2nd

SAMPLING

Supervised by /
Prof. Dr. Hanan Fahmy
Assistant. Prof. Dr: Safaa Mohammed
Prepared by /
Eman Salah Moustafa Abou El Ela
Badr Bahgat Mohamed Soliman
Soad Abd El Menam El Mahy
Eman Salah Ahmed Gad
Khulud Mohamed Hashem Mansour
Rania Mahmoud Mohamed Abdo
Sameera Omar Alaajmi

FACULTY OF NURSING - CAIRO UNIVERSITY

2nd semester .doctorate program
Learning Objectives:

By the end of the session the candidates will be able to:

• Identify key terms in research sampling.

• Discuss sampling in qualitative and quantitative research.

• Explain sampling process.

• Discuss the sampling plan methods/ technique.

• Discuss the sample size in qualitative research.

• Illustrate sample bias.

• Correlate between sampling in the three main qualitative research traditions.

• Apply critical appraisal guidelines on qualitative research sampling.

Outlines

• Key terms in research sampling.

• Sampling in qualitative and quantitative research.

• Sampling process.

• The sampling plan methods/ technique.

• The sample size in qualitative research.

• Sample bias.

• Between sampling in the three main qualitative research traditions.

• Critical appraisal guidelines on qualitative research sampling.

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 Introduction:

• Sampling is one of the most important aspects of research design. In a research context,
sampling refers to *the process of selecting a subset of items from a defined population
for inclusion into a study*. Qualitative researchers typically make sampling choices that
enable them to deepen understanding of whatever phenomenon it is that they are
studying.

• We say items because the subset of things to include in your study may not always be
people. Individuals are certainly the most common sampling unit in social and
behavioral research, but sampling units can also be groups, events, places, and points
in or periods of time. Whatever your sampling unit, you'll need to consider
carefully how items are to be chosen.

• Sampling is an important component of any piece of research because of the significant

impact that it can have on the quality of results/findings. There are several key
terms and basic principles that act as a foundation to the subject.

• Some of the key sampling terms will come across

include population, units, sample, sample size, sampling frame, sampling
techniques and sampling bias.

Key terms

Population:

• The entire set of cases from which researcher sample is drawn.

• The entire group (individual or elements) of interest.

• Populations aren't restricted to human subjects. e.g. (hospital records).

The target population:

• Is the aggregate of cases that conform to the designated criteria (determined by sampling
criteria).

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Sampling:

• Is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire

population

Sample:

• Is a subset of population elements (Part of the population that is chosen for

investigation).

Sample Size:

• The sample size is simply the number of units in sample.

The accessible population

• Is the portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonably
access.

Elements / unit:

• Is the basic unit about which information is collected usually humans in nursing
research and can be person, events, behavior, records.

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Saturation:

• Repetition of discovered information and confirmation of previously collected

data.

Eligibility Criteria:

• The criteria that specify population characteristics.

Sampling Criteria may consist of inclusion and exclusion criteria.

• Inclusion Sampling criteria: are the characteristics that the subjects or element must be
possess to be a part of the target population.

• Exclusion Sampling Criteria: are the characteristics that can cause person or elements
being excluded.

Sample Frame:

• The collection of the elements from which the researcher will be drawing samples is
known as Sample Frame.

• Sample Frame can be the same as Population or a part of the Population in some cases.

• Sample Frame must be significantly larger than the Sample Size to obtain higher level
of accuracy in our results.

Sampling Fraction:

• The ratio of the sample size (n) of a survey to the size of the population (N)
is known as Sampling Fraction.

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5
 Qualitative versus quantitative research study in sampling

Items Qualitative Quantitative

sampling techniques use nonprobability sampling use sampling techniques based on
probability theory:
techniques: that influenced by number of
considerations:  The researcher has access to
all members of a population
 the ease in accessing the potential
respondents; your judgement that  Every member of the
population has an equal of
the person has extensive
being selected for the study
knowledge about an event or a sample
situation of interest to you
 researcher makes every effort to
select either a case that is like the
rest of the group or the one which
is totally different
sample size The researcher does not have a guided by a predetermined sample
predetermined sample size but during size that is based upon a number of
the data collection phase the researcher other considerations in addition to the
wait to reach a point of data saturation. resources available. Based on the type
When there is no getting new information of study and the possible use of the
or it is negligible, it is assumed that the finding‟s its emphasis on large
researcher has reached a data saturation sample size that ensure the inclusion
point and stopped collecting additional of people with diverse backgrounds,
information and making the sample
representative of the study
population
Randomization no such attempt is made in selecting a In some types of quantitative study,
sample. The researcher purposely selects the researcher may use randomization
„information-rich’ respondents who to avoid bias in the selection of a
will provide you with the information you sample and is selected in such a way
need. that it represents the study

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 population.

Generalization sampling in qualitative research is not to sample size was large enough and
establish a random or representative representativeness a whole, there is
sample drawn from a population but confidence in generalizing the study
rather to identify specific groups of findings.
people who either possess
characteristics or live in circumstances
relevant to the social phenomenon
being studied. Informants are identified
because they will enable exploration of a
particular aspect of behavior relevant to
the research.
This allows the researcher to include a
wide range of types of informants and
also to select key informants with access
to important sources of knowledge

Sampling design process:

1. Identify the Target population

2. Select a sampling frame
3. Specify the sampling technique
4. Determine the sample size
5. Execute the sampling plan

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 Sampling design process:

1. Identify the Target population

 Target population refers to the group of individuals to which researchers are interested in
generalizing their findings. The target population is the group of individuals from which
the sample might be taken.
 A well - defined population reduces the probability of including the participants who all
are not suitable for the research objective

2. Select a sampling frame

 Sampling frame is the group of individuals from which researcher will draw the sample.
It is the list of all units in a study population from which the sample is taken

3. Specify the sampling technique

 Sampling can be done through probability (random selection) as in quantitative research
to produce results that are representative of the whole population
 or non-probability (non-random) technique as in qualitative research to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population. This type of sample is easier
and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias

4. Determine the sample size

 The sample size is simply the number of units in the sample. Sample size
determination depends on many factors such as time, cost, facility.

5. Execute the sampling plan

 Once population, sampling frame, sampling technique and sample size are identified,
researcher can use all that information to choose his/her sample.

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 Purpose of sampling:

• The primary purpose of sampling is the selection of suitable populations (or „elements‟)
so that the focus of the study can be appropriately researched.

• In qualitative research, effective sample selection process is very important because

inappropriate procedures may seriously affect the findings and outcomes of a study.

• To gain in-depth knowledge about a situation /event/phenomena

Sampling methods:

• Sampling in qualitative research is non-probability sampling. It is unlike probability

sampling used in quantitative research where researchers recruit the population with
characteristics that represent a wider community.

• With non-probability sampling in qualitative research the researchers recruit only specific
populations to investigate a specific topic / phenomenon or when the total population is
unknown or unavailable.

Types of non-probability sampling

a. Purposive sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Snowball sampling
e. Theoretical sampling

A-Purposive (purposeful) sampling

• It is one of non-probability sampling techniques in which (units) participants are selected

because they have specific characteristics the researcher need it in the study. In other
words, units are selected “on purpose” in purposive sampling.

• This is also a commonly used sampling strategy, in that participants are recruited
according to pre-selected criteria relevant to a particular research question.

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 • Sometimes referred to as „judgment sampling‟ purposive sampling is designed to provide
information-rich cases for in-depth study.

Purposive sampling methods (types)

Depending on the research objectives, there are several purposive sampling methods.

1. Maximum variation (or heterogeneous) sampling

2. Homogeneous sampling

3. Typical case sampling

4. Extreme (or deviant) case sampling

5. Critical case sampling

6. Expert sampling

7. Criterion Sampling

1-Maximum variation sampling

• Maximum variation sampling, also known as heterogeneous sampling, is used to capture

a wide range of perspectives relating to the thing that the researcher is interested in
studying.

• Maximum variation sampling is a search for variation in perspectives, ranging from those
conditions that are viewed to be typical through to those that are more extreme in nature.

• The basic principle behind maximum variation sampling is to gain greater insights into a
phenomenon by looking at it from all angles. This can often help the researcher to
identify common themes that are evident across the sample.

Example: Maximum variation sampling:

• Researching the challenges of mental health services programs in any country.

• Using maximum variation sampling, select programs in urban and rural areas in different
parts of the country, to capture maximum variation in location.

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 • In this way, can document unique or diverse variations that have emerged in different
locations.

2-Homogeneous sampling

• Homogeneous sampling, unlike maximum variation sampling, aims to reduce variation,

simplifying the analysis and describing a particular subgroup in depth and in details.

• Participants in a homogeneous sample share similar traits or specific characteristics (e.g.,

life experiences, jobs, or cultures). The idea is to focus on this precise similarity,
analyzing how it relates to the research topic.

• Homogeneous sampling is often used for selecting focus group participants. Sampling in
focus groups involves bringing individuals from similar backgrounds to participate in a
group interview.

Example: Homogeneous sampling

• Continuing research on mental health services programs in country, now interested in

illuminating the experiences of different ethnicities through group interviewing.

• Using homogeneous sampling, select Latinx directors of mental health services agencies,
interviewing them about the challenges of implementing evidence-based treatments for
mental health problems.

3-Typical case sampling

• Typical case sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight what is considered a
normal or average instance of a phenomenon to those who are unfamiliar with it.

• Participants are generally chosen based on their likelihood of behaving like everyone else
sharing the same characteristics or experiences.

• The goal of typical case sampling is to illustrate a phenomenon, not to make generalized
statements about the experiences of all participants.

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• For this reason, typical case sampling allows the researcher to compare samples, not
generalize samples to populations.

Example: typical-case sampling:

• when the researcher chooses the sample from a middle-class area rather than from a poor
or rich area. If the researcher wishes to do research on the spending habits of a city.

4-Extreme (or deviant) case sampling

• The idea behind extreme case sampling is to illuminate unusual cases or outliers. This can
involve notable successes or failures, “top of the class vs. bottom of the class”, or any
unusual manifestation of a phenomenon of interest.

• This form of sampling, also called deviant case sampling, is often used when researchers
are developing best practice guidelines or are looking into “what not to do.”

Example: Extreme (or deviant) case sampling:

• Researching heart surgery patients who recovered significantly faster or slower than
average. Since these are unusual cases, looking for variation in these cases to explain why
their recoveries were atypical.

5-Critical case sampling:

• Critical case sampling is used when a single or very small number of cases can be used to
explain other similar cases.

• Researchers determine whether a case is critical by using this maxim: “if it happens here,
it will happen anywhere.”

• In other words, a case is critical if what is true for one case is likely to be true for all other
cases.

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Example: Critical case sampling:

• Researching how to involve local communities in local government decision-making

processes but are not sure whether the communities will understand the regulations.

• If first ask local government officials and they do not understand them, then probably no
one will. Alternatively, if ask random passersby, and they do understand them, then it‟s
safe to assume most people will.

6-Expert sampling:

• Expert sampling is used when research requires individuals with a high level of
knowledge about a particular subject.

• The experts are thus selected based on a demonstrable skill set, or level of experience
possessed.

• This type of sampling is useful when there is a lack of observational evidence, when the
researcher is investigating new areas of research, or when conducting exploratory
research.

Example: Expert sampling:

• The researcher is investigating the barriers to reduced meat consumption among

consumers in the US. In addition to focus groups with consumers, the researcher decide
to contact some of experts and interview them. In the context of this research, food
scientists are the experts who can provide valuable insights into the root of the problem,
as well as any successes, failures, or future trends to watch.

7-Criterion Sampling:

• Criterion sampling reviews all cases that meet some pre-determined, significant criterion
and is generally used in quality assurance efforts.

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• Criterion sampling is used in studies that are information-rich and may reveal major
issues/weaknesses and provide areas for improvement.

• This kind of sampling helps researcher study a very specific or narrow criteria and
understand the implications of it. This enables the researcher to study the criteria in depth
and with emphasis.

Example: Criterion sampling:

• All clients of an intensive care unit who return to intensive care with the same complaint
within three weeks may constitute a sample for in-depth, qualitative study.

• These criteria would facilitate a study of the effectiveness of after-care programs attached
to intensive care units.

• Advantages of (purposive)judgmental sampling:

• Purposive sampling provides a wide range of techniques for the researcher to

draw on and can be used to investigate whether a phenomenon is worth
investigating further.

• Selecting information-rich cases from which researcher can obtain in-depth

information.

• Disadvantages of (purposive)judgmental sampling:

• The subjectivity and non-probability-based nature of unit selection (i.e., selecting

people, cases/organizations, etc.) in purposive sampling means that it can be
difficult to defend the representativeness of the sample.

• Purposive samples can be highly prone to researcher bias. The idea that a
purposive sample has been created based on the judgement of the researcher.

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B- Convenience sampling:

• This is the form of qualitative sampling and occurs when people are invited to participate
in the study because they are conveniently available regarding access, location, time and
willingness.

• Convenience sampling is a relatively fast and easy way to achieve the sample size needed
for the study.

• When the researcher simply asks any patient in a clinic who is willing to participate in the
study

Advantages of convenience sampling

• Very easy to implement and inexpensive to create samples (Saves money and
effort)

• Useful for pilot studies and for hypothesis generations

• In a very short duration of time (save time)

Disadvantages of convenience sampling

• Chances of high sampling error

• lowest credibility

• This is the least rigorous technique, involving the selection of the most accessible
subjects.

C-Quota sampling:

• The researcher decides the number of participants and which characteristics they need to
possess. The characteristics may be according to age, gender, profession, diagnosis,
ethnicity.

• The inclusion criteria allow the recruitment of participants who would most likely
experience or have experience related to the research topic.

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 • It is different from purposive sampling because quota sampling is more specific with
respect to sizes and proportions of the sub-samples for each prescribed quota.

• Advantages of quota sampling

• Sample can be controlled for certain characteristics.

• Disadvantages of quota sampling

• Selection bias

D-Snowball sampling

• Snowball sampling: („chain referral‟ or „networking‟ sampling)

• Snowball sampling occurs when the researcher starts gathering information from one or a
few people and then relies on these people to put the researcher in touch with others who
may be friends, relatives, colleagues, or other significant contacts.

• This type of sampling is especially useful where the sample is representative of

stigmatised individuals and to find and recruit hidden populations, where individuals are
not easily accessible to researchers through other sampling strategies. Such as drug-users,
prostitutes, AIDS/HIV sufferers, etc.

• Sometimes, research ethics committees may not grant permission for snowball sampling
because of either privacy concerns, issues of consent or the potential for coercion.

• Advantages of snowball sampling

• Can collect samples very quickly and cost-effective.

• One informant refers the researcher to another so, the researcher has a good
introduction for the next interview.

• Disadvantages of snowball sampling

• The variation of the sample may be limited.

• Increase bias.

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Sampling contrasting cases:

• Comparative studies sampling will involve two or more population groups with distinct
characteristics.

• This sampling method is useful in comparative studies that aim to explain problems by
establishing which factors are associated with them or cause them.

• For example, in a study aimed at understanding why mothers do not use oral rehydration
therapy to prevent childhood death in diarrhea cases, both women who use ORT and
those who do not can be sampled and compared.

E- Theoretical sampling:

The origin of theoretical sampling goes back to the discovery of grounded theory
method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Theoretical sampling technique is developed as
a rigorous method employing which qualitative data can be captured to develop a
new theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Definition of theoretical sampling:

 It is defined as the sampling process by which data can be collected to develop a theory
whereby the researcher „collects, codes, and analyses his data and decides which data to
collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges‟ (Glaser,
1978).
 The process of data collection through theoretical sampling method is controlled by the
emerging theory and not by any other variables. The selection of respondents in
theoretical sampling, depends on the theory and groups are chosen as and when they are
needed rather than before the research begins. That is the sample in this technique is not
selected from a population based on some variables prior to the study.

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  Sampling takes place at two stages in grounded theory‟s data collection:
 The initial stage of theoretical sampling resembles the purposeful sampling as
researcher visit the groups which they believe will maximize the possibilities of obtaining
data and leads to more data on their question.
 Second stage of the theoretical sampling method facilitates researcher to collects,
codes, and analyses data simultaneously to decide what data to collect next.
 The data collection procedure of theoretical sampling can be explained through the
inductive deductive process which is a characteristic of grounded theory method. The
inductive process involves the theory emerging from the data and the deductive process
involves the purposeful selection of samples to test, verify, and develop the theory. Thus,
the purposeful selection is an inclusive part of the deductive process of the grounded
theory.
 Theoretical sampling allows for flexibility during the research process. The researcher
can make shifts of plan and emphasis early in the research process so that the data
gathered reflects what is occurring in the field rather than speculation about what cannot
or should have been observed. Further sampling is done to develop the categories and
their relationships and interrelationships. The emerging categories could lead the
researcher to samples in different locations. The aim is to achieve depth in the developing
categories. The emerging categories may indicate that the researcher proceeds to another
location to sample there that would increase breadth in the category.

Advantages of theoretical sampling:

1. The possibility to strengthen the rigor of the study if the study attempts to generate a
theory in the research area.

2. This type of sampling usually integrates both, inductive and deductive characteristics,
thus increasing comprehensiveness of studies.

Disadvantages of theoretical sampling:

1. Because it is a highly systematic process, application of theoretical sampling method may

require more resources such as time and money compared to many other sampling
methods.

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 2. Theoretical sampling is the most complicated than other sampling methods.

Sample size:

 One general guideline for sample size in qualitative research is not only to study a few
sites or individuals but also to collect extensive detail about each site or individual
studied.
 Sample size should be large enough to sufficiently describe the phenomenon of interest
and address the research question at hand (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
 Qualitative researchers need to ensure that they obtain results from a variety of
respondents and that all or majority of possible perspectives are covered. So that, the goal
of qualitative research should be the attainment of saturation.
 Saturation occurs when adding more participants to the study does not result in obtaining
additional perspectives or information (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
 The number of participants required depends on the nature of the research and how many
are needed to answer the research questions.
 The focus generally is not on sample size but rather on sample adequacy because
generalizability is not the research aimed.
 The adequacy of sampling is usually justified by the reaching of “saturation” and is used
by researchers as an indication of quality (O‟Reilly & Parker, 2012).

Types of saturation

1) Theoretical saturation:
It is mainly used in grounded theory, and here saturation does not mean the point
at which no new ideas emerge, but it means that categories are fully accounted for, the
differences between them are explained and the relationships between them are tested and
validated, which results in a theory emerging (O‟Reilly & Parker, 2012).

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 2) Thematic/data saturation:
Usually means that data should be collected until there are fewer detections in the
data and no more patterns or themes are emerging from the data (O‟Reilly & Parker,
2012).

Data saturation

 Decisions regarding the closure of further search of the sample in qualitative

research reside on Two assumptions
 Data saturation
 Data sufficiency
 The decision to stop further data collection is guided by the purpose, quality, and
synthesis of the data collected by the researcher.

1. Data Saturation:

 It is associated with the situation when a further collection of data provides little
in terms of „further themes, insights, perspectives or information‟ (Suri, 2011).
 In qualitative research open-ended, leading, and probing questions are used which
leads to the generation of rich information and data. Further, the sampling
techniques in qualitative research are purposeful in nature where chances of data
saturation are very high, as the researcher selects information-rich cases (Patton,
2002).

2. Data Sufficiency:

 The data collected in qualitative studies „should be sufficient to permit

comparisons among selected dimensions and constructs‟ of the study. Also, the
results should be cohesive and reflect a synthesis of other related works.
 Lastly, the researcher should also see that the data collected is sufficient to
provide the answer to the research question of the study (Shaheen, Pradhan, &
Ranajee, 2019).

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Sample size estimation

1. The Scope of the Study:

The belief is that the broader the scope of the research is the longer it will take to reach the
saturation of data. Care should be taken to narrow the topic of the study at the initial stage. But it
should not be done at the expense of missing important aspects of the topic under study.
Narrowing the topic once the data collection is started will lead to biased results (Shaheen,
Pradhan, & Ranajee, 2019).

2. The Nature of the Topic:

If the topic is familiar and clear, and the information is easily accessible and available then
fewer respondent will be needed. But, if the topic is not obvious and unfamiliar, more
respondents are required to collect sufficient amount of data. Thus, one should make their topic
clearer and define it properly so that respondents can understand it easily and provide more clear
information (Shaheen, Pradhan, & Ranajee, 2019).

3. The Quality of Data

The quality of data depends on several factors, for instance, whether the respondents have
given sufficient time to the interviewer and understands his objectives. Similarly, the ability of
the respondents to reflect and relate to the topic of the study determines the quality of the data.
The close association and experience of the respondents on the phenomena also determines the
quality of data.

4. The Shadowed Data

Sometimes participants along with their own experience discusses the experience of others
and how their own experience differ or resembles from others, and why. The information
reported about the experiences of others is called shadowed data. Shadowed play a significant
role in the qualitative research as it provides the researcher with „some idea of the range of
experiences and the domain of the phenomena beyond the single participant‟s personal
experience‟ (Morse, 2000).

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Bias in sampling:

Bias in sampling is a systematic error in sampling procedures that leads to a distortion in

the results of the study. Bias can also be introduced as a consequence of improper sampling
procedures that result in the sample not being representative of the study population.

Example:

A study to determine the drug information needs of a rural population and plan a community
drug use intervention failed to give a picture of the health needs of the total population because a
nomadic tribe, which accounted for one-third of the total population, was left out of the study.

sources of sampling bias:

1. Non-response
2. Studying volunteers only.
3. Sampling of registered patients only.
4. Seasonal bias
5. Tarmac bias

1. Non-response

Non-response is encountered mainly in studies where people are being interviewed or asked to
fill in a questionnaire. Pparticipants may refuse to be interviewed or forget to fill in the
questionnaire. The problem lies in the fact that non-respondents in a sample may exhibit
characteristics that differ systematically from the characteristics of respondents.

How to deal with non-response problem:

Data-collection tools:

 Including written introductions for the interviewers to use with potential respondents)
have to be pretested. If necessary, adjustments should be made to ensure better
cooperation.

 If non-response is due to absence of the subjects, follow-up of non-respondents may be

considered.

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  If non-response is due to refusal to cooperate, a few extra questions to non-respondents
may be considered to discover to what extent they differ from respondents.

 The bigger the non-response rate, the greater the need to take remedial action.

 It is important in any study to mention the non-response rate and to discuss honestly
whether and how it might have influenced the results.

2. Studying volunteers only

 This produces selectivity (or bias) in assigning subjects to various groups.

 The fact that volunteers are motivated to participate in the study may mean that they are
also different from the study population in the factors being studied.
 It is better to avoid using nonrandom procedures that introduce the element of choice

3. Sampling of registered patients only

Patients reporting to a clinic are likely to differ systematically from people using self-medication.

4. Seasonal bias

 It may be that the problem under study exhibits different characteristics in

different seasons of the year.
 For this reason, data on the prevalence and distribution of malnutrition in a
community.
 Example: should be collected during all seasons rather than just at one time.

5. Tarmac bias:

 Study areas are often selected because they are easily accessible. However, these areas
are likely to be systematically different from more inaccessible areas.

 If the recommendations from a study will be implemented in the entire study population,
you should aim to draw a sample from this population in a representative way.

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  If part way through the research new evidence suggests that the sample was not
representative, this should be mentioned in any publication concerning the study, and care
must be taken not to draw conclusions or make recommendations that are not justified

Sampling in different qualitative research approaches:

1) Sampling in Phenomenology:

 Purposive sampling is used most commonly in phenomenological inquiry. This method

of sampling selects individuals for study participation based on their particular
knowledge of a phenomenon for the purpose of sharing that knowledge.
 Data generation or collection continues until the researcher believes saturation has been
achieved.
 Sample selection provides the participants for the investigation. Researchers should
contact participants, once they have agreed to participate, before the interview to prepare
them for the actual meeting and to answer any preliminary questions. At the time of the
first interview, the researcher may obtain informed consent and permission to tape-
record, if using this data-gathering instrument. Researchers should help participants
describe lived experience without leading the discussion.

2) Sampling in Grounded theory:

 Theoretical sampling: Glaser‟s (1992) approach to data gathering is to take a broad

perspective, and enter the area of interest with an open mind. Once the problems begin to
emerge, the researcher will determine where to go next for data.
 As an example, if a researcher chose to study pregnancy, she would begin her study by
talking with women who have been or are pregnant. She might find that the women‟s
main concern is “managing physical change,” in which case, she may then choose to
further explore this concept with older adults.
 Theoretical sampling limits the collection of data, but it is not possible to predetermine
how many participants will be “needed” for the study. Data collection should continue
until the theoretical completeness is achieved.

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  Data collection should continue until saturation is reached. Saturation “is the point in the
research when all the concepts are well defined and explained”.

3) Sampling in Ethnography:

 The main strategy is purposive sampling of a variety of key informants, who are most
knowledgeable about a culture and are able and willing to act as representatives in
revealing and interpreting the culture.

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