Basics of

Basics of
Metallurgy
Metallurgy

Metallurgy 1
Metal parts Refrigerator
• MS tube • PPGI
• Aluminum tube • GI
• Copper tube • EGI
• MS sheet • PCM
• Aluminum Sheet • VCM
• SS screw • Aluzinc/galvalume
• MS screw • Anodized aluminum
• SS wire • Tool steel (D2, DC53, M2)
• MS wire • Wrought alloy
• Copper wire • Cast alloy
• Zamac lock and hinge • aluminum foil
• Aluminum rod • Copper capillary tube

Metallurgy 2
Engineering Materials

Major engineering purposes served by – Mg, Ti, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Pb

Metallurgy 3
Metal Structure
• Atomic structure- crystalline amorphous, bcc, fcc, density, thermal
conductivity
• Microstructure- grain , grain boundary, strength ductility hardness

Metallurgy 4
Crystal structure

Metal Glass

Metallurgy 5
Crystal structure (SCC)

First layer Second layer directly over the 1 st layer

Inefficient use of space.

Only 52% space is occupied by the atoms.
Rarely found in earth. Polonium.

Metallurgy 6
Crystal structure (BCC)

Second layer over the holes of 1 st layer Third layer over the holes of 2 nd layer

More efficient stacking.

Gives 68% space occupied by the atoms.
Ex- Many metals. Fe, Cr

Metallurgy 7
 Crystal structure (FCC)

First layer Second layer over the triangular space of 1 st layer Third layer over the triangular space of 2 nd layer

The most efficient stacking.

Gives 74% space occupied by the atoms.
Ex- Many metals. Cu, Al, Ag, Au
Diamond shaped space Triangular shaped space
Metallurgy 8
Crystal structure

Metals Crystal Packing Atomic Density Thermal

structure factor weight g/cc conductivity,
W/m.K
Fe BCC 0.68 56 7.87 80
Cr BCC 0.68 52 7.19 94
Ag FCC 0.74 108 10.5 420
Cu FCC 0.74 63 8.9 386
Au FCC 0.74 197 19.4 317
Al FCC 0.74 27 2.7 237

Metallurgy 9
Crystal defects

Vacancy defect Self interstitial defect

Interstitial defect Metallurgy Substitutional defect 10

Crystal defects (dislocation motion)

Line defect (edge dislocation) Atomic bonds Applying stress

Bond reform Bond break

When stress is applied the atomic bond break

and reform allowing the dislocation to glide
through the crystal lattice
Metallurgy 11
Microstructure
Liquid metal cooling down

Solid crystal forming Solid crystal growing Crystal meeting one another

solidification complete

Metallurgy 12
Microstructure

 Polycrystalline metal.
 The grains are separated by grain boundaries.
 The grain boundary impedes the dislocation motion.
 Polycrystalline metal is stronger than single crystal metal.
 The smaller the grain size the stronger the material will be.
Metallurgy 13
Metal properties
• Strength (YS, TS)
• Ductility (elongation)
• malleability
• Hardness
• Brittleness
• Toughness
• Fatigue
• Creep
• Elasticity
• Machinability
• Weldability
• Hardenability
• Castability
• Conductivity (electrical and thermal)

Metallurgy 14
Strength

ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic

deformation

Metallurgy 15
Strength

Metallurgy 16
 Strength

Normal condition Tensile loaded Load removed

For details you

can contact with
me personally Metallurgy 17
Ductility and Brittleness
Ductility Brittleness

Degree to which a material can Breaks with little or no deformation

sustain plastic deformation under
tensile stress before failure

NOTE: Ductility can be measured by %elongation

Metallurgy 18
Ductility and Brittleness

(a) Brittle (b) moderate ductile (c) extreme ductile

Metallurgy 19
Ductility and Brittleness

Titanic disaster: 1912, in the North Atlantic Ocean, 1500 dead

Metallurgy 20
Hardness

Ability to resist permanent deformation,

either by scratching or indentation

Metallurgy 21
Hardness

Metallurgy 22
Hardness Test
Indenter

Hardness scale Unit Indenter Application

Brinell HB 10mm Hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball Al, Cu, MS, low carbon steel
Rockwell B HRB 1/16 inch steel ball Al, brass, soft steel
Rockwell C HRC Dimond cone Harder steel ≥HRB100, tool
steel
Vickers HV Diamond pyramid Thin sheet metal, small
specimen
Metallurgy 23
Toughness

The ability of a material to absorb energy

up to fracture

NOTE: Toughness can be measured by impact test

Metallurgy 24
 Fatigue

Repeating these actions result

Metallurgy 25
Fatigue
Spring
Exercise instrument
Fan blade
Bandsaw blade
Bicycle peddle
Bicycle crank arm
Screw
Compressor Connecting rod
Railway Bridge
Aircraft

Cracking of materials and structural components due to cyclic (or fluctuating) stress.
Fatigue cracks can be initiated and propagated at stresses well below the yield strength of the material
Fatigue stages: Crack initiation, Crack propagation, Failure
Metallurgy 26
Fatigue
Ferrous (steel)

Non-ferrous (Cu, Al)

Figure 3. Typical fatigue stress cycles

Metallurgy 27
Fatigue simulation

Metallurgy 28
Creep

 The tendency of a solid material to

deform permanently under the
influence of constant static load at
elevated temperature .
 The load can below the yield strength.
 The material can creep when the
temperature ≥ 0.5 Tm (Tm= Absolute
melting temperature)

Metallurgy 29
Alloying
• Steel
• Iron carbon diagram
• Cast iron
• Metal grade
• MS
• Effect of elements
• SS
• Brass
• Bronze
• Copper
• Aluminum
• ZAM
• Zamac

Metallurgy 30
Alloy
• Mild Steel (MS)- Fe, C
• Cast iron- Fe,C
• Brass – Cu, Zn
• Bronze- Cu, Sn
• Stainless steel- Fe, C, Cr, Ni, Mn
• Tool steel- Fe, C, Cr, V, Mo

Metallurgy 31
Alloy

Strength Ductility Hardness

Metallurgy 32
Effect of alloying element
Element Positive Attributes Negative Attributes
Carbon Hardness, strength, hardenability Ductility, Weldability
Manganese Strength, hardenability Weldability, Machinability
Phosphorus Machinability Ductility, Toughness
Sulfur Machinability Impact Resistance
Chromium Corrosion and abrasion resistance Machinability
Molybdenum High Temperature Strength, pitting Machinability, Weldability
Copper Strength Forgeability
Vanadium Wear Resistance Ductility
Silicon Fluidity, elasticity, strength Decarburization, Machinability

Metallurgy 33
Steel and Cast iron
1400 C to 1538 C

912 to 1400 C

Below 912 C

Metallurgy Fig: Iron – Carbon phase Diagram 34

Steel Common Class

Metallurgy 35
Steel Designation System
Table-1: Alloy steel Table-2: stainless steel
SAE Type Example
designation

3XX Austenitic SS SS 304, SS 316

4XX Ferritic and martensitic SS SS 430

Table-3: Tool steel

Example:
SAE Type Example
Grade: SAE 1018 designation
A plain carbon steel contains
0.18% carbon. W Water Hardening

O Oil Hardening
Suffixes Process A Air Hardening
HR Hot rolled
D High carbon; high chromium D2
CR Cold rolled
S Shock resisting
CDS Cold drawn seamless
P Plastic mold P20
Q&T Quenched and tempered
H Hot working H13
TMT Thermo Mechanical Treatment

Metallurgy 36
Aluminum alloys

Metallurgy 37
Zinc base alloy
• ZAM
• Zamac

Metallurgy 38
Metal process
• Heat treatment
• Soldering • Roasting
• Anodizing
• Brazing • Smelting
• Galvanizing
• Forming • Electrolysis
• Casting
• Forging • Calcination
• Pickling
• Rolling
• Sintering
• Extrusion
• Etching
• Drawing
• Hardchrome
• Machining
• Welding
• Electroplating

• Powder coating

Metallurgy 39
Heat treatment

• Heating to a certain temp below melting point

• Holding for a certain period
• Cooling down at a certain rate

Purpose: To give desired mechanical properties

Metallurgy 40
Heat treatment
Purpose Treatment
To soften Annealing
To strengthen Normalizing
To harden Hardening
To relief stress Stress relief annealing

Metallurgy 41
Annealing and Normalizing

As the grain size decreases the

yield strength increases

Metallurgy 42
Hardening Fe structure- BCC (at room temp)
FCC ( above 912 C)
BCC (above 1400 C)

Hardening transformation:

BCC FCC BCT

Metallurgy 43
Case hardening
Case hardening
methods:
1. Carburizing
2. Nitriding
3. Carbo-nitriding
4. Cyaniding
5. Induction
hardening
6. Flame
Gear
hardening
 Used to increase the hardness of
the outer surface of a metal.
 Wear resistant hard surfaces +
high core toughness

Metallurgy Crankshaft Fasteners 44

Heat treatment
• Annealing
• Hardening (quenching)
• Normalizing
• Tempering
• T4, T6
• O temper
• Hard, half hard temper
• Case hardening
• Carburizing
• Nitriding
• Induction hardening

Metallurgy 45
Corrosion
• Rusting • What, why, how • SST
• Uniform corrosion • Condition • SWAAT
• Galvanic corrosion • Prevention
• Pitting • coating
• Crevice
• Galvanic series

Metallurgy 46
Corrosion

Degradation of metal, that

results from a chemical or
electrochemical reaction with
its environment

Metallurgy 47
Corrosion
Thermodynamically
unstable
Why do metals corrode??

Metastable
Metal extraction:
Reduction in Corrosion: Metal
melting furnace. oxidation.
Bond breaking Bond formation
needs energy, releases energy,

En
ut

endothermic

e
exothermic process
Energy level

rg
np

yo
process.
yi

ut
erg

pu
En

t
Stable
Corrosion products: Metal Every material tends to
Ore: Metal oxides,
oxides, sulfides etc. release energy to be stable
sulfides etc.

Metallurgy 48
Corrosion
Four essential Conditions
i. Anode
ii. Cathode
iii. Anode cathode contact
iv. electrolyte

Anode reaction:
M(s) = M+n (aq) + ne- (metal oxidation)

Cathode reaction:
• Hydrogen evolution, 2H +(aq) + 2e →
- H2(g)

• Oxygen reduction (acidic media), O2(g) + 4H +(aq) + 4e - → H2O

• Oxygen reduction (neutral/basic media), O2(g) + 4e - + 2 H2O→ 4OH - (aq)
• Metal ion reduction, M +3(aq) + e -→ M +2(aq)
• Metal deposition, M +(aq) + e -→M (s)

Metallurgy 49
Forms of corrosion

 Uniform Attack
 Galvanic or Bimetallic Corrosion
 Crevice Corrosion
 Pitting
 Intergranular Corrosion
 Selective leaching
 Erosion Corrosion
 Stress-corrosion cracking

Metallurgy 50
Galvanic corrosion

 Occurs when two different metals

are in electrical contact in an
electrolyte.
 More noble metal is protected and
the more active metal tends to
corrode.
 The driving force for corrosion is a
potential difference between the
different materials.

Metallurgy 51
Galvanic corrosion

More active or
anodic

Example:
Bimetallic System Anode (corrodes) Cathode

Zinc and MS Zinc MS

Copper and MS MS Copper
Monel and Cast Which one will corrode?
iron

Metallurgy 52
Uniform attack

 Occurs uniformly over the

entire surface of the metal
component.
 General thinning takes place
until failure.
 Oxygen and moisture are the
main culprits for this
corrosion.

Metallurgy 53
Pitting

 Localized corrosion of a metal surface confined to a point or small

area, that takes the form of cavities.
 Most dangerous form of corrosion.
 Chloride, sulphate or bromide ions accelerate the reaction rate.

Metallurgy 54
Corrosion test (SST, SWAAT)

 Salt Spray Test (SST)

 To check the corrosion resistance
of coatings and materials.
 Measurement unit SST hours
 Sodium chloride salt solution

 Acidified Synthetic Sea Water

Testing (SWAAT).
 Synthetic sea salt solution
 Acetic acid

Metallurgy 55
Metal characterization

Method Properties
Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) Composition

Hardness tester Hardness

Universal Testing Machine (UTM) YS,TS, %E

Impact tester Toughness

Optical microscope Microstructure

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Topography of materials (resolution of ∼2 nm)

Energy dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) Elemental identification and composition

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Crystal structure, size

Metallurgy 56
RoHS
 RoHS- Restriction of Hazardous Substances
 European Union (EU) restricts the use of ten
hazardous materials.
 All applicable products in the EU market must pass
RoHS compliance.

•Cadmium (Cd): < 100 ppm

•Lead (Pb): < 1000 ppm
•Mercury (Hg): < 1000 ppm
•Hexavalent Chromium: (Cr VI) < 1000 ppm

Metallurgy 57