High Performance Alloys

Engineering 4th year. 4 lectures.

Steve Roberts

• What is “high performance”? Light weight, stiff, high strength, toughness, high-
temperature capability.
• The basics revisited.
– Mechanical properties of materials, Hardening mechanisms,
– Alloy structures, Phase diagrams, Microstructural development.
• Aluminium alloys. Types of Al-alloys. 5000 series, 2000 series, 7000 series. Al-Li alloys
• Magnesium alloys. Cast and wrought alloys.
• Titanium alloys. Types of Ti-alloys. “Single phase” alloys, α/β alloys.
• High performance steels. Types of steels. Simple steels revisited. Alloy steels, stainless
steels, tool steels, maraging steels.
• Nickel based alloys. Ni3Al. Superalloys.

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 Books

• “Introduction to Dislocations”, D. Hull and D.J. Bacon (3rd edn.).

• “Physical Metallurgy”, R.W. Cahn and P. Haasen.

• “Worked Examples in the Strength of Metals and Alloys” J.W. Martin

• “Metals, Ceramics and Polymers”, Wyatt and D.W. Dew-Hughes

• “Engineering Metallurgy”, R.A. Higgins

• “Engineering Materials I”, M.F. Ashby and D.R.H. Jones

• “Engineering Materials II”, M.F. Ashby and D.R.H. Jones

• “Light Alloys”, I.J. Polmear

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 Basic parameters
• Density (Mg m-3)
– “Intrinsic” property of the alloy:
– Mostly depends on atomic weights of component atoms.

• Stiffness (Young’s Modulus, Shear modulus, Bulk modulus) (GPa)

– Resistance to elastic deformation
– “Intrinsic” property of the alloy:
– Depends on atomic bonding strength

• Strength (Yield strength, Utlimate tensile strength) (MPa or GPa)

– Resistance to plastic flow
– “Extrinsic” property of the alloy
– Depends very strongly on microstructure of the alloy.
– How does microstructure impede dislocation motion ?

• Toughness (Fracture toughness: MPam1/2, strain to fracture: %, energy to fracture: J,Jm-2)

– Resistance to fracture
– “Extrinsic” property of the alloy:
– Depends very strongly on microstructure of the alloy.
– How easy is plastic flow near cracks ?

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 “Secondary” parameters
• Temperature capability (Creep, • Formability (You have to make things
oxidation) from it!)
– Melting point – Castability
– Oxidation resistance – Melting point, fluidity
– Microstructural stability – Forgability
– Content of “anomalous” intermetallic – Flow behaviour in compression and
at high temperatures
compounds
– Can you shape it then heat treat it ?
– Weldability
• Fatigue resistance (Crack initiation and – What welding process is suitable?
growth in cyclic loading) – Will welding mess up the
– Hardness microstrcuture?
– Crystal structure / hardening mechanism
– Crack paths through microstructure • Cost
• Rarity
• Corrosion resistance • Economics of extraction
– Electrochemistry of basic material, esp • Total cost to final component
properties of oxide films
– Microstructure – local regions of different • Strategic sensitivity
chemistry • Can anything else do the job?
• Are deposits in only a few “politically
sensitive” areas ?

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 Stiffness

The elastic moduli are “intrinsic” properties of the material.

•They depend only on the basic character of the interatomic bonding.
•They depend only on the base material used
•They are not sensitive to microstructure.

W alloys
400
Young’s Modulus (GPa)

Mo alloys

200 Ti alloys

Bronzes Ni alloys All iron-based

100
alloys:
H.C. Cu alloys
Al alloys cast irons, steels
40 (from “mild steel” to
Sn alloys
“tool steel”),
Mg alloys stainless steels.
20
Pb alloys

The yield stress and tensile strength of an alloy can be “tailored” by

tinkering with alloying elements and microstructure:
The Young’s modulus does not change.

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 Stiffness and density

Be alloys
100 Ti alloys
Young’s Modulus / Density

Mo alloys
Mg alloys
(GPa Mg-1 m3)

Bronzes
10
W alloys

Ni alloys Fe alloys
(Cast Irons,
Steels)

Pb alloys

Many metals, including most structural engineering alloys, have the same
ratio of modulus (E) to density (ρ).

For many structures (e.g. tensile struts, simple beams) the optimum
operational stiffness to weight ratio is given by E / ρ....

“What you pay for (ρ) is what you get (E)”

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 Stress - strain curve
Ultimate Tensile
Stress (UTS)
0.2% Proof Stress ate
g r
n in
rde
Stress k- Ha
Wor
=
σy)
Yield Stress (σ pe tic
Slo s Fracture Stress,
Elastic Limit Pla
Strain

s
Limit of

odulu
Proportionality
Fracture Energy
Elastic

stic M
N.B. - this is a typical
“engineering stress” vs
“engineering strain”
= Ela

curve.

The true stress vs true

Slope

strain curve is different Strain

and its shape determines
the UTS.

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 Dislocations and plastic flow
• “Theoretical shear strength” is much higher
than observed strength values.

τmax

τmax = G/10

τmax
Formation & motion of dislocations was
postulated to explain this.

Dislocations can be much easier to move as

applied stress just makes a few atoms move
a small distance.

Stress to move a dislocation is low if bonds

are non-directional (e.g. FCC metals).

If bonds are highly directional, may still be

difficult to move dislocations (e.g. diamond).

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 How does dislocation motion give plasticity ?

2) Shear stress applied. Dislocation has moved

1) Unsheared crystal. Potential slip plane shaded.
in from left. Material to left of dislocation line has
sheared by one atomic spacing.

3) Shear stress continues. Dislocation has moved 4) Dislocation line has emerged at right hand
further in from left. Amount of sheared material (to side. Whole crystal has sheared on the slip
left of dislocation line) has increased plane by one atomic spacing.
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 Why are dislocations easy to move ?
We have a new model for how slip occurs,
but we still have to show why this gives flow stresses of ~G/1000.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A B A B
Dislocation
moved by one
atomic spacing

"Block shear" by one

When the dislocation moves, atomic spacing
* position of the extra half plane shifts by one
atomic spacing; Energy
* even the atoms at the core (e.g. A, B) each
move very little; Dislocation moves
* energy fluctuations with position are small; some Max. slope by one atomic
α max. force spacing
atoms near the core increase energy, some
decrease.
[* force to move dislocation is likely to be sensitive
to material type andstructure. - resistance to
bending and breaking of interatomic bonds] Shear displacement
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 Why do materials have any strength ?
Calculations show that it should only need a few Nm-2 to move dislocations
about in metals - and experiments on pure metals show that this is the case.

We must do things to restrict dislocation motion.

• Effects on bonding type on ease of dislocation motion.

! choice of basic material
• Grain boundaries as blocks to dislocation motion
! “grain refinement” hardening (and toughening)
• Internal stress fields from dissolved atoms interact with dislocation stress fields
! “solute hardening”
• Internal stress fields from precipitates interact with dislocation stress fields
! “precipation hardening” (“age hardening”)
• Precipitates with “hard” crystal structures act as local blocks to dislocations
! “precipation hardening” (“age hardening”)
• Immobile dislocations block mobile dislocations
! “work hardening”
• Use phase chages in basic material to produce fine, strained microstructures
! “quenching”
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 Effects of bonding type on yield strength

Yield Strength - resistance to slip by

dislocation motion increases as the
directionality and rigidity of interatomic
bonding increases.

Increasing directionality of bonding: increasing yield stress and hardness

Close-packed Other metals Ionic Intermetallic Covalent

metals compounds compounds solids

copper, iron, NaCl, MgO CuAl2, Diamond,

e.g.: aluminium tungsten TiAl, Ni3Al SiC, Al2O3

Nearly non- Some Bonding by Ordered structures “Ceramics”: Very

directional directionality in electrostatic with fairly directional strongly directional
bonding. bonding. attraction: not bonding. bonding.
directional but slip
Dislocation Dislocation moves strongly Dislocation motion Dislocation motion
motion easy motion fairly easy charged ions past difficult. very difficult.
(varies with each other.
temperature) Can use as fine Can use in
Dislocation motion dispersions to composites
fairly difficult harden metallic
alloys
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 Stopping dislocations – Grain boundaries
z
z
y

y
x
Slip planes in both grains have common line in g.b.
x
(may happen at twin boundaries)

Burgers vector lies in g.b. plane.

b

Still may be problems if dislocation is dissociated.

z
y

x x
z
Most general case - most likely case !
b2
b
1 Direct transmission of dislocations
almost impossible.

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 Stopping dislocations – Grain boundaries
Pile up in Cu – 4.5% Al.

Every dislocation in the pile up exerts stress back on the

source - tending to stop it operating.

Slip must also be transmitted from one grain to the next .

This is assisted by a stress concentration at the head of the

pile-up.

Shear Stress τ
app

dislocation
source
dislocation
source
tress es
back-s

τ blocked dislocation
app

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 Stopping dislocations – Grain boundaries
τ app

Stress felt by the possible new dislocation source is

proportional to the stress at the head of the pile up,
τg.b.:
dislocation

τg.b. = Ndis τdis source

d
Ndis is the number of dislocations in the pile-up;
τg.b.
τdis is the stress each "passes on" to the next one in τapp
the array.
τdis = τapp - τfrict For slip to be passed from one grain to the
next, the source must be activated at some
τfrict is the minimum stress to move dislocations within critical τ∗source. Applied stress needed:
the grain. 1
τ*source 2
The number of dislocations in the pile up is: τ*app = τfrict +  

 α′′d 
Ndis = (π/Gb) d` τdis

where d' is equal to d, or d/2 - exact value not The Hall-Petch equation.
important.
so: 1
−
τg.b. = αd (τapp – τfrict )2 σ y = σi + k d 2

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 Hall-Petch Effect
Lower Yield Stress
(MPa)
400
Effect of grain size on yield strength of
mild steel.

Note:
300 ! range of grain sizes – typical for an
engineering alloy
! (martensites may have interfaces
spaced by only a few 10’s of nm)
! (in pearlite, interfaces may be a
200 few µm apart).
! ~3x range in yield strength over this
grain size range
! variation of strength with temperature
100 !relatively high σi:
due to strengthening mechanisms other
than grain size.
1mm 100µm 10µm

0 2 4 6 8 10
d-1/2 (mm-1/2)

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 Hardening by substitutional solutes

Add a few atoms of size different from the basic metal.

compression tension
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 If we move the dislocation…

Stress fields overlap and Stress fields overlap and

ADD – high energy CANCEL – low energy
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 Solution hardening

Interaction energies between

stress fields of the moving
Energy dislocation and the static
misfitting solute atoms give rise
to widely varying dislocation
enrgy with position.

Since

Dislocation dE
F=
Position dx

This implies a high stress to

move dislocations through
such an array of obstacles.

[Any array of small regions with

associated stress fields will
give similar effects]

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 Solution hardening in 3D
Case shown is for solute atoms
smaller than the “parent” atoms.

Solutes below the dislocation’s slip plane

C Solutes above the dislocation’s slip plane

(N.B. – only one sort of solute atom –

T colour is just to indicate position.)

Minimum energy
configurations of dislocations
2 are a compromise between
“line tension” (energy /
length) and attraction to /
1 repulsion from solute atoms.

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 Strength of solution hardening
Flow Stress Flow Stress
(MPa) (MPa)
6

30
4
20
2
10

0 0
Ag Au Al 1 2 3 %Cu

r = 0.2889 nm r = 0.2884 nm r = 0.2863 nm r = 0.2556 nm

misfit = ~ 0.17 % misfit = ~ 8 %

Strength of hardening effect is (to a good approx.) proportional to:

1. amount of solute
2. solute misfit
3. elastic modulus of matrix

Effects of multiple solutes are roughly additive.

Atomic size data: www.webelements.com

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 Solution hardening – interstitial solutes

A limited number of cases, The atoms here are shown smaller than they
but of great importance: actually are relative to the b.c.c. unit cell.

C, N in Iron (body centred cubic) The A-A spacing is smaller than the B-B spacing,
(and other b.c.c. metals) and determines the size of interstitial atom that
will “fit”.
O in Titanium (close packed hexagonal)
rint.
A < 0.29
rhost
c B
Actual radius ratios:
B
rnitrogen rcarbon
I = 0.44 = 0.46
B B riron riron

A
b Result: each interstitial atom has a large and
non-spherically symmetric stress field around it

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 Interstitial solutes – dislocation “pinning”

Two features of interstitial solutes in bcc metals make them

powerful hardening agents:

•They have very large stress fields around them

• so they can lower energy by “sitting” at dislocation cores
•They can diffuse rapidly, even at room temperature
• so they can “find” the dislocations in hours or days.

High Stress
applied

Dislocation pinned Dislocation unpinned and

Solute diffusion to mobile at lower stress
static dislocation

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 Yield point and strain ageing
Stress (MPa)

Upper Yield
500hr Stress
4hr
300 0.5hr
Lower Yield
Stress
U.Y.S.

200

Ageing
unload –
L.Y.S. age -
reload

100 0.03%C steel, 60ºC

0 5 10
Strain (%)

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 Hardening by precipitates
Hardening by strain fields

Strain fields
around very fine
precipitates of
copper in
aluminium

(“G.P. zones”)

Small precipitates may be "coherent" with the matrix.

All lattice planes, including slip planes are continuous

as they pass through the precipitates

But the change in lattice parameters in the precipitate

causes each one to be surrounded by a (relatively long
range) stress field.

This interacts with the stress field of dislocations.

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

Precipitates on
dislocation’s
slip plane

Dislocation line

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

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 Dislocations and weak obstacles

Dislocations can cut through the precipitates (and their stress fields):
but the bigger and more “compound-like” they are, the more difficult
this is.

Note that the precipitates get “chopped up” with increasing strain.
Affects work-hardening rate.

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 Hardening by precipitates
• By heat-treatment, we can produce
precipitates in the solid material.

• These can have very different composition

and crystal structure to the basic metal.

• They are very effective blocks to dislocation

motion, especially if:
• They are “ordered intermetallic”
compounds – directional bonding
preferences (e.g. CuAl2 in Al alloys,
Ni3Al in Ni-based superalloys, Fe7Mo6
in maraging steels)
• They are [near] covalent compounds:
e.g. Fe3C, WC, AlN in steels, MoSi2 in
Al alloys
• They have a distinct interface with the
“matrix” metal
• They have an associated stress field
• They are large, and thus difficult to cut
through.
• However, Iarger means fewer and
more widely spaced.

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

Precipitates on
dislocation’s
slip plane

Dislocation line

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

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 Dislocations and strong obstacles

The bigger the spacing between the obstacles,

the easier it is for dislocations to squeeze through the gaps.

Each “bypass” event leaves a dislocation behind – narrowing the gaps.

Affects work-hardening rate.

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 Stress to pass between strong obstacles

τ.b per unit length Increasing τ is needed as the dislocation “bows

out”, because more dislocation line is present
b between the two end points (i.e. more energy) .

Line energy / unit length (~½Gb2) is equivalemt

to a line tension.
½Gb2 ½Gb2
τ Curved dislocations need stress to keep them
curved.

“Upward” force on line segment

= τ.b Rδθ

“Downward” force from line tensions

= 2. ½Gb2.sin(δθ/2)
= Gb2. δθ/2
R δθ R
These must balance:

Gb 2
τ.b =
2R

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 Precipitation hardening

When the loop shape is a half-circle,

b dislocation curvature is a maximum.

τ.b = Gb2 / 2R
or if we only take component of τ
2R τ in direction of b:
τ = Gb / 2R

2R (µm) τ (MPa)
Typically (Steels),
0.01 2250 feasible?
G = ~ 90 GPa
0.1 225 useful
b = ~ 0.25 nm
1 22.5 Not a useful
strength
10 2.25 increase

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 Work Hardening

ate
g r
nin iron
r d e
k- Ha
Wor
e = ε = 20%
p
Slo ast
ic
Pl 1012
Stress

Disln. density (cm-2)

109
Elastic

ε = 0%

106

Strain 1
stress ∝
disln. spacing
Most dislocations are not mobile –
they are just obstacles to the few that are. = (disln. density)

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 True stress vs True strain

A B C D
A B C D

σ,ε
e ”:
Tru
“ e
g”, s,
in
i neer
g
“En
Stress

dσ
Critical point at C is when =σ
dε

This is where the workhardening rate is

Strain no longer high enough to offset increase
in stress in an incipient neck.

Worhardening rate controls ductility.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 51

 Ideal microstructure for “strength” ?
• Can’t use a non-metal as base of alloy
– could get high yield strength this way but toughness would be far too low.
• Can use work-hardening to improve strength, but:
– effectiveness very limited for materials with yield stress increased close to UTS by other means
– reduces toughness (by reducing work-hardening capacity)
– will “anneal out” at moderate temperatures
• Can use fine grain sizes to improve strength (and toughness!)
– relatively limited (but useful) strength improvement (a few hundred MPa)
– fine grain sizes no good at high temperatures
• grain size will grow
• grain boundaries are fast diffusion paths – creep strength will be poor
• Can use solution strengthening
– in bcc, interstitial solutes give a limited but useful increase in strength (+ 50 to 80 MPa)
• (most steels are well over the solubility limit for C anyway)
• can quench in excess C, N into solution in martensite. (up to + 1000 MPa)
– but this form of martensite is very brittle (all dislocations are locked)
– substitutional solutes can give moderate strength increases (a few hundred MPa)
• limited by solubility – solutes with big misfits will have low solubilities
• Can use precipitation hardening
– need to achieve a very fine dispersion of very hard precipitates (up to + 1000 MPa)
– or a very fine dispersion of weaker precipitates with strong associated strain fields (not quite so effective)

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 “Ideal” Microstructures
• Use precipitation hardening
– need as fine a dispersion as possible of particles as hard as possible.
• Topped up with solution strengthening
• Solutes may be present anyway for a variety of reasons:
• to scavenge undesirable impurities (e.g. Mn, Si, Al in steels)
• to slow down diffusional reactions and thus promote martensite
• to confer corrosion resistance (e.g. Cr in steels)
• to react with other elements present and produce precipitates
• Why not have a fine grain size anyway ?
• Generally a good idea, as toughness is improved
• (Can we make spatial variations: e.g. surface different from bulk?)

• Extra constraints if high temperature use is likely:

• base material must have a high melting point (!)
• any precipitates must be “stable” (there is a T’dynamic driving force to reduce number and increase size)
• reduce driving force (interface energy)
• slow down “coarsening” (reduce diffusion rate)
• fine grain size may not be good
• grain boundaries are fast diffusion paths 0 can get high creep rates
• grain size will tend to grow anyway
• beware (or use!) further reactions between elements present.
εΨπ

εψπ
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“Two-phase field”: Making Microstructures
for any average
composition in here, a Basics of ….. Phase diagrams Liquid in which A atoms
mixture of α phase and and B atoms can dissolve
liquid is most stable. in any proportions at
(almost) any temperature.

Temperature

“β-phase”: solid with same

“α-phase”: solid with Liquid
crystal structure as pure B,
same crystal structure α+L
α+ but with some atoms of
as pure A, but with β+L
β+
type A dissolved in it
some atoms of type B α β
dissolved in it

α+β
Solubility Limit
Solubility Limit for A in B
for B in A

“Eutectic line” – at the

“Two-phase field”: lowest temperature at
for any average 0% B 20% B 40% B 60% B 80% B 100% B
which liquid can be stable
composition in here, a 100% A 80% A 60% A 40% A 20% A 0% A
– even then only of a
mixture of α phase and particular composition.
β phase is most stable. Composition

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 54

 Lever rule

Single phase solid of composition x0 is not

Temperature thermodynamically stable at T1.

It decomposes into:
Liquid
amount fα of α phase of composition xα;
α+L
α+
β+L + amount fβ of β phase of composition xβ.
β+
α β
xβ − x 0
fα =
α+β
xβ − x α
x0
T1 x0 − xα
fβ =
xα xβ xβ − x α
0% B 20% B 40% B 60% B 80% B 100% B fα x β − x 0
100% A 80% A 60% A 40% A 20% A 0% A =
Composition fβ x 0 − x α

fβ
fα

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 Simple eutectic

Cooling from liquid of eutectic composition

xe produces decomposition reaction at Te
Liquid into solids xα and xβ.
xe
Usual form: interleaved plates of α and β.
α+L
α+
β+L
β+ A atoms B atoms
Te
α β diffusing diffusing

α+β

xα
xβ
More rapid cooling can “overshoot” Te and
give slightly different xα and xβ, but more
0% B 20% B 40% B 60% B 80% B 100% B importantly, a finer microstructure.
100% A 80% A 60% A 40% A 20% A 0% A
Two reasons:
Composition
1. Temperature is lower so diffusion is
slower
2. Undercooling gives higher t’dynamic
driving force ∆G needed to “pay for”
the extra interfaces.
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 56
 Simple eutectoid

Cooling from solid of eutectoid composition xe

produces decomposition reaction at Te into
Solid γ solids xα and xβ.
xe
Usual form: fine interleaved plates of α and β.
α+γ
Te β+ γ A atoms B atoms
α β diffusing diffusing

α+β

xα
xβ
Diffusion is very slow, as the “reject” atoms
are diffusing through a solid.
0% B 20% B 40% B 60% B 80% B 100% B
100% A 80% A 60% A 40% A 20% A 0% A
Again, rapid cooling can “overshoot” Te
Composition and give slightly different xα and xβ, but
and a finer microstructure.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 57

 More complicated phase diagram

Peritectic and eutectic.

(or similar)
Liquid
γ is a compound, possibly an intermetallic
α+γ compound of A and B. Possibly AB in this
case. (It can dissolve extra A atoms, so the
α phase field is an area, not a vertical line).
γ+L
+β
L+β γ is likely to be too brittle to use as the
β base for an alloy, but we can use it as a
γ precipitate hardener in A- or B- based
α+γ alloys, by exploiting the falling mutual
β+γ
solubilities with temperature.

The trick is to get fine, uniform, closely

spaced precipitates of the γ phase.
0% B 20% B 40% B 60% B 80% B 100% B
100% A 80% A 60% A 40% A 20% A 0% A Examples:
Al – Cu (approaches to CuAl2)
Composition Al – Mg – Si (MgSi2)
Ni – Al (Ni3Al)
Fe – C (Fe3C)
Mg – Zn (MgZn)

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 58

 What makes a metal suitable as a base for
useful alloys ?
• Readily available & cheap (bearing in mind the application)
• High melting point
– first step in base for high temperature alloys
• Cubic crystal structure
– large number of slip systems for good ductility
• Low density
– for some applications, anyway.
• Readily dissolves a wide range of substitutional and interstial solutes
– allows strong solution hardening
• Solubility of some solutes varies strongly with temperature
– allows use of precipation reactions to form strong alloys
• Forms hard compounds with a range of elements
– precipation of these gives strong hardening
• Undergoes an allotropic phase change (e.g. Fe, Ti)
– can cycle through phase change to produce “physically” complex microstructures
– can use partitioning of solutes between the phases to produce “chemically” complex microstructures
– can get martenstic (quenched) microstrcutures
• Chemically fairly stable
– either in iself, or via a strong, tenacious oxide film
• Not hazardous
– poisonous, explosive, inflammable, radioactive….

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 59

 “The big 3”
Iron Aluminium Copper
Useful ores (bauxite)
Available? Plentiful Useful ores fairly rare
widespread
Cheap ? Needs cheap electricity to Ores tend to be “thin”.
Extraction easy with C. ~£150
(£ / tonne 1997) extract. ~£1000 Refining needed. ~£1500

M.P. (°C ) 1538 660 1084

Density (kg m-3) 7874 2700 8920

fcc only
Allotropy bcc ⇒ fcc ⇒ bcc with rising T fcc only

good solvent for many elements.

moderate solvent for many good solvent for many
Dissolves things ? Solubilty depends on allotropic
elements elements
form.
can be strong – and affected by not strongly for most
T-Variable solubilty strongly for many elements
allotropic changes elements
forms compounds with many forms compounds with forms compounds with
Compounds
elements many elements many elements
Oxidises steadily. Can be Oxidises readily to form
Stability Fairly inert.
improved by solutes. stable thin film.

Hazardous ? No. No. No.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 60

 The “other 3”
Nickel Titanium Magnesium
“Thin” ores in Canada and Useful ores fairly common,
Available? Useful ores not plentiful
New Caledonia. also in seawater.
Cheap ? Complicated, energy intensive Needs cheap electricity to
Needs electrolysis. ~£1500
(£ / tonne 1997) extraction. ~£4700 extract. ~£10000

M.P. (°C ) 1455 1668 650

Density (kg m-3) 8908 4507 1738

Allotropy fcc only cph ⇒ bcc with rising T cph only

good solvent for many

good solvent for many moderate solvent for some
Dissolves things ? elements. Solubilty depends
elements. elements
on allotropic form.
can be strong – and affected
T-Variable solubilty can be strong can be strong
by allotropic changes
forms compounds with many forms compounds with many forms compounds with
Compounds
elements elements some elements
Oxidises readily to form Oxidises readily to form
Stability Fairly inert.
stable thin film. fairly stable film. Can burn.

Hazardous ? No. No. No.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 1: 61