Chapter 8: Quantitative Sampling

I. Introduction to Sampling
a. The primary goal of sampling is to get a representative sample, or a small collection of units
or cases from a much larger collection or population, such that the researcher can study the
smaller group and produce accurate generalizations about the larger group. Researchers
focus on the specific techniques that will yield highly representative samples (i.e., samples
that are very much like the population). Quantitative researchers tend to use a type of
sampling based on theories of probability from mathematics, called probability sampling.
II. Approaches to Sampling: Nonprobability and Probability Sampling Techniques
a. Nonprobability Sampling
i. A sampling technique in which each unit in a population does not have a
specifiable probability of being selected. In other words, nonprobability sampling
does not select their units from the population in a mathematically random way. As
a result, nonrandom samples typically produce samples that are not representative
of the population. This also means that are ability to generalize from them is very
limited.
1. Types of Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
a. Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sample
i. A sampling procedure in which a researcher selects any
cases in any manner that is convenient to be included
in the sample. Haphazard sampling can produce
ineffective, highly unrepresentative samples and is not
recommended. When a researcher haphazardly selects
cases that are convenient, he or she can easily get a
sample that seriously misrepresents the population.
Such samples are cheap and quick; however, the
systematic errors that easily occur make them worse
than no sample at all.
b. Quota Sampling
i. Is an improvement over haphazard sampling. In quota
sampling, a researcher first identifies relevant categories
of people (e.g., male, female; under age of 30, over the
age of 30), then decides how many to get in each
category. Thus, the number of people in various
categories of the sample is fixed.
c. Purposive or Judgmental Sample
i. Purposive sampling is an acceptable kind of sampling
for special situations. It uses the judgment of an expert
in selecting cases or it selects cases with a specific
purpose in mind. Purposive sampling is used most
often when a difficult-to-reach population needs to be
measured.
d. Snowball Sampling
i. Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral,
or reputational sampling) is a method for identifying
and sampling the cases in a network. It begins with one
or a few people or cases and spreads out on the basis
of links to the initial cases.
b. Probability Sampling
i. A sampling technique in which each unit in a population has a specifiable chance of
being selected. The motivation behind using probability sampling is to generate a
sample that is representative of the population in which it was drawn. Random
sampling does not guarantee that every random sample perfectly represents the

22
 population. Instead, it means that most random samples will be close to the
population most of the time, and that one can calculate the probability of a
particular sample being accurate.
ii. The Jargon of Random Sampling
1. Sampling Element
a. A sampling element is the unit of analysis or case in a population
that is being measured.
2. Population
a. The large pool of sampling elements in a study is the population
or universe. Unfortunately, it’s not that simple. The novice
researcher must understand that a population is an abstract
concept. How can a population be an abstract concept, when
there are a given number of people at a certain time? Except for
specific small populations, one can never truly freeze a
population to measure it. Because a population is an abstract
concept, except for small-specialized populations (e.g., all the
students in Dominic Little’s sociology 497 class in Spring 2000),
a researcher needs to estimate the population. As an abstract
concept, the population needs an operational definition. This
process is similar to developing operational definitions for
constructs that are measured. A researcher operationalizes a
population by developing a specific list that closely approximates
all the elements in the population. This is a sampling frame (to
be discussed later).
i. Operationalizing the Population
1. Define the unit being sampled (i.e., Dominic
Little’s sociology 497 students)
2. Define the geographical location (i.e., located
at CSUN in room SH106)
3. Define the temporal boundaries (i.e., Spring
2000)
3. Target Population
a. Refers to the specific pool of cases that he or she wants to study
and has a working sampling frame.
4. Sampling Ratio
a. The sampling ratio is determined by dividing the sample size by
the total population. For example, if a population has 50,000
people, and a researcher draws 5,000 people for the sample, the
sample ratio would be .10 (5,000/50,000).
5. Sampling Frame
a. A researcher operationalizes a population by developing a
specific list that closely approximates all the elements in the
population. This is a sampling frame. He or she can choose from
many types of sampling frames: Telephone directories, driver’s
license records, and so on. Listing the elements in a population
sounds simple. But it is often difficult because there may be no
good list of elements in a population. A good sampling frame is
crucial to good sampling. A mismatch between the sampling
frame and the conceptually defined population can be a major
source of error. Just as a mismatch between the theoretical and
operational definitions of a variable creates invalid measurement,
so a mismatch between the sampling frame and the population
causes invalid sampling. With a few exceptions sampling frames
are almost always inaccurate.
6. Parameter
a. Any true characteristic of a population. Parameters are
determined when all the elements in a population are measured.

23
 The population parameter is never known with absolute
accuracy for large populations, so researchers must estimate it on
the basis of samples. In other words, they use information from
the sample to infer things about the population.
7. Statistic
a. Within the context of sampling theory and this discussion, a
statistic is any characteristic of a sample that may be used to
infer about a parameter of a population.
iii. Why Random?
1. Random samples are most likely to yield a sample that truly represents the
population when compared to nonrandom samples. In other words, it
enables researchers to make accurate assumptions or generalizations from
the sample to the population under investigation.
2. Random sampling lets a researcher statistically calculate the relationship
between the sample and the population- that is, the size of the sampling
error.
a. Sampling Error Defined
i. A nonstatistical definition of the sampling error is the
deviation between sample results and a population
parameter due to random processes.
3. Fewer Resources are Necessary: Time and Cost
a. If properly conducted, a random sample can produce results that
can be used to accurately predict parameters within the
population at a fraction of the cost of measuring the entire
population. For example, how much time and money would it
cost to survey the entire U.S. population? Compare that figure to
what it would cost in time and money to survey a sample of
2000 U.S. residents.
4. Accuracy
a. The results of a well-designed, carefully executed probability
sample will produce results that are equally if not more accurate
than trying to reach every single person in the whole population.
iv. Types of Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random
a. In simple random sampling, a researcher develops an accurate
sampling frame, selects elements from the sampling frame
according to a mathematically random procedure, and then
locates the exact element that was selected for inclusion in the
sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
a. Elements are randomly selected using a sampling interval. The
sampling interval (i.e., Kth is some number) tells the researcher
how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping
elements in the frame before selecting one for the sample. For
example, a researcher would have a list of 1,000 elements in her
or his population. Let’s assume the sample size is 100. In this
case, the researcher would select every 10th case. There are two
tricks to this that must be followed: first, the sample frame must
have the elements ordered in a random way and second; the
starting point (the point at which the first element is selected for
inclusion into the sample) must be determined randomly.
3. Stratified Sampling
a. In stratified random sampling, a researcher first divides the
population into subpopulations (strata: defined as a characteristic
of the population. For example, female and male.) on the basis
of supplementary information. After dividing the population
into strata, the researcher draws a random sample from each

24
 subpopulation. In general, stratified sampling produces samples
that are more representative of the population than simple
random sampling if the stratum information is accurate.
4. Cluster Sampling
a. Cluster sampling addresses two problems: Researchers lack a
good sampling frame for a geographically dispersed population
and the cost to reach a sampled element is very high. Instead of
using a single sampling frame, researchers use a sampling design
that involves multiple stages and clusters. A cluster is a unit that
contains final sampling elements but can be treated temporarily
as a sampling element itself. In other words, the researcher
randomly samples clusters, and then randomly samples elements
from within the selected clusters; this has a big practical
advantage. He or she can create a good sampling frame of
clusters, even if it is impossible to create one for sampling
elements. Once the researcher gets a sample of clusters, creating
a sampling frame for elements within each cluster becomes more
manageable. A second advantage for geographically dispersed
populations is that elements within each cluster are physically
closer to one another. This may produce a savings in locating or
reaching each element.
III. Random Digit Dialing
a. Random-digit-dialing (RDD) is a special sampling technique used in research projects in
which the general public is interviewed by telephone. Here is how RDD works in the United
States. Telephone numbers have three parts: a three-digit area code, a three-digit exchange
number or central office code, and a four-digit number. In RDD, a researcher identifies
active area codes and exchanges, and then randomly selects four digit numbers. After finding
and calling a working residential number, a second stage of sampling is necessary, within
household sampling, to select the person to be interviewed. Remember that the sampling
element in RDD is the phone number, not the person or the household.
IV. How Large Should a Sample Be?
a. The best answer to this question is, “It depends!” What does it depends on?
i. The kind of data analysis the researcher plans (descriptive, multiple regression).
ii. On how accurate the sample has to be for the researcher’s purposes (acceptable
sampling error).
iii. On population characteristics (homogenous or heterogeneous, large or small). On
principle for sample sizes is, the smaller the population, the bigger the sampling
ratio has to be for an accurate sample. Larger populations permit smaller sampling
ratios for equally good samples. This is because as the population size grows, the
returns in accuracy for sample size shrink. For small populations (under 1,000), a
researcher needs a large sampling ratio (about 30%). For moderately large
populations (10,000), a smaller sampling ratio (about 10%) is needed to be equally
accurate. For large populations (over 150,000), smaller sampling ratios (about 1%)
are possible to be very accurate. To sample from very large populations (over
10,000,000), one can achieve accuracy using tiny sampling ratios (0.025%).
V. Drawing Inferences
a. The purpose of sampling is to enable a researcher to draw inferences from the sample to the
population. The thing to remember is: probability samples are more likely when compared to
nonprobability samples to yield representative samples of the population. In other words, a
researcher, who wants to draw inferences about the population from his or her sample,
should always try to produce a sample that is similar to the population. If the sample is not
similar or representative of the population in which it was drawn, the ability to make
accurate inferences is highly impaired.
VI. So, Should I Always Use A Probability Sampling Technique?
a. NO! The answer is a little more complicated than that. Besides, if it were that easy to
determine the sampling technique for a study why would there be so many to choose from?
The short answer to this question is: It depends. It depends on numerous factors. This

25
question will be better answered in class but here’s a rule of thumb: Choose a technique that
is well suited for your study, budget and time. But always remember, no matter how much
hard work goes into research design, data collection, pilot testing or preparation, a poorly
drawn sample may be useless when attempting to generalize to larger populations.

26