are decisive, but the numerous operational benefits that manufactured. This is a huge benefit to plant operators to be
include improved monitoring and planning and the removal able to order up parts well in advance of them potentially
of risks to personnel. failing.
Operational benefits such as these are invaluable As well as being much quicker to carry out, UAV
against an industry background of meeting tough targets in inspections can often extend production by generating
long-term supply contracts and avoiding penalties. information that feeds into decisions about operational
Workscopes for fabric maintenance can be quantified much continuity. Many operators are now inspecting their assets
more quickly and accurately through close visual inspection on an annual basis using UAVs as part of a planned
for example. CVI inspections generate thousands of images inspection regime. Elsewhere, other operators are tracking
and high-definition video. All of this provides data to inform deterioration or already identified issues on a
engineering decisions in a fraction of the time that it would month-by-month basis to push back the time between
take a large rope access team to cover an area such as a shutdowns, something they are now able to do thanks to
flare stack. Additionally, the versatility of UAV inspections accurate records of asset condition that can be quickly
also includes the ability to carry out precise asset updated on an ongoing basis.
information modelling, optical gas imaging and
hyperspectral investigations of structures. Bringing objectivity to asset
management
A technology with time and All of these advantages have made UAV technology a
cost-saving advantages key player in helping LNG producers to design their
Getting accurate assessments on the state of a particular asset management programmes. Everything starts with
asset quickly and in a relatively short period of time agreeing objective measures of guidelines and condition
compares highly favourably to bringing in a rope access ratings, which are based on detailed images that identify
team to carry out an inspection that would involve a serious precisely what each rating represents for each component.
amount of safety equipment and take many days or even In this way, all categories are agreed from the outset and
several weeks to plan and carry out. A UAV can be launched objectively with regard to true condition of components;
in a matter of minutes and deliver real-time high definition detailed images allow for asset condition to be precisely
footage to an inspection team safely located on the ground graded. This also ensures the repeatability of inspections in
below. terms of consistent results – each inspection is to exactly
The detail picked up by onboard cameras is minute – the same criteria. In this way, true condition can be reliably
even the smallest hairline cracks and defects are made tracked over a period, with interventions being planned
crystal-clear. The level of detail coupled with the ability to based on objective data that allow for highly accurate
review, slow down, and replay footage means that highly projections.
detailed inspections can be carried out to identify problem
areas, common difficulties, or regular maintenance UAVs and the LNG industry
requirements. It also means that repairs can be precisely In the LNG industry, plant availability is always at a
planned, based on the level of detail acquired; once again premium: Delivery slots for LNG producers are strictly
this brings further savings in the form of vastly improved enforced and any delays in shipments can give rise to huge
planning. cost penalties that derive from penalty clauses built into
supply contracts. In view of this, it is perhaps not surprising
that LNG producers are highly risk-averse in terms of any
potential disruption to production. Traditional methods of
inspection of course involve plant shutdowns, but they add
to the feeling of insecurity in other ways too: no-one knows,
for example, just what will be discovered.
By way of contrast, UAV inspection shows up defects in
high-quality definition and while an asset is live. It means
that potential defects in components can be spotted early
and before they become an issue – and well ahead of any
planned shutdown. Suddenly, maintenance regimes are
underpinned by up-to-the-minute engineering certainty
relating to all areas of LNG plant, include inaccessible flare
stacks and flare tips. There are huge benefits in terms of
reducing exposure to operational risk for plant and
Figure 2. Texo T28 Survey-Grade LiDAR system. personnel, which go hand in hand with improvements in
safety.

30 November 2017
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climate you can’t afford not to.

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 Other assets such as communications towers and waste periods of planning and implementation of access solutions
heat boiler ducting at LNG facilities can also be inspected by such as rope access and scaffold. This leads to a costly and
UAV. Due to the immense heat generated, such plant is risky inspection, with the added disadvantage of reduced
similarly impossible to inspect live using traditional inspection times due to the time taken to establish access
inspections methods. CVI is combined with detailed solutions.
thermography to provide a complete and objective view of UAVs with dual visual and thermal sensor systems, paired
asset condition – and all of this comes with the critical with super bright LED lighting allow for safe and highly
differentiator of large cost savings through maximised plant capable in confined unlit spaces. Rapid deployment and
availability. manoeuvrability allow for tanks and other vessel structures
UAV inspection work at LNG plants is highly efficient in to be inspected thoroughly and in as little as 30 minutes. A
terms of time taken: Inspections can range from a few hours carbon fibre anti-collision encapsulation system is used on
to a matter of a few days depending on the scale and the UAV to allow it to come into direct contact with surfaces
complexity of the assets to be inspected. Apart from its and maximise data quality while ensuring that no damage is
inherent objectivity and high-definition detail, there is sustained either by the asset or the UAV itself.
another way too in which UAV technology provides greater
accuracy: UAVs, unlike human inspection teams, do not of UAV technology that delivers
course get tired. This is a major consideration in hot climates accuracy and certainty
and in confined space inspections where human beings start In an increasingly competitive commercial environment,
to flag and their attention to detail and being ‘on task’ UAV companies need to be ahead of the game and building
generally can be compromised. solutions for clients ‘from the bottom up’ if they are to meet
the challenges facing the oil and gas industry, now and in
Inspections to produce data in all the future. This is precisely the route that Texo Drone Survey
formats and deal with all hazards and Inspection Ltd has taken.
More detailed applications involve the use of multiple UAV Investment and innovation have led to class-leading
platforms with dual payloads and cameras that use a variety platforms that bring together UAV and survey technologies
of high-quality, factor calibrated and interchangeable lenses to deliver previously unavailable capabilities such as highly
that are tailored to meet varying requirements. Thermal accurate survey grade LiDAR to the commercial UAV market.
systems can cover everything from coupled structural The UAVs currently in operation can handle wind speeds of
thermal analysis to hot spot identification, leak detection up to 15 m/sec. and have the flexibility to carry a variety of
and water ingress detection. Visual and thermal aspects custom payloads; Texo DSI Ltd has permits for operations up
in one inspection or survey for maximum efficiency. Using to 20 kg – representing a ‘game-changer’ for the energy
advanced flight control, highly detailed orthomosaics can sector.
be stitched together seamlessly using advanced software UAV surveys are ten times faster than contact-based
systems – to allow for an overview of the specified target surveys, and provide a welter of high-definition images.
area – with the ability to magnify and observe the smallest Accuracy of data in conventional LiDAR UAV surveys is
details. generally to around 40 mm; investment and development of
Quality, quantifiable data is the key principle at the heart UAV vehicles and associated survey software has led to
of precision inspection by UAV. Texo DSI inspections are Texo DSI Ltd achieving accuracy of up to 1 – 3 mm in its
supported by a bespoke cloud portal system that allows data survey grade LiDAR, which is delivered via its custom-built
to be hosted by the company. The use of the portal enables UAV platform that measures over 1 million points per sec. This
the direct comparison of historical inspections and gives Texo DSI Ltd the most accurate UAV deployed survey
interaction with data sets, and analysis tools also generate grade LiDAR in the sector. It means that operators can get
classification by fault type across a client’s entire portfolio. quick and highly reliable surveys of entire assets in fraction of
Data can be generated not just for localised reporting but the time that it would take a traditional survey team.
also regionally and even globally.
Data gathered also includes hyperspectral imaging which A constant technological
collects and processes information from across the evolution
electromagnetic spectrum. Hyperspectral imaging deals with UAV technology meets a wide range of LNG producer
the imaging of narrow spectral bands over a continuous requirements, and the technology is constantly evolving
spectral range, and produces the spectra of all pixels in the in terms of payloads and applications. Highly accurate
scene. It provides a unique spectral signature for every pixel, inspection data removes uncertainty and error from
which can be used by processing techniques to identify maintenance and monitoring regimes. Coupled with huge
hazardous materials such as asbestos for example. Gas operational benefits, it makes UAV solutions a highly
hazards can be detected using Optical Gas Imaging (OGI), compelling proposition in the contract-driven LNG industry.
which can quickly locate leaks accurately across a wide area Quite simply technological innovation is a key part of
and again without the need for shutdowns. continued commercial success for UAV companies and LNG
producers alike.
Internal and confined spaces Another example of this consistent development and
Internal and external inspections are equally crucial and innovation is evident in Texo DSI Ltd launching the world’s
hugely important at any facility. Operations in confined, unlit first UT integrated UAV system for precision thickness
and hazardous spaces have long been a major safety and measurement applications on both flat and curved
logistical nightmare for plant engineers, often requiring long surfaces.b

32 November 2017
Starting-up LNG
plants smoothly

Davide De Bacco, Saipem SPA,

Italy, presents some of the main
challenges that have been or
could be encountered during the
commissioning and start-up of
base load LNG Plants.
he purpose of this article is to focus

T on some of the major issues that

have been experienced by Saipem in
past LNG projects, and that could affect the
timely and successful commissioning and
start-up of future LNG production facilities,
particularly those located in remote or
underdeveloped areas.

Gas-in
Many LNG base-load plants are not
connected to an external electrical network
or grid. The main power

Figure 1. Temporary flare for early ‘fuel gas-in’

(image courtesy of Zeeco Inc.).

33
 supply is often generated by gas turbine driven generators The success of this potentially time-consuming activity is
(GTGs) on site in an ‘island’ configuration. linked to:
The final commissioning and start-up of a LNG plant z The early development of detailed procedures identifying
requires the running of large motor drives, such as compressor each of the circuits to be dried out, with their own
helper motors/heating medium circulation pumps, and many requirements/targets, arranged in a sequence to meet the
smaller motor drives (such as fin fan motors). These drives start-up schedule.
cannot all be fed simultaneously by temporary or permanent
z The drying out of sensitive equipment (aluminum heat
diesel generators due to the limited amount of generated
exchangers and rotating machines) in accordance with
power. Therefore, it is necessary to have the permanent GTGs
vendor or licensor procedures.
in service and supplying reliable power, prior to starting
commissioning activities inside the units associated with z The identification and avoidance of trapped moisture
these drives. in any potential dead leg of the dry-out circuits, such
The provision of a temporary flare (or vent) like the one as interconnecting lines, valve bodies, instrumentation
shown in Figure 1 (close to the Power Generation area) is an sensing lines.
option to be considered if feed gas, for the provision of fuel z The simultaneous dry-out of some circuits to fully exploit
gas, is available well in advance of the permanent flare the defrost gas heater installed duty during the whole
construction and commissioning activities being completed. A dry-out period, thus minimising the duration of the
safe disposal system for those units in gas service is a activity and consequently the amount of flared gas.
requirement that must be met prior to ‘fuel gas-in’.
The installation of a temporary flare could also allow z The recording of accurate dew point measurements at
construction and commissioning activities to continue in the regular intervals during the dry out operation and in
potentially extensive area that would otherwise have been static conditions, a few hours after the interruption of the
required for the normal gas path from the gas inlet facilities dry-out gas flow, to confirm the effective dry-out of each
to the permanently installed flare stack(s). circuit.
Prior to the commencement of commissioning activities Further reduction of flared gas can be obtained by
on a GTG, sufficient load (5 – 10% of machine rated power) pre-drying the defrost gas network and the cold process units
must be available to keep the GTG running continuously, in a with instrument quality air prior to inerting them with
safe and reliable condition. Running of a GTG at low loads for nitrogen.
extended periods of time will increase the frequency of Over confidence in the commissioning and initial start-up
intrusive maintenance and result in accelerated wear and tear of the warm-end units, which are common to many other
of the unit as a whole. hydrocarbon processes, could result in contaminant carry-over
In the case of a ‘greenfield’ project the procurement of an leading to spurious trips and potential damage or blockage
electrical load bank, like the one shown in Figure 2, should be within downstream cold-end units.
considered to provide the necessary load for the performance Contaminant breakthrough is often attributed to amine
of critical electrical testing linked to the plant load (Load foaming and channeling or insufficient regeneration of
Sharing, Load Shedding, DLN Tuning, etc.) during GTG molecular sieve driers.
commissioning and initial start-up. The likelihood of any potential carry-over which could be
caused by operating staff inexperience in a new plant or by
Process train ‘warm-end’ lack of fine tuning/on line troubleshooting of the control and
The provision of dry sweet feed gas from the ‘warm-end’ safety logics (e.g. regeneration sequence) can be mitigated by:
is fundamental to allow the dry-out and commissioning of z A thorough degreasing of the Acid Gas Removal Unit
cryogenic sections to proceed. (AGRU).
The dry-out (deriming) of the cold sections of LNG plants
z The development of detailed desiccant loading plans.
will avoid moisture freezing when the unit is cooled down to
cryogenic temperatures. Inefficient dry-out could potentially z Multiple regeneration cycles of the driers before feeding
lead to plugging and mechanical damage of cold section downstream units.
equipment. z The adoption of additional alarms and automatic
protection elements on a temporary basis (e.g. reduced
settings for differential pressures on the AGRU columns).
z An increased frequency of field operations tasks (such as
skimming and sampling of the AGRU).
Attention to detail and cleanliness specifications are
equally important in the warm-end of a LNG train as those in
the cold-end. This is not necessarily the case in other
processes where the specification of the final product could
be the only determining factor.

Process compressors
The commissioning and start-up of process/refrigerants
Figure 2. Electrical Load Bank (courtesy of Simplex Inc.). compressors is one of the most challenging activities in
the commissioning and initial start-up scope. This activity

34 November 2017
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 into a nitrogen inerted system, which could
0 lead to embrittlement and potential rupture of
the equipment.
Ͳ30 If refrigerant fluids cannot be imported,
they have to be produced inside the plant
Ͳ60
battery limits either by a NGL Recovery and
7HPSHUDWXUHƒ&

Ͳ90
0DQXDOFRROGRZQ Automaticcooldown Fractionation unit, if the feed gas is heavy
Manualcooldown enough in terms of C2+ content, or by dedicated
Ͳ120 process schemes inside the liquefaction unit.
$XWRPDWLFFRROGRZQ If refrigerant fluids cannot be imported
Ͳ150 easily or in a timely fashion, Saipem would
recommend conducting the preliminary runs of
Ͳ180
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the refrigerant compressors with different fluids
(e.g. nitrogen) to allow some commissioning
activities, including dry-out, to be completed
Figure 3. Manual vs Automatic cooldown control. without waiting for the availability of the
design process fluids. The possibility to operate
refrigerant compressors with instrument air, nitrogen, or dry
natural gas as process fluid and source of seal gas must be
included in the design specifications of the machines, and
should be carefully assessed from the early detailed
engineering phase to evaluate the benefits of such flexibility on
the whole start-up schedule against the constraints on the
design and equipment costs.
During these runs, the replacement of anti-surge valves by
calibrated spools protects the valves against any residual debris
from the pre-commissioning phase, simplifies the design of the
valves and avoids the tuning of the anti-surge control system
for such particular scenario. The start-up of heavy duty gas
turbines involves large-size variable speed drivers as starter
motors. Connecting such large users to a partially unloaded
Figure 4. LNG carrier (courtesy of Moss Maritime). ‘island’ electrical network may induce resonance phenomena
(known as Sub-Synchronous Torsional Interactions or SSTI) at
the natural frequencies of power generation gas turbines shafts,
requires a continuous multidisciplinary focus of machinery, leading to machine shutdown for excessive vibrations and
process and instrumentation specialists, including vendor consequent total plant power failure.
specialists, for the preparation, firing and monitoring of Each of these events is a potential cause of cumulative
the turbine/compressor units and the resolution of any fatigue wear/damage of sensitive components (i.e. shafts,
troubleshooting issues that may arise. blades, etc.) and significantly affects the commissioning
If the refrigeration compressors are driven by gas turbines, advancement by pushing everything back to black start
consideration should be given to the start-up fuel gas sources conditions. Saipem has studied this phenomenon in depth and
and operating parameters which may not necessarily be the carried out a detailed root cause analysis with the conclusion
same as those encountered during normal operation. During being that the only mitigation of the SSTI risk is to increase
the engineering phase, Saipem recommends paying particular the Short Circuit Power of the electrical network by increasing
attention to the initial fuel gas source to ensure that all the either the number of generators in service or the number and
facilities will be in place and properly sized to allow fuel gas size of electrical loads with relevant circuits.
burnability at start-up conditions, including heaters, insulation
and venting facilities. Process train ‘cold-end’
The import of hydrocarbon refrigerants like ethane The efficient and gradual cooldown of the cryogenic units is
(or ethylene) and propane from outside the plant battery critical for the integrity of the aluminium heat exchangers and
limits, either by tie-ins with existing plants or by ships/trucks, rotating equipment, as well as reducing the amount of flared
is usually preferred to producing them during the initial natural gas typically associated with this phase.
start-up due to the large amount of natural gas flared during Traditionally, the MCHE (Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger)
their production. Detailed procedures for the initial build-up cooldown is manually performed and requires operating skills
of refrigerant inventories should be developed during the to adjust several process variables in parallel while keeping
engineering phase to identify risks and ensure a smooth the unit within design and operational limits, minimising
start-up. flaring and producing LNG as quickly as possible.
The provision of temporary vapourisation facilities shall be Licensors and Advanced Process Control Vendors are
considered if only liquid ethane and propane are available for starting to propose automatic control tools to assist operating
the first filling. This is in order to avoid excessive temperature staff during this delicate phase reducing the quantity of
drop close to the injection point as a consequence of partial off-spec LNG and recovering extra production as it can be
pressures equilibrium of the refrigerant fluid being admitted deduced by the graph in Figure 3.

36 November 2017
 The start-up of cold units is typically the worst operating
flaring scenario of an LNG plant. The provision of dedicated
mitigations, such as ensuring availability of MR components
to maintain the cooldown rate and barricading, should be
considered to both minimise the amount of waste gas and
reduce the exposure of field operating staff to the hazard of
ice falling from the flare pipework.
Experts in Heat Exchange – since 1920
LNG storage and loading
The process train commissioning/start-up schedule can
only be considered fully optimised if it complements the SAFEGUARDING
TOMORROW’S
commissioning/start-up of the storage and loading facilities,
therefore avoiding stand-by periods due to the unavailability

RAW MATERIALS
of the storage tanks to accommodate the LNG product.
The option to proceed with a reverse cooldown of the
LNG storage and loading system (i.e. from an LNG carrier to
the storage tanks) should be carefully evaluated since it
presents some significant advantages: SUPPLY WITH
z It decouples the commissioning and start-up of the LNG
storage and loading systems from the process train TODAY’S
optimising the whole start-up schedule.
z It is more efficient and easier to manage due to the LNG
TECHNOLOGIES
carrier’s ability to supply a stable and continuous flow of
LNG vapour and liquid to meet the cooldown and initial
Oil and gas play a significant role in the global energy
fill requirements of the LNG storage and loading system.
mix. Kelvion is the experienced partner at your side
z It minimises the amount of wasted LNG and consequently
with trendsetting solutions that provide efficient heat
the size of the LNG disposal systems. The LNG train
produces far more LNG in minimum turndown mode than exchange capabilities in production, transportation,
can be utilised for the cooldown of the LNG storage and and processing for the oil and gas industry, with
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Reverse cooldown is particularly beneficial if the
completion of the storage and loading facilities is well in
advance of the Process Train. The stored LNG can form part of
the first export cargo and be utilised to commission and
start-up other associated units such as the BOG compressors.
Even if the system was not initially intended for reverse
cooldown a dedicated multidisciplinary design review and risk
assessment can be conducted at site to provide this flexibility
and usually results in only a few minor adjustments being
required.
The first loading of an LNG carrier, like the one in Figure
4, is particularly challenging for greenfield plants where the
safety systems of the jetty, as well as the communication
systems from the plant to the ship, shall be put in place for
the very first time. Reverse cooldown will test and verify many
of these systems well in advance of the first loading, and
potentially reduce the docking time of the LNG carrier and the
standby time of supporting resources such as tugboats.
To avoid unnecessary delays, on past projects Saipem
consolidated the loading safety check lists, procedures, and
port authority regulations/approvals well in advance of the
first LNG carrier docking. This can be achieved by involving all
the parties concerned (i.e. contractor, end user and port
authority), in dedicated meetings/workshops to communicate,
address, and resolve any issues that may arise.
The KºBloc is a fully welded
The start-up phase of an LNG plant could result in low plate heat exchanger with a
filling rates, or extended periods of no production if major solidly bolted frame which
problems are encountered. This can result in long residence consists of four columns, top
and bottom plates as well as
time of the LNG in the tanks with resultant inefficient mixing four side plates – and that´s
just one of the product
solutions Kelvion offers the
oil & gas market!
 and ageing of the product which increases the risk of DLN tuning is performed by a team of vendor control
stratification (see Figure 5) and consequent roll-over. During specialists with the assistance of the plant operations staff.
these periods the temperature and density profiles inside the DLN tuning must be successfully completed before gas
LNG tank must be carefully monitored so that a timely turbines can be fully loaded and safely released for
intervention can be coordinated to circulate the stratified LNG continuous premix operation (i.e. at base load conditions).
in order to improve mixing. Performing DLN tuning at the boundaries of the
Modified Wobbe Index design range requires the availability
LNG production ramp-up of the leanest and richest fuel gas sources.
Neglecting the risks associated with this period could lead to It is clear that early detailed planning, consolidated with
significant delays in the overall project schedule. the gas turbines vendor(s) and shared with the end user, is a
For example, DLN Tuning is one of the main start-up key factor in minimising disruptions to the start-up schedule.
schedule drivers for a base load LNG plant which utilises gas When LNG production approaches the nominal value the
turbines equipped with DLN combustors. DLN tuning involves filling time of the storage tanks decreases and consequently
the adjustment of combustion parameters with the aim of the margins for delayed ship arrivals also decreases.
assuring a gas turbine’s optimised functionality, including NOX During the performance tests it is common to load more
and CO emissions compliance, for the entire range of load and than 1 million m3 of LNG. Saipem’s proprietary
fuel gas compositions during all of its operational phases, predictive/optimisation tool for the management of LNG
ignition, warm-up, acceleration and normal stop. production and LNG ships, seen in Figure 6, is useful to limit
the disturbances to the performance tests and the potential
requirement to repeat them.
The same tool can also support operating staff during
the entire plant lifetime to manage LNG production rate
according to weather forecasts, size and estimated ship
arrival date/time.

Conclusion
The commissioning and initial start-up of LNG plants consists
of multiple phases, each one characterised by its own peculiar
challenges.
Saipem has been involved as a successful EPC contractor
in the LNG business for almost 20 years.
It is a Saipem standard to address all of these challenges
from the early engineering phase with dedicated
Figure 5. From LNG stratification to roll-over. multidisciplinary risk assessments to capitalise on lessons
learned and experience gained from previous projects.

Figure 6. LNG ship management tool output.

38 November 2017
 That’s classified

loyd’s Register (LR) believes that the LNG-fuelled fleet will be a considerably large sized market in the future. The

L commercial recognition or requirement for assets with LNG-fuelled capability, the availability of LNG as fuel to
bunker at popular destinations, combined with the technology maturing, has created the perfect environment for the
LNG-fuelled fleet to grow. LR believes that this will continue to happen, with newbuild ships in particular.
During Gastech 2017 in Tokyo, Japan, LR announced a number of innovative gas projects it is participating in or providing
approval to, including: an LNG-fuelled very large ore carrier (VLOC) joint design programme; approval in principle (AiP) for
Babcock’s LGE Process for ecoSMRT® technology; general approval for GTT MARS™; AiP for a flexible and modular ‘natural
gas operating fleet’ concept; and a joint development project (JDP) to commence an AiP for a barge-mounted power plant.

Leo Karistios,
Lloyd’s Register, Greece,
outlines a number of
recently-announced
LNG projects that the
classification society is
working on.

39
 LNG-fuelled VLOC design designed for application on LNG carriers to save excess
The LNG-fuelled VLOC joint design programme is a BOG by its reliquefaction.
collaboration with Woodside Energy Ltd., Anangel Maritime The scalable system, optimised for LNG carriers, uses
Services Inc., Hyundai Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. (HHI) and the well-proven and reliable technology of MR
General Electric Co. refrigeration, but is based on a novel arrangement of these
The programme is aimed at exploring the suitability of components. The improved single mixed refrigerant (SMR)
technologies for large ships, such as VLOCs. Since the LNG reliquefaction system reduces complexity, minimises
introduction of International Maritime Organisation (IMO) overall footprint and reduces cost at initial investment as
nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide emission limitations, and well as during operation.
the increased developments in the global supply of gas,
there is a continued need for ship designs to evolve to LPG transport technology
provide more alternatives to traditional oil-fuelled LR also awarded general approval to GTT for their
designs. technology dedicated to LPG transport: GTT MARS. As an
Ship propulsion designs burning natural gas are expert in LNG, GTT is already well-known for its capacity
considered the most favourable option, and the adoption of to meet the gas and maritime industry requirements, and
novel gas storage, supply and propulsion technologies are now demonstrates to the LPG industry its know-how in
not only environmentally friendly, but also provide a wealth designing containment systems for liquefied gases.
of possibilities for cost-efficient design and operation. GTT MARS is based on the traditional sea-proven
The next generation of cost-efficient and containment systems of the company to transport liquids at
environmentally friendly large ships are best defined by -55°C or above with densities up to 700 kg/m3. The
the design development of an alternative propulsion technology uses the corrugated stainless steel membrane
system, improved asset safety and reliability. The from Mark III supported by plywood boxes filled with glass
agreement outlines the joint design project for a wool. GTT MARS is, therefore, quite simple, allows LPG
conventional dual-fuel powered VLOC incorporating vessels to transport more liquid, and has a lower heat
proven technologies. The next stage of the joint design capacity.
programme will then investigate the design and benefits Therefore, the LPG industry will benefit from an
of highly efficient next-generation LNG-fuelled propulsion optimised containment technology allowing the transport
systems. of more cargo and shorter cooling down and warming up
A programme of work has been agreed by the joint times than the other systems.
parties to address design, construction and operational During the award ceremony at Gastech, LR’s Gas
aspects including LNG bunkering, with the aim to create a Technology Strategic Market Manager, Leo Karistios,
new generation of cost-efficient, safe, reliable and, above commented: “LR is very pleased to have been supporting
all, environmentally-optimised design for large ore carriers. GTT’s move into LPG containment systems. GTT MARS is a
membrane technology with great potential for LPG project
LNG MR reliquefaction system ship application. We have been working with GTT since
Additionally, LR presented AiP to Babcock’s LGE Process December 2015, and today we have achieved a significant
for its LNG mixed refrigerant (MR) reliquefaction system, milestone for the full assessment of GTT MARS.”
ecoSMRT.
Designed in response to the increased issue of excess Natural gas operating fleet
boil-off gas (BOG) resulting from the introduction of concept
dual-fuel propulsion engines (ME-GI/X-DF) with high In addition to this, LR also provided Wärtsilä and
efficiency, the ecoSMRT LNG reliquefaction plant is COSCO Shipping Heavy Industry Co. (CHI) with AiP for their
joint development of a natural gas operating fleet
concept. This development project was carried out
under the terms of a memorandum of understanding
(MoU) signed in June 2016 between the three
companies.
The aim of the concept is to offer global
operators a more efficient and economical fleet
design that meets current and anticipated
environmental requirements according to the
classification rules. The fleet comprises four vessels:
a pusher tug; a LNG storage barge; a LNG
regasification barge, and a floating liquefaction
natural gas barge. The pusher tug can be used to
transport the three barges.
The concept’s main advantages are its operative
flexibility and the fleet’s competitive CAPEX and OPEX
costs. The pusher tug makes all of the units mobile
Figure 1. (L – R) Jose Navarro, Lloyd’s Register (LR), Alan Duckett,
and transportable. The number and choice of units
Babcock, and Jim Smith, LR, at the presentation of the approval in
principle (AiP) during Gastech. will depend on the project, since not all of the
concept’s units are necessarily needed for every

40 November 2017
 project. For example, the concept can be utilised to act as a is shortened with simpler configuration and improved
LNG carrier (using only the pusher tug and LNG storage safety features.
barge), or it can be used for more complex projects The mobility feature, allowing the generation of
involving liquefaction and regasification systems (using all electricity in collaboration with the FSRU only when
units). The modular design of Wärtsilä’s liquefaction and needed and being independently stationed when not in
regasification units makes this an excellent concept for gas operation, brings increased economic solutions to
plants in the 50 – 200 MW range. The low draft design also operators. The three different types of four-stroke dual-fuel
makes it very attractive for gas power plant projects in engines of Hi-Floating Power can be selected as per the
South East Asia. client’s preference, and will allow operators to enjoy
operational flexibility.
Barge-mounted power plant Mr Chang, Executive Vice President of HHI said: “Since
Furthermore, LR signed a JDP with HHI to commence an AiP we have been given a list of inquiries of much more
for a barge-mounted power plant, Hi-Floating Power™. economical and flexible floating power generating plants
Hi-Floating Power is HHI’s floating power plant solution from the market, we come to conclusion that there will
capable of generating maximum power of 221 MW by surely be demand for the new concept of floating power
running 13 units of HiMSEN dual-fuel engines, upgradeable plant. And that’s the rationale behind the JDP signed by HHI
up to 400 MW through the addition of extra HiMSEN and Lloyd’s Register today. We do believe the JDP will bring
dual-fuel engines. a win-win solution for both companies and will surely lay a
The design of the solution combines HHI’s shipbuilding solid foundation for the era of new floating power
expertise with advanced engine engineering and generating plants.”
manufacturing capabilities. By separating dual-fuel engines
into two independent compartments, it provides more Conclusion
reliable operation, even in the case of emergencies, such as The work that is currently being done by LR, shipbuilders,
fire and/or shutdown of either compartment. shipowners and industry associations is ensuring that the
Hi-Floating Power can produce power with industry has efficient and safe solutions for using LNG as a
barge-mounted generators using natural gas sent out from fuel. We are now seeing more and more examples of LNG
adjacent LNG floating storage and regasification units as fuel being considered on deepsea applications, such as
(FSRUs) via jetty or marine gas oil (MGO) stowed on board large containerships, bulk carriers and VLOCs, and no longer
as a back-up fuel. By removing the need for LNG storage being limited to short sea shipping applications as has
and regasification facilities on board, design and build time been the case up until now.

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Test objectives

Rishi Agrawal, Gas Entec,

South Korea, details innovation
in commissioning/cold/gas/
regasification trials in the FLNG
terminal and vessel markets.

T
he objective of commissioning/cold/gas/regasification Commissioning
trials is to confirm satisfactory operation of LNG fuelled Commissioning activities are activities to be performed after the
ship components and associated systems including mechanical completion at the shipyard. The main objective is
associated controls, alarms, and shutdowns. The trials are also to test the functionality of onboard equipment and instruments
used to quantify the fuel-saving and GHG emission outcomes of before introducing LNG. All required tests are conducted with
an LNG conversion ship (retrofit) relative to conventional diesel nitrogen gas during commissioning. Several kinds of test are
or marine fueled ships. conducted during commissioning, however the major tests are:
At first, commissioning or On Board Tests (OBT) must be z Emergency shutdown (ESDS) system test: Normally, two
completed, then cold tests, gas trials, and finally regasification ESDS are designed for LNG vessels. ESD-1 is the emergency
trials. In this article, the specific tasks covered in the shutdown of the LNG transfer in a controlled manner. ESD-2
commissioning/cold/gas/regasification trials shall be explained. is the automatic activation of the Emergency Release System.

43
 z Cargo Instruments: Cargo instruments are tested with z On board equipment such as the vapouriser and BOG
nitrogen gas with dummy values in order to be sure of the equipment test: Vapouriser functionality check such as
alarm set points. temperature and pressure with nitrogen gas.
z Hydraulic and pneumatic valve/control valves test: Valves z LNG bunkering (loading arms) test: ESD release, ESD and
open/close indication test at cargo control room. normal valve open/close test with nitrogen.
z Gas detection system test: The gas detection system is tested
with sampling gas to verify audible and visual alarms. There are many other equipment tests in auxiliary and
machinery areas such as generators, boilers, engine load tests
(with diesel only), seawater cooling system and others. The
engine load test with gas is conducted either at the gas trial or
regasification trial stage.

Cold test
After finishing commissioning works, the cold test is the next
activity at the shipyard. The cold test is carried out for the
following purposes prior to the gas trial (low-temperature
N2 gas and liquid cryogenic nitrogen (LN2) is used in place of
LNG):
z The confirmation of displacement and expansion of cargo
pipes at low temperature.
z The confirmation of functional performance of insulation
system for cargo pipes at low temperature.
The LN2 cold test is intended to prove the safe and
adequate operation of all systems and their components
involved with or pertaining to the LNG vessel. Cryogenic piping
and machinery with related instruments and controls are to be
tested using cold nitrogen gas and/or liquid nitrogen in the
shipyard. Cold test procedure is outlined in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Source: Gas Entec Co, Ltd.
Gas trial
After finishing the cold test with LN2, the vessel is ready to
introduce LNG. During the gas trial, cargo equipment such as
the LNG cargo pump, LNG vapouriser and BOG equipment is
ready to be tested with LNG. Large LNG vessels will sail to the
closest LNG terminal in order to conduct the gas trial. Gas trial
tests for small vessels can be conducted at a shipyard. The gas
trial procedure is outlined in Figure 2. After finishing the gas
trial, the vessel is ready for delivery.

Regasification test
In continuation of the gas trial, the regasification test is
carried out at a location either offshore or close-to-shore. The
regasification test for every LNG vessel (such as an FSRU or
LNGC) differs slightly. The objective of this test is to operate all
the cargo equipment on full capacity and redo the engine load
test only on gas. Before operating the cargo equipment at full
capacity, the above procedures must be followed rigidly.
Figure 2. Source: Gas Entec Co, Ltd.
The plan and procedures
verification process is outlined in
Table 1. Expected commissioning period for large LNG vessels. Figure 3.

Stage Description Period (in weeks) Remarks Economics and

technical analysis
1 Commissioning – On board test Minimum 12 weeks Only day work (10 hours) for FLNG terminal
2 Cold test 1 week 24 hours operation
commissioning
There are multiple factors that
3 Gas trial 2 weeks 24 hours operation affect the unit investment cost
of FLNG terminal commissioning
4 Regasification test 1 week 24 hours operation infrastructure in comparison to shore
based LNG terminals. In a broad
Total period 16 weeks
sense, the factors for FLNG relate to:

44 November 2017
1. Technology: A lower economic scale for FLNG terminals in
terms of process technology, design and construction period
in comparison to shore based LNG terminal.
2. Location: Great flexibility in FLNG terminals which
can locate near a gas distribution network making the
economics of the supply chain viable and can reduce
regasification costs which occur in imports terminals and
include handling and vapourisation costs.
3. Price to inputs: Inputs such as material, services, access
to land, etc. are most critical factors which have a direct
impact on commissioning/trials and operations. FLNG
terminal commissioning not only require fewer services
such as utilities, shore equipment, tools and instruments
but also limited access to land.
4. Exchange rate variations: Exchange rates do not only affect
the EPC phase but also commissioning phase due to taking Figure 3. Source: Gas Entec Co, Ltd.
or hiring special services from other overseas countries.
5. Inflation rates: Inflation rates vary from procurement technological innovations, such as equipment functionality
to commissioning period and FLNG terminals have tests during commissioning at the shipyard through simulation
significantly less impact on inflation rates due to the programs, have developed more confidence in ship-owners
reduced time of construction and commissioning. and shipbuilders in terms of safety and effective operation.
The above procedures and results of analysis (i.e. the process
6. Expected commissioning period for big LNG vessels.
steps and reference period) provide the form of technological
Conclusion innovation statistics for commissioning/cold/gas/regasification
At present, LNG terminals/vessels (FSRU, LGNC) are the main trials of FLNG terminals. For reasons explained, the process steps
constraints against the increase of offshore terminals. The and the corresponding reference period should be used with
reduced CAPEX and OPEX, and the flexibility to move from one caution and must not be regarded as a substitute for the due
location to another in the same country has attracted a number diligence in each instance of LNG shipbuilding or conversion
of customers worldwide to develop FLNG terminals. Additionally, projects.
 Lifetime
optimisation
late-fin heat exchangers (PFHEs) are key components in that is an easy equation. Because processes in a gas plant are

P many processing plants. They have compact dimensions

and offer a range of operating benefits. Yet using them
incorrectly can result in significant failure and repair costs.
far more complex, sophisticated equipment is essential for
managing heat flow.
These heat management units are called heat exchangers,
The Linde Group’s Engineering Division has established a and their task is to transfer heat from a warm fluid to a cold
team of specialists who can simulate the life expectancy fluid. There are three most commonly used types. Although
of both existing and newly built PFHEs. They optimise the shell and tube heat exchangers (STHE) and coil-wound heat
technical environment of PFHEs and provide plant operators exchangers (CWHE) are used to perform specific tasks, for
with individual guidelines, which help to ensure that these example, managing high-pressure applications, allowance for
essential components provide decades of trouble-free service. mechanical cleaning or dealing with corrosive fluids, PFHEs
Heat flow and heat exchange are fundamental for have become the engineers’ first choice for various operating
processing gas and liquids. On a small scale, perhaps you used scenarios.
this principle yourself if you boiled an egg for breakfast this Linde Engineering also employs PFHEs in most of its
morning. The key parameters to consider are temperature and cryogenic processing plants. These include natural gas,
pressure. For boiling an egg in a kitchen, where air pressure is synthesis gas, hydrogen, chemical and petrochemical plants,
around one bar, the water temperature has to reach 100ºC – air separation plants, among others. As a manufacturer of

46
Pascal Freko, Reinhold Hölzl, Axel Lehmacher,
Alexander Woitalka and Teodor Todorov,
Linde Engineering Division, Linde AG, Germany,
demonstrate how to optimise plate-fin heat exchangers’
lifetime.

47
 PFHEs since 1981, Linde has adapted its units to suit the streams have become stronger accordingly. A single process
growing range of processes. Linde’s PFHEs consist of flat and stream in a single PFHE block can carry up to 20 MW of heat
corrugated plates that are brazed in vacuum furnaces. duty or more.
The larger a heat exchanger is, the higher its heating area.
Delivery of 12 000 units since 1981 In Linde’s PFHE, the specific heating area can measure up to
Vacuum-brazing is a complex technology that guarantees the 2000 m² per m³. From an economic perspective, it is more
production of exchangers that demonstrate a higher reliability efficient to increase the size of individual heat exchangers
compared to traditionally used salt-bath soldering. Linde has rather than installing more units. This is an example of how
developed special vacuum furnaces, which are located in the Linde’s steady investment in innovation in developing larger
production site in Germany. The vacuum brazing procedure furnaces helps customers to reduce costs.
forms part of Linde’s own know-how and is the key to the Another quality that makes each unit unique lies within
unique quality of its PFHEs. the process requirements of individual plants. Each unit is
Furthermore, a second production site has been designed individually for its specific requirements regarding
established in Dalian, a city of 6 million inhabitants in heat exchange and boundary conditions like allowable
north-eastern China, near the Korean Peninsula. In total, pressure drop. Specialised engineers develop custom-made
Linde Engineering has supplied more than 12 000 PFHEs to solutions for every plant. Even if many PFHE units look similar
plants all over the world. on the outside, their heat profile is typically one-of-a-kind.
Beside the unique structure, every PFHE offers the
Every PFHE is unique following advantages:
Despite the high quantity of PFHE units produced, practically z High efficiency.
each and every PFHE is customised for its specific task. One
z Multi-stream (cooling and/or heating).
reason is because the size of PFHEs has grown consistently
since the 1980s. This means that the size of the vacuum z Intermediate in/outlets.
furnaces continually adapted to fulfil the industry’s standards. z Low cost.
Today, Linde Engineering is able to deliver PFHEs with a
length of up to 8.2 m. In recent decades, as LNG plants have z Small volume resulting from high density in heat transfer
increased in size – to capacities of millions of tpy – process area.
z Low weight due to aluminium material.
z Low design temperatures (to -269°C).
z High NTUs achievable (Number of Transfer Units).
z Pure counter-current flow.
z Allow minimal temperature differences between separate
streams (less than 1 K possible).
z Usage as reboiler, condenser, heater, cooler, chiller, or a
combination.

Thermal stress leads to failure

To ensure optimal performance, some technical usage
Figure 1. 3D surface plot of metal temperatures vs restrictions for PFHEs exist. The use of corrosive fluids is
simulation time and heat exchanger length. not allowed, as these could damage the aluminium alloy
construction. PFHEs also face some limits in applications
concerning high pressure and high temperature. Compared
to other heat exchanger types, for example, CWHEs or STHEs,
PFHEs are more sensitive to rapid changes in load. These
can lead to thermal stress that can cause leakage of the heat
exchanger unit in the long term by thermal fatigue.1
In countless studies, Linde’s engineers have evaluated
PFHEs under realistic operating conditions. Their main
conclusion gained from the analysis of failure cases: fatigue
resulting from thermal stress under off-design conditions2 is a
major cause of failures, and is responsible for significant
lifetime consumption.3

But what is thermal stress and

why can it be that harmful?
In short, thermal stress refers to mechanical strain arising
from local and/or temporal changes in temperature. When
exposed to heat, metal expands. Because the temperature
Figure 2. FEM simulations compile an evaluation of
stresses. profile throughout the PFHE is uneven – hot streams become
cold, cold ones become hot – expansion is uneven as well.

48 November 2017
This causes an effect that is common in bi-metals. The become more precise and sustainable. Additionally, the use of
physical cause is different, but geometrically they behave dynamic models has been a big step forward in understanding
likewise: one side expands further than the other, which the dynamics of plant equipment.
results in bending or warping.
Of course, a PFHE will not bend like a banana because of Life prolonging measures for heat
temperature differences or rapid temperature changes. Linde’s exchangers
PFHEs are built with a higher stress resistance than is needed The expertise gained through simulation and analysis helps
under normal operating conditions. Improper operation does Linde’s engineers to prolong the lifetime of heat exchangers
not damage the heat exchanger immediately. But continuous already in operation as well. The basis for their work is the
excessive stress leads to fatigue and to changes in the lifetime analysis of running heat exchangers. As many of
material’s microstructure. Grain boundaries within the Linde’s PFHEs were installed more than 20, sometimes even
aluminium alloy lose alignment and the crystal lattice 30 years ago, the focus at that time was not on measuring
becomes weaker. Ultimately, leakages occur, resulting in high all possible data streams. Therefore, reliable data is rarely
costs for repair and an unplanned interruption in operations. available from this period. In those cases, specialists
of structural mechanics, process engineering and other
How to extend a heat exchanger’s departments contact the plant operators to define typical
lifetime scenarios that heat exchangers face during operation. After
To fully understand the connection between stress and performing thermo-hydraulic simulations and finite-element
how this shortens a product’s lifetime requires taking a methods (FEM) simulations, they compile an evaluation of
short excursion into materials science. As German railway stresses. Based on this, they suggest measures to improve
engineer August Wöhler discovered in the second half of the (e.g. operation procedures) and by doing so prolong the
19th century, cyclic stress is a bigger threat to a material’s lifetime of a PFHE.
stability than single stress episodes, even those producing a For plant operators, this evaluation of stress variables can
higher peak stress. Wöhler created a model to put the stress in be extremely useful – and cost-saving. In some cases, a PFHE
relation to the number of cycles a specimen can run through failure forces operators to shut down the entire plant. Even in
before damage occurs because of fatigue. Today, this is known mid-scale plants, loss of profits can rise to millions of euros
as the Wöhler curve. It shows that even small differences in per day, not including the costs of repair. If the damaged PFHE
stress levels can have a massive impact on the material’s has been installed in a cold box, repair becomes even more
lifetime. complex due to the limited accessibility of the box due to
So, reducing thermal stress changes is the key to their compactness.
guaranteeing a long lifetime of a heat exchanger. As an experienced manufacturer of PFHEs and a pioneer
Unfortunately, units will typically experience temperature in customised plant design, Linde Engineering offers a unique
swings as part of normal operations. Since every plant and its combination of manufacturing and service. Customers and
PFHEs are custom-made, they face individual thermal stress plant operators from all over the world have benefitted from
loads. An individual analysis is needed to calculate thermal Linde’s lifetime estimation. While detailed analysis is executed
stress, and this will be used to estimate the lifetime of a within Linde plants only, lifetime screening is possible for all
single PFHE.4 kinds of PFHEs.

Step forward in understanding References

plant dynamics 1. Hölzl, et al “Experimental fatigue evaluation of aluminum
This is exactly what Linde’s interdisciplinary team of specialists brazed plate fin heat exchangers”, ASME Pressure Vessel and
Piping, 2013.
does. They have been investigating thermal stress and its effect
2. Hölzl, et al “Damage analysis and fatigue evaluation of an
on plant components for more than a decade. Based on this aluminum brazed plate fin heat exchanger”, ASME Pressure
experience the Linde team has been able to develop simulation Vessel and Piping, 2014.
tools that allow insights into temperature distributions and 3. Hölzl, R., “Lifetime estimation of aluminum plate fin heat
the resulting thermal stress.4 These tools provide operators exchangers”, ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping, 2012.
with both qualitative and quantitative information on unstable 4. Hölzl, Reinhold, Process for determining the rigidity of a
plate heat exchanger and process for producing the plate
operation situations, such as plant start-up, trip scenarios and
heat exchanger, European Patent EP 1830149 B2, US Patent US
transitions between various modes of operation. 7788073 B2 and Corresponding Patents in China and Japan.
One example of a simulation tool is a dynamic 5. Alexander Woitalka, Ingo Thomas, Pascal Freko,
thermo-hydraulic heat exchanger modelling framework. It is Axel Lehmacher: DYNAMIC SIMULATION OF HEAT
based on Linde Engineering’s in-house process simulator called EXCHANGERS USING LINDE’S IN-HOUSE PROCESS
SIMULATOR OPTISIM® (Proceedings of CHT-15, ICHMT
Optisim®.5 A further modelling system has been patented: the International Symposium on Advances in Computational
dynamic 3D finite-elements analysis modelling system LIBAS® Heat Transfer, May 25-29, 2015, Rutgers University, Piscataway,
(Linde Brazed Plate-fin Analysis of Stress) for PFHEs is based on USA, CHT-15-001).
theoretical investigations and practical experiments.6 6. Hölzl, et al “Experimental fatigue evaluation of aluminum
brazed plate fin heat exchangers”, ASME Pressure Vessel and
Both are combined und utilised in the Hazard Analysis Piping, 2013.
(HAZAN), for lifetime estimation studies and for root-cause 7. Pascal Freko, Ingo Thomas, Reinhold Hölzl, Axel Lehmacher,
studies of PFHE failures. During the plant-engineering phase, Alexander Woitalka: OPTIMIZATION OF LIFETIME
analysis is carried out with these tools. The results help the EXPECTANCE FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS WITH SPECIAL
REQUIREMENTS (Proceedings of the 15th International Heat
design engineers to optimise their concept.7 Thanks to
Transfer Conference, IHTC-15 August 10-15, 2014, Kyoto, Japan,
detailed studies performed in advance, plant design has IHTC15-9791)

November 2017 49
50
 Pushing
boundaries

From Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat

Exchangers…
Brazed Aluminium Heat Exchangers (BAHX) are widely used in the cryogenics
Florian Picard, industry, mainly for refrigeration (natural gas liquefaction (-160ºC),
He (-269ºC), H2 (-240ºC), etc.) and cryogenic distillation (ethylene (-104ºC),
Fives Cryo, France, natural gas (-163ºC), NGL (-90ºC), NRU (-196ºC), etc.).
BAHX are resourceful for such cryogenics applications thanks to their high
presents a new compactness, high thermal efficiency, low weight (BAHX’s density is about
heat exchanger 1300kg/m3) and low maintenance (Mean Time To Failure (MTTF), or availability
level, is 99.99%). Therefore, they provide low capital, installation and operating
technology to the costs.
Generally speaking, a brazed Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger (PFHE) consists of a
market. block of alternating layers, which are separated from one another by plates
(see Figure 1). Each stream circulates in dedicated layers, and gives or receives
energy from the other ones by means of fins. Bars surround and close up each

51
 z High performance: Each stream’s circuit is designed
layer ensuring its tightness. Once stacked, all pieces of the
as an independent chamber vessel, i.e. its pressure
heat exchanger are brazed all together in a vacuum
resistance is not dependent on other adjacent stream’s
furnace, in a single operation. Afterwards, headers and
circuits which are also under pressure (lower or higher
nozzles are welded directly onto the brazed core.
pressure). Moreover, mechanical characteristics are very
Fins are the heart of that heat exchanger technology.
good, thanks to this brazed heat exchanger structure,
Fin configuration can be optimised and custom-designed to
which is made of bars, plates and fins. Therefore, large
any heat exchanger specification in order to find the best
temperature gradients are possible during steady
technical and economical solution. Several types of fins are
operations, and can be easily predicted by calculation
available (Figure 2: straight, perforated, serrated,
for transient conditions (start-up, shut-down).
herringbone), and their geometry (thickness, height, fin per
inch, perforation, serration) is custom-defined according to z Design flexibility: Multi-stream capability in a single
thermal, hydraulic and mechanical requirements, for each unit is common – up to 15 streams can be gathered in
stream, in order to reach the overall target performance of the same core. And flow configuration can be adapted if
the heat exchanger. necessary (cross-flow, co-current flow, cross counterflow,
This typical structural configuration gives outstanding etc.). Optimised custom design is promoted by a large
abilities to a PFHE: available range of fins, which could be also specifically
z Compactness: Heat transfer surface area can reach adapted according to specification requirements.
2000m2/m3.
…to Brazed Stainless Steel
z High efficiency: Brazed Plate-Fin Heat exchangers are
Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
mainly used in counter current flow configuration,
Aluminium Plate-fin Heat Exchangers are today mainly
which is the most thermal efficient configuration
used for such cryogenics applications, with a temperature
and largely better than cross flow configuration. Very
range of between -270ºC – 65ºC, and a maximum design
low pinch temperature, lower than 1ºC, is possible,
pressure of 140 bar. The innovation was to extend the
and pressure drop can be limited and very low
range of functioning of PFHE technology by using stainless
(approximately a few tens of mbar).
steel instead of aluminium, in order to:
z Increase the temperature range to much higher
temperatures.
z Increase the pressure range to much higher pressures.
z Increase the mechanical robustness.
z Increase the corrosion resistance.

Figure 3 shows the projected operation range for these

two complementary technologies.
The Brazed Stainless Steel Heat Exchanger (BSSHX) is
foreseen to be suitable from cryogenic (-196ºC) to high
temperatures (300ºC), and for high pressures (300 bar).
BAHX abilities, in particular its design versatility, are then
extended to high temperatures and high pressures.
Figure 1.: Brazed plate-fin heat exchanger structure. Therefore, BSSHX offers a new compact heat exchanger
solution to the whole heat exchanger market, by proposing
a new compromise between performances and costs,
compared to other existing and available heat transfer
technologies (shell and tubes heat exchanger, Printed
Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) etc.).
BSSHX technology also offers new possibilities in the
cryogenic field, improving mechanical integrity (allowing
higher temperature difference between streams for
example), corrosion resistance (protection against mercury,
water and other contaminants), and reducing longitudinal
thermal conduction effects.
BAHX and BSSHX are two complementary products. The
choice will depend on the customer specific requirements,
to get the best heat transfer solution.

Developments strategy
Considerable research and development (R&D) updates
have been carried out since 2008. The ambition for
BSSHX is to become an industrial relevant heat exchanger
Figure 2. Types of fins available. technology, marrying up with the needs of the markets, and
proposing new heat transfer solutions for customers.

52 November 2017
 Boil-Off Gas Compressor:
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 Such R&D developments are guided and organised (hardness, ductility, etc.). Moreover, BAHX is brazed at
around three main questions: 600ºC, whereas BSSHX is at 1200ºC.
An important point is that each manufacturing stage of
1. What are the real abilities and BSSHX has to be performed in accordance with PED
performance (heat transfer, hydraulic, (Pressure Equipment Directive) and ASME (American Society
mechanical integrity)? of Mechanical Engineers) standards. So, the entire
Fives Software can provide many performance estimations manufacturing process is developed according to these
of BSSHX. For many years, an experimentation plan has specific and imposed rules, and is monitored by a strong
been implemented to confirm each assumption and model, quality control system.
in particular to validate thermal, hydraulic and mechanical
performances of each fin. At the same time, overall 3. How to install, operate and maintain
performance and mechanical integrity of a BSSHX have BSSHX?
been tested and confirmed according to representative PFHE is a brazed structure with numerous heterogeneous
industrial operating conditions, both in lab and on-site. pieces. Local and overall temperature differences within the
core can produce contraction/expansion of the parts, and
2. What is the best manufacturing could lead to internal stresses. Based on many calculations
process in order to manufacture and some experimentation, BSSHX can accept much higher
relevant and reliable industrial permissible temperature differences between adjacent
equipment? streams than aluminium; as a reference, ALPEMA warns
The original BAHX’s manufacturing process has been not to exceed 50ºC for single-phase flows, and 30ºC for
completely reconsidered for BSSHX. For example, complex two-phase flows for BAHX. The maximal acceptable limit
pieces, especially fins, are produced with stainless steel, has not been yet established for BSSHX, and is currently
which has very different properties than aluminium under investigation.
Unsteady operating conditions can generate cyclic
stresses which could exceed the yield strength of the
material, and failure by fatigue may result. An
experimental campaign has just begun in order to
evaluate and understand the potential damage which may
occur due to thermal fatigue, the generated mechanical
distortion and constraints, the evolution of thermal and
hydraulic performance according to the number of thermal
shock, and the number of shocks before breaking (if it
occurs).
Unlike BAHX applications, which mainly involve clean
streams, BSSHX should be operated with some moderate
fouling and plugging, while limiting performance losses.
Fin geometry can be adapted to propose much larger
hydraulic diameter (greater than 12 mm in height), much
more adapted to dirty streams.
Corrosion allowance for the brazed stainless steel heat
exchanger is close to the corrosion allowance of stainless
steel. Therefore, BSSHX can be used for any stream which is
compatible with stainless steel.
Figure 3. Operating range of PFHE according to material.
Availability is the key point. Holding the performance
over time, with the minimum of maintenance operations is
the main objective. Cleaning, checking and testing are
periodically scheduled and have to be performed if
necessary. These procedures are similar to the BAHX ones
(in particular site leak detection pressure test and site
helium leak detection test).
Repairing procedures, for leak or any other problem, are
also the same, by welding but with stainless steel. Headers
can be removed by cutting to have access to internal
distributor inlets, and finally welded back on the heat
exchanger.

A new technology on the market

Thanks to these R&D efforts, this new technology has
become more and more mature, and Fives is now ready to
introduce BSSHX into the market (see Figure 4).
Figure 4. Fives’ new stainless steel heat exchanger. In 2016, two orders were placed with one of the biggest
players in the gas industry, for a small scale natural gas

54 November 2017
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 pipes, and does not need expensive bi-metallic transition
joints.
As PFHE is a pressure vessel, the mechanical design has
to be ruled by a pressure vessel code. PED standards were
required and ASME code construction was chosen by Fives.
Implementing the standards required many rules and
validations, concerning material, manufacturing and
assembling processes, and mechanical robustness approval
of the heat exchangers.
For example, Figure 5 presents a bursting test of a
representative brazed stainless steel plate-fin heat
Figure 5. Brazed stainless steel plate-fin heat exchanger exchanger structure, which could be used to validate both
structure. the maximal pressure strength of a given fin configuration,
and the brazing process, in order to follow PED and
ASME requirements.
The sample must burst into the fins, and not in the
brazing joint to be validated. Afterwards, the experimental
bursting pressure reveals the maximal design pressure of a
fin, by applying safety factors and tolerances as permitted
by ASME Code Section VIII Division 1. The maximal
operating temperature, which is defined by the customer’s
specifications, impacts on the maximum allowable design
pressure and is taken into account.
Once the BSSHX is manufactured, pressure and then
leak tests are performed to validate the mechanical
integrity, in accordance with the applicable design code.
These tests confirmed the tightness and the robustness of
that BSSHX structure. First, hydrostatic and pneumatic tests
were performed and confirmed each individual pressure
chamber could be pressurised to the required Maximal
Allowable Working Pressure in complete safety. Then,
helium leak tests were also performed to ascertain the
absence of a leak between two different chambers or with
the outside. Amazingly, measured leak rate was
1 x 10-8mbar.L/s whereas BAHX’s standard measured leak
rates are between 1 x 10-3 mbar.L/s. and 1 x 10-7 mbar.L/s.
Many additional tests were also performed in the
meantime. A start-up test was performed (see Figure 6)
with liquid Nitrogen (-196ºC), to test the mechanical
integrity of the BSSHX according to a big cold shock.
Afterwards, another helium leak test was made and
confirmed the perfect tightness of the heat exchanger
(10-8 mbar.L/s).

Conclusion
Today, many other business opportunities are growing,
especially in natural gas applications and gas compression
cooling.
This new compact, efficient, multi-stream stainless steel
Figure 6. Cold test performed on BSSHX. heat exchanger technology has been developed to propose
new versatile and competitive heat transfer solutions,
which will help customers to create new business
liquefaction plant. For this cryogenic application, BSSHX opportunities.
was chosen because of severe mechanical requirements, Two Brazed Stainless Steel Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
which cannot be endured by BAHX. Two other main have already been commissioned, giving concrete
advantages appeared. BSSHX is 35% smaller than the commercial perspectives to this new heat exchanger
equivalent BAHX: due to the lower thermal conductivity of technology, after many years spent on R&D.
the stainless steel in comparison with aluminium, the These two first orders symbolise the starting point of
BSSHX is less disturbed by high temperature gradient the commercial launch of this new technology, in addition
according to its length, and then is more compact than to the existing Fives’ Cryogenics | Energy offer which
BAHX in this configuration. Also, welding can be performed already includes Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat
to finish with connections of the BSSHX to stainless steel Exchangers and cryogenic pumps.

56 November 2017
 Curtis Lovelace and
mbient conditions have a significant
Craig Kedrowski,
Stellar Energy, USA, A impact on the performance of gas
turbines used to drive refrigeration
compressors for gas liquefaction. This is primarily
explain how LNG due to the fact that as temperature rises, air
becomes less dense and mass flowrate through the
plant performance turbine decreases. LNG plants located in climates
where ambient temperatures exceed the
and stability can be turbine’s inlet air design point can experience
degraded performance and unpredictable
improved with the power output. In severe cases, it can even
turn the gas turbine into a production
use of turbine inlet bottleneck. One way for operators to
air chilling.

57
 eliminate this issue and stabilise LNG production is with place either through adiabatic cooling methods, such
turbine inlet air chilling (TIAC). as fogging or wet compression, or through mechanical
chilling. Both technologies have been used extensively
An overview of TIAC in the power industry over the past two decades and
TIAC is a proven technology that cools inlet air before it are widely recognised by gas turbine original equipment
enters the compressor side of the turbine. This can take manufacturers and power plant operators as a reliable
tool for maximising efficiency and maintaining constant
output.
For LNG plants, TIAC systems using mechanical
chilling can be a cost-effective method of optimising
liquefaction and stabilising production. When chosen early
in the project design phase, the use of TIAC can also aid
in the selection of compressors for liquefaction. Often,
compressors are required to operate across a broad range
of power inputs because, as ambient conditions change,
so does gas turbine output. By using TIAC to maintain a
constant inlet air temperature, gas turbine performance
becomes much more predictable, thus allowing for the
refrigeration compressors to operate efficiently in the
narrow power band.
Currently, there are a number of LNG facilities
Figure 1. Aerial view of construction progress; the three throughout the world that employ some form of TIAC. The
chiller plants are located on the left side of the photo. remainder of this article will introduce an alternative
TIAC system that offers a number of operational
advantages. This system is currently being installed at
Cheniere Energy’s liquefaction facility near Corpus Christi,
Texas, US.

Use of TIAC at liquefaction

facility
Owned and operated by Corpus Christi Liquefaction, a
subsidiary of Cheniere Energy, the liquefaction facility
is designed for three trains (two of which have been
contracted) with expected aggregate nominal production
capacity of up to 13.5 million tpy of LNG.
In June 2015, Stellar Energy was awarded a contract
by Bechtel Oil, Gas, and Chemicals, Inc. to supply a
TIAC system for the Corpus Christi facility. Stellar Energy
assessed the design inputs of ambient design condition,
turbine inlet temperature, and site footprint, and designed
a modular air-cooled TIAC system that uses centrifugal
compressors and a non-flammable hydrofluoro-olefin
refrigerant to provide a constant 45ºF inlet temperature
to the turbines.
The three-train TIAC system at the facility features a
common header, and is capable of producing a total of
36 900 t of refrigeration. The common chilled glycol
piping system and redundancy on the chillers provide
excellent plant reliability.

System advantages
The solution proposed by Stellar Energy implements
design principles that are common to power plant
applications. When used in regions like the Gulf Coast
with warm, humid conditions, the system offers a number
of advantages over inlet air chilling systems using
propane refrigeration. Some of these are outlined below.

Reduced project risk

Early in the project design phase, Stellar Energy proposed
Figure 2. Modular assembly allows for factory-tested wiring
and piping that is fully connected at the job site. modular, off-site fabrication of the TIAC system instead
of a field-erected system. This afforded a number of

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 refrigerant oil in a centrifugal
compressor essentially eliminates
the risk of oil migration.

Improved safety
In a conventional propane
refrigeration cycle, gaseous
propane is sent to an air-cooled
condenser where it liquefies and
drops back into a receiver. In
the Corpus Christi Liquefaction
TIAC design, a secondary heat
transfer fluid (low-concentration
glycol solution) is sent through
condensers to a radiator field
via vertical inline pumps. This
eliminates the need to directly
condense the primary refrigerant,
thus confining it to a much smaller
Figure 3. The module is assembled on a skid and enclosed with insulated metal panels. area and reducing refrigerant
system charge. Additionally, the
hydrofluoro-olefin refrigerant
used has an ASHRAE A1
classification, which signifies that it has the lowest
rating for flammability and toxicity. The decision to use
a non-flammable refrigerant eliminates the cost and
hazard of the equipment running in a classified electrical
location.

Ease of maintenance
Due to fewer moving parts and simpler operation,
the maintenance requirements for the TIAC system
at Corpus Christi Liquefaction are substantially less
than would have been required for a propane system.
Increased accessibility was made possible by the design
of the modules, which feature large open walkways for
equipment with overhead pull panels and oversized
garage doors. The design team strategically located all the
Figure 4. Rendering of the Corpus Christi liquefaction valves and instrumentation to allow personnel the ability
facility.
to easily pull, clean, and maintain equipment.

benefits, including reliable access to skilled manpower, Lower construction cost

improved fabrication quality, a controlled manufacturing Modular construction in Stellar Energy’s fabrication
environment, and reduced site safety risk. Using modular facility in Jacksonville, Florida, US, eliminated weather
methods ultimately allowed Stellar Energy to reduce delays and shortened delivery time compared to a field-
construction time of the TIAC equipment packages from erected system. Direct-employed fabricators eliminated
16 weeks to 8 weeks. the need to rely on the project site’s tight labour market.
Furthermore, material costs were reduced by the use
Increased reliability of standard and readily-available components that are
Although screw compressors are generally capable of common to the TIAC industry.
producing higher compression ratios than centrifugal
compressors, they often have drawbacks with regards to Conclusion
reliability. This is largely due to the fact that they use TIAC technology is widely recognised throughout the
high-speed, twin-rotor positive displacement compressors, power industry as a proven solution for improving gas
which place stress on the rotors and bearings and create turbine performance and ensuring stable power output.
the need for high-lubricating oil circulation rates. This These benefits also translate to the LNG industry, where
oil can carry over into the refrigerant stream, causing the predictability and reliability affect the bottom line. Expert
need for protective measures to prevent the fouling of analysis of project-specific variables is key to ensure
heat transfer surfaces. In contrast, centrifugal compressors a custom solution for optimal performance. The TIAC
are variable volume machines that have fewer moving system in Corpus Christi Liquefaction is currently in the
parts and are simpler to operate than screw compressors. installation phase. First gas at the facility is expected in
In addition, the reduced flow and function of the 2018.

60 November 2017
 Maksym Kulitsa,
Independent
FSRU consultant,
and David Wood,
DWA Energy Limited,

Perfect
UK, explain how
to improve DFDE
low-duty compressor

performance performance on FSRUs

with 700-mbarg
pressure-rated
he global fleet of Floating Storage and Regasification Units (FSRUs)

T continues to grow with some 27 in operation in 2017. The FSRU fleet

consists of new-build vessels and converted LNG carriers (LNGC). The
most-recently built FSRUs are dual fuel diesel electric (DFDE) vessels, typically
LNG tanks.

involving LNG storage tanks with pressure ratings conducive with a maximum
allowable relief valve setting (MARVS) of 700 mbarg or more. However, some
of the DFDE-type FSRUs have encountered performance problems with
their low-duty compressors (LDC), such as 4-stage turbo-compressors. These
problems occur in high-tank-pressure conditions (BOG feed pressure may rise
to 670 mbarg), because the LDC is typically designed for a range of operating
tank pressures up to 220 to 250 mbarg (i.e. 250 mbarg is typical MARVS of LNGC
carrier in current service). When the LNG tanks on these FSRU are operating

61
 at pressures above 250 – 300 mbarg the LDC, designed to Gas disposal for such reasons constitutes a loss of cargo
operate at 250mbarg or less, struggle to operate efficiently. due to equipment inefficiency. Typically, such losses are not
Unlike steam-powered FSRU, the LDC for DFDE large. For example, 20% of the LDC’s 4.5 tph rated flow is
periodically experience problems related to surges at the only 0.9 tph. Also, the duration of high tank pressures on
compressor stages. Even though control systems are FSRU usually only occurs during ship-to-ship transfer (STS)
installed to protect equipment from damage related to operations or after cargo rollover conditions. If the duration
turbo-compressor surges, and these are effective in avoiding of an STS is 30 hours, the LDC might experience
surges, at high tank pressures the LDC are unable to develop performance problem during just the final 20 hours of that
a nominal flow (due to the imposed anti-surge protection cargo transfer. Such an occurrence would likely result in
constraints) and motor-rated power is reached at about 80% some 18 t of possible boil-off vapour not being condensed
of the nominal discharge flow. This is problematic for FSRU and eventually burned in the GCU. Such a quantity of LNG
as the LDC cannot supply rated flow of boil-off vapour to the lost would typically be worth less than US$10 000,
recondenser or similar equipment. This results in some depending on prevailing LNG prices, but would also involve
boil-off vapour not being condensed and vapour remaining avoidable atmospheric emissions. Following a cargo rollover
and accumulating in the LNG tanks. Additionally, the event, it can take up to two days to lower tank pressure to
overpressure valves return a significant amount of expanded the point at which the LDC returns to its normal operating
(heated by LDC) vapour back to the LNG tank. Eventually, range. During this period, the LDC would run at reduced flow
that accumulation can lead to the requirement to dispose of rates, which would slow down the cooling of the cargo. The
(i.e. waste) some of the excess boil-off vapour through the consequences of this could be that a pending STS may need
gas combustion unit (GCU), as it cannot be added to the gas to commence at tank pressures significantly above
send-out volumes. 100bmbarg, leading also indirectly to loss of cargo.

Table 1. 4-stage turbo compressor typical design data and operating performance on DFDE FSRU.

Design feed pressure 1.03 barA (i.e., 20 to 30 mbarg) for equipment design and performance calculations

Operating cases for 4-stage turbo compressor run within design range on DFDE LNGC

Equipment design cases / performance ranges Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

Highest Nominal Warmer Low Minimum Minimum

Medium in all cases is boil-off gas (BOG)
flow design BOG suction flow flow

Inlet (feed) pressure (barA) 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.01 1.03

Feed BOG density (kg/m3) 1.18 1.18 1.11 0.28 0.83 0.28

Discharge pressure (barA) 6.5 6.5 6.5 5.0 6.0 5.0

Inlet temperature (ºC) -91 -90 -80 -35 -15 +40

Discharge temperature (ºC) +45 +45 +45 +45 +45 +45

Volume flow (m3/h) 4750 4430 4550 1790 1840 1810

Mass flow as % of nominal flow (1.03 barA) 107 100 103 40 42 41

Mass flow (kg/h) 5588 5242 5070 500 1523 500

Shaft power used (kW) 567 539 514 253 304 254

Operating conditions for 4-stage turbo compressor encountered on high MARVS FSRU

Feed BOG density at 1.3 barA (300 mbarg) (kg/m3) 1.41 1.41 1.33 1.08 0.99 0.82

Mass flow (kg/h) at 1.3 barA Inlet pressure 6693 6243 6070 1928 1826 1478

Mass flow as % of nominal flow (1.3 barA) 128 119 116 37 35 28

Feed BOG density at 1.6 barA (600 mbarg) (kg/m3) 1.74 1.74 1.65 1.33 1.22 1.01

Mass flow (kg/h) at 1.6 barA inlet pressure 8260 7703 7487 2376 2250 1820

Mass flow as % of nominal flow (1.6 barA) 158 147 143 45 43 35

Shaft power used kW at 1.3 and 1.6 barA High High High Normal Normal Normal

Anti-surge protection of LDC activated adding mass

Yes Yes Yes Yes: but low recirculation
flow by recirculation

62 November 2017
 Low-duty compressor to assure safe flow through the LDC (Figure 1). Typically,
configuration on DFDE FSRU the LDC installed are 4-stage LDC, but even with 2-stage
The LDC for DFDE is usually a 2-stage or 4-stage high-speed LDC the recirculation valve eventually opens when
turbo-compressor with an in-built anti-surge protection subjected to such conditions.
system. The anti-surge protection system assures a minimum This situation results in increased loading of the LDC
flow through every stage of the compressor. Anti-surge is motor, as it must compress not only the discharge flow from
achieved via recirculation valves that are opened by controls the LDC, but also the volume that is re-circulated. Thus, the
when low-flow conditions occur in any of the stages. There motor-rated power of the LDC motor can be reached at only
may be more than one anti-surge valve that is responsible 70 – 80% of the rated-mass discharge flow (i.e. mass flow of
for a certain compressor’s protection. BOG the recondenser). In such circumstances, the
In order to prevent surging, each compressor stage overpressure valve (i.e. the discharge line protection) might
requires a minimum safe volumetric flow irrespective of the also open. The overpressure valve discharges hot/expanded
mass flow. It is this requirement that is causing the vapour (+45ºC) back into the LNG cargo tanks, from where it
problem on DFDE FSRU once tank pressures rise above was taken at much lower temperatures (i.e. less than -100ºC).
230b– 250 mbarg (i.e. above the designed boil-off gas (BOG) Consequently, it returns a much larger volume of vapour to
feed pressure range). The typical turbo-compressor is the cargo tank(s) and additionally increases tank pressures
designed to receive ‘lightly pre-compressed’ boil-off vapour by ‘packing’ vapour in.
that is compressed further and sent to the recondenser. The This situation becomes a more serious problem at the
recondenser is typically configured to run on a specified end of a STS when the FSRU has very limited vapour space
base mass throughput. If the recondenser is configured to in its cargo tanks, which can become rapidly ‘packed’ by the
run on say 5.5 tph mass of boil-off vapour that means that LDC returned vapour. The Variable Diffuser Vanes (VDV; flaps
less flow would pass through the LDC when tank pressure designed to regulate flow and discharge through the LDC)
is high, and more flow would pass through the LDC when cannot handle this efficiently and are usually maintained at
tank pressure is below 230 mbarg (Table 1). When higher their minimum open position at all times at high tank
tank pressures prevail, the anti-surge valves remain open, pressures whatever the LDC discharge flow rate. From a
causing recirculation of boil-off gas even at high LDC safety perspective, this situation is unlikely to be critical or
discharge flows of 70 – 100% of the nominal rate. This result in risk of immediate damage to the equipment, as the
does not happen when feed gas pressures are at or below LDC motor protection control should trip the LDC to avoid
250 mbarg. Eventually, the first anti-surge valve becomes damage to motor, as a result of anti-surge protection system
wide open to enable recirculation of a large mass of vapour operating.

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 for DFDE FSRU with high MARVS. These
potential solutions are quite distinct in
terms of their complexity, costs and benefits.
Four such proposed solutions are:
1. Tuning of the anti-surge valves by
their manufacturers is one option, but this
typically proves to be ineffective as the
LDC is designed for a specific low range
of BOG feed pressures, which is severely
exceeded on FSRU with 700 mbarg MARVS
tanks.
2. Re-designing the LDC for a specific
higher range of inlet pressures is another
option, but this involves significant effort,
design complexity to accommodate a
Figure 1. Comparisons of DFDE FSRU LDC conditions and outcomes operating wider range of pressures and cost to solve
at lower pressures (within design range, left side) and at higher pressures (above a relatively minor issue. Consequently
design range, right side). Normal-performance values for LDC are shown in cost-benefit analysis is not favourable for
green text; reduced-performance values for LDC are shown in red text. such an approach, particularly when the cost
of retrofitting a modified LDC to an existing
FSRU is taken into account.
3. Installing variable frequency drives (similar to the
LDCs used with steam turbines) instead of a fixed speed
electric motor. This solution is likely quite expensive and
unreasonable for this issue.
4. Introducing a feed BOG pressure reduction valve
to reduce suction pressure immediately upstream of the
LDC supply piping network. By reducing pressure to the
operating range of the LDC has the potential to solve the
problem at low cost and be easy to retrofit. This solution
is therefore explored further and described in more
detail (Figure 2).

Many observations have confirmed that LDCs on

DFDE FSRU return to normal operating performance only
when LNG storage tank pressures are below
Figure 2. Introduction of a BOG feed pressure reduction valve to
200 –b230bmbarg (i.e. within the original LDC design
reduce suction pressure immediately upstream of the LDC suction
piping network (solution no. 4) for higher-pressure FSRU cargo operating range). Also, LDC controllers are not usually
tanks. directly linked to the prevailing LNG storage tank
pressure values. This implies that LDC on DFDE FSRU
The authors are unaware of any reports of equipment would likely perform normally if they could ‘feel’ a lower
damage due to LDC run in such situations. However, running inlet pressure at the first-stage, even though LNG tank
the LDC electric motor for long periods at its full nominal pressures were significantly higher. Taking these
current rating, would involve increased heating of the observations and configurations into account, makes
motors coils, which is likely to increase the risk of a reduced proposed solution no. 4 potentially viable, cost effective and
life expectancy for the equipment. Apart from such concerns easy to retrofit. The magnitude of the problem resolved by
for the equipment the main consequence of this inefficiency instigating such a solution is illustrated in Table 2.
is minor, periodic cargo loss and emissions. Such losses If it is possible to adjust inlet pressure to the LDC to its
would likely occur during specific high-pressure tank ‘as-designed’ range without the involvement of the actual
operations (e.g. STS, or rollover) when BOG flow from LDC to LNG tank pressure in the LDC control system, the LDC should
recondenser is restricted. In rare cases, losses are run consistently as if tank pressure was always below
compounded when another LDC is connected to the DFDE 200 mbarg. The practice of reducing suction pressure
and GCU equipment, and that LDC experiences similar immediately before a compressor already exists on semi-
constraints limiting the amount of gas that can be burnt in pressurised and fully-pressurised LPG carriers and, in that
the GCU, and does not therefore assist in optimum tank case, is achieved by deploying a suction throttle valve (i.e.
pressure management (e.g. Figure 1, right side). inlet pressure reduction valve).
Solution no. 4 could be easily developed by
Alternative solutions to improve manufacturers and FSRU companies to adapt LDC designed
LDC performance for low-pressure LNGC service to higher pressure DFDE FSRU
There are several proposed approaches worth considering (less than or equal to 700Mbarg MARVS) service (Figure 3). It
that could solve the LDC performance problem described would require only a minor investment and changes to flow

64 November 2017
systems, involving a simple logic controller, to operate the
‘throttle valve’ for reducing BOG suction pressure to the LDC
design-range value.
To develop the solution no. 4 concept further, the
pressure-reducing throttle valve would not necessary need
to be installed immediately upstream of every DFDE LDC.
The typical arrangement of piping on LNGC or FSRU in the
cargo machinery room are essentially the same. Vapour is
brought into this room by a common vapour-header system
and is introduced into a demister, separator (or mist
separator), which is essentially a small tank where possible
droplets of LNG accumulate and are prevented from
damaging downstream boil-off handling equipment. A
manual shut-off valve (for maintenance) is typically located Figure 3. Typical schematic of the vapour line links between
just upstream of the demister/separator. By replacing this the LNG cargo tanks and the cargo machinery room involving
valve with a pneumatic, pressure-control type valve it the mist separator and the low-duty compressors. Replacement
would be possible to effectively manage pressure reduction of a manually-operated maintenance valve by a pneumatic
between the vapour-header system and the piping leading pressure control valve does not interfere with the configuration
of the LDCs or the functionality of its safety system or any
to all the boil-off gas (BOG) handling equipment, including
piping arrangement in machinery room. It also requires only
the LDC for DFDE (Figure 3). The integrated automated minor modifications that can be fitted by ship’s crew without
system (IAS) controls for this valve need to be set to select the need for welding, i.e., the addition of control air lines, bolted-
the lowest suction pressure (i.e. low select logic) among type flange fittings and electric cables.
the LDC (i.e. the two or three LDC that are typically
involved in the system). Every LDC typically has different
suction pressure values due to piping configurations and problem is resolved by placing a single ‘throttle’ valve with a
because they can potentially be run at different discharge simple controller logic that does not interface with the
rates. turbo-compressor’s own control logic (i.e. this ‘throttle’ valve
The solution no. 4 approach, as described, is simple, remains independent from LDC, and the LDC operates
because it does not make any changes to the prevailing independently of the ‘throttle’ valve; the throttle valve
design of the LDC or its controls (Figure 3). The entire merely assures the correct suction pressure to LDC).
 Safety considerations over several minutes. The valve should be inhibited from
The following safety and operational efficiency issues should responding rapidly to changing tank pressure conditions
be considered when implementing solution no. 4: where it is safe to do so; it is more effective if it adapts to
changing conditions slowly. This tuning approach is safe
1. The turbo-compressors will be upset by any sudden in the context of typical FSRU operations as LNG tank
changes in suction pressure caused by pressure reduction pressures rarely drop rapidly due to the thermodynamic
(throttle) valve. Consequently, it is important to tune the characteristics of LNG and its associated vapour. In normal
pressure reduction valve in order to establish smooth feed gas send-out operations pressure tends to drift downwards
flow and appropriately regulated conditions. This can be gradually over time rather than abruptly. On the other hand,
achieved easily because the LDC do not require very precise in the case of sudden increases in LNG tank pressure (e.g.
suction pressure, but rather a stable pressure maintained during rollovers), if the ‘throttle’ valve is too slow to reduce
BOG feed pressure, this is unlikely
to cause a problem for the LDC.
Table 2. Potential negative outcome of LDC feed BOG pressure operating above
designed range and positive impact of installing pressure-reduction valve by reducing Indeed, for short periods of time
BOG flaring (saved 24.6 t of BOG costs equating to approximately US$9000 if sold). the activation of the anti-surge
protection systems of the LDC
Case 1 - Observed FSRU 700 operation without pressure-reduction valve: LDC for
recondenser running at reduced flow due to high load on motor effectively alleviates such short
term problems. All LDC are tuned to
Ship-to- react safely for cases of consumers’
BOG to Actual FSRU
Time points in BOG to ship LNG Feed BOG
7-hour period
engine
recondenser
BOG to flare
transfer
cargo tank
pressure trips and usually LDC remain
room pressure
rate running safely at ‘full recirculation’
when consumers are lost and/or
Hours t/h t/h t/h m3/h mbarg mbarg
gas send-out is suddenly curtailed.
A sudden fall in tank pressure,
13:00 2.8 1.9 3.5 4951 468 428
that would potentially cause
14:00 2.8 2.0 7.0 4979 455 415 problems for the LDC is therefore
not possible; and any sudden
15:00 2.8 2.0 9.0 5033 391 351 increase in tank pressure would
be safely handled by LDC’s in-built
16:00 2.8 2.0 6.3 4974 384 344
protections, beyond the ‘throttle’
17:00 2.8 2.0 6.0 4963 382 342 valve, that would then take control.
2. The pressure-reduction
18:00 2.8 2.0 8.0 4904 431 391
(throttle) valve should be fitted
19:00 2.8 2.0 2.9 4533 485 445 with mechanical limit to avoid
the valve from fully closing
Total BOG in Note: Inlet feed pressure to LDC for any reason or during
approximately 1.40 barA
7-hour period =
19.6 13.9 42.7 malfunctions. It is safer to tune
76.2t, consisting (design: 1.03 barA)
of (t): the valve to always be open at
Regasification rate = 530 mmscf/day
a minimum necessary level.
Case 2 : Estimated outcome of LDC run on FSRU 700 within feed BOG pressure design range
with pressure-reduction valve operating Conclusion
Ship-to- FSRU with high MARVS tanks are
BOG to Actual FSRU Reduced
Time points in
engine
BOG to
BOG to flare
ship LNG
cargo tank feed BOG relatively new designs that have
7-hour period recondenser transfer
room
rate
pressure pressure been built and commissioned over
the past few years. Such vessels
Hours t/h t/h t/h m3/h mbarg mbarg
have generally evolved from
13:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4951 468 100
longer established LNGC designs.
Therefore, it is not surprising
14:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4979 455 100 that some operational efficiency
problems should be experienced
15:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 5033 391 100
with certain DFDE LDC equipment
16:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4974 384 100 configurations operated at high
tank pressures that are beyond
17:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4963 382 100 their design range. The simple
solution presented here of
18:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4904 431 100
installing a single, carefully-tuned
19:00 2.8 5.5 2.6 4533 485 100 pressure-reduction valve upstream
of the LDC suction piping is an
Total BOG in Note: inlet feed pressure to LDC example of how operational
7-hour period = approximately 1.10 barA
19.6 38.5 18.1 efficiency may be improved and
76.2t, consisting (design: 1.03 barA)
of (t): cargo losses reduced on FSRU with
regasification rate = 530 mmscf/day
high-pressure MARVS.

66 November 2017
 Keeping amine in

THE TREATING SYSTEM

Ralph H. Weiland, Optimized Gas Treating, Inc., USA, looks
at how to prevent amine losses in gas treatment systems.

he majority of gas treatment solvents contain at least one

T amine. So-called specialty solvents usually have two, and

sometimes even three, amines. Of particular interest to the
LNG industry are the piperazine-promoted N-methyldiethanolamine
(MDEA) solvents used for deep CO2 removal from gas before the
gas is dried and liquefied. All amines used as solvents in gas

67
 treating are volatile. This is especially the case with gas treating column, and ancillary equipment, such as
piperazine, which has a higher volatility than any pumps, heat exchangers, and a flash tank. Received
of the other commonly-used gas treating amine wisdom is to use a stripped solvent that is 5 – 15ºC
components. Piperazine is also costlier than MDEA, hotter than the sour gas entering the absorber. This
the amine with which it is almost always formulated. goes some way towards preventing condensation of
Being fairly volatile, its volatility is of particular high boiling hydrocarbons into the solvent, which
concern. may result in foaming with all of its accompanying
Solvent can be lost from the treating system in problems. Another less discussed reason for using
several different ways, including the following: a solvent hotter than the gas is to ensure there is a
z Volatilisation. small water loss from the system rather than a water
gain. Water, of course, must be kept in balance in the
z Entrainment as a spray, droplets, mist or foam
solvent circuit and it is often a lot easier to add water
from towers into various product gas streams.
back to the system than it is to remove it (without at
z Physical leaks from glands and seals. the same time perhaps removing expensive amine).
z Spillage and piping misalignments. So, there are at least a couple of good reasons for
keeping the lean solvent hotter than the raw gas
The amine constituents themselves can also entering the absorber.
thermally decompose, and can convert to non-viable Potential amine losses just from vapourisation
species by reacting irreversibly with acid contaminants. alone into the gas being treated may not be trivial.
Solvent losses by the first two paths can be For example, without taking solvent recovery
largely prevented by water washing the exiting gas measures, in a plant producing 200 million ft3/d of
streams (losses through leaks and spills, of course, are treated gas at 46ºC using a solvent with
another matter and are usually maintenance and 46 wt% MDEA and 4.3 wt% piperazine the annual
housekeeping issues). The two amines in amine vapourisation loss is many tonnes of MDEA and
piperazine-MDEA mixtures are at quite different several tens of tonnes of piperazine. The cost to
concentrations, and they have rather different replace this evapourated amine is approximately
volatilities, so they should experience quite different US$450 000, of which by far the majority is for
rates of vapourisation. Because of this, failure to piperazine. Not only is piperazine a costlier chemical
recover and retain the components in than MDEA, but it is also more volatile and, despite it
piperazine-activated solvents will almost certainly being at a lower concentration, its losses are also
result in a blend composition that drifts substantially quite a bit higher than MDEA. In piperazine-activated
over time. It is noted that thermal decomposition may MDEA systems, water washing of product gases is
occur at different rates for different amines, and this almost always done. In fact, it should be considered
too can contribute to a drifting blend composition. In mandatory when piperazine is a solvent component. A
this article, the efficacy of water washes and how they further concern with specialty solvents is that a
are carried out is examined using a specific example. drifting blend composition will lead to poorer treating
performance over time. Piperazine is highly reactive
Where to wash and with towards CO2 and is responsible to taking a raw gas to
what? the less than 50 ppmv CO2 benchmark. Being
Amine treating takes place in a closed circuit using an nonreactive towards CO2, MDEA is responsible only for
absorber, a solvent regenerator, possibly a small flash bulk CO2 removal. If piperazine continues to disappear

Figure 1. Typical amine treating flowsheet.

68 November 2017
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 from the solvent, performance will drift into the unit as a whole. Therefore, 50% of the condensate
region where treating specifications cannot be met. from the overhead condenser was withdrawn and
Costs are incurred by losses having to be made up. circulated back to the top wash tray in the absorber.
However, the significant economic consequences of The condensate is 0.3 wt% MDEA and 0.013 wt%
lost solvent and off-specification gas can be easily piperazine. Two wash trays with this condensate as
avoided by water washing all product gases. wash liquid is simulated to produce a treated gas with
Figure 1 shows a typical amine treating flow 130 ppbv MDEA and 8 ppbv piperazine. Vapour
sheet. Water washing the acid gas produced in the pressure losses now amount to under US$100/year. If
regenerator is rather straightforward. It is quite the wash trays were to require higher circulation rates
common for there to be a few reflux trays at the top for satisfactory hydraulic performance, amine losses
of this column, fed by the reflux produced in the would go up because the recirculating wash fluid
overhead condenser. This makes getting amines down would then be higher in amine concentration.
to parts per billion in the acid gas quite Nevertheless, losses would still be significantly
straightforward, although using reflux trays is not reduced. Note, however, that adding makeup water to
always necessary. The need for reflux trays depends a high flowrate recirculation will be less effective
on specifics of the operating conditions, particularly than washing with water alone because the added
the stripper overhead temperature, and sometimes the water will tend to be lost in a sea of recirculation.
condenser alone is sufficient to produce less than In this particular example, the acid gas from the
1 ppb amine in the acid gas. The ProTreat® simulator regenerator was already at the parts per trillion level
provides solid guidance as to how many reflux trays for both amines even without reflux trays in the
(if any) are needed to achieve a given level of regenerator. In this case, there is nothing to be gained
recovery. from adding a refluxing section. However, such is not
Recovering amines from the treated gas can be always the case, and sometimes amine losses with the
done with two or three wash trays at the top of the acid gas can be substantial. In the present case, the
absorber and using either fresh makeup water or, if gas going overhead from the regenerator was only
inadequate makeup water is available, by 76ºC, quite cold by gas treating standards.
withdrawing part of the condensed water from the Temperatures of 110 – 120ºC are more usual, in which
regenerator reflux drum and feeding it to the situation the amine concentrations might be high
uppermost tray. enough to make the inclusion of reflux trays in the
Absorber wash trays are commonly bubble cap regenerator worthwhile.
type because a well-designed bubble cap tray can Whether to water (or condensate) wash varies a
operate without weeping even at the extremely low great deal from case to case, and only a reliable
liquid loads (flowrate per unit of tray active area) simulation can help make the right decision. However,
typical of water washes. However, at these very low failing to wash product gases can result in costly
liquid loads (extremely low liquid-to-vapour flowrate amine losses from the unit. Such losses are easy to
ratios), the quality of gas-liquid contacting may be prevent.
poor. Contacting can be improved by recirculating Entrainment and foaming losses have not been
wash liquid at much higher flowrates, adding fresh discussed because simulation tools do not usually
wash water, and allowing enough of the wash liquid address these hard-to-quantify issues. Packed columns
to enter the absorption section from the bottom wash do not usually exhibit large entrainment rates into the
tray to maintain level control on a small wash-liquid overhead vapour space, but near the top of their
holdup drum in the wash circuit. Lean amine is fed to operating range, trays usually do. A common (albeit
the absorber immediately below the wash section. arbitrary) definition of tray flood, for example, is
This scheme is shown in Figure 1. 10 wt% entrainment of liquid into the gas. Towers are
It may or may not be worthwhile to wash flash gas almost always fitted with mesh pads or some other
from the reabsorber. This column is usually packed form of de-entraining device; nevertheless, some
and is quite short. It recovers acid gases from flashed solvent will still escape with the treated gas. If the
hydrocarbon before the flashed gas is discharged, uppermost part of the column uses wash trays, any
possibly to be used as fuel gas. If simulation shows entrained liquid will be predominantly water with
sufficient economic benefit from recovering amine only a trace of amine, whereas, without water
from this unit, a short packed section fed with makeup washing, the entrained solvent is full-strength solvent.
water will work well. Wash trays help to cut down solvent losses that result
from entrainment.
Case study If the solvent has a foaming tendency, water
By way of example, in the absence of absorber wash washing reduces the amine content of the solution in
trays, the treated gas in the case described above the water wash section which tends both to decrease
contains 2.2 ppmv MDEA and 9.1 ppmv piperazine. solution viscosity and increase solution surface
A simple wash using two bubble cap trays with tension. These collectively help to reduce the foaming
25 gal./min. of water reduces these values to less tendency. A water wash will also tend to reduce and
than 1 ppbv and 20 ppbv for MDEA and piperazine, collapse the foam as it is carried up into the top of
respectively. However, in this particular case, this the tower. Again, water washing can help retain
much water flow exceeds the makeup needs for the solvent in the system.

70 November 2017
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 EMERGING

15FACTS ...ON LNG

MARKETS
FSRU’s are the
most popular 15 LNG markets have opened
infrastructure POLAND received recently and 10 more could
for new LNG
open up in the next decade
its first non-Russian
markets LNG shipment from
the US in June 2017 As of end of March
2017, Mexico
accounted for 18 OF
Mexico has
THE 90 CARGOES
three existing Pakistan is set to double its
that left CHENIERE’S
regasification 600 million ft3/d import SABINE PASS LNG
plants and five rate when its second terminal EXPORT TERMINAL
more in the becomes operational next year
planning stages More than 90% of
Singapore’s electricity
In September 2017 is generated using
GHANA signed a LNG imported natural gas
Egypt’s natural gas deal with Gazprom,
production rose to about
5.1 billion ft3/d in 2017 from
adding 1000 MW to POLAND
4.4 billion ft3/d in 2016
its power supply and CONSUMES
saving over
16 BILLION M3
US$1 BILLION
OF GAS A YEAR
OF THE 230 TPY OF GROWTH
INDONESIA IS EXPECTED IN GLOBAL LNG
When the AL-ZOUR
DEMAND BETWEEN 2015
LNG import terminal EXPECTED TO
AND 2030, AS MUCH AS
BECOME A NET
project in Kuwait 60% MIGHT COME FROM
IMPORTER BY 2020 THESE RECENT AND LIKELY
is completed in
EMERGING LNG MARKETS
2020 it will have a
liquefication capacity PUERTO RICO lacks
any indigenous gas Within 5 – 6 years Argentina
of 30 BILLION M3/D hopes to free itself from
reserves and relies on
LNG import dependency by
imported fossil fuels to
boosting domestic production
meet its energy needs
72 November 2017
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