Contemporary Electronics

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fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd ii 1/11/13 5:23 PM
 Contemporary
Electronics
Fundamentals, Devices, Circuits, and Systems

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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 CONTEMPORARY ELECTRONICS: FUNDAMENTALS, DEVICES, CIRCUITS, AND SYSTEMS
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
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 To Joan with love for her help, support, and patience.

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fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd vi 1/11/13 5:23 PM
 Brief Contents

Preface to the Instructor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv Chapter 17 Capacitive Circuits 282

Note to the Student. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Chapter 18 Inductance and Transformers 295
Walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Chapter 19 Inductive Reactance 320
PART 1
Chapter 20 Inductive Circuits 329
Chapter 1 Survey of Electronics 1 Chapter 21 RC and L/R Time Constants 344
Chapter 2 Electricity 15 Chapter 22 Resonance 363
Chapter 3 Resistors 33 Chapter 23 Filters 381
Chapter 4 Ohm’s Law 46 Chapter 24 AC Power 401
Chapter 5 Series Circuits 59 Chapter 25 Cables and Transmission Lines 427
Chapter 6 Parallel Circuits 76 Chapter 26 AC Testing and Troubleshooting 449
Chapter 7 Series-Parallel Circuits
and Voltage Dividers 89
PART 3
Chapter 8 Network Theorems 109
Chapter 27 A Systems Overview of
Chapter 9 Conductors, Insulators, Electronics 469
and Semiconductors 127
Chapter 28 Semiconductors 486
Chapter 10 Batteries 145
Chapter 29 Diode Types and Operation 501
Chapter 11 Magnetism 165
Chapter 30 Power Supply Circuits 522
Chapter 12 DC Testing with Analog and
Digital Multimeters 191 Chapter 3 1 Introduction to Transistors 544

Chapter 13 DC Troubleshooting 211 Chapter 32 Field-Effect Transistors,

Amplifiers, and Switches 552

PART 2 Chapter 33 Bipolar Junction Transistors 579

Chapter 14 Alternating Voltage and Current 232 Chapter 34 Amplifier Fundamentals 618

Chapter 15 Capacitance 257 Chapter 35 Operational Amplifiers 638

Chapter 16 Capacitive Reactance 273 Chapter 36 Op-Amp Applications 665

vii

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 Chapter 37 Power Amplifiers 693 Chapter 40 Thyristors 769

Chapter 38 Oscillators and Frequency Chapter 41 Electronic System Troubleshooting 784

Synthesizers 712

Chapter 39 Regulated Power Supplies Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805

and Power Conversion 744 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807

viii Brief Contents

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 Contents

Preface to the Instructor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv 3.5 Power Rating of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Note to the Student. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii System Sidebar: Memristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Chapter 4 Ohm’s Law 46

PART 1 4.1 The Current I 5 V/R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

4.2 The Voltage V 5 IR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Chapter 1 Survey of Electronics 1 4.3 The Resistance R 5 V/I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4 Practical Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
1.1 Life Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 4.5 Multiple and Submultiple Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
1.2 Major Segments of the Electronics Industry . . . . .2 4.6 The Linear Proportion between V and I. . . . . . . .50
1.3 A Converged Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 4.7 Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
1.4 Jobs and Careers in the Electronics Industry . . . . .4 4.8 Power Dissipation in Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
1.5 Engineering and Technology Education . . . . . . . .6 4.9 Power Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
1.6 The Major Employers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 System Sidebar: The Binary Number
1.7 Where Are You Headed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
1.8 How Electronic Equipment and
Circuits Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Chapter 5 Series Circuits 59
1.9 An Electrical View of Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . .12
5.1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a
Chapter 2 Electricity 15 Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
5.2 Total R Equals the Sum of All
2.1 Negative and Positive Polarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Series Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
2.2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom . . . . . . . . . . .16 5.3 Series IR Voltage Drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
2.3 Structure of the Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 5.4 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
2.4 The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge . . . . . . . . .19 5.5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference . . . . . . . . .21 5.6 Total Power in a Series Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Charge in Motion Is Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 5.7 Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing
2.7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current. . . . . . . . . . 24 Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
2.8 The Closed Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 5.8 Analyzing Series Circuits with Random
2.9 The Direction of Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
2.10 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating 5.9 Ground Connections in Electrical
Current (AC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 and Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
2.11 Sources of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 System Sidebar: Light-Emitting Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
2.12 The Digital Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
System Sidebar: A Solar-Powered Home Chapter 6 Parallel Circuits 76
Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
6.1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the Same
Chapter 3 Resistors 33 across Parallel Branches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
6.2 Each Branch I Equals VA /R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
3.1 Types of Resistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 6.3 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
3.2 Resistor Color Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 6.4 Resistances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
3.3 Variable Resistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 6.5 Conductances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
3.4 Rheostats and Potentiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 6.6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

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 6.7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits with Random 10.4 Lead-Acid Wet Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 10.5 Additional Types of Secondary Cells. . . . . . . . .152
System Sidebar: Christmas Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 10.6 Series-Connected and Parallel-Connected
Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Chapter 7 Series-Parallel Circuits and 10.7 Current Drain Depends on Load Resistance . . .156
Voltage Dividers 89 10.8 Internal Resistance of a Generator . . . . . . . . . . .157
10.9 Constant-Voltage and Constant-Current
7.1 Finding RT for Series-Parallel Resistances. . . . . .90
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
7.2 Resistance Strings in Parallel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
System Sidebar: Battery Charging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
7.3 Resistance Banks in Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
7.4 Resistance Banks and Strings in
Chapter 11 Magnetism 165
Series Parallel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
7.5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits with 11.1 The Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Random Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 11.2 Magnetic Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . .167
7.6 The Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 11.3 Induction by the Magnetic Field. . . . . . . . . . . . .168
7.7 Series Voltage Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 11.4 Types of Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
7.8 Series Voltage Divider with Parallel 11.5 Magnetic Shielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Load Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 11.6 The Hall Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
System Sidebar: Analyzing Circuits with 11.7 Ampere-Turns of Magnetomotive
Simulation Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Force (mmf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
11.8 Field Intensity (H ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Chapter 8 Network Theorems 109 11.9 B-H Magnetization Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
8.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 11.10 Magnetic Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.11 Magnetic Field around an Electric Current . . . . 175
8.3 Thevenin’s Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.12 Magnetic Polarity of a Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.13 Motor Action between Two Magnetic Fields . . .177
8.5 Voltage Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 11.14 Induced Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
8.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . . . . . 118 11.15 Generating an Induced Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
System Sidebar: Digital-to-Analog Converter . . . . . . . . . 119 11.16 Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
System Sidebar: DC Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Chapter 9 Conductors, Insulators,
and Semiconductors 127 Chapter 12 DC Testing with Analog
and Digital Multimeters 191
9.1 Function of the Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
9.2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 12.1 Moving-Coil Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
9.3 Types of Wire Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 12.2 Meter Shunts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
9.4 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 12.3 Voltmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
9.5 Printed Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 12.4 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
9.6 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 12.5 Ohmmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
9.7 Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 12.6 Multimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.8 Wire Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 12.7 Digital Multimeter (DMM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
9.9 Temperature Coefficient of  12.8 Meter Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 12.9 Checking Continuity with the Ohmmeter . . . . .203
9.10 Resistive Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 12.10 Alternating Current Measurements . . . . . . . . . 204
9.11 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 System Sidebar: Data Acquisition System . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.12 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
System Sidebar: Lightbulbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Chapter 13 DC Troubleshooting 211

Chapter 10 Batteries 145 13.1 Introduction to Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . .212

13.2 Resistor Troubles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
10.1 Introduction to Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 13.3 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Troubles. . . . . .213
10.2 The Voltaic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.4 Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts
10.3 Common Types of Primary Cells. . . . . . . . . . . .148 in Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

x Contents

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 13.5 Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts in Chapter 17 Capacitive Circuits 282
Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.6 Troubleshooting: Opens and Shorts in 17.1 Sine Wave vC Lags iC by 908. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Series-Parallel Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 17.2 X C and R in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
13.7 Troubleshooting Hints for Wires and 17.3 Impedance Z Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 17.4 RC Phase-Shifter Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
13.8 Troubleshooting a DC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 17.5 X C and R in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
System Sidebar: DC Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224 17.6 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . .290
17.7 Capacitive Voltage Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
PART 2
Chapter 18 Inductance and Transformers 295
Chapter 14 Alternating Voltage and Current 232 18.1 Induction by Alternating Current. . . . . . . . . . . .296
18.2 Self-Inductance L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
14.1 Alternating Current Applications. . . . . . . . . . . .233
18.3 Self-Induced Voltage vL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
14.2 Alternating-Voltage Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
18.4 How vL Opposes a Change in Current . . . . . . . .299
14.3 The Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
18.5 Mutual Inductance L M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
14.4 Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
18.6 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
14.5 Voltage and Current Values for a
18.7 Transformer Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
18.8 Impedance Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
14.6 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
18.9 Core Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
14.7 Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
18.10 Types of Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
14.8 Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
18.11 Variable Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
14.9 Phase Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
18.12 Inductances in Series or Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.10 The Time Factor in Frequency
18.13 Stray Capacitive and Inductive Effects . . . . . . .312
and Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
System Sidebar: AC Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
14.11 Alternating Current Circuits with 
Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Chapter 19 Inductive Reactance 320
14.12 Nonsinusoidal AC and DC Waveforms . . . . . . 244
14.13 The Frequency Domain and the 19.1 How X L Reduces the Amount of I . . . . . . . . . . .321
Fourier Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 19.2 XL 5 2␲f L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
System Sidebar: The Frequency Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . .251 19.3 Series or Parallel Inductive Reactances . . . . . . .324
19.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to X L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
Chapter 15 Capacitance 257 19.5 Applications of X L for Different
Frequencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
15.1 How Charge Is Stored in a Dielectric. . . . . . . . .258
19.6 Waveshape of vL Induced by Sine-Wave
15.2 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor . . . . . . .258
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
15.3 The Farad Unit of Capacitance. . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
15.4 Typical Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262 Chapter 20 Inductive Circuits 329
15.5 Electrolytic Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
15.6 Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266 20.1 Sine Wave iL Lags vL by 90°. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
15.7 Stray and Distributed Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . .267 20.2 XL and R in Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
15.8 Parallel Capacitances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268 20.3 Impedance Z Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
15.9 Series Capacitances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268 20.4 XL and R in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
System Sidebar: Dynamic Random 20.5 Q of a Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Access Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 20.6 AF and RF Chokes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
20.7 Power in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Chapter 16 Capacitive Reactance 273 20.8 Complex Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
System Sidebar: Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
16.1 Alternating Current in a Capacitive Circuit . . . .274
16.2 The Amount of XC Equals 1/(2␲fC ). . . . . . . . . .275 Chapter 21 RC and L/R Time Constants 344
16.3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Reactances . . . . . .276
16.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 21.1 Response of Resistance Alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
16.5 Sine-Wave Charge and Discharge Current. . . . .277 21.2 L /R Time Constant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345

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 21.3 High Voltage Produced by Opening 25.3 Transmission Line Specifications and
an RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
21.4 RC Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346 25.4 How a Transmission Line Works . . . . . . . . . . . .434
21.5 RC Charge and Discharge Curves . . . . . . . . . . .348 25.5 Twisted Pair Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437
21.6 High Current Produced by 25.6 Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Short-Circuiting an RC Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . .349 System Sidebar: Fiber-Optic Cable and
21.7 RC Waveshapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349 Its Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
21.8 Long and Short Time Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . .350
21.9 Charge and Discharge with a Chapter 26 AC Testing and Troubleshooting 449
Short RC Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
26.1 Introduction to the Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . .450
21.10 Long Time Constant for an RC
26.2 Analog Oscilloscopes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
Coupling Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
26.3 Oscilloscope Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
21.11 Advanced Time Constant Analysis . . . . . . . . . .352
26.4 Digital Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
System Sidebar: Data Rate vs. Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
26.5 Voltage and Time Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . .457
Chapter 22 Resonance 363 26.6 Function Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
26.7 Virtual Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
22.1 The Resonance Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364 26.8 AC Testing and Troubleshooting
22.2 Series Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
22.3 Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
}
22.4 Resonant Frequency fr 5 1/(2␲ Ï LC ). . . . . . . .368
22.5 Q Magnification Factor of a Resonant PART 3
Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
22.6 Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . .373 Chapter 27 A Systems Overview
22.7 Tuning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 of Electronics 469
22.8 Damping of Parallel Resonant Circuits . . . . . . .376 27.1 Introduction to Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
27.2 How Circuits and Systems Work . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Chapter 23 Filters 381
27.3 Linear, or Analog, Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
23.1 Ideal Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382 27.4 Digital Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
23.2 Filter Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384 27.5 Interface or Mixed Signal Circuits. . . . . . . . . . .479
23.3 Low-Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384 27.6 System Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
23.4 High-Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
23.5 Analyzing Filter Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386 Chapter 28 Semiconductors 486
23.6 Decibels and Frequency Response Curves. . . . .389 28.1 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
23.7 Resonant Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394 28.2 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
23.8 Special Filter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395 28.3 Silicon Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
System Sidebar: DSP Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396 28.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
Chapter 24 AC Power 401 28.5 Two Types of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
28.6 Doping a Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
24.1 Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 28.7 Two Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors . . . . . .492
24.2 Power Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405 28.8 The Unbiased Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
24.3 Home Electric Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 28.9 Forward Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
24.4 Three-phase AC Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 28.10 Reverse Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
24.5 Wires, Cables, and Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 28.11 Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
24.6 Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415 28.12 Advances in Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
24.7 Alternative Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
System Sidebar: The Smart Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Chapter 29 Diode Types and Operation 501

Chapter 25 Cables and Transmission Lines 427 29.1 Basic Diode Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
29.2 The Ideal Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
25.1 Cables vs. Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428 29.3 The Second and Third Approximations. . . . . . .505
25.2 Principles of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . .428 29.4 Key Diode Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506

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 29.5 DC Resistance of a Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507 Chapter 33 Bipolar Junction Transistors 579
29.6 Surface-Mount Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
29.7 The Zener Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507 33.1 The Unbiased Transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
29.8 The Loaded Zener Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509 33.2 The Biased Transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
29.9 Zener Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 33.3 Transistor Currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
29.10 Optoelectronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 33.4 The CE Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
29.11 The Schottky Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 33.5 The Base Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
29.12 The Varactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515 33.6 Collector Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
29.13 Other Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 33.7 Reading Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .586
33.8 Surface-Mount Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Chapter 30 Power Supply Circuits 522 33.9 Basic Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
33.10 Emitter Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
30.1 The Power Supply Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523 33.11 Voltage Divider Bias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590
30.2 The Half-Wave Rectifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524 33.12 Troubleshooting Transistor Circuits . . . . . . . . . .592
30.3 The Transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525 33.13 PNP Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
30.4 The Full-Wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526 33.14 Typical Bipolar Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
30.5 The Bridge Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527 33.15 Emitter Follower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
30.6 Power Supply Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529 33.16 The Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
30.7 Peak Inverse Voltage and Surge Current . . . . . .534 33.17 The Transistor Switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
30.8 Other Power Supply Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535 33.18 Driver Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .606
30.9 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536 33.19 Special Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
30.10 Voltage Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
Chapter 34 Amplifier Fundamentals 618
Chapter 3 1 Introduction to Transistors 544
34.1 Types of Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
31.1 The Concept of a Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545 34.2 Frequency Response of an Amplifier . . . . . . . . . 619
31.2 The Transistor as a Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545 34.3 Decibel Power Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
31.3 The Transistor as an Amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . .548 34.4 Decibel Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
31.4 Types of Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549 34.5 Impedance Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .624
34.6 Decibels above a Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
Chapter 32 Field-Effect Transistors, 34.7 Bode Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
Amplifiers, and Switches 552 34.8 More Bode Plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
34.9 Rise Time–Bandwidth Relationship. . . . . . . . . .633
32.1 Introduction to FETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553 34.10 Frequency Effects of Surface-Mount Circuits . . . .634
32.2 Junction FET Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
32.3 Drain Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554 Chapter 35 Operational Amplifiers 638
32.4 The Transconductance Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
32.5 Biasing the JFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556 35.1 Introduction to Op Amps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
32.6 Transconductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557 35.2 The 741 Op Amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
32.7 JFET Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558 35.3 The Inverting Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
32.8 Special Types of JFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559 35.4 The Noninverting Amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
32.9 The Depletion-Mode MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . .559 35.5 Common Op-Amp Applications . . . . . . . . . . . .650
32.10 D-MOSFET Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560 35.6 Op Amps as Surface-Mount Devices. . . . . . . . .652
32.11 Depletion-Mode MOSFET Amplifiers. . . . . . . .561 35.7 Differential Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
32.12 The Enhancement-Mode MOSFET . . . . . . . . . .562 35.8 Instrumentation Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
32.13 The Ohmic Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564 35.9 Single-Supply Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
32.14 Digital Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565 System Sidebar: Balanced and Unbalanced
32.15 CMOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567 Signal Wiring in Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
32.16 Power FETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567 Chapter 36 Op-Amp Applications 665
32.17 E-MOSFET Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
32.18 Differential Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571 36.1 Comparators with Zero Reference . . . . . . . . . . 666
32.19 MOSFET Circuits and Static 36.2 Comparators with Nonzero References . . . . . . .669
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573 36.3 Comparators with Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672

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 36.4 The Integrator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674 38.9 Frequency Synthesizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
36.5 Waveform Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .675 System Sidebar: The Concept of Modulation . . . . . . . . .736
36.6 Waveform Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
36.7 Active Diode Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679 Chapter 39 Regulated Power Supplies
36.8 Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679 and Power Conversion 744
36.9 First-Order Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679 39.1 Power Supply Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .745
36.10 Second-Order Low-Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . .682 39.2 Supply Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .745
36.11 High-Pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682 39.3 Basic Regulators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .746
36.12 Higher-Order Filters and 39.4 Series Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .748
Filter Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682 39.5 Linear IC Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
36.13 Bandpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683 39.6 Introduction to Switch-Mode
36.14 Bandstop Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684 Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754
36.15 The All-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685 39.7 Switching Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
System Sidebar: Video Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686 39.8 DC-DC Converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .760
39.9 Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Chapter 37 Power Amplifiers 693
Chapter 40 Thyristors 769
37.1 Amplifier Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
37.2 Class A Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694 40.1 The Four-Layer Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
37.3 Class B Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .698 40.2 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . .771
37.4 Class B Push-Pull Emitter Follower. . . . . . . . . .699 40.3 The SCR Crowbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .774
37.5 Class C Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703 40.4 SCR Phase Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
37.6 Switching Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .705 40.5 Bidirectional Thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
37.7 Transistor Power Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707 40.6 IBGTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
System Sidebar: Class G and Class H Amplifiers . . . . . .708 System Sidebar: IGBT Switching Power
Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
Chapter 38 Oscillators and Frequency
Synthesizers 712 Chapter 41 Electronic System Troubleshooting 784
38.1 Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . .713 41.1 Electronic Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
38.2 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .713 41.2 An Introduction to Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . .790
38.3 The Colpitts Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .715 41.3 Circuit Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
38.4 Other LC Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 41.4 Power Supply Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . .794
38.5 Quartz Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 41.5 Alternative Troubleshooting Techniques . . . . . .795
38.6 Crystal Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719 41.6 Systems Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
38.7 Square-Wave, Pulse, and Function
Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722 Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
38.8 The Phase-Locked Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807

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 Preface to the Instructor

Contemporary Electronics: Fundamentals, Devices, Cir- 2. Changes in the way electronics circuits and
cuits, and Systems offers a modern approach to fundamental equipment are designed. Today, engineers design
courses for the electronics and electrical fields. It is de- is at a higher level with software. Technicians do not
signed for the first two or three electronics courses in the design, calculate, or analyze circuits. Little or no need
typical associate degree program in electronics technology. for engineering technicians.
It includes both dc and ac circuits as well as semiconduc- 3. Most technicians now work at a higher systems
tor fundamentals and basic linear circuits. It addresses the level. Because of the significant changes in elec-
numerous changes that have taken place over the past years tronic hardware, technicians work more with the
in electronics technology, industry, jobs, and the knowledge equipment and its subassemblies, such as modules
and skills required by technicians and other technical work- and printed circuit boards that make up a product or
ers. It can be used in separate dc and ac courses but also in system rather than components and circuits. The tech-
a combined dc/ac course that some schools have adopted in nician works at the block diagram level where signal
the past years. Contemporary Electronics offers the student flow and interfaces, specifications, and standards are
the benefit of being able to use a single text in two or three the most important considerations. Typically, the tech-
courses, minimizing expenses. nician only has access to power connections, input,
and output and, as a result, is more concerned about
Goals of the Book input and output impedances, frequency response, and
Contemporary Electronics has the following goals: output voltage or power levels.
4. Most technician work today involves troubleshoot-
1. Address major changes in electronics technology to
ing, repair, and servicing. Technicians also install
ensure courses and curricula are up to date.
and operate equipment. A major function of most
2. Provide the knowledge and skills that industry wants technicians is testing and measuring, using modern
in a technician. test equipment and performing a variety of calibration
3. Give students the core fundamentals on which to build duties or testing to meet defined specifications or elec-
future knowledge. tronics standards.
4. Provide the right balance between the fundamentals
and current practical systems and test, measurement,
and troubleshooting needs.
What Industry Wants
5. Provide a single text that can be used in two or three The predominant employers of electronics technicians today
courses, thereby helping reduce student text costs. are not in the electronics field. These employers are those that
are heavy users of electronic equipment. The largest segment
Major Changes in Technology is manufacturing of all types, including automotive, pharma-
ceuticals, food processing, metal working, and others. Many
While electronics fundamentals do not change, the technology
technicians work for chemical plants, petroleum plants, and
does. All courses and curricula ideally cover the fundamen-
other systems using process control and instrumentation. The
tals but in the context of the current technology and practices.
electric power industry is a huge employer. And there are too
Here are the major changes that impact electronics education:
many others to include. Feedback from such employers gen-
1. Advances in semiconductor technology have now erally indicates that they want technicians who know the fun-
made it possible to package most electronic circuits damentals, how to use test equipment to make measurements,
into integrated circuit form. Less need for knowing and how to troubleshoot at the systems level.
and understanding complex circuitry that cannot be To further build enrollments and ensure job placement,
accessed. Fewer components and greater reliability, so all colleges need to survey the needs of local employers and
less need for troubleshooting to the component level. adjust their curriculum accordingly.

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 What This New Text Offers 8. Added coverage of ac power wiring, as well as other
wiring and cabling in which technicians are always
The core of this book is derived from two widely used involved.
and excellent textbooks. These are Grob’s Basic Electron-
9. A light and subtle introduction to digital and binary
ics by Mitchel Shultz and Electronic Principles by Albert
concepts, circuits, and applications. Given that most
Malvino and David Bates. The core fundamental chapters
electronic equipment today is digital, the student
have been retained, while other more detailed analysis and
needs an early look at this technology in the context
design material has been eliminated. All this material has
of the electrical and electronics fundamentals.
been updated to include the most recent information on
10. Increase coverage of troubleshooting, testing, and
components and circuits with particular emphasis on in-
measuring, with a systems emphasis that is more in
tegrated circuits and the most recent technology. Here are
alignment with current technician work practices.
the highlights:
1. Teach a “systems” approach to electronics that is Unique Features
more in keeping with what technicians actually do
today, rather than in the past where component-level • Two chapters on systems concepts, including block
circuit work dominated. diagram, signal flow, and the big picture to under-
2. Reduce the amount of detailed circuit analysis and standing electronics.
design that technicians rarely if ever use on the job, • Three chapters on troubleshooting, including dc, ac
yet ensure the retention of essential fundamentals and and linear systems.
theories. Elimination of circuit analysis procedures • System sidebars. These sidebars are chapter supple-
such as branch, mesh, and nodal analysis and the ments that cover practical applications and related
superposition and Miller’s theorems. Elimination of systems to tie the theory and concepts being learned to
complex RLC circuit analysis. actual products and systems.
3. Ensure that all chapters reflect current components, • A companion lab manual has been created to present
technologies, methodologies, and applications. fundamentals in a modern way that is more in keeping
4. Minimize magnetic circuit theory, as technicians with what technicians will encounter in their jobs.
do not analyze or calculate magnetic products or
circuits. What’s in It for You and the Student?
5. Extensive reduction of bipolar junction transistor This textbook gives you the opportunity to update your first
(BJT) biasing and circuit analysis. two or three electronics fundamentals courses. The result
6. Increased coverage of MOSFETs, since over 90% of will be not only more modern and current course content
all electronic circuitry is made with MOSFETs in- but also an introduction to the concepts and approaches that
stead of BJTs. students will need for available jobs.
7. Increased coverage of ICs and their specifications The student will learn material relevant to available jobs and
and application. Addition of widely used ICs not what industry wants. More importantly, the student can focus
previously covered, such as class D switching power on significant concepts rather that waste time on excessive and
amplifiers, increased coverage of switch mode power unnecessary math and analysis. The result should be higher
supply circuits, and phase-locked loops. student interest and greater retention in these earlier courses.

xvi Preface to the Instructor

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xvi 1/11/13 5:23 PM

 Note to the Student

As you begin to study electronics in class and in this text- do the troubleshooting, testing, and other work. The objec-
book, you are bound to ask, “Why do I need to learn this?” tive of this text is to reduce the depth of coverage of the
There are several answers. For one, the content of a course fundamentals to the only those that you need to know. Other
and book are typically dictated by the course syllabus, the “nice to know” fundamentals and procedures, as well as
course description in the college catalog, and, to some ex- many analysis and design techniques, are either eliminated
tent, accrediting body requirements. Sometimes, the content or minimized to make room for more real-world content like
is based on what the instructors in the department think troubleshooting, system operation and more of the big pic-
should be taught. In a number of enlightened schools, even ture of electronics.
local industry has had an input. In any case, the content is Finally, pay particular attention to the lab work. Learn
commonly greater in depth and breadth than necessary for to use the test equipment and develop your troubleshoot-
the jobs in industry. ing skills on the lab experiments. And get as much hands-
Course and textbook content is designed to teach you on practice as possible by building kits, experimenting on
the fundamentals of the technology, so that you may un- your own, and becoming more involved with real electronics
derstand the operation and application of the devices and equipment. Then in each case try to match the fundamentals
equipment you will be working with. These fundamentals with each practical project or learning activity you encoun-
often do not seem to bear any relationship to the job you ter. In other words, apply what you are learning as soon as
will do in industry, but they will serve you well later as you you can.

xvii

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xvii 1/11/13 5:23 PM

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xviii 1/11/13 5:23 PM
 Acknowledgments

My special thanks to the following people who helped with Robert M. Deeb
this project: Southeastern Louisiana University
Mitchel Schultz, Dave Bates, and Albert Malvino for con- Christine Delahanty
tributing their books to this project. Bucks County Community College
Raghu Srinivasan, McGraw Hill Global Publisher–Engi-
neering/CS/Trade&Tech, for supporting the project. William I. Dolan
Kelly Lowery for her help in keeping me organized, mo- Kennebec Valley Community College
tivated, and on schedule.
Roger Eddy
Jean Starr for her patience and skill with the manuscript. Forsyth Technical Community College
Chet Gottfried for making the book as error-free as possible.
Colleen Miller for her photo work. Dan Fergen
Mitchell Technical Institute
Bill Hessmiller for his help with the tests, PowerPoints,
and other ancillary materials. Richard Fornes
Mike Lesiecki and Tom McGlew of the Maricopa Ad- Johnson College
vanced Technology Education Center in Phoenix for their
original NSF grant work and support with the “systems Gary George
approach” to electronics technology education. American River College
I would like to thank the following reviewers for taking Chris Haley
their valuable time to review this textbook and provide valu- North Georgia Technical College
able feedback and suggestions.
James W. Heffernan
Norman Ahlhelm Quinsigamond Community College
Central Texas College
Paul Hollinshead
Michael Beavers
Cochise Community College
Lake Land College
Patrick Hoppe
David Becker
Gateway Technical Co
Pittsburgh Technical Institute

Randolph Blatt David V Jones

Reading Area Community College Lenoir Community College

Stephen J. Cole M. Hugh King

Computer Network Technology Johnson County Community College

Cory Cooksey Stan Kohan

North Central Missouri College Richland College

Toby Cumberbatch Richard Le Blanc

The Cooper Union Benjamin Franklin Institute of Boston

xix

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xix 1/11/13 5:23 PM

 Dr. Shueh-Ji Lee Jess C. Sandoval
Grambling State University Oxnard Community College

Joe Morales Scott Segalewitz

Dona Ana Community College University of Dayton

Jerry Morehouse Guru Subramanyam

Career College of Northern Nevada University of Dayton

Yehuda Nishli David Turbeville

Career Institute of Health & Technology Angelina College

Chrys Panayiotou Charlie Williams

Indian River State College Cleveland Institute of Electronics

Thomas Patton Thomas Zach

The Community Colleges of Baltimore County Southwestern Illinois College

Philip Regalbuto Robert Zbikowski

Trident Technical College Hibbing Community College

Mike M Samadi
Dekalb Technical College

xx Acknowledgments

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xx 1/11/13 5:23 PM

 Walkthrough

C
ontemporary Electronics: Fundamentals,
Devices, Circuits, and Systems provides
the essential information students
need to become successful technicians Learning Outcomes
in the modern world. The content is illus- After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
trated by the accessible design with vivid Use a multimeter in measuring voltage, current,
diagrams and illustrations and review prob- and resistance in dc circuits.
lems that help reinforce the material that is Define an open and a short.
presented throughout each chapter. Identify when opens and shorts occur.
Identify defective components and/or connections
in dc circuits.
LEARNING OUTCOMES provide an overview of the Test for continuity in components, wires, cables,
chapter to help students focus on the main concepts and retain and connectors.
key information.
Troubleshoot wires, cables, and connectors.
Troubleshoot a dc system.
A F1, 25 A B C D E F Figure 13-10 Parallel circuit for
S1
troubleshooting analysis. (a) Normal
circuit values; (b) circuit values with
1 branch R2 open; (c) circuit values with
R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
VA 5 120 V I1 5 6 A I2 5 8 A I3 5 4 A I4 5 2 A
an open between points D and E;
2 (d ) circuit showing the effects of a
shorted branch.
20 A
K J I H G
M1
(a )

A F1, 25 A B
S1 C D E F
DIAGRAMS AND PHOTOS illustrate concepts and aid
student understanding of new material.
1 V1 5 120 V V2 5 120 V V3 5 120 V V4 5 120 V
VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 open R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 6 A I2 5 0 A I3 5 4 A I4 5 2 A

12 A
K J I H G
M1

(b )
fre7380X_ch13_211-231.indd 211
M2

120 V

1 2
A F1, 25 A B S1 C D Red Black E F

1 V1 5 120 V V2 5 120 V V35 0 V V4 5 0 V

VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 6 A I2 5 8 A I3 5 0 A I4 5 0 A

14 A
K J I H G
M1

(c )

M2

120 V

1 F blown 2
Red 1 Black
A B S1 C D E F

1 V1 5 0 V V2 5 0 V V3 5 0 V V4 5 0 V
VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 0 A I2 5 0 A I3 5 0 A I4 5 0 A

0A
K J I H G
M1

(d )

fre7380X_ch13_211-231.indd 219 1/9/13 11:47 AM

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 CHAPTER 13 SYSTEM SIDEBAR SYSTEM SIDEBARS cover prac-
tical applications to the related systems
DC Power System and help students connect the theory
A good example of a dc electrical system is that used in an powerboat with inboard or outboard motors or a sailboat and concepts being learned to actual
automobile or boat. Both are powered by batteries with sub- with an auxiliary motor. There are significant variations and
systems for charging, lights, motors, controls, electronics, a wide range of electrical features and accessories, but this products and systems. There are twenty-
and other accessories. This section describes a simplified ge- system describes all the most common equipment. Refer to six system sidebars integrated through-
neric boat electrical system as an example. This hypothetical Fig. S13-1.
system is typical of what you may find on a small (,35-ft) out the text, so students can apply what
they have learned.
224 Chapter 13

fre7380X_ch13_211-231.indd 224 1/9/13 11:47 AM

EXAMPLE 13-1

Assume that the series circuit in Fig. 13-5 has failed. A technician V3 5 I 3 R3
troubleshooting the circuit used a voltmeter to record the following 5 40 mA 3 180 V
resistor voltage drops. V3 5 7.2 V
V1 5 0 V V4 5 I 3 R4
V2 5 0 V 5 40 mA 3 150 V
V3 5 24 V V4 5 6 V
V4 5 0 V Next, compare the calculated values with those measured in Fig. 13-5.
When the circuit is operating normally, V1, V2, and V4 should measure
Based on these voltmeter readings, which component is defective
6 V, 4.8 V, and 6 V, respectively. Instead, the measurements made in
and what type of defect is it? (Assume that only one component
Fig. 13-5 show that each of these voltages is 0 V. This indicates that
is defective.)
the current I in the circuit must be zero, caused by an open some-
Answer: where in the circuit. The reason that V1, V2, and V4 are 0 V is simple:
EXAMPLES illustrate comprehen- To help understand which component is defective, let’s calculate
what the values of V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4 are supposed to be. Begin by
V 5 I 3 R. If I 5 0 A, then each good resistor must have a voltage
drop of 0 V. The measured value of V3 is 24 V, which is considerably
sive concepts and allow the students calculating R T and I. higher than its calculated value of 7.2 V. Because V3 is dropping the
full value of the applied voltage, it must be open. The reason the
to visualize how they can apply what RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 R4 open R3 will drop the full 24 V is that it has billions of ohms of resis-
they have learned. 5 150 V 1 120 V 1 180 V 1 150 V tance and, in a series circuit, the largest resistance drops the most
RT 5 600 V voltage. Since the open resistance of R3 is so much higher than the
V values of R 1, R2, and R4, it will drop the full 24 V of applied voltage.
I 5 ___T
RT
0V 0V
24 V
5 ______ R1 5 150 V R2 5 120 V
600 V
I 5 40 mA
Next, 1
V1 5 I 3 R1 V T 5 24 V
2
5 40 mA 3 150 V 0V 24 V
V1 5 6 V
V2 5 I 3 R2
R4 5 150 V R3 5 180 V
5 40 mA 3 120 V
V2 5 4.8 V Figure 13-5 Series circuit for Example 13-1.

TROUBLESHOOTING is the focus of

this textbook, in order to provide students
Ch a pt er 13 with the information they need to know to
help prepare them for their careers as tech-
DC Troubleshooting nicians. In addition to the system sidebars
that provide a practical application to the re-
lated systems, the author has provided three
chapters on troubleshooting: Chapter 13, “DC
Troubleshooting,” and Chapter 26, “AC Test-
ing and Troubleshooting,” and Chapter 41,
“Electronics Systems Troubleshooting.”

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fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xxii 1/11/13 5:23 PM

 REVIEW QUESTIONS are in- CHAPTER 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS
tended to reinforce the chapter learning
1. The main troubleshooting test instrument for dc sys- 3. The basic approach in dc troubleshooting could be
outcomes. The questions test students’ tems is a(n) described as
knowledge of the material as they read, a. oscilloscope. a. signal injection.
b. multimeter. b. effect to cause reasoning.
helping them identify areas that may c. clamp-on current meter. c. signal tracing.
need further study. d. neon test bulb. d. continuity checking.
2. The very first step in any troubleshooting procedure 4. Most dc system problems, excluding the voltage
is to source, are
a. acquire all necessary documentation. a. shorts or opens.
b. measure all source voltages. b. defective parts.
c. check the circuit breakers. c. corrosion.
d. verify that a problem actually exists. d. ground faults.

fre7380X_ch13_211-231.indd 226 1/9/13 11:47 AM

THE EXPERIMENTS MANUAL for use with Contem-

porary Electronics provides practical, hands-on knowledge
in the form of lab experiments and projects that will give stu-
dents valuable practice in handling components, building and
testing circuits, and using common test instruments.
This manual is divided into four major sections. Part 1
describes the equipment students will need and a basic proce-
dure for running the experiments. The other three sections are
divided into experiments associated with most major courses,
including material on dc circuits, ac circuits, and solid-state
devices with linear circuits.

THE ONLINE LEARNING Center features an out-

standing student and instructor support package:

• Online quizzes for each chapter.

• ExamView and EZ Test Questions for instructors
for each chapter.
• Instructor PowerPoint slides.
• An Instructor’s Manual with answers to chapter
questions and problems as well as guidelines for
the lab experiments and materials.

Visit the Online Learning Center for this

textbook at www.mhhe.com/frenzel1e.

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xxiii 1/11/13 5:23 PM

fre7380X_fm_i-xxiv.indd xxiv 1/11/13 5:24 PM
 Ch a pt er 1
Survey of Electronics

Learning Outcomes With this book, you are about to begin your study of
electronics. Your goal is no doubt a job and career in
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: electronics. You could not have chosen a better career
List the five major sectors of the electronics path. Not only is the electronics industry one of the
industry and name three examples of each. largest, most dynamic and exciting, but also it can be
Name the two major types of jobs in the electronics one of the most lucrative. Jobs continue to be plentiful,
industry. and there is a lifetime of interesting jobs to be had. The
Describe the kind of education that you will need electronics industry changes daily with a blizzard of in-
for each of the major job types. novative new products, components, technologies, and
Name the one thing that will keep your knowledge applications. This industry is one that will challenge you
and skills current during your career. as well as keep you interested. This chapter introduces
List the major players in the electronics industry you to the industry, as well as to the jobs and the edu-
and how they interact with one another. cation you will need to succeed.
Explain two ways in which all electronic circuits
can be represented.

fre7380X_ch01_001-014.indd 1 1/9/13 1:52 PM

 1.1 Life Impact worldwide at over $1.5 trillion. And the industry continues to
grow under the toughest economic conditions, attesting to its
Just so you understand how important electronics is to our
diversity and importance in our lives. To get a handle on how
lives, take a minute and think about how electronics affects
the industry is structured, it is best to divide it into segments,
you personally. As a starting point, do the following:
or areas of specialization. Then you can see how they are all
• Make a comprehensive list of all the electronic prod- interrelated. The five major divisions are components, com-
ucts and services you own and use daily. Do it now. munications, computers, control, and instrumentation. See
• Make an hour-by-hour diary especially identifying Fig. 1-1. All electronic equipment and applications fall into
things you do with electronics daily. Again, do it now. one of these sectors if not several.
Now, study your results. Are you astonished? Electronics is Components
so pervasive that we simply take most of it for granted. It Components are the individual parts that make up all circuits
just is. We are not surprised or amazed anymore by even the and equipment. These include resistors, capacitors, induc-
most sophisticated electronic devices although we use them tors, transformers, connectors, wire and cable, and printed
and perhaps covet some of them. And even common every- circuit boards. The largest segment of the components field
day appliances are loaded with electronics. is semiconductors like integrated circuits (chips), transistors,
Now think about where all that equipment comes from. diodes, solar cells, and many other specialty parts. These
Someone has to design and build it, sell it, install it, and parts are used by the engineers to design all types of elec-
otherwise support it. And it must usually be operated, main- tronic equipment.
tained, and serviced later. Lots of job opportunities are in-
volved. Electronics is fun and interesting, and many engage Communications
in electronics as a hobby. Maybe that is how you became in- The oldest and one of the largest segments of electronics is
terested in electronics. Electronics is a great hobby because communications. It began with the telegraph and telephone
it helps you learn while having fun. Table 1-1 lists the most in the mid- to late 1800s. In the early 1900s, radio was de-
popular electronic hobbies. If you do not have an electronics veloped, then the vacuum tube came along and the rest as
hobby, you should consider starting one, as it is engaging, they say is history. It was specifically the vacuum tube that
challenging, and educational. And more often than not your created the electronics industry as we know it today. The
hobby becomes your career. vacuum tube brought us amplification and electronic switch-
ing, neither of which existed in the telegraph and telephone.
1.2 Major Segments of the Later on we got TV, satellites, and many other communica-
Electronics Industry tions applications. Broadcast radio and TV dominated the
The electronics industry is enormous and diverse. One es- early years, then two-way radio became commonplace, and
timate has the total of all electronic goods sold annually radar was invented during World War II.

Table 1-1 Popular Electronic Hobbies

1. Amateur radio. Amateur radio operators, or hams, build and operate radio equipment to make contact with other hams to
exchange signal reports, technical information, and personal experiences. A Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
license is required.
2. Computers. Computer hobbyists build personal computers, write programs, work with peripheral equipment, interface com-
puters to other gadgets, and boost computer performance. Software and programming are a major part of this hobby.
3. Robots. Building and experimenting with robots has become a huge hobby in the past few years.
4. Model radio control. Building model airplanes, boats, cars, and other objects that can be controlled remotely by radio will
also get your outdoors.
5. Audio. Building and experimenting with high-fidelity stereo and surround sound equipment, speakers, and music is popular.
Electronic music instruments and sound systems are also a part of this hobby.
6. Home entertainment centers. Building and using high-definition television and audio systems are indoor hobbies. Cable TV,
satellite TV, Internet TV, wireless connectivity, gaming, and 3D TV are popular elements of this hobby.
7. Home monitoring and control. Electronic components and systems to monitor and control heating and air conditioning,
lighting, appliances, and electrical systems (sprinklers, garage doors, security, etc.) provide energy savings, safety, and
convenience.
8. General experimenting. Curiosity can lead to kit building, miscellaneous projects, and experimentation with various electronic
gadgets and equipment.

2 Chapter 1

fre7380X_ch01_001-014.indd 2 1/9/13 1:52 PM

 Electronics
Industry

Components Communications Computers Control Instrumentation

Integrated circuits Internet Super computers Industrial automation Test equipment

Transistors Cell phones Mainframes Robots Test systems
Diodes Radios Servers (networks) Appliances Data acquisition
Resistors Televisions Personal computers Home control Medical
Capacitors Telephones Peripheral equipment Security Telemetry
Inductors Satellites Embedded controllers Toys Scientific, laboratory
Transformers Cable TV Special purpose such Automotive
Connectors Networks as industrial or military

Printed circuits Wireless systems

Wire and cable Consumer entertainment

Figure 1-1 The major sectors of the electronics industry.

Communications refers to all the various types of wired problems. Other large powerful computers are the main-
and wireless technologies you use every day. Typical wired frames that still serve the data processing needs of large
technologies include cable TV, computer networks, the business and government. Small but very powerful com-
telephone system, and the Internet. Typical wireless com- puters known as servers are the workhorse of our computer
munication technologies include radio of all types, includ- networks, from the Internet to local area networks to which
ing broadcast and two-way radio, cell phones, satellites, and most computers are connected today. The personal com-
wireless networks. Today the communications industry con- puter is probably the most visible and widespread. Laptop
tinues to dominate with the huge telecommunications sys- computers have now passed desktop personal computers in
tem, the Internet and networking, and of course the huge total volume of computers shipped. The tablet market is also
wireless industry with its cell phones, wireless networks, and growing, taking market share from laptops.
links of all kinds. Leading the industry is the smartphone But the real breakthrough was the single-chip computer
like the Apple iPhone and others that are not only phones but with the processor, memory, and input/output circuitry in
also full-blown computers in a handset with Internet access one integrated circuit. This device, called an embedded con-
and other communications features. troller or microcontroller, permits the power of a computer
to be packaged into other electronic devices, expanding their
Computers functionality, versatility, and power. Today, virtually every
Computers didn’t really come along until World War II and electronic product in existence contains an embedded con-
later. And these were the huge vacuum tube monsters called troller as its central control point. These small computers
mainframes. Transistors and integrated circuits made them handle all monitoring and control functions in cell phones,
smaller, faster, and better. During the 1970s, thanks to digi- TV sets, DVD players, and MP3 music players. In fact, you
tal integrated circuits (ICs), we got the minicomputers. Then can say that every electronic piece of equipment made today
later in the 1970s the microcomputer was created. This put is simply an embedded microcontroller surrounded by pe-
most of a computer’s circuitry on a single chip of silicon. ripheral devices that perform the functions of the equipment.
Called a microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU), This puts computers everywhere, in our cars, consumer
it formed the basis for newer personal computers. They cre- electronics products, and appliances. It is impossible to
ated a whole new industry making computers available and name an electronic product that does not contain one. As you
affordable for everyone. Today, PCs, laptops, and tablets are will find out, all electronic products are mainly an embed-
as common as the TV set. ded controller surrounded by other circuits that customize it
The computer segment encompasses an enormous range to the specific application.
of different types of computers. Computers process data. The computer part of the electronics industry is also huge
The largest and most powerful (meaning fast with lots of but dispersed. And with computers readily available in all
storage) computers are known as supercomputers that solve forms from mainframes to PCs and to micros on a chip, the
massively difficult scientific, engineering, and mathematical focus in the industry has turned to software. Software is the

Survey of Electronics 3

fre7380X_ch01_001-014.indd 3 1/9/13 1:52 PM

 term used to describe the programs that a computer uses to largest categories is test equipment, such as meters, oscil-
perform as desired. There continues to be a great demand for loscopes, signal generators, spectrum analyzers, and other
people who can program computers. general-purpose instruments that are used to test and mea-
sure all other electronic equipment. Test systems used for
Control automated component or equipment testing for complete
Control is a huge and diverse part of electronics. Think of systems also fall into this category.
electronics as that field of science that is used to monitor and Instrumentation and measurement also include the cat-
control physical functions. Monitoring means observing and egory known as data acquisition, by which systems are used
measuring physical things like temperature, pressure, me- to collect data from a variety of sensors and other sources.
chanical position, liquid level, or light intensity. Sensors turn A major segment of instrumentation and measurement is
these physical characteristics into electrical signals that can medical diagnosis and testing. Medical instruments measure
be processed by electronic circuits. We may want to record EEG, EKG, temperature, blood characteristics, and chemi-
the physical phenomena or, better still, use the information cal compositions and include MRI, CT, and x-ray machines.
they provide as signals to tell electronic circuits what to do. Some examples of instrumentation besides generic test
That is the control part. equipment are the instruments in a jet aircraft, the electron-
Control is simply the execution of various duties with ics in a chemical or process control plant, or an automated
electronic circuits. Some common control functions are test system for cell phones.
turning lights off or on, turning motors off or on, operating
pumps or valves, or controlling the transmission of data over 1.3 A Converged Industry
a network. As you can see, the electronics industry is enormous and
Electronic controls are everywhere, in home appliances, diverse. Yet all these segments of electronics have a signifi-
cars and trucks, vending machines, military weapons, air- cant impact on our lives. They provide us with instantaneous
craft of all types, and most factories. Think of robots, garage information and communications, speed up and simplify our
door openers, traffic lights, remote keyless entry on a car, work with computers, and protect us at home and office.
and the autopilot on a unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The While we still view electronics as being comprised of
examples are broad and diverse. these basic sectors, as you can easily see, there are lots of
Monitoring and control is a very large segment of elec- crossovers and overlaps. The different segments converge in
tronics involved in performing monitoring operations of var- different devices and applications. Tablet computers contain
ious physical characteristics. Components called sensors or wireless transceivers to connect to hot spots or the cellular
transducers are used to measure temperature, light intensity, network, and iPods and MP3 music players contain a control
pressure, and literally hundreds of other physical character- computer and lots of memory to store songs. Factory auto-
istics. These measurements are then used in control systems mation and control systems contain instrumentation, com-
to activate appliances, robots, chemical plants, automotive puters, and networking for communications. And almost
systems, and hundreds of other devices. The signals being everything contains an embedded controller. Home appli-
monitored are processed in various ways, and embedded ances like washers, dryers, refrigerators, dishwashers, blend-
controllers or computers produce outputs that control other ers, toasters, coffeemakers, and most others are all loaded
devices, such as factory automation, manufacturing plants, with electronic controls. Our consumer entertainment equip-
security systems, appliances, and toys. ment like HD TV sets, DVD players, cable and satellite TV
sources, stereo audio systems, and others are totally elec-
Instrumentation tronic. The modern automobile contains an ever-increasing
Instrumentation is that segment of electronics involved with number of electronic components, control systems, and
testing electronic circuits and equipment or other equipment safety features. It is difficult to name something today that
using electronics and in making precise measurements of does not include some electronic segment. Nevertheless, it is
electrical and electronic signals. Working in electronics, you still best to keep these divisions separate in your mind as you
will eventually use a wide variety of electronic test instru- decide what interests you most and how you wish to focus in
ments like multimeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators, your electronics career.
and analyzers of all sorts. You cannot design, build, trouble-
shoot, or service electronic equipment without the need to 1.4 Jobs and Careers in the
measure voltage, current, power, frequency, or other elec- Electronics Industry
tronic characteristics. As you saw in the previous section, the electronics industry is
Instrumentation and measurement relate to precisely and roughly divided into five major specializations. The largest in
accurately measuring electronic characteristics. One of the terms of people employed and the dollar value of equipment

4 Chapter 1

fre7380X_ch01_001-014.indd 4 1/9/13 1:52 PM

 purchased is the communications field, closely followed by a technician, you need to look at not only the job titles given
the computer field. The components, industrial control, and above but also those using the terms mechanic, installer, as-
instrumentation fields are considerably smaller. Hundreds of sociate, assistant, assembler, manufacturing tester, trouble-
thousands of people are employed in these fields, and bil- shooter, and similar titles.
lions of dollars’ worth of equipment is purchased each year. Technicians can also be involved in engineering. Engi-
The growth rate varies from year to year depending on the neers may use one or more technicians to assist in the design
economy, technological developments, and other factors. All of equipment. They build and troubleshoot prototypes and
segments of electronics have grown steadily over the years, in many cases actually participate in equipment design. A
creating a relatively constant opportunity for employment. great deal of the work involves testing and measuring. In
If your interests lie in electronics, you will be glad to know this capacity, the technician is known as an engineering
that there are many opportunities for long-term jobs and ca- technician, lab technician, engineering assistant, or associ-
reers. This section outlines the types of jobs available and ate engineer. Engineering technician positions were once
the major kinds of employers. widely available, but because of the widespread use of ICs
The two major types of technical positions available in and design software, engineers rarely need technicians to the
the electronics field are engineer and technician. extent they once did. Engineering technician jobs are rarely
available today.
Engineers Technicians are also employed in manufacturing. They
Engineers design electronic components, equipment, and may be involved in the actual building and assembling of
systems. Engineers work from specifications and create new the equipment but, more typically, are concerned with final
components, equipment, or systems that are then manufac- testing, measurement, and quality assessment of the finished
tured. For example, some engineers specialize in integrated products. Other positions involve quality control or repair
circuit design. They use sophisticated computer software of defective units. Online and telephone help and support is
called electronic design automation (EDA) to create the de- another common opportunity.
tailed circuits that ultimately become the chips making up the Technicians are the hands-on electronic workers. Their
electronic equipment we use. Other engineers use the chips duties involve the equipment and systems and their service,
and other components to design the electronic end products installation, maintenance, calibration, and repair. Techni-
like cell phones, DVD players, network routers, industrial cians do not design or do any significant amount of analy-
controllers, or medical instruments like a pacemaker. sis. Therefore, their knowledge of math and science does not
But while most engineers specialize in design, others have to be as great as that of an engineer. Practical hands-on
work in manufacturing, testing, quality control, and man- job training, work experience, and specific equipment or sys-
agement, among other areas. Engineers may also serve as tem training are far more important.
field service personnel, installing and maintaining complex
equipment and systems. If your interest lies in the design of Other Technical Positions
electronic equipment, then an engineering position may be There are many jobs in the electronics industry other than
for you. those of engineer or technician. For example, there are
It is important to note that what engineers do is design and many outstanding jobs in technical sales. Selling complex
analyze. They use their heavy math and science knowledge electronic equipment or systems usually requires a strong
to model electronic circuits and systems and use computer technical education and background. The work may in-
software to simulate the behavior of circuits, equipment, and volve determining customer needs and related equipment
systems. While engineers do indeed work with the end prod- specifications, writing technical proposals, making sales
ucts they design and analyze, mostly they work at this higher presentations to customers, and attending conferences and
abstract level. exhibits where equipment is sold. The pay potential in sales
is generally much higher than in the engineering or service
Technicians positions.
Technicians are most often employed in service jobs. The Another position is that of technical writer. Technical
work typically involves equipment installation, trouble- writers generate the technical documentation for electronic
shooting and repair, testing and measuring, maintenance equipment and systems, producing installation and service
and calibration, or operation. Technicians in such positions manuals, maintenance procedures, and customer operations
are sometimes called field service technicians, field service manuals. Most of this material is web-based today. This im-
engineers, or customer representatives. Today, the jobs for portant task requires considerable depth of education and
technicians are so diverse that the generic term electronic experience as well as a knack for writing, organizing, and
technician is rarely used. When you are looking for a job as categorization.

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 Finally, there is the position of trainer. Engineers and High school
technicians are often used to train other engineers and tech- graduate

nicians or customers. With the high degree of complexity

Community
that exists in electronic equipment today, there is a major college
need for training. Many individuals find education and train-
Preengineering
ing positions to be very desirable and satisfying. The work Transfer associate degree
typically involves development of curriculum and programs,
generating the necessary training manuals, presentation ma- 4-year engineering
college or university
terials and lab exercises, creating online training, and con-
ducting classroom training sessions in-house, online, or at a BSEE or BSET
customer site. Job in industry

1.5 Engineering and Technology Graduate

school
Education
To get a good job in electronics today, you need some for- MSEE
Job in industry
mal postsecondary education at a college or university. This
education varies widely with the type of job but can be cat- MBA
Job in business
egorized as engineering education or technology education. Graduate
They are similar because they both involve electronics, but school
they are not the same simply because the jobs they prepare
the graduates for are so vastly different and require differ- PhD Job in industry
or academia
ent levels of knowledge and skills. Education is essential to
being successful in getting a job in electronics, but it is also Figure 1-2 Educational paths for engineers.
the one single ingredient of continuing success in the field.
Continuing personal education is the key to staying on the
top of your job and field. Some engineers have a bachelor’s degree in electronics
technology from a technical college or university. Some typ-
Engineering Education ical degree titles are bachelor of technology (BT), bachelor
Engineers need a bachelor’s (BSEE), master’s (MSEE), or of engineering technology (BET), and bachelor of science in
doctoral (PhD) degree in electrical or electronic engineer- engineering technology (BSET.)
ing. Figure 1-2 shows the general paths through college to Bachelor of technology degrees often begin with a two-
a job. Such an education starts with a strong science and year associate degree program followed by two additional
mathematics background, including physics, chemistry, cal- years required for a bachelor of technology degree. Dur-
culus, statistics, and other advanced math courses. This is ing those last two years, the student takes more complex
followed by specialized education in electronic circuits and electronics courses along with additional science, math,
equipment. The education is largely design- and analysis- and humanities courses. The main difference between the
oriented with an emphasis on computer simulation and soft- BT graduate and the BSEE engineering graduate is that
ware development. the technologist usually takes courses that are more practi-
Some jobs require additional education beyond the bach- cal and hands on than engineering courses. Holders of BT
elor’s degree. Figure 1-2 shows the path to graduate school degrees can generally design electronic equipment and sys-
that may include more advanced electrical or electronic tems, but do not typically have the depth of background in
courses leading to a master of science in electrical engineer- analytical mathematics or science that is required for com-
ing (MSEE) degree. This prepares you for more advanced plex design jobs. However, BT graduates are generally em-
jobs with better pay. An alternative path is to pursue a mas- ployed as engineers. Although many do design work, others
ter in business administration (MBA) degree. Some BSEE are employed in engineering positions in manufacturing and
graduates find that their greater interest lies in the business field service rather than design.
side of the industry, such as finance, economics, marketing Although a degree in electrical engineering is generally the
and sales, or management. minimum entrance requirement for engineering jobs in most
A doctorate degree or doctor of philosophy (PhD) is an organizations, people with other educational backgrounds
advanced degree usually with a specialization in one spe- (e.g., physics and math) also become engineers. Technicians
cific area of electronics. It is the path to take to emphasize who obtain sufficient additional education and appropriate
research or teaching. experience may go on to become engineers as well.

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 Technology Education usually not able to transfer to an engineering degree pro-
Technology education is usually less stringent in the areas of gram. If you decide to become an engineer, you must liter-
math and science and more practical than engineering edu- ally start over at an engineering school because of the big
cation. Usually less education is required to be a technician differences in math and science backgrounds needed. That
than an engineer. Engineers do far more math, design, and is a choice few make because the BSET degree is far faster
analysis, making their jobs far more mental. Technician jobs to achieve and the chance of working as an engineer just as
do not require the heavy math, science, and analytical back- good in most cases.
ground, but they do require clear logical thinking as well as Many BSET graduates do go on to some kind of engi-
good hands-on skills. neering job. Another path is an MBA degree if a business
Technicians have some kind of postsecondary educa- slant to your education is desired. Another alternative is a
tion in electronics, from a vocational or technical school, master in technology (MT) degree, which is available at a
a community college, or a technical institute. The typical limited number of colleges and universities. Such degrees
technology education paths are illustrated in Fig. 1-3. Many generally focus on teaching or some specialty subject.
technicians are also educated in military training pro-
grams. Most technicians have an average of two years of Continuing Education
formal post-high school education and an associate degree. Continuing education refers to the education you obtain
Common degrees are associate in arts (AA), associate in after graduating from college. And don’t think it is not nec-
science (AS), or associate of science in engineering technol- essary. You should know up front that you cannot survive in
ogy (ASET) or associate of science in electronic engineer- the field of electronics without a continuous process of per-
ing technology (ASEET), and associate in applied science sonal self-education. Electronics changes fast and furiously.
(AAS). The AAS degree tends to cover more occupational New components, products, technologies, and methods are
and job-related subjects; the AA and AS degrees are more developed daily, and all have an impact on how products
general and are designed to provide a foundation for transfer are designed and used. Usually what was current yesterday
to a bachelor degree program. The math level is typically is often obsolete tomorrow. You always need to know the
algebra and trigonometry, rather than calculus although latest products and techniques to stay competitive in your
some AAS programs may require an introduction to calcu- job. When you enter the electronics field, consider the fact
lus. As for science, AAS programs do not commonly require that you will immediately need to engage in some form of
engineering-level physics or chemistry although some intro- continuing education as soon as possible. The half-life of
ductory courses may be included. an engineering or technology degree is only a few years
Technicians with an associate degree from a commu- today, meaning that within those few years, half of what you
nity college can usually transfer to a bachelor of technology learned will be obsolete or irrelevant. That may be depress-
program and complete the bachelor’s degree in another two ing to some extent, but think of the bright side. Learning new
years. Just keep in mind that associate degree holders are stuff is fun, and that is half the excitement with electronics.

High school Figure 1-3 Educational paths for

graduate technicians.

Community college
or technical institute

AAS
4-year technology Transfer
Military training Job in industry
college or university

Transfer to 4-year
BSET engineering school
Job in industry Job in industry NOT PERMITTED

Graduate school

MT
Job in industry or academia
MBA
Job in business

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 There is always something new, interesting, and exciting to telephone connection for audio. They are like a lecture and
learn and get involved with. Besides learning more usually typically run about an hour. The subject is very focused, but
means earning more. there are lots of them online. Many are sponsored by com-
Where do you get continuing education? Outlined below panies which want to promote the use of their products in
are the most common sources that most engineers and tech- new designs. These are mostly free, so do as many as time
nicians use today. allows, assuming they are relevant.

Advanced Degrees Books Books are still a good choice for self-education. You
If you have an AAS degree, think of going back to school to rarely need to read the entire book anyway. Mostly if you can
get a BSET degree. If you live near a college or university find the books related to the subject you want to read, you
that will accept your previous college work, you are gener- will buy them for reference and specific knowledge. Check
ally halfway to the bachelor’s degree anyway. Maybe you out your local bookstore and especially the college bookstore
can even complete the degree at night, and amazingly many for relevant materials. Also search for the books you want
employers will help you pay for that. online by going to sites like Amazon or Barnes & Noble. Go
If you already have a bachelor’s degree, think of going for directly to technical book publishers websites to see what is
a master’s degree. Your BSEE or BSET will lead you to an available. Some good technical book publishers are Artech
MSEE or MT as described earlier. House, Elsevier, McGraw-Hill, Morgan Kauffman, Newnes,
A good option for both BSEE and BSET degree holders Prentice Hall, and Wiley. Also look for good used books to
is a master of business administration (MBA). If you decide save a few dollars.
you like the business side of electronics more than the tech- Magazines There are lots of electronic magazines written
nical side, this is a good choice. You can parlay that degree for engineers and technicians. These are what are called con-
into very high end marketing, financial, or management trolled circulation magazines or business-to-business (B2B)
positions. magazines. They are free to the subscriber and are paid for
A PhD is the ultimate degree in engineering, but it is by advertisers who want to get their products in front of a
rarely worth the long process and very high cost. If you plan targeted audience like engineers. These magazines come out
to teach engineering or do advanced research, then you will at least monthly and sometimes two times a month. Many
need it, of course. For most good jobs a master’s is more than also include online newsletters weekly. These magazines
enough today. have in-depth technical articles, new product information,
and a whole range of business- and technology-related in-
Alternative Forms of Education
formation. Subscribe and read them regularly. Some popular
In addition to adding a degree, there are other methods for electronic magazines for engineers are Electronic Design,
continuing education or staying current. EDN, EETimes, and Electronic Products. The IEEE Spec-
University Courses Sometimes you only need to take a course trum is a great magazine, but it does require that you be a
here or there to learn what you need. You can take regular uni- member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engi-
versity courses toward a master’s degree or university-sponsored neers (IEEE), a professional association you should eventu-
continuing education courses. ally look into after graduation.
Don’t forget the hobby-oriented electronic magazines.
Seminars Many companies offer specialized seminars. These are excellent on the practical side as they cover not only
Such seminars last from two days to a week and focus on a theory and practice but often include construction projects.
specialty like programming skills, RF design, or computer A couple of popular electronic magazines are Circuit Cellar,
networking. You will have to ferret these out for yourself Elector, Make, and Nuts & Volts. Amateur radio magazines
with Internet searches or magazine announcements, but often like CQ, QEX, and QST are also excellent sources of new
they will be just what you need on the job. Many employers learning. These are paid subscriptions but worth the price.
will pay for them.
The Internet If you ask any working engineer or technician
Company-Sponsored Classes Many larger companies offer
how and where he or she learns new stuff, their first answer
internal courses for their employees. Training employees
is usually, “The Internet.” The Internet offers a huge world-
helps the company. You should take as many of these as you
wide source of information and learning materials. And it is
can, depending how relevant they are to your situation and
free in most cases. All you have to do is search for it. You
available time.
have probably already done some of this so it may already
Webinars Webinars are online seminars. They consist of be second nature. Just type in what you want to know; do a
a presentation over the Internet via PC and sometimes a Google, Yahoo, or Bing search; and within seconds you will

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 have at your fingertips just what you want. Maybe. You may The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also of-
have to refine your search to zero in, but it is most likely fers its popular general radiotelephone operators license
there in the form of a Wikipedia report, magazine article, (GROL) that is obtained by passing a comprehensive exam
technical paper, company white paper, or application note or on electronic fundamentals, communications techniques,
other. It could even be a free online tutorial or website. Start and FCC rules and regulations. It is required for working on
using the Internet now while you are in school to reinforce certain types of radio equipment but is also useful as a job-
what you are learning or get a different perspective or con- getting credential. There are also many specialty certifica-
firm how something works from another source. tions in the fields of communications and industrial control.
After you get your AAS degree, a good next step is a license
Manufacturers Resources Component and equipment manu- or certification that will go a long way to giving you new
facturers want you to buy their products, so they offer tons of knowledge as you prepare for the exams but also a great cre-
literature to help sell them. Most of this is on the Internet, but dential that is appreciated by many employers.
some is available in hard copy like data sheets, brochures,
reference manuals, books, or other literature, usually free Hobby and Personal Experimentation Finally, don’t forget
for the asking. Then there are the usual massive databases that just enjoying electronics as a hobby can lead to learn-
on their websites. Most offer product data sheets, applica- ing and experience. While you cannot really document such
tion notes, white papers, and tutorials—all available for free. involvement or claim it as experience, the knowledge and
Here is one other resource you can begin using to educate skills you gain are invaluable and show up in your work. So
yourself. don’t hesitate to build your own lab bench and build kits and
things of your own design. Become involved with embedded
Licensing and Certification Programs There are numerous controllers, personal computers, robots, radio, audio, video,
programs that offer to prepare you for a wide range of cer- or whatever interests you.
tifications, licenses or registration. Engineers can seek reg-
istration in their state as a professional engineer (PE). You
have to be a BSEE graduate, have a certain number of years 1.6 The Major Employers
of experience as an engineer, and pass a rigorous exam. It The overall structure of the electronic industry is shown in
is a tough process, but you learn a great deal in the process Fig. 1-4. The four major segments of the industry are manu-
of preparing. Having a PE license opens new doors of em- facturers, resellers, service organizations, and end users.
ployment and higher pay. For most jobs a PE license is not
required. Manufacturers
There are similar programs for technicians. Numerous It all begins, of course, with customer needs. Manufacturers
organizations offer certification programs that examine your translate customer needs into products and purchase compo-
knowledge and experience to certify you as knowledge- nents and materials from other companies to use in creating
able and proficient in your field. Generic certifications are the products. Note that there are three types of manufac-
offered by organizations like the International Society for turers: component, equipment, and system manufacturers.
the Certification of Electronic Technicians (ISCET) and the Component manufacturers buy the raw materials like cop-
Electronic Technicians Association–International (ETA-I). per and other metals, plastic, and chemicals to create the

Distributors, Figure 1-4 The structure of the

wholesalers, Service electronics industry.
and sales rep companies
organizations

Electronic Customers
Raw Component
equipment and
materials manufacturers
manufacturers end users

System
integrators

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 various resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers. End Users
Semiconductor manufacturers buy silicon and other materi- The end user is the ultimate customer—and a major em-
als like germanium, gallium, arsenic, phosphorus, indium, ployer. Today, almost every person and organization is an
and other chemicals to make the transistors, diodes, and in- end user of electronic equipment. The major categories of
tegrated circuits. end users are:
Then there are the equipment manufacturers that make
complete products, which may be computers, cell phones, • Consumers
TV sets, cable boxes, military radios and radars, or auto- • Government (national, state, county, and city)
mobile components like ignitions, fuel injectors, and fuel • Military
control computers. You will often hear these companies • Transportation (airlines, railroads, trucking, and
referred to as original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). shipping)
Engineers design the products and manufacturing produces • Education (schools, colleges, and universities)
them. There are jobs for engineers, technicians, production
• Hospitals and health care organizations
workers, salespeople, field service personnel, technical writ-
• General business
ers, and trainers.
The final category is system manufacturers or integra- • Industry, manufacturing, process control, and
tors that put together larger, more complex systems like pro- automation.
cesses controls for petroleum processing, military aircraft, • Telecommunications (telephone, broadcast, satellite,
or satellite systems like GPS. Other system examples are air cellular, and networking)
traffic control, broadband Internet access, wireless base sta- What you will most likely find is that most of the good elec-
tions, and electrical utility monitoring and control. Again, tronic technician jobs are not directly in the electronics in-
there are many jobs for engineers and technicians. dustry itself but in the end user category.
Resellers 1.7 Where Are You Headed?
Manufacturers that do not sell products directly to the end Hopefully this chapter has given you some ideas and at
users sell the products to reselling organizations, which in least a working knowledge of the industry. And if you did
turn sell them to the end user. For example, a manufacturer not have any idea of what you wanted to do in electronics,
of marine communication equipment may not sell directly perhaps you now have a better feel for what is available and
to a boat owner but instead to a regional distributor or ma- what you may be doing on the job. If not, then continue to
rine electronics store or shop. This shop not only sells the explore the field on your own, so when you do graduate from
equipment but also takes care of installation, service, and college, you will have a starting point. Once you get some
repairs. A cellular telephone or copy machine manufacturer real-world experience, you may want to change and you will
also typically sells to a distributor or dealer that takes care readily identify new jobs and opportunities as you work.
of sales and service. Most of the jobs available in the re- One key to success in electronics is to find the most prom-
selling segment of the industry are in sales, service, and ising emerging technologies and find or prepare for jobs in
training. those areas where the growth will be greatest. When growth
Other sales organizations are sales representatives that is fast, many jobs open up as do opportunities for learning
sell components or equipment, or system integrators that buy and advancement. Some of the more promising areas offer-
equipment from others and assemble it into a more complex ing potential future growth are:
system for a specific application.
• Alternative energy. Solar, wind, geothermal, and other
Service Organizations so-called green energy jobs are sparse now but slowly
These companies usually perform some kind of service, such increasing and will ultimately offer some interesting
as repair, installation, or maintenance. One example is an new opportunities.
avionics company that does installation or service work on • Biomedical. The health care industry is huge and still
electronic equipment for private planes. Another is a systems growing. Electronic equipment is an enormous part of
integrator, a company that designs and assembles a piece of this industry.
communication equipment or more often an entire system by • Wireless. The cellular industry continues its amazing
using the products of other companies. Systems integrators growth with many opportunities.
put together systems to meet special needs and customize • Broadband Internet connectivity. Cable TV and
existing systems for particular jobs. Best Buy and similar broadband wireless services are also growing. Fiber
retail organizations also perform service and repair. optics is a continuing growth area.

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 • Electric utilities. Retiring baby-boom generation person- Inputs Processes Outputs
Compact disc (CD)
nel are leaving this legacy field wide open. The emer-
gence of the smart grid and alternative energy sources
makes electric utility jobs more exciting than ever. Process

Amplification,
formatting,
1.8 How Electronic Equipment and digital-to-analog Speakers
conversion,
Circuits Work Laser Photo power amplification
light detector
The study of electronics is one of learning electrical theo-
ries, electronic device characteristics, and circuit operation.
But before venturing into those details, here is a simplified
overview of how all electronic gadgets work.
Figure 1-7 A compact disc (CD) player.
Figure 1-5 shows the big picture. It is a relatively simple
concept overall but becomes more complex as you dig deeper
into the various elements. Inputs that are electrical signals
representing some type of information—such as voice,
that normally covered by a human voice. A person speaks
video, sensor data, computer data, or other intelligence—
into a microphone. The microphone is a sensor that gener-
are applied to circuits or equipment to be processed. These
ates electric voltage that represents the voice. The voice volt-
signals are voltages. A voltage is an electrical quantity that
age is amplified by several amplifier circuits, and a larger
causes current to flow. The overall goal in electronics is to
stronger voice signal is generated. This output signal is ap-
create the input voltages and then process them into other
plied to one or more speakers. The speaker is a transducer
voltages called outputs. The result is some useful end result.
that converts the signal into sound waves.
The processing takes many forms. Some common pro-
Another example is shown in Fig. 1-7. A compact disc
cesses are amplification, attenuation, filtering, computation,
(CD) player gets its inputs from a compact disk which has
conversion, decision making, interpretation, or translation.
embedded music or other sounds. A laser light is shined on
The process then generates new output signals that do some-
the bottom of the spinning CD, and reflections from the em-
thing useful.
bedded music produce digital or pulse signals in the photo
A simple example is given in Fig. 1-6. This public address
detector. These signals are then amplified, converted, and
system allows sound to be distributed over a wider area than
translated into the audio signals that drive the speakers or
headphones. A DVD player works the same way, although
Inputs Outputs
the information on the DVD disc includes video and audio.
Voltages Process(es) Voltages
The outputs are audio to speakers and video to a liquid-
crystal display (LCD) or other TV screen.
A computer or laptop is a good example. See Fig. 1-8.
Amplify
Attenuate The inputs to the computer are voltages developed from key-
Convert boards, mouse, disk drives, digital cameras, microphones,
Compute
Make decisions
video cameras, or the Internet. These inputs are stored in a
Interpret memory and processed by the computer in some way. The
Translate processing is defined by software. Software consists of many
programs that define how to process the inputs and create
Figure 1-5 A model of all electronic circuits or equipment.
new outputs. These programs are also stored in a memory.
The computer then generates output signals that drive the
Process LCD screen, speakers, disk drives, a printer, or other pe-
Speakers ripheral device. The computer also works with modems
Microphone OUTPUT
voltage and interfaces to connect to networks and the Internet. The
INPUT
diagram in Fig. 1-8 is also representative of the new tablet
voltage computers.
Amplifiers
An industrial control example is given in Fig. 1-9. A tank
holds a liquid for some type of chemical process that is part
of manufacturing an end product. The liquid must be kept
at a specific temperature, so a heating element is attached to
Figure 1-6 A public address system. the bottom of the tank and a temperature sensor is used to

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 Figure 1-8 A complete example of the Inputs Processes Outputs

electronics model. Keyboard

Mouse Video monitor

Disk drives Personal computer Printer

• Central processor
• Memory
Digital or
• Input/output Disk drives
video camera

Internet Speakers/
Modem
headphones
Software
Network
Interface

Figure 1-9 An industrial control example of Liquid-level Temperature

sensor sensor
the electronics model. Intake Outlet
valve valve
Liquid
Liquid
To next
Heating process
source element

Tank

Computer or control
circuits

measure the temperature. The tank also has an output valve 1.9 An Electrical View of Electronics
that can be opened to allow the liquid to pass on to the next
Another way to view electronic circuits is shown in Fig. 1-10.
process. An input valve lets more liquid into the tank as it
It begins with a voltage source. Remember that a voltage is
drains. A liquid-level sensor is used to detect when the tank
a form of electric energy that causes current to flow. The
is full.
In this example, the inputs come from the temperature
sensor and liquid-level sensor. The outputs are the heating
Input
element, input valve, and the output valve. These inputs and
outputs attach to a computer or some specialized control cir-
cuit. If the liquid-level sensor detects that the tank is not full, Control element
or circuit
it tells the control circuit to open the input valve and let the
liquid in. The input valve is closed when the tank is full. The
process here is decision making based on the liquid level. Voltage source
Useful
When the tank is full, the controller next reads the tem- Input (causes current Load
output
to flow)
perature. If the liquid is not hot enough, it generates a signal
that turns on the heating element until the desired higher
temperature is reached. The control circuits turn off the
heater. Finally, a signal to the output valve opens it to let the Interconnecting wires
liquid flow to the next stage of the process. All the process- Current flow
ing is built into a program in a computer or an electronic
circuit. Figure 1-10 An electric current model of electronics.

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 voltage is an input. Current is electrons, subatomic particles ON/OFF switch (control)

that move through wires and electric components. The cur-

rent flows through a load that produces the desired output.
Some form of control element or circuit is used to vary the Battery ⫹ Light-emitting
(voltage source diode (LED)
current in some way to produce the desired output. Another or input) ⫺
input causes the desired control. As indicated earlier, the
whole objective of electronic circuits is to use a voltage to
(a)
create current that is then controlled in a specific way to pro-
duce an output in the load. Input
Some simple examples are given in Fig. 1-11. Figure 1-11a
shows a flashlight. The voltage comes from a battery. The load
is a light-emitting diode (LED). A simple on-off switch is the Speed
control circuit
control element. In Fig. 1-11b, the standard alternating current
(ac) voltage from a wall outlet is the voltage source. The load AC power
line M Drill motor
is the motor on an electric drill. The speed is controlled by an
(Input)
electric circuit that varies the current in the motor.
While these are simple examples, they illustrate the con-
(b)
cept. Remember, all electronic circuits operate this way. And
electronic equipment is made up of many such circuits oper- Figure 1-11 Sample circuit examples. (a) Flashlight.
ating concurrently to do more complex things. (b) Electric drill.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is not one of the major 5. An integrated circuit is a component.
segments of electronics? a. True.
a. Medical electronics. b. False.
b. Communications. 6. The duties of a technician do not usually involve
c. Instrumentation. a. troubleshooting.
d. Computers. b. installation.
2. Which of the following is the oldest segment of c. analysis and design.
electronics? d. equipment testing.
a. Control. 7. The main duties of an engineer are
b. Communications. a. equipment maintenance.
c. Instrumentation. b. troubleshooting.
d. Computers. c. design and circuit analysis.
3. Which of the following is the largest segment of d. equipment operation.
electronics? 8. An engineer requires at least which degree for a job?
a. Components. a. Associate’s.
b. Communications. b. Bachelor’s.
c. Instrumentation. c. Master’s.
d. Control. d. PhD.
4. Which of the following is not used in military 9. The primary degree of technician jobs is the
electronics? a. associate’s.
a. Computers. b. bachelor’s.
b. Communications. c. master’s.
c. Control. d. high school’s.
d. All are used.

Survey of Electronics 13

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 10. A core difference between technician and engineer 16. Current flow is
education is primarily a. like atoms in motion.
a. the humanities. b. molecules.
b. management training. c. liquid atoms.
c. math and science. d. moving electrons.
d. electronics. 17. Which is not a major part of a simple electrical
11. A graduate with an AAS degree in electronics tech- system?
nology can transfer directly to a BSEE program. a. Load.
a. True. b. Control element.
b. False. c. Voltage source.
12. What must you do to stay competent and employable d. Protection device.
electronics? 18. What is a good supplement to an AAS degree in
a. Get a master’s degree. getting a job in electronics?
b. Work more than three jobs in your career. a. A second AAS degree.
c. Find a mentor. b. A license or certification.
d. Engage in some form of continuing education. c. A bachelor’s degree.
13. Which of the following in not a type of process that d. Any job experience.
an electronic input signal may encounter? 19. A BSET degree is considered as part of which field of
a. Stretching. education?
b. Amplification. a. Technology.
c. Filtering. b. Engineering.
d. Conversion. c. Business.
14. The result of electronic processing is d. Science.
a. new inputs. 20. What is your best immediate source of learning in
b. removal of inputs. electronics?
c. new outputs. a. Books.
d. a change in process. b. Magazines.
15. What causes current to flow? c. The Internet.
a. Electric power. d. Other people.
b. Voltage.
c. Electrons.
d. Magnetism.

CHAPTER 1 ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What do you think is the single most important elec- 8. Which of the newer growth segments of electronics
tronic invention? interests you most? Why?
2. What is your favorite electronic product? 9. Name the inputs, outputs, and main processes that
3. What electronic product could you not do without? take place in a smartphone like an Apple iPhone.
4. Of the major segments of electronics, which interests 10. What is your main goal in pursuing a career in
you the most? electronics? A good job, money, interest, security,
fascination, contribute to society, or what?
5. Would you rather be an engineer or a technician? Why?
11. What is your electronic hobby?
6. Do you prefer hands-on work with electronic equip-
ment or more abstract thinking about and analyzing 12. What hobby would you like to pursue?
of electronic products?
7. Does the business side of electronics (finance,
accounting, economics, marketing, management,
etc.) interest you? Why?

14 Chapter 1

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 Ch a pt er 2
Electricity

Learning Outcomes We see applications of electricity all around us, espe-

cially in the electronic products we own and operate
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: every day. For example, we depend on electricity for
List the two basic particles of electric charge. lighting, heating, and air-conditioning and for the opera-
Describe the basic structure of the atom. tion of our vehicles, cell phones, appliances, computers,
Define the terms conductor, insulator, and and home entertainment systems to name a few. The
semiconductor and give examples of each. applications of electricity are extensive and almost limit-
Define the coulomb unit of electric charge. less to the imagination.
Define potential difference and voltage and list the Although there are many applications of elec-
unit of each. tricity, electricity itself can be explained in terms of elec-
Define current and list its unit of measure. tric charge, voltage, and current. In this chapter, you
Define resistance and conductance and list the unit will be introduced to the basic concepts of electricity
of each. which include a discussion of the following topics: basic
List three important characteristics of an electric circuit. atomic structure, the coulomb unit of electric charge,
Define the difference between electron flow and the volt unit of potential difference, the ampere unit of
conventional current. current, and the ohm unit of resistance. You will also be
Describe the difference between direct and introduced to conductors, semiconductors, insulators,
alternating current. and the basic characteristics of an electric circuit
15

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 2.1 Negative and Positive Polarities 2.2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom
We see the effects of electricity in a battery, static charge, Although there are any number of possible methods by
lightning, radio, television, and many other applications. which electrons and protons might be grouped, they assem-
What do they all have in common that is electrical in na- ble in specific atomic combinations for a stable arrangement.
ture? The answer is basic particles of electric charge with (An atom is the smallest particle of the basic elements which
opposite polarities. All the materials we know, including forms the physical substances we know as solids, liquids,
solids, liquids, and gases, contain two basic particles of elec- and gases.) Each stable combination of electrons and protons
tric charge: the electron and the proton. An electron is the makes one particular type of atom. For example, Fig. 2-2 il-
smallest amount of electric charge having the characteristic lustrates the electron and proton structure of one atom of the
called negative polarity. The proton is a basic particle with gas, hydrogen. This atom consists of a central mass called the
positive polarity. nucleus and one electron outside. The proton in the nucleus
The negative and positive polarities indicate two opposite makes it the massive and stable part of the atom because a
characteristics that seem to be fundamental in all physical proton is 1840 times heavier than an electron.
applications. Just as magnets have north and south poles, In Fig. 2-2, the one electron in the hydrogen atom is shown
electric charges have the opposite polarities labeled negative in an orbital ring around the nucleus. To account for the elec-
and positive. The opposing characteristics provide a method trical stability of the atom, we can consider the electron as
of balancing one against the other to explain different physi- spinning around the nucleus, as planets revolve around the
cal effects. sun. Then the electrical force attracting the electrons in to-
It is the arrangement of electrons and protons as basic ward the nucleus is balanced by the mechanical force out-
particles of electricity that determines the electrical char- ward on the rotating electron. As a result, the electron stays
acteristics of all substances. As an example, this paper has in its orbit around the nucleus.
electrons and protons in it. There is no evidence of elec- In an atom that has more electrons and protons than hy-
tricity, though, because the number of electrons equals drogen, all protons are in the nucleus, and all the electrons
the number of protons. In that case, the opposite electrical are in one or more outside rings. For example, the carbon
forces cancel, making the paper electrically neutral. The atom illustrated in Fig. 2-3a has six protons in the nucleus
neutral condition means that opposing forces are exactly and six electrons in two outside rings. The total number of
balanced, without any net effect either way. electrons in the outside rings must equal the number of pro-
When we want to use the electrical forces associated with tons in the nucleus in a neutral atom.
the negative and positive charges in all matter, work must The distribution of electrons in the orbital rings deter-
be done to separate the electrons and protons. Changing the mines the atom’s electrical stability. Especially important is
balance of forces produces evidence of electricity. A battery, the number of electrons in the ring farthest from the nucleus.
for instance, can do electrical work because its chemical en- This outermost ring requires eight electrons for stability, ex-
ergy separates electric charges to produce an excess of elec- cept when there is only one ring, which has a maximum of
trons at its negative terminal and an excess of protons at its two electrons.
positive terminal. With separate and opposite charges at the In the carbon atom in Fig. 2-3a, with six electrons, there
two terminals, electric energy can be supplied to a circuit are just two electrons in the first ring because two is its
connected to the battery. Fig. 2-1 shows a battery with its maximum number. The remaining four electrons are in the
negative (2) and positive (1) terminals marked to emphasize second ring, which can have a maximum of eight electrons.
the two opposite polarities. As another example, the copper atom in Fig. 2-3b has
only one electron in the last ring, which can include eight
electrons. Therefore, the outside ring of the copper atom is
Positive (+) Negative (–)
less stable than the outside ring of the carbon atom.

Proton
in nucleus Electron
in orbit

 

Figure 2-1 Positive and negative polarities for the

voltage output of a typical battery. Figure 2-2 Electron and proton in hydrogen (H) atom.

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 4 electrons in The wire conductor is used only to deliver current pro-
8-electron orbit, 
incomplete L duced by the voltage source to a device that needs the cur-
K rent to function. As an example, a bulb lights only when
current flows through the filament.
  6  
A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to
stay in their own orbits is an insulator because it cannot
conduct electricity very easily. However, insulators can
2-electron orbit, 
complete hold or store electricity better than conductors. An insu-
(a) lating material, such as glass, plastic, rubber, paper, air,
or mica, is also called a dielectric, meaning it can store
N 2-electron orbit,
  complete electric charge.
 M
 L 8-electron orbit, Insulators can be useful when it is necessary to prevent
  complete
  current flow. In addition, for applications requiring the
K
  storage of electric charge, as in capacitors, a dielectric ma-

   29     terial must be used because a good conductor cannot store
18-electron orbit, any charge.
 
 
complete Carbon can be considered a semiconductor, conduct-
  ing less than metal conductors but more than insulators.
 1 electron in
  In the same group are germanium and silicon, which are
  8-electron orbit,
incomplete commonly used for transistors and other semiconduc-
(b) tor components. Practically all transistors are made of
silicon.
Figure 2-3 Atomic structure showing the nucleus and its
orbital rings of electrons. (a) Carbon (C) atom has six orbital Elements
electrons to balance six protons in nucleus. (b) Copper (Cu)
atom has 29 protons in nucleus and 29 orbital electrons. The combinations of electrons and protons forming stable
atomic structures result in different kinds of elementary
substances having specific characteristics. A few familiar
When many atoms are close together in a copper wire, examples are the elements hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
the outermost orbital electron of each copper atom can copper, and iron. An element is defined as a substance that
easily break free from its home or parent atom. These elec- cannot be decomposed any further by chemical action. The
trons then can migrate easily from one atom to another at atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the
random. Such electrons that can move freely from one atom same characteristics as the element. Atom is a Greek word
to the next are called free electrons. This freedom accounts meaning a “particle too small to be subdivided.” As an
for the ability of copper to conduct electricity very easily. example of the fact that atoms are too small to be visible,
It  is the movement of free electrons that provides electric a particle of carbon the size of a pinpoint contains many
current in a metal conductor. billions of atoms. The electrons and protons within the
The net effect in the wire itself without any applied volt- atom are even smaller.
age, however, is zero because of the random motion of the Table 2-1 lists some more examples of elements. These
free electrons. When voltage is applied, it forces all the free are just a few out of a total of 112. Notice how the elements
electrons to move in the same direction to produce electron are grouped. The metals listed across the top row are all
flow, which is an electric current. good conductors of electricity. Each has an atomic struc-
ture with an unstable outside ring that allows many free
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors electrons.
When electrons can move easily from atom to atom in a Semiconductors have four electrons in the outermost
material, the material is a conductor. In general, all metals ring. This means that they neither gain nor lose electrons
are good conductors, with silver the best and copper second. but share them with similar atoms. The reason is that four
Their atomic structure allows free movement of the outer- is exactly halfway to the stable condition of eight electrons
most orbital electrons. Copper wire is generally used for in the outside ring.
practical conductors because it costs much less than silver. The inert gas neon has a complete outside ring of eight
The purpose of using conductors is to allow electric current electrons, which makes it chemically inactive. Remember
to flow with minimum opposition. that eight electrons in the outside ring is a stable structure.

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 Table 2-1 Examples of the Chemical Elements
Group Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Valence
Metal conductors, in Silver Ag 47 11
order of conductance Copper Cu 29 11*
Gold Au 79 11*
Aluminum Al 13 13
Iron Fe 26 12*
Semiconductors Carbon C 6 64
Silicon Si 14 64
Germanium Ge 32 64
Active gases Hydrogen H 1 61
Oxygen O 8 22
Inert gases Helium He 2 0
Neon Ne 10 0

*Some metals have more than one valence number in forming chemical compounds. Examples are cuprous or cupric copper, ferrous or ferric iron, and aurous
or auric gold.

Molecules and Compounds

Table 2-2 Shells of Orbital Electrons in
A group of two or more atoms forms a molecule. For instance, the Atom
two atoms of hydrogen (H) form a hydrogen molecule (H2).
Shell Maximum Electrons Inert Gas
When hydrogen unites chemically with oxygen, the result is
K 2 Helium
water (H2O), which is a compound. A compound, then, con-
L 8 Neon
sists of two or more elements. The molecule is the smallest
unit of a compound with the same chemical characteristics. M 8 (up to calcium) or 18 Argon
We can have molecules for either elements or compounds. N 8, 18, or 32 Krypton
However, atoms exist only for elements. O 8 or 18 Xenon
P 8 or 18 Radon
2.3 Structure of the Atom Q 8 —
As illustrated in Figs. 2-2 and 2-3, the nucleus contains pro-
tons for all the positive charge in the atom. The number of
protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of planetary number of electrons for stability. As indicated in Table 2-2,
electrons. Then the positive and negative charges are bal- these stable shells correspond to inert gases, such as helium
anced because the proton and electron have equal and op- and neon.
posite charges. The orbits for the planetary electrons are also The K shell, closest to the nucleus, is stable with two
called shells or energy levels. electrons, corresponding to the atomic structure for the inert
gas, helium. Once the stable number of electrons has filled
Atomic Number a shell, it cannot take any more electrons. The atomic struc-
The atomic number gives the number of protons required in ture with all its shells filled to the maximum number for sta-
the atom for each element. For the hydrogen atom in Fig. 2-2, bility corresponds to an inert gas.
the atomic number is 1, which means that the nucleus has Elements with a higher atomic number have more plan-
one proton (balanced by one orbital electron). Similarly, the etary electrons. These are in successive shells, tending to
carbon atom in Fig. 2-3 with atomic number 6 has six pro- form the structure of the next inert gas in the periodic table.
tons in the nucleus (and six orbital electrons). The copper (The periodic table is a very useful grouping of all elements
atom has 29 protons (and 29 electrons) because its atomic according to their chemical properties.) After the K shell has
number is 29. The atomic number listed for each of the ele- been filled with two electrons, the L shell can take up to
ments in Table 2-1 indicates the atomic structure. eight electrons. Ten electrons filling the K and L shells is the
atomic structure for the inert gas, neon.
Orbital Rings The maximum number of electrons in the remaining
The planetary electrons are in successive shells, or orbital shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for different elements, depending
rings, called K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q at increasing distances on their place in the periodic table. The maximum for an
outward from the nucleus. Each shell has a maximum outermost shell, though, is always eight.

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 To illustrate these rules, we can use the copper atom in different types of orbits in the same shell. For instance, elec-
Fig. 2-3b as an example. There are 29 protons in the nu- trons in one subshell may have elliptical orbits, and other
cleus balanced by 29 planetary electrons. This number of electrons in the same main shell have circular orbits. The
electrons fills the K shell with two electrons, corresponding subshells indicate magnetic properties of the atom.
to the helium atom, and the L shell with eight electrons.
The 10 electrons in these two shells correspond to the neon Particles in the Nucleus
atom, which has an atomic number of 10. The remaining A stable nucleus (that is, one that is not radioactive) contains
19 electrons for the copper atom then fill the M shell with protons and sometimes neutrons. The neutron is electrically
18 electrons and 1 electron in the outermost N shell. These neutral (it has no net charge). Its mass is almost the same as
values can be summarized as follows: that of a proton.
A proton has the positive charge of a hydrogen nucleus.
K shell 5 2 electrons The charge is the same as that of an orbital electron but of
L shell 5 8 electrons opposite polarity. There are no electrons in the nucleus.
M shell 5 18 electrons
N shell 5 1 electron 2.4 The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
Total 5 29 electrons
If you rub a hard rubber pen or comb on a sheet of paper, the
For most elements, we can use the rule that the maximum rubber will attract a corner of the paper if it is free to move eas-
number of electrons in a filled inner shell equals 2n2, where ily. The paper and rubber then give evidence of a static electric
n is the shell number in sequential order outward from the charge. The work of rubbing resulted in separating electrons
nucleus. Then the maximum number of electrons in the first and protons to produce a charge of excess electrons on the sur-
shell is 2 3 1 5 2; for the second shell 2 3 22 5 8, for the face of the rubber and a charge of excess protons on the paper.
third shell 2 3 32 5 18, and for the fourth shell 2 3 42 5 32. Because paper and rubber are dielectric materials, they
These values apply only to an inner shell that is filled with hold their extra electrons or protons. As a result, the paper
its maximum number of electrons. and rubber are no longer neutral, but each has an electric
charge. The resultant electric charges provide the force of at-
Electron Valence traction between the rubber and the paper. This mechanical
The electron valence is the value of the number of elec- force of attraction or repulsion between charges is the fun-
trons in an incomplete outermost shell (valence shell). A damental method by which electricity makes itself evident.
completed outer shell has a valence of zero. Copper, for Any charge is an example of static electricity because
instance, has a valence of one, as there is one electron in the electrons or protons are not in motion. There are many
the last shell, after the inner shells have been completed examples. When you walk across a wool rug, your body be-
with their stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a valence comes charged with an excess of electrons. Similarly, silk,
of one, and carbon has a valence of four. The number of fur, and glass can be rubbed to produce a static charge. This
outer electrons is considered positive valence because these effect is more evident in dry weather, because a moist dielec-
electrons are in addition to the stable shells. tric does not hold its charge so well. Also, plastic materials
Except for H and He, the goal of valence is eight for all can be charged easily, which is why thin, lightweight plastics
atoms, as each tends to form the stable structure of eight elec- seem to stick to everything.
trons in the outside ring. For this reason, valence can also be The charge of many billions of electrons or protons is
considered the number of electrons in the outside ring needed necessary for common applications of electricity. Therefore,
to make eight. This value is the negative valence. As exam- it is convenient to define a practical unit called the coulomb
ples, the valence of copper can be considered 11 or 27; car- (C) as equal to the charge of 6.25 3 1018 electrons or protons
bon has the valence of 64. The inert gases have zero valence stored in a dielectric (see Fig. 2-4). The analysis of static
because they all have complete outer shells. charges and their forces is called electrostatics.
The valence indicates how easily the atom can gain or The symbol for electric charge is Q or q, standing for
lose electrons. For instance, atoms with a valence of 11 can quantity. For instance, a charge of 6.25 3 1018 electrons is
lose this one outside electron, especially to atoms with a va- stated as Q 5 1 C. This unit is named after Charles A. Cou-
lence of 17 or 21, which need one electron to complete the lomb (1736–1806), a French physicist, who measured the
outside shell with eight electrons. force between charges.

Subshells Negative and Positive Polarities

Although not shown in the illustrations, all shells except Historically, negative polarity has been assigned to the static
K are divided into subshells. This subdivision accounts for charge produced on rubber, amber, and resinous materials in

Electricity 19

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 1 C of
excess electrons
1 C of
excess protons
Polarity of a Charge
in dielectric in dielectric An electric charge must have either negative or positive po-
    larity, labeled 2Q or 1Q, with an excess of either electrons
 
           
   


      or protons. A neutral condition is considered zero charge.
      
              
             Note that we generally consider that the electrons move,
        
 
     
        
rather than heavier protons. However, a loss of a given num-
     
       ber of electrons is equivalent to a gain of the same number
      
of protons.
(a) (b)
Charge of an Electron
Figure 2-4 The coulomb (C) unit of electric charge. The charge of a single electron, designated Qe, is 0.16 3
(a) Quantity of 6.25 3 1018 excess electrons for a negative
charge of 1 C. (b) Same amount of protons for a positive 10218 C. This value is the reciprocal of 6.25 3 1018 electrons,
charge of 1 C, caused by removing electrons from neutral which is the number of electrons in 1 coulomb of charge.
atoms. Expressed mathematically,
2Qe 5 0.16 3 10218 C
general. Positive polarity refers to the static charge produced (2Qe denotes that the charge of the electron is negative.)
on glass and other vitreous materials. On this basis, the It is important to note that the charge of a single proton,
electrons in all atoms are basic particles of negative charge designated Q P , is also equal to 0.16 3 10218 C. However, its
because their polarity is the same as the charge on rubber. polarity is positive instead of negative.
Protons have positive charge because the polarity is the same In some cases, the charge of a single electron or proton
as the charge on glass. will be expressed in scientific notation. In this case, 2Qe 5
1.6 3 10219 C. It is for convenience only that Qe or Q P is some-
Charges of Opposite Polarity Attract
times expressed as 0.16 3 10218 C instead of 1.6 3 10219 C.
If two small charged bodies of light weight are mounted so The convenience lies in the fact that 0.16 is the reciprocal of
that they are free to move easily and are placed close to each 6.25 and 10218 is the reciprocal of 1018.
other, one can be attracted to the other when the two charges
have opposite polarity (Fig. 2-5a). In terms of electrons and The Electric Field of a Static Charge
protons, they tend to be attracted to each other by the force The ability of an electric charge to attract or repel another charge
of attraction between opposite charges. Furthermore, the is a physical force. To help visualize this effect, lines of force are
weight of an electron is only about 1⁄1840 the weight of a pro- used, as shown in Fig. 2-6. All the lines form the electric field.
ton. As a result, the force of attraction tends to make elec- The lines and the field are imaginary, since they cannot be seen.
trons move to protons. Just as the field of the force of gravity is not visible, however, the
resulting physical effects prove that the field is there.
Charges of the Same Polarity Repel
Each line of force in Fig. 2-6 is directed outward to indi-
In Fig. 2-5b and c, it is shown that when the two bodies have cate repulsion of another charge in the field with the same
an equal amount of charge with the same polarity, they repel polarity as Q, either positive or negative. The lines are shorter
each other. The two negative charges repel in Fig. 2-5b, and
two positive charges of the same value repel each other in
Fig. 2-5c. Electric lines
of force

Opposite Like  Like 

charges charges charges
attract repel repel Q

     

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2-5 Physical force between electric charges.

(a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two negative charges repel Figure 2-6 Arrows to indicate electric field around a
each other. (c) Two positive charges repel. stationary charge Q.

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 farther away from Q to indicate that the force decreases in- In Fig. 2-7c, the difference between the charges is still
versely as the square of the distance. The larger the charge, 2 C. The 11 C attracts three electrons to the right side. The
the greater the force. These relations describe Coulomb’s law 21 C repels three electrons to the right side also. This effect
of electrostatics. is really the same as attracting six electrons.
Therefore, the net number of electrons moved in the di-
2.5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference rection of the more positive charge depends on the difference
Potential refers to the possibility of doing work. Any charge of potential between the two charges. This potential differ-
has the potential to do the work of moving another charge by ence is the same for all three cases in Fig. 2-7. Potential dif-
either attraction or repulsion. When we consider two unlike ference is often abbreviated PD.
charges, they have a difference of potential. The only case without any potential difference between
A charge is the result of work done in separating elec- charges occurs when they both have the same polarity and
trons and protons. Because of the separation, stress and are equal in amount. Then the repelling and attracting forces
strain are associated with opposite charges, since normally cancel, and no work can be done in moving electrons be-
they would be balancing each other to produce a neutral tween the two identical charges.
condition. We could consider that the accumulated electrons
are drawn tight and are straining themselves to be attracted The Volt Unit
toward protons to return to the neutral condition. Similarly, The volt unit of potential difference is named after Alessan-
the work of producing the charge causes a condition of dro Volta (1745–1827). Fundamentally, the volt is a measure
stress in the protons, which are trying to attract electrons of the amount of work or energy needed to move an elec-
and return to the neutral condition. Because of these forces, tric charge. By definition, when 0.7376 foot-pound (ft · lb) of
the charge of electrons or protons has potential because it is work is required to move 6.25 3 1018 electrons between two
ready to give back the work put into producing the charge. points, the potential difference between those two points is
The force between charges is in the electric field. one volt. (Note that 6.25 3 1018 electrons make up one cou-
lomb of charge.) The metric unit of work or energy is the
Potential between Different Charges joule (J). One joule is the same amount of work or energy as
When one charge is different from the other, there must be a 0.7376 ft  lb. Therefore, we can say that the potential differ-
difference of potential between them. For instance, consider ence between two points is one volt when one joule of energy
a positive charge of 3 C, shown at the right in Fig. 2-7a. The is expended in moving one coulomb of charge between those
charge has a certain amount of potential, corresponding to two points. Expressed as a formula, 1 V 5 ____1J .
1C
the amount of work this charge can do. The work to be done In electronics, potential difference is commonly referred
is moving some electrons, as illustrated. to as voltage, with the symbol V. Remember, though, that
Assume that a charge of 1 C can move three electrons. voltage is the potential difference between two points and
Then the charge of 13 C can attract nine electrons toward that two terminals are necessary for a potential difference to
the right. However, the charge of 11 C at the opposite side exist. A potential difference cannot exist at only one point!
can attract three electrons toward the left. The net result, Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in Fig. 2-8a. Its output
then, is that six electrons can be moved toward the right to of 2.2 V means that this is the amount of potential differ-
the more positive charge. ence between the two terminals. The lead-acid cell, then, is
In Fig. 2-7b, one charge is 2 C, and the other charge is a voltage source, or a source of electromotive force (emf).
neutral with 0 C. For the difference of 2 C, again 2 3 3 or The schematic symbol for a battery or dc voltage source is
6 electrons can be attracted to the positive side. shown in Fig. 2-8b.

Electrons
     
1 C   3 C 0C   2 C 1 C   1 C

     

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2-7 The amount of work required to move electrons between two charges depends on
their difference of potential. This potential difference (PD) is equivalent for the examples in (a), (b), and (c).

Electricity 21

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 2.6 Charge in Motion Is Current
When the potential difference between two charges forces a
third charge to move, the charge in motion is an electric cur-
rent. To produce current, therefore, charge must be moved
by a potential difference.
In solid materials, such as copper wire, free electrons are
charges that can be forced to move with relative ease by a po-
tential difference, since they require relatively little work to
be moved. As illustrated in Fig. 2-9, if a potential difference
is connected across two ends of a copper wire, the applied
voltage forces the free electrons to move. This current is a
drift of electrons, from the point of negative charge at one
end, moving through the wire, and returning to the positive
V  2.2 V charge at the other end.
  To illustrate the drift of free electrons through the wire
shown in Fig. 2-9, each electron in the middle row is numbered,
(a) (b)
corresponding to a copper atom to which the free electron be-
Figure 2-8 Chemical cell as a voltage source. (a) Voltage longs. The electron at the left is labeled S to indicate that it
output is the potential difference between the two terminals. comes from the negative charge of the source of potential dif-
(b) Schematic symbol of any dc voltage source with constant
polarity. Longer line indicates positive side. ference. This one electron S is repelled from the negative charge
2Q at the left and is attracted by the positive charge 1Q at the
right. Therefore, the potential difference of the voltage source
can make electron S move toward atom 1. Now atom 1 has an
Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf, but the standard extra electron. As a result, the free electron of atom 1 can then
symbol V represents any potential difference. This applies move to atom 2. In this way, there is a drift of free electrons
either to the voltage generated by a source or to the voltage from atom to atom. The final result is that the one free electron
drop across a passive component such as a resistor. labeled 8 at the extreme right in Fig. 2-9 moves out from the
It may be helpful to think of voltage as an electrical pres- wire to return to the positive charge of the voltage source.
sure or force. The higher the voltage, the more electrical Considering this case of just one electron moving, note that
pressure or force. The electrical pressure of voltage is in the the electron returning to the positive side of the voltage source is
form of the attraction and repulsion of an electric charge not the electron labeled S that left the negative side. All electrons
such as an electron. are the same, however, and have the same charge. Therefore,
The general equation for any voltage can be stated as the drift of free electrons resulted in the charge of one electron
W moving through the wire. This charge in motion is the current.
V 5 __ (2-1)
Q With more electrons drifting through the wire, the charge of
many electrons moves, resulting in more current.
where V is the voltage in volts, W is the work or energy in
The current is a continuous flow of electrons. Only the
joules, and Q is the charge in coulombs.
electrons move, not the potential difference. For ordinary
Let’s take a look at an example.
p1 p2 Free electrons
in wire
EXAMPLE 2-1 Copper wire

What is the output voltage of a battery that expends 3.6 J of S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

energy in moving 0.5 C of charge? Q Q

Answer: Use Equation (2-1).

W
V = __
Q  

3.6 J
= _____ Potential difference  1.5 V applied voltage
0.5 C
Figure 2-9 Potential difference across two ends of wire
= 7.2 V conductor causes drift of free electrons throughout the wire
to produce electric current.

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 applications, where the wires are not long lines, the poten- is a higher intensity than one ampere; a greater concentra-
tial difference produces current instantaneously through the tion of moving electrons results because of more electrons
entire length of wire. Furthermore, the current must be the in motion. Sometimes current is called amperage. However,
same at all points of the wire at any time. the current in electronic circuits is usually in smaller units,
milliamperes and microamperes.
Potential Difference Is Necessary
How Current Differs from Charge
to Produce Current
Charge is a quantity of electricity accumulated in a dielectric,
The number of free electrons that can be forced to drift which is an insulator. The charge is static electricity, at rest, with-
through a wire to produce a moving charge depends on the out any motion. When the charge moves, usually in a conductor,
amount of potential difference across the wire. With more the current I indicates the intensity of the electricity in motion.
applied voltage, the forces of attraction and repulsion can This characteristic is a fundamental definition of current:
make more free electrons drift, producing more charge in
motion. A larger amount of charge moving during a given Q
I 5 __ (2-2)
period of time means a higher value of current. Less applied T
voltage across the same wire results in a smaller amount of where I is the current in amperes, Q is in coulombs, and
charge in motion, which is a smaller value of current. With time T is in seconds. It does not matter whether the mov-
zero potential difference across the wire, there is no current. ing charge is positive or negative. The only question is how
Two cases of zero potential difference and no current can much charge moves and what its rate of motion is.
be considered to emphasize that potential difference is needed In terms of practical units,
to produce current. Assume that the copper wire is by itself,
not connected to any voltage source, so that there is no poten- 1 A 5 1____
C (2-3)
tial difference across the wire. The free electrons in the wire 1s
can move from atom to atom, but this motion is random, with- One ampere of current results when one coulomb of charge
out any organized drift through the wire. If the wire is consid- moves past a given point in 1 s. In summary, Q represents a
ered as a whole, from one end to the other, the current is zero. specific amount or quantity of electric charge, whereas the
As another example, suppose that the two ends of the current I represents the rate at which the electric charge,
wire have the same potential. Then free electrons cannot such as electrons, is moving. The difference between electric
move to either end because both ends have the same force charge and current is similar to the difference between miles
and there is no current through the wire. A practical ex- and miles per hour.
ample of this case of zero potential difference would be to
connect both ends of the wire to just one terminal of a bat-
EXAMPLE 2-2
tery. Each end of the wire would have the same potential,
and there would be no current. The conclusion, therefore, The charge of 12 C moves past a given point every second. How
is that two connections to two points at different potentials much is the intensity of charge flow?
are needed to produce a current. Answer:
The Ampere of Current Q 12 C
I = __ = _____
T 1s
Since current is the movement of charge, the unit for stat- I = 12 A
ing the amount of cur rent is defined in rate of flow of charge.
When the charge moves at the rate of 6.25 3 1018 electrons
flowing past a given point per second, the value of the current is The fundamental definition of current can also be used
one ampere (A). This is the same as one coulomb of charge to consider the charge as equal to the product of the current
per second. The ampere unit of current is named after André multiplied by the time. Or
M. Ampère (1775–1836).
Q5I3T (2-4)
Referring back to Fig. 2-9, note that if 6.25 3 1018 free
electrons move past p1 in 1 second (s), the current is 1 A. In terms of practical units,
Similarly, the current is 1 A at p2 because the electron drift
1C51A31s (2-5)
is the same throughout the wire. If twice as many electrons
moved past either point in 1 s, the current would be 2 A. One coulomb of charge results when one ampere of current
The symbol for current is I or i for intensity, since the accumulates charge during one second. The charge is gen-
current is a measure of how intense or concentrated the erally accumulated in the dielectric of a capacitor or at the
electron flow is. Two amperes of current in a copper wire electrodes of a battery.

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 For instance, we can have a dielectric connected to conduc-
tors with a current of 0.4 A. If the current can deposit electrons
for 0.2 s, the accumulated charge in the dielectric will be R

Q 5 I 3 T 5 0.4 A 3 0.2 s
Q 5 0.08 C
(a) (b)

The formulas Q 5 IT for charge and I 5 Q / T for current Figure 2-10 (a) Wire-wound type of resistor with cement
illustrate the fundamental nature of Q as an accumulation of coating for insulation. (b) Schematic symbol for any type of
static charge in an insulator, whereas I measures the inten- fixed resistor.
sity of moving charges in a conductor. Furthermore, current
I is different from voltage V. You can have V without I, but through it for one second has one ohm of opposition. The sym-
you cannot have current without an applied voltage. bol for resistance is R. The abbreviation used for the ohm unit
is the Greek letter omega, written as V. As an example of a
The General Nature of Current
low resistance, a good conductor such as copper wire can have
The moving charges that provide current in metal conduc- a resistance of 0.01 V for a 1-ft length. The resistance-wire
tors such as copper wire are the free electrons of the copper heating element in a 600-W 120-V toaster has a resistance of
atoms. In this case, the moving charges have negative polar- 24 V, and the tungsten filament in a 100-W 120-V lightbulb
ity. The direction of motion between two terminals for this has a resistance of 144 V. The ohm unit is named after Georg
electron current, therefore, is toward the more positive end. It Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist.
is important to note, however, that there are examples of posi- Figure 2-10a shows a wire-wound resistor. Resistors are
tive charges in motion. Common applications include current also made with powdered carbon. They can be manufactured
in liquids, gases, and semiconductors. For the current result- with values from a few ohms to millions of ohms.
ing from the motion of positive charges, its direction is oppo- In diagrams, resistance is indicated by a zigzag line, as
site from the direction of electron flow. Whether negative or shown by R in Fig. 2-10b.
positive charges move, though, the current is still defined fun-
damentally as Q / T. Note also that the current is provided by Conductance
free charges, which are easily moved by an applied voltage. The opposite of resistance is conductance. The lower the re-
sistance, the higher the conductance. Its symbol is G, and
2.7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current the unit is the siemens (S), named after Ernst von Siemens
The fact that a wire conducting current can become hot is (1816–1892), a German inventor. (The old unit name for con-
evidence that the work done by the applied voltage in pro- ductance is mho, which is ohm spelled backward.)
ducing current must be accomplished against some form of 1 . Also, R 5 __
Specifically, G is the reciprocal of R, or G 5 __ 1.
opposition. This opposition, which limits the amount of cur- R G
rent that can be produced by the applied voltage, is called
resistance. Conductors have very little resistance; insulators EX A M P L E 2-3
have a large amount of resistance.
The atoms of a copper wire have a large number of free Calculate the resistance for the following conductance values:
(a) 0.05 S (b) 0.1 S
electrons, which can be moved easily by a potential differ-
ence. Therefore, the copper wire has little opposition to the Answer:
flow of free electrons when voltage is applied, corresponding a. 1
R 5 __
to low resistance. G
1
5 ______
Carbon, however, has fewer free electrons than copper. 0.05 S
When the same amount of voltage is applied to carbon as to
5 20 V
copper, fewer electrons will flow. Just as much current can be
produced in carbon by applying more voltage. For the same b. 1
R 5 __
G
current, though, the higher applied voltage means that more 1
work is necessary, causing more heat. Carbon opposes the 5 _____
0.1 S
current more than copper, therefore, and has higher resistance. 5 10 V
The Ohm
Notice that a higher value of conductance corresponds to a
The practical unit of resistance is the ohm. A resistance that lower value of resistance.
develops 0.24 calorie of heat when one ampere of current flows

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 In Fig. 2-11b, the schematic diagram of the circuit is
EXAMPLE 2-4
shown. Here the components are represented by shorthand
Calculate the conductance for the following resistance values: symbols. Note the symbols for the battery and resistance.
(a) 1 k  (b) 5 k. The connecting wires are shown simply as straight lines
Answer: because their resistance is small enough to be neglected. A
1 resistance of less than 0.01 V for the wire is practically zero
a. G 5 __ compared with the 300-V resistance of the bulb. If the resis-
R
1
5 _______ tance of the wire must be considered, the schematic diagram
1000 V includes it as additional resistance in the same current path.
5 0.001 S or 1 mS Note that the schematic diagram does not look like the
1 physical layout of the circuit. The schematic shows only the
b. G 5 __
R symbols for the components and their electrical connections.
1
5 _______ Any electric circuit has three important characteristics:
5000 V
5 0.0002 S or 200 ␮S 1. There must be a source of potential difference. With-
out the applied voltage, current cannot flow.
Notice that a higher value of resistance corresponds to a lower
value of conductance.
2. There must be a complete path for current flow, from
one side of the applied voltage source, through the
external circuit, and returning to the other side of the
voltage source.
2.8 The Closed Circuit
3. The current path normally has resistance. The resis-
In applications requiring current, the components are ar-
tance is in the circuit either to generate heat or limit
ranged in the form of a circuit, as shown in Fig. 2-11. A cir-
the amount of current.
cuit can be defined as a path for current flow. The purpose of
this circuit is to light the incandescent bulb. The bulb lights How the Voltage Is Different from the Current
when the tungsten-filament wire inside is white hot, produc- It is the current that moves through the circuit. The potential
ing an incandescent glow. difference does not move.
The tungsten filament cannot produce current by itself. A In Fig. 2-11, the voltage across the filament resistance
source of potential difference is necessary. Since the battery makes electrons flow from one side to the other. While the
produces a potential difference of 1.5 V across its two out- current is flowing around the circuit, however, the potential
put terminals, this voltage is connected across the filament difference remains across the filament to do the work of
of the bulb by the two wires so that the applied voltage can moving electrons through the resistance of the filament.
produce current through the filament. The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 2-12 to emphasize the com-
parison between V and I. The voltage is the potential difference
Lamp across the two ends of the resistance. If you want to measure
the PD, just connect the two leads of a voltmeter across the
resistor. However, the current is the intensity of the electron
flow past any one point in the circuit. Measuring the current is
Battery  not as easy. You would have to break open the path at any point
terminals
and then insert the current meter to complete the circuit.
The word across is used with voltage because it is the
Voltage
 source
potential difference between two points. There cannot be a
Resistance load
R  300  PD at one point. However, current can be considered at one
 V  1.5 V
point, as the motion of charges through that point.

Current Voltage
V R
(a ) (b) through R across R

Figure 2-11 Example of an electric circuit with a

battery as a voltage source connected to a lightbulb as a
resistance. (a) Wiring diagram of the closed path for current. Figure 2-12 Comparison of voltage (V ) across a resistance
(b) Schematic diagram of the circuit. and the current (I ) through R.

Electricity 25

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 To illustrate the difference between V and I in another any work in producing load current. The bulb alone has re-
way, suppose that the circuit in Fig. 2-11 is opened by dis- sistance, but without current, the bulb does not light. With
connecting the bulb. Now no current can flow because the circuit, the voltage source is used to produce current to
there is no closed path. Still, the battery has its potential light the bulb.
difference. If you measure across the two terminals, the
voltmeter will read 1.5 V even though the current is zero. Open Circuit
This is like a battery sitting on a store shelf. Even though When any part of the path is open or broken, the circuit is
the battery is not producing current in a circuit, it still has incomplete because there is no conducting path. The open
a voltage output between its two terminals. This brings us circuit can be in the connecting wires or in the bulb’s fila-
to a very important conclusion: Voltage can exist without ment as the load resistance. The resistance of an open circuit
current, but current cannot exist without voltage. is infinitely high. The result is no current in an open circuit.

The Voltage Source Maintains the Current Short Circuit

As current flows in a circuit, electrons leave the negative In this case, the voltage source has a closed path across its ter-
terminal of the cell or battery in Fig. 2-11, and the same minals, but the resistance is practically zero. The result is too
number of free electrons in the conductor are returned to much current in a short circuit. Usually, the short circuit is a
the positive terminal. As electrons are lost from the negative bypass around the load resistance. For instance, a short across
charge and gained by the positive charge, the two charges the tungsten filament of a bulb produces too much current in
tend to neutralize each other. The chemical action inside the connecting wires but no current through the bulb. Then the
the battery, however, continuously separates electrons and bulb is shorted out. The bulb is not damaged, but the connecting
protons to maintain the negative and positive charges on wires can become hot enough to burn unless the line has a fuse
the outside terminals that provide the potential difference. as a safety precaution against too much current.
Otherwise, the current would neutralize the charges, re-
sulting in no potential difference, and the current would 2.9 The Direction of Current
stop. Therefore, the battery keeps the current flowing by Just as a voltage source has polarity, current has a direction.
maintaining the potential difference across the circuit. The The reference is with respect to the positive and negative ter-
battery is the voltage source for the circuit. minals of the voltage source. The direction of the current de-
pends on whether we consider the flow of negative electrons
The Circuit Is a Load on the Voltage Source or the motion of positive charges in the opposite direction.
We can consider the circuit as a means whereby the en-
ergy of the voltage source is carried by the current through Electron Flow
the filament of the bulb, where the electric energy is used As shown in Fig. 2-13a, the direction of electron drift for the
in producing heat energy. On this basis, the battery is the current I is out from the negative side of the voltage source.
source in the circuit, since its voltage output represents the The I flows through the external circuit with R and returns
potential energy to be used. The part of the circuit con- to the positive side of V. Note that this direction from the
nected to the voltage source is the load resistance, since negative terminal applies to the external circuit connected
it determines how much work the source will supply. In to the output terminals of the voltage source. Electron flow
this case, the bulb’s filament is the load resistance on the is also shown in Fig. 2-13c with reversed polarity for V.
battery. Inside the battery, the electrons move to the negative
The current that flows through the load resistance is the terminal because this is how the voltage source produces
load current. Note that a lower value of ohms for the load its potential difference. The battery is doing the work of
resistance corresponds to a higher load current. Unless noted separating charges, accumulating electrons at the nega-
otherwise, the term load by itself can be assumed generally tive terminal and protons at the positive terminal. Then
to mean the load current. Therefore, a heavy or big load elec- the potential difference across the two output terminals
trically means a high current load, corresponding to a large can do the work of moving electrons around the external
amount of work supplied by the source. circuit. For the circuit outside the voltage source, however,
In summary, we can say that the closed circuit, normal the direction of the electron flow is from a point of nega-
circuit, or just a circuit is a closed path that has V to produce tive potential to a point of positive potential.
I with R to limit the amount of current. The circuit pro-
vides a means of using the energy of the battery as a voltage Conventional Current
source. The battery has its potential difference V with or A motion of positive charges, in the opposite direction
without the circuit. However, the battery alone is not doing from electron flow, is considered conventional current.

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 are much less mobile than electrons, however, because an ion
includes a complex atom with its nucleus.
An example of positive charges in motion for conven-
Voltage External Voltage External
source (V) circuit (R ) source (V) circuit (R ) tional current, therefore, is the current of positive ions in
either liquids or gases. This type of current is referred to
as ionization current. The positive ions in a liquid or gas
flow in the direction of conventional current because they
(a) (b) are repelled by the positive terminal of the voltage source
and attracted to the negative terminal. Therefore, the mo-
bile positive ions flow from the positive side of the voltage
source to the negative side.
Voltage External Voltage External Another example of a mobile positive charge is the hole.
source (V) circuit (R ) source (V) circuit (R )
Holes exist in semiconductor materials such as silicon and
germanium. A hole possesses the same amount of charge
as an electron but instead has positive polarity. Although
(c ) (d) the details of the hole charge are beyond the scope of this
discussion, you should be aware that in semiconductors, the
Figure 2-13 Direction of I in a closed circuit, shown for
movement of hole charges are in the direction of conven-
electron flow and conventional current. The circuit works
the same way no matter which direction you consider. tional current.
(a) Electron flow indicated with dashed arrow in diagram. It is important to note that protons themselves are not mo-
(b) Conventional current indicated with solid arrow. (c) Electron bile positive charges because they are tightly bound in the
flow as in (a) but with reversed polarity of voltage source. nucleus of the atom and cannot be released except by nuclear
(d ) Conventional I as in (b) but reversed polarity for V. forces. Therefore, a current of positive charges is a flow of
either positive ions in liquids and gases or positive holes in
This direction is generally used for analyzing circuits in semiconductors.
electrical engineering. The reason is based on some tra- In this book, the current is considered as electron flow
ditional definitions in the science of physics. By the defi- in the applications where electrons are the moving charges.
nitions of force and work with positive values, a positive A dotted or dashed arrow, as in Fig. 2-13a and c, is used to
potential is considered above a negative potential. Then indicate the direction of electron flow for I. In Fig. 2-13b
conventional current corresponds to a motion of positive and d, the solid arrow means the direction of conventional
charges “falling downhill” from a positive to a negative current. These arrows are used for the unidirectional current
potential. The conventional current, therefore, is in the di- in dc circuits. For ac circuits, the direction of current can
rection of positive charges in motion. An example is shown be considered either way because I reverses direction every
in Fig. 2-13b. The conventional I is out from the positive half-cycle with the reversals in polarity for V.
side of the voltage source, flows through the external cir-
cuit, and returns to the negative side of V. Conventional 2.10 Direct Current (DC) and
current is also shown in Fig. 2-13d, with the voltage source Alternating Current (AC)
in reverse polarity. The electron flow illustrated for the circuit with a bulb in
Fig. 2-11 is direct current (dc) because it has just one direc-
Examples of Mobile Positive Charges tion. The reason for the unidirectional current is that the bat-
An ion is an atom that has either lost or gained one or more va- tery maintains the same polarity of output voltage across its
lence electrons to become electrically charged. For example, a two terminals.
positive ion is created when a neutral atom loses one or more The flow of charges in one direction and the fi xed po-
valence electrons and thus becomes positively charged. Simi- larity of applied voltage are the characteristics of a dc cir-
larly, a negative ion is created when a neutral atom gains one or cuit. The current can be a flow of positive charges, rather
more valence electrons and thus becomes negatively charged. than electrons, but the conventional direction of current
Depending on the number of valence electrons that have been does not change the fact that the charges are moving only
added or removed, the charge of an ion may equal the charge one way.
of one electron (Qe), two electrons (2 Qe), three electrons (3 Furthermore, the dc voltage source can change the amount
Qe), etc. Ions can be produced by applying voltage to liquids of its output voltage, but, with the same polarity, direct cur-
and gases to ionize the atoms. These ions are mobile charges rent still flows only in one direction. This type of source
that can provide an electric current. Positive or negative ions provides a fluctuating or pulsating dc voltage. A battery is a

Electricity 27

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 V V

ac voltage

Time
0

0
Time
(a)

V Figure 2-15 Sine wave ac voltage with alternating polarity,

such as from an ac generator. Note schematic symbol at left.

The ac line voltage in your home has this waveform.

 usually are simpler. However, the principles of dc circuits

also apply to ac circuits. Both types are important because
0 most electronic circuits include ac voltages and dc voltages.
Time
(b) A comparison of dc and ac voltages and their waveforms is
Figure 2-14 (a) Steady dc voltage of fixed polarity, such illustrated in Figs. 2-14 and 2-15. Their uses are compared
as the output of a battery. Note schematic symbol at left. in Table 2-3.
(b) DC pulses as used in binary digital circuits.
2.11 Sources of Electricity
There are electrons and protons in the atoms of all materi-
steady dc voltage source because it has fixed polarity and its als, but to do useful work, the charges must be separated to
output voltage is a steady value. produce a potential difference that can make current flow.
An alternating voltage source periodically reverses or Some of the more common methods of providing electrical
alternates in polarity. The resulting alternating current effects are listed here.
(ac), therefore, periodically reverses in direction. In terms
of electron flow, the current always flows from the nega- Static Electricity by Friction
tive terminal of the voltage source, through the circuit, Static electricity by friction is a method by which elec-
and back to the positive terminal, but when the generator trons in an insulator are separated by the work of rubbing
alternates in polarity, the current must reverse its direc- to produce opposite charges that remain in the dielectric.
tion. The 60-cycle ac power line used in most homes is a Examples of how static electricity can be generated include
common example. This frequency means that the voltage combing your hair, walking across a carpeted room, or slid-
polarity and current direction go through 60 cycles of re- ing two pieces of plastic across each other. An electrostatic
versal per second. discharge (ESD) occurs when one of the charged objects
The unit for 1 cycle per second is 1 hertz (Hz). Therefore comes into contact with another dissimilarly charged object.
60 cycles per second is a frequency of 60 Hz. The electrostatic discharge is in the form of a spark. The
The details of ac circuits are explained in Chap. 14. current from the discharge lasts for only a very short time
Direct-current circuits are analyzed first because they but can be very large.

Table 2-3 Comparison of DC Voltage and AC Voltage

DC Voltage AC Voltage
Fixed polarity Reverses in polarity
Can be steady or vary in magnitude Varies between reversals in polarity
Steady value cannot be stepped up or down Can be stepped up or down for electric power
by a transformer distribution
Terminal voltages for transistor amplifiers Signal input and output for amplifiers
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect is the same for direct or alternating current

28 Chapter 2

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 Conversion of Chemical Energy
Wet or dry cells, batteries, and fuel cells generate voltage. Here
a chemical reaction produces opposite charges on two dissimi-
lar metals, which serve as the negative and positive terminals.
Electromagnetism
Electricity and magnetism are closely related. Any moving
charge has an associated magnetic field; also, any changing
magnetic field can produce current. A motor is an example
showing how current can react with a magnetic field to pro-
(a) (b)
duce motion; a generator produces voltage by means of a con-
ductor rotating in a magnetic field. Figure 2-16 Typical digital multimeters (DMMs)
(a) Handheld DMM (b) Benchtop DMM.
Photoelectricity
Some materials are photoelectric; that is, they can emit elec- to make these measurements. A DMM may be either a hand-
trons when light strikes the surface. The element cesium is held or benchtop unit. Both types are shown in Fig. 2-16. All
often used as a source of photoelectrons. Also, photovoltaic digital meters have numerical readouts that display the value
cells or solar cells use silicon to generate output voltage from of voltage, current, or resistance being measured.
the light input. In another effect, the resistance of the element
selenium changes with light. When this is combined with a Measuring Voltage
fixed voltage source, wide variations between dark current Figure. 2-17a shows a typical DMM measuring the voltage
and light current can be produced. Such characteristics are across the terminals of a battery. To measure any voltage,
the basis of many photoelectric devices, including television the meter leads are connected directly across the two points
camera tubes, photoelectric cells, and phototransistors. where the potential difference or voltage exists. For dc volt-
ages, the red lead of the meter is normally connected to the
2.12 The Digital Multimeter positive (1) side of the potential difference, whereas the
As an electronics technician, you can expect to encounter black lead is normally connected to the negative (2) side.
many situations where it will be necessary to measure the volt- When measuring an alternating (ac) voltage, the orientation
age, current, or resistance in a circuit. When this is the case, of the meter leads does not matter since the voltage periodi-
a technician will most likely use a digital multimeter (DMM) cally reverses polarity anyway.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2-17 DMM measurements (a) Measuring voltage (b) Measuring current (c) Measuring resistance.

Electricity 29

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 Measuring Current should be connected to the point that traces directly back to
Figure 2-17b shows the DMM measuring the current in a the positive side of the potential difference. When measuring
simple dc circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor. Notice ac currents, the orientation of the meter leads is unimportant.
that the meter is connected between the positive terminal of
the battery and the right lead of the resistor. Unlike voltage
Measuring Resistance
measurements, current measurements must be made by plac- Figure 2-17c shows the DMM measuring the ohmic value of
ing the meter in the path of the moving charges. To do this, a single resistor. Note that the orientation of the meter leads
the circuit must be broken open at some point, and then the is unimportant when measuring resistance. What is impor-
leads of the meter must be connected across the open points tant is that no voltage is present across the resistance being
to recomplete the circuit. When measuring the current in a measured, otherwise the meter could be damaged. Also,
dc circuit, the black lead of the meter should be connected make sure that no other components are connected across
to the point that traces directly back to the negative side of the resistance being measured. If there are, the measurement
the potential difference. Likewise, the red lead of the meter will probably be both inaccurate and misleading.

CHAPTER 2 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

A Solar-Powered Home Electrical System

Virtually all homes are powered by the standard electrical Some systems have a special inverter called a grid tied
grid that distributes 120 and 240 volts of alternating current inverter that lets the inverter output to be connected to the
(ac). The house wiring distributes the power to the lights and ac line from the utility. Extra power from the solar power
outlets that power our many appliances and devices. More system can then be sold back to the utility in some cases to
and more, solar power systems are being deployed in homes further reduce the electrical bill.
to lighten the load on the utility system. Such solar power
systems can eventually pay for themselves in energy usage
and minimize the amount of energy consumption at the Solar panel

utility. The solar power system may power the entire house
or provide a supplement to the grid power. Small portable Sun
solar power systems are also available to provide emergency
power during a storm or other loss of grid power.
The typical solar power systems consist of the major com- 12 or 24
Volts
ponents shown in Fig. S2-1. It begins with the solar panel
that is made up of a large number of solar cells. These semi-
Charge controller
conductor cells generate about 0.5 volt of direct current (dc)
when light shines on them. Multiple cells are connected in Battery
series and parallel to achieve a voltage of 12 or 24 volts of a or bank
of batteries  
desired power rating.
DC
This voltage is connected to a charge controller. This is
an electronic circuit that conditions the panel voltage into a Inverter
AC sine wave
voltage level suitable for charging a battery or bank of bat-
teries. The battery stores energy to be used at night when the 120 V
AC
panels do not produce voltage. The charge controller parcels
out exact amount of voltage and current to keep the batteries
Alternate
charged but prevents overcharging. connection to
The battery voltage is sent to an inverter. An inverter is utility AC
line
an electronic circuit that converts dc into ac. The ac output
is usually a sine wave of 120 volts at 60 Hz or 60 cycles per To home wiring
second. This voltage is distributed to the house wiring. Figure S2-1 Home solar power system.

30 Chapter 2

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 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The most basic particle of negative charge is the 10. If a neutral atom loses one of its valence electrons, it
a. coulomb. becomes a(n)
b. electron. a. negative ion.
c. proton. b. electrically charged atom.
d. neutron. c. positive ion.
2. The coulomb is a unit of d. both b and c.
a. electric charge. 11. The unit of electric current is the
b. potential difference. a. volt.
c. current. b. ampere.
d. voltage. c. coulomb.
3. Which of the following is not a good conductor? d. siemens.
a. copper. 12. A semiconductor, such as silicon, has an electron va-
b. silver. lence of
c. glass. a. 64.
d. gold. b. 11.
4. The electron valence of a neutral copper atom is c. 27.
a. 11. d. 0.
b. 0. 13. Which of the following statements is true?
c. 64. a. Current can exist without voltage.
d. 21. b. Voltage can exist without current.
5. The unit of potential difference is the c. Current can flow through an open circuit.
a. volt. d. Both b and c.
b. ampere. 14. The unit of resistance is the
c. siemens. a. volt.
d. coulomb. b. coulomb.
6. Which of the following statements is true? c. siemens.
a. Unlike charges repel each other. d. ohm.
b. Like charges repel each other. 15. Except for hydrogen (H) and helium (He) the goal of
c. Unlike charges attract each other. valence for an atom is
d. Both b and c. a. 6.
7. In a metal conductor, such as a copper wire, b. 1.
a. positive ions are the moving charges that provide c. 8.
current. d. 4.
b. free electrons are the moving charges that provide 16. One ampere of current corresponds to
current. 1 C.
a. ____
c. there are no free electrons. 1s
d. none of the above. b. 1 J .
____
1C
8. A 100-V resistor has a conductance, G, of c. 6.25 3 1018 electrons.
a. 0.01 S. d. 0.16 3 10218 C/s.
b. 0.1 S.
c. 0.001 S. 17. Conventional current is considered
d. 1 S. a. the motion of negative charges in the opposite
direction of electron flow.
9. The most basic particle of positive charge is the b. the motion of positive charges in the same
a. coulomb. direction as electron flow.
b. electron. c. the motion of positive charges in the opposite
c. proton. direction of electron flow.
d. neutron. d. none of the above.

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 18. When using a DMM to measure the value of a resistor 22. How much charge is accumulated in a dielectric that
a. make sure that the resistor is in a circuit where is charged by a 4-A current for 5 seconds?
voltage is present. a. 16 C.
b. make sure there is no voltage present across the b. 20 C.
resistor. c. 1.25 C.
c. make sure there is no other component connected d. 0.8 C.
across the leads of the resistor. 23. A charge of 6 C moves past a given point every
d. both b and c. 0.25 second. How much is the current flow in
19. In a circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is amperes?
called a. 24 A.
a. conductance. b. 2.4 A.
b. resistance. c. 1.5 A.
c. voltage. d. 12 A.
d. current. 24. What is the output voltage of a battery that expends
20. Aluminum, with an atomic number of 13, has 12 J of energy in moving 1.5 C of charge?
a. 13 valence electrons. a. 18 V.
b. 3 valence electrons. b. 6 V.
c. 13 protons in its nucleus. c. 125 mV.
d. both b and c. d. 8 V.
21. The nucleus of an atom is made up of 25. Which of the following statements is false?
a. electrons and neutrons. a. The resistance of an open circuit is practically zero.
b. ions. b. The resistance of a short circuit is practically zero.
c. neutrons and protons. c. The resistance of an open circuit is infinitely high.
d. electrons only. d. There is no current in an open circuit.

CHAPTER 2 PROBLEMS

SECTION 2.5 The Volt Unit of Potential SECTION 2.7 Resistance Is Opposition
Difference to Current
2.1 What is the output voltage of a battery if 10 J of 2.5 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the
energy is expended in moving 1.25 C of charge? following conductance values: (a) 0.002 S (b) 0.004 S
2.2 How much energy is expended, in joules, if a voltage (c) 0.00833 S (d) 0.25 S.
of 12 V moves 1.25 C of charge between two points? 2.6 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each
of the following resistance values: (a) 200 V
SECTION 2.6 Charge in Motion Is Current
(b) 100 V (c) 50 V (d) 25 V.
2.3 A charge of 2 C moves past a given point every 0.5 s.
How much is the current?
2.4 If a current of 500 mA charges a dielectric for 2 s,
how much charge is stored in the dielectric?

32 Chapter 2

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 Ch a pt er 3
Resistors

Learning Outcomes Resistors are used in a wide variety of applications in

all types of electronic circuits. Their main function in any
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: circuit is to limit the amount of current or to produce a
List several different types of resistors and desired drop in voltage. Resistors are manufactured in
describe the characteristics of each type. a variety of shapes and sizes and have ohmic values
Interpret the resistor color code to determine the ranging from a fraction of an ohm to several megohms.
resistance and tolerance of a resistor. The power or wattage rating of a resistor is determined
Explain the difference between a potentiometer mainly by its physical size. There is, however, no direct
and a rheostat. correlation between the physical size of a resistor and
Explain the significance of a resistor’s power its resistance value.
rating. In this chapter, you will be presented with an in-depth
discussion of the following resistor topics: resistor types,
resistor color coding, potentiometers and rheostats, and
power ratings.

33

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 3.1 Types of Resistors
The two main characteristics of a resistor are its resistance
R in ohms and its power rating in watts (W). Resistors are
available in a very wide range of R values, from a fraction of
an ohm to many kilohms (kV) and megohms (MV). One ki-
lohm is 1000 V and one megohm is 1,000,000 V. The power
rating for resistors may be as high as several hundred watts
or as low as 1⁄10 W.
The R is the resistance value required to provide the de-
sired current or voltage. Also important is the wattage rat-
ing because it specifies the maximum power the resistor can
dissipate without excessive heat. Dissipation means that the
power is wasted, since the resultant heat is not used. Too
much heat can make the resistor burn. The wattage rating of
Figure 3-2 Carbon resistors with same physical size
the resistor is generally more than the actual power dissipa- but different resistance values. The physical size indicates a
tion, as a safety factor. power rating of ½ W.
Most common in electronic equipment are carbon re-
sistors with a power rating of 1 W or less. The construc-
from the resistor body can be inserted through the holes
tion is illustrated in Fig. 3-1a. The leads extending out
on a printed circuit (PC) board for mounting as shown
in Fig. 3-1b. The resistors on a PC board are often in-
serted automatically by machine. Note that resistors are
not polarity-sensitive devices. This means that it does not
matter which way the leads of a resistor are connected in
a circuit.
Molded Resistors with higher R values usually have lower wattage
resistance element ratings because they have less current. As an example, a com-
mon value is 1 MV at ¼ W, for a resistor only ¼ in. long. The
lower the power rating, the smaller the actual size of the resistor.
Tinned leads
However, the resistance value is not related to physical size. Fig-
(a )
ure 3-2 shows several carbon resistors with the same physical
size but different resistance values. The different color bands on
each resistor indicate a different ohmic value. The carbon resis-
tors in Fig. 3-2 each have a power rating of ½ W, which is based
on their physical size.

Wire-Wound Resistors
For wire-wound resistors, a special type of wire called
resistance wire is wrapped around an insulating core. The
length of wire and its specific resistivity determine the R of
the unit. Types of resistance wire include tungsten and man-
ganin, as explained in Chap. 9, “Conductors, Insulators, and
Semiconductors.” The insulated core is commonly porcelain,
cement, or just plain pressed paper. Bare wire is used, but
the entire unit is generally encased in an insulating material.
Typical fixed and variable wire-wound resistors are shown
(b) in Fig. 3-3.
Since they are generally used for high-current appli-
Figure 3-1 Carbon-composition resistor. (a) Internal cations with low resistance and appreciable power, wire-
construction. Length is about ¼ in. without leads for ¼-W
power rating. Color stripes give R in ohms. Tinned leads have wound resistors are available in wattage ratings from
coating of solder. (b) Resistors mounted on printed circuit (PC) 1 W up to 100 W or more. The resistance can be less than
board. 1 V up to several thousand ohms. For 2 W or less, carbon

34 Chapter 3

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 Epoxy
coating
Carbon film
Ceramic
End cap
Leads
(a)

1/41/2 in.

Figure 3-4 Construction of carbon-film resistor.

construction is shown in Fig. 3-4, is made by depositing

a thin layer of carbon on an insulated substrate. The car-
bon film is then cut in the form of a spiral to form the
resistive element. The resistance value is controlled by
varying the proportion of carbon to insulator. Compared
(b)
to carbon-composition resistors, carbon-film resistors have
the following advantages: tighter tolerances, less sensitiv-
ity to temperature changes and aging, and they generate
Figure 3-3 Large wire-wound resistors with 50-W
less noise internally.
power rating. (a) Fixed R, length of 5 in. (b) Variable R,
diameter of 3 in. Metal-film resistors are constructed in a manner similar
to the carbon-film type. However, in a metal-film resistor,
a thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate
resistors are preferable because they are generally smaller and then cut in the form of a spiral. The construction of a
and cost less. metal-film resistor is shown in Fig. 3-5. The length, thick-
In addition, wire-wound resistors are used where accu- ness, and width of the metal spiral determine the exact re-
rate, stable resistance values are necessary. Examples are sistance value. Metal-film resistors offer more precise R
precision resistors for the function of an ammeter shunt values than carbon-film resistors. Like carbon-film resis-
or a precision potentiometer to adjust for an exact amount tors, metal-film resistors are affected very little by tem-
of R. perature changes and aging. They also generate very little
noise internally. In overall performance, metal-film resis-
Carbon-Composition Resistors tors are the best, carbon-film resistors are next, and carbon-
Carbon-composition resistors are made of finely divided composition resistors are last. Both carbon- and metal-film
carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered insulating ma- resistors can be distinguished from carbon-composition
terial as a binder in the proportions needed for the de- resistors by the fact that the diameter of the ends is a little
sired R value. As shown in Fig. 3-1a, the resistor element larger than that of the body. Furthermore, metal-film re-
is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical sistors are almost always coated with a blue, light green,
strength. Joined to the two ends of the carbon resistance or red lacquer which provides electrical, mechanical, and
element are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire for climate protection. The body color of carbon-film resistors
soldering the connections into a circuit. These are called is usually tan.
axial leads because they come straight out from the ends.
Carbon-composition resistors normally have a brown body
Epoxy
and are cylindrical. coating
Metal film
Carbon-composition resistors are commonly available Ceramic
in R values of 1 V to 20 MV. Examples are 10 V, 220 V, End cap
4.7 kV, and 68 kV. The power rating is generally 1⁄10, 1⁄8, 1⁄4, Leads
1
⁄2, 1, or 2 W.
1/41/2 in.
Film-Type Resistors
There are two kinds of film-type resistors: carbon-film
and metal-film resistors. The carbon-film resistor, whose Figure 3-5 Construction of metal-film resistor.

Resistors 35

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 T

(a) (b)

Figure 3-6 Typical chip resistors.

Figure 3-7 (a) Thermistor schematic symbol. (b) Typical
thermistor shapes and sizes.

Surface-Mount Resistors
Surface-mount resistors, also called chip resistors, are
constructed by depositing a thick carbon film on a ceramic operating temperature. A certain time interval, determined
base. The exact resistance value is determined by the by the thermal mass (size) of the thermistor, is required
composition of the carbon itself, as well as by the amount for the resistance change. A thermistor with a small mass
of trimming done to the carbon deposit. The resistance will change more rapidly than one with a large mass. Car-
can vary from a fraction of an ohm to well over a mil- bon- and metal-film resistors are different: their resistance
lion ohms. Power dissipation ratings are typically 1⁄8 to does not change appreciably with changes in operating
¼  W. Figure 3-6 shows typical chip resistors. Electrical temperature.
connection to the resistive element is made via two lead- Figure 3-7a shows the standard schematic symbol for a
less solder end electrodes (terminals). The end electrodes thermistor. Notice the arrow through the resistor symbol and
are C-shaped. The physical dimensions of a 1⁄8-W chip re- the letter T within the circle. The arrow indicates that the re-
sistor are 0.125  in. long by 0.063 in. wide and approxi- sistance is variable as the temperature T changes. As shown
mately 0.028 in. thick. This is many times smaller than in Fig. 3-7b, thermistors are manufactured in a wide variety
a conventional resistor having axial leads. Chip resistors of shapes and sizes. The shapes include beads, rods, disks,
are very temperature-stable and also very rugged. The end and washers.
electrodes are soldered directly to the copper traces of a Thermistors are frequently used in electronic circuits in
circuit board, hence the name surface-mount. which it is desired to provide temperature measurement,
temperature control, and temperature compensation.
Thermistors
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose re- Photoresistors
sistance value changes with changes in operating tem- A photoresistor or photocell is a light-sensitive resistor. Also
perature. Because of the self-heating effect of current in known as a photoconductor or light-dependent resistor, the
a thermistor, the device changes resistance with changes photoresistor is made of materials like cadmium sulphide,
in current. Thermistors, which are essentially semiconduc- lead sulphide, or indium antimonide. Their primary charac-
tors, exhibit either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) teristic is a negative-resistance variation, by which the de-
or a negative temperature coefficient (NTC). If a therm- vice has its highest resistance in the dark and a decreasing
istor has a PTC, its resistance increases as the operating resistance with light intensity.
temperature increases. Conversely, if a thermistor has an Figure 3-8 shows the schematic symbols of a photoresis-
NTC, its resistance decreases as its operating temperature tor, a photo of a typical device, and a generic response curve.
increases. How much the resistance changes with changes Note that its resistance decreases with an increasing light
in operating temperature depends on the size and con- intensity.
struction of the thermistor. Note that the resistance does Photoresistors are used as sensors to detect the presence
not undergo instantaneous changes with changes in the or absence of light or the intensity of the ambient light.

36 Chapter 3

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 Band A first digit
Band B second digit
Band C decimal multiplier
Band D
Gold 5%
tolerance
Silver 10%
(a)

1M
Figure 3-9 How to read color stripes on carbon
Resistance (ohms)
100 K
resistors for R in ohms.

10 K
bands or stripes completely encircle the body of the resistor
1K
and are usually crowded toward one end. Reading from left to
right, the first band closest to the edge gives the first digit in
Light intensity the numerical value of R. The next band indicates the second
(b) (c)
digit. The third band is the decimal multiplier, which tells us
how many zeros to add after the first two digits.
Figure 3-8 Photoresistors. (a) Schematic symbols. In Fig. 3-10a, the first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe
(b) One type of photoresistor (c) Common response curve. is green for 5. The red multiplier in the third stripe means
add two zeros to 25, or “this multiplier is 102.” The result can
3.2 Resistor Color Coding be illustrated as follows:
Because carbon resistors are small, they are color-coded to
Red Green Red
mark their R value in ohms. The basis of this system is the
use of colors for numerical values, as listed in Table 3-1. In
memorizing the colors, note that the darkest colors, black and 2 5 3 100 5 2500
brown, are for the lowest numbers, zero and one, whereas
white is for nine. The color coding is standardized by the Therefore, this R value is 2500 V or 2.5 kV.
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). The example in Fig. 3-10b illustrates that black for the
third stripe just means “do not add any zeros to the first two
Resistance Color Stripes
digits.” Since this resistor has red, green, and black stripes,
The use of colored bands or stripes is the most common system the R value is 25 V.
for color-coding resistors, as shown in Fig. 3-9. The colored

R  2500   5%
Table 3-1 Color Code Red
Color Numerical Value Green
Red
Black 0 Gold

Brown 1

Red 2
(a)
Orange 3
R  25   5% R  2.5   10%
Yellow 4 Red Red
Green Green
Green 5
Black Gold
Gold Silver
Blue 6

Violet 7

Gray 8 (b) (c)

White 9 Figure 3-10 Examples of color-coded R values with percent

tolerance.

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 Resistors under 10 V Brown 61 %
For these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver, indi- Red 62 %
cating a fractional decimal multiplier. When the third stripe Green 60.5 %
is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1. In Fig. 3-10c, the Blue 60.25%
R value is Violet 60.1 %

25 3 0.1 5 2.5 V.

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01. If the third band in Fig. 3-9c EXAMPLE 3-1
were silver, the R value would be
What is the resistance indicated by the five-band color code in
25 3 0.01 5 0.25 V. Fig. 3-11 ? Also, what ohmic range is permissible for the specified
tolerance?
It is important to realize that the gold and silver colors repre- Answer:
sent fractional decimal multipliers only when they appear in
The first stripe is orange for the number 3, the second stripe
the third stripe. Gold and silver are used most often however is blue for the number 6, and the third stripe is green for the
as a fourth stripe to indicate how accurate the R value is. number 5. Therefore, the first three digits of the resistance are
The colors gold and silver will never appear in the first two 3, 6, and 5, respectively. The fourth stripe, which is the multiplier,
color stripes. is black, which means add no zeros. The fifth stripe, which indi-
cates the resistor tolerance, is green for 60.5%. Therefore R 5
365 V 6 0.5%. The permissible ohmic range is calculated as
Resistor Tolerance 365 3 0.005 5 61.825 V, or 363.175 to 366.825 V.
The amount by which the actual R can differ from the color-
coded value is the tolerance, usually given in percent. For Orange
Blue
instance, a 2000-V resistor with 610% tolerance can have Green
resistance 10% above or below the coded value. This R, Black
Green
therefore, is between 1800 and 2200 V. The calculations are
as follows:

10% of 2000 is 0.1 3 2000 5 200. Figure 3-11 Five-band code.

For 110%, the value is
2000 1 200 5 2200 V.
Wire-Wound-Resistor Marking
For 210%, the value is
Usually, wire-wound resistors are big enough to have the
2000 2 200 5 1800 V. R value printed on the insulating case. The tolerance is gen-
erally 65% except for precision resistors, which have a toler-
As illustrated in Fig. 3-9, silver in the fourth band indicates a ance of 61% or less.
tolerance of 610%, gold indicates 65%. If there is no color Some small wire-wound resistors may be color-coded
band for tolerance, it is 620%. The inexact value of carbon- with stripes, however, like carbon resistors. In this case,
composition resistors is a disadvantage of their economical the first stripe is double the width of the others to indicate
construction. They usually cost only a few cents each, or less a wire-wound resistor. Wire-wound resistors that are color-
in larger quantities. In most circuits, though, a small differ- coded generally have a power rating of 4 W or less.
ence in resistance can be tolerated.
Preferred Resistance Values
Five-Band Color Code To minimize the problem of manufacturing different
Precision resistors (typically metal-film resistors) often use R values for an almost unlimited variety of circuits, specific
a five-band color code rather than the four-band code shown values are made in large quantities so that they are cheaper
in Fig. 3-9. The purpose is to obtain more precise R values. and more easily available than unusual sizes. For resistors
With the five-band code, the first three color stripes indicate of 610% the preferred values are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33,
the first three digits, followed by the decimal multiplier in 39, 47, 56, 68, and 82 with their decimal multiples. As ex-
the fourth stripe and the tolerance in the fifth stripe. In the amples, 47, 470, 4700, and 47,000 are preferred values. In
fifth stripe, the colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet rep- this way, there is a preferred value available within 10% of
resent the following tolerances: any R value needed in a circuit.

38 Chapter 3

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 Single black color band End electrodes
denotes zero resistance

Resistance value Carbon-film deposit

marking
X X X

Figure 3-12 A zero-ohm resistor is indicated by a single

black color band around the body of the resistor. Body
(a)
Zero-Ohm Resistors
Believe it or not, there is such a thing as a zero-ohm resistor.
In fact, zero-ohm resistors are quite common. The zero-ohm X X X Zero-ohm chip resistor
value is denoted by the use of a single black band around
the center of the resistor body, as shown in Fig. 3-12. Zero-
Multiplier (0–9)
ohm resistors are available in 1⁄8- or 1⁄4-W sizes. The actual
Second digit (0–9)
resistance of a so-called 1⁄8-W zero-ohm resistor is about
First digit (1–9)
0.004 V, whereas a 1⁄4-W zero-ohm resistor has a resistance
(b) (c )
of approximately 0.003 V.
But why are zero-ohm resistors used in the first place? Figure 3-13 Typical chip resistor coding system.
The reason is that for most printed circuit boards, the compo-
nents are inserted by automatic insertion machines (robots)
between 1 and 10 ohms as in 2R7 5 2.7 V. Figure 3-13c shows
rather than by human hands. In some instances, it may be
the symbol used to denote a zero-ohm chip resistor. Chip resis-
necessary to short two points on the printed circuit board,
tors are typically available in tolerances of 61% and 65%. It is
in which case a piece of wire has to be placed between the
important to note, however, that the tolerance of a chip resistor
two points. Because the robot can handle only components
is not indicated by the three- or four-digit code.
such as resistors, and not wires, zero-ohm resistors are used.
Before zero-ohm resistors were developed, jumpers had to
be installed by hand, which was time-consuming and ex- EXAMPLE 3-2
pensive. Zero-ohm resistors may be needed as a result of an
Determine the resistance of the chip resistor in Fig. 3-14.
after-the-fact design change that requires new point-to-point
connections in a circuit. Answer:
The first two digits are 5 and 6, giving 56 as the first two num-
Chip Resistor Coding System bers in the resistance value. The third digit, 2, is the multiplier,
which means add 2 zeros to 56 for a resistance of 5600 V or
The chip resistor, shown in Fig. 3-13a, has the following
5.6 kV.
identifiable features:
Body color: white or off-white
Dark film on one side only (usually black, but may 562

also be dark gray or green)

End electrodes (terminals) that are C-shaped
Three- or four-digit marking on either the film or the Figure 3-14 Chip resistor with number coding.
body side (usually the film)
The resistance value of a chip resistor is determined from
the three-digit number printed on the film or body side of the Thermistor Values
component. The three digits provide the same information Thermistors are normally rated by the value of their resis-
as the first three color stripes on a four-band resistor. This is tance at a reference temperature T of 25°C. The value of R at
shown in Fig. 3-13b. The first two digits indicate the first two 25°C is most often referred to as the zero-power resistance
numbers in the numerical value of the resistance; the third digit and is designated R0. The term zero-power resistance refers
indicates the multiplier. If a four-digit number is used, the first to the resistance of the thermistor with zero-power dissipa-
three digits indicate the first three numbers in the numerical tion. Thermistors normally do not have a code or marking
value of the resistance, and the fourth digit indicates the multi- system to indicate their resistance value in ohms. In rare
plier. The letter R is used to signify a decimal point for values cases, however, a three-dot code is used to indicate the value

Resistors 39

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 of R0. In this case, the first and second dots indicate the first
two significant digits, and the third dot is the multiplier. The
colors used are the same as those for carbon resistors.

3.3 Variable Resistors

Variable resistors can be wire-wound, as in Fig. 3-3b, or
carbon type, illustrated in Fig. 3-15. Inside the metal case
of Fig.  3-15a, the control has a circular disk, shown in
Figure 3-16 Slide control for variable R. Length is 2 in.
Fig. 3-15b, that is the carbon-composition resistance element.
It can be a thin coating on pressed paper or a molded carbon
disk. Joined to the two ends are the external soldering-lug 3.4 Rheostats and Potentiometers
terminals 1 and 3. The middle terminal is connected to the Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances, either
variable arm that contacts the resistor element by a metal carbon or wire-wound, used to vary the amount of current or
spring wiper. As the shaft of the control is turned, the vari- voltage in a circuit. The controls can be used in either dc or
able arm moves the wiper to make contact at different points ac applications.
on the resistor element. The same idea applies to the slide A rheostat is a variable R with two terminals connected in
control in Fig. 3-16, except that the resistor element is straight series with a load. The purpose is to vary the amount of current.
instead of circular. A potentiometer, generally called a pot for short, has three
When the contact moves closer to one end, the R dec- terminals. The fixed maximum R across the two ends is con-
reases between this terminal and the variable arm. Between nected across a voltage source. Then the variable arm is used
the two ends, however, R is not variable but always has the to vary the voltage division between the center terminal and
maximum resistance of the control. the ends. This function of a potentiometer is compared with
Carbon controls are available with a total R from 1000 V to that of a rheostat in Table 3-2.
5 MV, approximately. Their power rating is usually 1⁄2 to 2 W.
Rheostat Circuit
Tapered Controls
The function of the rheostat R2 in Fig. 3-17 is to vary the
The way R varies with shaft rotation is called the taper of amount of current through R1. For instance, R1 can be a small
the control. With a linear taper, a one-half rotation changes lightbulb that requires a specified I. Therefore, the two ter-
R by one-half the maximum value. Similarly, all values of R minals of the rheostat R2 are connected in series with R1 and
change in direct proportion to rotation. For a nonlinear taper, the source V to vary the total resistance R T in the circuit.
though, R can change more gradually at one end with bigger When R T changes, I changes, as read by the meter.
changes at the opposite end. This effect is accomplished by In Fig. 3-17b, R1 is 5 V and the rheostat R2 varies from 0 to
different densities of carbon in the resistance element. For 5 V. With R2 at its maximum of 5 V, then R T equals 5 1 5 5
a volume control, its audio taper allows smaller changes in 10 V. I equals 0.15 A or 150 mA. (The method for calculating
R at low settings. Then it is easier to make changes without I given R and V is covered in Chap. 4, “Ohm’s Law.”)
having the volume too loud or too low. When R2 is at its minimum value of 0 V R T equals 5 V.
Then I is 0.3 A or 300 mA for the maximum current. As a
1-M carbon- result, varying the rheostat changes the circuit resistance to
composition resistance
element
vary the current through R1. I increases as R decreases.
It is important that the rheostat have a wattage rating high
Shaft Spring wiper
contact enough for maximum I when R is minimum. Rheostats are
Flat keyway often wire-wound variable resistors used to control relatively
for knob
Rotating
arm

Shaft Table 3-2 Potentiometers and Rheostats

1 2 3
Rheostat Potentiometer
Soldering lugs
Two terminals Three terminals
(a) (b)
In series with load Ends are connected across V source
Figure 3-15 Construction of variable carbon resistance and V source
control. Diameter is ¾ in. (a) External view. (b) Internal view of Varies the I Taps off part of V
circular resistance element.

40 Chapter 3

fre7380X_ch03_033-045.indd 40 1/11/13 6:41 PM

 
888 3
A
R1
2
V = 100 V

0–100 V
+ −
Rheostat R 2 1

V
1 2 (a )

(a)

 2
R1  5  V = 100 V R 
A 500 k

0–100 V
2
1
Rheostat R 2
V  1.5 V 1
R2  0 to 5  (b)

Figure 3-18 Potentiometer connected across voltage

source to function as a voltage divider. (a) Wiring diagram.
(b) Schematic diagram.
(b)

Figure 3-17 Rheostat connected in series circuit to vary As the control is turned up to move the variable arm
the current I. Symbol for current meter is A for amperes. closer to terminal 3, more of the input voltage is available
(a) Wiring diagram with digital meter for I. (b) Schematic between 2 and 1. With the control at its maximum R, the
diagram.
voltage between 2 and 1 is the entire 100 V. Actually, termi-
nal 2 is then the same as 3.
large values of current in low-resistance circuits for ac power When the variable arm is at minimum R, rotated to ter-
applications. minal 1, the output between 2 and 1 is zero. Now all the
applied voltage is across 2 and 3 with no output for the vari-
Potentiometer Circuit
able arm. It is important to note that the source voltage is
The purpose of the circuit in Fig. 3-18 is to tap off a variable not short-circuited. The reason is that the maximum R of
part of the 100 V from the source. Consider this circuit in the potentiometer is always across the applied V, regard-
two parts: less of where the variable arm is set. Typical examples of
1. The applied V is input to the two end terminals of the small potentiometers used in electronic circuits are shown
potentiometer. in Fig. 3-19.
2. The variable V is output between the variable arm and
an end terminal.
Two pairs of connections to the three terminals are neces-
sary, with one terminal common to the input and output.
One pair connects the source V to the end terminals 1 and 3.
The other pair of connections is between the variable arm at
the center terminal and one end. This end has double con-
nections for input and output. The other end has only an
input connection.
When the variable arm is at the middle value of the
500-kV R in Fig. 3-18, the 50 V is tapped off between
terminals 2 and 1 as one-half the 100-V input. The other Figure 3-19 Small potentiometers and trimmers often
50 V is between terminals 2 and 3. However, this voltage used for variable controls in electronic circuits. Terminal leads
is not used for output. are formed for insertion into a PC board.

Resistors 41

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 Potentiometer Used as a Rheostat to having the required ohms value, a resistor has a wattage
Commercial rheostats are generally wire-wound, high- rating high enough to dissipate the power produced by the
wattage resistors for power applications. However, a small, current flowing through the resistance without becoming
low-wattage rheostat is often needed in electronic circuits. too hot. Carbon resistors in normal operation often become
One example is a continuous tone control in a receiver. The warm, but they should not get so hot that they “sweat” beads
control requires the variable series resistance of a rheostat of liquid on the insulating case. Wire-wound resistors operate
but dissipates very little power. at very high temperatures; a typical value is 300°C for the
A method of wiring a potentiometer as a rheostat is to maximum temperature. If a resistor becomes too hot because
connect just one end of the control and the variable arm, of excessive power dissipation, it can change appreciably in
using only two terminals. The third terminal is open, or resistance value or burn open.
floating, not connected to anything. The power rating is a physical property that depends on
Another method is to wire the unused terminal to the the resistor construction, especially physical size. Note the
center terminal. When the variable arm is rotated, differ- following:
ent amounts of resistance are short-circuited. This method is 1. A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating.
preferable because there is no floating resistance. 2. Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher
Either end of the potentiometer can be used for the rheo- temperatures.
stat. The direction of increasing R with shaft rotation reverses,
3. Wire-wound resistors are larger and have higher watt-
though, for connections at opposite ends. Also, the taper is
age ratings than carbon resistors.
reversed on a nonlinear control.
The resistance of a potentiometer is sometimes marked For approximate sizes, a 2-W carbon resistor is about 1 in.
on the enclosure that houses the resistance element. The long with a 1⁄4-in. diameter; a 1⁄4-W resistor is about 0.25 in.
marked value indicates the resistance between the outside long with a diameter of 0.1 in.
terminals. For both types, a higher power rating allows a higher volt-
age rating. This rating gives the highest voltage that may be
3.5 Power Rating of Resistors applied across the resistor without internal arcing. As exam-
When current flows in a resistance, work is done and power ples for carbon resistors, the maximum voltage is 500 V for
is generated. This power is manifest as heat. As a result, a a 1-W rating, 350 V for 1⁄2-W, 250 V for 1⁄4-W, and 150 V for
resistor must be able to withstand heat. Power is expressed 1
⁄8-W. In wire-wound resistors, excessive voltage can produce
in terms of watts. All resistors have a power rating. Power an arc between turns; in carbon-composition resistors, the
will be covered in more detail in the next chapter. In addition arc is between carbon granules.

CHAPTER 3 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Memristors
A memristor is a new type of resistor whose value of resis-
tance varies as a measure of the applied voltage, its polar-
ity, and the time of application. When a voltage is applied,
Figure S3-1 Schematic symbol of a memristor.
the resistance increases over time. Reversing the polarity
of the voltage causes the resistance to decrease. If the volt-
age is removed, the resistance simply remains constant at Instead, they are usually a part of a larger integrated circuit
that point. The memristor remembers the resistance that with multiple memristors.
exists when the current stops. Figure S3-1 shows the sche- Practical memristors are used primarily as computer
matic symbol. memory storage cells. Since the memristor actually re-
Memristors are wires made of titanium dioxide. They members its last resistance value when current ceases, it
were developed by Hewlett-Packard Labs. Figure S3-2 shows makes an ideal memory device. And it is a nonvolatile
what they look like. Memristors are not available as individ- memory device because it remembers its state even when
ual components like standard resistors shown in this chapter. power is removed. Memory in computers today is largely

42 Chapter 3

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 Nonvolatile memory cells called flash memory use a spe-
cial transistor to store data. However, they are larger, more
expensive, and slower than DRAM. Most computers today
use a combination of both DRAM and flash memory.
Using memristors as memory cells offers many ben-
efits over DRAM and flash. Memristors have the following
qualities:
• Nonvolatile
• Faster
Figure S3-2 An image of a circuit with 17 memristors • Smaller
captured by an atomic force microscope. Each memristor • Uses less energy
is composed of two layers of titanium dioxide sandwiched
• Immune to radiation
between two wires. When a voltage is applied to the top
wire of a memristor, the electrical resistance of the titanium Practical memory devices using memristors are being
dioxide layers is changed, which can be used as a method to developed. One promising version is called a nanostore. A
store a bit of data. nanostore is the combination of a memristor memory and
a special processor. These can be combined in a variety of
dynamic random access memory (DRAM) that uses small
ways to process data and implement special computers for
capacitors as storage cells. These volatile devices lose their
different applications.
charge, and all storage is lost when power is removed from
Other applications for memristors are also being developed.
a DRAM.

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A carbon composition resistor having only three color d. make sure your fingers are touching each
stripes has a tolerance of test lead.
a. 65%. 5. A chip resistor is marked 394. Its resistance value is
b. 620%. a. 39.4 V.
c. 610%. b. 394 V.
d. 6100%. c. 390,000 V.
2. A resistor with a power rating of 25 W is most d. 39,000 V.
likely a 6. A carbon-film resistor is color-coded with red, violet,
a. carbon-composition resistor. black, and gold stripes. What are its resistance and
b. metal-film resistor. tolerance?
c. surface-mount resistor. a. 27 V 6 5%.
d. wire-wound resistor. b. 270 V 6 5%.
3. When checked with an ohmmeter, an open resistor c. 270 V 6 10%.
measures d. 27 V 6 10%.
a. infinite resistance. 7. A potentiometer is a
b. its color-coded value. a. three-terminal device used to vary the voltage in
c. zero resistance. a circuit.
d. less than its color-coded value. b. two-terminal device used to vary the current in
4. One precaution to observe when checking resistors a circuit.
with an ohmmeter is to c. fixed resistor.
a. check high resistances on the lowest ohms range. d. two-terminal device used to vary the voltage in
b. check low resistances on the highest ohms range. a circuit.
c. disconnect all parallel paths.

Resistors 43

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 8. A metal-film resistor is color-coded with brown, 13. Which of the following axial-lead resistor types usu-
green, red, brown, and blue stripes. What are its resis- ally has a blue, light green, or red body?
tance and tolerance? a. wire-wound resistors.
a. 1500 V 6 1.25%. b. carbon-composition resistors.
b. 152 V 6 1%. c. carbon-film resistors.
c. 1521 V 6 0.5%. d. metal-film resistors.
d. 1520 V 6 0.25%. 14. A surface-mount resistor has a coded value of 4R7.
9. Which of the following resistors has the smallest This indicates a resistance of
physical size? a. 4.7 V.
a. wire-wound resistors. b. 4.7 kV.
b. carbon-composition resistors. c. 4.7 MV.
c. surface-mount resistors. d. none of the above.
d. potentiometers. 15. Reading from left to right, the colored bands on a re-
10. Which of the following statements is true? sistor are yellow, violet, brown and gold. If the resis-
a. Resistors always have axial leads. tor measures 513 V with an ohmmeter, it is
b. Resistors are always made from carbon. a. well within tolerance.
c. There is no correlation between the physical size of b. out of tolerance.
a resistor and its resistance value. c. right on the money.
d. The shelf life of a resistor is about 1 year. d. close enough to be considered within tolerance.
11. If a thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient 16. As the light shining on a photoresistor decreases, the
(NTC), its resistance resistance
a. increases with an increase in operating a. increases.
temperature. b. decreases.
b. decreases with a decrease in operating c. remains the same.
temperature. d. drops to zero.
c. decreases with an increase in operating 17. The unique feature of a memristor is its
temperature. a. variable resistance.
d. is unaffected by its operating temperature. b. power tolerance.
12. With the four-band resistor color code, gold in the c. memory ability.
third stripe corresponds to a d. voltage sensitivity.
a. fractional multiplier of 0.01.
b. fractional multiplier of 0.1.
c. decimal multiplier of 10.
d. resistor tolerance of 610%.

CHAPTER 3 PROBLEMS

Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of book. 3.4 Using the four-band code, indicate the colors of the
bands for each of the following resistors: (a) 10 kV 6
SECTION 3.2 Resistor Color Coding
5% (b) 2.7 V 6 5% (c) 5.6 kV 6 10% (d) 1.5 MV 6
3.1 Indicate the resistance and tolerance for each resistor 5% (e) 0.22 V 6 5%.
shown in Fig. 3-20.
3.5 Using the five-band code, indicate the colors of the
3.2 Indicate the resistance for each chip resistor shown in bands for each of the following resistors: (a) 110 V 6
Fig. 3-21. 1% (b) 34 kV 6 0.5% (c) 82.5 kV 6 2% (d) 62.6 V 6
3.3 Calculate the permissible ohmic range of a resistor whose 1% (e) 105 kV 6 0.1%.
resistance value and tolerance are (a) 3.9 kV 6 5%
(b) 100 V 6 10% (c) 120 kV 6 2% (d) 2.2 V 6 5%
(e) 75 V 6 1%.

44 Chapter 3

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 Brown Red Yellow Blue
Green Violet Violet Red
Red Black Yellow Gold
Silver Gold Gold Gold

(a) (b) (c) (d)

White Brown Brown Brown

Brown Black Gray Green
Orange Black Green Red
Gold Gold Silver

(e) (f ) (g) (h)

Orange Green
Orange Blue
Brown Yellow
Silver Gold

(i ) (j)

Figure 3-20 Resistors for Prob. 3.1.

SECTION 3.4 Rheostats and Potentiometers

474 122 3.6 Show two different ways to wire a potentiometer so
that it will work as a rheostat.

(a) (b)

331 1002

(c ) (d )

Figure 3-21 Chip resistors for Prob. 3.2.

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 Ch a pt er 4
Ohm’s Law

The mathematical relationship between voltage, cur- Learning Outcomes

rent, and resistance was discovered in 1826 by Georg
Simon Ohm. The relationship, known as Ohm’s law, is After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
the basic foundation for all circuit analysis in electronics. List the three forms of Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law, which is the basis of this chapter, states that Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current, voltage, or
the amount of current, I, is directly proportional to the resistance in a circuit.
voltage, V, and inversely proportional to the resistance, List the multiple and submultiple units of voltage,
R. Expressed mathematically, Ohm’s law is stated as current, and resistance.
V Explain the difference between a linear and a
I 5 __
R nonlinear resistance.
Besides the coverage of Ohm’s law, this chapter also Explain the difference between work and power
introduces you to the concept of power. Power can be and list the units of each.
defined as the time rate of doing work. The symbol for Calculate the power in a circuit when the voltage
power is P and the unit is the watt. All the mathemati- and current, current and resistance, or voltage and
cal relationships that exist between V, I, R, and P are resistance are known.
covered in this chapter. Determine the required resistance and appropriate
wattage rating of a resistor.

46

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 4.1 The Current I 5 V/R Resistor
(load)
If we keep the same resistance in a circuit but vary the volt-
age, the current will vary. The circuit in Fig. 4-1 demon-
strates this idea. The applied voltage V can be varied from 0
to 12 V, as an example. The bulb has a 12-V filament, which
requires this much voltage for its normal current to light with 1
2
normal intensity. The meter I indicates the amount of current
in the circuit for the bulb.
With 12 V applied, the bulb lights, indicating normal cur- Battery
rent. When V is reduced to 10 V, there is less light because (voltage
source)
of less I. As V decreases, the bulb becomes dimmer. For zero
volts applied, there is no current and the bulb cannot light. In
summary, the changing brilliance of the bulb shows that the
(a)
current varies with the changes in applied voltage.
For the general case of any V and R, Ohm’s law is
V
I 5 __ (4-1) 
V
2A
R R

where I is the amount of current through the resistance R 

V
6V V  R  6 V R 3
connected across the source of potential difference V. With 

volts as the practical unit for V and ohms for R, the amount
of current I is in amperes. Therefore,

volts
Amperes 5 _____
ohms
(b )
This formula says simply to divide the voltage across R by
the ohms of resistance between the two points of potential Figure 4-2 Example of using Ohm’s law. (a) Wiring
difference to calculate the amperes of current through R. diagram of a circuit with a 6-V battery for V applied across a
In Fig.  4-2, for instance, with 6 V applied across a 3-V load R. (b) Schematic diagram of the circuit with values for I
resistance, by Ohm’s law, the amount of current I equals and R calculated by Ohm’s law.
6
⁄3 or 2 A.
The practical fact is that high-voltage circuits usually do have
High Voltage but Low Current small values of current in electronic equipment. Otherwise,
tremendous amounts of power would be necessary.
It is important to realize that with high voltage, the current
can have a low value when there is a very high resistance in Low Voltage but High Current
the circuit. For example, 1000 V applied across 1,000,000 V
At the opposite extreme, a low value of voltage in a very
results in a current of only A. By Ohm’s law,
low resistance circuit can produce a very high current. A
I5 V
__ 6-V battery connected across a resistance of 0.01 V produces
R
600 A of current:
5 1000 V 5 _____
___________ 1
V
1,000,000 V 1000 I 5 __
R
I 5 0.001 A 6V
5 ______
0.01 V
12 V
I 5 600 A
10 V

8V Less I with More R
6V A
Note the values of I in the following two examples also.
4V

2V
EXAMPLE 4-1

A heater with the resistance of 8 V is connected across the

Figure 4-1 Increasing the applied voltage V produces 120-V power line. How much is current I?
more current I to light the bulb with more intensity.

Ohm’s Law 47

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 voltage. Whenever there is current through a resistance, it
Answer:
must have a potential difference across its two ends equal
V 5 ______
I 5 __ 120 V to the IR product. If there were no potential difference, no
R 8V
electrons could flow to produce the current.
I 5 15 A
4.3 The Resistance R 5 V/I
As the third and final version of Ohm’s law, the three factors
EXAMPLE 4-2 V, I, and R are related by the formula
R 5 __ V (4-3)
A small lightbulb with a resistance of 2400 V is connected across I
the same 120-V power line. How much is current I?
In Fig. 4-2, R is 3 V because 6 V applied across the resis-
Answer: tance produces 2 A through it. Whenever V and I are known,
V 5 _______
I 5 __ 120 V the resistance can be calculated as the voltage across R di-
R 2400 V vided by the current through it.
I 5 0.05 A Physically, a resistance can be considered some material
whose elements have an atomic structure that allows free
electrons to drift through it with more or less force applied.
Although both cases have the same 120 V applied, the Electrically, though, a more practical way of considering re-
current is much less in Example 4-2 because of the higher sistance is simply as a VyI ratio. Anything that allows 1 A of
resistance. current with 10 V applied has a resistance of 10 V. This VyI
ratio of 10 V is its characteristic. If the voltage is doubled to
Typical V and I 20 V, the current will also double to 2 A, providing the same
Transistors and integrated circuits generally operate with a VyI ratio of a 10-V resistance.
dc supply of 5, 6, 9, 12, 15, 24, or 50 V. The current is usually Furthermore, we do not need to know the physical con-
in millionths or thousandths of one ampere up to about 5 A. struction of a resistance to analyze its effect in a circuit,
so long as we know its VyI ratio. This idea is illustrated in
4.2 The Voltage V 5 IR Fig.  4-3. Here, a box with some unknown material in it is
Referring back to Fig. 4-2, the voltage across R must be the connected in a circuit where we can measure the 12 V applied
same as the source V because the resistance is connected di- across the box and the 3 A of current through it. The resis-
rectly across the battery. The numerical value of this V is equal tance is 12Vy3A, or 4 V. There may be liquid, gas, metal,
to the product I 3 R. For instance, the IR voltage in Fig. 4-2 is powder, or any other material in the box; but electrically the
2 A 3 3 V, which equals the 6 V of the applied voltage. The box is just a 4-V resistance because its VyI ratio is 4.
formula is
V 5 IR (4-2) EXAMPLE 4-4

How much is the resistance of a lightbulb if it draws 0.16 A from

EX A M P L E 4 -3 a 12-V battery?

If a 12-V resistor is carrying a current of 2.5 A, how much is its Answer:

voltage? V
R 5 __
I
Answer:
12 V
5 ______
V 5 IR 0.16 A

5 2.5 A 3 12 V 5 75 V

5 30 V

 3 A

With I in amperes and R in ohms, their product V is in volts. V
12 V 4- R
Actually, this must be so because the I value equal to Vy R is box 
the amount that allows the IR product to be the same as the 
voltage across R.
Beside the numerical calculations possible with the IR
formula, it is useful to consider that the IR product means Figure 4-3 The resistance R of any component is its V/I ratio.

48 Chapter 4

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 4.4 Practical Units
The three forms of Ohm’s law can be used to define the prac- V
tical units of current, potential difference, and resistance as
follows:
 R
1 volt
1 ampere 5 ______
1 ohm
1 volt 5 1 ampere 3 1 ohm
1 volt
Figure 4-4 A circle diagram to help in memorizing the
1 ohm 5 ________ Ohm’s law formulas V 5 IR, I 5 V/R, and R 5 V/I. The V is
1 ampere
always at the top.
One ampere is the amount of current through a one-ohm
resistance that has one volt of potential difference applied examples, resistances can be a few million ohms, the out-
across it. put of a high-voltage supply in a computer monitor is about
One volt is the potential difference across a one-ohm re- 20,000 V, and the current in transistors is generally thou-
sistance that has one ampere of current through it. sandths or millionths of an ampere.
One ohm is the amount of opposition in a resistance that In such cases, it is often helpful to use multiples and submul-
has a Vy I ratio of 1, allowing one ampere of current with one tiples of the basic units. These multiple and submultiple values
volt applied. are based on the metric system of units discussed earlier, and a
In summary, the circle diagram in Fig. 4-4 for V 5 IR complete listing of all metric prefixes is in Table 4-1.
can be helpful in using Ohm’s law. Put your finger on the un-
known quantity and the desired formula remains. The three
possibilities are EXAMPLE 4-5

Cover V and you have IR. The I of 8 mA flows through a 5-kV R. How much is the IR
Cover I and you have VyR. voltage?
Cover R and you have VyI. Answer:
V 5 IR 5 8 3 1023 3 5 3 103 5 8 3 5
4.5 Multiple and Submultiple Units V 5 40 V
The basic units—ampere, volt, and ohm—are practical val- In general, milliamperes multiplied by kilohms results in volts for
ues in most electric power circuits, but in many electronics the answer, as 1023 and 103 cancel.
applications, these units are either too small or too big. As

Table 4-1 Multiples and Submultiples of Units*

Value Prefix Symbol Example
1 000 000 000 000 5 1012 tera T THz 5 1012 Hz

1 000 000 000 5 109 giga G GHz 5 109 Hz

1 000 000 5 106 mega M MHz 5 106 Hz

1 000 5 103 kilo k kV 5 103 V

100 5 102 hecto h hm 5 102 m

10 5 10 deka da dam 5 10 m

0.1 5 1021 deci d dm 5 1021 m

0.01 5 1022 centi c cm 5 1022 m

0.001 5 1023 milli m mA 5 1023 A

0.000 001 5 1026 micro μ μ V 5 1026 V

0.000 000 001 5 1029 nano n ns 5 1029 s

0.000 000 000 001 5 10212 pico p pF 5 10212 F

* Additional prefixes are exa 5 1018, peta 5 1015, femto 5 10215, and atto 5 10218.

Ohm’s Law 49

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 EXAMPLE 4-6 Volts Ohms Amperes
 V  A

How much current is produced by 60 V across 12 kV? A 0 2 0

Answer: 2 2 1
V 5 ________
I 5 __ 60
R 12 3 103 4 2 2

6 2 3
5 5 3 103 5 5 mA V  0 to 12 V RL  2 
8 2 4
Note that volts across kilohms produces milliamperes of current.
Similarly, volts across megohms produces microamperes. 10 2 5

12 2 6

(a ) (b)

In summary, common combinations to calculate the cur-

rent I are
V 5 mA
___ V 5 ␮A
____ R constant at 2 
and
kV MV 6

Also, common combinations to calculate IR voltage are 5

mA 3 kV 5 V

Amperes
4
␮A 3 MV 5 V
3
These relationships occur often in electronic circuits be-
cause the current is generally in units of milliamperes or mi- 2
croamperes. A useful relationship to remember is that 1 mA
1
is equal to 1000 ␮A.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
4.6 The Linear Proportion between Volts
V and I (c)
The Ohm’s law formula I 5 VyR states that V and I are di-
Figure 4-5 Experiment to show that I increases in direct
rectly proportional for any one value of R. This relation be- proportion to V with the same R. (a) Circuit with variable V but
tween V and I can be analyzed by using a fixed resistance of constant R. (b) Table of increasing I for higher V. (c) Graph of
2 V for R L , as in Fig. 4-5. Then when V is varied, the meter V and I values. This is a linear volt-ampere characteristic. It
shows I values directly proportional to V. For instance, with shows a direct proportion between V and I.
12 V, I equals 6 A; for 10 V, the current is 5 A; an 8-V poten-
tial difference produces 4 A.
All the values of V and I are listed in the table in Fig. 4-5b changes in magnitude. On the x axis here, 2-V steps are cho-
and plotted in the graph in Fig. 4-5c. The I values are one- sen, whereas the y axis has 1-A scale divisions. The zero
half the V values because R is 2 V. However, I is zero with point at the origin is the reference.
zero volts applied. The plotted points in the graph show the values in the
table. For instance, the lowest point is 2 V horizontally from
Plotting the Graph the origin, and 1 A up. Similarly, the next point is at the in-
The voltage values for V are marked on the horizontal axis, tersection of the 4-V mark and the 2-A mark.
called the x axis or abscissa. The current values I are on the A line joining these plotted points includes all values of I,
vertical axis, called the y axis or ordinate. for any value of V, with R constant at 2 V. This also applies
Because the values for V and I depend on each other, they to values not listed in the table. For instance, if we take the
are variable factors. The independent variable here is V be- value of 7 V up to the straight line and over to the y axis, the
cause we assign values of voltage and note the resulting cur- graph shows 3.5 A for I.
rent. Generally, the independent variable is plotted on the x
axis, which is why the V values are shown here horizontally Volt-Ampere Characteristic
and the I values are on the ordinate. The graph in Fig. 4-5c is called the volt-ampere character-
The two scales need not be the same. The only require- istic of R. It shows how much current the resistor allows for
ment is that equal distances on each scale represent equal different voltages. Multiple and submultiple units of V and I

50 Chapter 4

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 can be used, though. For transistors, the units of I are often
E X A M P L E 4 -7
milliamperes or microamperes.
A toaster takes 10 A from the 120-V power line. How much power
Linear Resistance is used?
The straight-line (linear) graph in Fig. 4-5 shows that R is
Answer:
a linear resistor. A linear resistance has a constant value of
P 5 V 3 I 5 120 V 3 10 A
ohms. Its R does not change with the applied voltage. Then V
P 5 1200 W or 1.2 kW
and I are directly proportional. Doubling the value of V from
4 to 8 V results in twice the current, from 2 to 4 A. Similarly,
three or four times the value of V will produce three or four
times I, for a proportional increase in current.

Nonlinear Resistance EXAMPLE 4-8

Nonlinear resistance has a nonlinear volt-ampere character- How much current flows in the filament of a 300-W bulb con-
istic. As an example, the resistance of the tungsten filament nected to the 120-V power line?
in a lightbulb is nonlinear. The reason is that R increases
Answer:
with more current as the filament becomes hotter. Increasing P 5 ______
300 W
I 5 __
the applied voltage does produce more current, but I does not V 120 V
increase in the same proportion as the increase in V. Another I 5 2.5 A
example of a nonlinear resistor is a thermistor.

Inverse Relation between I and R

Whether R is linear or not, the current I is less for more R,
with the applied voltage constant. This is an inverse relation; EXAMPLE 4-9
that is, I goes down as R goes up. Remember that in the for-
mula I 5 VyR, the resistance is in the denominator. A higher How much current flows in the filament of a 60-W bulb connected
value of R actually lowers the value of the complete fraction. to the 120-V power line?
As an example, let V be constant at 1 V. Then I is equal Answer:
to the fraction 1y R. As R increases, the values of I decrease. P 5 ______
I 5 __ 60 W
V 120 V
For R of 2 V, I is 1⁄2 or 0.5 A. For a higher R of 10 V, I will
I 5 0.5 A or 500 mA
be lower at 1⁄10 or 0.1 A.
Note that the lower-wattage bulb uses less current.
4.7 Electric Power
The unit of electric power is the watt (W), named after James
Watt (1736–1819). One watt of power equals the work done
in one second by one volt of potential difference in moving Work and Power
one coulomb of charge. Work and energy are essentially the same with identical
Remember that one coulomb per second is an ampere. units. Power is different, however, because it is the time rate
Therefore power in watts equals the product of volts times of doing work.
amperes. As an example of work, if you move 100 lb a distance of
Power in watts 5 volts 3 amperes 10 ft, the work is 100 lb 3 10 ft or 1000 ft·lb, regardless of
P5V3I (4-4) how fast or how slowly the work is done. Note that the unit of
work is foot-pounds, without any reference to time.
When a 6-V battery produces 2 A in a circuit, for example,
However, power equals the work divided by the time it
the battery is generating 12 W of power.
takes to do the work. If it takes 1 s, the power in this example
The power formula can be used in three ways:
is 1000 ft·lbys; if the work takes 2 s, the power is 1000 ft·lb
P5V3I in 2 s, or 500 ft·lb/s.
I5P4V or __P Similarly, electric power is the rate at which charge is
V
P forced to move by voltage. This is why power in watts is the
V 5 P 4 I or __
I product of volts and amperes. The voltage states the amount
Which formula to use depends on whether you want to cal- of work per unit of charge; the current value includes the rate
culate P, I, or V. Note the following examples. at which the charge is moved.

Ohm’s Law 51

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 Watts and Horsepower Units EXAMPLE 4-10
A further example of how electric power corresponds to me-
chanical power is the fact that Assuming that the cost of electricity is 6 ¢/kWh, how much will it
cost to light a 100-W lightbulb for 30 days?
746 W 5 1 hp 5 550 ft?lbys
Answer:
This relation can be remembered more easily as 1 hp equals The first step in solving this problem is to express 100 W as
approximately ¾ kilowatt (kW). One kilowatt 5 1000 W. 0.1  kW. The next step is to find the total number of hours in
30 days. Since there are 24 hours in a day, the total number of
Practical Units of Power and Work hours for which the light is on is calculated as
Starting with the watt, we can develop several other impor-
Total hours 5 24 h 3 30 days 5 720 h
____
tant units. The fundamental principle to remember is that day
power is the time rate of doing work, whereas work is power Next, calculate the number of kWh as
used during a period of time. The formulas are
work kWh 5 kW 3 h
Power 5 _____ (4-5) 5 0.1 kW 3 720 h
time
and 5 72 kWh
Work 5 power 3 time (4-6) And finally, determine the cost. (Note that 6¢ 5 $0.06.)

With the watt unit for power, one watt used during one sec- cost
Cost 5 kWh 3 _____
kWh
ond equals the work of one joule. Or one watt is one joule per 0.06
second. Therefore, 1 W 5 1 J/s. The joule is a basic practical 5 72 kWh 3 _____
kWh
unit of work or energy. 5 $4.32
To summarize these practical definitions,
1 joule 5 1 watt · second
1 watt 5 1 joule/second
In terms of charge and current, 4.8 Power Dissipation in Resistance
1 joule 5 1 volt · coulomb When current flows in a resistance, heat is produced because
1 watt 5 1 volt · ampere friction between the moving free electrons and the atoms
obstructs the path of electron flow. The heat is evidence that
Remember that the ampere unit includes time in the denomi-
power is used in producing current. This is how a fuse opens,
nator, since the formula is 1 ampere 5 1 coulomb/second.
as heat resulting from excessive current melts the metal link
Kilowatt-Hours in the fuse.
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit commonly used for large The power is generated by the source of applied voltage
amounts of electrical work or energy. The amount is calculated and consumed in the resistance as heat. As much power as
simply as the product of the power in kilowatts multiplied by the resistance dissipates in heat must be supplied by the volt-
the time in hours during which the power is used. As an ex- age source; otherwise, it cannot maintain the potential dif-
ample, if a lightbulb uses 300 W or 0.3 kW for 4 hours (h), the ference required to produce the current.
amount of energy is 0.3 3 4, which equals 1.2 kWh. The correspondence between electric power and heat is
We pay for electricity in kilowatt-hours of energy. The indicated by the fact that 1 W used during 1 s is equivalent
power-line voltage is constant at 120 V. However, more ap- to 0.24 calorie of heat energy. The electric energy converted
pliances and lightbulbs require more current because they to heat is considered dissipated or used up because the cal-
all add in the main line to increase the power. ories of heat cannot be returned to the circuit as electric
Suppose that the total load current in the main line equals energy.
20 A. Then the power in watts from the 120-V line is Since power is dissipated in the resistance of a circuit, it is con-
venient to express the power in terms of the resistance R. The for-
P 5 120 V 3 20 A mula P 5 V 3 I can be rearranged as follows:
P 5 2400 W or 2.4 kW Substituting IR for V,
If this power is used for 5 h, then the energy or work sup-
P 5 V 3 I 5 IR 3 I
plied equals 2.4 3 5 5 12 kWh. If the cost of electricity is
P 5 I 2R (4-7)
6¢/kWh, then 12 kWh of electricity will cost 0.06 3 12 5
0.72 or 72¢. This charge is for a 20-A load current from the This is a common form of the power formula because of the
120-V line during the time of 5 h. heat produced by current in a resistance.

52 Chapter 4

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 In some applications, electric power dissipation is desir-
 2 A able because the component must produce heat to do its job.
V    24 W
  2R  24 W
12 V R6 For instance, a 600-W toaster must dissipate this amount of
V2
 24 W
 R power to produce the necessary amount of heat. Similarly,
a 300-W lightbulb must dissipate this power to make the
filament white-hot so that it will have the incandescent glow
that furnishes the light. In other applications, however, the
Figure 4-6 Calculating the electric power in a circuit as heat may be just an undesirable by-product of the need to
P 5 V 3 I, P 5 I 2R, or P 5 V 2/R. provide current through the resistance in a circuit. In any
case, though, whenever there is current I in a resistance R, it
For another form, substitute VyR for I. Then dissipates the amount of power P equal to I 2 R.
P 5 V 3 I 5 V 3 __ V Components that use the power dissipated in their resis-
R
V 2 tance, such as lightbulbs and toasters, are generally rated in
P5 ____
(4-8)
R terms of power. The power rating is given at normal applied
In all the formulas, V is the voltage across R in ohms, pro- voltage, which is usually the 120 V of the power line. For
ducing the current I in amperes, for power in watts. instance, a 600-W, 120-V toaster has this rating because it
Any one of the three formulas (4-4), (4-7), and (4-8) can dissipates 600  W in the resistance of the heating element
be used to calculate the power dissipated in a resistance. when connected across 120 V.
The one to be used is a matter of convenience, depending on Note this interesting point about the power relations. The
which factors are known. lower the source voltage, the higher the current required
In Fig. 4-6, for example, the power dissipated with 2 A for the same power. The reason is that P 5 V 3 I. For in-
through the resistance and 12 V across it is 2 3 12 5 24 W. stance, an electric heater rated at 240 W from a 120-V power
Or, calculating in terms of just the current and resistance, line takes 240 W/120 V 5 2 A of current from the source.
the power is the product of 2 squared, or 4, times 6, which However, the same 240 W from a 12-V source, as in a car
equals 24 W. or boat, requires 240 W/12 V 5 20 A. More current must be
Using the voltage and resistance, the power can be calculated supplied by a source with lower voltage, to provide a speci-
as 12 squared, or 144, divided by 6, which also equals 24 W. fied amount of power.
No matter which formula is used, 24 W of power is dissi-
pated as heat. This amount of power must be generated continu- 4.9 Power Formulas
ously by the battery to maintain the potential difference of 12 V To calculate I or R for components rated in terms of power
that produces the 2-A current against the opposition of 6 V. at a specified voltage, it may be convenient to use the power
formulas in different forms. There are three basic power for-
EXAMPLE 4-11 mulas, but each can be in three forms for nine combinations.
Calculate the power in a circuit where the source of 100 V pro- P 5 VI P 5 I 2R V2
P 5 ___
R
duces 2 A in a 50-V R. 2
or I5 P
__ or R 5 2 P
__ or R5 V
___
Answer: V I P
__
P 5 I 2R 5 2 3 2 3 50 5 4 3 50 ___
P 5 200 W
or P or I 5 __
V 5 __
I 兹 P
R
or V 5 兹PR
This means that the source delivers 200 W of power to the resis-
tance and the resistance dissipates 200 W as heat.
EXAMPLE 4-13

How much current is needed for a 600-W, 120-V toaster?

EXAMPLE 4-12
Answer:
P 5 ____
I 5 __ 600
Calculate the power in a circuit in which the same source of 100 V V 120
produces 4 A in a 25-V R. I55A
Answer:
P 5 I 2R 5 42 3 25 5 16 3 25
P 5 400 W EXAMPLE 4-14
Note the higher power in Example 4-12 because of more I, even
though R is less than that in Example 4-11. How much is the resistance of a 600-W, 120-V toaster?

Ohm’s Law 53

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 Answer:
(120)2
V 2 5 ______ 14,400 P = 120 V  2.5 A = 300 W
R 5 ___ 5 ______
P 600 600
300-W bulb
  I 5 24 V
V  120 V
R = 120 V = 48 
2.5 A
2
R = 120 V = 48 
300 W 300 W
  120 V = 2.5 A

EXAMPLE 4-15
Figure 4-7 All formulas are based on Ohm’s law and the
How much current is needed for a 24-V R that dissipates 600 W? power formula.
Answer: __ ______
W 5 兹___
兹 兹
I5 P 5
__ 600
______ 25
R 24 V Furthermore, the resistance of the filament, equal to VyI,
I55A
is 48 V. These calculations are
R 5 __V 5 120 V 5 48 V
______
I 2.5 A
Note that all these formulas are based on Ohm’s law V 5
If we use the power formula R 5 V 2 /P, the answer is the
IR and the power formula P 5 VI. The following example
same 48 V. These calculations are
with a 300-W bulb also illustrates this idea. Refer to Fig. 4-7.
The bulb is connected across the 120-V line. Its 300-W fila- V 2 5 ____
R 5 ___ 1202
P 300
ment requires a current of 2.5 A, equal to PyV. These calcu-
14,400
lations are R 5 ______ 5 48 V
300
P 5  300 
I 5 __ W  5 2.5 A
______ In any case, when this bulb is connected across 120 V
V 120  V so that it can dissipate its rated power, the bulb draws 2.5 A
The proof is that the VI product is 120 3 2.5, which from the power line and the resistance of the white-hot fila-
equals 300 W. ment is 48 V.

CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

The Binary Number System

Most electronic systems today are digital. Examples are TV For example, take the number 7308. Remember from
sets, PCs and laptops, cell phones, CD/DVD players, electronic your basic math that the positions from right to left have the
games, audio players, tablets, satellites, cable TV, and wireless weights of units, tens, hundreds, and thousands, or expressed
hot spots. The inputs to be processed are not continuous analog mathematically 100, 101, 102, and 103. There are 8 units,
signals but binary signals. The outputs are also in binary form. 0 tens, 3 hundreds and 7 thousands. The value of the number
is computed by adding these values.
Number Conversions
7000  300  0  8  7308
Binary signals represent numbers and codes. They are volt-
ages that represent two basic digits, 0 and 1. By using these The binary number system works like that, but it uses po-
two numbers, you can represent any numerical value or any sitions with weights that are a power of 2 (binary means 2).
letter, symbol, or code. The binary number system uses the The weights of a binary number from right to left are 20, 21,
digits or bits 0 and 1 in a system like our decimal number 22, 23 or 1, 2, 4, 8, and so on.
system. It is based on the position of the digit or bit and the
weight given to that position.

54 Chapter 4

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 To evaluate a binary number, you add the weights of those Electronic Representation
bits that are binary 1. An example is the binary number 1110.
To implement the binary system in electronics, we use two
The decimal value is
different voltage levels to represent the 1 and 0. In some
8 + 4 + 2 + 0 5 14 systems a binary 1 is represented by +5 volts and 0 by zero
volts or ground. There are many other possibilities like bi-
nary 1 = 11.8 volts and binary 0 = 10.2 volts. Figure S4-1
shows what binary input signals might look like on a digital
Decimal Binary circuit. In this instance, the number 10011010 represents the
decimal value 154. Here all the bits appear in parallel at the
0 0000
same time to the circuits. The output is shown on the right
1 0001
in Figure S4-1. Here the bits occur one after the other. Each
2 0010 bit has a specific time interval. This is referred to as serial
3 0011 binary data. The circuit shown is simply a digital parallel to
4 0100 serial data converter.
5 0101
6 0110 The ASCII System
7 0111 Instead of representing numerical values, binary can be
8 1000 used to represent any character, like letters of the alphabet,
9 1001 punctuation, and special symbols. One widely used code is
10 1010
the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII). It is usually pronounced “ask key.” This is an
11 1011
8-bit code used in computers, printers, data communica-
12 1100
tions in networks, the Internet, and in thousands of other
13 1101
places.
14 1110 For example, the lowercase letter j in ASCII is 01101010.
15 1111 The capital letter F is 01000110. The symbol ? is 00111111.
Special values represent information or control functions.
The end-of-text (ETX) function is 00000011 and signals
The bit on the far left is the most significant bit (MSB), and
that this is the end of the text being transmitted. The code
the bit on the far right is the least significant bit (LSB). The
00000111 is BEL, a control code used to ring a bell or buzzer
table below shows the 16 values possible with a 4-bit number
or some similar function. With 8 bits you can represent 28 5
and the binary equivalent.
256 characters. In the standard ASCII code only half the
Using this system, any value can be represented. The bi-
characters (128) are commonly used.
nary value can mean anything assigned to it, such as a nu-
You will learn more about the binary number system in a
merical value, a print character, a special code like a PIN
later course, and in the meantime you can translate between
number, or a control function. Such binary values are often
binary and decimal with almost any scientific calculator,
called words or codes. Collectively, all this information is
which does the conversions for you automatically.
called data.

Digital circuit Figure S4-1 A parallel to serial

1 data converter. Binary inputs and
MSB + 5 V Serial binary number
outputs represent numbers, characters,
0
0V MSB LSB and codes using voltages.
0 +5 V
0V
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0V Time
Parallel +5 V
digital Parallel to
1 serial converter Digital output
inputs +5 V
0
0V
1
+5 V
0
LSB 0V

Ohm’s Law 55

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 CHAPTER 4 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. With 24 V across a 1-kV resistor, the current, I, 9. If the voltage across a variable resistance is held con-
equals stant, the current, I, is
a. 0.24 A. a. inversely proportional to resistance.
b. 2.4 mA. b. directly proportional to resistance.
c. 24 mA. c. the same for all values of resistance.
d. 24 ␮A. d. both a and b.
2. With 30 ␮A of current in a 120-kV resistor, the 10. A resistor must provide a voltage drop of 27 V when
voltage, V, equals the current is 10 mA. Which of the following resistors
a. 360 mV. will provide the required resistance and appropriate
b. 3.6 kV. wattage rating?
c. 0.036 V. a. 2.7 kV, 1⁄8 W.
d. 3.6 V. b. 270 V, 1⁄2 W.
3. How much is the resistance in a circuit if 15 V of c. 2.7 kV, 1⁄2 W.
potential difference produces 500 ␮A of current? d. 2.7 kV, 1⁄4 W.
a. 30 kV. 11. The resistance of an open circuit is
b. 3 MV. a. approximately 0 V.
c. 300 kV. b. infinitely high.
d. 3 kV. c. very low.
4. A current of 1000 ␮A equals d. none of the above.
a. 1 A. 12. The current in an open circuit is
b. 1 mA. a. normally very high because the resistance of an
c. 0.01 A. open circuit is 0 V.
d. none of the above. b. usually high enough to blow the circuit fuse.
5. One horsepower equals c. zero.
a. 746 W. d. slightly below normal.
b. 550 ft·lb/s. 13. Power in a resistive circuit shows itself as
c. approximately 3⁄4 kW. a. light emissions.
d. all of the above. b. heat.
6. With R constant c. physical vibrations.
a. I and P are inversely related. d. a magnetic field.
b. V and I are directly proportional. 14. How much current does a 75-W lightbulb draw from
c. V and I are inversely proportional. the 120-V power line?
d. none of the above. a. 625 mA.
7. One watt of power equals b. 1.6 A.
a. 1 V 3 1 A. c. 160 mA.
1J d. 62.5 mA.
b. ___
s 15. The resistance of a short circuit is
c. sC
1
____
a. infinitely high.
d. both a and b. b. very high.
8. A 10-V resistor dissipates 1 W of power when con- c. usually above 1 kV.
nected to a dc voltage source. If the value of dc volt- d. approximately zero.
age is doubled, the resistor will dissipate 16. Which of the following is considered a linear
a. 1 W. resistance?
b. 2 W. a. Lightbulb.
c. 4 W. b. Thermistor.
d. 10 W. c. 1-kV, ½-W carbon-film resistor.
d. Both a and b.

56 Chapter 4

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 17. How much will it cost to operate a 4-kW air-conditioner c. 6.1 V.
for 12 hours if the cost of electricity is 7¢/kWh? d. 150 V.
a. $3.36. 19. Power is proportional to the
b. 33¢. a. voltage.
c. $8.24. b. current.
d. $4.80. c. resistance.
18. What is the maximum voltage a 150-V, 1⁄8 -W resistor d. square of the voltage or current.
can safely handle without exceeding its power rating?
(Assume no power rating safety factor.)
a. 18.75 V.
b. 4.33 V.

CHAPTER 4 PROBLEMS

SECTION 4.1 The Current I 5 V/R 

In Probs. 4.1 to 4.4, solve for the current, I, when V and R R

are known. As a visual aid, it may be helpful to insert the V=?

values of V and R into Fig. 4-8 when solving for I.
4.1 a. V 5 10 V, R 5 5 V, I 5 ?
b. V 5 9 V, R 5 3 V, I 5 ? Figure 4-9 Figure for Probs. 4.5 to 4.9.
c. V 5 36 V, R 5 9 V, I 5 ?
4.2 a. V 5 15 V, R 5 3,000 V, I 5 ?
4.7 a. I 5 0.05 A, R 5 1200 V, V 5 ?
b. V 5 120 V, R 5 6,000 V, I 5 ?
b. I 5 0.006 A, R 5 2200 V, V 5 ?
c. V 5 150 V, R 5 10,000 V, I 5 ?
4.8 How much voltage is developed across a 1000-V
4.3 If a 100-V resistor is connected across the terminals resistor if it has a current of 0.01 A?
of a 12-V battery, how much is the current, I ?
4.9 A lightbulb drawing 1.25 A of current has a resis-
4.4 If one branch of a 120-V power line is protected by a tance of 96 V. How much is the voltage across the
20-A fuse, will the fuse carry an 8-V load? lightbulb?

SECTION 4.2 The Voltage V 5 IR

SECTION 4.3 The Resistance R 5 V/I
In Probs. 4.5 to 4.9, solve for the voltage, V, when I and R
In Probs. 4.10 to 4.14, solve for the resistance, R, when
are known. As a visual aid, it may be helpful to insert the
V and I are known. As a visual aid, it may be helpful to
values of I and R into Fig. 4-9 when solving for V.
insert the values of V and I into Fig. 4-10 when solving
4.5 a. I 5 9 A, R 5 20 V, V 5 ? for R.
b. I 5 4 A, R 5 15 V, V 5 ? 4.10 a. V 5 6 V, I 5 1.5 A, R 5 ?
4.6 a. I 5 4 A, R 5 2.5 V, V 5 ? b. V 5 24 V, I 5 4 A, R 5 ?
b. I 5 1.5 A, R 5 5 V, V 5 ? 4.11 a. V 5 36 V, I 5 9 A, R 5 ?
b. V 5 240 V, I 5 20 A, R 5 ?
4.12 a. V 5 12 V, I 5 0.002 A, R 5 ?
 ?
R b. V 5 45 V, I 5 0.009 A, R 5 ?

V 4.13 How much is the resistance of a motor if it draws 2 A

of current from the 120-V power line?
4.14 If a CD player draws 1.6 A of current from a
Figure 4-8 Figure for Probs. 4.1 to 4.4. 13.6-Vdc source, how much is its resistance?

Ohm’s Law 57

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4.23 How much is the output voltage of a power supply if
R=? it supplies 75 W of power while delivering a current

V of 5 A?

4.24 How much power is consumed by a 12-V incandes-
cent lamp if it draws 150 mA of current when lit?
Figure 4.10 Figure for Probs. 4.10 to 4.14. 4.25 How much will it cost to operate a 1500-W quartz
heater for 48 h if the cost of electricity is 7¢/kWh?
4.26 How much will it cost to run an electric motor for
SECTION 4.5 Multiple and Submultiple Units
10 days if the motor draws 15 A of current from the
In Probs. 4.15 to 4.17, solve for the unknowns listed. 240-V power line? The cost of electricity is 7.5¢/kWh.
4.15 a. V 5 10 V, R 5 100 kV, I 5 ?
b. I 5 200 ␮A, R 5 3.3 MV, V 5 ? SECTION 4.8 Power Dissipation in Resistance
4.16 How much is the current, I, in a 470-kV resistor if its In Probs. 4.27 to 4.30, solve for the power, P, dissipated by
voltage is 23.5 V? the resistance, R.
4.17 How much voltage will be dropped across a 40-kV 4.27 How much power is dissipated by a 5.6-kV resistor
resistance whose current is 250 ␮A? whose current is 9.45 mA?
4.28 How much power is dissipated by a 50-V load if the
voltage across the load is 100 V?
SECTION 4.6 The Linear Proportion between
V and I 4.29 How much power is dissipated by a 600-V load if the
voltage across the load is 36 V?
4.18 Refer to Fig. 4-11. Draw a graph of the I and V values
if (a) R 5 2.5 V; (b) R 5 5 V; (c) R 5 10 V. In each 4.30 How much power is dissipated by an 8-V load if the
case, the voltage source is to be varied in 5-V steps current in the load is 200 mA?
from 0 to 30 V.
SECTION 4.9 Power Formulas
SECTION 4.7 Electric Power In Probs. 4.31 to 4.39, solve for the unknowns listed.
In Probs. 4.19 to 4.26, solve for the unknowns listed. 4.31 a. P 5 2 W, R 5 2 kV, V 5 ?
4.19 a. V 5 120 V, I 5 625 mA, P 5 ? b. P 5 50 mW, R 5 312.5 kV, I 5 ?
b. P 5 1.2 kW, V 5 120 V, I 5 ? 4.32 Calculate the maximum current that a 1-kV, 1-W
4.20 a. P 5 6 W, V 5 12 V, I 5 ? carbon resistor can safely handle without exceeding
its power rating.
b. P 5 10 W, I 5 100 mA, V 5 ?
4.33 Calculate the maximum current that a 22-kV, 1⁄8 -W
4.21 a. V 5 75 mV, I 5 2 mA, P 5 ? resistor can safely handle without exceeding its power
b. P 5 20 mW, I 5 100 ␮A, V 5 ? rating.
4.22 How much current do each of the following lightbulbs 4.34 What is the hot resistance of a 60-W, 120-V
draw from the 120-V power line? lightbulb?
a. 60-W bulb 4.35 A 50-V load dissipates 200 W of power. How much
b. 100-W bulb voltage is across the load?
c. 300-W bulb 4.36 Calculate the maximum voltage that a 390-V, 1⁄2 -W
resistor can safely handle without exceeding its power
rating.
 4.37 How much current does a 960-W coffeemaker draw
V  0 to 30 V R from the 120-V power line?

4.38 If a 4-V speaker dissipates 15 W of power, how much
voltage is across the speaker?
Figure 4-11 Circuit diagram for Prob. 4.18. 4.39 What is the resistance of a 20-W, 12-V halogen lamp?

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 Ch a pt er 5
Series Circuits

Learning Outcomes A series circuit is any circuit that provides only one
path for current flow. An example of a series circuit is
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: shown in Fig. 5-1. Here two resistors are connected end
Explain why the current is the same in all parts of a to end with their opposite ends connected across the
series circuit. terminals of a voltage source. Figure 5-1a shows the
Calculate the total resistance of a series circuit. pictorial wiring diagram, and Fig. 5-1b shows the sche-
Calculate the current in a series circuit. matic diagram. The small dots in Fig. 5-1b represent
Determine the individual resistor voltage drops in a free electrons. Notice that the free electrons have only
series circuit.
one path to follow as they leave the negative terminal
Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to series circuits.
Determine the polarity of a resistor’s IR voltage drop.
of the voltage source, flow through resistors R2 and R1,
Calculate the total power dissipated in a series circuit. and return to the positive terminal. Since there is only
Determine the net voltage of series-aiding and one path for electrons to follow, the current, I, must be
series-opposing voltage sources. the same in all parts of a series circuit. To solve for
Define the terms earth ground and chassis ground. the values of voltage, current, or resistance in a series
Calculate the voltage at a given point with respect to circuit, we can apply Ohm’s law. This chapter covers all
ground in a series circuit. of the characteristics of series circuits.
Describe the effect of an open in a series circuit.
Describe the effect of a short in a series circuit.

59

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 5.1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts starts at the same time and at the same speed in all parts
of a Series Circuit of the circuit.
The electrons returning to the positive battery terminal are
An electric current is a movement of charges between two not the same electrons as those leaving the negative terminal.
points, produced by the applied voltage. When components Free electrons in the wire are forced to move to the positive
are connected in successive order, as in Fig. 5-1, they form a terminal because of the potential difference of the battery.
series circuit. The resistors R1 and R2 are in series with each The free electrons moving away from one point are con-
other and the battery. tinuously replaced by free electrons flowing from an adja-
In Fig. 5-2a, the battery supplies the potential difference cent point in the series circuit. All electrons have the same
that forces free electrons to drift from the negative termi- speed as those leaving the battery. In all parts of the circuit,
nal at A, toward B, through the connecting wires and resis- therefore, the electron drift is the same. An equal number of
tances R3, R2, and R1, back to the positive battery terminal at electrons move at one time with the same speed. That is why
J. At the negative battery terminal, its negative charge repels the current is the same in all parts of the series circuit.
electrons. Therefore, free electrons in the atoms of the wire In Fig. 5-2b, when the current is 2 A, for example, this is
at this terminal are repelled from A toward B. Similarly, free the value of the current through R1, R2, R3, and the battery at
electrons at point B can then repel adjacent electrons, pro- the same instant. Not only is the amount of current the same
ducing an electron drift toward C and away from the nega- throughout, but the current in all parts of a series circuit can-
tive battery terminal. not differ in any way because there is just one current path
At the same time, the positive charge of the positive bat- for the entire circuit.
tery terminal attracts free electrons, causing electrons to The order in which components are connected in series
drift toward I and J. As a result, the free electrons in R1, R2, does not affect the current. In Fig. 5-3b, resistances R1 and
and R3 are forced to drift toward the positive terminal. R2 are connected in reverse order compared with Fig. 5-3a,
The positive terminal of the battery attracts electrons but in both cases they are in series. The current through each
just as much as the negative side of the battery repels elec- is the same because there is only one path for the electron
trons. Therefore, the motion of free electrons in the circuit
R1
H G
I

R1
Resistors J F

Applied voltage,
VT R2

R2 A
E
1
Connecting
wire B
C D
R3

(a)
2 Battery R1
(voltage
source)
(a)  2A  2A
 2A

VT  2A R2
R1 

Applied  2A
voltage, VT
  2A  2A
R2

Electron flow R3

(b)
(b)
Figure 5-2 There is only one current through R1, R2, and
Figure 5-1 A series circuit. (a) Pictorial wiring diagram. R3 in series. (a) Electron drift is the same in all parts of a series
(b) Schematic diagram. circuit. (b) Current I is the same at all points in a series circuit.

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 A A

R1 R1   31⁄3 A  2 A
R1 
VT   3
VT VT R R4 R5
3
10 V R1  10 V RT 
 3  5
R2 R2
R2 
2

(a ) (b) (c)
B B

(a) (b )

A
VT R R4 R5 VT  2 A
3
R3 R4 R5

10 V RT 
 5

(d ) (e)

Figure 5-3 Examples of series connections: R1 and R2 are

B
in series in both (a) and (b); also, R3, R4, and R5 are in series
in (c), (d ), and (e). (c)

Figure 5-4 Series resistances are added for the total R T.

(a) R1 alone is 3  . (b) R1 and R2 in series total 5 .
flow. Similarly, R3, R4, and R5 are in series and have the same (c) The RT of 5  is the same as one resistance of 5 
between points A and B.
current for the connections shown in Fig. 5-3c, d, and e. Fur-
thermore, the resistances need not be equal. Series String
The question of whether a component is first, second, or
A combination of series resistances is often called a string.
last in a series circuit has no meaning in terms of current.
The string resistance equals the sum of the individual resis-
The reason is that I is the same amount at the same time in
tances. For instance, R1 and R2 in Fig. 5-4b form a series string
all series components.
having an RT of 5 V. A string can have two or more resistors.
In fact, series components can be defined as those in the
By Ohm’s law, the amount of current between two points
same current path. The path is from one side of the voltage
in a circuit equals the potential difference divided by the re-
source, through the series components, and back to the other
sistance between these points. Because the entire string is
side of the applied voltage. However, the series path must not
connected across the voltage source, the current equals the
have any point at which the current can branch off to another
voltage applied across the entire string divided by the total
path in parallel.
series resistance of the string. Between points A and B in
Fig. 5-4, for example, 10 V is applied across 5 V in Fig. 5-4b
5.2 Total R Equals the Sum and c to produce 2 A. This current flows through R1 and R2
of All Series Resistances in one series path.
When a series circuit is connected across a voltage source, Series Resistance Formula
as shown in Fig. 5-3, the free electrons forming the current
In summary, the total resistance of a series string equals the
must drift through all the series resistances. This path is the
sum of the individual resistances. The formula is
only way the electrons can return to the battery. With two
or more resistances in the same current path, therefore, the RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1  · · · 1 etc. (5-1)
total resistance across the voltage source is the opposition of
where RT is the total resistance and R1, R2, and R3 are indi-
all the resistances.
vidual series resistances.
Specifically, the total resistance RT of a series string is
This formula applies to any number of resistances,
equal to the sum of the individual resistances. This rule is
whether equal or not, as long as they are in the same series
illustrated in Fig. 5-4. In Fig. 5-4b, 2 V is added in series
string. Note that RT is the resistance to use in calculating the
with the 3 V of Fig. 5-4a, producing the total resistance of
current in a series string. Then Ohm’s law is
5 V. The total opposition of R1 and R2 limiting the amount
of current is the same as though a 5-V resistance were used, V
I 5 ___T (5-2)
as shown in the equivalent circuit in Fig. 5-4c. RT

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 where RT is the sum of all the resistances, VT is the voltage For each IR voltage in Fig. 5-5, multiply each R by the 1 A
applied across the total resistance, and I is the current in all of current in the series circuit. Then
parts of the string.
V1 5 IR1 5 1 A 3 4 V 5 4 V
Note that adding series resistance reduces the current. In
V2 5 IR2 5 1 A 3 6 V 5 6 V
Fig. 5-4a the 3-V R1 allows 10 V to produce 31⁄3 A. However,
I is reduced to 2 A when the 2-V R2 is added for a total series The V1 of 4 V is across the 4 V of R1. Also, the V2 of 6 V is
resistance of 5 V opposing the 10-V source. across the 6 V of R2. The two voltages V1 and V2 are in series.
The IR voltage across each resistance is called an IR drop,
or a voltage drop, because it reduces the potential difference
EXAMPLE 5-1 available for the remaining resistances in the series circuit.
Note that the symbols V1 and V2 are used for the voltage drops
Two resistances R1 and R2 of 5  V each and R3 of 10  V are in across each resistor to distinguish them from the source VT
series. How much is RT?
applied across both resistors.
Answer: In Fig. 5-5, the VT of 10 V is applied across the total series
RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 5 5 1 5 1 10 resistance of R1 and R2. However, because of the IR voltage
drop of 4 V across R1, the potential difference across R2 is
RT 5 20 V
only 6 V. The positive potential drops from 10 V at point A,
with respect to the common reference point at C, down to
6 V at point B with reference to point C. The potential differ-
ence of 6 V between B and the reference at C is the voltage
EXAMPLE 5-2 across R2.
Similarly, there is an IR voltage drop of 6 V across R2.
With 80 V applied across the series string of Example 5-1, how
much is the current in R3? The positive potential drops from 6 V at point B with respect
to point C, down to 0 V at point C with respect to itself. The
Answer: potential difference between any two points on the return
V 80 V
I 5 ___T 5 _____ line to the battery must be zero because the wire has practi-
RT 20 V
cally zero resistance and therefore no IR drop.
I54A Note that voltage must be applied by a source of potential
This 4-A current is the same in R3, R2, R1, or any part of the series difference such as the battery to produce current and have
circuit. an IR voltage drop across the resistance. With no current
through a resistor, the resistor has only resistance. There is
no potential difference across the two ends of the resistor.
The IR drop of 4 V across R1 in Fig. 5-5 represents that
5.3 Series IR Voltage Drops part of the applied voltage used to produce the current of 1
With current I through a resistance, by Ohm’s law, the voltage A through the 4-V resistance. Also, the IR drop across R2 is
across R is equal to I 3 R. This rule is illustrated in Fig. 5-5 6 V because this much voltage allows 1 A in the 6-V resis-
for a string of two resistors. In this circuit, I is 1 A because tance. The IR drop is more in R2 because more potential dif-
the applied VT of 10 V is across the total RT of 10 V, equal to ference is necessary to produce the same amount of current
the 4-V R1 plus the 6-V R2. Then I is 10 V/10 V 5 1 A. in the higher resistance. For series circuits, in general, the
highest R has the largest IR voltage drop across it.
1A
A
A A
EX A M P L E 5 -3
R1 
V1  4 V 4 In Fig. 5-6, solve for RT, I, and the individual resistor voltage drops.

V T  10 V B Answer:

V2  6 V
R2  First, find RT by adding the individual resistance values.
6
RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3
C
C C
5 10 V 1 20 V 1 30 V
Figure 5-5 An example of IR voltage drops V1 and V2 in 5 60 V
a series circuit.

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 R1  10  Answer:
VT 5 40 V 1 60 V 1 180 V

VT 5 280 V
VT  12 V R2  20  Note that the IR drop across each R results from the same cur-
 rent of 2 A, produced by 280 V across the total R T of 140 V.
⌱

R3  30 
EXAMPLE 5-5
Figure 5-6 Circuit for Example 5-3.
An applied V T of 120 V produces IR drops across two series resis-
Next, solve for the current, I. tors R 1 and R 2 . If the voltage drop across R 1 is 40 V, how much is
V the voltage drop across R 2?
I 5 ___T
RT Answer:
12 V Since V1 and V2 must total 120 V and V1 is 40 V, the voltage drop
5 _____ across R 2 must be the difference between 120 V and 40 V, or
60 V
5 200 mA V2 5 VT 2 V1 5 120 V 2 40 V
Now we can solve for the individual resistor voltage drops. V2 5 80 V
V1 5 I 3 R1
5 200 mA 3 10 V
It is logical that VT is the sum of the series IR drops. The
52V
current I is the same in all series components. For this rea-
V2 5 I 3 R2 son, the total of all series voltages VT is needed to produce
5 200 mA 3 20 V the same I in the total of all series resistances RT as the I that
54V each resistor voltage produces in its R.
V3 5 I 3 R3 A practical application of voltages in a series circuit is
illustrated in Fig. 5-7. In this circuit, two 120-V lightbulbs
5 200 mA 3 30 V
56V
Notice that the individual voltage drops are proportional to the
series resistance values. For example, because R3 is three times Bulb 1 Bulb 2
larger than R1, V3 will be three times larger than V1 . With the same
current through all the resistors, the largest resistance must have
the largest voltage drop. 120 V 120 V
100 W 100 W
Applied
voltage
VT  240 V
5.4 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the sum of all resis-
tor voltage drops in a series circuit equals the applied voltage. (a )
Expressed as an equation, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is Bulb 1 Bulb 2
100 W 100 W
VT 5 V1 1 V2 1 V3 1 ·  ·  · 1 etc. (5-3)
where VT is the applied voltage and V1, V2, V3  .  .  . are the
120 V 120 V
individual IR voltage drops.
VT  240 V

EXAMPLE 5-4

A voltage source produces an IR drop of 40 V across a 20-V (b )

R1, 60 V across a 30-V R2, and 180 V across a 90-V R3, all in
series. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, how much is the ap- Figure 5-7 Series string of two 120-V lightbulbs
plied voltage VT? operating from a 240-V line. (a) Wiring diagram.
(b) Schematic diagram.

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 are operated from a 240-V line. If one bulb were connected F

to 240 V, the filament would burn out. With the two bulbs 

in series, however, each has 120 V for proper operation. The A V 1  R1 R1

two 120-V drops across the bulbs in series add to equal the   E
VT
applied voltage of 240 V.  D

Note: A more detailed explanation of Kirchhoff’s voltage B
Electron V 2  R2 R2
law is provided in Chap. 8 (Sec. 8-2). flow, 

C
5.5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
When a voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end must Figure 5-9 Example of two IR voltage drops in series.
Electron flow shown for direction of I.
be either more positive or more negative than the other end.
Otherwise, without a potential difference no current could
flow through the resistance to produce the voltage drop. The the applied voltage is more negative. A point nearer the ter-
polarity of this IR voltage drop can be associated with the minal means that there is less resistance in its path.
direction of I through R. In brief, electrons flow into the In Fig. 5-9 point C is nearer to the negative battery termi-
negative side of the IR voltage and out the positive side (see nal than point D. The reason is that C has no resistance to B,
Fig. 5-8a). whereas the path from D to B includes the resistance of R2.
If we want to consider conventional current, with positive Similarly, point F is nearer to the positive battery terminal
charges moving in the opposite direction from electron flow, than point E, which makes F more positive than E.
the rule is reversed for the positive charges. See Fig. 5-8b. Notice that points D and E in Fig. 5-9 are marked with
Here the positive charges for I are moving into the positive both plus and minus polarities. The plus polarity at D indi-
side of the IR voltage. cates that it is more positive than C. This polarity, however, is
However, for either electron flow or conventional current, shown just for the voltage across R2. Point D cannot be more
the actual polarity of the IR drop is the same. In both a and b positive than points F and A. The positive terminal of the ap-
of Fig. 5-8, the top end of R in the diagrams is positive since plied voltage must be the most positive point because the bat-
this is the positive terminal of the source producing the cur- tery is generating the positive potential for the entire circuit.
rent. After all, the resistor does not know which direction of Similarly, points B and C must have the most negative
current we are thinking of. potential in the entire string, since point B is the negative
A series circuit with two IR voltage drops is shown in terminal of the applied voltage. Actually, the plus polarity
Fig. 5-9. We can analyze these polarities in terms of electron marked at D means only that this end of R2 is less negative
flow. The electrons move from the negative terminal of the than C by the amount of voltage drop across R2.
source VT through R2 from point C to D. Electrons move into Consider the potential difference between E and D in
C and out from D. Therefore C is the negative side of the volt- Fig. 5-9, which is only a piece of wire. This voltage is zero be-
age drop across R2. Similarly, for the IR voltage drop across cause there is no resistance between these two points. Without
R1, point E is the negative side, compared with point F. any resistance here, the current cannot produce the IR drop nec-
A more fundamental way to consider the polarity of IR volt- essary for a difference in potential. Points E and D are, there-
age drops in a circuit is the fact that between any two points fore, the same electrically since they have the same potential.
the one nearer to the positive terminal of the voltage source is When we go around the external circuit from the nega-
more positive; also, the point nearer to the negative terminal of tive terminal of VT , with electron flow, the voltage drops are
drops in negative potential. For the opposite direction, start-
Conventional
ing from the positive terminal of VT , the voltage drops are
current drops in positive potential. Either way, the voltage drop of
  each series R is its proportional part of the VT needed for the
V1 R1 V1 R1 one value of current in all resistances.
 
5.6 Total Power in a Series Circuit
Electron flow
The power needed to produce current in each series resistor
is used up in the form of heat. Therefore, the total power
(a) (b)
used is the sum of the individual values of power dissipated
Figure 5-8 The polarity of IR voltage drops. (a) Electrons in each part of the circuit. As a formula,
flow into the negative side of V1 across R 1. (b) The same
polarity of V1 with positive charges into the positive side. PT 5 P1 1 P2 1 P3 1 · · · 1 etc. (5-4)

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 R1  10  P1  40 W  7A
2A V1 
V 1  20 V used
6V 


VT 
PT  120 W 60 V V T  14 V R2
generated  

R2  20  P2  80 W V2 
V 2  40 V used 8V


(a)
Figure 5-10 The sum of the individual powers P1 and P2
used in each resistance equals the total power PT produced
by the source. 
V1 
6V 

As an example, in Fig. 5-10, R1 dissipates 40 W for P1, VT  2 V R2

equal to 20 V 3 2 A for the VI product. Or, the P1 calculated V2  
8V
as I2R is (2 3 2) 3 10 5 40 W. Also, P1 is V2/R, or (20 3 20)y 1A

10 5 40 W.
Similarly, P2 for R2 is 80 W. This value is 40 3 2 for VI, (b)
(2 3 2) 3 20 for I 2R, or (40 3 40)y20 for V 2y R. Thus, P2
Figure 5-11 Example of voltage sources V1 and V2 in
must be more than P1 because R2 is more than R1 with the series. (a) Note the connections for series-aiding polarities.
same current. Here 8 V 1 6 V 5 14 V for the total VT . (b) Connections for
The total power dissipated by R1 and R2, then, is 40 1 80 5 series-opposing polarities. Now 8 V 2 6 V 5 2 V for VT .
120 W. This power is generated by the source of applied
voltage.
The total power can also be calculated as VT 3 I. The Series-opposing voltages are subtracted, as shown in
reason is that VT is the sum of all series voltages and I is the Fig. 5-11b. Notice here that the positive terminals of V1 and
same in all series components. In this case, then, PT 5 VT 3 V2 are connected. Subtract the smaller from the larger value,
I 5 60 3 2 5 120 W. and give the net V the polarity of the larger voltage. In this
The total power here is 120 W, calculated either from example, VT is 8 2 6 5 2 V. The polarity of VT is the same as
the total voltage or from the sum of P1 and P2. This is the V2 because its voltage is higher than V1.
amount of power produced by the battery. The voltage If two series-opposing voltages are equal, the net volt-
source produces this power, equal to the amount used by age will be zero. In effect, one voltage balances out the
the resistors. other. The current I also is zero, without any net potential
difference.
5.7 Series-Aiding and
Series-Opposing Voltages 5.8 Analyzing Series Circuits
Series-aiding voltages are connected with polarities that with Random Unknowns
allow current in the same direction. In Fig. 5-11a, the 6 V of Refer to Fig. 5-12. Suppose that the source VT of 50 V is
V1 alone could produce a 3-A electron flow from the negative known, with a 14-V R1 and 6-V R2. The problem is to find
terminal, with the 2-V R. Also, the 8 V of V2 could produce RT , I, the individual voltage drops V1 and V2 across each re-
4 A in the same direction. The total I then is 7 A. sistor, and the power dissipated.
Instead of adding the currents, however, the voltages V1 We must know the total resistance RT to calculate I be-
and V2 can be added, for a VT of 6 1 8 5 14 V. This 14 V pro- cause the total applied voltage VT is given. This VT is applied
duces 7 A in all parts of the series circuit with a resistance of across the total resistance RT. In this example, RT is 14 1
2 V. Then I is 14/2 5 7 A. 6 5 20 V.
Voltages are connected series-aiding when the plus termi- Now I can be calculated as VTy RT, or 50y20, which equals
nal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the next. 2.5 A. This 2.5-A I flows through R1 and R2.
They can be added for a total equivalent voltage. This idea The individual voltage drops are
applies in the same way to voltage sources, such as batter-
V1 5 IR1 5 2.5 3 14 5 35 V
ies, and to voltage drops across resistances. Any number of
voltages can be added, as long as they are connected with V2 5 IR2 5 2.5 3 6 5 15 V
series-aiding polarities. Note that V1 and V2 total 50 V, equal to the applied VT.

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 V1  ? R1 
P1  ? 10 k 

R1 
14 
 R2  V2  ?  R2 
V T  50 V 6 P2  ? V T  180 V 30 k 
 
?   3 mA

R3  ?
Figure 5-12 Analyzing a series circuit to find I, V1, V2, P1,
and P2 . See text for solution. Figure 5-13 Find the resistance of R3. See text for the
analysis of this series circuit.
The calculations to find the power dissipated in each re-
sistor are as follows:
60 kV, which results in the current of 3 mA with 180 V
P1 5 V1 3 I 5 35 3 2.5 5 87.5 W applied, as specified in the circuit.
P2 5 V2 3 I 5 15 3 2.5 5 37.5 W Another way of doing this problem is to find RT first. The
These two values of dissipated power total 125 W. The power equation I 5 VTy RT can be inverted to calculate RT.
generated by the source equals VT 3 I or 50 3 2.5, which is V
RT 5 ___T
also 125 W. I
With a 3-mA I and 180 V for VT , the value of R T must be
General Methods for Series Circuits 180 V/3 mA 5 60 kV. Then R3 is 60 kV 2 40 kV 5 20 kV.
For other types of problems with series circuits, it is useful The power dissipated in each resistance is 90 mW in R1,
to remember the following: 270 mW in R 2, and 180 mW in R3. The total power is 90 1
1. When you know the I for one component, use this 270 1 180 5 540 mW.
value for I in all components, for the current is the
same in all parts of a series circuit. Series Voltage-Dropping Resistors
2. To calculate I, the total VT can be divided by the total A common application of series circuits is to use a resistance
RT, or an individual IR drop can be divided by its R. For to drop the voltage from the source VT to a lower value, as in
instance, the current in Fig. 5-12 could be calculated as Fig. 5-14. The load RL here represents a radio that operates nor-
V2yR2 or 15y6, which equals the same 2.5 A for I. How- mally with a 9-V battery. When the radio is on, the dc load cur-
ever, do not mix a total value for the entire circuit with rent with 9 V applied is 18 mA. Therefore, the requirements are
an individual value for only part of the circuit. 9 V at 18 mA as the load.
3. When you know the individual voltage drops around To operate this radio from 12.6 V, the voltage-dropping
the circuit, these can be added to equal the applied resistor RS is inserted in series to provide a voltage drop VS
VT. This also means that a known voltage drop can that will make VL equal to 9 V. The required voltage drop
be subtracted from the total VT to find the remaining for VS is the difference between VL and the higher VT. As a
voltage drop. formula,

These principles are illustrated by the problem in VS 5 VT 2 VL 5 12.6 2 9 5 3.6 V

Fig.  5-13. In this circuit, R1 and R2 are known but not R3.
However, the current through R3 is given as 3 mA.
With just this information, all values in this circuit can
be calculated. The I of 3 mA is the same in all three series RS VS
resistances. Therefore, 
VT 
12.6 V
V1 5 3 mA 3 10 kV 5 30 V 
9V
RL at VL
V2 5 3 mA 3 30 kV 5 90 V 18 mA

The sum of V1 and V2 is 30 1 90 5 120 V. This 120 V

plus V3 must total 180 V. Therefore, V3 is 180 2 120 5 60 V. Figure 5-14 Example of a series voltage-dropping
With 60 V for V3, equal to IR3, then R3 must be 60/0.003, resistor R S used to drop VT of 12.6 V to 9 V for RL . See text
equal to 20,000 V or 20 kV. The total circuit resistance is for calculations.

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 V 1  1.5 V R1  2 k V 2  1.5 V R2  1 k diagrams may use two or all three of the ground symbols
 
 
shown in Fig. 5-16. In this type of circuit, each ground repre-
sents a common return path for only those circuits using the
same ground symbol. When more than one type of ground
symbol is shown on a schematic diagram, it is important to re-
 alize that each one is electrically isolated from the other. The
 
term electrically isolated means that the resistance between
V 3  4.5 V R3  2 k each ground or common point is infinite ohms.
Although standards defining the use of each ground sym-
Figure 5-15 Finding the I for this series circuit with three
voltage sources. See text for solution. bol in Fig. 5-16 have been set, the use of these symbols in
the electronics industry seems to be inconsistent with their
Furthermore, this voltage drop of 3.6 V must be provided definitions. In other words, a schematic may show the earth
with a current of 18 mA, for the current is the same through ground symbol, even though it is a chassis ground connec-
RS and R L. To calculate RS, tion. Regardless of the symbol used, the main thing to re-
member is that the symbol represents a common return path
3.6 V 5 0.2 kV 5 200 V
RS 5 ______
18 mA for current in a given circuit. In this text, the earth ground
symbol shown in Fig. 5-16 has been arbitrarily chosen as the
Circuit with Voltage Sources in Series symbol representing a common return path for current.
See Fig. 5-15. Note that V1 and V2 are series-opposing, with 1 Figure 5-17 shows a series circuit employing the earth
to 1 through R1. Their net effect, then, is 0 V. Therefore, VT ground symbol. Since each ground symbol represents the
consists only of V3, equal to 4.5 V. The total R is 2 1 1 1 2 5 same electrical potential of 0 V, the negative terminal of VT
5 kV for R T. Finally, I is VTy RT or 4.5 Vy5 kV, which is equal and the bottom end of R3 are actually connected to the same
to 0.9 mA, or 900 mA. point electrically. Electrons leaving the bottom of VT flow
through the common return path represented by the ground
5.9 Ground Connections in Electrical symbol and return to the bottom of R3, as shown in the fig-
ure. One of the main reasons for using ground connections
and Electronic Systems in electronic circuits is to simplify the wiring.
In most electrical and electronic systems, one side of the volt-
age source is connected to ground. For example, one side of Voltages Measured with Respect to Ground
the voltage source of the 120-Vac power line in residential When a circuit has a ground as a common return, we gener-
wiring is connected directly to earth ground. The reason for ally measure the voltages with respect to this ground. The
doing this is to reduce the possibility of electric shock. The circuit in Fig. 5-18a is called a voltage divider. Let us con-
connection to earth ground is usually made by driving cop- sider this circuit without any ground, and then analyze the
per rods into the ground and connecting the ground wire of effect of grounding different points on the divider. It is im-
the electrical system to these rods. The schematic symbol portant to realize that this circuit operates the same way with
used for earth ground is shown in Fig. 5-16. In electronic or without the ground. The only factor that changes is the
circuits, however, not all ground connections are necessarily reference point for measuring the voltages.
earth ground connections. The pitchforklike symbol shown
in Fig. 5-16 is considered by many people to be the most ap-
propriate symbol for a metal chassis or copper foil ground on 
I
printed-circuit boards. This chassis ground symbol represents V1 R1

a common return path for current and may or may not be con- 

nected to an actual earth ground. Another ground symbol,

common ground, is shown in Fig. 5-16. This is just another VT
V2 R2

symbol used to represent a common return path for current in  


a circuit. In all cases, ground is assumed to be at a potential
of 0 V, regardless of which symbol is shown. Some schematic V3 R3


common 0V 0V
earth chassis ground
ground ground
Common return path

Figure 5-17 Series circuit using earth ground symbol to

Figure 5-16 Ground symbols. represent common return path for current.

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fre7380X_ch05_059-075.indd 67 1/11/13 11:30 AM

 V DA  30 V
D
 1 A  1 A
 
R3 
V 3  10 V V 3  10 V
10 
 
C V CA  20 V
   
R2 
V T  30 V V 2  10 V V T  30 V V 2  10 V
10 
   
B V BA  10 V
 
R1 
V 1  10 V V 1  10 V
10 
 
 1 A  1 A
A

(a ) (b )

V DB  20 V
D D
 1 A  1 A
 
V 3  10 V V 3  10 V
 
C V CB  10 V C V CD  10 V
   
V T  30 V V 2  10 V V T  30 V V 2  10 V
   
B B V BD  20 V
 
V 1  10 V V 1  10 V
 
 1 A  1 A
A A
V AB  10 V V AD  30 V

(c) (d)

Figure 5-18 An example of calculating dc voltages measured with respect to ground.

(a) Series circuit with no ground connection. (b) Negative side of VT grounded to make all
voltages positive with respect to ground. (c) Positive and negative voltages with respect to
ground at point B. (d ) Positive side of VT grounded; all voltages are negative to ground.

In Fig. 5-18a, the three 10-V resistances R1, R2, and R3 only effect of the ground here is to provide a conducting path
divide the 30-V source equally. Then each voltage drop is from one side of the source to one side of the load.
30y3 5 10 V for V1, V2, and V3. The polarity of each resistor With the ground in Fig. 5-18b, though, it is useful to con-
voltage drop is positive at the top and negative at the bottom, sider the voltages with respect to ground. In other words, the
the same as VT . As you recall, the polarity of a resistor’s ground at point A will now be the reference for all voltages.
voltage drop is determined by the direction of current flow. When a voltage is indicated for only one point in a circuit,
If we want to consider the current, I is 30/30 5 1 A. Each generally the other point is assumed to be ground. We must
IR drop is 1 3 10 5 10 V for V1, V2, and V3. have two points for a potential difference.
Let us consider the voltages at points B, C, and D. The
Positive Voltages to Negative Ground voltage at B to ground is VBA. This double subscript notation
In Fig. 5-18b, the negative side of VT is grounded, and the bot- indicates that we measure at B with respect to A. In general,
tom end of R1 is also grounded to complete the circuit. The the first letter indicates the point of measurement and the
ground is at point A. Note that the individual voltages V1, V2, second letter is the reference point.
and V3 are still 10 V each. Also, the current is still 1 A. The Then VBA is 110 V. The positive sign is used here to em-
direction of current is also the same, from the negative side of phasize the polarity. The value of 10 V for VBA is the same as
VT , through the common ground, to the bottom end of R1. The V1 across R1 because points B and A are across R1. However,

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 V1 as the voltage across R1 cannot be given any polarity with- We can consider the ground at B as a dividing point for
out a reference point. positive and negative voltages. For all points toward the posi-
When we consider the voltage at C, then, VCA is 120 V. tive side of VT , any voltage is positive to ground. Going the
This voltage equals V1 1 V2. Also, for point D at the top, VDA other way, at all points toward the negative side of VT , any
is 130 V for V1 1 V2 1 V3. voltage is negative to ground.

Positive and Negative Voltages Negative Voltages to Positive Ground

to a Grounded Tap In Fig. 5-18d, point D at the top of the divider is grounded,
In Fig. 5-18c point B in the divider is grounded. The purpose which is the same as grounding the positive side of the source
is to have the divider supply negative and positive voltages VT . The voltage source here is inverted , compared with
with respect to ground. The negative voltage here is VAB, Fig. 5-18b, as the opposite side is grounded. In Fig. 5-18d,
which equals 210 V. This value is the same 10 V as V1, but all voltages on the divider are negative to ground. Here,
VAB is the voltage at the negative end A with respect to the VCD 5 210 V, VBD 5 220 V, and VAD 5 230 V. Any point in
positive end B. The other voltages in the divider are VCB 5 the circuit must be more negative than the positive terminal
110 V and VDB 5 120 V. of the source, even when this terminal is grounded.

CHAPTER 5 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Light-Emitting Diodes
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are everywhere in electronics. the direction of electron flow. If the polarity of the voltage is
Almost all electronic devices have some form of indicator reversed, no current flows.
light or display, and all use LEDs. These red, green, blue, Note in Fig. S5-3 that a resistor is connected in series with
and yellow lights provide a visual indication of electronic or the LED. This series voltage-dropping resistor or current-
electric functions. LEDs in the form of seven-segment dis- limiting resistor protects the diode from excessive voltage
plays are still widely used in digital clocks. Even the newer and current.
large-screen HDTV sets use LEDs. Other uses are lighted When current flows through an LED, a voltage drop appears
signs and automobile taillights. And white LEDs are chang- across it. This voltage varies with the type and color of the
ing the way we light our world. You will learn more about LED. Red LEDs usually have a voltage drop of about 2 volts.
these common devices in a later chapter, but for now here is Blue and white LEDs have a voltage drop of over 3 volts. Green
a quickie introduction. and yellow LEDs have a voltage in the 2- to 3-volt range. Cur-
An LED is a solid-state or semiconductor device called rent in an LED is usually limited to 50 mA or so, depending
a diode. A diode is a two-element component that allows on the application. For simple indicator functions, the current
current to flow through it in one direction only. It blocks
current in the opposite direction. Diodes are widely used
in electronics for rectification (converting ac to dc), cir-
cuit protection, voltage stabilization, and waveshaping.
LEDs are special diodes that emit light when current is
flowing through them. Figure S5-1 shows several com-
mon LEDs.
The schematic symbol for an LED is shown in Fig. S5-2.
It has two components, the cathode (K) and the anode (A).
When voltage is applied to an LED, we say that it is biased.
If the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode,
electrons will flow from cathode to anode. The arrow shows Figure S5-1 Several common LEDs.

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 Electron Electron 3V DC-DC 17.5 V
flow  flow  converter

A A
2 AA
K K cells

 
White
LEDs
Figure S5-2 Schematic symbols for a light-emitting diode.

150 
Figure S5-4 A dc-dc converter generates the higher dc
voltage needed for 5 series LEDs.
3V

5V 2V
 has to be converted to dc first. The rectifier uses diodes
and can be made to provide dc of a level suitable for strings
of LEDs. Resistors are then used to adjust the current and
brightness level. Some circuitry may also use a dc-dc
Figure S5-3 A series resistor provides the correct converter or a regulator circuit to ensure that the LEDs
voltage and current for the LED. get the correct voltage and current. Figure S5-5 shows one
possible circuit. LED lightbulbs are expensive because
they contain lots of related circuitry. But they are cool,
efficient, and bright.
is set to about 15–20 mA. For extra bright lighting, a current of
LEDs are also widely used in TV and other remote con-
100 mA may be used. The amount of current determines the
trols. These LEDs generate infrared (IR) light. Our eyes
actual brightness.
cannot see it, but it is light nonetheless. Digital codes rep-
In Fig. S5-3, the red LED needs 2 volts. The 5-volt dc
resenting the button pushes on the remote control switch the
power supply is too much, so the series resistor is used to
LED off and on at high speed to signal the TV set or other
drop 3 volts. If the desired current is 20 mA, the series resis-
consumer device.
tor value must be
Vdrop 3 = 150 Ω
R = ____ = ____
I 0.02
AC DC DC-DC
When multiple LEDs are used as in flashlights or LED Rectifier
converter
lightbulbs, they are usually connected in series, as shown in
Fig. S5-4. Five white LEDs in series will require about 3.5
120 V
volts per device for a total 17.5 volts. If the LEDs are to be AC
powered by AA, C, or D cells that deliver about 1.5 volts,
you would need 12 cells in series, which is monumentally Multiple
impractical and expensive. The solution to this is to use an LEDs
integrated circuit (IC) called a dc-dc converter. It can take
the input from two 1.5-volt cells in series to deliver 3 volts to
the dc-dc converter. The converter then puts out the desired
17.5 volts.
The forthcoming LED lightbulb replacements use an Figure S5-5 An LED lightbulb contains a complex
ac-dc converter called a rectifier. The normal 120-volt ac electronic power supply circuit.

70 Chapter 5

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 CHAPTER 5 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Three resistors in series have individual values of 8. A voltage of 120 V is applied across two resistors, R1
120 V, 680 V, and 1.2 kV. How much is the total re- and R2, in series. If the voltage across R2 equals 90 V,
sistance, RT? how much is the voltage across R1?
a. 1.8 kV. a. 90 V.
b. 20 kV. b. 30 V.
c. 2 kV. c. 120 V.
d. None of the above. d. It cannot be determined.
2. In a series circuit, the current, I, is 9. If two series-opposing voltages each have a voltage of
a. different in each resistor. 9 V, the net or total voltage is
b. the same everywhere. a. 0 V.
c. the highest near the positive and negative terminals b. 18 V.
of the voltage source. c. 9 V.
d. different at all points along the circuit. d. none of the above.
3. In a series circuit, the largest resistance has 10. On a schematic diagram, what does the chassis
a. the largest voltage drop. ground symbol represent?
b. the smallest voltage drop. a. Hot spots on the chassis.
c. more current than the other resistors. b. The locations in the circuit where electrons
d. both a and c. accumulate.
4. The polarity of a resistor’s voltage drop is c. A common return path for current in one or more
determined by circuits.
a. the direction of current through the resistor. d. None of the above.
b. how large the resistance is. 11. The notation, VBG, means
c. how close the resistor is to the voltage source. a. the voltage at point G with respect to point B.
d. how far away the resistor is from the voltage b. the voltage at point B with respect to point G.
source. c. the battery (b) or generator (G) voltage.
5. A 10-V and 15-V resistor are in series across a dc d. none of the above.
voltage source. If the 10-V resistor has a voltage drop 12. If a resistor in a series circuit is shorted, the series
of 12 V, how much is the applied voltage? current, I,
a. 18 V. a. decreases.
b. 12 V. b. stays the same.
c. 30 V. c. increases.
d. It cannot be determined. d. drops to zero.
6. How much is the voltage across a shorted component 13. A 6-V and 9-V source are connected in a series-aiding
in a series circuit? configuration. How much is the net or total voltage?
a. The full applied voltage, V T . a. 23 V.
b. The voltage is slightly higher than normal. b. 13 V.
c. 0 V. c. 0 V.
d. It cannot be determined. d. 15 V.
7. How much is the voltage across an open component 14. A 56-V and 82-V resistor are in series with an
in a series circuit? unknown resistor. If the total resistance of the
a. The full applied voltage, VT . series combination is 200 V, what is the value of
b. The voltage is slightly lower than normal. the unknown resistor?
c. 0 V. a. 138 V.
d. It cannot be determined. b. 62 V.
c. 26 V.
d. It cannot be determined.

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 15. How much is the total resistance, RT , of a series 18. Which of the following equations can be used to de-
circuit if one of the resistors is open? termine the total power in a series circuit?
a. infinite (`) V. a. PT 5 P1 1 P2 1 P3 1 · · · 1 etc.
b. 0 V. b. PT 5 VT 3 l.
c. RT is much lower than normal. c. PT 5 l 2 RT .
d. None of the above. d. All of the above.
16. If a resistor in a series circuit becomes open, how 19. Using electron flow, the polarity of a resistor’s voltage
much is the voltage across each of the remaining drop is
resistors that are still good? a. positive on the side where electrons enter and nega-
a. Each good resistor has the full value of applied tive on the side where they leave.
voltage. b. negative on the side were electrons enter and posi-
b. The applied voltage is split evenly among the good tive on the side where they leave.
resistors. c. opposite to that obtained with conventional current
c. 0 V. flow.
d. It cannot be determined. d. both b and c.
17. A 5-V and 10-V resistor are connected in series 20. The schematic symbol for earth ground is
across a dc voltage source. Which resistor will a. .
dissipate more power?
a. The 5-V resistor. b. .
b. The 10-V resistor. c. .
c. It depends on how much the current is.
d. They will both dissipate the same amount of d. .
power.

CHAPTER 5 PROBLEMS

SECTION 5.1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a

Series Circuit R1  120 

5.1 In Fig. 5-19, how much is the current, I, at each of the VT  9 V
points A through F? 
R2  180 

R1  10 
E D
Figure 5-20
F
5.4 In Fig. 5-21 solve for RT and I.

Applied R1  1 k
R2  20 
voltageVT

A
⌱  100 mA


B R3  30  C VT  24 V R2  1.2 k

Figure 5-19

R3  1.8 k
5.2 If R1 and R3 are interchanged in Fig. 5-19, how much
is the current, I, in the circuit? Figure 5-21
SECTION 5.2 Total R Equals the Sum of All 5.5 What are the new values for RT and I in Fig. 5-21 if a
Series Resistances 2-k resistor, R4, is added to the series circuit?
5.3 In Fig. 5-20, solve for RT and I. 5.6 In Fig. 5-22, solve for RT and I.

72 Chapter 5

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 R1 5 22 kV R2 5 68 kV R1

V1  25 V

1 
VT 5 240 V R3 5 10 kV VT V2  45 V R2
2 
V3  30 V

R3
R5 5 100 kV R4 5 1 MV

Figure 5-22 Figure 5-25

SECTION 5.3 Series IR Voltage Drops 5.14 Determine the voltage, V2, in Fig. 5-26.
5.7 In Fig. 5-21, find the voltage drops across R1 and R2. R1
5.8 In Fig. 5-20, find the voltage drops across R1, R2,
and R3. V1  9 V

5.9 In Fig. 5-22, find the voltage drops across R1, R2, R3, 
VT  36 V V2  ? R2
R4, and R5. 
5.10 In Fig. 5-23, solve for RT , I, V1, V2, and V3. V3  16 V

R1  330  R3

Figure 5-26

VT  20 V R2  470  5.15 In Fig. 5-27, solve for the individual resistor voltage

drops. Then, using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, find VT .

R1  1.8 k R2  2.2 k
R3  1.2 k


Figure 5-23
VT R3  1 k

5.11 In Fig. 5-24, solve for RT , I, V1, V2, V3, and V4.  ⌱ = 4 mA

R1  1.8 k R2  2.7 k R5  10 k R4  15 k

Figure 5-27

VT  24 V 5.16 An applied voltage of 15 V is connected across resis-
 tors R1 and R2 in series. If V2 5 3 V, how much is V1?

SECTION 5.5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops

R4  3.3 k R3  8.2 k 5.17 In Fig. 5-28,
a. Solve for RT, I, V1, V2, and V3.
Figure 5-24 b. Indicate the direction of electron flow through R1,
R2, and R3.
SECTION 5.4 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) c. Write the values of V1, V2, and V3 next to resistors
5.12 Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine the value of R1, R2, and R3.
the applied voltage, VT , in Fig. 5-25. d. Indicate the polarity of each resistor voltage drop.
5.13 If V1 5 2 V, V2 5 6 V, and V3 5 7 V in Fig. 5-25, how 5.18 In Fig. 5-28, indicate the polarity for each resistor
much is VT? voltage drop using conventional current flow. Are the

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 R1  10  5.24 In Fig. 5-30, assume that V2 is increased to 30 V. What is
a. The net or total voltage, VT , across R1 ?
b. The current, I, in the circuit?
 c. The direction of electron flow through R1?
VT  50 V R2  39 
 5.25 In Fig. 5-31,
a. How much is the net or total voltage, VT , across R1
and R2 in series?
R3  51  b. How much is the current, I, in the circuit?
c. What is the direction of electron flow through R1
Figure 5-28 and R2?
d. Calculate the voltage drops across R1 and R2.
polarities opposite to those obtained with electron
flow or are they the same?
5.19 If the polarity of VT is reversed in Fig. 5-28, what happens 
V1  16 V
to the polarity of the resistor voltage drops and why? 
 R1  12 
SECTION 5.6 Total Power in a Series Circuit V2  6 V

5.20 In Fig. 5-20, calculate P1, P2, and PT . VT

5.21 In Fig. 5-21, calculate P1, P2, P3, and PT . V3  12 V
 R2  18 

SECTION 5.7 Series–Aiding and Series–Opposing V4  10 V
Voltages 

5.22 In Fig. 5-29,

a. How much is the net or total voltage, VT across R1? Figure 5-31
b. How much is the current, I, in the circuit?
c. What is the direction of electron flow and conven- SECTION 5.8 Analyzing Series Circuits
tional current through R1? with Random Unknowns
5.26 In Fig. 5-32, calculate the value for the series resistor,
Rs that will allow a 12-V, 150-mA CD player to be

V1  9 V operated from a 30-V supply.

VT R1  2.7 k
 RS
V2  18 V
  CD Player
VT  30 V
 12 V
at
Figure 5-29 150 mA

5.23 In Fig. 5-30, Figure 5-32

a. How much is the net or total voltage, VT , across R1 ?
b. How much is the current, I, in the circuit? 5.27 In Fig. 5-33, solve for RT, V3, V4, R3, PT, P1, P2, P3, and P4.
c. What is the direction of conventional current flow
through R1 ?
R1  3.3 k R2

⌱  1.2 mA V2  12 V

V1  24 V 
 VT  36 V
R1  1 k 
VT

V2  10 V

R4  4.7 k R3

Figure 5-30 Figure 5-33

74 Chapter 5

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 5.28 In Fig. 5-34, solve for I, RT , VT , V2, and P1. 5.34 In Fig. 5-37, solve for VAG, VBG, and VCG.
R1  1 k R2  1.8 k
A
V1  20 V

 R1  8.2 k
VT

PT  2.4 W  G
VT  60 V

R2  6.8 k
R4 R3  1.2 k

B
Figure 5-34
5.29 In Fig. 5-35, solve for R3, I, VT , and PT . R3  15 k

P2  1 W
R1  200  R2  400  C

Figure 5-37

VT
RT  2 k 5.35 In Fig. 5-38, solve for VAG, VBG, VCG, and VDG.


R1  330 
R4  600  R3 D C

Figure 5-35
R2  470 
5.30 A 1.5-k resistor is in series with an unknown resis-
tance. The applied voltage, VT , equals 36 V and the
 G
series current is 14.4 mA. Calculate the value of the V T  36 V
unknown resistor. 
R3  820 
5.31 How much resistance must be added in series with a
6.3-V, 150-mA lightbulb if the bulb is to be operated B

from a 12-V source?

R4  180 
5.32 A 22-V resistor is in series with a 12-V motor that is
drawing 150 mA of current. How much is the applied
voltage, VT ? A

SECTION 5.9 Ground Connections in Electrical Figure 5-38

and Electronic Systems
5.33 In Fig. 5-36, solve for VAG, VBG, and VCG.

A
5.36 In Fig. 5-39, solve for VAG, VBG, and VCG.

R1  18 k
R1  2 k
B A B

R2  10 k
VT  18 V 

C VT  30 V R2  1 k

R3  2 k

C G
G
R3  1 k

Figure 5-36 Figure 5-39

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 Ch a pt er 6
Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit is any circuit that provides one com- Learning Outcomes
mon voltage across all components. Each component
across the voltage source provides a separate path After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
or branch for current flow. The individual branch cur- Explain why voltage is the same across all
VA branches in a parallel circuit.
rents are calculated as __ where VA is the applied volt-
R Calculate the individual branch currents in a
age and R is the individual branch resistance. The total parallel circuit.
current, IT, supplied by the applied voltage, must equal Calculate the total current in a parallel circuit
the sum of all individual branch currents. using Kirchhoff’s current law.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of two or more
The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit equals
resistors in parallel.
the applied voltage, VA, divided by the total current,
Calculate the total conductance of a parallel circuit.
IT. The  term equivalent resistance refers to a single
Calculate the total power in a parallel circuit.
resistance that would draw the same amount of cur-
Solve for the voltage, current, power, and resistance
rent as all the parallel-connected branches. The equiva- in a parallel circuit having random unknowns.
lent resistance of a parallel circuit is designated REQ. Describe the effects of an open and short in a
This chapter covers all the characteristics of parallel parallel circuit.
circuits.

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 6.1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the 100-W
120-V bulb
Same across Parallel Branches
A parallel circuit is formed when two or more components
are connected across a voltage source, as shown in Fig. 6-1. 600-W
120-V
In this figure, R1 and R2 are in parallel with each other and a toaster
1.5-V battery. In Fig. 6-1b, points A, B, C, and E are equiv-
120 V
alent to a direct connection at the positive terminal of the
battery because the connecting wires have practically no re-
sistance. Similarly, points H, G, D, and F are the same as a
Grounding
direct connection at the negative battery terminal. Since R1 terminal Wall receptacle
and R2 are directly connected across the two terminals of the (a)

battery, both resistances must have the same potential dif-

ference as the battery. It follows that the voltage is the same
across components connected in parallel. The parallel cir-
cuit arrangement is used, therefore, to connect components R1 120-V R2
bulb source toaster
that require the same voltage.
A common application of parallel circuits is typical house
wiring to the power line, with many lights and appliances
connected across the 120-V source (Fig. 6-2). The wall re-
ceptacle has a potential difference of 120 V across each pair
(b)
of terminals. Therefore, any resistance connected to an outlet
has an applied voltage of 120 V. The lightbulb is connected Figure 6-2 Lightbulb and toaster connected in parallel
to one outlet and the toaster to another outlet, but both have with the 120-V line. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram.
the same applied voltage of 120 V. Therefore, each operates
independently of any other appliance, with all the individual
branch circuits connected across the 120-V line.
6.2 Each Branch I Equals VA /R
In applying Ohm’s law, it is important to note that the cur-
rent equals the voltage applied across the circuit divided by
the resistance between the two points where that voltage is
applied. In Fig. 6-3, 10 V is applied across the 5 V of R2, re-
1 sulting in the current of 2 A between points E and F through
R2. The battery voltage is also applied across the parallel
resistance of R1, applying 10 V across 10 V. Through R1,
R1 R2 therefore, the current is 1 A between points C and D. The
current has a different value through R1, with the same ap-
2
plied voltage, because the resistance is different. These val-
ues are calculated as follows:
(a)
VA ___
I1 5 ___ 5 10 5 1 A
C B E R1 10
VA ___
I2 5 ___ 5 10 5 2 A
R2 5
R1 5 5 V A R2 5 5 V
1 Just as in a circuit with one resistance, any branch that
VA 5 1.5 V
2 has less R allows more  I. If R1 and R2 were equal, however,
H
the two branch currents would have the same value. For in-
stance, in Fig. 6-1b each branch has its own current equal to
1.5 Vy5 V 5 0.3 A.
D G F
The I can be different in parallel circuits that have dif-
(b) ferent R because V is the same across all the branches. Any
Figure 6-1 Example of a parallel circuit with two resistors. voltage source generates a potential difference across its two
(a) Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram. terminals. This voltage does not move. Only I flows around

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 C B E B D

I1 5 1 A I2 5 2 A
A
1
R1 5 R2 5
10 V V A 5 10 V 5V
2
H F G
1 2 R1 5 R2 5
20 V 10 V
20 V
D G F

Figure 6-3 Parallel circuit. The current in each parallel

branch equals the applied voltage VA divided by each branch
resistance R.

A C
the circuit. The source voltage is available to make electrons
(a )
move around any closed path connected to the terminals of
the source. The amount of I in each separate path depends on
F B D
the amount of R in each branch.
IT 5 3 A
IAB 5 1 A ICD 5 2 A

EXAMPLE 6-1
1
20 V
In Fig. 6-4, solve for the branch currents I 1 and I 2 . R1 5 20 V R2 5 10 V
2

1
VA 5 IT 5 3 A IAB 5 1 A ICD 5 2 A
R1 5 R2 5
15 V 1 kV 600 V
2
G A C

(b)

Figure 6-4 Circuit for Example 6-1. Figure 6-5 The current in the main line equals the sum
of the branch currents. Note that from G to A at the bottom
Answer: of this diagram is the negative side of the main line, and
from B to F at the top is the positive side. (a) Wiring diagram.
The applied voltage, VA, of 15 V is across both resistors R 1 and
VA Arrows inside the lines indicate current in the main line for R1;
R 2 . Therefore, the branch currents are calculated as __
R , where VA arrows outside indicate current for R2 . (b) Schematic diagram.
is the applied voltage and R is the individual branch resistance. I T is the total line current for both R 1 and R2 .
VA
I1 5 ___
R1
This circuit is equivalent to wiring each parallel branch di-
5 V
15
_____
rectly to the voltage source, as shown in Fig. 6-1, when the
1 kV
5 15 mA connecting wires have essentially zero resistance.
The advantage of having only one pair of connecting
VA
I2 5 ___ leads to the source for all the parallel branches is that usually
R2
less wire is necessary. The pair of leads connecting all the
15
5 ____V branches to the terminals of the voltage source is the main
600 V
line. In Fig. 6-5, the wires from G to A on the negative side
5 25 mA and from B to F in the return path form the main line.
In Fig. 6-5b, with 20 V of resistance for R1 connected
across the 20-V battery, the current through R1 must be
20  Vy20 V 5 1 A. This current is electron flow from the
6.3 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL) negative terminal of the source, through R1, and back to the
Components to be connected in parallel are usually wired positive battery terminal. Similarly, the R2 branch of 10 V
directly across each other, with the entire parallel combina- across the battery has its own branch current of 20 Vy10 V 5
tion connected to the voltage source, as illustrated in Fig. 6-5. 2 A. This current flows from the negative terminal of the

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 source, through R2, and back to the positive terminal, since
EXAMPLE 6-4
it is a separate path for electron flow.
All current in the circuit, however, must come from one Three parallel branch currents are 0.1 A, 500 mA, and 800 ␮A.
side of the voltage source and return to the opposite side for Using Kirchhoff’s current law, calculate I T.
a complete path. In the main line, therefore, the amount of Answer:
current is equal to the total of the branch currents.
All values must be in the same units to be added. In this case,
For example, in Fig. 6-5b, the total current in the line from all units will be converted to milliamperes: 0.1 A 5 100 mA and
point G to point A is 3 A. The total current at branch point 800 ␮A 5 0.8 mA. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law
A subdivides into its component branch currents for each of
the branch resistances. Through the path of R1 from A to B IT 5 100 1 500 1 0.8
the current is 1 A. The other branch path ACDB through R2 IT 5 600.8 mA
has a current of 2 A. At the branch point B, the electron flow
from both parallel branches combines, so that the current in
the main-line return path from B to F has the same value of
You can convert the currents to A, mA, or ␮A units, as
3 A as in the other side of the main line.
long as the same unit is used for adding all currents.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the total current
IT in the main line of a parallel circuit equals the sum of the 6.4 Resistances in Parallel
individual branch currents. Expressed as an equation, Kirch- The combined equivalent resistance across the main line in a
hoff’s current law is parallel circuit can be found by Ohm’s law: Divide the com-
IT 5 I1 1 I2 1 I3 1 . . . 1 etc. (6-1) mon voltage across the parallel resistances by the total cur-
rent of all the branches. Referring to Fig. 6-6a, note that the
where IT is the total current and I1, I2 , I3 . . . are the individ-
parallel resistance of R1 with R2, indicated by the equivalent
ual branch currents. Kirchhoff’s current law applies to any
resistance REQ, is the opposition to the total current in the main
number of parallel branches, whether the resistances in the
line. In this example, VAyIT is 60 Vy3 A 5 20 V for REQ.
branches are equal or unequal.
The total load connected to the source voltage is the same
as though one equivalent resistance of 20 V were connected
across the main line. This is illustrated by the equivalent
EXAMPLE 6-2

An R 1 of 20 V, an R 2 of 40 V, and an R 3 of 60 V are connected

in parallel across the 120-V power line. Using Kirchhoff’s current
law, determine the total current I T .

Answer: 1
VA 5 R1 5 R2 5
Current I 1 for the R 1 branch is 120y20 or 6 A. Similarly, I 2 is 120y40 2 60 V 60 V 30 V
or 3 A, and I 3 is 120y60 or 2 A. The total current in the main line is

IT 5 I1 1 I2 1 I3 5 6 1 3 1 2 IT 5 3 A I1 5 1 A I2 5 2 A R EQ 5 20 V

IT 5 11 A
(a)

EX A M P L E 6 -3
1
VA 5 REQ 5
Two branches R 1 and R 2 across the 120-V power line draw a total 60 V 20 V
2
line current I T of 15 A. The R 1 branch takes 10 A. How much is the
current I 2 in the R 2 branch?
IT 5 3 A
Answer:
I2 5 IT 2 I1 5 15 2 10 (b)
I2 5 5 A
Figure 6-6 Resistances in parallel. (a) Combination of
With two branch currents, one must equal the difference between R 1 and R2 is the total REQ for the main line. (b) Equivalent
I T and the other branch current. circuit showing REQ drawing the same 3-A I T as the parallel
combination of R1 and R2 in (a).

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 circuit in Fig. 6-6b. For any number of parallel resistances of When a circuit has more current with the same applied
any value, use the following equation, voltage, this greater value of I corresponds to less R because
V of their inverse relation. Therefore, the combination of paral-
REQ 5 ___A (6-2) lel resistances R EQ for the bank is always less than the small-
IT
est individual branch resistance. The reason is that IT must be
where IT is the sum of all the branch currents and R EQ is the more than any one branch current.
equivalent resistance of all parallel branches across the ap-
plied voltage source VA.
The first step in solving for R EQ is to add all the parallel Why REQ Is Less than Any Branch R
branch currents to find the IT being delivered by the voltage It may seem unusual at first that putting more resistance
source. The voltage source thinks that it is connected to a into a circuit lowers the equivalent resistance. This feature
single resistance whose value allows IT to flow in the circuit of parallel circuits is illustrated in Fig. 6-7. Note that equal
according to Ohm’s law. This single resistance is R EQ. An resistances of 30 V each are added across the source volt-
illustrative example of a circuit with two parallel branches age, one branch at a time. The circuit in Fig. 6-7a has just
will be used to show how R EQ is calculated. R1, which allows 2 A with 60 V applied. In Fig. 6-7b, the R2
branch is added across the same VA. This branch also has
EXAMPLE 6-5 2 A. Now the parallel circuit has a 4-A total line current
because of I1 1 I2. Then the third branch, which also takes
Two branches, each with a 5-A current, are connected across a 2 A for I3, is added in Fig. 6-7c. The combined circuit with
90-V source. How much is the equivalent resistance R EQ? three branches, therefore, requires a total load current of
Answer: 6 A, which is supplied by the voltage source.
The total line current I T is 5 1 5 5 10 A. Then, The combined resistance across the source, then, is VAyIT,
V 90 which is 60y6, or 10 V. This equivalent resistance R EQ, rep-
REQ 5 ___A 5 ___ resenting the entire load on the voltage source, is shown in
IT 10
REQ 5 9 V Fig. 6-7d. More resistance branches reduce the combined
resistance of the parallel circuit because more current is re-
quired from the same voltage source.

Parallel Bank
A combination of parallel branches is often called a bank. Reciprocal Resistance Formula
In Fig. 6-6, the bank consists of the 60-V R1 and 30-V R2 in We can derive the reciprocal resistance formula from the
parallel. Their combined parallel resistance R EQ is the bank fact that IT is the sum of all the branch currents, or,
resistance, equal to 20 V in this example. A bank can have
two or more parallel resistors. IT 5 I1 1 I2 1 I3 1 . . . 1 etc.

1 1
R1 5 R1 5 R2 5
VA 5 60 V VA 5 60 V
30 V 30 V 30 V
2 2
I52A
IT 5 4 A I1 5 2 A I2 5 2 A

(a) (b)

1 1
R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 REQ 5
VA 5 60 V VA 5 60 V
30 V 30 V 30 V 10 V
2 2
IT 5 6 A I1 5 2 A I2 5 2 A I3 5 2 A IT 5 6 A

(c) (d )

Figure 6-7 How adding parallel branches of resistors increases I T

but decreases R EQ. (a) One resistor. (b) Two branches. (c) Three branches.
(d ) Equivalent circuit of the three branches in (c ).

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 applied voltage is not always known, any convenient value
1
can be assumed because it cancels in the calculations. It is
R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 usually simplest to assume an applied voltage of the same
VA 5 20 V
20 V 10 V 10 V
2 numerical value as the highest resistance. Then one assumed
branch current will automatically be 1 A and the other
branch currents will be more, eliminating fractions less than
1 in the calculations.
1 In Fig. 6-8b, the highest branch R is 20 V. Therefore, as-
REQ 5 1 1 1 sume 20 V for the applied voltage. Then the branch currents
R1 1R 1R
2 3 are 1 A in R1, 2 A in R2, and 2 A in R3. Their sum is 1 1
REQ 5 4 V
2 1 2 5 5 A for IT. The combined resistance R EQ across the
(a) main line is VAyIT, or 20 Vy5 A 5 4 V. This is the same value
calculated with the reciprocal resistance formula.
IT  5 A

R1  R2  R3  Special Case of Equal R in All Branches
VA  20 V
20  10  10 

If R is equal in all branches, the combined R EQ equals the
I1  1 A I2  2 A I3  2 A
value of one branch resistance divided by the number of
branches.

VA 20 V
R
REQ 5 __
REQ   n
IT 5A
REQ  4 
where R is the resistance in one branch and n is the number
(b ) of branches.
Figure 6-8 Two methods of combining parallel resistances This rule is illustrated in Fig. 6-9, where three 60-kV re-
to find REQ. (a) Using the reciprocal resistance formula to sistances in parallel equal 20 kV.
calculate REQ as 4 V. (b) Using the total line current method with The rule applies to any number of parallel resistances,
an assumed line voltage of 20 V gives the same 4 V for REQ. but they must all be equal. As another example, five 60-V
resistances in parallel have the combined resistance of 60y5,
or 12 V. A common application is two equal resistors wired
However, IT 5 VyREQ. Also, each I 5 VyR. Substituting VyREQ in a parallel bank for R EQ equal to one-half R.
for IT on the left side of the formula and VyR for each branch
I on the right side, the result is
Special Case of Only Two Branches
V 5 __
___ V 1 __
V 1 __
V 1 . . . 1 etc.
REQ R1 R2 R3 When there are two parallel resistances and they are not equal,
it is usually quicker to calculate the combined resistance by the
Dividing by V because the voltage is the same across all the
method shown in Fig. 6-10. This rule says that the combination
resistances gives us
of two parallel resistances is their product divided by their sum.
___ 1 1 __
1 5 __ 1 1 __
1 1 . . . 1 etc. R1 3 R2
REQ R1 R2 R3 REQ 5_______
R1 1 R2 (6-4)
Next, solve for REQ.
1
REQ 5 ______________________ (6-3)
1
⁄R 1 1⁄R 1 1⁄R 1 . . . 1 etc.
1 2 3

This reciprocal formula applies to any number of parallel

resistances of any value. Using the values in Fig. 6-8a as an REQ 5 20 kV
R1 5 R2 5 R3 5
60 kV 60 kV 60 kV
example,
1
REQ 5 ____________ 54V
1
⁄20 1 1⁄10 1 1⁄10
value of one resistance 60 kV
Total-Current Method REQ 5 5
number of resistances 3

It may be easier to work without fractions. Figure 6-8b shows Figure 6-9 For the special case of all branches having
how this same problem can be calculated in terms of total the same resistance, just divide R by the number of branches
current instead of by the reciprocal formula. Although the to find R EQ. Here, R EQ 5 60 kV/3 5 20 kV.

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 Fig. 6-11c is equivalent to the combination of the four
branches in Fig.  6-11a. If you connect a voltage source
R1 5 R2 5 across either circuit, the current in the main line will be
REQ 5 24 V
40 V 60 V
the same for both cases.
The order of connections for parallel resistances does not
matter in determining R EQ. There is no question as to which
R1 3 R2 2400 is first or last because they are all across the same voltage
REQ 5
R1 1 R2 5 100
source and receive their current at the same time.
Figure 6-10 For the special case of only two branch
resistances of any values R EQ equals their product divided by
the sum. Here, R EQ 5 2400/100 5 24 V. Finding an Unknown Branch Resistance
In some cases with two parallel resistors, it is useful to be
where R EQ is in the same units as all the individual resis- able to determine what size R X to connect in parallel with a
tances. For the example in Fig. 6-10, known R to obtain a required value of R EQ. Then the factors
can be transposed as follows:
R1 3 R2 ________
40 3 60 _____
2400
REQ 5_______
R1 1 R2 5 40 1 60 5 100 R 3 REQ
RX 5 ________ (6-5)
R 2 REQ
REQ 5 24 V
This formula is just another way of writing Formula (6-4).
Each R can have any value, but there must be only two
resistances.
EXAMPLE 6-6
Short-Cut Calculations
What RX in parallel with 40 V will provide an R EQ of 24 V?
Figure 6-11 shows how these special rules can help re-
duce parallel branches to a simpler equivalent circuit. In Answer:
Fig. 6-11a, the 60-V R1 and R4 are equal and in parallel. R 3 REQ _______
RX 5 _______ 960
5 40 3 24 5 ____
Therefore, they are equivalent to the 30-V R14 in Fig. 6-11b. R 2 REQ 40 2 24 16
Similarly, the 20-V R 2 and R 3 are equivalent to the 10 V of
R 23. The circuit in Fig. 6-11a is equivalent to the simpler RX 5 60 V
circuit in Fig. 6-11b with just the two parallel resistances This problem corresponds to the circuit shown before in Fig. 6-10.
of 30 and 10 V.
Finally, the combined resistance for these two equals
their product divided by their sum, which is 300y40 Note that Formula (6-5) for R X has a product over a dif-
or 7.5 V, as shown in Fig. 6-11c. This value of R EQ in ference. The R EQ is subtracted because it is the smallest R.
Remember that both Formulas (6-4) and (6-5) can be used
with only two parallel branches.

R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 R4 5
60 V 20 V 20 V 60 V E X A M P L E 6 -7

What R in parallel with 50 kV will provide an R EQ of 25 kV?

(a) Answer:
R 5 50 kV
Two equal resistances in parallel have R EQ equal to one-half R.
R14 5 R23 5 REQ 5
30 V 10 V 7.5 V

6.5 Conductances in Parallel

(b) (c) Since conductance G is equal to 1y R, the reciprocal re-
sistance formula (6-3) can be stated for conductance as
Figure 6-11 An example of parallel resistance calculations R EQ 5 __
1
where GT is calculated as
with four branches. (a) Original circuit. (b ) Resistors combined G T
into two branches. (c) Equivalent circuit reduces to one R EQ
for all the branches. GT 5 G1 1 G2 1 G3 1 . . . 1 etc. (6-6)

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 R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 IT 5 3 A I1 5 1 A I2 5 2 A
20 V 5V 2V 1

VA 5 10 V R1 5 R2 5
GT 5 0.75 S
2 10 V 5V

G1 5 G2 5 G3 5 30 W 10 W 20 W
0.05 S 0.2 S 0.5 S generated used used

Figure 6-12 Conductances G 1, G 2, and G 3 in parallel are Figure 6-14 The sum of the power values P 1 and P 2
added for the total G T. used in each branch equals the total power P T produced by
the source.
IT 5 8 A

I1 5 2 A I2 5 4 A I3 5 2 A The power dissipated in each branch R is VA 3 I. In the R1

branch, I1 is 10y10 5 1 A. Then P1 is VA 3 I1 or 10 3 1 5 10 W.
G1 5 G2 5 G3 5 For the R2 branch, I2 is 10y5 5 2 A. Then P2 is VA 3 I2 or
2S 4S 2S
10 3 2 5 20 W.
Adding P1 and P2, the answer is 10 1 20 5 30 W. This PT
is the total power dissipated in both branches.
Figure 6-13 Example of how parallel branch currents are This value of 30 W for PT is also the total power supplied
directly proportional to each branch conductance G. by the voltage source by means of its total line current IT .
With this method, the total power is VA 3 IT or 10 3 3 5
With R in ohms, G is in siemens. For the example in
30  W for PT . The 30 W of power supplied by the voltage
Fig.  6-12, G1 is 1y20 5 0.05, G2 is 1y5 5 0.2, and G3 is
source is dissipated or used up in the branch resistances.
1y2 5 0.5. Then
It is interesting to note that in a parallel circuit, the small-
GT 5 0.05 1 0.2 1 0.5 5 0.75 S est branch resistance will always dissipate the most power.
Notice that adding the conductances does not require recip- Since P 5 ___ V 2 and V is the same across all parallel branches,
R
rocals. Each value of G is the reciprocal of R. a smaller value of R in the denominator will result in a larger
The reason why parallel conductances are added di- amount of power dissipation.
rectly can be illustrated by assuming a 1-V source across all Note also that in both parallel and series circuits, the sum
branches. Then calculating the values of 1y R for the conduc- of the individual values of power dissipated in the circuit
tances gives the same values as calculating the branch cur- equals the total power generated by the source. This can be
rents. These values are added for the total IT or GT. stated as a formula
Working with G may be more convenient than working
PT 5 P1 1 P2 1 P3 1 . . . 1 etc. (6-7)
with R in parallel circuits, since it avoids the use of the re-
ciprocal formula for REQ. Each branch current is directly pro- The series or parallel connections can alter the distribu-
portional to its conductance. This idea corresponds to the fact tion of voltage or current, but power is the rate at which en-
that each voltage drop in series circuits is directly proportional ergy is supplied. The circuit arrangement cannot change the
to each of the series resistances. An example of the currents fact that all the energy in the circuit comes from the source.
for parallel conductances is shown in Fig. 6-13. Note that the
branch with G of 4 S has twice as much current as the 2-S 6.7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
branches because the branch conductance is doubled. with Random Unknowns
For many types of problems with parallel circuits, it is useful
6.6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits to remember the following points.
Since the power dissipated in the branch resistances must 1. When you know the voltage across one branch, this
come from the voltage source, the total power equals the voltage is across all the branches. There can be only
sum of the individual values of power in each branch. This one voltage across branch points with the same poten-
rule is illustrated in Fig. 6-14. We can also use this circuit tial difference.
as an example of applying the rules of current, voltage, and
2. If you know IT and one of the branch currents I1, you
resistance for a parallel circuit.
can find I2 by subtracting I1 from IT .
The applied 10 V is across the 10-V R1 and 5-V R2 in
Fig.  6-14. The branch current I1 then is VAyR1 or 10y10, The circuit in Fig. 6-15 illustrates these points. The problem
which equals 1 A. Similarly, I2 is 10y5, or 2 A. The total IT is is to find the applied voltage VA and the value of R3. Of the three
1 1 2 5 3 A. If we want to find R EQ, it equals VAyIT or 10y3, branch resistances, only R1 and R2 are known. However, since
which is 31⁄3 V. I2 is given as 2 A, the I2R2 voltage must be 2 3 60 5 120 V.

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 Although the applied voltage is not given, this must also
1
be 120 V. The voltage across all the parallel branches is the
R1 5 R2 5 same 120 V that is across the R2 branch.
VA 5 ? R3 5 ?
30 V 60 V Now I1 can be calculated as VAyR1. This is 120y30 5 4 A
2
IT 5 7 A for I1.
I2 5 2 A
Current IT is given as 7 A. The two branches take 2 1 4 5
6 A. The third branch current through R3 must be 7 2 6 5
Figure 6-15 Analyzing a parallel circuit. What are the
values for VA and R 3 . See solution in text. 1 A for I3.
Now R3 can be calculated as VAyI3. This is 120y1 5 120 V
for R3.

CHAPTER 6 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Christmas Lights
The small incandescent lights we put on Christmas trees are does not actually occur because each bulb has a built-in shunt
a good example of a series circuit. Also known as minilights, to keep the string unbroken. Each bulb has a small wire or shunt
these strings of lights are multiple bulbs, all connected in wrapped around the connections to the filament at its base that
series with the 120-volt power line. Figure S6-1 shows the would appear to short-out the bulb. A special insulated coating
basic connections of a typical string. Each bulb has a rating on the wire prevents the short from occurring. Now if the fila-
of 2.5 volts at 200 mA. If we put 50 of them in series, we will ment in the bulb should open, the entire 120 volts from the line
need a total voltage of 50 3 2.5 5 125 volts. This is close will appear across the shunt, causing the coating to burn away
enough to the standard power-line voltage for proper opera- and a connection to be formed to keep the circuit intact. When
tion. With 120 volts applied, each bulb will get 2.4 volts. this happens, the voltage across each bulb will rise slightly as
Note the unique three-wire configuration. The wir- the ac line voltage is now divided among fewer bulbs. The bulbs
ing looks complex since the wires are all twisted together. can handle a little more than their rated voltage and will glow
Nevertheless, the wiring is rather simple. Two of the wires slightly brighter. If too many bulbs burn out, the voltage across
pass directly through from the ac plug to the ac socket at each bulb may reach the point where it will shorten the life of
the end for the string. This allows the string to be extended all the other bulbs, making burnouts more frequent.
with another string plugged in parallel with the first string. Many strings of lights contain a flasher bulb. It looks like
Some longer strings have 100 lights. In this case, 2 strings of a standard bulb, but instead of a filament, it is actually a
50 lights are connected in parallel to the 120 volts using the switch that repeatedly turns all the lights on and off. The
same three-wire arrangement. The lower group of 50 bulbs switch is made of a bimetallic strip that bends when heated.
is in parallel with the upper group. A feature of most strings Normally the strip keeps the circuit closed so the lights turn
of lights is having fuses in the ac plug for safety. If a short on. When current flows through, the strip bends and opens
occurs somewhere in the string, the fuses will blow, protect- the switch contacts, turning the lights off. When the strip
ing the home ac wiring and preventing a fire. cools, it again closes the contacts, turning the lights on. This
As you may have already guessed, if one bulb burns out, it process continues as the lights flash off and on at a rate of
will open the string and all the lights will go out. However, that about once every 1 or 2 seconds.
AC Socket
Figure S6-1 A series string of Christimas lights. AC Plug

1
120 V …
50 bulbs
(series)
Fuses

2 …
1 1st parallel path 50 bulbs
2 2nd parallel path (series)

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 CHAPTER 6 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A 120-kV resistor, R1, and a 180-kV resistor, R2, are 7. If one branch of a parallel circuit becomes open,
in parallel. How much is the equivalent resistance, a. all remaining branch currents increase.
R EQ? b. the voltage across the open branch will be 0 V.
a. 72 kV. c. the remaining branch currents do not change in
b. 300 kV. value.
c. 360 kV. d. the equivalent resistance of the circuit decreases.
d. 90 kV. 8. If a 10-V R1, 40-V R2, and 8-V R3 are in parallel,
2. A 100-V resistor, R1, and a 300-V resistor, R2, are calculate the total conductance, G T , of the circuit.
in parallel across a dc voltage source. Which resistor a. 250 mS.
dissipates more power? b. 58 S.
a. The 300-V resistor. c. 4 V.
b. Both resistors dissipate the same amount of power. d. 0.25 ␮S.
c. The 100-V resistor. 9. Which of the following formulas can be used to
d. It cannot be determined. determine the total power, PT, dissipated by a parallel
3. Three 18-V resistors are in parallel. How much is the circuit.
equivalent resistance, REQ? a. PT 5 VA 3 IT.
a. 54 V. b. PT 5 P1 1 P2 1 P3 1 · · · 1 etc.
b. 6 V. V2
c. P 5 ___A .
T R EQ
c. 9 V.
d. All of the above.
d. none of the above.
10. A 20-V R1, 50-V R2, and 100-V R3 are connected in
4. Which of the following statements about parallel
parallel. If R2 is short-circuited, what is the equivalent
circuits is false?
resistance, R EQ, of the circuit?
a. The voltage is the same across all branches in a
a. approximately 0 V.
parallel circuit.
b. infinite (`) V.
b. The equivalent resistance, REQ, of a parallel
c. 12.5 V.
circuit is always smaller than the smallest
d. It cannot be determined.
branch resistance.
c. In a parallel circuit the total current, IT , in the 11. If the fuse in the main line of a parallel circuit
main line equals the sum of the individual branch opens,
currents. a. the voltage across each branch will be 0 V.
d. The equivalent resistance, R EQ, of a parallel circuit b. the current in each branch will be zero.
decreases when one or more parallel branches are c. the current in each branch will increase to offset
removed from the circuit. the decrease in total current.
5. Two resistors, R1 and R2, are in parallel with each d. both a and b.
other and a dc voltage source. If the total current, IT , 12. A 100-V R1 and a 150-V R2 are in parallel. If the
in the main line equals 6 A and I2 through R2 is 4 A, current, I1, through R1 is 24 mA, how much is the
how much is I1 through R1? total current, IT?
a. 6 A. a. 16 mA.
b. 2 A. b. 40 mA.
c. 4 A. c. 9.6 mA.
d. It cannot be determined. d. It cannot be determined.
6. How much resistance must be connected in parallel 13. A 2.2-kV R1 is in parallel with a 3.3-kV R2. If these
with a 360-V resistor to obtain an equivalent resis- two resistors carry a total current of 7.5 mA, how
tance, R EQ, of 120 V? much is the applied voltage, VA?
a. 360 V. a. 16.5 V.
b. 480 V. b. 24.75 V.
c. 1.8 kV. c. 9.9 V.
d. 180 V. d. 41.25 V.

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 14. How many 120-V resistors must be connected in par- c. larger than the total current, I T.
allel to obtain an equivalent resistance, REQ, of 15 V? d. none of the above.
a. 15. 18. If the total conductance, G T , of a parallel circuit is
b. 8. 200 ␮S, how much is R EQ?
c. 12. a. 500 V.
d. 6. b. 200 kV.
15. A 220-V R1, 2.2-kV R2, and 200-V R3 are connected c. 5 kV.
across 15 V of applied voltage. What happens to R EQ d. 500 kV.
if the applied voltage is doubled to 30 V? 19. If one branch of a parallel circuit is short-circuited,
a. R EQ doubles. a. the fuse in the main line will blow.
b. R EQ cuts in half. b. the voltage across the short-circuited branch will
c. R EQ does not change. measure the full value of applied voltage.
d. R EQ increases but is not double its original value. c. all the remaining branches are effectively short-
16. If one branch of a parallel circuit opens, the total circuited as well.
current, IT , d. both a and c.
a. does not change. 20. Two lightbulbs in parallel with the 120-V power line
b. decreases. are rated at 60 W and 100 W, respectively. What is
c. increases. the equivalent resistance, R EQ, of the bulbs when they
d. goes to zero. are lit?
17. In a normally operating parallel circuit, the individual a. 144 V.
branch currents are b. 90 V.
a. independent of each other. c. 213.3 V.
b. not affected by the value of the applied voltage. d. It cannot be determined.

CHAPTER 6 PROBLEMS
VA
SECTION 6.1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the SECTION 6.2 Each Branch I Equals __
R
Same across Parallel Branches 6.3 In Fig. 6-16, solve for the branch currents, I1 and I2.
6.1 In Fig. 6-16, how much voltage is across points 6.4 In Fig. 6-16, explain why I2 is double the value of I1.
a. A and B?
6.5 In Fig. 6-16, assume a 10-V resistor, R3, is added
b. C and D?
across points G and H.
c. E and F?
a. Calculate the branch current, I3.
d. G and H?
b. Explain how the branch currents, I1 and I2 are
affected by the addition of R3.
A C E G
6.6 In Fig. 6-17, solve for the branch currents I1, I2,
and I3.
1
VA 5 12 V R1 5 R2 5
2 120 V 60 V

B D F H
1
R1 5 R2 5 R3 5
Figure 6-16 VA 5 18 V
2 30 V 20 V 60 V

6.2 In Fig. 6-16, how much voltage will be measured

across points C and D if R1 is removed from the
circuit? Figure 6-17

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 6.7 In Fig. 6-17, do the branch currents I1 and I3 remain 6.15 In Fig. 6-20, how much is the current in the wire
the same if R2 is removed from the circuit? Explain between points
your answer. a. A and B?
6.8 In Fig. 6-18, solve for the branch currents I1, I2, I3, b. B and C?
and I4. c. C and D?
d. E and F?
e. F and G?
f. G and H?
1
VA 5 R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 R4 5 g. G and I?
102 V 2 510 V 6.8 kV 1.2 kV 5.1 kV
h. B and J?
6.16 In Fig. 6-21, apply Kirchhoff’s current law to solve
for the unknown current, I3.
Figure 6-18

SECTION 6.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

6.9 In Fig. 6-16, solve for the total current, I T . 1
VA 5 R1 R2 R3 R4
120 V 2
6.10 In Fig. 6-17, solve for the total current, I T .
IT 5
6.11 In Fig. 6-18, solve for the total current, I T . 160 mA I1 5 8 mA I2 5 12 mA I3 5 ? I4 5 60 mA
6.12 In Fig. 6-19, solve for I1, I2, I3, and I T.
Figure 6-21
H G F E

1 6.17 Two resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel with each other

R1 5 R2 5 R3 5
VA 5 24 V and a dc voltage source. How much is I2 through R2 if
2 1 kV 1.2 kV 1.5 kV
I T 5 150 mA and I1 through R1 is 60 mA?
SECTION 6.4 Resistances in Parallel
A B C D 6.18 In Fig. 6-16, solve for REQ.
Figure 6-19 6.19 In Fig. 6-17, solve for REQ.
6.20 In Fig. 6-18, solve for REQ.
6.13 In Fig. 6-19, how much is the current in the wire
between points 6.21 In Fig. 6-20, solve for REQ.
a. A and B? 6.22 In Fig. 6-22, how much is REQ if R1 5 100 V and
b. B and C? R2 5 25 V?
c. C and D?
d. E and F?
e. F and G?
f. G and H?
REQ R1 R2
6.14 In Fig. 6-20, solve for I1, I2 I3, and IT.

I G F E

H Figure 6-22
1
R3 5 VA 5 R1 5 R2 5
33 V 2 66 V 330 V 220 V 6.23 In Fig. 6-22, how much is REQ if R1 5 1.5 MV and
A R2 5 1 MV?
6.24 In Fig. 6-22, how much is REQ if R1 5 2.2 kV and
J B C D R2 5 220 V?
Figure 6-20 6.25 In Fig. 6-22, how much is REQ if R1 5 R2 5 10 kV?

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 6.26 In Fig. 6-22, how much resistance, R2, must be con- SECTION 6.7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits with
nected in parallel with a 750 V R1 to obtain an REQ of Random Unknowns
500 V? 6.34 In Fig. 6-25, solve for VA, R1, I2, REQ, P1, P2, and PT.
6.27 How much is REQ in Fig. 6-23 if R1 5 1.5 kV, R2 5
1 kV, R3 5 1.8 kV, and R4 5 150 V?

1
VA R1 R2 5 120 V
2
REQ R1 R2 R3 R4 IT 5 200 mA I1 5 50 mA

Figure 6-25
Figure 6-23
6.35 In Fig. 6-26, solve for VA, I1, I2, R2, IT, P2, and PT.

6.28 How much is REQ in Fig. 6-23 if R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 R4 5

2.2 kV?
6.29 A technician is using an ohmmeter to measure a P1 5
1
VA 2.25 W
variety of different resistor values. Assume the tech- R2
REQ 5 75 V
nician has a body resistance of 750 kV. How much 2 R1 5
100 V
resistance will the ohmmeter read if the fingers of
the technician touch the leads of the ohmmeter when
measuring the following resistors:
a. 270 V.
Figure 6-26
b. 390 kV.
c. 2.2 MV. 6.36 In Fig. 6-27, solve for R3, VA, I1, I2, IT, P1, P2, P3,
d. 1.5 kV. and PT.
e. 10 kV.

SECTION 6.5 Conductances in Parallel

6.30 In Fig. 6-24, solve for G1, G2, G3, G T, and REQ.
VA 1
R3
R1 5 500 V R2 5 250 V
REQ 5 2 I3 5
125 V 150 mA

GT R1 5 1 kV R2 5 4 kV R3 5 200 V
REQ G1 G2 G3
Figure 6-27

Figure 6-24 6.37 In Fig. 6-28, solve for IT, I1, I2, R1, R2, R3, P2, P3,
and PT.

6.31 Find the total conductance, GT for the following

branch conductances; G1 5 100 mS, G2 5 66.67 mS,
G3 5 250 mS, and G4 5 83.33 mS. How much is REQ? 1
VA 5 108 V R1 R3
REQ 5 90 V 2 R2
P1 5 10.8 W I3 5
200 mA
SECTION 6.6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits
6.32 In Fig. 6-18, solve for P1, P2, P3, P4, and PT.
6.33 In Fig. 6-20, solve for P1, P2, P3, and PT. Figure 6-28

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 Ch a pt er 7
Series-Parallel Circuits
and Voltage Dividers

Learning Outcomes A series-parallel circuit is one that combines both series

and parallel connections. As you can imagine, there is
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: an infinite variety of ways to interconnect resistors and
Determine the total resistance of a series-parallel other loads. In this chapter you will learn the process of
circuit. analyzing and calculating any series-parallel combina-
Calculate the voltage, current, resistance, and tion using the techniques you have already learned.
power in a series-parallel circuit.
This chapter also introduces several special forms
Calculate the voltage, current, resistance, and power
in a series-parallel circuit having random unknowns. of these combination circuits. Specifically, you will learn
Explain how a Wheatstone bridge can be used to about the Wheatstone bridge and voltage dividers.
determine the value of an unknown resistor. These special circuits are all widely used throughout
List other applications of balanced bridge circuits. electronics. You will learn how to analyze these circuits
Calculate the voltage drops in an unloaded voltage and examine some common applications.
divider.
Explain why resistor voltage drops are proportional
to the resistor values in a series circuit.
Explain why the branch currents are inversely propor-
tional to the branch resistances in a parallel circuit.
Define what is meant by the term loaded voltage
divider.
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 7.1 Finding R T for Series-Parallel The 1.5 kV is the RT of the entire circuit connected across
Resistances the VT of 1.5 V.
With RT known to be 1.5 kV, we can find IT in the main
In Fig. 7-1, R1 is in series with R2. Also, R3 is in parallel with
line produced by 1.5 V. Then
R4. However, R2 is not in series with either R3 or R4. The rea-
son is that the current through R2 is equal to the sum of the V 1.5 V 5 1 mA
IT 5 _T 5 __
branch currents I3 and I4 flowing into and away from point A RT 1.5 kV
(see Fig. 7-1b). This 1-mA IT is the current through resistors R1 and R2 in
The wiring is shown in Fig. 7-1a and the schematic dia- Fig. 7-1a and b or R1-2 in Fig. 7-1c.
gram in Fig. 7-1b. To find RT, we add the series resistances At branch point B, at the bottom of the diagram in
and combine the parallel resistances. Fig. 7-1b, the 1 mA of electron flow for IT divides into two
In Fig. 7-1c, the 0.5-kV R1 and 0.5-kV R2 in series total branch currents for R3 and R4. Since these two branch resis-
1 kV for R1-2. The calculations are tances are equal, IT divides into two equal parts of 0.5 mA
0.5 kV 1 0.5 kV 5 1 kV each. At branch point A at the top of the diagram, the two
0.5-mA branch currents combine to equal the 1-mA IT in the
Also, the 1-kV R3 in parallel with the 1-kV R4 can be main line, returning to the source VT.
combined, for an equivalent resistance of 0.5 kV for R3-4, as
in Fig. 7-1d. The calculations are
1 kV 5 0.5 kV
_____ 7.2 Resistance Strings in Parallel
2 More details about the voltages and currents in a series-
This parallel R3-4 combination of 0.5 kV is then added to parallel circuit are illustrated in Fig. 7-2, which shows two
the series R1-2 combination for the final RT value of 1.5 kV. identical series strings in parallel. Suppose that four 120-V,
The calculations are 100-W lightbulbs are to be wired with a voltage source that
0.5 kV 1 1 kV 5 1.5 kV produces 240 V. Each bulb needs 120 V for normal brilliance.

R1  R2 
0.5 k 0.5 k
A

I T I1 I 2  I3  I4

R2
R3 R4
R1

VT  R3  R4 
1.5 V 1 k 1 k

1

IT
I3 I4
B
2 (a) (b)

R1-2  R1-2 
1 k A 1 k A

 
VT  R3  R4  VT  R3-4 
1.5 V 1 k 1 k 1.5 V 500 
 

B B

(c) (d)

Figure 7-1 Example of a series-parallel circuit. (a) Wiring of a series-parallel circuit. (b) Schematic diagram of a
series-parallel circuit. (c) Schematic with R1 and R2 in series added for R1-2 . (d ) Schematic with R3 and R4 in parallel
combined for R3-4.

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 Branch 1 Branch 2

R1 R3
R1 
8V
8
V A  240 V

R3 
V  12 V 12 V
R2 R4 6

R2 
4V
T  4
String 1 String 2 3A
1  1 A 2  2 A
(a)

(a)

Branch 1 Branch 2
R1 R3
V 1  120 V V 3  120 V

V A  240 V

R2 R4
V 2  120 V V 4  120 V 
R1-2  R3 
V  12 V
12  6

String 1 String 2

(b) T 
3A
1  1 A 2  2 A
Figure 7-2 Two identical series strings in parallel. All
bulbs have a 120-V, 100-W rating. (a) Wiring diagram. (b)
(b) Schematic diagram.
Figure 7-3 Series string in parallel with another branch.
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent circuit.
If the bulbs were connected directly across the source, each
would have the applied voltage of 240 V. This would cause
excessive current in all the bulbs that could result in burned- Series Voltage Drops in a Branch
out filaments. For any one resistance in a string, the current in the string
If the four bulbs were connected in series, each would multiplied by the resistance equals the IR voltage drop across
have a potential difference of 60 V, or one-fourth the applied that particular resistance. Also, the sum of the series IR drops
voltage. With too low a voltage, there would be insufficient in the string equals the voltage across the entire string.
current for normal operation, and the bulbs would not oper- Branch 1 is a string with R1 and R2 in series. The I1R1 drop
ate at normal brilliance. equals 8 V, whereas the I1R2 drop is 4 V. These drops of 8
However, two bulbs in series across the 240-V line pro- and 4 V add to equal the 12 V applied. The voltage across
vide 120 V for each filament, which is the normal operating the R3 branch is also the same 12 V.
voltage. Therefore, the four bulbs are wired in strings of two
Calculating I T
in series, with the two strings in parallel across the 240-V
source. Both strings have 240 V applied. In each string, two The total line current equals the sum of the branch currents
series bulbs divide the 240 V equally to provide the required for all parallel strings. Here IT is 3 A, equal to the sum of 1 A
120 V for normal operation. in branch 1 and 2 A in branch 2.
Another example is illustrated in Fig. 7-3. This circuit Calculating R T
has just two parallel branches. One branch includes R1 in
The resistance of the total series-parallel circuit across the
series with R2. The other branch has just the one resistance
voltage source equals the applied voltage divided by the total
R3. Ohm’s law can be applied to each branch.
line current. In Fig. 7-3a, RT 5 12 Vy3 A, or 4 V. This re-
sistance can also be calculated as 12 V in parallel with 6 V.
Branch Currents I 1 and I2 Fig. 7-3b shows the equivalent circuit. Using the product di-
In Fig. 7-3a, each branch current equals the voltage vided by the sum formula, 72y18 5 4 V for the equivalent
applied across the branch divided by the total resistance combined RT.
in the branch. In branch 1, R1 and R 2 total 8 1 4 5 12 V.
With 12 V applied, this branch current I1 is 12y12 5 1 A. Applying Ohm’s Law
Branch 2 has only the 6-V R 3. Then I2 in this branch is There can be any number of parallel strings and more than
12y6 5 2 A. two series resistances in a string. Still, Ohm’s law can be

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 used in the same way for the series and parallel parts of the 6 V across the 24-V source. Therefore, the main-line current
circuit. The series parts have the same current. The parallel is 24 Vy6 V, which equals 4 A.
parts have the same voltage. Remember that for VyR the R The total line current of 4 A divides into two parts of 2 A
must include all the resistance across the two terminals of V. each in the parallel resistances R2 and R3. Note that each
branch current equals the bank voltage divided by the branch
7.3 Resistance Banks in Series resistance. For this bank, 20y10 5 2 A for each branch.
In Fig. 7-4a, the group of parallel resistances R2 and R3 is a The branch currents, I2 and I3, are combined in the main
bank. This is in series with R1 because the total current of the line to provide the total 4 A in R1. This is the same total cur-
bank must go through R1. rent flowing in the main line, in the source, into the bank,
The circuit here has R2 and R3 in parallel in one bank so and out of the bank.
that these two resistances will have the same potential dif- There can be more than two parallel resistances in a bank
ference of 20 V across them. The source applies 24 V, but and any number of banks in series. Still, Ohm’s law can be
there is a 4-V drop across R1. applied in the same way to the series and parallel parts of the
The two series voltage drops of 4 V across R1 and 20 V circuit. The general procedure for circuits of this type is to
across the bank add to equal the applied voltage of 24 V. The find the equivalent resistance of each bank and then add all
purpose of a circuit like this is to provide the same voltage series resistances.
for two or more resistances in a bank, where the bank volt- 7.4 Resistance Banks and Strings
age must be less than the applied voltage by the amount of
the IR drop across any series resistance.
in Series Parallel
To find the resistance of the entire circuit, combine the In the solution of such circuits, the most important fact to know
parallel resistances in each bank and add the series resis- is which components are in series with each other and which
tance. As shown in Fig. 7-4b, the two 10-V resistances, R2 parts of the circuit are parallel branches. The series compo-
and R3 in parallel, are equivalent to 5 V. Since the bank resis- nents must be in one current path without any branch points. A
tance of 5 V is in series with 1 V for R1, the total resistance is branch point such as point A or B in Fig. 7-5 is common to two
or more current paths. For instance, R1 and R6 are not in series
with each other. They do not have the same current because
V1  4 V
R1  1 
the current through R1 equals the sum of the branch currents,
I5 and I6, flowing into and away from point A. Similarly, R5 is
IT  4 A   IT  4 A not in series with R2 because of the branch point B.
 X Parallel bank To find the currents and voltages in Fig. 7-5, first find RT

to calculate the main-line current IT as VTyRT. In calculating
VT  24 V R2  10  I2  20 V I3  R3  10  RT, start reducing the branch farthest from the source and
2A 2A
 work toward the applied voltage. The reason for following
this order is that you cannot tell how much resistance is in
IT  4 A  Y series with R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are reduced
to their equivalent resistance. If no source voltage is shown,
RT can still be calculated from the outside in toward the open
(a)
terminals where a source would be connected.
R1  1  To calculate RT in Fig. 7-5, the steps are as follows:
1. The bank of the 12-V R3 and 12-V R4 in parallel in
IT  4 A
X
Fig. 7-5a is equal to the 6-V R7 in Fig. 7-5b.
2. The 6-V R7 and 4-V R6 in series in the same current
 path total 10 V for R13 in Fig. 7-5c.
VT  24 V R2-3  5 
 3. The 10-V R13 is in parallel with the 10-V R5, across
the branch points A and B. Their equivalent resistance,
Y
IT  4 A then, is the 5-V R18 in Fig. 7-5d.
4. Now the circuit in Fig. 7-5d has just the 15-V R1, 5-V
R18, and 30-V R2 in series. These resistances total
(b)
50 V for RT, as shown in Fig. 7-5e.
Figure 7-4 Parallel bank of R2 and R3 in series with R 1 . 5. With a 50-V RT across the 100-V source, the line cur-
(a) Original circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit. rent IT is equal to 100y50 5 2 A.

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 R1  R6  R1  R6 
15  4 15  4

A A

 
VT  R5  R3  R4  VT  R5  R7 
100 V 10  12  12  100 V 10  6
 
R2  R2 
30  30 
B B

(a) (b)

R1 
15 
R1 
A
15 
30 V
A

VT  R18 
10 V
 100 V 5
VT  R5  R13  

100 V 10  10  VT  RT 
 60 V 100 V 50 
R2  
B
30 
B T  2 A
R2 
30 

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 7-5 Reducing a series-parallel circuit to an equivalent series circuit to find the R T.
(a) Actual circuit. (b) R3 and R4 in parallel combined for the equivalent R 7. (c) R 7 and R6 in series
added for R 13 . (d) R 13 and R5 in parallel combined for R 18 . (e) The R 18, R 1, and R 2 in series are
added for the total resistance of 50 V for R T.

To see the individual currents and voltages, we can use the IT R3, R4, and R6. Because resistors R3 and R4 are in parallel,
of 2 A for the equivalent circuit in Fig. 7-5d. Now we work the 1-A branch current subdivides further into ½ A for I3
from the source V out toward the branches. The reason is and ½ A for I4. The currents I3 and I4 recombine to flow up
that IT can be used to find the voltage drops in the main line. through resistor R6. At the branch point A, I5 and I6 combine
The IR voltage drops here are resulting in the 2-A total current, IT, flowing through R1 back
to the positive terminal of the voltage source.
V1 5 IT R1 5 2 3 15 5 30 V
V18 5 IT R18 5 2 3 5 5 10 V
V2 5 IT R2 5 2 3 30 5 60 V 7.5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits
with Random Unknowns
The 10-V drop across R18 is actually the potential dif-
The circuits in Figs. 7-6 to 7-8 will be solved now. The fol-
ference between branch points A and B. This means 10 V
lowing principles are illustrated:
across R5 and R13 in Fig. 7-5c. The 10 V produces 1 A in
the 10-V R5 branch. The same 10 V is also across the R13 1. With parallel strings across the main line, the branch
branch. currents and IT can be found without RT (see Fig. 7-6).
Remember that the R13 branch is actually the string of R6
in series with the R3-R4 bank. Since this branch resistance is
10 V with 10 V across it, the branch current here is 1 A. The
R2 
1 A through the 4 V of R6 produces a voltage drop of 4 V. 20 
V2
The remaining 6-V IR drop is across the R3-R4 bank. With 6 
R1 
V across the 12-V R3, its current is ½ A; the current is also V A  90 V V1
30 

½ A in R4.
R3 
Tracing all the current paths from the voltage source in 25 
V3

Fig. 7-5a, the main-line current, IT, through R1 and R2 is 2 A. IT I1 I2-3

The 2-A IT flowing into point B subdivides into two separate
branch currents: 1 A of the 2-A IT flows up through resistor, Figure 7-6 Finding all currents and voltages by
R5. The other 1 A flows into the branch containing resistors calculating the branch currents first. See text for solution.

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 2. When parallel strings have series resistance in the R6  10 
A
R4  12 
C
R2  8 
main line, RT must be calculated to find IT, assuming
V6 V4 V2 I1-2
no branch currents are known (see Fig. 7-8).
 I4
3. The source voltage is applied across the RT of the V5 R5  V3 R3 V1 R1 
V T  80 V
entire circuit, producing an IT that flows only in the 20  16 8

main line. IT
I5 I3
4. Any individual series R has its own IR drop that must
be less than the total VT. In addition, any individual B D

branch current must be less than IT. Figure 7-8 Finding all currents and voltages by calculating
R T and then I T to find V6 across R6 in the main line.
Solution for Figure 7-6
The problem here is to calculate the branch currents I1 and
I2-3, total line current IT, and the voltage drops V1, V2, and V3. We can also find VT in Fig. 7-7 from R1, R2, and R3. The
This order will be used for the calculations because we can 6-A IT through R3 produces a voltage drop of 60 V for V3.
find the branch currents from the 90 V across the known Also, the voltage across the parallel bank with R1 and R2 has
branch resistances. been calculated as 40 V. This 40 V across the bank in series
In the 30-V branch of R1, the branch current is 90y30 5 with 60 V across R3 totals 100 V for the applied voltage.
3 A for I1. The other branch resistance, with a 20-V R2 and a
Solution for Figure 7-8
25-V R3, totals 45 V. This branch current then is 90y45 5 2 A
for I2-3. In the main line, IT is 3 A 1 2 A, which is equal to 5 A. To find all currents and voltage drops, we need RT to calculate
For the branch voltages, V1 must be the same as VA, equal IT through R6 in the main line. Combining resistances for RT,
to 90 V, or V1 5 I1 R1, which is 3 3 30 5 90 V. we start with R1 and R2 and work in toward the source. Add
In the other branch, the 2-A I2-3 flows through the 20-V the 8-V R1 and 8-V R2 in series with each other for 16 V.
R2 and the 25-V R3. Therefore, V2 is 2 3 20 5 40 V. Also, V3 This 16 V combined with the 16-V R3 in parallel equals 8 V
is 2 3 25 5 50 V. Note that these 40-V and 50-V series IR between points C and D. Add this 8 V to the series 12-V R4
drops in one branch add to equal the 90-V source. for 20 V. This 20 V with the parallel 20-V R5 equals 10 V be-
If we want to know RT, it can be calculated as VAyIT. Then 90 tween points A and B. Add this 10 V in series with the 10-V
Vy5 A equals 18 V. Or RT can be calculated by combining the R6, to make RT of 20 V for the entire series-parallel circuit.
branch resistances of 30 V in parallel with 45 V. Then, using Current IT in the main line is VTyRT, or 80y20, which
the product-divided-by-sum formula, RT is (30 3 45)y(30 1 45) equals 4 A. This 4-A IT flows through the 10-V R6, produc-
or 1350y75, which equals the same value of 18 V for RT. ing a 40-V IR drop for V6.
Now that we know IT and V6 in the main line, we use these
Solution for Figure 7-7 values to calculate all other voltages and currents. Start from
The division of branch currents also applies to Fig. 7-7, but the the main line, where we know the current, and work outward
main principle here is that the voltage must be the same across from the source. To find V5, the IR drop of 40 V for V6 in the
R1 and R2 in parallel. For the branch currents, I2 is 2 A, equal main line is subtracted from the source voltage. The reason
to the 6-A IT minus the 4-A I1. The voltage across the 10-V R1 is that V5 and V6 must add to equal the 80 V of VT. Then V5 is
is 4 3 10, or 40 V. This same voltage is also across R2. With 80 2 40 5 40 V.
40 V across R2 and 2 A through it, R2 equals 40y2 or 20 V. Voltages V5 and V6 happen to be equal at 40 V each. They
split the 80 V in half because the 10-V R6 equals the com-
R1  bined resistance of 10 V between branch points A and B.
10 
With V5 known to be 40 V, then I5 through the 20-V R5 is
40y20 5 2 A. Since I5 is 2 A and IT is 4 A, I4 must be 2 A also,
I1  4 A
equal to the difference between IT and I5. The current flowing
I2  ? into point A equals the sum of the branch currents I4 and I5.
The 2-A I4 through the 12-V R4 produces an IR drop equal
R3 
R2  ? 10  to 2 3 12 5 24 V for V4. Note now that V4 and V3 must add to
IT  6 A equal V5. The reason is that both V5 and the path with V4 and V3
  are across the same two points AB or AD. Since the potential
VT
difference across any two points is the same regardless of the
Figure 7-7 Finding R2 in the parallel bank and its I 2 . See path, V5 5 V4 1 V3. To find V3 now, we can subtract the 24 V
text for solution. of V4 from the 40 V of V5. Then 40 2 24 5 16 V for V3.

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 With 16 V for V3 across the 16-V R3, its current I3 is 1 A. M1, the voltage division among resistors R X and RS is iden-
Also, I1-2 in the branch with R1 and R2 is equal to 1 A. The tical to the voltage division among the ratio arm resistors
2-A I4 consists of the sum of the branch currents, I3 and I1-2, R1 and R2. When the voltage division in the R X-RS branch
flowing into point C. is identical to the voltage division in the R1-R2 branch, the
Finally, with 1 A through the 8-V R2 and 8-V R1, their potential difference between points C and D will equal 0 V.
voltage drops are V2 5 8 V and V1 5 8 V. Note that the 8 V of With a potential difference of 0 V across points C and D, the
V1 in series with the 8 V of V2 add to equal the 16-V potential current in M1 will read 0 ␮A, which is the balanced condi-
difference V3 between points C and D. tion. At balance, the equal voltage ratios can be stated as
All answers for the solution of Fig. 7-8 are summarized IR
I1RX _
_ 5 2 1
below: I1RS I2R2
RT 5 20 V IT 5 4 A V6 5 40 V Since I1 and I2 cancel in the equation, this yields
V5 5 40 V I5 5 2 A I4 5 2 A
RX _
_ R
V4 5 24 V V3 5 16 V I3 5 1 A 5 1
RS R2
I1-2 5 1 A V2 5 8 V V1 5 8 V
Solving for R X gives us
R
7.6 The Wheatstone Bridge RX 5 RS 3 _1 (7-1)
R2
A Wheatstone bridge is a circuit that is used to determine The ratio arm R1yR2 can be varied in most cases, typically
the value of an unknown resistance.* A typical Wheatstone in multiples of 10, such as 100y1, 10y1, 1y1, 1y10, and 1y100.
bridge is shown in Fig. 7-9. Notice that four resistors are However, the bridge is still balanced by varying the standard
configured in a diamondlike arrangement, which is typically resistor RS. The placement accuracy of the measurement of RX
how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn. In Fig. 7-9, the applied is determined by the R1yR2 ratio. For example, if R1yR2 5 1y10,
voltage VT is connected to terminals A and B, which are the value of RX is accurate to within 60.1 V. Likewise, if R1yR2
considered the input terminals to the Wheatstone bridge. A 5 1y100, the value of RX will be accurate to within 60.01 V.
very sensitive zero-centered current meter M1, called a gal- The R1yR2 ratio also determines the maximum unknown resis-
vonometer, is connected between terminals C and D, which tance that can be measured. Expressed as an equation
are considered the output terminals. R
As shown in Fig. 7-9, the unknown resistor R X is placed RX(max) 5 RS(max) 3 _1 (7-2)
R2
in the same branch as a variable standard resistor RS. It is
important to note that the standard resistor RS is a precision
resistance variable from 0 to 9999 V in 1-V steps. In the E X A M P L E 7- 1
other branch, resistors R1 and R2 make up what is known as
the ratio arm. Resistors R1 and R2 are also precision resis- In Fig. 7-10, the current in M1 reads 0 ␮A with the standard resistor RS
tors having very tight resistance tolerances. To determine the adjusted to 5642 V. What is the value of the unknown resistor RX?
value of an unknown resistance R X, adjust the standard resis- Answer:
tor RS until the current in M1 reads exactly 0 ␮A. With zero Using Formula (7-1), RX is calculated as follows:
current in M1 the Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced. R
But how does the balanced condition provide the value of the RX 5 RS 3 ___1
R2
unknown resistance R X? Good question. With zero current in 1 kV
5 5642 V 3 ______
10 kV
RX 5 564.2 V
A
Unknown resistor S1 A
RX R1 Unknown resistor
RX R1  1 k
M1
 M1
I1 I2
VT C D Ratio arm 
 
 VT  10 V C 0 A D

( A)
RS 5642 
Standard resistor, I1 R2 RS
0–9999  (variable I2 Standard resistor, R2  10 k
in 1- steps) B 0–9999  (variable
in 1- steps) B
Figure 7-9 Wheatstone bridge.
Figure 7-10 Wheatstone bridge. See Examples 7-1 and 7-2.
* Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), English physicist and inventor.

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 and causes a voltage to appear at the output terminals (C and
E X A M P L E 7- 2
D). This output voltage is then fed to the input of an amplifier
In Fig. 7-10, what is the maximum unknown resistance RX that can or other device that modifies the condition being monitored,
be measured for the ratio arm values shown? thus bringing the system back to its original preset level.
Answer: Consider the temperature control circuit in Fig. 7-11. In this
R circuit, a variable resistor R3 is in the same branch as a negative
RX(max) 5 RS(max) 3 __1 temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor whose resistance
R2
1 kV value at 25°C (R0) equals 5 kV as shown. Assume that R3 is
5 9999 V 3 ______
10 kV adjusted to provide balance when the ambient (surrounding)
RX(max) 5 999.9 V temperature TA equals 25°C. Remember, when the bridge is
If RX is larger than 999.9 V, the bridge cannot be balanced be- balanced, the output voltage across terminals C and D is 0 V.
cause the voltage division will be greater than 1⁄10 in this branch. This voltage is fed to the input of an amplifier as shown. With
In other words, the current in M 1 cannot be adjusted to 0 ␮A. 0 V into the amplifier, 0 V comes out of the amplifier.
To measure an unknown resistance whose value is greater than Now let’s consider what happens when the ambient tem-
999.9 V, you would need to change the ratio arm fraction to 1⁄1, perature TA increases above 25°C, say to 30°C. The increase
10⁄1, or something higher.
in temperature causes the resistance of the thermistor to de-
crease, since it has an NTC. With a decrease in the therm-
Note that when the Wheatstone bridge is balanced, it can istor’s resistance, the voltage at point C decreases. However,
be analyzed simply as two series strings in parallel. The rea- the voltage at point D does not change because R1 and R2 are
son is that when the current through M1 is zero, the path ordinary resistors. The result is that the output voltage VCD
between points C and D is effectively open. goes negative. This negative voltage is fed into the amplifier,
which in turn produces a positive output voltage. The posi-
Other Balanced Bridge Applications tive output voltage from the amplifier turns on a cooling fan
There are many other applications in electronics for or air-conditioning unit. The air-conditioning unit remains on
balanced bridge circuits. For example, a variety of sensors until the ambient temperature decreases to its original value of
is used in bridge circuits for detecting changes in pressure, 25°C. As the temperature drops back to 25°C, the resistance of
flow, light, temperature, etc. These sensors are used as one the thermistor increases to its original value, thus causing the
of the resistors in a bridge circuit. Furthermore, the bridge voltage VCD to return to 0 V. This shuts off the air conditioner.
can be balanced or zeroed at some desired reference level of Next, let’s consider what happens when the ambient tem-
pressure, flow, light, or temperature. Then, when the condi- perature TA decreases below 25°C, say to 20°C. The de-
tion being sensed changes, the bridge becomes unbalanced crease in temperature causes the resistance of the thermistor

Figure 7-11 Temperature control • Positive output voltage

turns on air conditioner
circuit using the balanced bridge • Negative output voltage
concept. turns on heating unit


Output
Amplifier


A
R3(0–1 k)
R1  1 k


C D
VT  12 V


T R2  10 k
R0  5 k NTC

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 to increase, thus making the voltage at point C more positive.
The result is that VCD goes positive. This positive voltage is
fed into the amplifier, which in turn produces a negative out- R1  V1 
50 k 100 V
put voltage. The negative output voltage from the amplifier
turns on a heating unit, which remains on until the ambient

temperature returns to its original value of 25°C. Although VT  200 V R2  V2 
30 k 60 V
the details of the temperature control circuit in Fig. 7-11 
are rather vague, you should get the idea of how a balanced
bridge circuit containing a thermistor could be used to con- R3  V3 
trol the temperature in a room. There are almost unlimited 20 k 40 V
I  2 mA
applications for balanced bridge circuits in electronics.

7.7 Series Voltage Dividers Figure 7-12 Series string of resistors as a proportional
The current is the same in all resistances in a series cir- voltage divider. Each VR is RyR T fraction of the total source
voltage VT.
cuit. Also, the voltage drops equal the product of I times R.
Therefore, the IR voltages are proportional to the series re-
sistances. A higher resistance has a greater IR voltage than a Proportional Voltage Method
lower resistance in the same series circuit; equal resistances Using Formula (7-3), V3 equals 20y100 of the 200 V applied
have the same amount of IR drop. If R1 is double R2, then V1 for VT because R3 is 20  kV and RT is 100 kV. Then V3 is
will be double V2. 20y100 of 200 or 1 ∕5 of 200, which is equal to 40 V. The
The series string can be considered a voltage divider. calculations are
Each resistance provides an IR drop V equal to its propor- R 20 3 200 V
tional part of the applied voltage. Stated as a formula, V3 5 _3 3 VT 5 _
RT 100
R 3V V3 5 40 V
V5_ T (7-3)
RT
In the same way, V2 is 60 V. The calculations are
E X A M P L E 7-3 R 30 3 200 V
V2 5 _2 3 VT 5 _
RT 100
Three 50-kV resistors R 1, R 2, and R 3 are in series across an ap-
plied voltage of 180 V. How much is the IR voltage drop across V2 5 60 V
each resistor? Also, V1 is 100 V. The calculations are
Answer: R 50 3 200 V
V1 5 _1 3 VT 5 _
The voltage drop across each R is 60 V. Since R 1, R 2, and R 3 are RT 100
equal, each has one-third the total resistance of the circuit and
V1 5 100 V
one-third the total applied voltage. Using the formula,
R 3 V 5 __50 kV 3 180 V The sum of V1, V2, and V3 in series is 100 1 60 1 40 5 200 V,
V5_ T
RT 150 kV which is equal to VT.
1 3 180 V
5_
3 Method of IR Drops
5 60 V If we want to solve for the current in Fig. 7-12, I 5 VTyRT or
200 Vy100 kV 5 2 mA. This I flows through R1, R2, and R3
in series. The IR drops are
Note that R and RT must be in the same units for the pro- V1 5 I 3 R1 5 2 mA 3 50 kV 5 100 V
portion. Then V is in the same units as VT. V2 5 I 3 R2 5 2 mA 3 30 kV 5 60 V
V3 5 I 3 R3 5 2 mA 3 20 kV 5 40 V
Typical Circuit
Figure 7-12 illustrates another example of a proportional These voltages are the same values calculated by Formula (7-3)
voltage divider. Let the problem be to find the voltage across for proportional voltage dividers.
R3. We can either calculate this voltage V3 as IR3 or deter-
mine its proportional part of the total applied voltage VT. The Two Voltage Drops in Series
answer is the same both ways. Note that RT is 20 1 30 1 50 5 For this case, it is not necessary to calculate both voltages.
100 kV. After you find one, subtract it from VT to find the other.

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 As an example, assume that VT is 48 V across two series re- The 999 V across R2 is practically the entire applied voltage.
sistors R1 and R2. If V1 is 18 V, then V2 must be 48 2 18 5 30 V. Also, the very high series resistance dissipates almost all the
power.
The Largest Series R Has the Most V The current of 1 mA through R1 and R2 in Fig. 7-13a is
The fact that series voltage drops are proportional to the re- determined almost entirely by the 999 kV of R2. The I for
sistances means that a very small R in series with a much RT is 1000 Vy1000 kV, which equals 1 mA. However, the
larger R has a negligible IR drop. An example is shown in 999 kV of R2 alone would allow 1.001 mA of current, which
Fig. 7-13a. Here the 1 kV of R1 is in series with the much differs very little from the original I of 1 mA.
larger 999 kV of R2. The VT is 1000 V.
The voltages across R1 and R2 in Fig. 7-13a can be calcu- Voltage Taps in a Series Voltage Divider
lated by the voltage divider formula. Note that RT is 1 1 999 5 Consider the series voltage divider with voltage taps in
1000 kV. Fig. 7-13b, where different voltages are available from the tap
points A, B, and C. Note that the total resistance RT is 20 kV,
R 1 3 1000 V 5 1 V
V1 5 _1 3 VT 5 _ which can be found by adding the individual series resistance
RT 1000
values. The voltage at each tap point is measured with respect to
R 999 3 1000 V 5 999 V
V2 5 _2 3 VT 5 _ ground. The voltage at tap point C, designated VCG, is the same
RT 1000
as the voltage across R4. The calculations for VCG are as follows:
R
VCG 5 _4 3 VT
RT
1 kV 3 24 V
5 __
R1  1 k V1  1 V 20 kV

VCG 5 1.2 V
VT 1000 V
 The voltage at tap point B, designated VBG, is the sum of
R2  999 k V2  999 V the voltages across R3 and R4. The calculations for VBG are
R3 1 R4
VBG 5 __R 3 VT
T
(a)
1.5 kV 3 1 kV 3 24 V
5 ___
20 kV
VBG 5 3 V
R1  10 k
The voltage at tap point A, designated VAG, is the sum of
A the voltages across R2, R3, and R4. The calculations are
R2 1 R3 1 R4
VAG 5 ___ 3 VT
R2  7.5 k RT

7.5 kV 1 1.5 kV 1 1 kV 3 24 V
5 _____
V T  24 V B 20 kV
 VAG 5 12 V
R3  1.5 k Notice that the voltage VAG equals 12 V, which is one-half of
the applied voltage VT. This makes sense, since R2 1 R3 1 R4
C make up 50% of the total resistance RT. Similarly, since R3 1
R4 make up 12.5% of the total resistance, the voltage VBG will
R4  1 k also be 12.5% of the applied voltage, which is 3 V in this case.
The same analogy applies to VCG.
G Each tap voltage is positive because the negative terminal
of the voltage source is grounded.

(b) Advantage of the Voltage Divider Method

Figure 7-13 (a) Example of a very small R1 in series Using Formula (7-3), we can find the proportional voltage
with a large R2; V2 is almost equal to the whole VT. (b) Series drops from VT and the series resistances without knowing
voltage divider with voltage taps. the amount of I. For odd values of R, calculating the I may

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 be more troublesome than finding the proportional voltages 40 kV 1 10 kV 5 50 kV. As a result, VE from F to G in
directly. Also, in many cases, we can approximate the volt- Fig. 7-14c becomes
age division without the need for any written calculations.
R 10 3 60 V
VE 5 _E 3 VT 5 _
RT 50
7.8 Series Voltage Divider
with Parallel Load Current VE 5 12 V
The voltage dividers shown so far illustrate just a series Therefore, the voltage across the parallel R2 and RL in
string without any branch currents. However, a voltage di- Fig. 7-14b is reduced to 12 V. This voltage is at the tap F for
vider is often used to tap off part of the applied voltage for RL.
a load that needs less voltage than VT. Then the added load Note that V1 across R1 increases to 48 V in Fig. 7-14c. Now
is a parallel branch across part of the divider, as shown in V1 is 40y50 3 60 V 5 48 V. The V1 increases here because
Fig. 7-14. This example shows how the loaded voltage at the there is more current through R1.
tap F is reduced below the potential it would have without The sum of V1 1 VE in Fig. 7-14c is 12 1 48 5 60 V. The
the branch current for RL. IR drops still add to equal the applied voltage.

Why the Loaded Voltage Decreases Path of Current for RL

We can start with Fig. 7-14a, which shows an R1-R2 voltage All current in the circuit must come from the source VT.
divider alone. Resistances R1 and R2 in series simply form a Trace the electron flow for RL. It starts from the negative
proportional divider across the 60-V source for VT. side of VT, through RL , to the tap at F, and returns through R1
For the resistances, R1 is 40 kV and R2 is 20 kV, making in the divider to the positive side of VT. This current IL goes
RT equal to 60 kV. Also, the current I 5 VTyRT, or 60 Vy through R1 but not R2.
60 kV 5 1 mA. For the divided voltages in Fig. 7-14a,
Bleeder Current
V1 5 _40 3 60 V 5 40 V
60 In addition, both R1 and R2 have their own current from the
20 3 60 V 5 20 V source. This current through all the resistances in the divider
V2 5 _
60 is called the bleeder current IB. The electron flow for IB is
Note that V1 1 V2 is 40 1 20 5 60 V, which is the total from the negative side of VT, through R2 and R1, and back to
applied voltage. the positive side of VT.
However, in Fig. 7-14b, the 20-kV branch of RL changes In summary, then, for the three resistances in Fig. 7-14b,
the equivalent resistance at tap F to ground. This change in note the following currents:
the proportions of R changes the voltage division. Now the 1. Resistance RL has just its load current IL.
resistance from F to G is 10 kV, equal to the 20-kV R2 and
2. Resistance R2 has only the bleeder current IB.
RL in parallel. This equivalent bank resistance is shown as
the 10-kV RE in Fig. 7-14c. 3. Resistance R1 has both IL and IB.
Resistance R1 is still the same 40 kV because it has no Note that only R1 is in the path for both the bleeder current
parallel branch. The new RT for the divider in Fig. 7-14c is and the load current.

E E E

R1  V1  R1  R1 
48 V 48 V
40 k 40 V 40 k 40 k
  
V T  60 V F V T  60 V F V T  60 V F
  
R2  V2  R2  RL  RE 
12 V 12 V
20 k 20 V 20 k 20 k 10 k

G
G G

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7-14 Effect of a parallel load in part of a series voltage divider. (a) R1 and R2 in series without
any branch current. (b) Reduced voltage across R2 and its parallel load R L . (c) Equivalent circuit of the
loaded voltage divider.

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 CHAPTER 7 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Analyzing Circuits with Simulation Software

By using network theorems and techniques along with the design could be accomplished in a short time. Simulation did
necessary mathematics, almost any electric or electronic not replace actual hardware prototypes but provided a way
circuit can be analyzed and designed. As you have seen in to shorten the actual hardware building and testing cycle by
this chapter, such analysis requires knowledge of the various eliminating bad designs in the simulation process and saving
theorems and rules not to mention the mathematical proce- testing and troubleshooting time. Today, simulation is the
dures. However, such analysis takes time and a significant way most circuits are designed.
amount of calculation. Electronic calculators help consider-
ably to simplify and speed up the analysis, but any such anal- Multisim
ysis is still a major task. Computers can be programmed to One of the most refined and widely used simulation software
execute the math of the various theorems, further speeding products is National Instruments’ Multisim. It is based on
up the calculations. Today there is an even better way to au- the SPICE software, but it has been highly enhanced with a
tomate, simplify, and facilitate circuit analysis: simulation. friendly user interface as well as many useful analysis and
design features. Multisim is widely used in electronic design
Circuit Simulation work but is also used by some colleges and universities to
Circuit simulation is the process of using a computer to sim- teach circuit analysis and design. Multisim runs on almost
ulate the behavior of all the various components like resis- any personal computer or laptop using the Windows operat-
tors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and even some integrated ing system. Its primary application is to analyze and design
circuits. Programs are written to emulate the various com- analog or linear circuits.
ponents. Then these components can be “interconnected” To use Multisim, you start by entering the details of a
in software to form a circuit to be analyzed. By giving the circuit you wish to analyze. This is done with a schematic
components values, the simulation software can replicate in capture program. Using the mouse on the computer, you se-
software what the real circuit will do. The software actually lect components from a schematic data base and place them
builds a mathematical model of the circuit. The simulation on the screen. All the various regular components are avail-
allows you to create, experiment with, analyze, and design cir- able, including resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers,
cuits without actually physically building them. All the basic diodes, transistors, and a wide variety of common integrated
network theorems and methods as well as the related math circuits like op amps. Once all the desired components are
are all implemented in software and automatically applied, present, you can connect them to form the circuit. Next you
providing a near instantaneous analysis with minimal work. give each component a value and specify any dc or ac voltages
to be connected. The computer builds the circuit in software.
SPICE Once the circuit has been built, you can save it as a file.
Simulation did not become popular or useful until comput- Then you can analyze it. Multisim provides a dc analysis, an
ers and software became affordable and easier to use. One ac analysis, a transient analysis, and a variety of other test
of the first practical usable circuit simulation programs was simulations. Just click on the simulation button, and the vari-
called Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis ous voltages and/or currents are displayed.
(SPICE). It was developed at the University of California, An important feature is the simulated test instruments.
Berkley, in the 1970s. Numerous continuously updated and You can connect a signal generator, digital multimeter, os-
improved versions were implemented over the years. This cilloscope, and spectrum analyzer to show actual measure-
was an open source program that anyone could acquire free ments of the circuit as it is being simulated.
and enhance. SPICE inspired the development of other simu- Figure S7-1 shows a simple example of a basic dc circuit.
lation programs, and numerous commercial simulation soft- Here a 12-volt dc source is connected to a 1-kΩ resistor. A
ware products started as SPICE derivatives. multimeter is connected in series with the circuit to mea-
Circuit simulation software literally changed the way that sure the current. Figure S7-2 shows an AC signal genera-
electronic circuits were analyzed and designed. They offered tor supplying a 1-V, 1-kHz sine wave to a 1-kΩ resistor. An
a way to test and prove the performance of a circuit before oscilloscope is connected to show the voltage across the re-
actually building one. It not only accelerated the design sistor. You can make actual measurements on the simulated
process but also made it far easier. Multiple iterations of a oscilloscope.

100 Chapter 7

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 circuits like filters can be analyzed by looking at their output
frequency response curves.
Any further analysis is done by manipulating circuit
values, frequencies, and voltages so the circuit can be opti-
mized. Multisim also has a feature that facilitates the printed
circuit board layout of the circuit.
Most technicians do not generally perform analysis or
design as part of their normal work. Doing analysis and de-
sign is the primary job of an engineer. Multisim is mostly
used by engineers, but technicians can use it to further their
Figure S7-1 DC current measurement with a generic knowledge of electronic circuits. It is a great learning tool.
multimeter.
A student version is available for experimenting. Go to www
.ni.com/multisim to learn more.
Figure S7-3 shows one unique feature of Multisim. Here
a resistor-capacitor (RC) low-pass filter is being analyzed. It
is connected to a Bode plotter. This is a feature that applies a
continuingly increasing sine-wave frequency and then plots
the output voltage response. In this way frequency-sensitive

Figure S7-2 Voltage measurement with a generic oscilloscope.

Figure S7-3 (a) Bode plotter.

(b) Bode plotter display.

(a) (b)

Series-Parallel Circuits and Voltage Dividers 101

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 CHAPTER 7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS 1–12 Refer to Fig. 7-15. c. 6 mA.

1. In Fig. 7-15, d. 45 mA.
a. R1 and R2 are in series. 8. If R4 shorts in Fig. 7-15, the voltage, VAB
b. R3 and R4 are in series. a. increases.
c. R1 and R4 are in series. b. decreases.
d. R2 and R4 are in series. c. stays the same.
d. increases to 24 V.
R1  200  9. If R2 becomes open in Fig. 7-15,
A
a. the voltage across points A and B will decrease.
b. the resistors R1, R3, and R4 will be in series.
c. the total resistance, RT, will decrease.
 d. the voltage across points A and B will measure 24 V.
R2 
VT  24 V R3  1.2 k
1.8 k
 10. If R1 opens in Fig. 7-15,
a. the voltage across R1 will measure 0 V.
b. the voltage across R4 will measure 0 V.
c. the voltage across points A and B will measure 0 V.
B d. both b and c.
R4  680 

11. If R3 becomes open in Fig. 7-15, what happens to the

Figure 7-15
voltage across points A and B?
2. In Fig. 7-15, a. It decreases.
a. R2, R3, and VT are in parallel. b. It increases.
b. R2 and R3 are in parallel. c. It stays the same.
c. R2 and R3 are in series. d. None of the above.
d. R1 and R4 are in parallel. 12. If R2 shorts in Fig. 7-15,
3. In Fig. 7-15, the total resistance, RT, equals a. the voltage, VAB, decreases to 0 V.
a. 1.6 kV. b. the total current, I T, flows through R3.
b. 3.88 kV. c. the current, I3, in R3 is zero.
c. 10 kV. d. both a and c.
d. none of the above. QUESTIONS 13–20 Refer to Fig. 7-16.
4. In Fig. 7-15, the total current, IT, equals 13. In Fig. 7-16, how much voltage exists between termi-
a. 6.19 mA. nals C and D when the bridge is balanced?
b. 150 mA. a. 0 V.
c. 15 mA. b. 10.9 V.
d. 25 mA. c. 2.18 V.
5. In Fig. 7-15, how much voltage is across points A and B? d. 12 V.
a. 12 V.
b. 18 V.
c. 13.8 V. A
Unknown resistor,
d. 10.8 V.
RX R1  1 k
6. In Fig. 7-15, how much is I2 through R2? M1
a. 9 mA. 
VT  12 V C A D Ratio arm
b. 15 mA.

c. 6 mA. Standard
resistor, RS
d. 10.8 mA. variable from RS R2  10 k
0–99,999 
7. In Fig. 7-15, how much is I3 through R3? in 1- steps B
a. 9 mA.
b. 15 mA. Figure 7-16

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 14. In Fig. 7-16, assume that the current in M1 is zero b. Change the ratio arm fraction, R1yR2 from 1⁄10 to 1⁄1,
when R S is adjusted to 55,943 V. What is the value of 10
⁄1 or something greater.
the unknown resistor, RX? c. Reverse the polarity of the applied voltage, VT.
a. 55,943 V. d. None of the above.
b. 559.43 V. 21. In a series circuit, the individual resistor voltage
c. 5,594.3 V. drops are
d. 10 kV. a. inversely proportional to the series resistance
15. In Fig. 7-16, assume that the bridge is balanced when values.
RS is adjusted to 15,000 V. How much is the total cur- b. proportional to the series resistance values.
rent, I T, flowing to and from the terminals of the volt- c. unrelated to the series resistance values.
age source, V T? d. none of the above.
a. Zero. 22. In a parallel circuit, the individual branch currents
b. Approximately 727.27 ␮A. are
c. Approximately 1.09 mA. a. not related to the branch resistance values.
d. Approximately 1.82 mA. b. directly proportional to the branch resistance
16. In Fig. 7-16, what is the maximum unknown resistor, values.
R X(max), that can be measured for the resistor values c. inversely proportional to the branch resistance
shown in the ratio arm? values.
a. 99.99 V. d. none of the above.
b. 9,999.9 V. 23. Three resistors R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series
c. 99,999 V. across an applied voltage, VT, of 24 V. If R2 is one-
d. 999,999 V. third the value of RT, how much is V2?
17. In Fig. 7-16, the ratio R1yR2 determines a. 8 V.
a. the placement accuracy of the measurement of RX. b. 16 V.
b. the maximum unknown resistor, RX(max), that can be c. 4 V.
measured. d. It is impossible to determined.
c. the amount of voltage available across terminals A 24. Two resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel. If R1 is twice
and B. the value of R2, how much is I2 in R2 if IT equals 6 A?
d. both a and b. a. 1 A.
18. In Fig. 7-16, assume that the standard resistor, RS, b. 2 A.
has been adjusted so that the current in M1 is exactly c. 3 A.
0 ␮A. How much voltage exists at terminal C with d. 4 A.
respect to terminal B?
QUESTIONS 25–29 Refer to Fig. 7-17.
a. 1.1 V.
b. 0 V. 25. In Fig. 7-17, how much is I1 in R1?
c. 10.9 V. a. 400 mA.
d. None of the above. b. 300 mA.
c. 100 mA.
19. In Fig. 7-16, assume that the ratio arm resistors, R1
d. 500 mA.
and R2, are interchanged. What is the value of the
A
unknown resistor, Rx, if RS equals 33,950 V when the
bridge is balanced?
a. 339.5 kV.
R1  15 
b. 3.395 kV. Load A
c. 33,950 V. 24 V;
 100 mA
d. None of the above. VT  24 V B

20. In Fig. 7-16, assume that the standard resistor, RS, 

cannot be adjusted high enough to provide R2  Load B

180  18 V;
a balanced condition. What modification must be 300 mA
made to the circuit?
a. Change the ratio arm fraction R1yR2, from 1⁄10 to 1⁄100 or
something less.
Figure 7-17

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 26. In Fig. 7-17, how much is the bleeder current, IB? 28. In Fig. 7-17, what is the voltage, VBG, if load B
a. 500 mA. becomes open?
b. 400 mA. a. 18 V.
c. 100 mA. b. 19.2 V.
d. 300 mA. c. 6 V.
27. In Fig. 7-17, how much is the total current, IT? d. 22.15 V.
a. 500 mA. 29. In Fig. 7-17, what happens to the voltage, VBG, if load
b. 400 mA. A becomes open?
c. 100 mA. a. It increases.
d. 300 mA. b. It decreases.
c. It remains the same.
d. It cannot be determined.

CHAPTER 7 PROBLEMS

SECTION 7.1 Finding R T for Series-Parallel 7.4 In Fig. 7-19, identify which components are in series
Resistances and which ones are in parallel.
7.1 In Fig. 7-18, identify which components are in series
and which ones are in parallel. R1  150 
A

R1  220  R2  680 
A

R2 
VT  18 V R3  600 
300 



R3 
VT  15 V R4  1.5 k
1 k

B
R4  100 

Figure 7-19
B

Figure 7-18 7.5 In Fig. 7-19,

a. how much is the total resistance of just R1 and R4?
b. what is the equivalent resistance of R2 and R3
7.2 In Fig. 7-18, across points A and B?
a. how much is the total resistance of just R1 c. how much is the total resistance, RT , of the entire
and R2? circuit?
b. what is the equivalent resistance of R3 and R4 d. how much is the total current, IT , in the circuit?
across points A and B? e. how much current flows into point B and away
c. how much is the total resistance, RT, of the entire from point A?
circuit? 7.6 In Fig. 7-19, solve for the following: I1, V1, V2, V3, I2,
d. how much is the total current, IT, in the I3, I4, V4, P1, P2, P3, P4, and PT .
circuit? 7.7 In Fig. 7-20,
e. how much current flows into point B? a. what is the total resistance of branch 1?
f. how much current flows away from point A? b. what is the total resistance of branch 2?
7.3 In Fig. 7-18, solve for the following: I1, I2, V1, V2, V3, c. how much are the branch currents I1 and I2?
V4, I3, and I4. d. how much is the total current, IT , in the circuit?

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 Branch 1 Branch 2 7.10 In Fig. 7-23,
a. what is the equivalent resistance of R2 and R3 in
parallel across points A and B?
R1  1.2 k R3  180 
b. what is the total resistance, RT , of the circuit?

VT  15 V
c. what is the total current, IT , in the circuit?
 d. how much voltage exists across points A and B?
R2  1.8 k R4  820  e. how much voltage is dropped across R1?
f. solve for I2 and I3.
1 2 g. how much current flows into point B and away
from point A?
Figure 7-20
e. how much is the total resistance, RT , of the entire
R1  100 
circuit?
A
f. what are the values of V1, V2, V3, and V4?
7.8 In Fig. 7-21, solve for the following: 
VT  25 V R2  600  2 3 R3  200 
a. branch currents I1, I2, I3 and the total current, IT

b. RT
c. V1, V2, V3, V4, and V5 B

Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 3

Figure 7-23

R4 
R1  1 k
500 
SECTION 7.4 Resistance Banks and Strings
 in Series Parallel
VT 
R3  1 k
24 V

7.11 In Fig. 7-24, solve for RT, IT , V1, V2, V3, V4, I1, I2, I3,
R5  and I4.
R2  2 k
1 k

1 2 3
R1  75  R3  150 

Figure 7-21
SECTION 7.3 Resistance Banks in Series 
7.9 In Fig. 7-22, VT  12 V R2  330  R4  180 

a. what is the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in
parallel across points A and B?
b. what is the total resistance, RT , of the circuit?
c. what is the total current, IT , in the circuit? Figure 7-24
d. how much voltage exists across points A and B?
e. how much voltage is dropped across R3?
f. solve for I1 and I2. 7.12 In Fig. 7-25, solve for RT , IT , V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, I1,
g. how much current flows into point B and away I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6.
from point A?
R1  2.2 k
R1  120  R3  68 

A 1 B
2 
VT  75 V R2  560  R4  120  R5  180 
 
VT  15 V R2  3.3 k R3  680 


IT
R6  68 

Figure 7-22 Figure 7-25

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 7.13 In Fig. 7-26, solve for RT , I1, I2, I3, V1, V2, V3, and the 7.16 In Fig. 7-29, solve for R2, V1, V2, V3, I3, IT , and VT .
voltage, VAB.

A R1  10 


VT R3  330 
R1  120 

RT  82.5 
R2  1.2 k R3  3.3 k R2

IT
VT  60 V   120 mA


B Figure 7-29
Figure 7-26 7.17 In Fig. 7-30, solve for RT , IT , V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, I1,
I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6.
7.14 In Fig. 7-27, solve for RT , IT , V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, I1, R1  15  R3  100  R5  150 
I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6.


VT  18 V R2  100  R4  1 k R6  100 

R1  150 

R6 
 300 
V T  24 V

R2  200  Figure 7-30
R5  1.8 k
SECTION 7.6 The Wheatstone Bridge
R4 
Problems 18–22 refer to Fig. 7-31.
R3  1.2 k
600 
7.18 In Fig. 7-31,
a. how much current flows through M1 when the
Wheatstone bridge is balanced?
b. how much voltage exists between points C and D
Figure 7-27 when the bridge is balanced?
A
Unknown resistor
SECTION 7.5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits RX R1
with Random Unknowns M1
7.15 In Fig. 7-28 solve for V1, V2, V3, I2, R3, RT , and VT . 
VT  10 V C A D Ratio arm

Standard resistor

R1  120  Variable from RS

R2
0–99,999 
in 1- steps
IT  300 mA B

Figure 7-31

R2 
VT R3
100  7.19 In Fig. 7-31, assume that the bridge is balanced when

R1 5 1 kV, R2 5 5 kV, and RS 5 34,080 V. Determine
3  120 mA
a. the value of the unknown resistor, RX.
b. the voltages VCB and VDB.
c. the total current, IT , flowing to and from the
Figure 7-28 voltage source, VT .

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 7.20 In reference to Prob. 19, which direction (C to D or D 7.25 In Fig. 7-32, assume that R3 has been adjusted to
to C) will electrons flow through M1 if 850 V to provide zero volts across the output termi-
a. RS is reduced in value. nals C and D. Determine
b. RS is increased in value. a. the resistance of the thermistor.
7.21 In Fig. 7-31, calculate the maximum unknown resis- b. whether the ambient temperature, TA, has increased
tor, RX(max), that can be measured for the following or decreased from 258C.
ratio arm values: SECTION 7.7 Series Voltage Dividers
R1 _____ 1
a. __
R2 5 1000 7.26 A 100-V R1 is in series with a 200-V R2 and a 300-V
R1 ____ R3. The applied voltage, VT, is 18 V. Calculate V1, V2,
100
b. __
R2 5 1
and V3.
7.22 Assume that the same unknown resistor, RX, is mea- 7.27 A 10-kV R1 is in series with a 12-kV R2, a 4.7-kV
sured using different ratio arm fractions in Fig. 7-31. R3, and a 3.3-kV R4. The applied voltage, VT, is 36 V.
In each case, the standard resistor, RS, is adjusted to Calculate V1, V2, V3, and V4.
provide the balanced condition. The values for each 7.28 In Fig. 7-33, calculate V1, V2, and V3.
measurement are
R 1
a. RS 5 123 V and __1 5 __ .
R2 1
R1  1 k
R 1
b. RS 5 1232 V and __1 5 ___ .
R2 10
R 1 
c. RS 5 12,317 V and __1 5 ____ . VT  18 V R2  1.5 k
R2 100 
Calculate the value of the unknown resistor, RX, for
each measurement. Which ratio arm fraction provides
R3  2 k
the greatest accuracy?
PROBLEMS 23–25 Refer to Fig. 7-32.
7.23 In Fig. 7-32, to what value must R3 be adjusted to
Figure 7-33
provide zero volts across terminals C and D when the
ambient temperature, TA, is 258C? (Note: R0 is the resis-
7.29 In Fig. 7-34, calculate V1, V2, and V3. Note that
tance of the thermistor at an ambient temperature, TA,
resistor R2 is three times the value of R1 and resistor
of 258C.)
R3 is two times the value of R2.

A
R3  (0–5 k)
R1  1 k
R1

C D
VT  10 V


VT  25 V R2  3R1
T R2  5 k
R0  5 k NTC 

B
R3  2R2
Figure 7-32

7.24 In Fig. 7-32, assume that RS is adjusted to provide

Figure 7-34
zero volts across terminals C and D at an ambient
temperature, TA, of 258C. What happens to the polar-
ity of the output voltage, VCD, when 7.30 In Fig. 7-35, calculate
a. the ambient temperature, TA, increases above 258C? a. V1, V2, and V3.
b. the ambient temperature, TA, decreases below 258C? b. VAG, VBG, and VCG.

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 A 7.32 In Fig. 7-36, explain why the voltage, VBG, decreases
when the switch, S1 is closed.
R1  100 
7.33 In Fig. 7-37, calculate I1, I2, IL, VBG, and VAG with
a. S1 open.
B b. S1 closed.

 R2  180  A
VT  100 V

R1  60 
C

VT  32 V B
R3  220  S1

R2  100  RL  150 
G
G

Figure 7-35
Figure 7-37
SECTION 7.8 Series Voltage Divider with 7.34 With S1 closed in Fig. 7-37, which resistor has only
Parallel Load Current the bleeder current, IB, flowing through it?
7.31 In Fig. 7-36, calculate I1, I2, IL, VBG, and VAG with 7.35 In Fig. 7-38, calculate I1, I2, IL, VBG, and VAG with
a. S1 open. a. S1 open.
b. S1 closed. b. S1 closed.

A A

R1  40  R1  2 k

 
VT  24 V B VT  12 V B
S1 S1
 
R2  120  RL  60  R2  2 k RL  2 k

G G

Figure 7-36 Figure 7-38

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 Ch a pt er 8
Network Theorems

Learning Outcomes A network is a combination of components, such as

resistances and voltage sources, all interconnected to
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: achieve a particular end result. Occasionally there is a
State and apply Kirchhoff’s current law. need to analyze such a network to determine how it
State and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law. works and performs. In many cases, Kirchhoff’s laws
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuits with can be used to analyze the circuit, as you saw in a pre-
respect to any pair of terminals in a complex vious chapter. However, in some cases more sophis-
network. ticated methods are needed to speed up and simplify
Apply Thevenin’s theorem in solving for an the analysis. Good examples are circuits with multiple
unknown voltage or current. voltage sources or a bridge circuit.
State the internal source conditions for ideal and This chapter delves a bit deeper into Kirchhoff’s
practical voltage and current sources. laws to show you some alternative approaches to
circuit analysis. Then several new techniques are
introduced. These new methods convert the circuit
to some equivalent circuit that can be more easily
solved with basic series and parallel circuit methods.

109

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 Specifically, these techniques are Thevenin’s theo- sources are analyzed. Just remember, as you learn
rem and the maximum power transfer theorem. these methods, they can also be applied to circuits
These methods are introduced as basic resistive cir- with ac voltages sources as well as with inductors
cuits with dc voltages sources. Voltage and current and capacitors.

8.1 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL) Substituting the values for these currents,
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any 6A22A24A50
point in a circuit must equal zero. Or stated another way,
the algebraic sum of the currents into any point of the cir- For the opposite directions, refer to point D at the bottom
cuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that of Fig. 8-2. Here the branch currents into D combine to equal
point. Otherwise, charge would accumulate at the point, in- the main-line current IT returning to the voltage source. Now
stead of having a conducting path. An algebraic sum means IT is directed out from D with I3 and I4-5 directed in. The
combining positive and negative values. algebraic equation is

I3 1 I4-5 2 IT 5 0
Algebraic Signs
or
In using Kirchhoff’s laws to solve circuits, it is necessary
to adopt conventions that determine the algebraic signs for 2A14A26A50
current and voltage terms. A convenient system for cur-
rents is to consider all currents into a branch point as I in 5 I out
positive and all currents directed away from that point as Note that at either point C or point D in Fig. 8-2, the sum of
negative. the 2-A and 4-A branch currents must equal the 6-A total
As an example, in Fig. 8-1 we can write the currents as line current. Therefore, Kirchhoff’s current law can also be
stated as Iin 5 Iout. For Fig. 8-2, the equations of current can
IA 1 IB 2 IC 5 0
be written:
or
At point C: 6A52A14A
5A13A28A50 At point D: 2A14A56A
Currents IA and IB are positive terms because these currents Kirchhoff’s current law is the basis for the practical rule in
flow into P, but IC, directed out, is negative. parallel circuits that the total line current must equal the sum
of the branch currents.
Current Equations
For a circuit application, refer to point C at the top of the dia-
gram in Fig. 8-2. The 6-A IT into point C divides into the 2-A V1  30 V V4  40 V
R1  5  R4  10 
I3 and 4-A I4-5, both directed out. Note that I4-5 is the current A   C   E
through R4 and R5. The algebraic equation is
T  6 A  4–5  4 A
3  2 A
IT 2 I3 2 I4-5 5 0
 

R3  V3  R5  V5 
VT  240 V
60  120 V 20  80 V

IA 5 A  

3  2 A
P IC 8 A T  6 A  4–5  4 A

B   D F
R2  15 
IB 3 A V2  90 V

Figure 8-1 Current I C out from point P equals 5 A 1 3 A Figure 8-2 Series-parallel circuit illustrating Kirchhoff’s
into P. laws. See text for voltage and current equations.

110 Chapter 8

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 must be zero. There cannot be any potential difference for
EXAMPLE 8-1
one point.
In Fig. 8-3, apply Kirchhoff’s current law to solve for the unknown If you do not come back to the start, then the algebraic
current, I 3. sum is the voltage between the start and finish points.
Answer: You can follow any closed path because the voltage be-
In Fig. 8-3, the currents I1, I2, and I3 flowing into point X are considered tween any two points in a circuit is the same regardless of
positive, whereas the currents I4 and I5 flowing away from point X are the path used in determining the potential difference.
considered negative. Expressing the currents as an equation gives us,
I1 1 I2 1 I3 2 I4 2 I5 5 0 Loop Equations
or Any closed path is called a loop. A loop equation specifies
I1 1 I2 1 I3 5 I4 1 I5 the voltages around the loop.
Figure 8-2 has three loops. The outside loop, starting
Inserting the values from Fig. 8-3,
from point A at the top, through CEFDB, and back to A, in-
2.5 A 1 8 A 1 I3 5 6 A 1 9 A cludes the voltage drops V1, V4, V5, and V2 and the source VT.
Solving for I 3 gives us The inside loop ACDBA includes V1, V3, V2, and VT. The
I3 5 6 A 1 9 A 2 2.5 A 2 8 A other inside loop, CEFDC with V4, V5, and V3, does not in-
5 4.5 A clude the voltage source.
I1  2.5 A I4  6 A Consider the voltage equation for the inside loop with VT.
In the clockwise direction starting from point A, the alge-
X braic sum of the voltages is
I2  8 A

2V1 2 V3 2 V2 1 VT 5 0
I3  ? I5  9 A
or
Figure 8-3
230 V 2 120 V 2 90 V 1 240 V 5 0

Voltages V1, V3, and V2 have negative signs, because the

negative terminal for each of these voltages is reached first.
8.2 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL) However, the source VT is a positive term because its plus
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is terminal is reached first, going in the same direction.
zero. If you start from any point at one potential and come For the opposite direction, going counterclockwise in the
back to the same point and the same potential, the difference same loop from point B at the bottom, V2, V3, and V1 have
of potential must be zero. positive values and VT is negative. Then

V2 1 V3 1 V1 2 VT 5 0
Algebraic Signs
In determining the algebraic signs for voltage terms or
in a KVL equation, fi rst mark the polarity of each volt- 90 V 1 120 V 1 30 V 2 240 V 5 0
age as shown in Fig. 8-2. A convenient system is to go
around any closed path and consider any voltage whose When we transpose the negative term of 2240 V, the equa-
negative terminal is reached first as a negative term and tion becomes
any voltage whose positive terminal is reached first as a
positive term. This method applies to IR voltage drops 90 V 1 120 V 1 30 V 5 240 V
and voltage sources. The direction can be clockwise or This equation states that the sum of the voltage drops equals
counterclockwise. the applied voltage.
Remember that electrons flowing into a resistor make
that end negative with respect to the other end. For a volt- SV 5 VT
age source, the direction of electrons returning to the posi- The Greek letter ∑ means “sum of.” In either direction, for
tive terminal is the normal direction for electron flow, which any loop, the sum of the IR voltage drops must equal the
means that the source should be a positive term in the volt- applied voltage VT. In Fig. 8-2, for the inside loop with the
age equation. source VT, going counterclockwise from point B,
When you go around the closed path and come back to
the starting point, the algebraic sum of all the voltage terms 90 V 1 120 V 1 30 V 5 240 V

Network Theorems 111

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 This system does not contradict the rule for algebraic For instance, in Fig. 8-2, for the loop CEFDC without the
signs. If 240 V were on the left side of the equation, this source VT, going clockwise from point C, the loop equation
term would have a negative sign. of voltages is
Stating a loop equation as ∑V 5 VT eliminates the step of
transposing the negative terms from one side to the other to 2V4 2 V5 1 V3 5 0
make them positive. In this form, the loop equations show 240 V 2 80 V 1 120 V 5 0
that Kirchhoff’s voltage law is the basis for the practical rule 0 5 0
in series circuits that the sum of the voltage drops must equal
the applied voltage. Notice that V3 is positive now, because its plus terminal
When a loop does not have any voltage source, the al- is reached first by going clockwise from D to C in this
gebraic sum of the IR voltage drops alone must total zero. loop.

EXAMPLE 8-2

In Fig. 8-4a, apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to solve for the voltages R1  120 
A
VAG and VBG.
Answer:
In Fig. 8-4a, the voltage sources V1 and V2 are connected in a se- 
ries-aiding fashion since they both force electrons to flow through V1  18 V
the circuit in the same direction. The earth ground connection at 
G R2  100 
the junction of V1 and V2 is used simply for a point of reference. The 
circuit is solved as follows: V2  18 V

VT 5 V1 1 V2
5 18 V 1 18 V
5 36 V
B
R3  180 
RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3
(a)
5 120 V 1 100 V 1 180 V
5 400 V R1  120 
A
 
V
I 5 _T VR1  10.8 V
RT

36 V
5 __ V1  18 V 
400 V 
R2  100 
G
5 90 mA  VR2  9 V
V2  18 V 
VR 5 I 3 R1
1

5 90 mA 3 120 V
VR3  16.2 V
5 10.8 V
 
VR 5 I 3 R2 B
2
R3  180 
5 90 mA 3 100 V (b)
59V
Figure 8-4
VR 5 I 3 R3
3
V1, we should obtain an algebraic sum of 0 V. The loop equation is
5 90 mA 3 180 V
written as
5 16.2 V
V1 1 V2 2 VR 2 VR 2 VR 5 0
Figure 8-4b shows the voltage drops across each resistor. No- 3 2 1

tice that the polarity of each resistor voltage drop is negative at the Notice that the voltage sources V1 and V2 are considered posi-
end where the electrons enter the resistor and positive at the end tive terms in the equation because their positive (1) terminals were
where they leave. reached first when going around the loop. Similarly, the voltage
Next, we can apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to determine if we drops VR , VR , and VR are considered negative terms because the
1 2 3

have solved the circuit correctly. If we go counterclockwise (CCW) negative (2) end of each resistor’s voltage drop is encountered first
around the loop, starting and ending at the positive (1) terminal of when going around the loop.

112 Chapter 8

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 Substituting the values from Fig. 8-4b gives us Going clockwise (CW) from A to G produces the same result.

18 V 1 18 V 2 16.2 V 2 9 V 2 10.8 V 5 0 VAG 5 VR 1 VR 2 V2

2 3
(CW from A to G)
5 9 V 1 16.2 V 2 18 V
It is important to realize that the sum of the resistor voltage
drops must equal the applied voltage, V T, which equals V1 1 V2 or 5 7.2 V
36 V in this case. Expressed as an equation, Since there are fewer voltages to add going counterclockwise
from point A, it is the recommended solution for VAG.
VT 5 VR 1 VR 1 VR
1 2 3
The voltage, VBG, is found by using the same technique.
5 10.8 V 1 9 V 1 16.2 V
VBG 5 VR 2 V2 (CW from B to G)
5 36 V 3

5 16.2 V 2 18 V
It is now possible to solve for the voltages VAG and VBG by ap- 5 21.8 V
plying Kirchhoff’s voltage law. To do so, simply add the voltages
algebraically between the start and finish points, which are points Going around the loop in the other direction gives us
A and G for VAG and points B and G for VBG. Using the values from VBG 5 2VR 2 VR 1 V1 (CCW from B to G)
Figure 8-4b, 2 1

5 29 V 2 10.8 V 1 18 V
VAG 5 2VR 1 V11
(CCW from A to G) 5 21.8 V
5 210.8 V 1 18 V Since there are fewer voltages to add going clockwise from point
5 7.2 V B, it is the recommended solution for VBG.

8.3 Thevenin’s Theorem the resistance looking back into the network from terminals
A and B. Although the terminals are open, an ohmmeter
Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, Thevenin’s
across AB would read the value of RTH as the resistance
theorem is very useful in simplifying the process of solving
of the remaining paths in the network without any sources
for the unknown values of voltage and current in a network.
operating.
By Thevenin’s theorem, many sources and components, no
matter how they are interconnected, can be represented by Thevenizing a Circuit
an equivalent series circuit with respect to any pair of ter-
minals in the network. In Fig. 8-5, imagine that the block at As an example, refer to Fig. 8-6a, where we want to find the
the left contains a network connected to terminals A and B. voltage VL across the 2-V RL and its current IL. To use Theve-
Thevenin’s theorem states that the entire network connected nin’s theorem, mentally disconnect RL. The two open ends
to A and B can be replaced by a single voltage source VTH then become terminals A and B. Now we find the Thevenin
in series with a single resistance RTH, connected to the same equivalent of the remainder of the circuit that is still con-
two terminals. nected to A and B. In general, open the part of the circuit
Voltage VTH is the open-circuit voltage across terminals A to be analyzed and “thevenize” the remainder of the circuit
and B. This means finding the voltage that the network pro- connected to the two open terminals.
duces across the two terminals with an open circuit between Our only problem now is to find the value of the open-
A and B. The polarity of VTH is such that it will produce circuit voltage VTH across AB and the equivalent resistance
current from A to B in the same direction as in the original RTH. The Thevenin equivalent always consists of a single volt-
network. age source in series with a single resistance, as in Fig. 8-6d.
Resistance RTH is the open-circuit resistance across termi- The effect of opening RL is shown in Fig. 8-6b. As a re-
nals A and B, but with all sources killed. This means finding sult, the 3-V R1 and 6-V R2 form a series voltage divider
without RL.
Furthermore, the voltage across R 2 now is the same as
RTH
A the open-circuit voltage across terminals A and B. There-
 A fore VR 2 with R L open is VAB. This is the VTH we need for
 the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Using the voltage divider
Network V TH
 formula,

B VR 5 _6 3 36 V 5 24 V
B 9
2

VR 5 VAB 5 VTH 5 24 V
Figure 8-5 Any network in the block at the left can be 2

reduced to the Thevenin equivalent series circuit at the right. This voltage is positive at terminal A.

Network Theorems 113

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 R1  3  RTH  2  voltage divider formula for the 2-V RTH and 2-V RL , VL 5
A A
1y2 3 24 V 5 12 V. To find IL as VLyRL , the value is 12 Vy2
V, which equals 6 A.
V  R2  RL  V TH 
36 V 6 2 24 V
These answers of 6 A for IL and 12 V for VL apply to RL in
both the original circuit in Fig. 8-6a and the equivalent cir-
B B cuit in Fig. 8-6e. Note that the 6-A IL also flows through RTH.
(a)
The same answers could be obtained by solving the se-
(d)
ries-parallel circuit in Fig. 8-6a, using Ohm’s law. However,
the advantage of thevenizing the circuit is that the effect of
R1  3  RTH  2  different values of RL can be calculated easily. Suppose that
A
A
RL is changed to 4 V. In the Thevenin circuit, the new value
of VL would be 4y6 3 24 V 5 16 V. The new IL would be
V  R2  V TH  VL  RL 
V AB  24 V 16 Vy4 V, which equals 4 A. If we used Ohm’s law in the
36 V 6 24 V 12 V 2
original circuit, a complete, new solution would be required
B
B each time RL was changed.
(b) (e)
Looking Back from Terminals A and B
The way we look at the resistance of a series-parallel circuit
R1  3 
depends on where the source is connected. In general, we
A
calculate the total resistance from the outside terminals of
the circuit in toward the source as the reference.
Short R2 
RAB  2  When the source is short-circuited for thevenizing a cir-
across 6
V
cuit, terminals A and B become the reference. Looking back
B from A and B to calculate RTH, the situation becomes reversed
(c) from the way the circuit was viewed to determine VTH.
For RTH, imagine that a source could be connected
Figure 8-6 Application of Thevenin’s theorem. (a) Actual across AB, and calculate the total resistance working from
circuit with terminals A and B across R L . (b) Disconnect R L
the outside in toward terminals A and B. Actually, an ohm-
to find that VAB is 24 V. (c) Short-circuit V to find that R AB
is 2 V. (d ) Thevenin equivalent circuit. (e) Reconnect R L at meter placed across terminals A and B would read this
terminals A and B to find that VL is 12 V. resistance.
This idea of reversing the reference is illustrated in Fig. 8-7.
The circuit in Fig. 8-7a has terminals A and B open, ready to
To find RTH, the 2-V R L is still disconnected. However, be thevenized. This circuit is similar to that in Fig. 8-6 but
now the source V is short-circuited. So the circuit looks with the 4-V R3 inserted between R2 and terminal A. The
like Fig. 8-6c. The 3-V R1 is now in parallel with the 6-V interesting point is that R3 does not change the value of VAB
R2 because both are connected across the same two points. produced by the source V, but R3 does increase the value of
This combined resistance is the product over the sum of R1 RTH. When we look back from terminals A and B, the 4 V of
and R2. R3 is in series with 2 V to make RTH 6 V, as shown for RAB in
18 5 2 V Fig. 8-7b and RTH in Fig. 8-7c.
RTH 5 _
9 Let us consider why VAB is the same 24 V with or without
Again, we assume an ideal voltage source whose internal R3. Since R3 is connected to the open terminal A, the source
resistance is zero. V cannot produce current in R3. Therefore, R3 has no IR drop.
As shown in Fig. 8-6d, the Thevenin circuit to the left A voltmeter would read the same 24 V across R2 and from A
of terminals A and B then consists of the equivalent volt- to B. Since VAB equals 24 V, this is the value of VTH.
age VTH , equal to 24 V, in series with the equivalent series Now consider why R3 does change the value of RTH. Re-
resistance RTH , equal to 2 V. This Thevenin equivalent member that we must work from the outside in to calculate the
applies for any value of R L because R L was disconnected. total resistance. Then, A and B are like source terminals. As
We are actually thevenizing the circuit that feeds the open a result, the 3-V R1 and 6-V R2 are in parallel, for a combined
AB terminals. resistance of 2 V. Furthermore, this 2 V is in series with the
To find VL and IL , we can finally reconnect RL to termi- 4-V R3 because R3 is in the main line from terminals A and B.
nals A and B of the Thevenin equivalent circuit, as shown in Then RTH is 2 1 4 5 6 V. As shown in Fig. 8-7c, the Thevenin
Fig. 8-6e. Then RL is in series with RTH and VTH. Using the equivalent circuit consists of VTH 5 24 V and RTH 5 6 V.

114 Chapter 8

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 R1  3  R3  4 
R3  C R1 
A
3 6

R2  RL  2 
V  36 V V AB  24 V V 
6
30 V A B

B
(a ) R4  R2 
6 D 4

(a)
R3  4 
A

 
R1  R2 
RAB  6  R3  3 
3 6
10 V 18 V
R1  6 

B V   
V AB  8 V
30 V  A B 
(b)
R4  6 
20 V 12 V
R2  4 
RTH  6   
A
(b)

V TH 
24 V
A B
RAB  4.4 
B
(c) R3  RTA  R4  R2  RTB  R1 
3 2 6 4 2.4  6
Figure 8-7 Thevenizing the circuit of Fig. 8–6 but with
a 4-V R 3 in series with the A terminal. (a) VAB is still 24 V. C D D C
(b) Now the R AB is 2 1 4 5 6 V. (c) Thevenin equivalent
Short circuit across V
circuit.
(c)

RTH  4.4  A
8.4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit
As another example of Thevenin’s theorem, we can find IL  1.25 A
the current through the 2-V RL at the center of the bridge RL 
V TH  8 V
2
circuit in Fig. 8-8a. When RL is disconnected to open ter-
minals A and B, the result is as shown in Fig. 8-8b. Notice B

how the circuit has become simpler because of the open.

(d)
Instead of the unbalanced bridge in Fig. 8-8a which would
require Kirchhoff’s laws for a solution, the Thevenin equiv- Figure 8-8 Thevenizing a bridge circuit. (a) Original
alent in Fig. 8-8b consists of just two voltage dividers. Both circuit with terminals A and B across middle resistor R L .
the R3-R4 divider and the R1-R2 divider are across the same (b) Disconnect R L to find VAB of 28 V. (c) With source V
short-circuited, R AB is 2 1 2.4 5 4.4 V. (d ) Thevenin
30-V source. equivalent with R L reconnected to terminals A and B.
Since the open terminal A is at the junction of R3 and R4,
this divider can be used to find the potential at point A. Simi-
larly, the potential at terminal B can be found from the R1-R2 are marked negative at the top, the same as the source
divider. Then VAB is the difference between the potentials at voltage V.
terminals A and B. Similarly, in the divider with the 6-V R1 and 4-V R2 ,
Note the voltages for the two dividers. In the divider the bottom voltage VR is 4/10 3 30 5 12 V. Then VR at
2 1
with the 3-V R 3 and 6-V R4 , the bottom voltage V R is 6/9 3 4
the top is 18 V because the two must add up to equal the
30 5 20 V. Then VR at the top is 10 V because both
3
30-V source. The polarities are also negative at the top, the
must add up to equal the 30-V source. The polarities same as V.

Network Theorems 115

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 Now we can determine the potentials at terminals A and 8.5 Voltage Sources
B with respect to a common reference to find VAB. Imagine
An ideal dc voltage source produces a load voltage that
that the positive side of the source V is connected to a chassis
is constant. The simplest example of an ideal dc voltage
ground. Then we would use the bottom line in the diagram
source is a perfect battery, one whose internal resistance
as our reference for voltages. Note that VR at the bottom of
4 is zero. Figure 8-9a shows an ideal voltage source con-
the R3-R4 divider is the same as the potential of terminal A
nected to a variable load resistance of 1 V to 10 MV.
with respect to ground. This value is 220 V, with terminal
The voltmeter reads 10 V, exactly the same as the source
A negative.
voltage.
Similarly, VR in the R1-R2 divider is the potential at B
2 Figure 8-9b shows a graph of load voltage versus load re-
with respect to ground. This value is 212 V with terminal
sistance. As you can see, the load voltage remains fixed at
B negative. As a result, VAB is the difference between the
10 V when the load resistance changes from 1 V to 1 MV. In
220 V at A and the 212 V at B, both with respect to the
other words, an ideal dc voltage source produces a constant
common ground reference.
load voltage, regardless of how small or large the load resis-
The potential difference VAB then equals
tance is. With an ideal voltage source, only the load current
VAB 5 220 2 (212) 5 220 1 12 5 28 V changes when the load resistance changes.

Terminal A is 8 V more negative than B. Therefore, VTH is

8 V, with the negative side toward terminal A, as shown in Second Approximation
the Thevenin equivalent in Fig. 8-8d. An ideal voltage source is a theoretical device; it cannot
The potential difference VAB can also be found as the exist in nature. Why? When the load resistance approaches
difference between VR and VR in Fig. 8-8b. In this case,
3 1 zero, the load current approaches infinity. No real voltage
VR is 10 V and VR is 18 V, both positive with respect to
3 1 source can produce infinite current because a real voltage
the top line connected to the negative side of the source V. source always has some internal resistance. The second ap-
The potential difference between terminals A and B then proximation of a dc voltage source includes this internal
is 10 2 18, which also equals 28 V. Note that VAB must resistance.
have the same value no matter which path is used to de-
termine the voltage.
To fi nd RTH , the 30-V source is short-circuited while
terminals A and B are still open. Then the circuit looks M1
like Fig. 8-8c. Looking back from terminals A and B, the VS RL
10.0 V
3-V R 3 and 6-V R4 are in parallel, for a combined resis- 10 V 1 –1 M
tance RT of 18/9 or 2 V. The reason is that R 3 and R4 are
A
joined at terminal A, while their opposite ends are con-
(a)
nected by the short circuit across the source V. Similarly,
the 6-V R1 and 4-V R 2 are in parallel for a combined re-
sistance RT of 24/10 5 2.4 V. Furthermore, the short cir-
B
VS (V)
cuit across the source now provides a path that connects
RT and RT in series. The entire resistance is 2 1 2.4 5
A B
11
4.4 V for R AB or RTH.
The Thevenin equivalent in Fig. 8-8d represents the 10
bridge circuit feeding the open terminals A and B with 8 V
for VTH and 4.4 V for RTH. Now connect the 2-V RL to termi- 9
nals A and B to calculate IL. The current is
8
VTH 8 8
IL 5 __ 5 __ 5_
RTH 1 RL 4.4 1 2 6.4 7
1 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
IL 5 1.25 A RL resistance (ohms)

This 1.25 A is the current through the 2-V RL at the center of (b)
the unbalanced bridge in Fig. 8-8a. Furthermore, the amount Figure 8-9 (a) Ideal voltage source and variable
of IL for any value of RL in Fig. 8-8a can be calculated from load resistance; (b) load voltage is constant for all load
the equivalent circuit in Fig. 8-8d. resistances.

116 Chapter 8

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 RS VS (V)
1
M1
VS RL
5.0 V Stiff region
10 V 1 –1 M

(a)

100Rs
VS (V) RL resistance (ohms)

10
Figure 8-11 Stiff region occurs when load resistance is
large enough.
9
8 Stiff region
7
6 Solving for load resistance gives the minimum load resis-
5
tance we can use and still have a stiff source:
4
1 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
RL(min) 5 100RS (8-2)
RL resistance (ohms)
(b) In words, the minimum load resistance equals 100 times the
source resistance.
Figure 8-10 (a) Second approximation includes source Equation (8-2) is a derivation. We started with the defi-
resistance; (b) load voltage is constant for large load nition of a stiff voltage source and rearranged it to get the
resistances.
minimum load resistance permitted with a stiff voltage
Figure 8-10a illustrates the idea. A source resistance RS source. As long as the load resistance is greater than 100RS,
of 1 V is now in series with the ideal battery. The voltmeter the voltage source is stiff. When the load resistance equals
reads 5 V when RL is 1 V. Why? Because the load current this worst-case value, the calculation error from ignoring the
is 10 V divided by 2 V, or 5 A. When 5 A flows through the source resistance is 1%, small enough to ignore in a second
source resistance of 1 V, it produces an internal voltage drop approximation.
of 5 V. This is why the load voltage is only half of the ideal Figure 8-11 visually summarizes a stiff voltage source.
value, with the other half being dropped across the internal The load resistance has to be greater than 100RS for the volt-
resistance. age source to be stiff.
Figure 8-10b shows the graph of load voltage versus
load resistance. In this case, the load voltage does not come
close to the ideal value until the load resistance is much
greater than the source resistance. But what does much EX A M P L E 8 -3
greater mean? In other words, when can we ignore the
The definition of a stiff voltage source applies to ac sources as
source resistance?
well as to dc sources. Suppose an ac voltage source has a source
resistance of 50 V. For what load resistance is the source stiff?
Stiff Voltage Source
Solution:
Now is the time when a new definition can be useful. So, let
us invent one. We can ignore the source resistance when it Multiply by 100 to get the minimum load resistance:
is at least 100 times smaller than the load resistance. Any RL  5  100RS  5  100(50 V)  5 5 kV
source that satisfies this condition is a stiff voltage source.
As long as the load resistance is greater than 5 kV, the ac volt-
As a definition, age source is stiff and we can ignore the internal resistance of
Stiff voltage source: RS , 0.01RL (8-1) the source.
A final point: Using the second approximation for an ac voltage
This formula defines what we mean by a stiff voltage source. source is valid only at low frequencies. At high frequencies, ad-
The boundary of the inequality (where , is changed to 5) ditional factors such as lead inductance and stray capaci-
tance come into play. We will deal with these high-frequency
gives us the following equation:
effects in a later chapter.
RS 5 0.01RL

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 Voltage Sources and Voltage Dividers resistance is referred to as the output impedance or re-
Voltage dividers show up in practically every electronic cir- sistance of the circuit. When a load is connected to it, a
cuit or system. They occur when a load is connected to a voltage divider is formed between the internal resistance
voltage source. The internal resistance of the voltage source and the load. With a load, the output voltage is less than
and the load resistance form a voltage divider that literally the open-circuit or no-load condition because of this
prevents the entire voltage source output from appearing voltage divider action.
across the load. It is critical that you recognize the presence
of a voltage divider in all of these situations. 8.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
When transferring power from a voltage source to a load, it is
often necessary to transfer maximum possible power rather
EXAMPLE 8-4 than to optimize the amount of voltage across the load. The
An amplifier acts as a generator when it is driving a load. condition for that to happen is when the load resistance (RL)
The amplifier has an internal resistance also called the output equals the internal resistance of the generator (ri).
impedance (Z O) of 50 V. Refer to Figure 8-12. The diamond In the diagram in Fig. 8-13, when RL equals ri, the load
symbol is the equivalent generator. Its output voltage with and generator are matched. The matching is significant be-
no load is 3 volts. A load (R L) of 300 V is connected to the
cause the generator then produces maximum power in RL , as
amplifier. Is the load resistance stiff? What is the voltage
across the load? verified by the values listed in Table 8-1.

Answer: Maximum Power in R L

Multiply R L by 0.01 to get the stiff source resistance.
When RL is 100 V to match the 100 V of ri, maximum power
RS 5 0.01(300) 5 3 V is transferred from the generator to the load. With higher
The 50-V source is greater than 3 V so is not “stiff.” resistance for RL , the output voltage VL is higher, but the cur-
The output voltage is the source voltage without load or rent is reduced. Lower resistance for RL allows more cur-
3 volts multiplied by the voltage divider formula:
rent, but VL is less. When ri and RL both equal 100 V, this
Load voltage 5 3(300)/(300 1 50) 5 2.57 volts
Lost voltage (0.43 V) appears across the internal resistance of
the amplifier. The amplifier output impedance dissipates power
 
and generates heat as a result. ri 
 ri ri
100 

Amplifier RL  V G  200 V
1–10,000 
Z o 5 50 V
R L  RL
V G  200 V VL

Input
3V
(a) (b )
RL 5 300 V

PL max at RL  ri
100
 100 
Figure 8-12 Amplifier acting as a generator. 80

60
PL, W

40
Practical Voltage Sources
There are no ideal voltage sources as all practical devices 20

and circuits have some internal resistance. However, some

sources come close to ideal. The best examples of near 200 400 600 800 1000
RL , 
ideal voltage sources are batteries and regulated power sup-
plies. Both have extremely low internal series equivalent (c)
resistances.
Figure 8-13 Circuit for varying R L to match ri .
When the voltage source is a circuit like an amplifier (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent voltage divider for
or oscillator, it acts as a voltage source but in some cases voltage output across R L . (c) Graph of power output P L for
with a considerable internal resistance. This internal different values of R L . All values are listed in Table 8-1.

118 Chapter 8

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 Table 8-1 Effect of Load Resistance on Generator Output*
I 5 VG /RT, Iri , IRL , PL , Pi , PT, Efficiency 5
RL , V A V V W W W PL /PT, %

1 1.98 198 2 4 392 396 1

50 1.33 133 67 89 178 267 33
RL 5 ri 100 1 100 100 100 100 200 50
500 0.33 33 167 55 11 66 83
1,000 0.18 18 180 32 3.24 35.24 91
10,000 0.02 2 198 4 0.04 4.04 99

* Values calculated approximately for circuit in Fig. 8-13, with VG 5 200 V and ri 5 100 V.

combination of current and voltage produces the maximum Maximum Efficiency

power of 100 W across RL. Note also that the efficiency increases as RL increases be-
cause there is less current, resulting in less power lost in ri.
Maximum Voltage across R L When RL equals ri, the efficiency is only 50%, since one-half
If maximum voltage, rather than power, is desired, the the total generated power is dissipated in ri, the internal re-
load should have as high a resistance as possible. Note that sistance of the generator. In conclusion, then, matching the
R L and r i form a voltage divider for the generator voltage, load and generator resistances is desirable when the load
as illustrated in Fig. 8-13b. The values for IR L listed in requires maximum power rather than maximum voltage or
Table 8-1 show how the output voltage VL increases with efficiency, assuming that the match does not result in exces-
higher values of R L . sive current.

CHAPTER 8 SYSTEMS SIDEBAR

Digital-to-Analog Converter
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is a circuit that takes the ADC and DAC. Now refer to Fig. S8-2. The smooth
a series of binary numbers and generates an analog signal curve is the analog signal. The ADC samples or mea-
proportional to the binary values. A good example is the sures the analog signal at specific time intervals. At each
DAC that converts the digital music on a CD into the ana- sampling point, the ADC produces a proportional binary
log sound you hear. A DAC converts the digital music in an number. Note for example, at sample time 4 the voltage is
MP3 player or iPod into analog music. The analog video you 14 volts so the ADC generates 1110 or the binary value for
see on you HDTV screen is created by a DAC. And a DAC 14. That value is stored in a memory. The binary values
also converts the digital voice you are receiving on your cell for each analog sample are shown along the top of the
phone into the analog sound you hear in the earphone. plot. They are stored in sequence as the memory content
In most electronic systems today, the analog signals they in Fig. S8-1 shows.
process are in digital form. These analog signals like voice,
video, or sensor voltages are digitized into a sequence of Recovering a Digitized Signal
binary numbers proportional to the voltage by an analog- You recover the analog signal with a DAC. The binary
to-digital converter (ADC). To recover the original analog number sequence is stored in a memory and then trans-
signals or the processed versions requires a DAC. ferred at a fixed rate to the DAC. Each binary value pro-
duces a fixed level at the DAC output. Fig. S8-2 illustrates
The Conversion Process the original analog input and the DAC output. This results
Figure S8-1 shows the analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital- in a stair-step output, but it is a good representation of the
to-analog (D/A) conversion process. Note the symbols for original analog signal. While the stepped approximation of

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 Figure S8-1 The A/D and D/A Binary numbers
process. ADC

Memory
Analog input
(music, voice, etc.) 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0

1 1 1 0

1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1

1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

0 0 1 1

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1

DAC
Approximated output

the analog signal may appear crude, it can be smoothed to

0000
0001

0001
1001

0010
1100

0011

0011
0110

1101
1011

0110
1110

1110

1110

16 look more like the original by feeding the signal through a

15
Actual B
Value assigned filter. In some cases, as in digital voice or video, a person
measured to represent the
real value cannot tell the stepped version from the original. By using
14 or sampled
value a binary number with more bits and by sampling more
13
Analog signal frequently, the stepped approximation will become much
12
closer to the original.
Analog signal voltage (volts)

11

10
A Stepped
approximation
DAC Operation
9
signal (DAC One common way to make a DAC is with the circuit shown
8 output)
in Fig. S8-3a. The network, which is made up of resistors R1
7
through R8 and the related switches, generates a current pro-
6 portional to the binary value represented by bits D 0 through
Sampling
5
interval (t) D3. The bit value is set by the switches to either ground or
4 zero volts (binary 0) or 25 volts (binary 1). This is a 4-bit
3 DAC. This network is referred to as an R2R network because
2 it only uses two values of resistor, in this case 10 and 20 kV.
1
The switches themselves are actually transistors that turn off
or on like a mechanical switch, only faster. There are 16,
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 possible input values from 0000 to 1111, with D 0 the LSB
Sampling times Time and D3 the MSB.
Figure S8-2 Original analog signal and recovered The current produced by the network at point D in
stepped approximation. Fig. S8-3 is fed to an operational amplifier (op amp) that

120 Chapter 8

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 Rf
32 k

R6 R7 R8
A 10 k B 10 k C 10 k D
–
Vout
R5 R1 R2 R3 R4 +
20 k 20 k 20 k 20 k 20 k
D0 D1 D2 D3

Vref = –5 V
(a)

Rf
32 k

RTH R6 R7 R8
10 k A 10 k B 10 k C 10 k D
–
Vout
R2 R3 R4 +
VTH 2.5 V
20 k 20 k 20 k

(b)

Rf
32 k

RTH R7 R8
10 k B 10 k C 10 k D
–
Vout
R3 R4 +
VTH 1.25 V
20 k 20 k

(c)

Rf
+ 32 k –

RTH R8
10 k C 10 k D
–
0V Vout = +1.0 V
R4 +
VTH 0.625 V
20 k

(d)

Figure S8-3 (a) Original circuit; (b) thevenized at point A; (c) thevenized at point B; (d) thevenized at point C.

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 converts the current into a proportional voltage. The op value is in parallel with R 2 (20 kV) and again gives us
amp output (Vout) is this input current (Iin) multiplied by the 10 kV. The thevenized voltage seen from point B is again
value of feedback resistor Rf. The op amp also inverts the reduced by half to 1.25 V. This equivalent is shown in
voltage, and that is indicated by the minus sign in the ex- Fig. S8-3c.
pression below. Now, thevenize Fig. S8-3c from point C. Again, RTH
(10 kV) is in series with R7 (10 kV), and this 20 kV value
Vout 5 2(Iin)(Rf ) becomes in parallel with R3 (10 kV). VTH is equal to 0.625
One big issue with this circuit is how it is analyzed so you V. Notice how the VTH values have been cut in half at each
can see in detail how it works. One good approach is to theve- step. The Thevenin equivalent has been reduced to that of
nize the circuit for each setting of the switches from 0000 to Fig. S8-3d.
1111. Remember that D0 is the least significant bit and D3 is In Fig. S8-3d, the op amp’s inverting input and the top
the most significant bit. To see the LSB value, we can analyze of R4 (20 kV) is at a virtual ground. The voltage is equal to
the circuit with an input of 0001. This sets D0 to 25 V and all zero volts at this point. This places the entire 0.625 V of VTH
the other switches to ground or 0 V. Now you can use Theve- across RTH and R8 (10 kV). This results in an input current
nin’s to find the equivalent circuit and calculate the output. Iin of
With the switches D 0 to D4 connected as in Fig. S8-3a, 0.625 V 5 231.25 mA
Iin 5 __
the binary input is D 0 5 1, D1 5 0, D2 5 0, and D3 5 0. 20 kV
First, thevenize the circuit from point A, looking toward Again, because of the virtual ground, this input current is
D 0. When doing so, R5 (20 kV) becomes in parallel with R1 forced to flow through Rf (32 kV) and produces an output
(20 kV) and the equivalent equals 10 kV. The thevenized voltage of
voltage at point A is one-half of Vref and is equal to 12.5 V.
Vout 5 2(2Iin)(Rf ) 5 2(231.25 mA) (32 kV) 5 11.0 V
This equivalent is shown in Fig. S8-3b.
Next, thevenize Fig. S8-3b from point B. Notice how This output voltage is the smallest output increment above
R TH (10 kV) is in series with R 6 (10 kV). This 20 kV 0 V and is referred to as the circuit’s output resolution.

CHAPTER 8 SELF-TEST

1. Kirchhoff’s current law states that d. the algebraic sum of the currents entering and
a. the algebraic sum of the currents flowing into any leaving a branch point does not necessarily have to
point in a circuit must equal zero. be zero.
b. the algebraic sum of the currents entering and leav- 3. If a 10-A I1 and a 3-A I2 flow into point X, how much
ing any point in a circuit must equal zero. current must flow away from point X?
c. the algebraic sum of the currents flowing away a. 7 A.
from any point in a circuit must equal zero. b. 30 A.
d. the algebraic sum of the currents around any c. 13 A.
closed path must equal zero. d. It cannot be determined.
2. When applying Kirchhoff’s current law, 4. Three currents I1, I2, and I3 flow into point X, whereas
a. consider all currents flowing into a branch point current I4 flows away from point X. If I1 5 2.5 A,
positive and all currents directed away from that I3 5 6 A, and I4 5 18 A, how much is current I2?
point negative. a. 21.5 A.
b. consider all currents flowing into a branch point b. 14.5 A.
negative and all currents directed away from that c. 26.5 A.
point positive. d. 9.5 A.
c. remember that the total of all the currents entering
a branch point must always be greater than the sum
of the currents leaving that point.

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 5. When applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, a closed path 12. With respect to terminals A and B in a complex net-
is commonly referred to as a work, the Thevenin voltage, VTH, is
a. node. a. the voltage across terminals A and B when they
b. principal node. are short-circuited.
c. loop. b. the open-circuit voltage across terminals A and B.
d. branch point. c. the same as the voltage applied to the complex
6. Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that network.
a. the algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR d. none of the above.
voltage drops in any closed path must total zero. 13. An ideal voltage source has
b. the algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR a. zero internal resistance.
voltage drops around any closed path can never b. infinite internal resistance.
equal zero. c. a load-dependent voltage.
c. the algebraic sum of all the currents flowing d. a load-dependent current.
around any closed loop must equal zero. 14. A real voltage source has
d. none of the above. a. zero internal resistance.
7. When applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, b. infinite internal resistance.
a. consider any voltage whose positive terminal is c. a small internal resistance.
reached first as negative and any voltage whose d. a large internal resistance.
negative terminal is reached first as positive. 15. If a load resistance is 100 V, a stiff voltage source has
b. always consider all voltage sources as positive and a resistance of
all resistor voltage drops as negative. a. less than 1 V.
c. consider any voltage whose negative terminal is b. at least 10 V.
reached first as negative and any voltage whose c. more than 10 kV.
positive terminal is reached first as positive. d. less than 10 kV.
d. always consider all resistor voltage drops as posi-
16. The Thevenin voltage is the same as the
tive and all voltage sources as negative.
a. shorted-load voltage.
8. The algebraic sum of 140 V and 230 V is b. open-load voltage.
a. 210 V. c. ideal source voltage.
b. 110 V. d. Norton voltage.
c. 170 V.
17. The Thevenin resistance is equal in value to the
d. 270 V.
a. load resistance.
9. A resistor is an example of a(n) b. half the load resistance.
a. bilateral component. c. internal resistance of a Norton circuit.
b. active component. d. open-load resistance.
c. passive component.
18. To get the Thevenin voltage, you have to
d. both a and c.
a. short the load resistor.
10. When solving for the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTH, b. open the load resistor.
a. all voltage sources must be opened. c. short the voltage source.
b. all voltage sources must be short-circuited. d. open the voltage source.
c. all voltage sources must be converted to current sources.
19. The voltage out of an ideal voltage source
d. none of the above.
a. is zero.
11. Thevenin’s theorem states that an entire network con- b. is constant.
nected to a pair of terminals can be replaced with c. depends on the value of load resistance.
a. a single current source in parallel with a single d. depends on the internal resistance.
resistance.
20. Thevenin’s theorem replaces a complicated circuit
b. a single voltage source in parallel with a single
facing a load by an
resistance.
a. ideal voltage source and parallel resistor.
c. a single voltage source in series with a single
b. ideal current source and parallel resistor.
resistance.
c. ideal voltage source and series resistor.
d. a single current source in series with a single
d. ideal current source and series resistor.
resistance.

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 21. A cercuit consists of a generator with an internal 22. Which load resistance will allow a 50-ohm generator
resistance of 75 V and a load. Which value of load re- to produce maximum power?
sistance will produce maximum output voltage? a. 25 V.
a. 52 V. b. 50 V.
b. 75 V. c. 75 V.
c. 200 V. d. 100 V.
d. 1 kV.

CHAPTER 8 PROBLEMS

SECTION 8.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) SECTION 8.2 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
8.1 If a 5-A I1 and a 10-A I2 flow into point X, how much 8.6 In Fig. 8-16,
is the current, I3, directed away from that point? a. Write a KVL equation for the loop CEFDC going
8.2 Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, write an equation clockwise from point C.
for the currents directed into and out of point X in b. Write a KVL equation for the loop ACDBA
Prob. 8-1. going clockwise from point A.
c. Write a KVL equation for the loop ACEFDBA
8.3 In Fig. 8-14, solve for the unknown current, I3.
going clockwise from point A.
I1  2 mA
R1  100  C R4  100 
A E
I2  9 mA    
V1  6 V V4  4.5 V
X  
I5  20 mA 
R3  1.2 k R5  120 
VT  36 V V3  18 V V5  5.4 V

I3  ?  
V2  12 V V6  8.1 V
   
I4  3 mA
B D F
R2  200  R6  180 
Figure 8-14
Figure 8-16
8.4 In Fig. 8-15, solve for the following unknown cur-
rents: I3, I5, and I8. 8.7 In Fig. 8-16,
8.5 Apply Kirchhoff’s current law in Fig. 8-15 by writing a. Determine the voltage for the partial loop CEFD
an equation for the currents directed into and out of going clockwise from point C. How does your an-
the following points: swer compare to the voltage drop across R3?
a. Point X b. Determine the voltage for the partial loop ACDB
b. Point Y going clockwise from point A. How does your
c. Point Z answer compare to the value of the applied volt-
age, VT, across points A and B?
I1  6 A c. Determine the voltage for the partial
I4  2 A
loop ACEFDB going clockwise from
I7  5 A
point A. How does your answer compare
X Y I5  ?
I2  11 A 25 A Z I8  ?
to the value of the applied voltage, VT,
across points A and B?
d. Determine the voltage for the partial loop
I6  7 A
I3  ? CDFE going counterclockwise from point
C. How does your answer compare to the
Figure 8-15 voltage drop across R4?

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 8.8 In Fig. 8-17, solve for the voltages VAG and VBG. Indi- 8.11 In Fig. 8-19, use the Thevenin equivalent circuit to
cate the proper polarity for each voltage. calculate IL and VL for the following values of RL;
RL 5 3 V and RL 5 12 V.

R1  1 k
8.12 In Fig. 8-20, use the Thevenin equivalent circuit to
A
calculate IL and VL for the following values of RL:
RL 5 100 V and RL 5 5.6 kV.


V1  15 V R1  1.2 k R3  680 
 A
G R2  1.5 k

V2  20 V 
R2 
 V T  120 V RL
 1.8 k

B
B
R3  1 k Figure 8-20
Figure 8-17
8.13 In Fig. 8-21, use the Thevenin equivalent circuit to
solve for IL and RL.
8.9 In Fig. 8-18, solve for the voltages VAG and VBG. Indi-
cate the proper polarity for each voltage.

R1  12 k R2  1 k
A

VT  R1  1 k A
60 V 

 R3  1.5 k RL 
V1  10 V 1.2 k

B
G R2  68 k

V2  15 V
 Figure 8-21

SECTION 8.4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit

B
R3  20 k 8.14 In Fig. 8-22, draw the Thevenin equivalent cir-
cuit with respect to terminals A and B (mentally
Figure 8-18 remove RL).

SECTION 8.3 Thevenin’s Theorem

8.10 In Fig. 8-19, draw the Thevenin equivalent cir-
cuit with respect to terminals A and B (mentally R3  100  R1  300 

remove RL).  RL  100 
A B
VT  20 V


R1  4  R4  300  R2  100 
A


V T  20 V R2  12  RL
 Figure 8-22

B
8.15 Using the Thevenin equivalent circuit for Fig. 8-22,
Figure 8-19 calculate the values for IL and VL.

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 8.16 In Fig. 8-23, draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit with SECTION 8.5 Voltage Sources
respect to terminals A and B (mentally remove RL). 8.18 A given voltage source has an ideal voltage of 12 V
and an internal resistance of 0.1 V. For what values
of load resistance will the voltage source appear
R3  600  R1  100  stiff?
RL  100 
8.19 A load resistance may vary from 270 V to 100 kV.
 A B
VT  36 V For a stiff voltage source to exist, what is the largest
 internal resistance the source can have?
R4  200  R2  100  8.20 The internal output resistance of a function generator
is 50 V. For what values of load resistance does the
generator appear stiff?
Figure 8-23 8.21 The internal resistance of a voltage source equals
0.05 V. How much voltage is dropped across this
8.17 Using the Thevenin equivalent circuit for Fig. 8-23, internal resistance when the current through it
calculate the values for IL and VL. equals 2 A?

126 Chapter 8

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 Ch a pt er 9
Conductors, Insulators,
and Semiconductors

Learning Outcomes Conductors are materials that pass electrons with mini-
mal resistance. Conductors are usually wires but also
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: take other forms like conducting paths on printed circuit
Explain the main function of a conductor in an boards.
electric circuit. An insulator is any material that resists or prevents
Calculate the cross-sectional area of round wire the flow of electric charge, such as electrons. The re-
when the diameter is known. sistance of an insulator is very high, typically several
List the advantages of using stranded wire versus hundreds of megohms or more. An insulator provides
solid wire. the equivalent of an open circuit with practically infinite
List common types of connectors used with wire resistance and almost zero current.
conductors. In this chapter, you will be introduced to a variety of
Define the terms pole and throw as they relate to topics that includes wire conductors, insulators, sen-
switches. sors, connectors, mechanical switches and, fuses. All
Explain how fast-acting and slow-blow fuses differ. of these topics relate to the discussion of conduc-
Calculate the resistance of a wire conductor whose tors and insulators since they either pass or prevent
length, cross-sectional area, and specific resistance the flow of electricity, depending on their condition or
are known.

127

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 Explain the meaning of temperature coefficient of state. Finally, you will be introduced to semiconduc-
resistance. tors, materials that can be conductors or insulators.
Name two common types of resistive sensors and Today, semiconductors are at the heart of electronics
explain how they work. as they form all of our diodes, transistors, and inte-
Explain why insulators are sometimes called dielectrics. grated circuits.
Explain what is meant by the corona effect.
Explain the operation of RTD and strain gauge
sensors.
Define the term semiconductor.

9.1 Function of the Conductor bulb then has its rated voltage of 120 V, approximately, it
will dissipate the rated power of 100 W and light with full
In Fig. 9-1, the resistance of the two 10-ft lengths of cop-
brilliance.
per wire conductor is 0.08 V. This R is negligibly small
The current in the wire conductors and the bulb is the
compared with the 144-V R of the tungsten filament in the
same, since they are in series. However, the IR voltage
lightbulb. When the current of 0.833 A flows in the bulb and
drop in the conductor is practically zero because its R is
the series conductors, the IR voltage drop of the conductors
almost zero.
is only 0.07 V, with 119.93 V across the bulb. Practically
Also, the I 2 R power dissipated in the conductor is negligi-
all the applied voltage is across the bulb filament. Since the
bly small, allowing the conductor to operate without becom-
ing hot. Therefore, the conductor delivers energy from the
source to the load with minimum loss by electron flow in the
copper wires.
Although the resistance of wire conductors is very small,
120-V for some cases of high current, the resultant IR drop can be
source appreciable. For example, suppose that the 120-V power line
100-W
is supplying 30 A of current to a load through two conduc-
bulb tors, each of which has a resistance of 0.2 V. In this case,
each conductor has an IR drop of 6 V, calculated as 30 A 3
Copper-wire conductors, 0.2 V 5 6 V. With each conductor dropping 6 V, the load re-
each 10 ft
ceives a voltage of only 108 V rather than the full 120 V. The
(a)
lower-than-normal load voltage could result in the load not
R1 5 operating properly. Furthermore, the I 2 R power dissipated in
0.04 V
each conductor equals 180 W, calculated as 302 3 0.2 V 5
180 W. The I2 R power loss of 180 W in the conductors is
I5
0.833 A considered excessively high.
Bulb
120 V 119.93 V
filament
R 5 143.92 V
9.2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes
P 5 99.94 W Table 9-1 lists the standard wire sizes in the system known
R2 5
as the American Wire Gage (AWG) or Brown and Sharpe
0.04 V (B&S) gage. The gage numbers specify the size of round
wire in terms of its diameter and cross-sectional area. Note
Conductors
RT 5 0.08 V the following three points:
I RT 5 0.07 V
P 5 0.06 W 1. As the gage numbers increase from 1 to 40, the diam-
(b) eter and circular area decrease. Higher gage numbers
indicate thinner wire sizes.
Figure 9-1 The conductors should have minimum
resistance to light the bulb with full brilliance. (a) Wiring 2. The circular area doubles for every three gage sizes.
diagram. (b) Schematic diagram. R 1 and R2 represent the very For example, No. 10 wire has approximately twice the
small resistance of the wire conductors. area of No. 13 wire.

128 Chapter 9

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 Table 9-1 Standard Copper Wire Sizes
Area, Ohms per 1000 ft Area, Ohms per 1000 ft
Gage Diameter, Circular of Copper Wire Gage Diameter, Circular of Copper Wire
No. Mils Mils at 258C* No. Mils Mils at 258C*

1 289.3 83,690 0.1264 21 28.46 810.1 13.05

2 257.6 66,370 0.1593 22 25.35 642.4 16.46
3 229.4 52,640 0.2009 23 22.57 509.5 20.76
4 204.3 41,740 0.2533 24 20.10 404.0 26.17
5 181.9 33,100 0.3195 25 17.90 320.4 33.00
6 162.0 26,250 0.4028 26 15.94 254.1 41.62
7 144.3 20,820 0.5080 27 14.20 201.5 52.48
8 128.5 16,510 0.6405 28 12.64 159.8 66.17
9 114.4 13,090 0.8077 29 11.26 126.7 83.44
10 101.9 10,380 1.018 30 10.03 100.5 105.2
11 90.74 8234 1.284 31 8.928 79.70 132.7
12 80.81 6530 1.619 32 7.950 63.21 167.3
13 71.96 5178 2.042 33 7.080 50.13 211.0
14 64.08 4107 2.575 34 6.305 39.75 266.0
15 57.07 3257 3.247 35 5.615 31.52 335.0
16 50.82 2583 4.094 36 5.000 25.00 423.0
17 45.26 2048 5.163 37 4.453 19.83 533.4
18 40.30 1624 6.510 38 3.965 15.72 672.6
19 35.89 1288 8.210 39 3.531 12.47 848.1
20 31.96 1022 10.35 40 3.145 9.88 1069

* 20° to 25°C or 68° to 77°F is considered average room temperature.

3. The higher the gage number and the thinner the wire, the
EXAMPLE 9-1
greater the resistance of the wire for any given length.
In typical applications, hookup wire for electronic cir- What is the area in circular mils of a wire with a diameter of
0.005 in.?
cuits with current of the order of milliamperes is generally
about No. 22 gage. For this size, 0.5 to 1 A is the maxi- Answer:
mum current the wire can carry without excessive heating. We must convert the diameter to mils. Since 0.005 in. equals 5 mil,
House wiring for circuits where the current is 5 to 15 A Circular mil area 5 (5 mil)2
is usually No. 14 gage. Minimum sizes for house wiring are Area 5 25 cmil
set by local electrical codes, which are usually guided by
the National Electrical Code published by the National Fire
Protection Association.
Note that the circular mil is a unit of area, obtained by
Circular Mils squaring the diameter, whereas the mil is a linear unit of
The cross-sectional area of round wire is measured in cir- length, equal to one-thousandth of an inch. Therefore, the
cular mils, abbreviated cmil. A mil is one-thousandth of an circular-mil area increases as the square of the diameter. As
inch, or 0.001 in. One circular mil is the cross-sectional area illustrated in Fig. 9-2, doubling the diameter quadruples the
of a wire with a diameter of 1 mil. The number of circular area. Circular mils are convenient for round wire because
mils in any circular area is equal to the square of the diam- the cross section is specified without using the formula πr 2
eter in mils or cmil 5 d 2(mils). or πd 2y4 for the area of a circle.

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 129

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 D D

Diameter 5 5 mils
Area 5 25 cmils
Diameter 5 10 mils
Area 5 100 cmils
(a ) (b) (c ) (d)
Figure 9-2 Cross-sectional area for round wire. Doubling
the diameter increases the circular area by four times. Figure 9-3 Types of wire conductors. (a) Solid wire.
(b) Stranded wire. (c) Braided wire for very low R. (d ) Coaxial
9.3 Types of Wire Conductors cable. Note braided wire for shielding the inner conductor.
Most wire conductors are copper due to its low cost,
coating must be scraped off the ends to make a good connec-
although aluminum and silver are also used sometimes.
tion. This type of wire is used for small coils.
The copper may be tinned with a thin coating of solder,
Heavier wires generally are in an insulating sleeve, which
which gives it a silvery appearance. Tinned wire is easier to
may be rubber or one of many plastic materials. General-
solder for connections. The wire can be solid or stranded,
purpose wire for connecting electronic components is gen-
as shown in Fig. 9-3a and b. Solid wire is made of only
erally plastic-coated hookup wire of No. 20 gage. Hookup
one conductor. If bent or flexed repeatedly, solid wire may
wire that is bare should be enclosed in a hollow insulating
break. Therefore solid wire is used in places where bending
sleeve called spaghetti.
and flexing are not encountered. House wiring is a good
The braided conductor in Fig. 9-3c is used for very low
example of the use of solid wire. Stranded wire is made up
resistance. It is wide for low R and thin for flexibility, and the
of several individual strands put together in a braid. Some
braiding provides many strands. A common application is a
uses for stranded wire include telephone cords, extension
grounding connection, which must have very low R.
cords, and speaker wire.
Stranded wire is flexible, easier to handle, and less likely Transmission Lines
to develop an open break. Sizes for stranded wire are equiv-
Constant spacing between two conductors through the entire
alent to the sum of the areas for the individual strands. For
length provides a transmission line. A common example is
instance, two strands of No. 30 wire correspond to solid
the coaxial cable in Fig. 9-3d.
No. 27 wire.
Coaxial cable with an outside diameter of 1⁄4 in. is gener-
ally used for the signals in cable television. In construction,
EXAMPLE 9-2 there is an inner solid wire, insulated from metallic braid that
A stranded wire is made up of 16 individual strands of No. 27 gage serves as the other conductor. The entire assembly is covered
wire. What is its equivalent gage size in solid wire? by an outer plastic jacket. In operation, the inner conductor
has the desired signal voltage with respect to ground, and
Answer:
the metallic braid is connected to ground to shield the inner
The equivalent gage size in solid wire is determined by the total
conductor against interference. Coaxial cable, therefore, is a
circular area of all individual strands. Referring to Table 9-1, the
circular area for No. 27 gage wire is 201.5 cmils. Since there are 16 shielded type of transmission line.
individual strands, the total circular area is calculated as follows: You will learn more about transmission lines in Chap. 25.
Total cmil area 5 16 strands 3 201.5 cmils per strand Wire Cable
5 3224 cmils
Two or more conductors in a common covering form a
Referring to Table 9-1, we see that the circular area of 3224 cable. Each wire is insulated from the others. Cables often
cmils corresponds very closely to the cmil area of No. 15 gage consist of two, three, ten, or many more pairs of conductors,
wire. Therefore, 16 strands of No. 27 gage wire is roughly equiva-
usually color-coded to help identify the conductors at both
lent to No. 15 gage solid wire.
ends of a cable.
The ribbon cable in Fig. 9-4, has multiple conductors but
Very thin wire, such as No. 30, often has an insulating not in pairs. This cable is used for multiple connections to a
coating of enamel or shellac. It may look like copper, but the computer and associated equipment.

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 (a ) (b) (c)

Figure 9-4 Ribbon cable with multiple conductors.

9.4 Connectors
Refer to Fig. 9-5 for different types of connectors. The spade
lug in Fig. 9-5a is often used for screw-type terminals. The
alligator clip in Fig. 9-5b is convenient for a temporary con-
nection. Alligator clips come in small and large sizes. The (d) (e) (f)
banana pins in Fig. 9-5c have spring-type sides that make a
tight connection. The terminal strip in Fig. 9-5d provides a
block for multiple solder connections.
The RCA-type plug in Fig. 9-5e is commonly used for
shielded cables with audio equipment. The inner conductor
of the shielded cable is connected to the center pin of the
plug, and the cable braid is connected to the shield. Both
connections must be soldered.
The phone plug in Fig. 9-5f is still used in many appli-
cations but usually in a smaller size. The ring is insulated
from the sleeve to provide for two connections. There may
be a separate tip, ring, and sleeve for three connections. The
sleeve is usually the ground side. (g) (h) (i)
The plug in Fig. 9-5g is called an F connector. It is universally
used in cable television because of its convenience. The center Figure 9-5 Common types of connectors for wire
conductors. (a) Spade lug. (b) Alligator clip. (c) Double banana-
conductor of the coaxial cable serves as the center pin of the plug, pin plug. (d ) Terminal strip. (e) RCA-type plug for audio cables.
so that no soldering is needed. Also, the shield on the plug is (f ) Phone plug. (g ) F-type plug for cable TV. (h) Multiple-pin
press-fit onto the braid of the cable underneath the plastic jacket. connector plug. (i ) Spring-loaded metal hook as grabber for
Figure 9-5h shows a USB connector. This type of connec- temporary connection in testing circuits.
tor is often used to connect the components of a computer
system, such as a printer and a keyboard, to the computer. coils, transistors, diodes, and integrated circuit (IC) units.
Figure 9-5i shows a spring-loaded metal hook as a grab- The other side has the conducting paths printed with silver
ber for a temporary connection to a circuit. This type of con- or copper on the board, instead of using wires. On a double-
nector is often used with the test leads of a VOM or a DMM. sided board, the component side also has printed wiring.
Sockets, small metal eyelets, or holes in the board are used
9.5 Printed Wiring to connect the components to the wiring.
Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plastic or fiberglass With a bright light on one side, you can see through to the
insulating board with printed wiring, as shown in Fig. 9-6. opposite side to trace the connections. However, the circuit
This is a printed circuit (PC) or printed-wiring (PW) board. may be drawn on the PC board. Modern printed circuit boards
One side has the components, such as resistors, capacitors, (PCBs) frequently have multiple layers. The PCB is made up

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 131

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 0V

I Switch

1 1
V 5 12 V
2 Lightbulb 212 V

(a )

1 12 V 2

Switch

1
12 V 0V
(a) 2 Lightbulb

(b )

Figure 9-7 A series switch used to open or close a

circuit. (a) With the switch closed, current flows to light the
bulb. The voltage drop across the closed switch is 0 V.
(b) With the switch open, the light is OFF. The voltage drop
across the open switch is 12 V.

in Fig. 9-7b, the path for current is interrupted and the bulb
does not light. Since the switch has very high resistance
when it is open, all of the source voltage is across the open
switch contacts, with 0 V across the load.

Switch Ratings
(b)
All switches have a current rating and a voltage rating. The cur-
Figure 9-6 Printed-wiring board. (a) Component side rent rating corresponds to the maximum allowable current that
with resistors, capacitors, transistors, and integrated circuits. the switch can carry when closed. The current rating is based
(b) Side with printed wiring for the circuit. on the physical size of the switch contacts as well as the type of
metal used for the contacts. Many switches have gold- or silver-
of alternating layers of insulating fiberglass material and cop- plated contacts to ensure very low resistance when closed.
per wiring patterns. The multiple layers are connected by short The voltage rating of a switch corresponds to the maxi-
vertical conductors called vias. Such boards are widely used mum voltage that can safely be applied across the open
today as connecting points for small but very complex inte- contacts without internal arcing. The voltage rating does
grated circuits with hundreds of input and output connections. not apply when the switch is closed, since the voltage drop
9.6 Switches across the closed switch contacts is practically zero.
A switch is a component that allows us to control whether Switch Definitions
the current is on or off in a circuit. A closed switch has Toggle switches are usually described as having a certain
practically zero resistance, whereas an open switch has number of poles and throws. For example, the switch in
nearly infinite resistance. Fig.  9-7 is described as a single-pole, single-throw (SPST)
Figure 9-7 shows a switch in series with a voltage source switch. Other popular switch types include the single-pole,
and a lightbulb. With the switch closed, as in Fig. 9-7a, a double-throw (SPDT), double-pole, single-throw (DPST),
complete path for current is provided and the light is on. and double-pole, double-throw (DPDT). The schematic sym-
Since the switch has very low resistance when it is closed, bols for each type are shown in Fig. 9-8. Notice that the SPST
all of the source voltage is across the load, with 0 V across switch has two connecting terminals, whereas the SPDT has
the closed contacts of the switch. With the switch open, as three, the DPST has four, and the DPDT has six.

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 SPST SPDT between one of two different loads. In Fig. 9-9b, a DPST
switch is being used to control two completely separate cir-
cuits simultaneously. In Fig. 9-9c, a DPDT switch is being
(a) (b)
used to reverse the polarity of voltage across the terminals
DPST DPDT
of a dc motor. (Reversing the polarity reverses the direction
of the motor.) Note that the dashed lines shown between the
poles in Fig. 9-9b and 9-9c indicate that both sets of contacts
within the switch are opened and closed simultaneously.
(c) (d )
Switch Types
Figure 9-8 Switches. (a) Single-pole, single-throw
Figure 9-10 shows a variety of toggle switches. Although
(SPST). (b) Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT). (c) Double-pole,
single-throw (DPST). (d ) Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT). the toggle switch is a very popular type of switch, several
other types are found in electronic equipment. Additional
The term pole is defined as the number of completely iso- types include push-button switches, rocker switches, slide
lated circuits that can be controlled by the switch. The term switches, rotary switches, and DIP switches.
throw is defined as the number of closed contact positions Push-button switches are often spring-loaded switches that
that exist per pole. The SPST switch in Fig. 9-7 can control are either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). Fig-
the current in only one circuit, and there is only one closed ure 9-11 shows the schematic symbols for both types. For the
contact position, hence the name single-pole, single-throw. normally open switch in Fig. 9-11a, the switch contacts remain
Figure 9-9 shows a variety of switch applications. In Fig. open until the push button is depressed. When the push but-
9-9a, an SPDT switch is being used to switch a 12-Vdc source ton is depressed, the switch closes, allowing current to pass.
The normally closed switch in Fig. 9-11b operates opposite the
normally open switch in Fig. 9-11a. When the push button is
SPDT
depressed, the switch contacts open to interrupt current in the
1 circuit. A typical push-button switch is shown in Fig. 9-12.
12 V Radio Light Figure 9-13 shows a DIP (dual in-line package) switch.
2
It consists of eight miniature rocker switches, where each
switch can be set separately. A DIP switch has pin connec-
tions that fit into a standard IC socket.
(a) Figure 9-14 shows another type of switch known as a ro-
tary switch. As shown, it consists of three wafers or decks
mounted on a common shaft.
DPST
1 1
24 V 9V 9-V radio 24-V light
2 2

(b)

1 DC
12 V DPDT motor
2 Figure 9-10 A variety of toggle switches.

(c)
Normally open (NO) Normally closed (NC)

Figure 9-9 Switch applications. (a) SPDT switch used (a) (b)
to switch a 12-V source between one of two different loads.
(b) DPST switch controlling two completely isolated circuits Figure 9-11 Push-button switch schematic symbols.
simultaneously. (c) DPDT switch used to reverse the polarity (a) Normally open (NO) push-button switch. (b) Normally
of voltage across a dc motor. closed (NC) push-button switch.

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 ratings from 1⁄500 A to hundreds of amperes. The thinner the
wire element in the fuse, the smaller its current rating. For
example, a 2-in. length of No. 28 wire can serve as a 2-A
fuse. As typical applications, the rating for fuses in each
branch of older house wiring is often 15 A; the high-voltage
circuit in a television receiver is usually protected by a 1⁄4-A
glass-cartridge fuse. For automobile fuses, the ratings are
generally 10 to 30 A because of the higher currents needed
with a 12-V source for a given amount of power.
Figure 9-12 Typical push-button switch.
Slow-Blow Fuses
Slow-blow fuses have coiled construction. They are designed
to open only on a continued overload, such as a short circuit.
The purpose of coiled construction is to prevent the fuse from
blowing on a temporary current surge. As an example, a slow-
blow fuse will hold a 400% overload in current for up to 2 s.
Typical ratings are shown by the curves in Fig. 9-16. Circuits
Figure 9-13 Dual in-line package (DIP) switch. with an electric motor use slow-blow fuses because the start-
ing current of a motor is much more than its running current.
Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker can be used in place of a fuse to protect cir-
cuit components and wiring against the high current caused by
a short circuit. It is constructed of a thin bimetallic strip that
expands with heat and in turn trips open the circuit. The advan-
tage of a circuit breaker is that it can be reset once the bimetallic
Figure 9-14 Rotary switch.
strip cools down and the short circuit has been removed. Be-
9.7 Fuses cause they can be reset, almost all new residential house wiring
is protected by circuit breakers rather than fuses. The schematic
Many circuits have a fuse in series as a protection against symbol for a circuit breaker is often shown as .
an overload from a short circuit. Excessive current melts the
fuse element, blowing the fuse and opening the series circuit. Testing Fuses
The purpose is to let the fuse blow before the components In glass fuses, you can usually see whether the wire element
and wiring are damaged. The blown fuse can easily be re- inside is burned open. When measured with an ohmmeter, a
placed by a new one after the overload has been eliminated. good fuse has practically zero resistance. An open fuse reads
A glass-cartridge fuse with holders is shown in Fig.  9-15.
This is a type 3AG fuse with a diameter of 1⁄4 in. and length 800

of 11⁄4 in. AG is an abbreviation of “automobile glass,” since 700

that was one of the first applications of fuses in a glass holder Slow-blow fuses
to make the wire link visible. The schematic symbol for a 600
Fast-acting fuses
fuse is as shown in Fig. 9-17a. (normal opening)
Rated current, %

500
The metal fuse element may be made of aluminum, tin- Medium-acting fuses
(normal opening)
coated copper, or nickel. Fuses are available with current 400

300

200

100

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000
(a) (b) (c) Blowing time, s

Figure 9-15 (a) Glass-cartridge fuse. (b) Fuse holder. Figure 9-16 Chart showing percentage of rated current
(c) Panel-mounted fuse holder. vs. blowing time for fuses.

134 Chapter 9

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 0V different materials to be compared according to their nature
V without regard to different lengths or areas. Higher values of
R1 R2 ␳ mean more resistance. Note that ␳ is the Greek letter rho.
A B

Good Specific Resistance

fuse
Specific resistance (␳) is the rating in circular mil ohms per foot
V T 5 120 V V V
of a wire with a cross-sectional area of 1 cmil and a length of
120 V 120 V 1 ft. For example, the specific resistance of copper is 10.4, and
for aluminum, it is 17. Since silver, copper, gold, and aluminum
(a )
are the best conductors, they have the lowest values of specific
resistance. Tungsten and iron have much higher resistance.
120 V

V
R1 R2 EX A M P L E 9 -3
A B
Open How much is the resistance of 100 ft of No. 20 gage copper wire?

Answer:
V T 5 120 V V V
Note that from Table 9-1, the cross-sectional area for No. 20 gage
120 V 0V wire is 1022 cmil; the ␳ for copper is 10.4. Using Formula (9-1) gives

R 5 ␳ __l
(b) A
100 ft
5 10.4 3 _________
Figure 9-17 When a fuse opens, the applied voltage is 1022 cmil
across the fuse terminals. (a) Circuit closed with good fuse.
Note schematic symbol for any type of fuse. (b) Fuse open. R 5 1.02 V
Voltage readings are explained in the text.

infinite ohms. Power must be off or the fuse must be out of

EXAMPLE 9-4
the circuit to test a fuse with an ohmmeter.
When you test with a voltmeter, a good fuse has zero volts How much is the resistance of a 100-ft length of No. 23 gage
across its two terminals (Fig. 9-17a). If you read appreciable volt- copper wire?
age across the fuse, this means that it is open. In fact, the full ap- Answer:
plied voltage is across the open fuse in a series circuit, as shown
in Fig. 9-17b. This is why fuses also have a voltage rating, which R 5 ␳ __l
A
gives the maximum voltage without arcing in the open fuse.
Referring to Fig. 9-17, notice the results when measuring 100 ft
5 10.4 3 __________
509.5 cmil
the voltages to ground at the two fuse terminals. In Fig. 9-17a,
R 5 2.04 V
the voltage is the same 120 V at both ends because there is no
voltage drop across the good fuse. In Fig. 9-17b, however, ter-
minal B reads 0 V because this end is disconnected from VT
Types of Resistance Wire
by the open fuse. These tests apply to either dc or ac voltages.
For applications in heating elements, such as a toaster, an in-
9.8 Wire Resistance candescent lightbulb, or a heater, it is necessary to use wire
The longer a wire, the higher its resistance. More work must that has more resistance than good conductors like silver,
be done to make electrons drift from one end to the other. copper, or aluminum. Higher resistance is preferable so that
However, the greater the diameter of the wire, the less the the required amount of I 2 R power dissipated as heat in the
resistance, since there are more free electrons in the cross- wire can be obtained without excessive current. Typical ma-
sectional area. As a formula, terials for resistance wire are the elements tungsten, nickel, or
iron and alloys* such as manganin, Nichrome, and constan-
R 5 ␳ __l (9-1) tan. These types are generally called resistance wire because
A
R is greater than that of copper wire for the same length.
where R is the total resistance, l the length, A the cross-
sectional area, and ␳ the specific resistance or resistivity of * An alloy is a fusion of elements without chemical action between them. Metals are
the conductor. The factor ␳ then enables the resistance of commonly alloyed to alter their physical characteristics.

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 135

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 9.9 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance the hot resistance. In troubleshooting, however, the approach
is usually just to check whether the heater element is open.
This factor with the symbol alpha (␣) states how much the
Then it reads infinite ohms on the ohmmeter.
resistance changes for a change in temperature. A positive
value for ␣ means that R increases with temperature; with a Superconductivity
negative ␣, R decreases; zero for ␣ means that R is constant. The effect opposite to hot resistance occurs when cooling a
Positive ␣ metal down to very low temperatures to reduce its resistance.
Near absolute zero, 0 K or –273°C, some metals abruptly lose
All metals in their pure form, such as copper and tungsten,
practically all their resistance. As an example, when cooled
have positive temperature coefficients. The ␣ for tungsten,
by liquid helium, the metal tin becomes superconductive at
for example, is 0.005.
3.7 K. Tremendous currents can be produced, resulting in
In practical terms, a positive ␣ means that heat increases
very strong electromagnetic fields. Such work at very low
R in wire conductors. Then I is reduced for a specified ap-
temperatures, near absolute zero, is called cryogenics.
plied voltage.
New types of ceramic materials have been developed and
Negative ␣ are stimulating great interest in superconductivity because
Note that carbon has a negative temperature coefficient. In they provide zero resistance at temperatures much above
general, ␣ is negative for all semiconductors, including ger- absolute zero. One type is a ceramic pellet, with a 1-in. di-
manium and silicon. Also, all electrolyte solutions, such as ameter, that includes yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen
sulfuric acid and water, have a negative ␣. atoms. The superconductivity occurs at a temperature of
A negative value of ␣ means less resistance at higher 93 K, equal to –160°C. This value is still far below room
temperatures. The resistance of semiconductor diodes and temperature, but the cooling can be done with liquid nitro-
transistors, therefore, can be reduced appreciably when they gen, which is much cheaper than liquid helium. As research
become hot with normal load current. continues, it is likely that new materials will be discovered
that are superconductive at even higher temperatures.
Zero ␣
Zero ␣ means that R is constant with changes in tempera- 9.10 Resistive Sensors
ture. The metal alloys constantan and manganin, for exam- A sensor is an electrical device that converts some physi-
ple, have a value of zero for ␣. They can be used for precision cal characteristic like temperature, pressure or light into an
wire-wound resistors that do not change resistance when the electrical characteristic. Sensors are components that allow
temperature increases. physical variables to be sensed and even measured accu-
rately. Resistive sensors are very common. Two of these are
Hot Resistance the resistance temperature detector and the strain gauge.
Because resistance wire is made of tungsten, Nichrome,
iron, or nickel, there is usually a big difference in the amount Resistance Temperature Detectors
of resistance the wire has when hot in normal operation and A resistance temperature detector (RTD), also called a re-
when cold without its normal load current. The reason is sistive thermal device, is a sensor made of metal wire whose
that the resistance increases with higher temperatures, since resistance changes with temperature. A wire with a specific
these materials have a positive temperature coefficient. length and diameter is wound on a form and housed in a
As an example, the tungsten filament of a 100-W, 120-V protective container that has good heat transfer. While dif-
incandescent bulb has a current of 0.833 A when the bulb ferent types of wire are used, the most common is platinum.
lights with normal brilliance at its rated power, since I 5 RTDs are available with resistances of ten to several thou-
PyV. By Ohm’s law, the hot resistance is VyI, or 120 Vy0.833 sand ohms but by far the most common in use is 100 ohms
A, which equals 144 V. If, however, the filament resistance at 0°C temperature. The temperature variation is almost
is measured with an ohmmeter when the bulb is not lit, the perfectly linear with a positive temperature coefficient.
cold resistance is only about 10 V. The resistance sensitivity of platinum a is 0.00383, or for
The Nichrome heater elements in appliances and the tung- a 100-V RTD this translates to a resistance variation of
sten heaters in vacuum tubes also become several hundred 0.385 ohm per degree Celsius (Ω/°C). Knowing this sensi-
degrees hotter in normal operation. In these cases, only the tivity value allows you to determine temperature by measur-
cold resistance can be measured with an ohmmeter. The hot ing the resistance. RTDs are useful in making temperature
resistance must be calculated from voltage and current mea- measurements in the 2200 to 1500°C range.
surements with the normal value of load current. As a prac- While most RTDs are of the wire type, a newer type uses
tical rule, the cold resistance is generally about one-tenth a thin film of platinum on a substrate to form the resistive

136 Chapter 9

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 element. These RTDs are usually smaller and faster-acting Instrumentation
amplifier
but are not nearly as accurate as the wire version. Its upper
temperature range is also less. Bridge
There are some critical factors to consider in making ac- output
curate temperature measurements. First is response time. In
almost any temperature-related measurement, it takes time
for an RTD to respond to a temperature change. That re-
RW
sponse time varies with the specific RTD sensor but is gener- Stable Wire A
ally in the 0.5 to 5-s range. DC
source
Second, there is a self-heating factor that can skew mea- Wire C
RW
surement accuracy. To use an RTD, it must be connected RTD
into a circuit, such as a voltage divider or bridge, so that the
resistance variation can be converted to a proportional volt- Wire B RW
age variation that can be easily measured. That means cur-
RW 5 wire resistance
rent must flow through the RTD. This current flow produces
a heating effect that will affect the temperature variation. Figure 9-19 The three-wire connection that
This variation is small, but must sometimes be compen- compensates for wire length resistance in connecting the
sated for to extract the best measurement accuracy. The goal remote sensor.
is to keep the current as small as possible to minimize the
heating effect. is to be measured. That means long wires are used to con-
The most common way of translating the resistance varia- nect the RTD to the bridge and other circuitry. Typically the
tion into a voltage is to connect the RTD into a bridge circuit, resistance of the wires is high enough to introduce substan-
as shown in Fig. 9-18. Three of the resistors are fixed with tial error into the measurement. The most common way to
the RTD providing the variation to produce unbalance. The compensate for this error is to use a three-wire connection,
bridge is initially balanced at some temperature for refer- as shown in Fig. 9-19. The assumption is that the wires are
ence. As the temperature varies from the calibrated value, all the same length and have the same resistance. Wires A
the RTD resistance changes and the bridge becomes unbal- and B are in the opposite sides of the bridge, and cancel or
anced, producing a voltage across the bridge points A and B. balance one another. Wire C is the sense wire and essentially
This voltage change is very small, usually in the millivolt carries little or no current if the amplifier or measuring de-
range. Therefore, amplification is usually required to boost vice has a very high resistance, like most do.
the signal into a range that can be easily measured. A spe- The output of the instrumentation amplifier connected to
cial amplifier called an instrumentation amplifier is used the bridge is a voltage proportional to the RTD resistance.
because of its high gain and high input resistance. The variation is nonlinear because of the bridge connection.
A common problem with the bridge circuit is that the Therefore the voltage reading must be corrected to provide
RTD is normally located at some remote point where it is di- a precise temperature equivalent. This can be done with cir-
rectly attached to the device or assembly whose temperature cuitry or in a microcomputer if the bridge output voltage is
first digitized into an equivalent binary number that can be
manipulated by an algorithm implementing the compensa-
tion equation.
Instrumentation
R1 R3 amplifier Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is a sensor used to measure force or stress. It
Stable
DC A Output is based on the principle of resistance change for a variation
source B of the dimensions of a resistive element. The resistive ele-
R2 R4
ment may be wire or a type of metal foil. As you saw earlier
RTD in this chapter, resistance will change if the physical dimen-
sions of a wire are changed. For example, stretching a wire
will cause its length to increase and its diameter to decrease.
R1 R3 Both variations are small but do cause a measurable increase
⫽ (for bridge balance)
R2 R4
in resistance. In addition, compressing the wire causes its
Figure 9-18 R 1 , R2 and R3 are fixed values. The RTD length to decrease and its diameter to increase slightly.
could also be placed in the R3 position. This causes the resistance of the wire to decrease. A strain

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 137

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 Resistance
element Backing

Fixed Fixed Instrument

Connection amplifier
contacts R R
Bend along
this axis Stable
DC Temperature Output
A
source compensation
B
resistors
(a)
Strain gauge Strain gauge
(bottom of plate) (top of plate)
Strain Temperature
element compensating
element
Figure 9-22 Using a strain gauge on each side of the
bridge increases the sensitivity of the bridge, producing a
greater output.
Sensitivity
axis
The resistance variation is converted to a voltage varia-
tion by connecting the strain gauge into a bridge circuit. As
with the RTD, the resistance variation is very small, result-
(b) ing in a very small resistance variation. That translates into
Figure 9-20 (a) Strain gauge element and (b) with a microvolt variation that is amplified, measured, and used
temperature compensating resistance. to determine stress in pounds or tons.
One way to increase the output of the bridge is to put a
similar strain gauge on the other side of the member being
gauge is a sensor made of wire or foil pattern mounted on a
stressed. See Figs.  9-21 and 9-22. As the member is bent
paper or plastic backing. One example is given in Fig. 9-20.
down, the upper gauge increases in resistance while the
To measure stress, the gauge is physically attached with a
lower-gauge resistance decreases. Putting the strain elements
strong adhesive to an object whose stress is to be measured.
on opposite sides of the bridge doubles the output variation.
Figure 9-21 shows a strain gauge mounted on a metal plate
Strain gauges come in a variety of sizes typically from
that is to be put under force. As the metal piece is bent down,
60 to 1000 Ω with 120 and 240 being the most common val-
the resistance of gauge pattern increases. If an upward force
ues. Each gauge has a gauge factor (GF) rating that essen-
is applied, the gauge pattern is compressed, causing a resis-
tially tells how sensitive the gauge is to force. The variation
tance decrease.
is usually specified in terms of microinches or micrometers
of variation. This translates into resistance variations well
below an ohm. Special semiconductor strain gauges are also
Downward Weld available. While they have a greater resistance variation for
force Strain gauge a given force, their variation is very nonlinear and more dif-
Stressed ficult to translate into an accurate measurement. Metal foil
plate and wire are still the best for accuracy.
Some strain gauges have a matching resistive element on
Similar gauge
mounted in the the same backing but at a right angle to the main stressed re-
same direction sistive element. See Fig. 8-20. This second resistive element
under plate
is insensitive to the force, so its dimensions do not change.
However, it does provide temperature compensation when
connected into the bridge circuit. As temperature varies,
both resistive elements change the same amount, causing the
bridge to maintain balance.
Figure 8-22 shows how temperature compensation strain
gauges are connected into a bridge circuit. The fixed resis-
Upward tors are or can be the temperature-compensating elements.
force
As the temperature changes, both resistances will vary, but
Figure 9-21 The strain gauge is glued to the stressed by their being in opposite sides of the bridge, balance will
plate. Its resistance varies as the plate bends. be maintained.

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 Like RTDs, strain gauges are also usually mounted at
Table 9-2 Voltage Breakdown of Insulators
some distance from the measuring equipment. Long wires
connect the gauge elements to the bridge. For that rea- Dielectric Dielectric
son, wire resistance must be taken into account. This is Strength, Strength,
done using the same three-wire technique described ear- Material V/mil Material V/mil
lier. Refer back to Fig. 9-19. Note that a high-gain instru- Air or vacuum 20 Paraffin wax 200–300
mentation amplifier is used to boost the microvolt signal Bakelite 300–550 Phenol, molded 300–700
level to a higher level, making the measurement easier
Fiber 150–180 Polystyrene 500–760
and more accurate.
In most modern applications, the instrument ampli- Glass 335–2000 Porcelain 40–150
fier output is digitized in an analog-to-digital converter Mica 600–1500 Rubber, hard 450
(ADC) and sent to a microcomputer, where the value is Paper 1250 Shellac 900
used in a calculation to determine the force in pounds or Paraffin oil 380
some other unit.

remain on the insulator, but it can be discharged by one of

9.11 Insulators the following methods:
Substances that have very high resistance, of the order of
many megohms, are classed as insulators. With such high 1. Conduction through a conducting path. For instance, a
resistance, an insulator cannot conduct appreciable cur- wire across the charged insulator provides a discharge
rent when voltage is applied. As a result, insulators can path. Then the discharged dielectric has no potential.
have either of two functions. One is to isolate conductors to 2. Brush discharge. As an example, high voltage on a
eliminate conduction between them. The other is to store an sharp pointed wire can discharge through the sur-
electric charge when voltage is applied. rounding atmosphere by ionization of the air mol-
An insulator maintains its charge because electrons can- ecules. This may be visible in the dark as a bluish or
not flow to neutralize the charge. The insulators are com- reddish glow, called the corona effect.
monly called dielectric materials, which means that they 3. Spark discharge. This is a result of breakdown in the
can store a charge. insulator because of a high potential difference that
Among the best insulators, or dielectrics, are air, vacuum, ruptures the dielectric. The current that flows across the
rubber, wax, shellac, glass, mica, porcelain, oil, dry paper, insulator at the instant of breakdown causes the spark.
textile fibers, and plastics such as Bakelite, Formica, and
A corona is undesirable because it reduces the potential
polystyrene. Pure water is a good insulator, but saltwater is
by brush discharge into the surrounding air. In addition, the
not. Moist earth is a fairly good conductor, and dry, sandy
corona often indicates the beginning of a spark discharge.
earth is an insulator.
A potential of the order of kilovolts is usually necessary for
For any insulator, a high enough voltage can be applied
a corona because the breakdown voltage for air is approxi-
to break down the internal structure of the material, forc-
mately 20 kV/in. To reduce the corona effect, conductors
ing the dielectric to conduct. This dielectric breakdown is
that have high voltage should be smooth, rounded, and thick.
usually the result of an arc, which ruptures the physical
This equalizes the potential difference from all points on the
structure of the material, making it useless as an insula-
conductor to the surrounding air. Any sharp point can have
tor. Table 9-2 compares several insulators in terms of di-
a more intense field, making it more susceptible to a corona
electric strength, which is the voltage breakdown rating.
and eventual spark discharge.
The higher the dielectric strength, the better the insula-
tor, since it is less likely to break down at a high value of 9.12 Semiconductors
applied voltage. The breakdown voltages in Table 9-2 are Semiconductors are materials whose resistance is some
approximate values for the standard thickness of 1 mil, value between that of an insulator and that of a conductor. A
or 0.001 in. More thickness allows a higher breakdown- semiconductor may be made with just about any resistance
voltage rating. Note that the value of 20 V/mil for air or value between a fraction of an ohm and many megohms.
vacuum is the same as 20 kV/in. Semiconductors are used primarily to create diodes, transis-
tors, and integrated circuits.
Insulator Discharge Current Semiconductor are elements or atoms that have four va-
An insulator in contact with a voltage source stores charge, lence (outer-shell) electrons. Examples are carbon (C), sili-
producing a potential on the insulator. The charge tends to con (Si), and germanium (Ge). Figure 9-23a show a carbon

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 Valence electrons shell of silicon atoms. In reality, of course, the structure is
in outer shell
three-dimensional.
In a crystal semiconductor structure all the valence atoms
are fully involved with one another, meaning that they are
16
strongly attached to each other and are not available to support
electron flow. This is called an intrinsic or pure semiconduc-
tor whose resistance is very high. It is actually an insulator.
By adding other elements called dopants to the crystal
(a) structure, in a process called doping, extra electrons are
added or an electron deficiency, or “hole,” is created. Typi-
cal dopant atoms are boron, phosphorus, arsenic, gallium,
and aluminum. This allows the semiconductor to conduct
1 14
Covalent bonds because it has resistance. The amount of resistance depends
on the amount of dopant atoms added. The greater the num-
ber of dopant atoms added, the lower the resistance.
1 14 1 14 1 14 The doping process produces two types of semiconduc-
tors, n-type and p-type. The n-type semiconductors have
an excess of electrons. The p-type semiconductors have a
1 14 shortage of electrons in the form of vacant places in the
valence shells of some atoms. These vacancies are called
holes and have a positive charge. They attract electrons.
(b) Current flow is by electrons in n-type material and by holes
Figure 9-23 Semiconductors have four valence in p-type materials.
electrons, (a) A carbon atom. (b) A crystal structure formed By themselves the p- and n-type materials can be used
with silicon atoms showing only the valence shells. to form resistors, capacitors, and other passive components.
When combined, the p- and n-type materials are used to
atom with four electrons in the outer shell. These atoms form diodes and transistors. Using special techniques, the
easily combine to create what are called covalent bonds semiconductors can be formed to make complete circuits
with adjacent atoms. This produces a solid called a crys- called integrated circuits. Most electronic circuitry today is
tal lattice structure. Figure  9-23b has a two-dimensional made in this way, using silicon semiconductor materials.
portion of such a structure, showing only the valence You will learn more about semiconductors in Chap. 8.

CHAPTER 9 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Lightbulbs
A lightbulb seems like such a simple device. A filament of The phaseout started in 2012 and will continue through 2014.
tungsten inside an evacuated glass bulb is connected to 120 With 20 to 25% of a home’s energy consumption, lighting can
or 240 volts, and the filament heats up and emits an enor- provide a significant energy savings nationwide if consumers
mous amount of light. Such lightbulbs have been around begin to replace their standard lightbulbs with some of the
for about 130 years since Edison (and Swan in England) in- more efficient alternatives like compact fluorescent lights
vented them in the late 1800s. We are still using them today. (CFL) or light-emitting diode (LED) lights. The result will be
However, things are changing. With increased emphasis on less demand on the utilities and greater savings of energy and,
energy efficiency, the U.S. government has passed rules and hopefully, some improvement in environmental conditions.
regulations that will change how we light our homes and The basic standard lightbulb works great but is horribly
offices. Furthermore, the latest electronic technology has inefficient. What we want from the bulb is light, but what we
brought us some alternative lighting choices. get most of is heat. Heat is produced by the power being gen-
The U.S. law is the Energy Independence and Security Act, erated to produce the light. Only about 5% of the power goes
passed by Congress in 2007. It provides a plan to phase out to operate the filament, while 95% of the power is wasted
standard incandescent bulbs in place of more efficient bulbs. as heat. The goal of regulation is to save energy by forcing

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 each end of the tube are powered up, and they heat the mer-
cury gas in the tube. Then a high voltage is applied between
the two electrodes. The high voltage initiates an arc of elec-
tron current through the gas. That ionizes the mercury gas.
A high-voltage, high-frequency ac signal keeps the current
flowing and the gas ionized. The mercury atoms are tempo-
rarily put into a higher-energy state. Then they return their
energy by emitting ultraviolet (UV) light, which we cannot
see. However, the UV stimulates the phosphor coating inside
the glass, converting it into visible light.
To generate the excitation for the mercury gas, the 120-Vac
input is first rectified into dc and then used to power a high-
Figure S9-1 Standard, halogen, CFL, and LED bulbs. frequency oscillator that generates the high voltage between
the electrodes to stimulate the gas. All CFLs therefore have
people to use more efficient bulbs. Up until a few years ago, a rather sophisticated electronic circuit in their base, making
good practical alternatives didn’t exist. Now, thanks to elec- them more expensive than a standard incandescent bulb.
tronics, we have multiple options, as shown in Fig. S9-1, that The energy savings of a CFL over an incandescent is sig-
are more efficient but more costly. nificant and in the 75% range. A CFL with the light output
of a standard 60-W incandescent uses only about 13–14 W
Halogen Bulb of energy and runs considerably cooler. CFL bulb life is in
The halogen bulb is just like the standard light bulb but con- the 8000- to 10,000-hour range. The primary downsides are
tains halogen gas, such as iodine or bromine. This makes light color and lack of a dimming ability. The fluorescent
the bulb emit more light with less power consumption. In a light color is less appealing to most people who describe it as
normal incandescent bulb, the tungsten filament gets so hot “colder.” Some of the newer CFLs now produce light more
that it vaporizes the tungsten, which is then deposited inside the color of the familiar incandescent. Some of the newer
on the glass bulb, darkening it. Eventually the tungsten is CFLs are also dimmable. For those consumers who do not
used up, and the filament “burns out.” The typical life of like the spiral shape, there is a new CFL that encases the spi-
an incandescent bulb is in the 750- to 1000-hour range. By ral in a standard glass bulb. CFLs also emit high-frequency
adding halogen gas, the halogen combines with the tungsten radio energy that can interfere with some sensitive short-
vapor so that it is not deposited on the bulb. Instead, it is es- wave and high-frequency radios.
sentially returned to the filament. Without the darkening, the
light stays brighter longer. In addition, the life of the bulb is Light-Emitting Diodes
considerable extended to as many as 2500 hours. The result A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor component
is an improvement in the efficiency of roughly 28% over a called a diode that emits light when current passes through
standard incandescent. It is estimated that a halogen bulb can it. Most LEDs emit red, yellow, or green light depending
produce the light output of a 60 watt bulb with only 43 W of on the type of semiconductor used. However, using special
power consumption. A 72-W halogen bulb produces approxi- semiconductor material combinations, it is now possible to
mately the same amount of light as a 100-W bulb. The main produce very bright white light.
disadvantage is that the halogen bulb runs considerably hotter. LEDs are diodes and operate from dc. The 120 Vac from
Halogen bulbs are readily available now with the standard the screw socket has to be first rectified into dc and then con-
Edison E27 screw base (also called the A19 standard screw base). ditioned by an integrated circuit to operate multiple LEDs.
The cost is slightly higher but is typically offset with the energy The result is a very efficient bulb with energy savings of
savings and the longer life. Halogen bulbs have been around for 75–80% over an incandescent. An LED bulb with the light
years in the form of automobile headlights and specialty lighting output of a 60-W incandescent consumes only 13–14 W. And
apparatus. Most automobile bulbs are halogen today. the bulb life is an estimated 25,000 hours.
The primary disadvantage of the LED bulb is its very
Compact Fluorescent Lamps high cost. LED bulbs cost in the $20 to $50 range, which is
Fluorescent bulbs have also been around for years in the excessive for most consumers. Even when considering the
form of long white tubes found mostly in offices, factories, energy savings and the long life, it is still a great deal to pay
and businesses rather than homes. Now they are available in for a lightbulb that would otherwise cost a little over a dollar.
a compact spiral or helical format that can be screwed into a However, as progress is made with the electronics and the
standard lamp base. Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) op- manufacturing, costs will decline further, making the LED
erate like a standard fluorescent. Small filament electrodes at bulb the light source of the future.

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 CHAPTER 9 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A closed switch has a resistance of approximately 9. The current rating of a switch corresponds to the maxi-
a. infinity. mum current the switch can safely handle when it is
b. zero ohms. a. open.
c. 1 MV. b. either open or closed.
d. none of the above. c. closed.
2. An open fuse has a resistance that approaches d. none of the above.
a. infinity. 10. How much is the resistance of a 2000-ft length of No.
b. zero ohms. 20 gage aluminum wire?
c. 1 to 2 V. a. less than 1 V.
d. none of the above. b. 20.35 V.
3. How many connecting terminals does an SPDT c. 3.33 kV.
switch have? d. 33.27 V.
a. 2. 11. How many completely isolated circuits can be con-
b. 6. trolled by a DPST switch?
c. 3. a. 1.
d. 4. b. 2.
4. The voltage drop across a closed switch equals c. 3.
a. the applied voltage. d. 4.
b. zero volts. 12. Which of the following metals is the best conductor
c. infinity. of electricity?
d. none of the above. a. steel.
5. For round wire, as the gage numbers increase from 1 b. aluminum.
to 40, c. silver.
a. the diameter and circular area increase. d. gold.
b. the wire resistance decreases for a specific length 13. What is the area in circular mils (cmils) of a wire
and type. whose diameter, d, is 0.01 in.?
c. the diameter increases but the circular area re- a. 0.001 cmil.
mains constant. b. 10 cmil.
d. the diameter and circular area decrease. c. 1 cmil.
6. The circular area of round wire, doubles for d. 100 cmil.
a. every 2 gage sizes. 14. The term pole as it relates to switches is defined as
b. every 3 gage sizes. a. the number of completely isolated circuits that can
c. each successive gage size. be controlled by the switch.
d. every 10 gage sizes. b. the number of closed contact positions that the
7. Which has more resistance, a 100-ft length of No. 12 switch has.
gage copper wire or a 100-ft length of No. 12 gage c. the number of connecting terminals the switch has.
aluminum wire? d. none of the above.
a. The 100-ft length of No. 12 gage aluminum 15. An RTD measures what physical characteristic?
wire. a. Pressure.
b. The 100-ft length of No. 12 gage copper wire. b. Temperature.
c. They both have exactly the same resistance. c. Light intensity.
d. It cannot be determined. d. Liquid level.
8. In their pure form, all metals have a 16. A strain gauge measures what physical characteristic?
a. negative temperature coefficient. a. Pressure.
b. temperature coefficient of zero. b. Temperature.
c. positive temperature coefficient. c. Light intensity.
d. very high resistance. d. Liquid level.

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 17. In Fig. 9-18, resistors R1 and R2 are 220 Ω. The RTD c. Voltage at B increases with respect to A.
resistance is 100 Ω. What value should R3 be to bal- d. Voltage remains at zero.
ance the bridge? 19. What is the main purpose of the three wire bridge
a. 50 Ω. arrangement normally used with RTDs and strain
b. 100 Ω. gauges?
c. 200 Ω. a. To ensure the sensor resistance remains constant.
d. 220 Ω. b. For temperature compensation.
18. If the bridge in Fig. 9-18 is initially balanced and the c. To bring the bridge into balance.
temperature increases, how does the voltage across d. To compensate for the resistance of connecting
points A and B vary? wires.
a. Voltage at A decreases with respect to B.
b. Voltage does not change.

CHAPTER 9 PROBLEMS

SECTION 9.1 Function of the Conductor SECTION 9.2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes
9.1 In Fig. 9-24, an 8-V heater is connected to the 9.2 Determine the area in circular mils for a wire if its
120-Vac power line by two 50-ft lengths of copper diameter, d, equals
wire. If each 50-ft length of wire has a resistance of a. 0.005 in.
0.08 V, then calculate the following: b. 0.021 in.
a. The total length of copper wire that connects the c. 0.032 in.
8-V heater to the 120-Vac power line. d. 0.05 in.
b. The total resistance, RT, of the circuit. e. 0.1 in.
c. The current, I, in the circuit. f. 0.2 in.
d. The voltage drop across each 50-ft length of 9.3 What is the approximate AWG size of a wire whose
copper wire. diameter, d, equals 0.072 in.?
e. The voltage across the 8-V heater.
9.4 Using Table 9-1, determine the resistance of a
f. The I 2R power loss in each 50-ft length of
1000-ft length of copper wire for the following gage
copper wire.
sizes:
g. The power dissipated by the 8-V heater.
a. No. 10 gage.
h. The total power, PT, supplied to the circuit by the
b. No. 13 gage.
120-Vac power line.
c. No. 16 gage.
i. The percentage of the total power, PT, dissipated
d. No. 24 gage.
by the 8-V heater.
9.5 Which would you expect to have more resistance,
a 1000-ft length of No. 14 gage copper wire or a
1000-ft length of No. 12 gage copper wire?
50-ft 9.6 Which would you expect to have more resistance, a
copper wire
1000-ft length of No. 23 gage copper wire or a 100-ft
length of No. 23 gage copper wire?
SECTION 9.3 Types of Wire Conductors
8-V 9.7 If an extension cord is made up of 65 strands of
120 Vac
heater
No. 28 gage copper wire, what is its equivalent gage
size in solid wire?
9.8 What is the gage size of the individual strands
in a No. 10 gage stranded wire if there are eight
Figure 9-24 strands?

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 SECTION 9.6 Switches 9.12 Draw a schematic diagram showing how a DPDT
9.9 With the switch, S1, closed in Fig. 9-25, switch can be used to
a. How much is the voltage across the switch? a. allow a stereo receiver to switch between two dif-
b. How much is the voltage across the lamp? ferent speakers.
c. Will the lamp light? b. reverse the polarity of voltage across a dc motor
d. What is the current, I, in the circuit based on the to reverse its direction.
specifications of the lamp? 9.13 An SPST switch is rated at 10 A/250 V. Can
this switch be used to control a 120-V, 1000-W
Switch appliance?

S1 SECTION 9.8 Wire Resistance

9.14 Calculate the resistance of the following conductors:
1
6.3 V, a. 250 ft of No. 20 gage copper wire.
VT 5 6.3 V Lamp
2 150 mA
b. 250 ft of No. 20 gage aluminum wire.
9.15 What is the resistance for each conductor of a 50-ft
extension cord made of No. 14 gage copper wire?
Figure 9-25 9.16 A 100-ft extension cord uses No. 14 gage copper
wire for each of its conductors. If the extension cord
9.10 With the switch, S1, open in Fig. 9-25, is used to connect a 10-A load to the 120-Vac power
a. How much is the voltage across the switch? line, how much voltage is available at the load?
b. How much is the voltage across the lamp?
c. Will the lamp light? SECTION 9.9 Temperature Coefficient
d. What is the current, I, in the circuit based on the of Resistance
specifications of the lamp? 9.17 A tungsten wire has a resistance, R, of 20 V at 20°C.
9.11 Draw a schematic diagram showing how an SPDT Calculate its resistance at 70°C.
switch can be used to supply a resistive heating ele- 9.18 The resistance of a Nichrome wire is 1 kV at 20°C.
ment with either 6 V or 12 V. Calculate its resistance at 220°C.

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 Ch a pt er 10
Batteries

Learning Outcomes A battery is a group of cells that generate energy from

an internal chemical reaction. The cell itself consists of
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
two different conducting materials as the electrodes
Explain the difference between primary and
that are immersed in an electrolyte. The chemical reac-
secondary cells.
tion between the electrodes and the electrolyte results
Define what is meant by the internal resistance
in a separation of electric charges as ions and free
of a cell.
electrons. Then the two electrodes have a difference
List several different types of voltaic cells.
of potential that provides a voltage output from the cell.
Explain how cells can be connected to increase A battery provides a source of steady dc voltage of
either the current capacity or voltage output of a
fixed polarity and is a good example of a generator or
battery.
energy source. Batteries are the oldest form of voltage
Explain why the terminal voltage of a battery
source, and today they are more important than ever
drops with more load current.
because of the huge demand for portable and mobile
Explain the difference between voltage sources
electronic devices like cell phones, laptop comput-
and current sources.
ers, tablets, and hybrid/electric vehicles. This chapter

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 summarizes the types of batteries and how they are low ri means that the source can maintain a constant
used. The battery supplies voltage to a circuit as the output voltage for different values of load current. For
load to produce the desired load current. An important the opposite case, a high ri makes the output volt-
factor is the internal resistance, ri of the source, which age drop, but a constant value of load current can be
affects the output voltage when a load is connected. A maintained.

10.1 Introduction to Batteries Table 10-1 Cell Types and Open-Circuit Voltage
We rely on batteries to power an almost unlimited number
Nominal
of electronic products available today. For example, batteries Open-Circuit*
are used in cars, personal computers (PCs), handheld radios, Cell Name Type Voltage, Vdc
laptops, cameras, MP3 players, and cell phones, to name just
Carbon-zinc Primary 1.5
a few of the more common applications. Batteries are avail-
able in a wide variety of shapes and sizes and have many Zinc chloride Primary 1.5
different voltage and current ratings. The different sizes and Manganese dioxide Primary or 1.5
(alkaline) secondary
ratings are necessary to meet the needs of the vast number
Mercuric oxide Primary 1.35
of applications. Regardless of the application, however, all
batteries are made up of a combination of individual voltaic Silver oxide Primary 1.5
cells. Together, the cells provide a steady dc voltage at the Lithium Primary 3.0
output terminals of the battery. The voltage output and cur- Lithium-ion Secondary 3.7
rent rating of a battery are determined by several factors, Lead-acid Secondary 2.1
including the type of elements used for the electrodes, the Nickel-cadmium Secondary 1.2
physical size of the electrodes, and the type of electrolyte. Nickel-metal-hydride Secondary 1.2
As you know, some batteries become exhausted with use Nickel-iron (Edison) Secondary 1.2
and cannot be recharged. Others can be recharged hundreds cell
or even thousands of times before they are no longer able to Nickel-zinc Secondary 1.6
produce or maintain the rated output voltage. Whether a bat- Solar Secondary 0.5
tery is rechargeable or not is determined by the type of cells
that make up the battery. There are two types, primary cells * Open-circuit V is the terminal voltage without a load.

and secondary cells.

Primary Cells
Primary cells cannot be recharged. After it has delivered cells are listed by name. Each of the cells is listed as either
its rated capacity, the primary cell must be discarded be- the primary or the secondary type. Notice the open-circuit
cause the internal chemical reaction cannot be restored. voltage for each of the cell types listed.
Figure 10-1 shows a variety of dry cells and batteries, all of
which are of the primary type. In Table 10-1 several different Secondary Cells
Secondary cells can be recharged because the chemical
action is reversible. When it supplies current to a load resis-
tance, the cell is discharging because the current tends to
neutralize the separated charges at the electrodes. For the
opposite case, the current can be reversed to re-form the
electrodes as the chemical action is reversed. This action
is charging the cell. The charging current must be supplied
by an external dc voltage source, with the cell serving as a
load resistance. The discharging and recharging is called
cycling of the cell. Since a secondary cell can be recharged,
it is also called a storage cell. The most common type
is the lead-acid cell generally used in automotive batter-
Figure 10-1 Typical dry cells and batteries. These primary ies (Fig. 10-2). In addition, the list in Table 10-1 indicates
types cannot be recharged. which are secondary cells.

146 Chapter 10

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 ⫺ ⫹
⫺ V ⫹
⫺ ⫹
⫺ ⫹
⫺ ⫹ ..
. . . .. . ⫺ . .. . . . . .. . . . . ⫹ . ..
. .
.. ⫺ .. .. ⫹..
.. ⫺ .. .. ⫹ ..
⫺ ⫹
.. ⫺ .. .. ⫹ .
Negative ⫺ ⫹ ..
.. .. .. ..
electrode .. .. .. Positive
Electrolyte
electrode

(a)
Figure 10-2 Example of a 12-V auto battery using six
lead-acid cells in series. This is a secondary type, which can
be recharged.
I

Dry Cells ⫹
V RL
⫺
What we call a dry cell really has a moist electrolyte. How-
ever, the electrolyte cannot be spilled, and the cell can oper-
ate in any position.
(b)

Sealed Rechargeable Cells Figure 10-3 How a voltaic cell converts chemical
A sealed rechargeable cells is a secondary cell that can be energy into electric energy. (a) Electrodes or plates in liquid
recharged, but it has a sealed electrolyte that cannot be re- electrolyte solution. (b) Schematic of a circuit with a voltaic
cell as a dc voltage source V to produce current in load R L,
filled. These cells are capable of charge and discharge in any
which is the lightbulb.
position.

10.2 The Voltaic Cell Current Inside the Cell

When two different conducting materials are immersed in The current through the electrolyte is a motion of ion
an electrolyte, as illustrated in Fig. 10-3a , the chemical ac- charges. Notice in Fig. 10-3b that the current inside the cell
tion of forming a new solution results in the separation of flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
charges. This device for converting chemical energy into This action represents the work being done by the chemical
electric energy is a voltaic cell. It is also called a galvanic reaction to generate the voltage across the output terminals.
cell, named after Luigi Galvani (1737–1798). The negative terminal in Fig.  10-3a is considered the
In Fig. 10-3a, the charged conductors in the electrolyte anode of the cell because it forms positive ions in the elec-
are the electrodes or plates of the cell. They are the termi- trolyte. The opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode.
nals that connect the voltage output to an external circuit, as
shown in Fig. 10-3b. Then the potential difference resulting Internal Resistance, r i
from the separated charges enables the cell to function as a Any practical voltage source has internal resistance, in-
source of applied voltage. The voltage across the cell’s ter- dicated as ri, which limits the current it can deliver. For a
minals forces current to flow in the circuit to light the bulb. chemical cell, as in Fig. 10-3, the ri is mainly the resistance
of the electrolyte. For a good cell, ri is very low, with typical
Current Outside the Cell values less than 1V. As the cell deteriorates, though, ri in-
Electrons from the negative terminal of the cell flow through creases, preventing the cell from producing its normal termi-
the external circuit with RL and return to the positive ter- nal voltage when load current is flowing because the internal
minal. The chemical action in the cell separates charges voltage drop across ri opposes the output terminal voltage.
continuously to maintain the terminal voltage that produces This is why you can often measure the normal voltage of a
current in the circuit. dry cell with a voltmeter, which drains very little current, but
The current tends to neutralize the charges generated in the terminal voltage drops when the load is connected.
the cell. For this reason, the process of producing load cur- The voltage output of a cell depends on the elements used
rent is considered discharging of the cell. However, the inter- for the electrodes and the electrolyte. The current rating de-
nal chemical reaction continues to maintain the separation pends mostly on the size. Larger batteries can supply more
of charges that produces the output voltage. current. Dry cells are generally rated up to 250 mA, and the

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 lead-acid wet cell can supply current up to 300 A or more.
Positive cover—
Note that a smaller ri allows a higher current rating. plated steel
Can—steel

Electrolyte— Current collector—

potassium brass
10.3 Common Types of Primary Cells hydroxide
In this section, you will be introduced to several different Anode—
Cathode—
powdered zinc
manganese
types of primary cells in use today. dioxide, carbon
Jacket—tin-plated
Separator— lithographed steel
Carbon-Zinc nonwoven fabric

The carbon-zinc dry cell is a very common type because of Insulating tube—
plastic-coated paper Seal—nylon
its low cost. It is also called the Leclanché cell, named after
its inventor. The voltage output of the carbon-zinc cell is 1.4 Metal washer Inner cell cover—
steel
to 1.6 V, with a nominal value of 1.5 V. The suggested cur- Metal spur

rent range is up to 150 mA for the D size, which has a height Insulator—
of 21⁄4 in. and volume of 3.18 in.3. The C, AA, and AAA sizes paperboard Negative cover— Rivet—brass
plated steel
are smaller, with lower current ratings.
The electrochemical system consists of a zinc anode and Figure 10-4 Construction of the alkaline cell.
a manganese dioxide cathode in a moist electrolyte. The
electrolyte is a combination of ammonium chloride and zinc
chloride dissolved in water. For the round-cell construction,
a carbon rod is used down the center. The rod is chemically Alkaline Cell
inert. However, it serves as a current collector for the posi- Another popular type is the manganese-zinc cell shown in
tive terminal at the top. The path for current inside the cell Fig. 10-4, which has an alkaline electrolyte. It is available as
includes the carbon rod as the positive terminal, the man- either a primary or a secondary cell, but the primary type is
ganese dioxide, the electrolyte, and the zinc can which is more common.
the negative electrode. The carbon rod also prevents leakage The electrochemical system consists of a powdered zinc
of the electrolyte but is porous to allow the escape of gases anode and a manganese dioxide cathode in an alkaline
which accumulate in the cell. electrolyte. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide, which
In operation of the cell, the ammonia releases hydrogen is the main difference between the alkaline and Leclanché
gas which collects around the carbon electrode. This reac- cells. Hydroxide compounds are alkaline with negative hy-
tion is called polarization, and it can reduce the voltage droxyl (OH) ions, whereas an acid electrolyte has positive
output. However, the manganese dioxide releases oxygen, hydrogen (H) ions. The voltage output from the alkaline
which combines with the hydrogen to form water. The man- cell is 1.5 V.
ganese dioxide functions as a depolarizer. Powdered carbon The alkaline cell has many applications because of its
is also added to the depolarizer to improve conductivity and ability to work at high efficiency with continuous, high
retain moisture. discharge rates. Depending on the application, an alkaline
Carbon-zinc dry cells are generally designed for an oper- cell can provide up to seven times the service of a carbon-
ating temperature of 708F. Higher temperatures will enable zinc cell. As examples, in a portable CD player, an alkaline
the cell to provide greater output. However, temperatures of cell will normally have twice the service life of a general-
1258F or more will cause rapid deterioration of the cell. purpose carbon-zinc cell; in toys, the alkaline cell typically
The chemical efficiency of the carbon-zinc cell increases provides about seven times more service.
with less current drain. Stated another way, the application The outstanding performance of the alkaline cell is due to
should allow for the largest battery possible, within practical its low internal resistance. Its ri is low because of the dense
limits. In addition, performance of the cell is generally bet- cathode material, the large surface area of the anode in con-
ter with intermittent operation. The reason is that the cell can tact with the electrolyte, and the high conductivity of the
recuperate between discharges, probably by depolarization. electrolyte. In addition, alkaline cells perform satisfactorily
As an example of longer life with intermittent operation, at low temperatures.
a carbon-zinc D cell may operate for only a few hours with a
continuous drain at its rated current. Yet the same cell could Additional Types of Primary Cells
be used for a few months or even a year with intermittent The miniature button construction shown in Fig. 10-5 is
operation of less than 1 hour at a time with smaller values often used for the mercury cell and the silver oxide cell. The
of current. cell diameter is 3⁄8 to 1 in.

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 Anode Anode cap
Figure 10-5 Construction of
Anodes are a gelled mixture of amalgamated zinc powder and
electrolyte. miniature button type of primary
Cathodes cell. Diameter is 3⁄8 to 1 in. Note the
Silver cells: AgO2, MnO2, and conductor chemical symbols AgO2 for silver
Mercury cells: HgO and conductor (may contain MnO2) oxide, HgO for mercuric oxide, and
Manganese dioxide cells: MnO2 and conductor
MnO2 for manganese dioxide.

Gasket Cell can

Cathode
Separator

Mercury Cell Table 10-2 Sizes for Popular Types of Dry Cells*
The electrochemical system consists of a zinc anode, a mer-
cury compound for the cathode, and an electrolyte of po- Size Height, in. Diameter, in.
tassium or sodium hydroxide. Mercury cells are available D 21⁄4 11⁄4
as flat, round cylinders and miniature button shapes. Note,
C 13⁄4 1
though, that some round mercury cells have the top button
9
as the negative terminal and the bottom terminal positive. AA 17⁄8 ⁄16
The open-circuit voltage is 1.35 V when the cathode is mer-
curic oxide (HgO) and 1.4 V or more with mercuric oxide/ AAA 13⁄4 3
⁄8
manganese dioxide. The 1.35-V type is more common.
* Cylinder shape shown in Fig. 10-1.
The mercury cell is used where a relatively flat dis-
charge characteristic is required with high current density.
Its internal resistance is low and essentially constant. These Any dry cell loses its ability to produce output voltage
cells perform well at elevated temperatures, up to 1308F even when it is not being used. The shelf life is about 2 years
continuously or 2008F for short periods. One drawback of for the alkaline type, but much less with the carbon-zinc
the mercury cell is its relatively high cost compared with a cell, especially for small sizes and partially used cells. The
carbon-zinc cell. Mercury cells are becoming increasingly reasons are self-discharge within the cell and loss of mois-
unavailable due to the hazards associated with proper dis- ture from the electrolyte. Therefore, dry cells should be used
posal after use. fresh from the manufacturer. It is worth noting, however,
that the shelf life of dry cells is steadily increasing due to
Silver Oxide Cell advances in battery technology.
The electrochemical system consists of a zinc anode, a cath- Note that shelf life can be extended by storing the cell
ode of silver oxide (AgO2) with small amounts of manganese at low temperatures, about 40 to 508F. Even temperatures
dioxide, and an electrolyte of potassium or sodium hydrox- below freezing will not harm the cell. However, the cell
ide. It is commonly available in the miniature button shape should be allowed to return to normal room temperature be-
shown in Fig. 10-5. The open-circuit voltage is 1.6  V, but fore being used, preferably in its original packaging, to avoid
the nominal output with a load is considered 1.5 V. Typical condensation.
applications include hearing aids, cameras, and electronic The alkaline type of dry cell is probably the most cost-
watches, which use very little current. efficient. It costs more but lasts much longer, besides having
a longer shelf life. Compared with size-D batteries, the alka-
Summary of the Most Common Types
line type can last about 10 times longer than the carbon-zinc
of Dry Cells type in continuous operation, or about seven times longer
The most common types of dry cells include carbon-zinc, for typical intermittent operation. The zinc chloride heavy-
zinc chloride (heavy duty), and manganese-zinc (alkaline). It duty type can last two or three times longer than the general-
should be noted that the alkaline cell is better for heavy-duty purpose carbon-zinc cell. For low-current applications of
use than the zinc chloride type. They are available in the about 10 mA or less, however, there is not much difference
round, cylinder types, listed in Table 10-2, for the D, C, AA, in battery life.
and AAA sizes. The small button cells generally use either
mercury or silver oxide. All these dry cells are the primary Lithium Cell
type and cannot be recharged. Each has an output of 1.5 V The lithium cell is a relatively new primary cell. However,
except for the 1.35-V mercury cell. its high output voltage, long shelf life, low weight, and small

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 Figure 10-7 Common 12-V lead-acid battery used in
automobiles.

Figure 10-6 Lithium battery. excessive charge and discharge currents shortens the useful
life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile battery. The lead-
volume make the lithium cell an excellent choice for spe- acid type has a relatively high output voltage, which allows
cial applications. The open-circuit output voltage is 3 V. fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.
Figure  10-6 shows an example of a lithium battery with a
6-V output. Construction
A lithium cell can provide at least 10 times more energy Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes
than the equivalent carbon-zinc cell. However, lithium is consist of a group of plates welded to a connecting strap. The
a very active chemical element. Many of the problems in plates are immersed in the electrolyte, consisting of eight
construction have been solved, though, especially for small parts of water to three parts of concentrated sulfuric acid.
cells delivering low current. One interesting application is a Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a lead-antimony
lithium cell as the dc power source for a cardiac pacemaker. alloy. This construction enables the active material, which
The long service life is important for this use. is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of
Two forms of lithium cells are in widespread use, the the cell, a forming charge produces the positive and negative
lithium–sulfur dioxide (LiSO2 ) type and the lithium–thionyl electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the
chloride type. Output is approximately 3 V. positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (PbO2). The nega-
In the LiSO2 cell, the sulfur dioxide is kept in a liquid tive electrode is spongy lead (Pb).
state by using a highpressure container and an organic liquid Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the
solvent, usually methyl cyanide. One problem is safe encap- manufacturer. The electrolyte is put in at installation, and then
sulation of toxic vapor if the container should be punctured the battery is charged to form the plates. With maintenance-
or cracked. This problem can be significant for safe disposal free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal
of the cells when they are discarded after use. service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent,
The shelf life of the lithium cell, 10 years or more, is without provision for adding water.
much longer than that of other types.
Current Ratings
10.4 Lead-Acid Wet Cell Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of the amount
Where high load current is necessary, the lead-acid cell is of discharge current they can supply for a specified period of
the type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute time. The output voltage should be maintained above a mini-
solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the application of bat- mum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8 V per cell. A common rating
tery power to start the engine in an automobile, for example, is ampere-hours (A ⋅ h) based on a specific discharge time,
the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400 which is often 8 h. Typical A ⋅ h ratings for automobile bat-
A. One cell has a nominal output of 2.1 V, but lead-acid cells teries are 100 to 300 A ? h.
are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V bat- As an example, a 200-A ? h battery can supply a load current
tery and six for a 12-V battery. Examples are shown in Figs. of 200/8 or 25 A, based on an 8-h discharge. The battery can sup-
10-2 and 10-7. ply less current for a longer time or more current for a shorter
The lead-acid type is a secondary cell or storage cell, time. Automobile batteries may be rated in “cold cranking
which can be recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can amps” (CCAs), which is related to the job of starting the engine.
be repeated many times to restore the output voltage, as long The CCA rating specifies the amount of current, in amperes,
as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with the battery can deliver at 08F for 30 seconds while maintaining

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 an output voltage of 7.2 V for a 12-V battery. The higher the
CCA rating, the greater the starting power of the battery.
Note that the ampere-hour unit specifi es coulombs of
charge. For instance, 200 A ? h corresponds to 200 A 3
3600 s (1 h 5 3600 s). This equals 720,000 A ? s, or cou-
lombs. One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then
the charge equals 720,000 or 7.2 3 105 C. To put this much
charge back into the battery would require 20 h with a charg-
ing current of 10 A.
The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature
range of 77 to 808F. Higher temperatures increase the chemical
reaction, but operation above 1108F shortens the battery life.
Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage
output. The amperehour capacity is reduced approximately
0.75% for each decrease of 18F below the normal tempera-
ture rating. At 08F, the available output is only 40% of the
amperehour battery rating. In cold weather, therefore, it
is very important to have an automobile battery up to full
charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when
diluted by water in the discharged condition. Figure 10-8 Hydrometer to check specific gravity of
lead-acid battery.

Specific Gravity For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 1
The state of discharge for a lead-acid cell is generally checked 0.84 5 2.12 V, as an example. These values are for a fully
by measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Specific charged battery.
gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with
Charging the Lead-Acid Battery
the weight of water. For instance, concentrated sulfuric acid
is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume. There- The requirements are illustrated in Fig. 10-9. An external
fore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of dc voltage source is necessary to produce current in one di-
water is 1, since it is the reference. rection. Also, the charging voltage must be more than the
In a fully charged automotive cell, the mixture of sulfuric battery emf. Approximately 2.5 V per cell is enough to over-
acid and water results in a specific gravity of 1.280 at room come the cell emf so that the charging voltage can produce
temperatures of 70 to 808F. As the cell discharges, more current opposite to the direction of the discharge current.
water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When the Note that the reversal of current is obtained by connect-
specific gravity is below about 1.145, the cell is considered ing the battery VB and charging source VG with 1 to 1 and
completely discharged.
Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hy-  
drometer, such as the one in Fig. 10-8. With this type of  
hydrometer, the state of charge of a cell within the battery V B  12 V

is indicated by the number of floating disks. For example,  


one floating disk indicates the cell is at 25% of full charge.
RL V G  15 V
Two floating disks indicate the cell is at 50% of full charge. 
Similarly, three floating disks indicate 75% of full charge,
whereas four floating disks indicate the cell is at 100% of ri ri
full charge. The number of floating disks is directly corre-
lated with the value of the specific gravity. As the specific
gravity increases, more disks will float. Note that all cells
within the battery must be tested for full charge. (a ) (b)

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from Figure 10-9 Reversed directions for charge and
the fact that the opencircuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is discharge currents of a battery. The ri is internal resistance.
approximately equal to (a) The VB of the battery discharges to supply the load
current for R L. (b) The battery is the load resistance for VG,
V 5 specific gravity 1 0.84 which is an external source of charging voltage.

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 10.5 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
A secondary cell is a storage cell that can be recharged by re-
versing the internal chemical reaction. A primary cell must
be discarded after it has been completely discharged. The
lead-acid cell is the most common type of storage cell. How-
ever, other types of secondary cells are available. Some of
these are described next.

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Cell

The nickel-cadmium (NiCd) cell is popular because of its
ability to deliver high current and to be cycled many times
for recharging. Also, the cell can be stored for a long time,
even when discharged, without any damage. The NiCd cell
Figure 10-10 Charger for auto batteries. is available in both sealed and nonsealed designs, but the
sealed construction shown in Fig. 10-12 is common. Nomi-
nal output voltage is 1.2 V per cell. Applications include por-
2 to 2, as shown in Fig. 10-9b. The charging current is table power tools, alarm systems, and portable radio or video
reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load re- equipment.
sistance for VG when it is higher than VB. In this example, The NiCd cell is a true storage cell with a reversible
the net voltage available to produce a charging current is chemical reaction for recharging that can be cycled up to
15 2 12 5 3 V. 1000 times. Maximum charging current is equal to the 10-h
A commercial charger for automobile batteries is shown discharge rate. Note that a new NiCd battery may need
in Fig. 10-10. This unit can also be used to test batteries and charging before use. A disadvantage of NiCd batteries is
jump-start cars. The charger is essentially a dc power supply, that they can develop a memory whereby they won’t ac-
rectifying input from an ac power line to provide dc output cept full charge if they are routinely discharged to the same
for charging batteries. level and then charged. For this reason, it is a good idea
Float charging refers to a method in which the charger to discharge them to different levels and occassionally to
and the battery are always connected to each other to sup- discharge them completely before recharging to erase the
ply current to the load. In Fig. 10-11, the charger provides memory.
current for the load and the current necessary to keep the
battery fully charged. The battery here is an auxiliary source
for dc power.
It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery
is in a floating-charge circuit. The battery charger is an
ac generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driven by
a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the bat-
tery supplies the cranking power. Once the engine is run-
ning, the alternator charges the battery. It is not necessary
for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in
this system to maintain the output at approximately 13 to
15 V.

AC line Battery
DC load
charger

Battery

Figure 10-12 Examples of nickel-cadmium cells. The

Figure 10-11 Circuit for battery in float-charge application. output voltage for each is 1.2 V.

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 Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Cell is that higher temperatures cause them to degrade much
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) cells are currently finding more rapidly than normal.
widespread application in those high-end portable electric Lithium-ion batteries are not as durable as NiMH and
and electronic products and hybrid/electric vehicles where NiCd batteries either. In fact, they can be extremely danger-
battery performance parameters, notably run-time, are of ous if mistreated. For example, they may explode if they are
major concern. NiMH cells are an extension of the proven, overheated or charged to an excessively high voltage. Fur-
sealed, NiCd cells discussed previously. A NiMH cell has thermore, they may be irreversibly damaged if discharged
about 40% more capacity than a comparably sized NiCd below a certain level. To avoid damaging a lithium-ion bat-
cell, however. In other words, for a given weight and volume, tery, a special circuit monitors the voltage output from the
a NiMH cell has a higher A h rating than a NiCd cell. battery and shuts it down when it is discharged below a
With the exception of the negative electrode, NiMH cells certain threshold level (typically 3 V) or charged above a
use the same general types of components as a sealed NiCd certain limit (typically 4.2 V). This special circuitry makes
cell. As a result, the nominal output voltage of a NiMH cell is lithium-ion batteries even more expensive than they already
1.2 V, the same as the NiCd cell. In addition to having higher are.
A h ratings compared to NiCd cells, NiMH cells also do not Nickel-Iron (Edison) Cell
suffer nearly as much from the memory effect. As a result of Developed by Thomas Edison, the nickel-iron cell was once
the advantages offered by the NiMH cell, they are finding used extensively in industrial truck and railway applications.
widespread use in the power-tool market where additional However, it has been replaced almost entirely by the lead-
operating time and higher power are of major importance. acid battery. New methods of construction with less weight,
The disadvantage of NiMH cells versus NiCd cells is though, are making this cell a possible alternative in some
their higher cost. Also, NiMH cells self-discharge much applications.
more rapidly during storage or nonuse than NiCd cells. Fur- The Edison cell has a positive plate of nickel oxide, a neg-
thermore, NiMH cells cannot be cycled as many times as ative plate of iron, and an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide
their NiCd counterparts. NiMH cells are continually being in water with a small amount of lithium hydroxide added.
improved, and it is foreseeable that they will overcome, at The chemical reaction is reversible for recharging. Nominal
least to a large degree, the disadvantages listed here. output is 1.2 V per cell.
Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Cell Nickel-Zinc Cell
Lithium-ion cells (and batteries) are extremely popular and The nickel-zinc cell has been used in limited railway ap-
have found widespread use in today’s consumer electronics plications. There has been renewed interest in it for use in
market. They are commonly used in laptop computers, cell electric cars because of its high energy density. However,
phones, handheld radios, and iPods, to name a few of the one drawback is its limited cycle life for recharging. Nomi-
more common applications. The electrodes of a lithium-ion nal output is 1.6 V per cell.
cell are made of lightweight lithium and carbon. Since lithium
is a highly reactive element, the energy density of lithium- Fuel Cells
ion batteries is very high. Their high energy density makes A fuel cell is a chemical source of direct current (dc) like
lithium-ion batteries significantly lighter than other recharge- a battery but does not contain the chemicals. Fuel cells
able batteries of the same size. The nominal open-circuit out- develop the voltage across two electrodes using hydrogen
put voltage of a single lithium-ion cell is approximately 3.7 V. and oxygen gases. The output voltage is low in the 0.3- to
Unlike NiMH and NiCd cells, lithium-ion cells do not 1.2-V range, so many are usually connected together to get
suffer from the memory effect. They also have a very low higher voltage. The current capability is a function of the
self-discharge rate of approximately 5% per month com- size of the electrodes and the volume of oxygen and hydro-
pared with approximately 30% or more per month with gen supplied.
NiMH cells and 10% or more per month with NiCd cells. Figure 10-13 shows the basic construction of a fuel
In addition, lithium-ion cells can handle several hundred cell. The two electrodes are called the anode (1) and the
charge-discharge cycles in their lifetime. cathode (2). Hydrogen is supplied to the anode, and oxygen
Lithium-ion batteries do have a few disadvantages, how- or just plain air is supplied to the cathode. Between the anode
ever. For one thing, they are more expensive than similar- and cathode is a thin membrane that contains the electrolyte.
capacity NiMH or NiCd batteries because the manufacturing As the oxygen and hydrogen are supplied, a chemical reac-
process is much more complex. Also, they begin degrading tion takes place, freeing up electrons that can pass through
the instant they leave the factory and last only about 2 or the external load. By-products of the chemical reaction are
3 years whether they are used or not. Another disadvantage the production of water and heat.

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 External load 


Electron
flow  



Hydrogen in Air (oxygen) 

MEMBRANE ELECTROLYTE
in

POROUS CATHODE
POROUS ANODE


3 Vdc


Water out 


 


Catalyst
 

Heat 
Gas chambers (a) (b)

Figure 10-13 Construction of a fuel cell. Figure 10-14 Solar cells. (a) Schematic symbols. Arrows
indicate light. l is lamda, the Greek symbol for light and
As long as the gases are supplied to the cell, voltage is wavelength. (b) Cells are connected in series to produce
more voltage.
produced. It does not wear out and never needs recharging.
Fuel cells are generally impractical as they are large and represent a solar cell. Figure 10-14b shows a series and par-
require storage for the gases. This often means large tanks. allel connection of cells to provide more voltage and current.
More practical fuel cells have been created that use less ex- In most applications, the solar cells are used in combi-
pensive gases. For example, a practical fuel cell can extract nation with a lead-acid cell that store the electricity for use
the oxygen from air which contains about 21% oxygen. The when the light disappears. When there is sunlight, the solar
hydrogen can be derived from a methanol fuel that is less cells charge the battery and supply power to the load. When
expensive. Methanol is basically just wood alcohol. Natural there is no light, the battery supplies the required power.
gas may also be used. Solar power is expensive compared to other power sources
Fuel cells are still impractical for most applications because but is clean and useful in various applications. Along with
of their size and cost. However they have been widely used in wind power, solar sources are gradually being adopted as
spacecraft like the NASA shuttle and in the space station. They major power sources to replace conventional ones. As prices
are also used as backup power for hospitals, military installa- decline popularity will increase.
tions, cell phone base stations, and radio/TV broadcast stations.
Large units can produce many hundreds of kilowatts of power. 10.6 Series-Connected and
Their predicted use in automobiles has never developed.
Parallel-Connected Cells
Solar Cells An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell can
A solar cell converts the sun’s light energy directly into be obtained by connecting cells in series. The total voltage
electric energy. The cells are made of semiconductor ma- available across the battery of cells is equal to the sum of the
terials, which generate voltage output with light input. Sili- individual values for each cell. Parallel cells have the same
con, with an output of 0.5 V per cell, is mainly used now. voltage as one cell but have more current capacity. The com-
Research is continuing, however, on other materials, such as bination of cells is called a battery.
cadmium sulfide and gallium arsenide, that might provide
more output. In practice, the cells are arranged in modules Series Connections
that are assembled into a large solar array for the required Figure 10-15 shows series-aiding connections for three dry
power. Figure 10-14a shows the schematic symbols used to cells. Here the three 1.5-V cells in series provide a total

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 Terminal A


A
1.5-V
Cell 1
D cell


1.5 V A


1.5-V 
Cell 2 4.5 V 
D cell 
 1.5 V 4.5 V = 4.5 V





1.5-V 1.5 V
Cell 3 B 
D cell  A
V  4.5 V R L  50 
B 

  90 mA
Terminal B B

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10-15 Cells connected in series for higher voltage. Current rating is the same as for one
cell. (a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol for battery with three series cells. (c) Battery connected to load
resistance R L.

battery voltage of 4.5 V. Notice that the two end terminals, 

C
A and B, are left open to serve as the plus and minus termi-   
nals of the battery. These terminals are used to connect the
battery to the load circuit, as shown in Fig. 10-15c. 1.5-V 1.5-V 1.5-V 1.5 V
D cell D cell D cell
In the lead-acid battery in Fig. 10-2, short, heavy metal
straps connect the cells in series. The current capacity of a
 Cell 1  Cell 2  Cell 3
battery with cells in series is the same as that for one cell
 D
because the same current flows through all series cells.
(a)

Parallel Connections
For more current capacity, the battery has cells in parallel,

as shown in Fig. 10-16. All positive terminals are strapped C
together, as are all the negative terminals. Any point on the
positive side can be the plus terminal of the battery, and any
  
point on the negative side can be the negative terminal. 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
  
The parallel connection is equivalent to increasing the
size of the electrodes and electrolyte, which increases the
current capacity. The voltage output of the battery, however,  D
is the same as that for one cell. (b)
Identical cells in parallel supply equal parts of the load cur-
rent. For example, with three identical parallel cells producing
a load current of 300 mA, each cell has a drain of 100 mA.
Bad cells should not be connected in parallel with good cells,  
C
however, since the cells in good condition will supply more V  1.5 V R L  30 
current, which may overload the good cells. In addition, a cell D  
with lower output voltage will act as a load resistance, drain-   50 mA
ing excessive current from the cells that have higher output
(c)
voltage.
Series-Parallel Connections Figure 10-16 Cells connected in parallel for higher
current rating. (a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol for battery
To provide a higher output voltage and more current capac- with three parallel cells. (c) Battery connected to load
ity, cells can be connected in series-parallel combinations. resistance R L.

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 E


 
 

1.5-V 1.5-V
1.5-V 1.5-V Cell 1 Cell 3
Cell 1 Cell 3 D cell D cell
D cell D cell
  
3V 3V 3V
  

1.5-V 1.5-V
1.5-V 1.5-V Cell 2 Cell 4
Cell 2 Cell 4 D cell D cell
D cell D cell

 
 


F
(a) (b)


E

  

3V 3V 3V E
  V3V R L  30 
F  
  100 mA
F

(c) (d)

Figure 10-17 Cells connected in series-parallel combinations. (a) Wiring two 3-V strings, each with two
1.5-V cells in series. (b) Wiring two 3-V strings in parallel. (c) Schematic symbol for the battery in (b) with
output of 3 V. (d) Equivalent battery connected to load resistance R L.

Figure 10-17 shows four D cells connected in series-parallel to

mA mA
form a battery that has a 3-V output with a current capacity of
1
⁄2 A. Two of the 1.5-V cells in series provide 3 V total output    200 mA   10 mA

voltage. This series string has a current capacity of 1⁄4 A, how- V  R1  V  R2 

1.5 V 7.5   1.5 V 150 
ever, assuming this current rating for one cell.
To double the current capacity, another string is con-
nected in parallel. The two strings in parallel have the same
(a ) (b )
3-V output as one string, but with a current capacity of 1⁄2 A
instead of the 1⁄4 A for one string.
mA

10.7 Current Drain Depends    600 mA

V  R3 
on Load Resistance 
1.5 V 2.5 
It is important to note that the current rating of batteries, or any
voltage source, is only a guide to typical values permissible for
normal service life. The actual amount of current produced (c)
when the battery is connected to a load resistance is equal to
I  VyR by Ohm’s law. Figure 10-18 An example of how current drain from a
battery used as a voltage source depends on the R of the
Figure 10-18 illustrates three different cases of using the
load resistance. Different values of I are shown for the same
applied voltage of 1.5 V from a dry cell. In Fig. 10-18a, the V of 1.5 V. (a) V/R 1 equals I of 200 mA. (b) V/R 2 equals I of
load resistance R1 is 7.5 . Then I is 1.5y7.5  1⁄5 A or 200 mA. 10 mA. (c) V/R 3 equals I of 600 mA.

156 Chapter 10

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 A No. 6 carbon-zinc cell with a 1500 mAⴢh rating could of the electrolyte between electrodes in a chemical cell.
supply this load of 200 mA continuously for about 7.5 h at More generally, the internal resistance ri is the opposition to
a temperature of 70F before dropping to an end voltage of load current inside the generator.
1.2 V. If an end voltage of 1.0 V could be used, the same load Since any current in the generator must flow through the
would be served for a longer period of time. internal resistance, ri is in series with the generated voltage,
In Fig. 10-18b, a larger load resistance R2 is used. The as shown in Fig. 10-19c. It may be of interest to note that, with
value of 150  limits the current to 1.5y150  0.01 A or just one load resistance connected across a generator, they are
10 mA. Again using the No. 6 carbon-zinc cell at 70F, the in series with each other because RL is in series with ri.
load could be served continuously for 150 h with an end volt- If there is a short circuit across the generator, its ri prevents
age of 1.2 V. The two principles here are the current from becoming infinitely high. As an example, if
a 1.5-V cell is temporarily short-circuited, the short-circuit
1. The cell delivers less current with higher resistance
current Isc could be about 15 A. Then ri is VyIsc, which equals
in the load circuit.
1.5y15, or 0.1  for the internal resistance. These are typical
2. The cell can deliver a smaller load current for a longer values for a carbon-zinc D-size cell. (The value of ri would
time. be lower for a D-size alkaline cell.)
In Fig. 10-18c, the load resistance R3 is reduced to 2.5 .
Why Terminal Voltage Drops
Then I is 1.5y2.5  0.6 A or 600 mA. The No. 6 cell could
with More Load Current
serve this load continuously for only 2.5 h for an end voltage
of 1.2 V. The cell could deliver even more load current, but Figure 10-20 illustrates how the output of a 100-V source
for a shorter time. The relationship between current and time can drop to 90 V because of the internal 10-V drop across
is not linear. For any one example, though, the amount of ri. In Fig. 10-20a, the voltage across the output terminals is
current is determined by the circuit, not by the current rating equal to the 100 V of VG because there is no load current in
of the battery. an open circuit. With no current, the voltage drop across ri
is zero. Then the full generated voltage is available across
10.8 Internal Resistance the output terminals. This value is the generated emf, open-
of a Generator circuit voltage, or no-load voltage.
Any source that produces voltage output continuously is a We cannot connect the test leads inside the source to mea-
generator. It may be a cell separating charges by chemical sure VG. However, measuring this no-load voltage without
action or a rotary generator converting motion and magne- any load current provides a method of determining the inter-
tism into voltage output, for common examples. In any case, nally generated emf. We can assume that the voltmeter draws
all generators have internal resistance, which is labeled ri in practically no current because of its very high resistance.
Fig. 10-19. This internal resistance is generally known as the In Fig. 10-20b with a load, however, current of 0.1 A flows
equivalent series resistance (ESR). to produce a drop of 10 V across the 100  of ri. Note that
The internal resistance, ri, is important when a generator RT is 900  100  1000 . Then IL equals 100y1000, which
supplies load current because its internal voltage drop, Iri, is 0.1 A.
subtracts from the generated emf, resulting in lower voltage
across the output terminals. Physically, ri may be the resis- A
tance of the wire in a rotary generator, or ri is the resistance
  L  0.1 A
ri 
100  V r i  10 V 
  
 RL 
100 V V L  90 V
 900 
ri  
ri VG VG 
. . . .. . ..
.. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .  100 V
.. .. .. ..

.. .. .. ..
.. . . ri .. . VG
B
.. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..  (a) (b)

(b) (c)
(a ) Figure 10-20 Example of how an internal voltage drop
decreases voltage at the output terminal of the generator.
Figure 10-19 Internal resistance ri is in series with the (a) Open-circuit voltage output equals VG of 100 V because
generator voltage VG. (a) Physical arrangement for a voltage there is no load current. (b) Terminal voltage VL between
cell. (b) Schematic symbol for ri . (c) Equivalent circuit of ri in points A and B is reduced to 90 V because of 10-V drop
series with VG. across 100-V ri with 0.1-A I L.

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 Open circuit
100 EXAMPLE 10-1

Calculate ri if the output of a generator drops from 100 V with

zero load current to 80 V when I L 5 2 A.
VL, V
50 Answer:
100 2 80
Short
ri 5 ________
2
circuit
20
___
5 2
0 0.5 1.0
ri 5 10 V.
 L, A

Figure 10-21 How terminal voltage VL drops with more

load current. 10.9 Constant-Voltage and
Constant-Current Sources
As a result, the voltage output VL equals 100  10  90 V. A generator with very low internal resistance is considered a
This terminal voltage or load voltage is available across the constant-voltage source. Then the output voltage remains es-
output terminals when the generator is in a closed circuit sentially the same when the load current changes. This idea
with load current. The 10-V internal drop is subtracted from is illustrated in Fig. 10-22a for a 6-V lead-acid battery with
VG because they are series-opposing voltages. an ri of 0.005 . If the load current varies over the wide
The graph in Fig. 10-21 shows how the terminal voltage range of 1 to 100 A, the internal Iri drop across 0.005  is
VL drops with increasing load current IL. less than 0.5 V for any of these values.
The lower the internal resistance of a generator, the better
Constant-Current Generator
it is in producing full output voltage when supplying current
for a load. For example, the very low ri, about 0.01 , for a A constant-current generator has very high resistance, com-
12-V lead-acid battery, is the reason it can supply high values pared with the external load resistance, resulting in constant
of load current and maintain its output voltage. current, although the output voltage varies.
For the opposite case, a higher ri means that the terminal The constant-current generator shown in Fig. 10-23 has
voltage of a generator is much less with load current. As an such high resistance, with an ri of 0.9 M, that it is the main
example, an old dry battery with ri of 500  would appear nor- factor determining how much current can be produced by VG.
mal when measured by a voltmeter but be useless because of Here RL varies in a 3:1 range from 50 to 150 k. Since the
low voltage when normal load current flows in an actual circuit. current is determined by the total resistance of RL and ri in
series, however, I is essentially constant at 1.05 to 0.95 mA,
How to Measure ri or approximately 1 mA. This relatively constant I is shown
The internal resistance of any generator can be measured in- by the graph in Fig. 10–23b.
directly by determining how much the output voltage drops Note that the terminal voltage VL varies in approximately
for a specified amount of load current. The difference be- the same 3:1 range as RL. Also, the output voltage is much
tween the no-load voltage and the load voltage is the amount
of internal voltage drop ILri. Dividing by IL gives the value
6
of ri. As a formula, Constant V L
VNL 2 VL 5
ri 5 ________ (10-1)
IL 4
ri 
V L, V

0.005  3
A convenient technique for measuring ri is to use a vari-
V L  IRL
able load resistance RL. Vary RL until the load voltage is one- approx. RL  2
6V 0.055 to
half the no-load voltage. This value of RL is also the value of 5.555  1
ri, since they must be equal to divide the generator voltage VG 
6V
equally. For the same 100-V generator with the 10- ri used 1 2 3 4 5 6

in Example 10-1, if a 10- RL were used, the load voltage RL , 

would be 50 V, equal to one-half the no-load voltage. (a) (b)

You can solve this circuit by Ohm’s law to see that IL is

Figure 10-22 Constant-voltage generator with low ri.
5 A with 20  for the combined RT. Then the two voltage The VL stays approximately the same 6 V as I varies with R L.
drops of 50 V each add to equal the 100 V of the generator. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph for VL.

158 Chapter 10

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 A

I  1 mA R1  1 M 
approx.
ri 
0.9 M  RL 
V G  50 V 100 
RL 
50 to
150 k 
V G  1000 V
B
(a)

(a ) A

1.2

1.0 R1  RL 
Constant I G 
1 M 100 
50  A
0.8
I, mA

0.6

0.4 B
(b )

0.2
Figure 10-24 Voltage source in (a) equivalent
to current source in (b) for load resistance R L across
25 50 75 100 125 150
terminals A and B.
RL , k 

(b)

Figure 10-23 Constant-current generator with high ri. must be very high compared with RL. In this example, IL is
The I stays approximately the same 1 mA as VL varies with 50 ␮A with 50 V applied, and RT is practically equal to the
R L. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph for I. 1 M of R1. The value of RL can vary over a range as great
as 10:1 without changing RT or I appreciably.
less than the generator voltage because of the high internal A circuit with an equivalent constant-current source is
resistance compared with RL. This is a necessary condition, shown in Fig. 10-24b. Note the arrow symbol for a current
however, in a circuit with a constant-current generator. source. As far as RL is concerned, its terminals A and B can
A common practice is to insert a series resistance to keep be considered as receiving either 50 V in series with 1 M
the current constant, as shown in Fig. 10-24a. Resistance R1 or 50 ␮A in a shunt with 1 M.

CHAPTER 10 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Battery Charging
Since secondary cells and batteries can be recharged, they about chargers, because they are so ubiquitous. They are a
are widely used in all types of equipment. Most cars and good example of a small system.
trucks still use lead-acid batteries, as do golf carts and
similar vehicles. Hybrid and electric cars use nickel-metal- Charging Basics
hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion batteries. All types of por- The simplest and most fundamental way to charge a sec-
table power tools use NiMH, nickel-cadmium (NiCd) or ondary cell or battery is simply to apply to it a dc voltage
lithium batteries. The highest volume of rechargeable bat- somewhat higher than the final open-circuit voltage of the
teries are used in the billions of cell phones, portable music battery. For a lead-acid battery this is 12.6 V or for a lithium
players, personal navigation devices, laptop and tablet com- battery 4.2 V. The dc source can be another battery, but more
puters, and other mobile devices. Most of these use a form usually it is an ac-to-dc power supply, such as the widely use
of lithium-ion cell or battery. How many battery chargers wall chargers we all use.
do you personally own? If you said several, you are typical Refer to Fig. S10-1. Note the polarity of the external
of the modern electronics user. You should know a bit more source is such that it will reverse the current flow in the

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 Current limiting resistor gradually decrease until the battery is fully charged and

nearly equal to the external charging voltage.
While such a simple charging circuit will theoretically
work for any battery, it is rarely used. Modern batteries are
ESR
complex, sensitive, and dangerous. It is easy to damage a
AC-to-dc
120 Vac power Battery battery if it not charged using a formula or procedure rec-
supply  ommended by the battery manufacturer. The battery could
 overheat and even catch fire or explode under the wrong con-

ditions. Leaving the charging source connected for too long
can also ruin the battery. The chemistry can be permanently
Figure S10-1 The basic battery charging circuit. altered under the wrong conditions, making it impossible
to recharge it again. With the high cost of batteries and the
danger they pose, virtually all batteries are recharged under
battery. The external voltage is higher than the voltage of the very specific conditions as determined by the battery man-
discharged battery, so the two voltages will oppose one an- ufacturer. This is accomplished by an electronic charging
other. The larger voltage ensures that the current is reversed, circuit designed for the battery. At the heart of all modern
so recharging takes place. When a battery is discharged, its chargers is an integrated circuit (IC) and numerous discrete
equivalent series resistance (ESR) is much higher than when components, making it a small system.
the battery is fully charged. The discharged resistance de-
pends on the battery chemistry, age, temperature, and other A Representative Charging System
factors. Nevertheless, the ESR is still low and will cause a Figure S10-2 shows a typical charging circuit. The 120-Vac
very high current to flow as the battery is charging. Dur- input is applied to an ac-to-dc power supply. It may be a lin-
ing charging, ESR will decrease, but the battery voltage will ear type that uses a transformer to step the voltage down into
increase, offering more opposition to the external voltage the range required by the battery. One or more diodes are
and thereby gradually decreasing the current. The external then used to rectify the ac into pulsating dc. A large capaci-
resistor will limit the current to some maximum value as tor used as a filter smoothes the pulses into a more constant
specified by the battery manufacturer to prevent damage and dc voltage. This dc voltage is applied to the charging IC.
overheating. The dc power supply must be able to supply this Alternatively, the ac-to-dc power supply may be of the
current value. switching type that uses a diode rectifier and filter capaci-
The reverse current in the battery will reverse the chemi- tor to produce dc from the high-voltage ac and a switching
cal process and cause the battery voltage to rise. As it rises transistor that chops the dc into pulses that are averaged in a
over time, it will offer more and more opposition to the ex- filter at a lower level. This lower-voltage dc is applied to the
ternal charging voltage. As a result the charging current will charging IC.

Measures and
Converts controls current and
ac to dc voltage to the battery

Charger
AC-to-dc
120 Vac power DC  Battery
supply to be
IC
 charged

Thermistor
(protects from
overheating)

Figure S10-2 The charger IC implements a specific procedure of voltage and current
control as specified by the battery type and manufacturer.

160 Chapter 10

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 The charging IC is a complex electronic circuit designed time is usually several hours. When charging has been com-
to provide a constant current and then a constant voltage to pleted as determined by a specific time period and battery
the battery over specific period of time. The circuit imple- condition, the charger cuts off.
ments an algorithm or procedure defined by the battery
manufacturer. It varies depending on the battery type. For Other Charging Systems
a common lithium-ion battery, the procedure usually be- The charging system in an automobile uses a mechanical
gins by applying a small current to start and then steps it up generator driven by the engine. It is called an alternator be-
gradually to some constant value until the voltage rises to a cause it generates ac. This is rectified into dc by diodes and
desired level. The charging current is usually based on the then used to operate a charging circuit. It usually supplies 13
capacity (C) of the battery in ampere-hours (A?h) or milliam- to 15 V to the lead-acid battery with current control.
pere hours (mA?h). For example, a smartphone battery may Solar-powered chargers are also popular for boats and
have a capacity of 1800 mA?h. An initial charging current portable equipment. A solar panel producing from 14 to
may only be 0.1C or 180 mA. It is then stepped up according 20 V is applied to a charge controller that contains the charg-
to some plan over time. ing circuit. Most of these systems use lead-acid batteries.
When the battery voltage rises to the recommended Hybrid/electric vehicles use very high-voltage lithium-ion
level, the constant current is turned off and a constant voltage or NiMH batteries. Voltages are in the 300- to 400-V range.
is then applied to continue the charging process. All during Special chargers operated by the small gasoline engine keep
this time, the battery current is being monitored. Should the the battery charged during operation. Electric-only vehicles
recommended levels be exceeded, the IC adjusts automati- rely on an external charger located at your home or a pub-
cally to maintain the suggested current/voltage limits. Some lic charging station. The at-home systems use the 240-Vac
chargers even monitor battery temperature, which is typically line and a special charging circuit that connects by cable and
sensed by a thermistor mounted next to the battery. Should connector to the vehicle.
temperature limits be exceeded, the IC automatically cuts off There are several important points to remember about
the power to the battery, preventing damage. battery charging.
Figure S10-3 shows a typical charging cycle for a lithium- • The charging IC may be inside the device with the
ion battery. Note the discharged battery voltage is initially battery, as in a cell phone or portable music player.
low in the 2.0-V range or less. An initial current of 0.02C The ac-to-dc power supply is external and usually the
is applied for a short time and then stepped up to 0.1C for “wall wart” or cube you are familiar with. Some prod-
another period. Then a constant current of 1C is applied until ucts may have the charging IC inside the charger itself.
the battery voltage reaches the desired final voltage of 4.2 V.
• Each charger is designed for a specific battery type.
Note the rise of the battery voltage over this constant cur-
You cannot and must not use the charger for anything
rent phase of the charging. When the desired end voltage
other than charging batteries of this particular size and
is reached, the current is decreased over time but the char-
type. For example, you cannot use a lithium-ion charger
ger output voltage remains at 4.2 V. The amount of charging
on a NiMH battery or any other type. Severe damage to
the battery or charger or both will most likely result.
Battery voltage (red) • Chargers do not have an on-off switch and constantly
draw current from the ac line. The current will be high
Charging

Battery current (blue)

voltage
Battery
rate

Voltage Constant-current phase Constant-voltage phase initially but will drop off to a trickle once the bat-
tery is fully charged. Nevertheless, since it constantly
1C 4.2 V
draws current, the charger should be unplugged to save
energy. It has been estimated that because so many
Current people leave their multiple chargers constantly plugged
Precharge phase in, millions of kilowatts of power are wasted annually.
0.1C 2.8 V
• All secondary batteries have a finite life and must
0.05C Trickle-charge phase eventually be replaced. They can only be recharged so
0.02C 2.0 V
many times before the chemical process or physical
Time (hours) state of the materials is permanently ruined. Longest
Charging life is achieved by following the strict recharging pro-
begins
cess. The actual battery life will depend more on the
Figure S10-3 The charging profile of a lithium-ion usage time and pattern, so the life of a battery could
battery. be years or considerably less.

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 CHAPTER 10 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following cells is not a primary cell? 9. The main difference between a primary cell and a
a. Carbon-zinc. secondary cell is that
b. Alkaline. a. a primary cell can be recharged and a secondary
c. Zinc chloride. cell cannot.
d. Lead-acid. b. a secondary cell can be recharged and a primary
2. The dc output voltage of a C-size alkaline cell is cell cannot.
a. 1.2 V. c. a primary cell has an unlimited shelf life and a
b. 1.5 V. secondary cell does not.
c. 2.1 V. d. primary cells produce a dc voltage and secondary
d. about 3 V. cells produce an ac voltage.
3. Which of the following cells is a secondary cell? 10. A constant-voltage source
a. Silver oxide. a. has very high internal resistance.
b. Lead-acid. b. supplies constant-current to any load resistance.
c. Nickel-cadmium. c. has very low internal resistance.
d. Both b and c. d. none of the above.
11. A constant-current source
4. What happens to the internal resistance, ri, of a
a. has very low internal resistance.
voltaic cell as the cell deteriorates?
b. supplies constant current to a wide range of load
a. It increases.
resistances.
b. It decreases.
c. has very high internal resistance.
c. It stays the same.
d. both b and c.
d. It usually disappears.
12. The output voltage of a battery drops from 6.0 V with
5. The dc output voltage of a lead-acid cell is no load to 5.4 V with a load current of 50 mA. How
a. 1.35 V. much is the internal resistance, ri?
b. 1.5 V. a. 12 V.
c. 2.1 V. b. 108 V.
d. about 12 V. c. 120 V.
6. Cells are connected in series to d. It cannot be determined.
a. increase the current capacity. 13. The output of a single solar cell is approximately
b. increase the voltage output. a. 0.5 V.
c. decrease the voltage output. b. 1.2 V.
d. decrease the internal resistance. c. 1.5 V.
7. Cells are connected in parallel to d. 3.0 V.
a. increase the current capacity. 14. Another name for the internal resistance of a battery
b. increase the voltage output. or cell is
c. decrease the voltage output. a. generator impedance.
d. decrease the current capacity. b. output impedance.
8. Five D-size alkaline cells in series have a combined c. equivalent series resistance.
voltage of d. electrolyte resistance.
a. 1.5 V. 15. The internal resistance of a battery
b. 5.0 V. a. cannot be measured with an ohmmeter.
c. 7.5 V. b. can be measured with an ohmmeter.
d. 11.0 V. c. can be measured indirectly by determining how much
the output voltage drops for a given load current.
d. both a and c.

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 CHAPTER 10 PROBLEMS

SECTION 10.6 Series-Connected and Parallel- 10.4 Repeat Prob. 10-1 for the circuit in Fig. 10-28.
Connected Cells
In Probs. 10-1 to 10-5, assume that each individual cell is
identical and that the current capacity for each cell is not
being exceeded for the load conditions presented.  
2.1 V 2.1 V
10.1 In Fig. 10-25, solve for the load voltage, VL, the load  
 
current, IL, and the current supplied by each cell in 2.1 V 2.1 V R L  10 
 
the battery.  
2.1 V 2.1 V
 


1.5 V

R L  100 
Figure 10-28

1.5 V 10.5 Repeat Prob. 10-1 for the circuit in Fig. 10-29.


Figure 10-25
  
1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
10.2 Repeat Prob. 10-1 for the circuit in Fig. 10-26.   
R L  10 
  
1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
  


2.1 V


2.1 V
 Figure 10-29

R L  24 

2.1 V SECTION 10.8 Internal Resistance of a Generator



10.6 With no load, the output voltage of a battery is 9 V.
2.1 V If the output voltage drops to 8.5 V when supplying

50 mA of current to a load, how much is its internal
resistance?
Figure 10-26 10.7 The output voltage of a battery drops from 6 V with
no load to 5.2 V with a load current of 400 mA. Cal-
10.3 Repeat Prob. 10-1 for the circuit in Fig. 10-27. culate the internal resistance, ri.
10.8 A 9-V battery has an internal resistance of 0.6 .
How much current flows from the 9-V battery in the
event of a short circuit?
10.9 A 1.5-V AA alkaline cell develops a terminal volt-
  age of 1.35 V while delivering 25 mA to a load re-
1.25 V 1.25 V R L  25 
  sistance. Calculate ri.
10.10 Refer to Fig. 10-30. With S1 in position 1, V  50 V.
With S1 in position 2, V  37.5 V. Calculate ri .
10.11 A generator has an open-circuit voltage of 18 V. Its
terminal voltage drops to 15 V when a 75- load is
Figure 10-27 connected. Calculate ri.

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 ri
A
1 10.13 Refer to Fig. 10-31. If ri  10 M, calculate IL and
S1 2
VL for the following values of load resistance:
 a. RL  0 .
VG V R L  75  b. RL  100 .

c. RL  1 k.
d. RL  100 k.
B
10.14 Redraw the circuit in Fig. 10-32 using the symbol
Figure 10-30 for a current source.

SECTION 10.9 Constant-Voltage and Constant- ri  5 M

Current Sources
10.12 Refer to Fig. 10-31. If ri  0.01 , calculate IL and

VL for the following values of load resistance: V  25 V

a. RL  1 .
b. RL  10 .
c. RL  100 .

ri 
Figure 10-32


V  10 V RL


Figure 10-31

164 Chapter 10

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 Ch a pt er 11
Magnetism

Learning Outcomes Magnetism is that invisible force field that is produced by

certain materials and by current flowing in a conductor.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: This mysterious phenomenon is closely tied to electricity
Define the terms and units of magnetic flux, flux and electronics and is an essential part of your under-
density, magnetomotive force, and field intensity. standing of circuits and systems. In fact, you can’t have
Define the term relative permeability. electricity and electronics without magnetism. This chap-
List three classifications of magnetic materials. ter introduces you to the strange world of magnetic fields
and how they affect us in many ways. You will learn how
Describe the Hall effect.
magnetic fields are expressed and measured. Even more
Explain the B-H magnetization curve.
significant you will learn about electromagnetism and
Define the terms satiration and hysteresis. electromagnetic induction. Learning about magnetism
Determine the magnetic polarity of a solenoid completes your understanding of electrical fundamentals.
using the left-hand rule. Think about this. Without magnetism there would be
State Lenz’s and Faraday’s laws. no electric generators, no motors, no electric power
Define the term saturation as it relates to a distribution, no magnetic recording, or no radio waves.
magnetic core. Electric components like inductors, transformers, relays,
Explain what is meant by magnetic hysteresis. solenoids and microphones would not exist without
magnetism. That is how important this chapter really is.

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 Describe the magnetic field of an electric current in Glass
a straight conductor.
Iron filings
Determine the magnetic polarity of a solenoid using S N

the left-hand rule. Magnet

Explain the concept of motor action.

Explain how an induced voltage can be developed (a )

across the ends of a conductor that passes through a Lines of force

magnetic field.
State Lenz’s law.
Using Faraday’s law, calculate the induced voltage across S N

a conductor being passed through a magnetic field.

Explain the basic construction and operation of an
electromagnetic relay. (b)
List and explain some important relay ratings.
Figure 11-2 Magnetic field of force around a bar magnet.
(a) Field outlined by iron filings. (b) Field indicated by lines of force.

11.1 The Magnetic Field iron filings are sprinkled on a glass or paper sheet placed
over a bar magnet (Fig. 11-2a). Each iron filing becomes a
A magnetic field is produced by an object called a magnet.
small bar magnet. If the sheet is tapped gently to overcome
Magnets are made from metals like iron, iron alloys, and
friction so that the filings can move, they become aligned by
other materials generally known as ferromagnetic materials.
the magnetic field.
They are formed into many different shapes depending on
Many filings cling to the ends of the magnet, showing that
their use. A common form used primarily to explain the ac-
the magnetic field is strongest at the poles. The field exists
tion of the magnet is a rectangular bar. The two ends of the
in all directions but decreases in strength with increasing
bar are called the poles of the magnet. They are referred to
distance from the poles of the magnet.
as the north (N) and south (S) poles. Figure 11-1 shows two
bar magnets, one a permanent magnet (PM) that is always
producing a magnetic field and an electromagnet (EM) that Field Lines
produces a magnetic field when current flows through the To visualize the magnetic field without iron filings, we show
coil of wire around it. the field as lines of force, as in Fig. 11-2b. The direction of the
As shown in Figs. 11-1 and 11-2, the north and south lines outside the magnet shows the path a north pole would fol-
poles of a magnet are the points of concentration of mag- low in the field, repelled away from the north pole of the mag-
netic strength. The practical effects of this ferromagnetism net and attracted to its south pole. Although we cannot actually
result from the magnetic field of force between the two poles have a unit north pole by itself, the field can be explored by
at opposite ends of the magnet. Although the magnetic field noting how the north pole on a small compass needle moves.
is invisible, evidence of its force can be seen when small The magnet can be considered the generator of an exter-
nal magnetic field, provided by the two opposite magnetic
poles at the ends. This idea corresponds to the two opposite
terminals on a battery as the source of an external electric
North
pole field provided by opposite charges.
Magnetic field lines are unaffected by nonmagnetic ma-
North
pole South terials such as air, vacuum, paper, glass, wood, or plastics.
pole When these materials are placed in the magnetic field of a
South I V magnet, the field lines are the same as though the material
pole were not there.
However, the magnetic field lines become concentrated
(a) (b)
when a magnetic substance such as iron is placed in the field.
Figure 11-1 Poles of a magnet. (a) Permanent magnet (PM). Inside the iron, the field lines are more dense, compared with
(b) Electromagnet (EM) produced by current from a battery. the field in air.

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 North and South Magnetic Poles
The earth itself is a huge natural magnet, with its greatest
strength at the North and South Poles. Because of the earth’s
magnetic poles, if a small bar magnet is suspended so that it
can turn easily, one end will always point north. This end of
the bar magnet is defined as the north-seeking pole, as shown
in Fig. 11-3a. The opposite end is the south-seeking pole.
When polarity is indicated on a magnet, the north-seeking end
is the north pole (N) and the opposite end is the south pole (S).
It is important to note that the earth’s geographic North Pole
has south magnetic polarity and the geographic South Pole
has north magnetic polarity. This is shown in Fig. 11-3b.
Similar to the force between electric charges is the force
between magnetic poles causing attraction of opposite poles
and repulsion between similar poles:
1. A north pole (N) and a south pole (S) tend to attract (a)
each other.
2. A north pole (N) tends to repel another north pole (N),
and a south pole (S) tends to repel another south pole (S).

Geographic North Pole

West East

Geographic South Pole

(a)

Magnetic South Pole Geographic North Pole

N
(b)

Figure 11-4 Magnetic field patterns produced by iron

filings. (a) Field between opposite poles. The north and south
poles could be reversed. (b) Field between similar poles. The
two north poles could be south poles.

N These forces are illustrated by the fields of iron filings be-

tween opposite poles in Fig. 11-4a and between similar poles
Compass in Fig. 11-4b.
needle
S
11.2 Magnetic Units of Measurement
S
The entire group of magnetic field lines, which can be con-
sidered flowing outward from the north pole of a magnet, is
Geographic South Pole Magnetic North Pole
called magnetic flux. Its symbol is the Greek letter  (phi). A
(b) strong magnetic field has more lines of force and more flux
Figure 11-3 Definition of north and south poles of a bar than a weak magnetic field.
magnet. (a) North pole on bar magnet points to geographic There are two basic ways of expressing and measuring
North Pole of the earth. (b) Earth’s magnetic field. magnetic fields: field strength and flux density.

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 f 5 6 Mx Flux Density B
Another unit of magnetic strength is flux density. As shown
in Fig. 11-5, the flux density is the number of magnetic field
lines per unit area of a section perpendicular to the direction
S N
of flux. As a formula,

B 5 __ (11-1)
A
P
B 5 2 gauss where  is the flux through an area A and the flux density
1 cm2
is B.
Figure 11-5 Total flux  is six lines or 6 Mx. Flux density
B at point P is two lines per square centimeter or 2 G. The Gauss
In the cgs system, the gauss (G) is one line per square centi-
meter, or 1 Mx/cm2. As an example, in Fig. 11-5, the total flux
The Maxwell  is six lines, or 6 Mx. At point P in this field, however, the
Field strength is expressed in lines of force. One maxwell (Mx) flux density B is 2 G because there are two lines per square
unit equals one magnetic field line. In Fig. 11-5, as an ex- centimeter. The flux density is higher close to the poles,
ample, the flux illustrated is 6 Mx because there are six field where the flux lines are more crowded. As an example of flux
lines flowing in or out for each pole. A 1-lb magnet can pro- density, B for a 1-lb magnet would be 1000 G at the poles.
vide a magnetic flux  of about 5000 Mx. As typical values, B for the earth’s magnetic field can be
about 0.2 G; a large laboratory magnet produces B of 50,000 G.
The Weber
Since the gauss is so small, kilogauss units are often used,
The weber is a larger unit of magnetic flux. One weber (Wb) where 1 kG 5 103 G.
equals 1 3 108 lines or maxwells. Since the weber is a large
unit for typical fields, the microweber unit can be used. Then The Tesla
1 Wb 5 1026 Wb. In SI, the unit of flux density B is webers per square meter
(Wbym2). One weber per square meter is called a tesla,
Conversion between Units
abbreviated T. The tesla is a larger unit than the gauss, as
Converting from maxwells (Mx) to webers (Wb) or vice 1 T 5 1 3 104 G.
versa, is easier if you use the following conversion formulas:
1 Wb Conversion between Units
#Wb 5 #Mx 3 __________
1 3 108 Mx Converting from teslas (T) to gauss (G), or vice versa, is
1 3 108 Mx
#Mx 5 #Wb 3 __________ easier if you use the following conversion formulas:
1 Wb 1 3 104 G
In practice it is rare ever to have to measure magnetic #G 5 #T 3 _________
1T
field strength or to make conversions between maxwells 1T
and webers. However, it is useful to know the units of #T 5 #G 3 _________
1 3 104 G
measurement. Again, it is rare to have to make such conversions on the
job.
Systems of Magnetic Units
The basic units in metric form can be defined in two ways:
11.3 Induction by the Magnetic Field
1. The centimeter-gram-second system defines small
units. This is the cgs system. The electric or magnetic effect of one body on another with-
out any physical contact between them is called induction.
2. The meter-kilogram-second system is for larger units
For instance, a permanent magnet can induce an unmagne-
of a more practical size. This is the mks system.
tized iron bar to become a magnet without the two touching.
Furthermore, the Système International (SI) units provide a The iron bar then becomes a magnet, as shown in Fig. 11-6.
worldwide standard in mks dimensions. They are practical What happens is that the magnetic lines of force generated
values based on the ampere of current. by the permanent magnet make the internal molecular mag-
For magnetic flux , the maxwell (Mx) is a cgs unit, and nets in the iron bar line up in the same direction, instead
the weber (Wb) is an mks or SI unit. The SI units are pre- of the random directions in unmagnetized iron. The magne-
ferred for science and engineering, but the cgs units are still tized iron bar then has magnetic poles at the ends, as a result
used in many practical applications of magnetism. of magnetic induction.

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 Magnetic
field

S N

S N Iron bar

S N
S N

Permanent
magnet Air gap

(a) (b)
Figure 11-6 Magnetizing an iron bar by induction.
Figure 11-7 The horseshoe magnet in (a) has a smaller
air gap than the bar magnet in (b).
Note that the induced poles in the iron have polarity op-
posite from the poles of the magnet. Since opposite poles
Air Gap
attract, the iron bar will be attracted. Any magnet attracts to
itself all magnetic materials by induction. As shown in Fig. 11-7, the air space between the poles of a
Although the two bars in Fig. 11-6 are not touching, the magnet is its air gap. The shorter the air gap, the stronger
iron bar is in the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet. It the field in the gap for a given pole strength. Since air is
is the invisible magnetic field that links the two magnets, en- not magnetic and cannot concentrate magnetic lines, a larger
abling one to affect the other. Actually, this idea of magnetic air gap provides additional space for the magnetic lines to
flux extending outward from the magnetic poles is the basis spread out.
for many inductive effects in ac circuits. More generally, the Referring to Fig. 11-7a, note that the horseshoe magnet
magnetic field between magnetic poles and the electric field has more crowded magnetic lines in the air gap, compared
between electric charges form the basis for wireless radio with the widely separated lines around the bar magnet in
transmission and reception. Fig. 11-7b. Actually, the horseshoe magnet can be considered
a bar magnet bent around to place the opposite poles closer.
Polarity of Induced Poles Then the magnetic lines of the poles reinforce each other in
Note that the north pole of the permanent magnet in Fig. 11-6 the air gap. The purpose of a short air gap is to concentrate
induces an opposite south pole at this end of the iron bar. If the magnetic field outside the magnet for maximum induc-
the permanent magnet were reversed, its south pole would tion in a magnetic material placed in the gap.
induce a north pole. The closest induced pole will always
be of opposite polarity. This is the reason why either end of 11.4 Types of Magnets
a magnet can attract another magnetic material to itself. No The two broad classes are permanent magnets and electro-
matter which pole is used, it will induce an opposite pole, magnets. An electromagnet needs current from an external
and opposite poles are attracted. source to maintain its magnetic field. With a permanent
magnet, not only is its magnetic field present without any
Relative Permeability external current but the magnet can maintain its strength
Soft iron, as an example, is very effective in concentrating indefinitely.
magnetic field lines by induction in the iron. This ability to
concentrate magnetic flux is called permeability. Any mate- Permanent Magnets
rial that is easily magnetized has high permeability, there- Permanent magnets are made of hard magnetic materials,
fore, because the field lines are concentrated by induction. such as cobalt steel, magnetized by induction in the manu-
Numerical values of permeability for different materials facturing process. A very strong field is needed for induction
compared with air or vacuum can be assigned. For example, in these materials. When the magnetizing field is removed,
if the flux density in air is 1 G but an iron core in the same however, residual induction makes the material a permanent
position in the same field has a flux density of 200 G, the magnet. A common PM material is alnico, a commercial
relative permeability of the iron core equals 200⁄1, or 200. alloy of aluminum, nickel, and iron, with cobalt, copper, and
The symbol for relative permeability is r (mu), where the titanium added to produce about 12 grades. The Alnico V
subscript r indicates relative permeability. Typical values for r grade is often used for PM loudspeakers (Fig. 11-8). In this
are 100 to 9000 for iron and steel. There are no units because application, a typical size of PM slug for a steady magnetic
r is a comparison of two flux densities and the units cancel. field is a few ounces to about 5 lb, with a flux  of 500 to

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 electromagnet to provide a strong magnetic force of attrac-
tion that can be turned on or off easily has many applications
in lifting magnets, buzzers, bells or chimes, and relays. A
relay is a switch with contacts that are opened or closed by
an electromagnet.
Another common application is magnetic tape or disk
recording. The tape or disk is coated with fine particles
of iron oxide. The recording head is a coil that produces
a magnetic field in proportion to the current. As the disk
passes through the air gap of the head, small areas of the
Figure 11-8 Example of a PM loudspeaker.
coating become magnetized by induction. On playback,
the moving magnetic disk produces variations in electric
25,000 lines or maxwells. One advantage of a PM loud-
current.
speaker is that only two connecting leads are needed for the
voice coil because the steady magnetic field of the PM slug Classification of Magnetic Materials
is obtained without any field-coil winding. When we consider materials simply as either magnetic or
Commercial permanent magnets will last indefi nitely nonmagnetic, this division is based on the strong mag-
if they are not subjected to high temperatures, physical netic properties of iron. However, weak magnetic materi-
shock, or a strong demagnetizing field. If the magnet als can be important in some applications. For this reason,
becomes hot, however, the molecular structure can be a more exact classification includes the following three
rearranged, resulting in loss of magnetism that is not re- groups:
covered after cooling. A permanent magnet does not be-
come exhausted with use because its magnetic properties 1. Ferromagnetic materials. These include iron, steel,
are determined by the structure of the internal atoms and nickel, cobalt, and commercial alloys such as alnico
molecules. and Permalloy. Certain types of ceramics are also
used to produce very strong magnets. They become
Electromagnets strongly magnetized in the same direction as the
Current in a wire conductor has an associated magnetic magnetizing field, with high values of permeability
field. If the wire is wrapped in the form of a coil, as in from 50 to 5000. Permalloy has a r of 100,000 but
Fig. 11-9, the current and its magnetic field become concen- is easily saturated at relatively low values of flux
trated in a smaller space, resulting in a stronger field. With density.
the length much greater than its width, the coil is called a 2. Paramagnetic materials. These include aluminum,
solenoid. It acts like a bar magnet, with opposite poles at platinum, manganese, and chromium. Their perme-
the ends. ability is slightly more than 1. They become weakly
More current and more turns make a stronger magnetic magnetized in the same direction as the magnetizing
field. Also, the iron core concentrates magnetic lines inside field.
the coil. Soft iron is generally used for the core because it is 3. Diamagnetic materials. These include bismuth, an-
easily magnetized and demagnetized. timony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and silver. Their
The coil in Fig. 11-9, with the switch closed and current permeability is less than 1. They become weakly mag-
in the coil, is an electromagnet that can pick up the steel netized but in the direction opposite from the magne-
nail shown. If the switch is opened, the magnetic field is re- tizing field.
duced to zero, and the nail will drop off. This ability of an
The basis of all magnetic effects is the magnetic field as-
Iron sociated with electric charges in motion. Within the atom,
core S the motion of its orbital electrons generates a magnetic
I
field. There are two kinds of electron motion in the atom.
Coil of
wire V First is the electron revolving in its orbit. This motion pro-
vides a diamagnetic effect. However, this magnetic effect
is weak because thermal agitation at normal room tempera-
Steel ture results in random directions of motion that neutralize
nail
each other.
Figure 11-9 Electromagnet holding a nail when switch S More effective is the magnetic effect from the motion of
is closed for current in the coil. each electron spinning on its own axis. The spinning electron

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 serves as a tiny permanent magnet. Opposite spins provide 11.5 Magnetic Shielding
opposite polarities. Two electrons spinning in opposite di-
The idea of preventing one component from affecting an-
rections form a pair, neutralizing the magnetic fields. In the
other through their common electric or magnetic field is
atoms of ferromagnetic materials, however, there are many
called shielding. Examples are the braided copper wire
unpaired electrons with spins in the same direction, result-
shield around the inner conductor of a coaxial cable, a metal
ing in a strong magnetic effect.
shield can that encloses an RF coil, or a shield of magnetic
In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms are grouped in
material enclosing a cathode-ray tube.
microscopically small arrangements called domains. Each
The problem in shielding is to prevent one component
domain is an elementary dipole magnet, with two opposite
from inducing an effect in the shielded component. The
poles. In crystal form, the iron atoms have domains paral-
shielding materials are always metals, but there is a differ-
lel to the axes of the crystal. Still, the domains can point in
ence between using good conductors with low resistance,
different directions because of the different axes. When the
such as copper and aluminum, and using good magnetic ma-
material becomes magnetized by an external magnetic field,
terials such as soft iron.
though, the domains become aligned in the same direction.
A good conductor is best for two shielding functions.
With PM materials, the alignment remains after the external
One is to prevent induction of static electric charges. The
field is removed.
other is to shield against the induction of a varying mag-
netic field. For static charges, the shield provides opposite
Ferrites induced charges, which prevent induction inside the shield.
Ferrite is the name for nonmetallic materials that have For a varying magnetic field, the shield has induced currents
the ferromagnetic properties of iron. Ferrites have very that oppose the inducing field. Then there is little net field
high permeability, like iron. However, a ferrite is a non- strength to produce induction inside the shield.
conducting ceramic material, whereas iron is a conductor. The best shield for a steady magnetic field is a good mag-
The permeability of ferrites is in the range of 50 to 3000. netic material of high permeability. A steady field is produced
The specific resistance is 105 Ω?cm, which makes a ferrite by a permanent magnet, a coil with steady direct current, or the
an insulator. earth’s magnetic field. A magnetic shield of high permeability
A common application is a ferrite core, usually adjust- concentrates the magnetic flux. Then there is little flux to in-
able, in the coils of radio frequency transformers. The fer- duce poles in a component inside the shield. The shield can be
rite core is much more efficient than iron when the current considered a short circuit for the lines of magnetic flux.
alternates at high frequency. The reason is that less I 2 R
power is lost by eddy currents in the core because of its 11.6 The Hall Effect
very high resistance. An interesting and useful magnetic phenomenon is the
A ferrite core is used in small coils and transformers for Hall effect. It has been observed that a small voltage is
signal frequencies up to 100 MHz, approximately. The high generated across a conductor carrying current in an exter-
permeability means that the transformer can be very small. nal magnetic field. The Hall voltage was very small with
However, ferrites are easily saturated at low values of mag- typical conductors, and little use was made of this effect.
netizing current. This disadvantage means that ferrites are However, with the development of semiconductors, larger
not used for power transformers. values of Hall voltage can be generated. The semiconductor
Another application is in ferrite beads (Fig. 11-10). A material indium arsenide (InAs) is generally used. As illus-
bare wire is used as a string for one or more beads. The bead trated in Fig. 11-11, the InAs element inserted in a magnetic
concentrates the magnetic field of the current in the wire.
Magnetic field
This construction serves as a simple, economical RF choke, B 5 10 kG
instead of a coil. The purpose of the choke is to reduce the
current just for an undesired radio frequency.
InAs plate

Ferrite
No. 22 wire bead I 5 100 mA

vH 5 60 mV
(Hall voltage)

1 in. Figure 11-11 The Hall effect. Hall voltage VH generated

across the element is proportional to the perpendicular flux
Figure 11-10 Ferrite bead equivalent of an inductor. density B.

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 field can generate 60 mV with B equal to 10 kG and an I
EXAMPLE 11-1
of 100 mA. The applied flux must be perpendicular to the
direction of the current. With current in the direction of Calculate the ampere-turns of mmf for a coil with 2000 turns and
the length of conductor, the generated voltage is developed a 5-mA current.
across the width. Answer:
The amount of Hall voltage VH is directly proportional to
the value of flux density B. This means that values of B can mmf 5 I 3 N 5 2000 3 5 3 1023
be measured by VH. This value of VH is then read by the meter, 5 10 A∙t
which is calibrated in gauss. The original calibration is made
in terms of a reference magnet with a specified flux density.
EXAMPLE 11-2

11.7 Ampere-Turns of Magnetomotive A coil with 4 A is to provide a magnetizing force of 600 A∙ t. How
Force (mmf ) many turns are necessary?

The strength of the magnetic field of a coil magnet depends Answer:

on how much current flows in the turns of the coil. The more A∙t 5 ____
N 5 ___ 600
current, the stronger the magnetic field. Also, more turns in a 1 4
specific length concentrate the field. The coil serves as a bar 5 150 turns
magnet with opposite poles at the ends, providing a magnetic
field proportional to the ampere-turns. As a formula,
Ampere-turns 5 I 3 N 5 mmf (11-2) EX A M P L E 1 1 -3

where I is the current in amperes multiplied by the number The wire in a solenoid of 250 turns has a resistance of 3 V.
of turns N. The quantity IN specifies the amount of magne- (a) How much is the current when the coil is connected to a 6-V
battery? (b) Calculate the ampere-turns of mmf.
tizing force or magnetic potential, which is the magnetomo-
tive force (mmf ). Answer:
The practical unit is the ampere-turn. The SI abbrevia- V 5 ____
6V
a. I 5 __
tion for ampere-turn is A, the same as for the ampere, since R 3V
the number of turns in a coil usually is constant but the 52A
current can be varied. However, for clarity we shall use the b. mmf 5 I 3 N 5 2 A 3 250 t
abbreviation A? t.
5 500 A∙t
As shown in Fig. 11-12, a solenoid with 5 turns and 2 am-
peres has the same magnetizing force as one with 10 turns
and 1 ampere, as the product of the amperes and turns is
10 for both cases. With thinner wire, more turns can be The ampere-turn A∙t, is an SI unit. It is calculated as IN
placed in a given space. The amount of current is determined with the current in amperes.
by the resistance of the wire and the source voltage. The The cgs unit of mmf is the gilbert, abbreviated Gb. One
number of ampere-turns necessary depends on the magnetic ampere-turn equals 1.26 Gb. The number 1.26 is approximately
field strength required. 4y10, derived from the surface area of a sphere, which is 4r 2.

11.8 Field Intensity (H )

The ampere-turns of mmf specify the magnetizing force, but
I52A I51A
the intensity of the magnetic field depends on the length of
the coil. At any point in space, a specific value of ampere-
V N55 V N 5 10
turns must produce less field intensity for a long coil than for
a short coil that concentrates the same mmf. Specifically, the
field intensity H in mks units is
IN 5 2 3 5 IN 5 1 3 10 ampere-turns of mmf
5 10 A?t 5 10 A?t H 5 __________________ (11-3)
l meters
(a) (b )
This formula is for a solenoid. The field intensity H is at
Figure 11-12 Two examples of equal ampere-turns for the center of an air core. For an iron core, H is the inten-
the same mmf. (a) IN is 2 3 5 5 10. (b) IN is 1 3 10 5 10. sity through the entire core. By means of units for H, the

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 mmf 5 IN mmf 5 IN mmf 5 IN meter. In the cgs system, the units are gauss for B and oer-
5 1 A?t 5 1 A?t 5 1 A?t
sted for H. The factor  is the absolute permeability, not re-
Iron ferred to any other material, in units of ByH.
core
In the cgs system, the units of gauss for B and oersteds for H
have been defined to give  the value of 1 GyOe, for vacuum, air,
10 cm 10 cm 20 cm or space. This simplification means that B and H have the same
(a) (b) (c) numerical values in air and in vacuum. For instance, the field in-
tensity H of 12.6 Oe produces a flux density of 12.6 G in air.
Figure 11-13 Relation between ampere-turns of mmf
and the resultant field intensity H for different cores. Note Furthermore, the values of relative permeability r are the
that H 5 mmf/length. (a) Intensity H is 10 A∙ t/m with an air same as those for absolute permeability in ByH units in the cgs
core. (b) H 5 10 A∙t/m in an iron core of the same length system. The reason is that  is 1 for air or vacuum, used as the
as the coil. (c) H is 1y0.2 5 .5 A∙t/m in an iron core twice reference for the comparison. As an example, if r for an iron
as long as the coil. sample is 600, the absolute  is also 600 GyOe.
In SI, however, the permeability of air or vacuum is not 1.
magnetic field intensity can be specified for either electro- This value is 4 3 1027, or 1.26 3 1026, with the symbol 0.
magnets or permanent magnets, since both provide the same Therefore, values of relative permeability r must be multi-
kind of magnetic field. plied by 1.26 3 1026 for 0 to calculate  as ByH in SI units.
The length in Formula (11-3) is between poles. In Fig. 11-13a, For an example of r 5 100, the SI value of  can be
the length is 0.1 m between the poles at the ends of the coil. In calculated as follows:
Fig. 11-13b, l is also 0.1 m between the ends of the iron core. In  5 r 3  0
Fig. 11-13c, though, l is 0.2 m between the poles at the ends of
T
5 100 3 1.26 3 1026 ______
the iron core, although the winding is only 0.2 m long. A∙tym
The examples in Fig. 11-13 illustrate the following comparisons: T
 5 126 3 1026 ______
1. In all three cases, the mmf is 1 A∙t for the same value A∙tym
of IN. In practice, such conversions are rarely needed.
2. In Fig. 11-13a and b, H equals 10 A∙tym. In a, this H is
11.9 B-H Magnetization Curve
the intensity at the center of the air core; in b, this H is
the intensity through the entire iron core. The B-H curve in Fig. 11-14 is often used to show how much
flux density B results from increasing the amount of field
3. In Fig. 11-13c, because l is 0.2 m, H is 1y0.2, or 5
intensity H. This curve is for soft iron. Similar curves can be
A∙tym. This H is the intensity in the entire iron core.
obtained for all magnetic materials.
Units for H
The field intensity is basically mmf per unit of length. In B, 0.5
practical units, H is ampere-turns per meter. The cgs unit for T, or Wb/m2
Saturation
H is the oersted, abbreviated Oe, which equals one gilbert of
mmf per centimeter. 0.4

Permeability (␮)
Whether we say H is 1000 A∙tym or 12.6 Oe, these units 0.3

specify how much field intensity is available to produce

magnetic flux. However, the amount of flux produced by H I
0.2 N 5 100 t
depends on the material in the field. A good magnetic mate- V R 5 10 V
rial with high relative permeability can concentrate flux and l 5 0.2 m

produce a large value of flux density B for a specified H. 0.1

These factors are related by the formula:
B53H (11-4)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
or
H, A?t/m
 5 __B (11-5)
H Figure 11-14 B-H magnetization curve for soft iron. No
Using SI units, B is the flux density in webers per square values are shown near zero, where  may vary with previous
meter, or teslas; H is the field intensity in ampere-turns per magnetization.

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 Calculating H and B Hysteresis Loss
The values are calculated as follows: When the magnetizing force reverses thousands or millions
of times per second, as with rapidly reversing alternating
1. The current I in the coil equals VyR. For a 10-V coil
current, hysteresis can cause a considerable loss of energy. A
resistance with 20 V applied, I is 2 A. Increasing val-
large part of the magnetizing force is then used to overcome
ues of V produce more current in the coil.
the internal friction of the molecular dipoles. The work done
2. The ampere-turns IN of magnetizing force increase by the magnetizing force against this internal friction pro-
with more current. Since the turns are constant at duces heat. This energy wasted in heat as the molecular di-
100, the values of IN increase from 200 for 2 A to poles lag the magnetizing force is called the hysteresis loss.
1000 for 10 A. For steel and other hard magnetic materials, hysteresis losses
3. The field intensity H increases with higher IN. The are much higher than in soft magnetic materials like iron.
values of H are in mks units of ampere-turns per When the magnetizing force varies at a slow rate, hys-
meter. These values equal INy0.2 because the length is teresis losses can be considered negligible. An example is
0.2 m. Therefore, each IN is divided by 0.2, or multi- an electromagnet with direct current that is simply turned
plied by 5, for the corresponding values of H. Since H on and off or the magnetizing force of an alternating cur-
increases in the same proportion as I, sometimes the rent that reverses 60 times per second or less. The faster the
horizontal axis on a B-H curve is given only in am- magnetizing force changes, however, the greater the hyster-
peres, instead of in H units. esis effect.
4. The flux density B depends on the field intensity H
and the permeability of the iron. The values of B are Hysteresis Loop
obtained by multiplying  3 H. However, for SI units, To show the hysteresis characteristics of a magnetic mate-
the values of r must be multiplied by 1.26 3 1026 to rial, its values of flux density B are plotted for a periodically
obtain  3 H in teslas. reversing magnetizing force. See Fig. 11-15. This curve is the
hysteresis loop of the material. The larger the area enclosed
Saturation by the curve, the greater the hysteresis loss. The hysteresis
Note that the permeability decreases for the highest values loop is actually a B-H curve with an ac magnetizing force.
of H. With less , the iron core cannot provide proportional Values of flux density B are indicated on the vertical axis.
increases in B for increasing values of H. In Fig. 11-14, for The units can be gauss or teslas.
values of H above 4000 A∙tym, approximately, the values of The horizontal axis indicates values of field intensity H.
B increase at a much slower rate, making the curve relatively On this axis, the units can be oersteds, ampere-turns per
flat at the top. The effect of little change in flux density when
the field intensity increases is called saturation. 1 B9 T

Iron becomes saturated with magnetic lines of induction. 1 B max

1.0
After most of the molecular dipoles and the magnetic do-
0.8
mains are aligned by the magnetizing force, very little ad-
ditional induction can be produced. When the value of  is 0.6 1 BR
specified for a magnetic material, it is usually the highest
value before saturation. 0.4

2HC 0.2
11.10 Magnetic Hysteresis 2H 1 H 9 A.t/m
Hysteresis means “lagging behind.” With respect to the 2 800 2 600 2 400 2 200 200 400 600 800
magnetic flux in an iron core of an electromagnet, the flux 2 0.2
lags the increases or decreases in magnetizing force. Hyster-
2 0.4
esis results because the magnetic dipoles are not perfectly
elastic. Once aligned by an external magnetizing force, the 2 0.6 2B R
dipoles do not return exactly to their original positions when
2 0.8
the force is removed. The effect is the same as if the dipoles
were forced to move against internal friction between mol- 2 1.0
2 B max
ecules. Furthermore, if the magnetizing force is reversed in
direction by reversal of the current in an electromagnet, the Figure 11-15 Hysteresis loop for magnetic materials. This
flux produced in the opposite direction lags behind the re- graph is a B-H curve like Fig. 11-14, but H alternates in polarity
versed magnetizing force. with alternating current.

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 meter, ampere-turns, or magnetizing current because all fac- 11.11 Magnetic Field around
tors are constant except I. an Electric Current
Opposite directions of current result in opposite direc-
tions of 1H and 2H for the field lines. Similarly, opposite In Fig. 11-16, the iron filings aligned in concentric rings
polarities are indicated for flux density as 1B or 2B. around the conductor show the magnetic field of the cur-
The current starts from zero at the center, when the rent in the wire. The iron filings are dense next to the
material is unmagnetized. Then positive H values in- conductor, showing that the field is strongest at this point.
crease B to saturation at 1B max. Next H decreases to zero, Furthermore, the field strength decreases inversely as the
but B drops to the value B R, instead of to zero, because of square of the distance from the conductor. It is important
hysteresis. When H becomes negative, B drops to zero and to note the following two factors about the magnetic lines
continues to 2B max, which is saturation in the opposite of force:
direction from 1B max because of the reversed magnetiz- 1. The magnetic lines are circular because the field is
ing current. symmetrical with respect to the wire in the center.
Then, as the 2H values decrease, the flux density is 2. The magnetic field with circular lines of force is in a
reduced to 2B R. Finally, the loop is completed; positive plane perpendicular to the current in the wire.
values of H produce saturation at Bmax again. The curve
does not return to the zero origin at the center because of From points C to D in the wire, the circular magnetic field
hysteresis. As the magnetizing force periodically reverses, is in the horizontal plane because the wire is vertical. Also,
the values of flux density are repeated to trace out the hys- the vertical conductor between points EF and AB has the
teresis loop. associated magnetic field in the horizontal plane. Where the
The value of either 1BR or 2BR, which is the flux density conductor is horizontal, as from B to C and D to E, the mag-
remaining after the magnetizing force has been reduced to netic field is in a vertical plane.
zero, is the residual induction of a magnetic material, also These two requirements of a circular magnetic field in a
called its retentivity. In Fig. 11-15, the residual induction is perpendicular plane apply to any charge in motion. Whether
0.6 T, in either the positive or the negative direction. electron flow or motion of positive charges is considered, the
The value of 2HC, which equals the magnetizing force associated magnetic field must be at right angles to the direc-
that must be applied in the reverse direction to reduce the tion of current.
flux density to zero, is the coercive force of the material. In In addition, the current need not be in a wire conductor.
Fig. 11-15, the coercive force 2HC is 300 A∙tym. As an example, the beam of moving electrons in the vacuum
of a cathode-ray tube has an associated magnetic field. In
Demagnetization all cases, the magnetic field has circular lines of force in a
To demagnetize a magnetic material completely, the resid- plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the electric
ual induction B R must be reduced to zero. This usually can- charges.
not be accomplished by a reversed dc magnetizing force Clockwise and Counterclockwise Fields
because the material then would become magnetized with
With circular lines of force, the magnetic field would
opposite polarity. The practical way is to magnetize and
tend to move a magnetic pole in a circular path. There-
demagnetize the material with a continuously decreasing
fore, the direction of the lines must be considered either
hysteresis loop. This can be done with a magnetic field pro-
clockwise or counterclockwise. This idea is illustrated in
duced by alternating current. Then, as the magnetic field
and the material are moved away from each other or the E D
current amplitude is reduced, the hysteresis loop becomes
smaller and smaller. Finally, with the weakest field, the Iron filings
loop collapses practically to zero, resulting in zero residual
induction. F

This method of demagnetization is also called degauss- A

ing. One application is degaussing the metal electrodes in a

color picture tube with a deguassing coil providing alternat-
ing current from the power line. Another example is eras- Current in wire
B C
ing the recorded signal on magnetic tape by demagnetizing
with an ac bias current. The average level of the erase cur- Figure 11-16 How iron filings can be used to show the
rent is zero, and its frequency is much higher than the re- invisible magnetic field around the electric current in a wire
corded signal. conductor.

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 Counterclockwise Clockwise Counterclockwise
field field field
Conductor
N up in front

Electron flow

I out Iin

N down in back

Figure 11-17 Rule for determining direction of circular

field around a straight conductor. Field is counterclockwise
for direction of electron flow shown here. Circular field is Figure 11-18 Magnetic fields aiding between parallel
clockwise for reversed direction of electron flow. conductors with opposite directions of current.

Fig. 11-17, showing how a north pole would move in the In Fig. 11-18, the fields are shown for two conductors
circular field. with opposite directions of electron flow. The dot in the
The directions are tested with a magnetic compass nee- middle of the field at the left indicates the tip of an ar-
dle. When the compass is in front of the wire, the north pole rowhead to show current up from the paper. The cross
on the needle points up. On the opposite side, the compass symbolizes the back of an arrow to indicate electron flow
points down. If the compass were placed at the top, its nee- into the paper.
dle would point toward the back of the wire; below the wire, Notice that the magnetic lines between the conduc-
the compass would point forward. When all these direc- tors are in the same direction, although one field is
tions are combined, the result is the circular magnetic field clockwise and the other counterclockwise. Therefore,
shown with counterclockwise lines of force. (The counter- the fields aid here, making a stronger total field. On ei-
clockwise direction of the magnetic field assumes that you ther side of the conductors, the two fields are opposite in
are looking into the end of the wire, in the same direction direction and tend to cancel each other. The net result,
as electron flow.) then, is to strengthen the field in the space between the
Instead of testing every conductor with a magnetic com- conductors.
pass, however, we can use the following rule for straight
conductors to determine the circular direction of the mag- 11.12 Magnetic Polarity of a Coil
netic field: If you grasp the conductor with your left hand Bending a straight conductor into a loop, as shown in
so that the thumb points in the direction of electron flow, Fig. 11-19, has two effects. First, the magnetic field lines
your fi ngers will encircle the conductor in the same direc- are more dense inside the loop. The total number of lines
tion as the circular magnetic field lines. In Fig. 11-17, the is the same as those for the straight conductor, but the
direction of electron flow is from left to right. Facing this lines inside the loop are concentrated in a smaller space.
way, you can assume that the circular magnetic flux in a Furthermore, all lines inside the loop are aiding in the
perpendicular plane has lines of force in the counterclock- same direction. This makes the loop field effectively the
wise direction. same as a bar magnet with opposite poles at opposite
The opposite direction of electron flow produces a reversed faces of the loop.
field. Then the magnetic lines of force rotate clockwise. If
the charges were moving from right to left in Fig. 11-17, the
associated magnetic field would be in the opposite direction
with clockwise lines of force.
Note: If you are assuming conventional current flow from
positive to negative, you can define the direction of the mag- S N

netic field with your right hand.

Fields Aiding or Canceling

2 1
When the magnetic lines of two fields are in the same di-
rection, the lines of force aid each other, making the field
stronger. When magnetic lines are in opposite directions, the
fields cancel. Figure 11-19 Magnetic poles of a current loop.

176 Chapter 11

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 N N

S N
I I

2 1 1 2

S N
(a) (b)
I V
2 1
N N

(a ) (b)

Figure 11-20 Magnetic poles of a solenoid. (a) Coil I I

winding. (b) Equivalent bar magnet.
2 1 2 1

Solenoid as a Bar Magnet (c) (d )

A coil of wire conductor with more than one turn is gen- Figure 11-22 Examples for determining the magnetic
erally called a solenoid. An ideal solenoid, however, has a polarity of a coil with direct current I. The I is electron flow.
length much greater than its diameter. Like a single loop, the The polarities are reversed in (a) and (b) because the battery
solenoid concentrates the magnetic field inside the coil and is reversed to reverse the direction of current. Also, (d ) is the
provides opposite magnetic poles at the ends. These effects opposite of (c) because of the reversed winding.
are multiplied, however, by the number of turns as the mag-
netic field lines aid each other in the same direction inside The magnetic polarity depends on the direction of current
the coil. Outside the coil, the field corresponds to a bar mag- flow and the direction of winding. The current is determined
net with north and south poles at opposite ends, as illustrated by the connections to the voltage source. Electron flow is
in Fig. 11-20. from the negative side of the voltage source, through the
coil, and back to the positive terminal.
Magnetic Polarity The direction of winding can be over and under, start-
ing from one end of the coil, or under and over with respect
To determine the magnetic polarity of a solenoid, use the
to the same starting point. Reversing either the direction of
left-hand rule illustrated in Fig. 11-21: If the coil is grasped
winding or the direction of current reverses the magnetic
with the fingers of the left hand curled around the coil in
poles of the solenoid. See Fig. 11-22. When both are re-
the direction of electron flow, the thumb points to the north
versed, though, the polarity is the same.
pole of the coil. The left hand is used here because the cur-
rent is electron flow. Use your right hand for conventional 11.13 Motor Action between
current flow. Two Magnetic Fields
The solenoid acts like a bar magnet, whether or not it has
The physical motion from the forces of magnetic fields is
an iron core. Adding an iron core increases the flux density
called motor action. One example is the simple attraction or
inside the coil. In addition, the field strength is uniform for
repulsion between bar magnets.
the entire length of the core. The polarity is the same, how-
We know that like poles repel and unlike poles attract. It
ever, for air-core and iron-core coils.
can also be considered that fields in the same direction repel
and opposite fields attract.
Consider the repulsion between two north poles, illus-
I
trated in Fig. 11-23. Similar poles have fields in the same
S N direction. Therefore, the similar fields of the two like poles
repel each other.
A more fundamental reason for motor action, however, is
the fact that the force in a magnetic field tends to produce mo-
tion from a stronger field toward a weaker field. In Fig. 11-23,
2 1 note that the field intensity is greatest in the space between
the two north poles. Here the field lines of similar poles in
Figure 11-21 Left-hand rule for north pole of a coil with both magnets reinforce in the same direction. Farther away
current I. The I is electron flow. the field intensity is less, for essentially one magnet only. As

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 Strong the perpendicular magnetic field produced by the current is
field
in the same plane as the external magnetic field.
Unless the two fields are in the same plane, they cannot
affect each other. In the same plane, however, lines of force
in the same direction reinforce to make a stronger field,
whereas lines in the opposite direction cancel and result in
Weaker Weaker
field field a weaker field.
To summarize these directions:
N Repulsion N
1. When the conductor is at 90°, or perpendicular to the
external field, the reaction between the two magnetic
fields is maximum.
2. When the conductor is at 0°, or parallel to the external
field, there is no effect between them.
3. When the conductor is at an angle between 0 and 90°,
Strong
field only the perpendicular component is effective.
Figure 11-23 Repulsion between similar poles of two bar In Fig. 11-24, electrons flow in the wire conductor in the
magnets. The motion is from the stronger field to the weaker field. plane of the paper from the bottom to the top of the page. This
flow provides the counterclockwise field HI around the wire in
a result, there is a difference in field strength, providing a net a perpendicular plane cutting through the paper. The external
force that tends to produce motion. The direction of motion field HM has lines of force from left to right in the plane of the
is always toward the weaker field. paper. Then lines of force in the two fields are parallel above
To remember the directions, we can consider that the and below the wire.
stronger field moves to the weaker field, tending to equalize Below the conductor, its field lines are left to right in the
field intensity. Otherwise, the motion would make the strong same direction as the external field. Therefore, these lines
field stronger and the weak field weaker. This must be im- reinforce to produce a stronger field. Above the conductor,
possible because then the magnetic field would multiply its the lines of the two fields are in opposite directions, causing
own strength without any work added. a weaker field. As a result, the net force of the stronger field
Force on a Straight Conductor makes the conductor move upward out of the page toward
in a Magnetic Field the weaker field.
Current in a conductor has its associated magnetic field. If electrons flow in the reverse direction in the conductor
When this conductor is placed in another magnetic field or if the external field is reversed, the motor action will be in
from a separate source, the two fields can react to produce the opposite direction. Reversing both the field and the cur-
motor action. The conductor must be perpendicular to the rent, however, results in the same direction of motion.
magnetic field, however, as shown in Fig. 11-24. This way, Rotation of a Conductor Loop
in a Magnetic Field
Upward
force When a loop of wire is in the magnetic field, opposite sides
HI
of the loop have current in opposite directions. Then the as-
Electron flow S
current sociated magnetic fields are opposite. The resulting forces
are upward on one side of the loop and downward on the
Conductor
other side, making it rotate. This effect of a force in produc-
ing rotation is called torque.
N
The principle of motor action between magnetic fields
Magnetic producing rotational torque is the basis of all electric mo-
field
HM
tors. Since torque is proportional to current, the amount of
rotation indicates how much current flows through the coil.

11.14 Induced Current

Figure 11-24 Motor action of current in a straight
conductor when it is in an external magnetic field. The H I is Just as electrons in motion provide an associated magnetic
the circular field of the current. The H M indicates field lines field, when magnetic flux moves, the motion of magnetic
between the north and south poles of the external magnet. lines cutting across a conductor forces free electrons in the

178 Chapter 11

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 B Field H How Induced Current Is Generated
The induced current can be considered the result of motor
I Magnet
N S moves
action between the external field H and the magnetic field
down of free electrons in every cross-sectional area of the wire.
Without an external field, the free electrons move at random
A without any specific direction, and they have no net mag-
netic field. When the conductor is in the magnetic field H,
I
mA
there still is no induction without relative motion, since
B A
the magnetic fields for the free electrons are not disturbed.
Microammeter
When the field or conductor moves, however, there must be a
reaction opposing the motion. The reaction is a flow of free
Figure 11-25 Induced current produced by magnetic electrons resulting from motor action on the electrons.
flux cutting across a conductor. Direction of I here is for Referring to Fig. 11-25, for example, the induced current
electron flow.
must flow in the direction shown because the field is moved
downward, pulling the magnet away from the conductor.
conductor to move, producing current. This action is called The induced current of electrons then has a clockwise field;
induction because there is no physical connection between lines of force aid H above the conductor and cancel H below.
the magnet and the conductor. The induced current is a result When motor action between the two magnetic fields tends to
of generator action as the mechanical work put into mov- move the conductor toward the weaker field, the conductor
ing the magnetic field is converted into electric energy when will be forced downward, staying with the magnet to oppose
current flows in the conductor. the work of pulling the magnet away from the conductor.
Referring to Fig. 11-25, let the conductor AB be placed The effect of electromagnetic induction is increased when
at right angles to the flux in the air gap of the horseshoe a coil is used for the conductor. Then the turns concentrate
magnet. Then, when the magnet is moved up or down, its more conductor length in a smaller area. As illustrated in
flux cuts across the conductor. The action of magnetic flux Fig. 11-26, moving the magnet into the coil enables the flux
cutting across the conductor generates current. The fact that to cut across many turns of conductors.
current flows is indicated by the microammeter.
When the magnet is moved downward, current flows in Lenz’s Law
the direction shown. If the magnet is moved upward, current Lenz’s law is the basic principle for determining the direction
will flow in the opposite direction. Without motion, there is of an induced voltage or current. Based on the principle of
no current. conservation of energy, the law simply states that the direction
of the induced current must be such that its own magnetic field
Direction of Motion will oppose the action that produced the induced current.
Motion is necessary for the flux lines of the magnetic field to In Fig. 11-26, for example, the induced current has the di-
cut across the conductor. This cutting can be accomplished by rection that produces a north pole at the left to oppose the
motion of either the field or the conductor. When the conduc- motion by repulsion of the north pole being moved in. This is
tor is moved upward or downward, it cuts across the flux. The why it takes some work to push the permanent magnet into the
generator action is the same as moving the field, except that coil. The work expended in moving the permanent magnet is
the relative motion is opposite. Moving the conductor upward, the source of energy for the current induced in the coil.
for instance, corresponds to moving the magnet downward. Using Lenz’s law, we can start with the fact that the left
end of the coil in Fig. 11-26 must be a north pole to oppose
Conductor Perpendicular to External Flux
To have electromagnetic induction, the conductor and the Motion
magnetic lines of flux must be perpendicular to each other. in
S N N S
Then the motion makes the flux cut through the cross-
sectional area of the conductor. As shown in Fig. 11-25, the
I
conductor is at right angles to the lines of force in the field H.
The reason the conductor must be perpendicular is to mA

make its induced current have an associated magnetic field

in the same plane as the external flux. If the field of the in- Figure 11-26 Induced current produced by magnetic flux
duced current does not react with the external field, there can cutting across turns of wire in a coil. Direction of I here is for
be no induced current. electron flow.

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 the motion. Then the direction of the induced current is deter- Motion
in
mined by the left-hand rule for electron flow. If the fingers coil S N N S
around the direction of electron flow shown, under and over
the winding, the thumb will point to the left for the north pole. I
For the opposite case, suppose that the north pole of the
A v ind B
permanent magnet in Fig. 11-26 is moved away from the coil. 2 1
Then the induced pole at the left end of the coil must be a Excess Deficiency
south pole by Lenz’s law. The induced south pole will at- electrons of electrons

tract the north pole to oppose the motion of the magnet being (a )
moved away. For a south pole at the left end of the coil, then,
the electron flow will be reversed from the direction shown
in Fig. 11-26. We could generate an alternating current in the Coil
coil by moving the magnet periodically in and out. Coil

1 RL
1 I
11.15 Generating an Induced Voltage v
Consider a magnetic flux cutting a conductor that is not in v
2
a closed circuit, as shown in Fig. 11-27. The motion of flux 2

across the conductor forces free electrons to move, but in an (b ) (c)

open circuit, the displaced electrons produce opposite elec-
tric charges at the two open ends. Figure 11-28 Voltage induced across coil cut by
For the directions shown, free electrons in the conductor magnetic flux. (a) Motion of flux generating voltage across
coil. (b) Induced voltage acts in series with the coil. (c) The
are forced to move to point A. Since the end is open, electrons induced voltage is a source that can produce current in an
accumulate here. Point A then develops a negative potential. external load resistor R L connected across the coil.
At the same time, point B loses electrons and becomes
charged positively. The result is a potential difference across
the two ends, provided by the separation of electric charges The polarity of the induced voltage follows from the direc-
in the conductor. tion of induced current. The end of the conductor to which the
The potential difference is an electromotive force (emf), electrons go and at which they accumulate is the negative side
generated by the work of cutting across the flux. You can of the induced voltage. The opposite end, with a deficiency of
measure this potential difference with a voltmeter. However, electrons, is the positive side. The total emf across the coil is
a conductor cannot store electric charge. Therefore, the volt- the sum of the induced voltages, since all the turns are in series.
age is present only while the motion of flux cutting across Furthermore, the total induced voltage acts in series with
the conductor is producing the induced voltage. the coil, as illustrated by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 11-28b,
showing the induced voltage as a separate generator. This
Induced Voltage across a Coil generator represents a voltage source with a potential differ-
For a coil, as in Fig. 11-28a, the induced emf is increased ence resulting from the separation of charges produced by
by the number of turns. Each turn cut by flux adds to the electromagnetic induction. The source v then can produce
induced voltage, since each turn cut forces free electrons to current in an external load circuit connected across the nega-
accumulate at the negative end of the coil with a deficiency tive and positive terminals, as shown in Fig. 11-28c.
of electrons at the positive end. The induced voltage is in series with the coil because cur-
rent produced by the generated emf must flow through all the
Deficiency of electrons turns. An induced voltage of 10 V, for example, with RL equal
B
1

to 5 V, results in a current of 2 A, which flows through the

I Magnet moves coil, the equivalent generator v, and the load resistance RL.
N S down The direction of current in Fig. 11-28c shows electron
flow around the circuit. Outside the source v, the electrons
2 Excess move from its negative terminal, through RL , and back to
A electrons the positive terminal of v because of its potential difference.
Inside the generator, however, the electron flow is from
v
the 1 terminal to the − terminal. This direction of elec-
1 2
tron flow results from the fact that the left end of the coil in
Figure 11-27 Voltage induced across open ends of Fig. 11-28a must be a north pole, by Lenz’s law, to oppose
conductor cut by magnetic flux. the north pole being moved in.

180 Chapter 11

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 Notice how motors and generators are similar in using As an example, if the flux  is 4 Wb one time but then
the motion of a magnetic field, but with opposite applica- changes to 6 Wb, the change in flux d is 2 Wb. The same
tions. In a motor, current is supplied so that an associated idea applies to a decrease as well as an increase. If the flux
magnetic field can react with the external flux to produce changed from 6 to 4 Wb, d would still be 2 Wb. However,
motion of the conductor. In a generator, motion must be an increase is usually considered a change in the positive
supplied so that the flux and conductor can cut across each direction, with an upward slope, whereas a decrease has a
other to induce voltage across the ends of the conductor. negative slope downward.
Similarly, dt means a change in time. If we consider the
Faraday’s Law of Induced Voltage
flux at a time 2 s after the start and at a later time 3 s after the
The voltage induced by magnetic flux cutting the turns of a start, the change in time is 3 – 2, or 1 s for dt. Time always
coil depends on the number of turns and how fast the flux increases in the positive direction.
moves across the conductor. Either the flux or the conduc- Combining the two factors of d and dt, we can say that
tor can move. Specifically, the amount of induced voltage is for magnetic flux increasing by 2 Wb in 1 s, dydt equals 2y1,
determined by the following three factors: or 2 Wbys. This states the rate of change of the magnetic flux.
1. Amount of flux. The more magnetic lines of force that As another example, suppose that the flux increases by
cut across the conductor, the higher the amount of in- 2 Wb in 0.5 s. Then
duced voltage.
d
___ 5 2 Wb 5 4 Wb/s
_____
2. Number of turns. The more turns in a coil, the higher dt 0.5 s
the induced voltage. The vind is the sum of all individ-
ual voltages generated in each turn in series. Polarity of the Induced Voltage
3. Time rate of cutting. The faster the flux cuts a conductor, The polarity is determined by Lenz’s law. Any induced volt-
the higher the induced voltage. Then more lines of force age has the polarity that opposes the change causing the in-
cut the conductor within a specific period of time. duction. Sometimes this fact is indicated by using a negative
These factors are fundamental in many applications. Any sign for vind in Formula (11-6). However, the absolute polarity
conductor with current will have voltage induced in it by a depends on whether the flux is increasing or decreasing, the
change in current and its associated magnetic flux. method of winding, and which end of the coil is the reference.
The amount of induced voltage can be calculated by When all these factors are considered, vind has polarity
Faraday’s law: such that the current it produces and the associated mag-
netic field oppose the change in flux producing the induced
d (webers)
vind 5 N __________ (11-6) voltage. If the external flux increases, the magnetic field of
dt (seconds)
the induced current will be in the opposite direction. If the
where N is the number of turns and dydt specifies how fast external field decreases, the magnetic field of the induced
the flux  cuts across the conductor. With dydt in webers current will be in the same direction as the external field to
per second, the induced voltage is in volts. oppose the change by sustaining the flux. In short, the in-
As an example, suppose that magnetic flux cuts across duced voltage has polarity that opposes the change.
300 turns at the rate of 2 Wbys.
To calculate the induced voltage,
11.16 Relays
d
vind 5 N ___
dt A relay is an electromechanical device that operates by elec-
5 300 3 2 tromagnetic induction. It uses either an ac- or a dc-actuated
electromagnet to open or close one or more sets of contacts.
vind 5 600 V Relay contacts that are open when the relay is not energized
It is assumed that all flux links all turns, which is true for an are called normally open (NO) contacts. Conversely, relay con-
iron core. tacts that are closed when the relay is not energized are called
normally closed (NC) contacts. Relay contacts are held in their
Rate of Change resting or normal position either by a spring or by some type of
The symbol d in d and dt is an abbreviation for change. gravity-actuated mechanism. In most cases, an adjustment of
The d means a change in the flux , and dt means a change the spring tension is provided to set the restraining force on the
in time. In mathematics, dt represents an infinitesimally normally open and normally closed contacts to some desired
small change in time, but in this book we are using the d to level based on predetermined circuit conditions.
mean rate of change in general. The results are exactly the Figure 11-29 shows the schematic symbols that are com-
same for the practical changes used here because the rate of monly used to represent relay contacts. Figure 11-29a shows
change is constant. the symbols used to represent normally open contacts, and

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 or or

(a ) (b)

Figure 11-29 Schematic symbols commonly used to Figure 11-31 Typical relay.
represent relay contacts. (a) Symbols used to represent
normally open (NO) contacts. (b) Symbols used to represent
Flexible Coil
normally closed (NC) contacts. magnetic
reed
Fig. 11-29b shows the symbols used to represent normally S
S
N
closed contacts. When normally open contacts close, they are N
said to make, whereas when normally closed contacts open, Contacts
Glass
they are said to break. Like mechanical switches, the switching tube
contacts of a relay can have any number of poles and throws. (NO)
Figure 11-30 shows the basic parts of an SPDT armature ⫺ DC voltage ⫹
relay. Terminal connections 1 and 2 provide connection to the
electromagnet (relay coil), and terminal connections 3, 4, and Figure 11-32 A read relay.
5 provide connections to the SPDT relay contacts that open
or close when the relay is energized. A relay is said to be en- housing. The two reeds overlap, and this region forms the con-
ergized when NO contacts close and NC contacts open. The tacts. A coil is placed around the glass tube. When the coil
movable arm of an electromechanical relay is called the ar- is energized by an external dc voltage, current flows and an
mature. The armature is magnetic and has contacts that make electromagnet is formed producing a magnetic field with the
or break with other contacts when the relay is energized. For polarity shown in the figure. This strong field magnetizes
example, when terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 11-30 are connected the two reeds, forming two miniature bar magnets as shown.
to a dc source, current flows in the relay coil and an electro- Because the contacts have opposite magnetic polarities, they
magnet is formed. If there is sufficient current in the relay attract each other and thereby contact. These NO contacts re-
coil, contacts 3 and 4 close (make) and contacts 4 and 5 open main touching until the external dc voltage is removed. With
(break). The armature is attracted whether the electromagnet no dc voltage, there is no longer a magnetic field and the two
produces a north or a south pole on the end adjacent to the reeds become demagnetized. Because the reeds are made of
armature. Figure 11-31 is a photo of a typical relay. a springlike material, they spring apart, opening the contacts.
Reed relays are used in lower-voltage, lower-power ap-
Reed Relay plications. They also work with a permanent bar magnet
Another popular type of relay is the reed relay. See Fig. 11-32. instead of an electromagnet. A reed relay without a coil is
It uses two thin reeds of magnetic material sealed in a glass sometimes used as a switch sensor that is activated by a per-
manent bar magnet. Such a sensor may be mounted on a
Armature
Tension adjusting screw window sill. A bar magnet on the window nearby keeps the
contacts closed. If the window is opened, the bar magnet
moves away and the contacts open. This condition is used
Spring in a security system to sense if a window is opened. Such a
Electromagnet
(Relay coil) sensor is called a proximity sensor.

1 2 3 5 4 Relay Specifications
Relay contacts Manufacturers of electromechanical relays always supply
a specification sheet for each of their relays. The specifica-
Figure 11-30 Basic parts of an SPDT armature relay. tion sheet contains voltage and current ratings for both the
Terminal connections 1 and 2 provide connection to the
electromagnet, and terminal connections 3, 4, and 5 provide relay coil and its switch contacts. The specification sheet
connections to the SPDT relay contacts which open or close also includes information regarding the location of the
when the relay is energized. relay coil and switching contact terminals. And finally, the

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 specification sheet will indicate whether the relay can be en- Control switch

ergized from either an ac or a dc source. The following is an

S1
explanation of a relay’s most important ratings.
Pickup voltage. The minimum amount of relay coil 1
V dc Relay coil Load
voltage necessary to energize or operate the relay. 2 SPST, NO
Pickup current. The minimum amount of relay coil
current necessary to energize or operate the relay.
Holding current. The minimum amount of current
V ac
required to keep a relay energized or operating. (The
holding current is less than the pickup current.) (a)

Dropout voltage. The maximum relay coil voltage at Control switch

which the relay is no longer energized.
S1
Contact voltage rating. The maximum voltage the
relay contacts can switch safely.
1
Contact current rating. The maximum current the V dc Relay coil Load
2 SPST, NC
relay contacts can switch safely.
(Open position)
Contact voltage drop. The voltage drop across the
closed contacts of a relay when operating.
Insulation resistance. The resistance measured across V ac
the relay contacts in the open position. (b)

Relay Applications Figure 11-33 Schematic diagrams for two relay systems.
(a) Open-circuit system. (b) Closed-circuit system.
Figure 11-33 shows schematic diagrams for two relay sys-
tems. The diagram in Fig. 11-33a represents an open-circuit
system. With the control switch S1 open, the SPST relay con- energize a remote starter relay located near the starter motor.
tacts are open and the load is inoperative. Closing S1 ener- The starter motor is a powerful dc motor with a gear assem-
gizes the relay. This closes the NO relay contacts and makes bly that spins the engine to give it a start. Such motors re-
the load operative. quire very high current, upwards of 100 A. The starter relay
Figure 11-33b represents a closed-circuit system. In this contacts can handle such current, whereas a manual ignition
case, the relay is energized by the control switch S1, which switch could not.
is closed during normal operation. With the relay energized,
the normally closed relay contacts are open and the load is Common Relay Troubles
inoperative. When it is desired to operate the load, the con- If a relay coil develops an open, the relay cannot be energized.
trol switch S1 is opened. This returns the relay contacts to The reason is simple. With an open relay coil, the current is
their normally closed position, thereby activating the load. zero and no magnetic field is set up by the electromagnet to
It is important to note that a relay can be energized using attract the armature. An ohmmeter can be used to check for
a low-voltage, low-power source. However, the relay contacts the proper relay coil resistance. An open relay coil measures
can be used to control a circuit whose load consumes much infinite (∞) resistance. Since it is usually not practical to re-
more power at a much higher voltage than the relay coil cir- pair an open relay coil, the entire relay must be replaced.
cuit. In fact, one of the main advantages of using a relay is its A common problem with relays is dirty or corroded
ability to switch or control very high power loads with a rela- switch contacts. The switch contacts develop a thin carbon
tively low amount of input power. In remote-control applica- coating after extended use from arcing across the contact
tions, a relay can control a high-power load a long distance terminals when they are opened and closed. Dirty switch
away much more efficiently than a mechanical switch can. contacts usually produce intermittent operation of the load
When a mechanical switch is used to control a high-power being controlled—for example, a motor. In some cases, the
load a long distance away, the I 2R power loss in the conduc- relay contacts may chatter (vibrate) if they are dirty.
tors carrying current to the load can become excessive. One final point: The manufacturer of a relay usually in-
A common example of such remote control is the starting dicates its life expectancy in terms of the number of times
system in a car or truck. The voltage source is the 12-V bat- the relay can be energized (operated). A typical value is
tery. A low-current, key-operated ignition switch is used to 5 million operations.

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 CHAPTER 11 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

DC Motors
A motor is one of those electrical devices we take for Direction
of rotation
granted. They are mostly invisible but everywhere. There
Pole of permanent Armature
are literally billions of motors in use around us. As an in- magnet coil
troductory exercise to this sidebar, take an inventory of the
motors you own and use daily. Write down all the motors
you can find. Include those in your home, car, and, if ap- N
plicable, work/office environment. You will be totally sur-
prised. Do it now. N S
Here is just a summary of what you should have found:
Commutator
S
• Home Motors
Refrigerator, washing machine, dryer, dishwasher, can
Arrow shows Pole
opener, blender, mixer. Air conditioner and heating sys- Brushes electron flow
tem, vacuum cleaner, analog clocks and watches, tooth ⫹ ⫺ direction
DC voltage
brush, shaver, hair dryer, vent fan, ceiling fans, hard
disk and DVD drives in computers, DVD/CD/VCR drive Figure S11-1 Permanent Magnet dc motor.
motors, PC cooling fans, printer, power tools (drill, saw,
etc.), garage door. Golf carts.
the dc voltage polarity to the armature to ensure that the
• Work Office Motors magnetic field is in the right direction to keep it rotating in
Copiers, fax machine, printers, hard disk and DVD one direction. The commutator segments make contact with
drives in PCs, industrial machines in factories, forklifts, fixed connections called brushes that connect to the dc volt-
robots, electric or hybrid car. age source.
• Car/Truck Motors In practical motors, there are many rotor windings and
Starter motor, windshield wipers, power windows, power commutator segments that provide a smoother continuous
seats, cooling fans, air-conditioning and heating fan mo- rotation.
tors, CD drive in radio/audio system, sun roof.
Many if not most of these motors have electronic circuits Wound-Field DC Motors
to control them. PM dc motors are used primarily for low-power applications
This sidebar introduces you to the most common types where the amount of horsepower and torque are relatively
of dc motors. A later sidebar will cover ac motors. low. For higher-power applications, a dc motor with a wound
field is used. A wound field refers to an electromagnetic field
produced by a coil instead of a PM.
Permanent Magnet Motor The magnetic field is produced by a winding on a set of
A common type of dc motor is the permanent magnet (PM) magnetic poles. This winding is connected to the dc volt-
motor. It uses a permanent magnet to produce the field. The age source along with the armature coil. The connection
rotating element called the armature is a coil of many turns may be in series or parallel, as shown in Fig. S11-2. The
of copper wire. When voltage is applied to the armature series connection (a) produces very high starting torque,
coil, a magnetic field is produced. That field interacts with but its speed is harder to control. The parallel connection
the PM field as shown in Fig. S11-1. Only one turn of wire (b) produces better speed control. Both series and parallel
is shown to simplify the illustration and explanation. The field coils can also be used together for improved speed
armature coil rotates inside the magnetic field between the and torque control.
PM poles. The attraction and repulsion of the magnetic The speed of a dc motor is a function of the armature
poles produce rotation. current in a dc motor. The higher the current, the stron-
Note the cylindrical segments attached to the armature ger the magnetic field and the stronger the interaction with
coil ends. These rotating electrical contacts are called the the fixed field. This increases speed. Controlling speed in
commutator. They act like a switch that constantly reverses electromagnetic fields is determined by both the armature

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 ⫹
Parallel or Stepper Motors
shunt
Series ⫹ field coils A stepper motor is a dc motor that works on the same mag-
field coils netic principles as other dc motors except that the motor
DC does not rotate in a smooth continuous motion. Instead, the
voltage DC
voltage M Armature motor rotates in steps or increments. To make this happen,
M Armature
the motor uses a special structure and pulses of dc instead of
a steady continuously applied dc voltage.
⫺ ⫺
Figure S11-3 shows a simple stepper motor design to illus-
(a) (b)
trate the principle. The motor is made up of fixed stator coils
Figure S11-2 Wound-field dc motors produce more that are electromagnets. The rotating element is the rotor, which
horsepower and torque. (a) Series-connected dc motor. is a permanent magnet. The stator coils are energized by a se-
(b) Shunt-controlled dc motor. quence of dc voltage pulses, as shown in Fig. S11-4. When the A
current and the field current. The higher the current, the voltage is on (Fig. S11-3a), the upper coil A is energized, creat-
greater the speed. ing a magnet that attracts the rotor bar magnet. All other coils
Direction of rotation of the motor shaft is determined by the are off at this time. The A pulse turns off, and the B voltage en-
direction of current flow in the armature. Reversing the polar- ergizes the B coil, pulling the rotor around 90° clockwise (Fig.
ity of the applied voltage reverses the direction of rotation. S11-3b). The sequence then continues as B goes off and C turns
Electromagnets Electromagnets
or stator coils or stator coils

N
A A
S

N Rotor

Shaft
S N
S N

D B
S D B

C
C

(b)
(a)
Electromagnets Electromagnets
or stator coils or stator coils

A
A

N S N S

D N B D B

S
C C
N

(c) (d)

Figure S11-3 Stepper motor operation. (a) 0° position: A coil energized; all others off.
(b) 90° position: B coil energized; all others off. (c) 180° position: C coil energized; all others
off. (d ) 270° position: D coil energized; all others off.

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 Electromagnets
or stator coils
A
N
A
S
B

N
C
S N

D S

Figure S11-4 DC voltage pulses used to operate the D B

stepper motor stator coils.
C
on, moving the rotor another 90° clockwise (Fig. S11-3c). The C
coil is deenergized, and D is turned on again, moving the rotor Figure S11-5 Half-stepping; 45° position. Both coils A
another 90° (Fig. S11-3d). Then the sequence repeats. and B energized.
The speed of rotation is based on how fast the dc pulses
occur or the pulse frequency. The width or duration of each Driver Stepper
transistors motor
pulse determines how long the rotor stays in that position.
A 90° stepper motor is impractical, as it is desirable to A ⫹12 V dc
have many smaller steps for smoother operation. One way
Programmed
to produce more steps is the use what is called half-stepping, microcontroller B
where two of the coils are energized at the same time. Fig- or
Stepper motor
ure S11-5 shows how coils A and B can be energized simul- sequencer C
taneously. Each coil attracts the rotor equally, so the rotor
positions itself halfway between the A and B coils, creating D

45° steps. The stator coil pulse sequences are modified to

produce the desired half-step operation.
Modern stepper motors use more stator coils and have a Figure S11-6 Stepper motor control circuits.
rotor that is more like a gear where the teeth are permanent
magnets. With this arrangement, step increments of 1.8, 3.6, steps. By using multiple stator coils, multiple rotor magnets,
and 7.5° increments are possible. and unique pulse sequences, the motor can be made to ro-
The pulse sequences are usually generated by a pro- tate continuously. In some variations, the permanent mag-
grammed microcontroller chip or a special stepper motor net rotor is outside or surrounding the stator coils. Special
sequencer chip. Transistors operated by the microcontroller electronic circuitry in the form of programmable microcon-
or stepper chip turn the stator coils off and on. Figure S11-6 troller and driver circuits are needed, but these are inexpen-
shows typical circuitry. sive and commonly available. The BLDC motor does not
have a commutator and brushes that produce sparking and
Brushless DC Motors electrical noise, and the brushes do not wear out. BLDC mo-
A brushless dc (BLDC) motor is a variation of the step- tors are used in computer disk drives, fans, and other places
per motor that produces a continuous rotation rather than where standard dc motors are used.

CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The maxwell (Mx) is a unit of 2. With bar magnets,

a. flux density. a. like poles attract each other and unlike poles repel
b. permeability. each other.
c. magnetic flux. b. unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel
d. field intensity. each other.

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 c. there are no north or south poles on the ends of the c. Hall effect.
magnet. d. diamagnetic.
d. none of the above. 11. If the north (N) pole of a permanent magnet is placed
3. The tesla (T) is a unit of near a piece of soft iron, what is the polarity of the
a. flux density. nearest induced pole?
b. magnetic flux. a. South (S) pole.
c. permeability. b. North (N) pole.
d. magnetomotive force. c. It could be either a north (N) or a south (S) pole.
4. 1 maxwell (Mx) is equal to d. It is impossible to determine.
a. 1 3 108 Wb. 12. A magnet that requires current in a coil to create the
b. 1_____
Wb . magnetic field is called a(n)
m2 a. permanent magnet.
c. 1 3 104 G. b. electromagnet.
d. one magnetic field line. c. solenoid.
5. 1 Wb is equal to d. either b or c.
a. 1 3 108 Mx. 13. The point at which a magnetic material loses its
b. one magnetic field line. ferromagnetic properties is called the
1 Mx .
c. _____ a. melting point.
cm2 b. freezing point.
d. 1 3 104 kG. c. Curie temperature.
6. The electric or magnetic effect of one body on another d. leakage point.
without any physical contact between them is called 14. A material that becomes strongly magnetized in the
a. its permeability. same direction as the magnetizing field is classified as
b. induction. a. diamagnetic.
c. the Hall effect. b. ferromagnetic.
d. hysteresis. c. paramagnetic.
7. A commercial permanent magnet will last indefinitely d. toroidal.
if it is not subjected to 15. Which of the following materials are nonmagnetic?
a. a strong demagnetizing field. a. Air.
b. physical shock. b. Wood.
c. high temperatures. c. Glass.
d. all of the above. d. All of the above.
8. What is the name for a nonmetallic material that has 16. The gauss (G) is a unit of
the ferromagnetic properties of iron? a. flux density.
a. lodestone. b. magnetic flux.
b. toroid. c. permeability.
c. ferrite. d. none of the above.
d. solenoid.
17. One gauss (G) is equal to
9. One tesla (T) is equal to 1 Mx .
1 Mx . a. _____
a. _____ m2
m2
1 Mx . b. 1_____
Wb .
b. _____ cm2
cm2 1 Mx .
c. _____
c. 1_____
Wb . cm2
m2
d. 1_____
Wb .
m
d. 1_____
Wb .
cm2
18. 1 Wb equals
10. The ability of a material to concentrate magnetic flux a. 1 3 108 Mx.
is called its b. 10,000 Mx.
a. induction. c. 1 3 10 −8 Mx.
b. permeability. d. 100 Mx.

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 19. A toroid 27. A coil with 1000 turns must provide an mmf of
a. is an electromagnet. 50 A∙t. The required current is
b. has no magnetic poles. a. 5 mA.
c. uses iron for the core around which the coil is b. 0.5 A.
wound. c. 50 A.
d. all of the above. d. 50 mA.
20. When a small voltage is generated across the width of 28. The left-hand rule for solenoids states that
a conductor carrying current in an external magnetic a. if the fingers of the left hand encircle the coil in the
field, the effect is called same direction as electron flow, the thumb points
a. the Doppler effect. in the direction of the north pole.
b. the Miller effect. b. if the thumb of the left hand points in the direction
c. the Hall effect. of current flow, the fingers point toward the north
d. the Schultz effect. pole.
21. The weber (Wb) is a unit of c. if the fingers of the left hand encircle the coil in the
a. magnetic flux. same direction as electron flow, the thumb points
b. flux density. in the direction of the south pole.
c. permeability. d. if the thumb of the right hand points in the direc-
d. none of the above. tion of electron flow, the fingers point in the direc-
tion of the north pole.
22. The flux density in the iron core of an electromagnet
is 0.25 T. When the iron core is removed, the flux 29. The physical motion resulting from the forces of two
density drops to 62.5 3 1026 T. What is the relative magnetic fields is called
permeability of the iron core? a. Lenz’s law.
a. r 5 4. b. motor action.
b. r 5 250. c. the left-hand rule for coils.
c. r 5 4000. d. integration.
d. It is impossible to determine. 30. Motor action always tends to produce motion from
23. What is the flux density, B, for a magnetic flux of a. a stronger field toward a weaker field.
500 Mx through an area of 10 cm2? b. a weaker field toward a stronger field.
a. 50 3 10 −3 T. c. a north pole toward a south pole.
b. 50 G. d. none of the above.
c. 5000 G. 31. A conductor will have an induced current or voltage
d. Both a and b. only when there is
24. The geographic North Pole of the earth has a. a stationary magnetic field.
a. no magnetic polarity. b. a stationary conductor.
b. south magnetic polarity. c. relative motion between the wire and magnetic
c. north magnetic polarity. field.
d. none of the above. d. both a and b.
25. With an electromagnet, 32. The polarity of an induced voltage is
a. more current and more coil turns mean a stronger determined by
magnetic field. a. motor action.
b. less current and fewer coil turns mean a stronger b. Lenz’s law.
magnetic field. c. the number of turns in the coil.
c. if there is no current in the coil, there is no mag- d. the amount of current in the coil.
netic field. 33. For a relay, the pickup current is defined as
d. Both a and c. a. the maximum current rating of the relay coil.
26. A current of 20 mA flowing through a coil with b. the minimum relay coil current required to keep a
500 turns produces an mmf of relay energized.
a. 100 A∙t. c. the minimum relay coil current required to ener-
b. 1 A∙t. gize a relay.
c. 10 A∙t. d. the minimum current in the switching contacts.
d. 7.93 A∙t.

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 34. The movable arm of an attraction-type relay is called 40. For a single conductor carrying an alternating current,
the the associated magnetic field is
a. contacts. a. only on the top side.
b. relay coil. b. parallel to the direction of current.
c. terminal. c. at right angles to the direction of current.
d. armature. d. only on the bottom side.
35. For a conductor being moved through a magnetic 41. A coil with 200 mA of current has an mmf of 80 A? t.
field, the amount of induced voltage is determined by How many turns does the coil have?
a. the rate at which the conductor cuts the magnetic flux. a. 4000 turns.
b. the number of magnetic flux lines that are cut by b. 400 turns.
the conductor. c. 40 turns.
c. the time of day during which the conductor is d. 16 turns.
moved through the field. 42. The magnetic field surrounding a solenoid is
d. both a and b. a. like that of a permanent magnet.
36. Degaussing is done with b. unable to develop north and south poles.
a. strong permanent magnets. c. one without magnetic flux lines.
b. alternating current. d. unlike that of a permanent magnet.
c. static electricity. 43. For a relay, the holding current is defined as
d. direct current. a. the maximum current the relay contacts can handle.
37. Hysteresis losses b. the minimum amount of relay coil current required
a. increase with higher frequencies. to keep a relay energized.
b. decrease with higher frequencies. c. the minimum amount of relay coil current required
c. are greater with direct current. to energize a relay.
d. increase with lower frequencies. d. the maximum current required to operate a relay.
38. The saturation of an iron core occurs when 44. A vertical wire with electron flow into this page has
a. all of the molecular dipoles and magnetic domains an associated magnetic field which is
are aligned by the magnetizing force. a. clockwise.
b. the coil is way too long. b. counterclockwise.
c. the flux density cannot be increased in the core c. parallel to the wire.
when the field intensity is increased. d. none of the above.
d. both a and c. 45. How much is the induced voltage when a magnetic
39. The unit of field intensity is the flux cuts across 150 turns at the rate of 5 Wb/s?
a. oersted. a. 7.5 kV.
b. gilbert. b. 75 V.
c. A? t/m. c. 750 V.
d. both a and c. d. 750 mV.

CHAPTER 11 ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Name two magnetic materials and three nonmagnetic 5. Give the symbols, cgs units, and SI units for magnetic
materials. flux and for flux density.
2. Explain the difference between a permanent magnet 6. How are the north and south poles of a bar magnet
and an electromagnet. determined with a magnetic compass?
3. Draw a horseshoe magnet and its magnetic field. 7. What is the difference between flux  and flux
Label the magnetic poles, indicate the air gap, and density B?
show the direction of flux. 8. Draw a diagram showing two conductors connect-
4. Define relative permeability, shielding, induction, and ing a battery to a load resistance through a closed
Hall voltage. switch. (a) Show the magnetic field of the current

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 in the negative side of the line and in the positive 14. Assume that a conductor being cut by the flux of an
side. (b) Where do the two fields aid? Where do they expanding magnetic field has 10 V induced with the
oppose? top end positive. Now analyze the effect of the fol-
9. State the rule for determining the magnetic polarity lowing changes: (a) The magnetic flux continues to
of a solenoid. (a) How can the polarity be reversed? expand, but at a slower rate. How does this affect the
(b) Why are there no magnetic poles when the current amount of induced voltage and its polarity? (b) The
through the coil is zero? magnetic flux is constant, neither increasing nor de-
creasing. How much is the induced voltage? (c) The
10. Why does the motor action between two magnetic
magnetic flux contracts, cutting across the conductor
fields result in motion toward the weaker field?
with the opposite direction of motion. How does this
11. Why does current in a conductor perpendicular to affect the polarity of the induced voltage?
this page have a magnetic field in the plane of the
15. Assume that you have a relay whose pickup and hold-
paper?
ing current values are unknown. Explain how you can
12. Why must the conductor and the external field be determine their values experimentally.
perpendicular to each other to have motor action or to
16. List two factors that determine the strength of an
generate induced voltage?
electromagnet.
13. Explain briefly how either motor action or generator
17. What is meant by magnetic hysteresis?
action can be obtained with the same conductor in a
magnetic field. 18. What is meant by the saturation of an iron core?

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 Ch a pt er 12
DC Testing with Analog and
Digital Multimeters

Learning Outcomes The digital multimeter (DMM) is the most common

measuring instrument used by electronics technicians.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: All DMMs can measure dc and ac voltage, current,
Explain the difference between analog and digital and resistance, and some can even measure and test
meters.
electronic components such as capacitors, diodes, and
Explain the construction and operation of a transistors. A DMM uses a numeric display to indicate
moving-coil meter.
the value of the measured quantity.
Calculate the value of shunt resistance required to An analog multimeter uses a moving pointer and a
extend the current range of a basic moving-coil meter.
printed scale. Like a DMM, an analog multimeter can
Calculate the value of multiplier resistance measure voltage, current, and resistance. One disad-
required to make a basic moving-coil meter
vantage of an analog multimeter, however, is that the
capable of measuring voltage.
meter reading must be interpreted based on where
Explain the ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter.
the moving pointer rests along the printed scale. Al-
Explain what is meant by voltmeter loading. though analog multimeters find somewhat limited use
Explain how a basic moving-coil meter can be in electronics, there is great value in understanding their
used with a battery to construct an ohmmeter. basic construction and operation. One of the main rea-
List the main features of a digital multimeter (DMM) sons for covering analog meters is that the concepts

191

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 of series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits learned and operation of an analog meter as well as a concept
earlier are applied. In this chapter, therefore, you will called voltmeter loading. You will also learn about the
be provided with a basic overview of the construction main features of a DMM.

12.1 Moving-Coil Meter

Figure 12-1 shows two types of multimeters used by elec-
tronics technicians. Figure 12-1a shows an analog volt-
ohm-milliammeter (VOM), and Fig. 12-1b shows a digital
multimeter (DMM). Both types are capable of measuring
voltage, current, and resistance.
A moving-coil meter movement is generally used in an
analog VOM. The construction consists of a coil of fine wire
wound on a drum mounted between the poles of a permanent
magnet. When direct current flows in the coil, the magnetic
field of the current reacts with the magnetic field of the per-
manent magnet.* The resultant force turns the drum with its
pointer, winding up the restoring spring. When the current
is removed, the pointer returns to zero. The amount of de-
flection indicates the amount of current in the coil. When the
polarity is connected correctly, the pointer will read up-scale,
to the right; the incorrect polarity forces the pointer off-scale,
to the left.
The pointer deflection is directly proportional to the
amount of current in the coil. If 100 ␮A is the current
needed for full-scale deflection, 50 ␮A in the coil will pro- (a)

duce half-scale deflection. The accuracy of the moving-coil

meter mechanism is 0.1–2%.

Values of I M
The full-scale deflection current IM is the amount needed to
deflect the pointer all the way to the right to the last mark on
the printed scale. Typical values of IM are from about 10 ␮A
to 30 mA. In a VOM, the IM is typically either 50 ␮A or 1 mA.
Refer to the analog VOM in Fig. 12-1a. The mirror along
the scale is used to eliminate reading errors. The meter is
read when the pointer and its mirror reflection appear as one.
This eliminates the optical error called parallax caused by
looking at the meter from the side.

Values of rM
The internal resistance of the wire of the moving coil is rep-
resented by r M. Typical values range from 1.2  for a 30-mA
movement to 2000  for a 50-␮A movement. A movement

(b)

* For more details on the interaction between two magnetic fields, see Chap. 11, Figure 12-1 Typical multimeters used for measuring V, I,
“Magnetism.” and R. (a) Analog VOM. (b) DMM.

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 Upper Permanent
bearing magnet
Pointer

Pole
piece

Aluminum bobbin

Moving coil

Lower control spring

Figure 12-2 Close-up view of a moving-coil meter movement.

with a smaller IM has a higher r M because many more turns where the current is 2 mA, this total current into one terminal
of fine wire are needed. An average value of r M for a 1-mA of the meter divides equally between the shunt and the meter
movement is about 50 . Figure 12-2 provides a close-up movement. At the opposite meter terminal, these two branch
view of the basic components contained within a meter currents combine to provide the 2 mA of the circuit current.
movement. Notice that the moving coil is wound around a Inside the meter, the current is 1 mA through the shunt
drum which rotates when direct current flows through the and 1 mA through the moving coil. Since it is a 1-mA move-
wire of the moving coil. ment, this current produces full-scale deflection. The scale
is doubled, however, reading 2 mA, to account for the addi-
12.2 Meter Shunts tional 1 mA through the shunt. Therefore, the scale reading
A meter shunt is a precision resistor connected across the indicates total current at the meter terminals, not just coil
meter movement for the purpose of shunting, or bypassing, current. The movement with its shunt, then, is a 2-mA meter.
a specific fraction of the circuit’s current around the meter Its internal resistance is 50  1⁄2  25 .
movement. The combination then provides a current meter Another example is shown in Fig. 12-4. In general, the
with an extended range. The shunts are usually inside the shunt resistance for any range can be calculated with Ohm’s
meter case. However, the schematic symbol for the current law from the formula
meter usually does not show the shunt. VM
RS  _ (12-1)
In current measurements, the parallel bank of the move- IS
ment with its shunt is connected as a current meter in series where RS is the resistance of the shunt and IS is the current
in the circuit (Fig. 12-3). Note that the scale of a meter with through it.
an internal shunt is calibrated to take into account the cur- Voltage VM is equal to IM  r M. This is the voltage across
rent through both the shunt and the meter movement. There- both the shunt and the meter movement, which are in parallel.
fore, the scale reads total circuit current.
Calculating IS
Resistance of the Meter Shunt
This current through the shunt alone is the difference be-
In Fig. 12-3b, the 1-mA movement has a resistance of 50 , tween the total current IT through the meter and the divided
which is the resistance of the moving coil rM. To double the current IM through the movement or
range, the shunt resistance RS is made equal to the 50  of the
movement. When the meter is connected in series in a circuit IS  IT  IM (12-2)

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 Milliammeter Use the values of current for full-scale deflection, as these
50
100

30 40
150

50 60 70
200
are known. In Fig. 12-4,
2
80 25
0 20 0
90
10 10

1
0 DC volts 0

0 2
IS  5  1  4 mA or 0.004 A
1 2

Calculating RS
Internal shunt RS
The complete procedure for using the formula RS  VM yIS
can be as follows:
R1 1. Find VM. Calculate this for full-scale deflection as
I 5 2 mA
IM  r M. In Fig. 12-4, with a 1-mA full-scale current
through the 50- movement,
(a)
VM  0.001  50  0.05 V or 50 mV
2. Find IS. For the values that are shown in Fig. 12-4,
IT 5 2 mA
IS  5 − 1  4 mA  0.004 A or 4 mA
IS 5 1 mA IM 5 1 mA
3. Divide VM by IS to find RS. For the final result,
1 RS 5 rM 5
RS  0.05y0.004  12.5 
V 50 V 50 V
mA
2 This shunt enables the 1-mA movement to be used for an
extended range from 0 to 5 mA.
Note that R S and r M are inversely proportional to their
full-scale currents. The 12.5  for RS equals one-fourth
R1
IT 5 2 mA the 50  of r M because the shunt current of 4 mA is four
times the 1 mA through the movement for full-scale
(b) deflection.
The shunts usually are precision wire-wound resistors.
For very low values, a short wire of precise size can be used.
I 5 2 mA Since the moving-coil resistance, r M, is in parallel with
1 the shunt resistance, RS, the resistance of a current meter can
V mA
2
be calculated as
R1 R r
RM  _S
R r
M
.
S M

(c) In general, a current meter should have very low resistance

compared with the circuit where the current is being mea-
Figure 12-3 Example of meter shunt RS in bypassing
current around the movement to extend the range from 1 sured. As a general rule, the current meter’s resistance should
to 2 mA. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram showing be no greater than 1⁄100 of the circuit resistance. The higher
the effect of the shunt. With RS  rM the current range is the current range of a meter, the lower its shunt resistance, RS,
doubled. (c) Circuit with 2-mA meter to read the current. and in turn the overall meter resistance, RM.

I T 5 5 mA
EXAMPLE 12-1
A shunt extends the range of a 50-␮A meter movement to 1
IS 5 4 mA IM 5 1 mA
1 mA. How much is the current through the shunt at full-scale
RS 5 0.05 V RS 5
rM 5 V M 5 IM rM 5 0.05 V deflection?
0.004 A 12.5 V mA
50 V
Answer:
2
All currents must be in the same units for Formula (12-2). To avoid
IT 5 5 mA fractions, use 1000 ␮A for the 1-mA IT. Then
IS  IT  IM  1000 ␮A  50 ␮A
Figure 12-4 Calculating the resistance of a meter shunt. IS  950 ␮A
RS is equal to VM/I S. See text for calculations.

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 R1 5
EXAMPLE 12-2 9950 V
1
A 50-␮A meter movement has an rM of 1000 . What RS is
needed to extend the range to 500 ␮A? 1
1
Answer: 10 V 10 V 1-mA movement mA
2 rM 5 50 V
The shunt current IS is 500  50, or 450 ␮A. Then
2
VM I 5 1 mA
RS  _ 2
IS
50  106 A  103   _
 __
50,000 (a)
450  106 A 450
RS  111.1 . Voltmeter —10 V for full scale

R1 5
9950 V 1
multiplier
12.3 Voltmeters mA
1 2
Although a meter movement responds only to current in
Voltmeter leads
1-mA movement 2
the moving coil, it is commonly used for measuring volt- connect across
rM 5 50 V
circuit
age by the addition of a high resistance in series with the
movement (Fig. 12-5). The series resistance must be much
higher than the coil resistance to limit the current through (b )
the coil. The combination of the meter movement with this
added series resistance then forms a voltmeter. The series
resistor, called a multiplier, is usually connected inside the 4 6
voltmeter case. 2 8
Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it must be con- 0.4 0.6 10
0.8
0 0.2 V
nected in parallel to measure the potential difference across 1.0
0 m
two points in a circuit. Otherwise, the high-resistance mul- A

tiplier would add so much series resistance that the current

in the circuit would be reduced to a very low value. Con-
nected in parallel, though, the high resistance of the volt- (c)
meter is an advantage. The higher the voltmeter resistance,
the smaller the effect of its parallel connection on the circuit Figure 12-5 Multiplier resistor R 1 added in series with
meter movement to form a voltmeter. (a) Resistance of R 1
being tested. allows 1 mA for full-scale deflection in 1-mA movement with
The circuit is not opened to connect the voltmeter in par- 10 V applied. (b) Internal multiplier R 1 forms a voltmeter. The
allel. Because of this convenience, it is common practice to test leads can be connected across a potential difference
make voltmeter tests in troubleshooting. The voltage mea- to measure 0 to 10 V. (c) 10-V scale of voltmeter and
surements apply the same way to an IR drop or a generated corresponding 1-mA scale of meter movement.
emf.
The correct polarity must be observed in using a dc volt- With 1 mA in the movement, the full-scale deflection
meter. Connect the negative voltmeter lead to the negative can be calibrated as 10 V on the meter scale, as long as the
side of the potential difference being measured and the posi- 9950- multiplier is included in series with the movement. It
tive lead to the positive side. doesn’t matter to which side of the movement the multiplier
is connected.
Multiplier Resistance If the battery is taken away, as in Fig. 12-5b, the move-
Figure 12-5 illustrates how the meter movement and its mul- ment with its multiplier forms a voltmeter that can indicate a
tiplier R1 form a voltmeter. With 10 V applied by the battery potential difference of 0 to 10 V applied across its terminals.
in Fig. 12-5a, there must be 10,000  of resistance to limit When the voltmeter leads are connected across a potential
the current to 1 mA for full-scale deflection of the meter move- difference of 10 V in a dc circuit, the resulting 1-mA current
ment. Since the movement has a 50- resistance, 9950  through the meter movement produces full-scale deflection,
is added in series, resulting in a 10,000- total resistance. and the reading is 10 V. In Fig. 12-5c, the 10-V scale is
Then I is 10 Vy10 k  1 mA. shown corresponding to the 1-mA range of the movement.

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 If the voltmeter is connected across a 5-V potential dif- the value of R1 is 50,000  2000, which equals 48,000 
ference, the current in the movement is ½ mA, the deflection or 48 k.
is one-half of full scale, and the reading is 5 V. Zero voltage For the 10-V range, a resistance of 10兾(50  106), or
across the terminals means no current in the movement, and 200,000 , is needed. Since R1  r M provides 50,000 ,
the voltmeter reads zero. In summary, then, any potential R2 is made 150,000 , for a total of 200,000- series re-
difference up to 10 V, whether an IR voltage drop or a gen- sistance on the 10-V range. Similarly, additional resistors
erated emf, can be applied across the meter terminals. The are switched in to increase the multiplier resistance for the
meter will indicate less than 10 V in the same ratio that the higher voltage ranges. Note the separate jack and extra mul-
meter current is less than 1 mA. tiplier R6 on the highest range for 5000 V. This method of
The resistance of a multiplier can be calculated from the adding series multipliers for higher voltage ranges is the cir-
formula cuit generally used in commercial multimeters.
full-scale V  r
Rmult  __ (12-3)
full-scale I M Voltmeter Resistance
Applying this formula to the example of R1 in Fig. 12-5 gives The high resistance of a voltmeter with a multiplier is essen-
tially the value of the multiplier resistance. Since the multiplier
Rmult  _10 V  50   10,000  50 is changed for each range, the voltmeter resistance changes.
0.001 A
Rmult  9950  or 9.95 k Ohms-per-Volt Rating
We can take another example for the same 10-V scale but To indicate the voltmeter’s resistance independently of the
with a 50-␮A meter movement, which is commonly used. range, analog voltmeters are generally rated in ohms of re-
Now the multiplier resistance is much higher, though, be- sistance needed for 1 V of deflection. This value is the ohms-
cause less I is needed for full-scale deflection. Let the resis- per-volt rating of the voltmeter. If a meter needs 50,000-
tance of the 50-␮A movement be 2000 . Then RV for 2.5 V of full-scale deflection, the resistance per 1 V
of deflection then is 50,000y2.5, which equals 20,000  / V.
Rmult  __ 10 V  2000   200,000  2000 The ohms-per-volt value is the same for all ranges because
0.000 050 A this characteristic is determined by the full-scale current IM
Rmult  198,000  or 198 k of the meter movement. To calculate the ohms-per-volt rat-
ing, take the reciprocal of IM in ampere units. For example,
Typical Multiple Voltmeter Circuit a 1-mA movement results in 1y0.001 or 1000  / V; a 50-␮A
An example of a voltmeter with multiple voltage ranges is movement allows 20,000  / V, and a 20-␮A movement al-
shown in Fig. 12-6. Resistance R1 is the series multiplier for lows 50,000  / V. The ohms-per-volt rating is also called the
the lowest voltage range of 2.5 V. When higher resistance is sensitivity of the voltmeter.
needed for the higher ranges, the switch adds the required A higher ohms-per-volt rating means a higher voltmeter
series resistors. resistance RV. The RV can be calculated as the product of the
The meter in Fig. 12-6 requires 50 ␮A for full-scale ohms-per-volt rating and the full-scale voltage of each range.
deflection. For the 2.5-V range, a series resistance of Usually the ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter is printed
2.5y(50  106), or 50,000 , is needed. Since r M is 2000 , on the meter face.

R5 5 R4 5 R3 5 R2 5 R1 5 rM 5 2000 V
15 MV 4 MV 800 kV 150 kV 48 kV
1 2
50 m A

50 V
250 V 10 V

1000 V 2.5 V

R6 5 Range
80 MV switch

5000 V 1 Voltmeter Leads 2

Figure 12-6 A typical voltmeter circuit with multiplier resistors for

different ranges.

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 12.4 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter voltage of 120 V. The two equal resistances of 100 k each
When the voltmeter resistance is not high enough, connect- divide the applied voltage equally, with 60 V across each.
ing it across a circuit can reduce the measured voltage, com- When the voltmeter in Fig. 12-7b is connected across R2
pared with the voltage present without the voltmeter. This to measure its potential difference, however, the voltage di-
effect is called loading down the circuit, since the measured vision changes. The voltmeter resistance RV of 100 k is the
voltage decreases because of the additional load current for value for a 1000-ohms-per-volt meter on the 100-V range.
the meter. Now the voltmeter in parallel with R2 draws additional cur-
rent, and the equivalent resistance between the measured
Loading Effect points 1 and 2 is reduced from 100,000 to 50,000 . This
Voltmeter loading can be appreciable in high-resistance cir- resistance is one-third the total circuit resistance, and the
cuits, as shown in Fig. 12-7. In Fig. 12-7a, without the volt- measured voltage across points 1 and 2 drops to 40 V, as
meter, R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the applied shown in Fig. 12-7c.
As additional current drawn by the voltmeter flows
R1 5 through the series resistance R1, this voltage goes up to 80 V.
100 kV
1 Similarly, if the voltmeter were connected across R1, this
60 V voltage would go down to 40 V, with the voltage across R2
rising to 80 V. When the voltmeter is disconnected, the cir-
1
R2 5 cuit returns to the condition in Fig. 12-7a, with 60 V across
VT 5 120 V 60 V
100 kV both R1 and R2.
2
The loading effect is minimized by using a voltmeter with
a resistance much greater than the resistance across which
2
the voltage is measured. As shown in Fig. 12-8, with a volt-
meter resistance of 10 M, the loading effect is negligible.
(a)
Because RV is so high, it does not change the voltage division
R1 5 in the circuit. The 10 M of the meter in parallel with the
100 kV
1
R1 5
100 kV
1
RV 5
100 kV 1
1 60 V
R2 5
VT 5 120 V V
100 kV
1
2 R2 5
2 VT 5 120 V 60 V
100 kV
2

(b)
2

R1 5 (a )
100 kV
1
R1 5
80 V 100 kV
1

1 60 V
R2V 5
VT 5 120 V 40 V
50 kV
2 1
R2 5 RV 5
VT 5 120 V 100 kV 60 V V 10 MV
2

(c)
2
Figure 12-7 How the loading effect of the voltmeter can (b)
reduce the voltage reading. (a) High-resistance series circuit
without voltmeter. (b) Connecting voltmeter across one of Figure 12-8 Negligible loading effect with a high-
the series resistances. (c) Reduced R and V between points resistance voltmeter. (a) High-resistance series circuit without
1 and 2 caused by the voltmeter as a parallel branch across voltmeter, as in Fig. 12-7a. (b) Same voltages in circuit with
R2. The R2V is the equivalent of R2 and R V in parallel. voltmeter connected because R V is so high.

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 100,000  for R2 results in an equivalent resistance practi- R1 5 1450 V

cally equal to 100,000 . 1

With multiple ranges on a VOM, the voltmeter resistance IM 5 1 mA
M
changes with the range selected. Higher ranges require more rM 5 50 V

multiplier resistance, increasing the voltmeter resistance for 2

less loading. As examples, a 20,000-ohms-per-volt meter on
the 250-V range has an internal resistance RV of 20,000  1.5 V
250, or 5 M. However, on the 2.5-V range, the same meter
has an RV of 20,000  2.5, which is only 50,000 .
On any one range, though, the voltmeter resistance is (a)
constant whether you read full-scale or less than full-scale
deflection. The reason is that the multiplier resistance set Ohmmeter

by the range switch is the same for any reading on that

range. 1 R1 5 1450 V

Correction for Loading Effect M rM 5 50 V

The following formula can be used to correct for a loading 2

effect:
Actual reading  correction 1.5 V
Ohmmeter
leads
R1R2
V  VM  __ V (12-4)
RV(R1  R2) M
Voltage V is the corrected reading the voltmeter would show (b)

if it had infinitely high resistance. Voltage VM is the actual Figure 12-9 How meter movement M can be used as
voltage reading. Resistances R1 and R2 are the voltage-divid- an ohmmeter with a 1.5-V battery. (a) Equivalent closed circuit
ing resistances in the circuit without the voltmeter resistance with R 1 and the battery when ohmmeter leads are short-
RV. As an example, in Fig. 12-7, circuited for zero ohms of external R. (b) Internal ohmmeter
circuit with test leads open, ready to measure an external
100 k  100 k   40V
V  40 V   __ resistance.
100 k  200 k
1  40  40  20
 40   _
2 The amount of deflection on the ohms scale indicates the
V  60 V measured resistance directly. The ohmmeter reads up-scale
regardless of the polarity of the leads because the polarity
The loading effect of a voltmeter causes too low a voltage of the internal battery determines the direction of current
reading because RV is too low as a parallel resistance. This through the meter movement.
corresponds to the case of a current meter reading too low
because RM is too high as a series resistance. Both of these Series Ohmmeter Circuit
effects illustrate the general problem of trying to make any In Fig. 12-9a, the circuit has 1500  for (R1  r M). Then the
measurement without changing the circuit being measured. 1.5-V cell produces 1 mA, deflecting the moving coil full-
Note that the digital multimeter (DMM) has practically scale. When these components are enclosed in a case, as in
no loading effect as a voltmeter. The input resistance is usu- Fig. 12-9b, the series circuit forms an ohmmeter. Note that
ally 10 M or 20 M, the same on all ranges. M indicates the meter movement.
If the leads are short-circuited together or connected
12.5 Ohmmeters across a short circuit, as in Fig. 12-9a, 1 mA flows. The
An ohmmeter consists of an internal battery, the meter meter movement is deflected full-scale to the right. This
movement, and a current-limiting resistance, as illustrated in ohmmeter reading is 0 .
Fig. 12-9. For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads are When the ohmmeter leads are open, not touching each
connected across the external resistance to be measured. Power other, the current is zero. The ohmmeter indicates infinitely
in the circuit being tested must be off. Then only the ohmmeter high resistance or an open circuit across its terminals.
battery produces current for deflecting the meter movement. Therefore, the meter face can be marked zero ohms
Since the amount of current through the meter depends on the at the right for full-scale deflection and infinite ohms at
external resistance, the scale can be calibrated in ohms. the left for no deflection. In-between values of resistance

198 Chapter 12

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 R1 5 1450 V 1 any ohmmeter where the internal battery is in series with
the meter movement. Then more external RX decreases the
M
1-mA movement meter current.
rM 5 50 V
Meter A back-off ohmmeter scale is expanded at the right near
RX 5
0 to 150 kV zero ohms and crowded at the left near infinite ohms. This
leads
nonlinear scale results from the relation I  VyR with V con-
1.5 V
stant at 1.5 V. Recall that with V constant, I and R are in-
versely related.
2 The highest resistance that can be indicated by the ohmme-
(a) ter is about 100 times its total internal resistance. Therefore,
the infinity mark on the ohms scale, or the “lazy eight” symbol
 for infinity, is only relative. It just means that the measured
External ohms of RX
resistance is infinitely greater than the ohmmeter resistance.
6000 3000
1500 It is important to note that the ohmmeter circuit in
9000 750
12,000
Fig. 12-10 is not entirely practical. The reason is that if the
0.5
150,000
mA
battery voltage, Vb, is not exactly 1.5 V, the ohmmeter scale
` 0 will not be calibrated correctly. Also, a single ohmmeter
0 1
Leads Leads range is not practical when it is necessary to measure very
open short- small or large resistance values. Without going into the cir-
circuited
cuit detail, you should be aware of the fact that commercially
available ohmmeters are designed to provide multiple ohm-
(b)
meter ranges as well as compensation for a change in the bat-
Figure 12-10 Back-off ohmmeter scale with R readings tery voltage, Vb.
increasing from right to left. (a) Series ohmmeter circuit for
the unknown external resistor R X to be measured. (b) Ohms Multiple Ohmmeter Ranges
scale has higher R readings to the left of the scale as more Commercial multimeters provide for resistance measure-
R X decreases I M.
ments from less than 1  up to many megohms in several
ranges. The range switch in Fig. 12-11 shows the multi-
result when less than 1 mA flows through the meter move- plying factors for the ohms scale. On the R  1 range, for
ment. The corresponding deflection on the ohms scale low-resistance measurements, read the ohms scale directly.
indicates how much resistance is across the ohmmeter In the example here, the pointer indicates 12 . When the
terminals. range switch is on R  100, multiply the scale reading by
100; this reading would then be 12  100 or 1200 . On the
Back-Off Ohmmeter Scale R  10,000 range, the pointer would indicate 120,000 .
Figure 12-10 illustrates the calibration of an ohmmeter scale A multiplying factor, instead of full-scale resistance, is
in terms of meter current. The current equals VyRT. Voltage given for each ohm range because the highest resistance is
V is the fixed applied voltage of 1.5 V supplied by the inter-
nal battery. Resistance RT is the total resistance of RX and the Ohms
ohmmeter’s internal resistance. Note that RX is the external 50 40
30 20 12 5
100
resistance to be measured. 500
1000
2

2000
The ohmmeter’s internal resistance ri is constant at 50  ` 0

1450, or 1500  here. If RX also equals 1500 , for ex-

ample, RT equals 3000 . The current then is 1.5 Vy3000 ,
or 0.5  mA, resulting in half-scale deflection for the 1-mA Range
switch
movement. Therefore, the center of the ohms scale is
marked for 1500 . Similarly, the amount of current and
meter deflection can be calculated for any value of the ex- R31

ternal resistance RX. R 3 100

R 3 10,000
Note that the ohms scale increases from right to left.
This arrangement is called a back-off scale, with ohm val-
Figure 12-11 Multiple ohmmeter ranges with just one
ues increasing to the left as the current backs off from full- ohms scale. The ohm reading is multiplied by the factor set
scale deflection. The back-off scale is a characteristic of on the range switch.

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 infinite on all ohm ranges. This method for ohms should not
be confused with full-scale values for voltage ranges. For the
ohmmeter ranges, always multiply the scale reading by the
R  factor. On voltage ranges, you may have to multiply or
divide the scale reading to match the full-scale voltage with
the value on the range switch.

Zero-Ohms Adjustment
To compensate for lower voltage output as the internal battery
ages, an ohmmeter includes a variable resistor to calibrate
the ohms scale. A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted for
zero ohms. With the test leads short-circuited, vary the zero
ohms control on the front panel of the meter until the pointer
is exactly on zero at the right edge of the ohms scale. Then
the ohm readings are correct for the entire scale.
This type of ohmmeter must be zeroed again every time
you change the range because the internal circuit changes.
When the adjustment cannot deflect the pointer all the
way to zero at the right edge, it usually means that the bat-
tery voltage is too low and it must be replaced. Usually, this
trouble shows up first on the R  1 range, which takes the
most current from the battery.
Figure 12-12 Analog VOM that combines a function
selector and range switch.
12.6 Multimeters
Multimeters are also called multitesters, and they are used to
measure voltage, current, or resistance. Table 12-1 compares
the features of the main types of multimeters: first, the volt-
ohm-milliammeter (VOM) in Fig. 12-12, and next the digital
multimeter (DMM) in Fig. 12-13. The DMM is explained in
more detail in the next section.
Besides its digital readout, an advantage of the DMM is
its high input resistance RV as a dc voltmeter. The RV is usu-
ally 10 M, the same on all ranges, which is high enough
to prevent any loading effect by the voltmeter in most cir-
cuits. Some types have an RV of 22 M. Many modern
DMMs are autoranging; that is, the internal circuitry se-
lects the proper range for the meter and indicates the range
as a readout.

Table 12-1 VOM Compared to DMM

VOM DMM

Analog pointer reading Digital readout

DC voltmeter RV changes with RV is 10 or 22 M, the same Figure 12-13 Portable digital multimeter (DMM).
range on all ranges
Zero-ohms adjustment Zero-ohms adjustment For either a VOM or a DMM, it is important to have a
changed for each range unnecessary
low-voltage dc scale with resolution good enough to read
Ohm ranges up to R  10,000 , Ohm ranges up to 20 M; 0.2 V or less. The range of 0.2 to 0.6 V, or 200 to 600 mV, is
as a multiplying factor each range is the maximum
needed for measuring dc bias voltages in transistor circuits.

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 Low-Power Ohms (LPV) High-Voltage Probe
Another feature needed for transistor measurements is an An accessory probe can be used with a multimeter to mea-
ohmmeter that does not have enough battery voltage to bias a sure dc voltages up to 30 kV. This probe is often referred to
semiconductor junction into the on or conducting state. The as a high-voltage probe. One application is measuring the
limit is 0.2 V or less. The purpose is to prevent any parallel high voltage of 20 to 30 kV at the anode of the color picture
conduction paths in the transistor amplifier circuit that can tube in a television receiver. The probe is just an external
lower the ohmmeter reading. multiplier resistance for the dc voltmeter. The required R for
a 30-kV probe is 580 M with a 20-k / V meter on the
Decibel Scale 1000-V range.
Most analog multimeters have an ac voltage scale calibrated 12.7 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
in decibel (dB) units, for measuring ac signals. The decibel
is a logarithmic unit used for comparison of power levels or The digital multimeter has become a very popular test instru-
voltage levels. The mark of 0 dB on the scale indicates the ment because the digital value of the measurement is displayed
reference level, which is usually 0.775 V for 1 mW across automatically with decimal point, polarity, and the unit for V,
600 . Positive decibel values above the zero mark indicate A, or . Digital meters are generally easier to use because they
ac voltages above the reference of 0.775 V; negative decibel eliminate the human error that often occurs in reading differ-
values are less than the reference level. ent scales on an analog meter with a pointer. Examples of the
portable DMM are shown in Fig. 12-13.
Amp-Clamp Probe The basis of the DMM operation is an analog-to-digital
(AyD) converter circuit. It converts analog voltage values
The problem of opening a circuit to measure I can be elim- at the input to an equivalent binary form. These values are
inated by using a probe with a clamp that fits around the processed by digital circuits to be shown on a liquid-crystal
current-carrying wire. Its magnetic field is used to indicate display (LCD) as decimal values.
the amount of current. An example is shown in Fig. 12-14.
The clamp probe measures just ac amperes, generally for the Voltage Measurements
60-Hz ac power line. The AyD converter requires a specific range of voltage input;
typical values are −200 mV to 200 mV. For DMM input
voltages that are higher, the voltage is divided down. When
the input voltage is too low, it is increased by a dc amplifier
circuit. The measured voltage can then be compared to a
fixed reference voltage in the meter by a comparator circuit.
Actually, all functions in the DMM depend on the voltage
measurements by the converter and comparator circuits.
The input resistance of the DMM is in the range of 10 to
20  M. This R is high enough to eliminate the problem of
voltmeter loading in most transistor circuits. Not only does the
DMM have high input resistance, but the R is the same on all
ranges.
With ac measurements, the ac input is converted to dc
voltage for the AyD converter. The DMM has an internal
diode rectifier that serves as an ac converter.

R Measurement
As an ohmmeter, the internal battery supplies I through the
measured R for an IR drop measured by the DMM. The bat-
tery is usually the small 9-V type commonly used in portable
equipment. A wide range of R values can be measured from a
fraction of an ohm to more than 30 M. Remember that power
must be off in the circuit being tested with an ohmmeter.
A DMM ohmmeter usually has an open-circuit voltage
across the meter leads, which is much too low to turn on a semi-
Figure 12-14 DMM with amp-clamp accessory. conductor junction. The result is low-power ohms operation.

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 I Measurements Table 12-2 Direct-Current Meters
To measure current, internal resistors provide a proportional
IR voltage. The display shows the I values. Note that the Milliammeter
DMM still must be connected as a series component in the Voltmeter or Ammeter Ohmmeter
circuit when current is measured. Power on in circuit Power on in circuit Power off in circuit

Diode Test Connect in parallel Connect in series Connect in parallel

The DMM usually has a setting for testing semiconductor High internal R Low internal R Has internal battery
diodes, either silicon or germanium. Current is supplied by Has internal series Has internal shunts; Higher battery
multipliers; higher lower resistance voltage and more
the DMM for the diode to test the voltage across its junction.
R for higher ranges for higher current sensitive meter for
Normal values are 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium. ranges higher ohm ranges
A short-circuited junction will read 0 V. The voltage across
an open diode reads much too high. Most diodes are silicon.
reading. An ohmmeter has its own internal battery, and the
Resolution
power must be off in the circuit being tested. When R is
This term for a DMM specifies how many places can be used tested with an ohmmeter, it may be necessary to disconnect
to display the digits 0 to 9, regardless of the decimal point. one end of R from the circuit to eliminate parallel paths.
For example, 9.99 V is a three-digit display; 9.999 V would
be a four-digit display. Most portable units, however, com- Connecting a Current Meter in the Circuit
promise with a 3½-digit display. This means that the fourth In a series-parallel circuit, the current meter must be in-
digit at the left for the most significant place can only be a 1. serted in a branch to read branch current. In the main line,
If not, then the display has three digits. As examples, a 3½- the meter reads the total current. These different connec-
digit display can show 19.99 V, but 29.99 V would be read tions are illustrated in Fig. 12-15. The meters are shown by
as 30.0 V. Note that better resolution with more digits can be dashed lines to illustrate the different points at which a meter
obtained with more expensive meters, especially the larger could be connected to read the respective currents.
DMM units for bench mounting. Actually, though, 3½-digit If the circuit is opened at point A to insert the meter in
resolution is enough for practically all measurements made series in the main line here, the meter will read total line
in troubleshooting electronic equipment. current IT through R1. A meter at B or C will read the same
line current.
Range Overload
To read the branch current through R2, this R must be dis-
The DMM selector switch has specific ranges. Any value connected from its junction with the main line at either end.
higher than the selected range is an overload. An indicator A meter inserted at D or E, therefore, will read the R2 branch
on the display warns that the value shown is not correct. current I2. Similarly, a meter at F or G will read the R3 branch
Then a higher range is selected. Some units have an autor- current I3.
ange function that shifts the meter automatically to a higher
range as soon as an overload is indicated.
mA mA
12.8 Meter Applications R1 5
Table 12-2 summarizes the main points to remember when 5V B F
D mA
using a voltmeter, ohmmeter, or milliammeter. These rules
A mA
apply whether the meter is a single unit or one function on a
multimeter. The voltage and current tests also apply to either R2 5 R3 5
I2 10 V I3 10 V
dc or ac circuits. 1
To avoid excessive current through the meter, it is good 10 V
practice to start on a high range when measuring an un- 2
E mA
IT
known value of voltage or current. It is very important not to C G
make the mistake of connecting a current meter in parallel, mA mA
because usually this mistake ruins the meter. The mis-
take of connecting a voltmeter in series does not damage the
Figure 12-15 How to insert a current meter in different
meter, but the reading will be wrong. parts of a series-parallel circuit to read the desired current I.
If the ohmmeter is connected to a circuit in which power At point A, B, or C, the meter reads I T; at D or E, the meter
is on, the meter can be damaged, beside giving the wrong reads I 2; at F or G, the meter reads I 3.

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 100 V 75 V 50 V 25 V
A B C D
R1 5
5V R1 5 R2 5 R3 5 R4 5
10 V 10 V 10 V 10 V
1
20 V 100 V
2
R2 5
15 V V G G
15 V
I51A

(a)

Figure 12-16 With 15 V measured across a known R of

15 , the I can be calculated as V/R or 15/15   1 A. 100 V 100 V 100 V 0V
A B C D

R1 5 R2 5 R3, R4 5
10 V 10 V open 10 V
Calculating I from Measured Voltage 100 V
V
The inconvenience of opening the circuit to measure cur-
rent can often be eliminated by the use of Ohm’s law. The G G
voltage and resistance can be measured without opening the
circuit, and the current calculated as VyR. In the example in (b)
Fig. 12-16, when the voltage across R2 is 15 V and its resis-
tance is 15 , the current through R2 must be 1 A. When val- Figure 12-17 Voltage tests to localize an open circuit.
(a) Normal circuit with voltages to chassis ground. (b) Reading
ues are checked during troubleshooting, if the voltage and
of 0 V at point D shows R3 is open.
resistance are normal, so is the current.
This technique can also be convenient for determining I
ground. Normally, each resistor would have an IR drop of
in low-resistance circuits where the resistance of a microam-
25 V. Then, at point B, the voltmeter to ground should read
meter may be too high. Instead of measuring I, measure V
100  25  75 V. Also, the voltage at C should be 50 V, with
and R and calculate I as VyR.
25 V at D, as shown in Fig. 12-17a.
Furthermore, if necessary, we can insert a known resis-
However, the circuit in Fig. 12-17b has an open in R3 to-
tance RS in series in the circuit, temporarily, just to measure
ward the end of the series string of voltages to ground. Now
VS. Then I is calculated as VS yRS. The resistance of RS, how-
when you measure at B, the reading is 100 V, equal to the
ever, must be small enough to have little effect on RT and I
applied voltage. This full voltage at B shows that the series
in the series circuit.
circuit is open without any IR drop across R1. The question
This technique is often used with oscilloscopes to pro-
is, however, which R has the open? Continue the voltage
duce a voltage waveform of IR which has the same waveform
measurements to ground until you find 0 V. In this example,
as the current in a resistor. The oscilloscope must be con-
the open is in R3 between the 100 V at C and 0 V at D.
nected as a voltmeter because of its high input resistance.
The points that read the full applied voltage have a path
Checking Fuses back to the source of voltage. The first point that reads 0 V
Turn the power off or remove the fuse from the circuit to has no path back to the high side of the source. Therefore, the
check with an ohmmeter. A good fuse reads 0 . A blown open circuit must be between points C and D in Fig. 12-17b.
fuse is open, which reads infinity on the ohmmeter.
A fuse can also be checked with the power on in the cir-
12.9 Checking Continuity
cuit by using a voltmeter. Connect the voltmeter across the with the Ohmmeter
two terminals of the fuse. A good fuse reads 0 V because A wire conductor that is continuous without a break has
there is practically no IR drop. With an open fuse, though, practically zero ohms of resistance. Therefore, the ohmme-
the voltmeter reading is equal to the full value of the applied ter can be useful in testing for continuity. This test should be
voltage. Having the full applied voltage seems to be a good done on the lowest ohm range. There are many applications.
idea, but it should not be across the fuse. A wire conductor can have an internal break which is not
visible because of the insulated cover, or the wire can have
Voltage Tests for an Open Circuit a bad connection at the terminal. Checking for zero ohms
Figure 12-17 shows four equal resistors in series with a 100-V between any two points along the conductor tests continuity.
source. A ground return is shown here because voltage mea- A break in the conducting path is evident from a reading of
surements are usually made with respect to chassis or earth infinite resistance, showing an open circuit.

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 5 Ohmmeter
4 reads zero
3 5-wire cable
2
1 3 ` 0

Temporary
Point short circuit
A

Two-wire cable

` 0
Figure 12-19 Temporary short circuit at one end of a
long two-wire line to check continuity from the opposite end.
Ohmmeter
reads zero

Figure 12-18 Continuity testing from point A to wire 3 resistance-wire heating elements, such as the wires in a
shows that this wire is connected. toaster or the filament of an incandescent bulb. Their cold
resistance is normally just a few ohms. Infinite resistance
As another application of checking continuity, suppose means that the wire element is open. Similarly, a good fuse
that a cable of wires is harnessed together, as illustrated in has practically zero resistance. A burned-out fuse has in-
Fig. 12-18, where the individual wires cannot be seen, but it is finite resistance; that is, it is open. Any coil for a trans-
desired to find the conductor that connects to terminal A. This former, solenoid, or motor will also have infinite resistance
is done by checking continuity for each conductor to point A. if the winding is open.
The wire that has zero ohms to A is the one connected to this
terminal. Often the individual wires are color-coded, but it 12.10 Alternating Current
may be necessary to check the continuity of each lead. Measurements
An additional technique that can be helpful is illustrated All VOMs and DMMs can also measure alternating current
in Fig. 12-19. Here it is desired to check the continuity of the (ac) and ac voltage. The meters are calibrated to measure
two-wire line, but its ends are too far apart for the ohmmeter ac with a sine-wave shape and will display the value of the
leads to reach. The two conductors are temporarily short- root-mean-square (rms) or the effective value. The meters
circuited at one end, however, so that the continuity of both are usually only accurate for ac frequencies below about
wires can be checked at the other end. 5 kHz. Check the meter specifications for the exact figure.
In summary, the ohmmeter is helpful in check- You will learn more about ac measurements in the next part
ing the continuity of any wire conductor. This includes of this book.

CHAPTER 12 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Data Acquisition System

A data acquisition system, sometimes called a DAS or DAQ, • Gathering data on the performance of a new automo-
is a collection of electronic components and equipment used tive engine
to gather, store, process, and display data. The whole idea is to • A weather station
gather physical information (usually at a remote location), cap- • A satellite used for observation
ture it, and ultimately use it to make decisions about the object
or environment being investigated. Such systems are used in System Components
a huge variety of scientific and engineering endeavors, espe- A DAS is made up of the following components and equip-
cially research and development. Here are a few examples: ment. These are illustrated in Fig. S12-1.
• Medical patient monitoring
• Sensors. These are transducers that convert physical
• Technical stress measurements on a new aircraft or characteristics like temperature, pressure, light level, po-
missile in flight sition, or fluid level/flow rate into an electric signal that
• Monitoring the process flow in a chemical or petro- can be captured and measured. Some sensors are analog
leum plant devices, but others may be digital, like switch closures.

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 Signal
conditioning Multiplexer
Sensors

Interface
Signal
MPX ADC Memory I/O
cond.

Control
circuits
Cables

USB,
Sensor RS-232,
To I/O Computer other
RX RX

Wireless Receiver
transmitter
Programs

Video
display
I/O
interface

Analog
output Digital
DAC output

Figure S12-1 A block diagram of a generic data acquisition system.

• Signal conditioning. The signals from transducers may computer. It is a digital interface common to a com-
be small and need amplification or must be adjusted in puter, such as a USB port.
some way. DC power may have to be applied or some • Outputs. Some DAQ systems have outputs. These may
network used to linearize the output. Filtering to re- be analog output voltages or digital signals. Outputs
move noise is another signal-conditioning function. are generated by the computer to provide control sig-
• Connection medium. This is usually the cable that nals back to the system being monitored. The control
connects the sensor to the signal-conditioning equip- signals are usually feedback signals that respond to
ment. Most cables are twisted pair conductors, and conditions in the system. Analog outputs are gener-
some may be shielded to protect against noise. The ated by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) with input
medium could also be a wireless link. from the computer via the I/O interface.
• Multiplexer. A multiplexer is a multi-input high-speed • Computer. This is usually a laptop or desktop com-
electronic switch that selects one of the sensors to be puter, but it could also be an embedded microcon-
measured and captured. The multiplexer accepts an troller dedicated to the DAS. The computer usually
address from a computer that tells it which sensor to automates the reading of the sensors and the collection
read. of all the data. It organizes the data into files.
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC digitizes • Real-time clock (RTC). An RTC is an electronic clock
the analog sensor information. It generates a sequence of that keeps the time and date in digital form that can be
binary numbers representing the sensor signal. attached to and stored with the data. In some applica-
• Memory. This is an electronic memory that stores bi- tions it is useful to know exactly when the data were
nary data for use later. It can be separate memory or captured. The RTC may be part of the computer.
part of a related computer. Different types of memory • Software. The programs that process and analyze the
can be used, including flash, DRAM, hard disk drive, data may convert measurement units from the sensors,
or magnetic tape. make calculations, scale the readings, compute new
• Input/output (I/O) interface. This is an electronic con- data from the measurements, and otherwise process
nection that sends the sensor data from the ADC to the the data as needed by the application. The software

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 converts the raw data into information that can be
used to indicate the status of the tested device or make
decisions about what to change. The software helps
analyze and make sense of the data so knowledge of
how to respond can be developed.
• Display. This is usually the computer display screen.
The data can be displayed directly or converted
into more usable and understandable charts, graphs,
curves, or other visuals.

A Commercial Product
Figure S12-2 shows a commercial DAQ. It is the National
Instruments NI USB-6008. It has eight analog inputs that
can range from 61 V to 610 V. The ADC samples the sig-
nals at a maximum rate of 10k samples per second (S/s) and
Figure S12-2 The NI USB 6008 DAQ. Its dimensions
generates 12-bit binary numbers. There is a small internal are 8.5 by 8.2 by 2.3 cm. The screw terminals on both
memory of 512 bytes (a byte is 8 bits). The unit connects to sides are used for connecting the external sensor cables
an external computer with a standard universal serial bus from transducers or signal-conditioning equipment. The USB
(USB) cable and connectors. The external laptop or PC hosts connector is on the top.
the unit and provides additional storage for the data. Mul-
tiple types of software are available to automate the system
and analyze and display the data. plug into a special chassis. You can even get a complete DAQ
This is only one of many different configurations. Other on a single chip for small applications. The different blocks
DAQ systems are contained on a printed circuit board that in Fig. 12-1 are partitioned and packaged differently in a va-
plugs into a PC bus. Others are in the form of modules that riety of products.

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. For a moving-coil meter movement, IM is 3. A current meter should have a(n)

a. the amount of current needed in the moving-coil a. very high internal resistance.
to produce full-scale deflection of the meter’s b. very low internal resistance.
pointer. c. infinitely high internal resistance.
b. the value of current flowing in the moving-coil for d. none of the above.
any amount of pointer deflection.
4. A voltmeter should have a
c. the amount of current required in the moving-coil
a. resistance of about 0 V.
to produce half-scale deflection of the meter’s
b. very low resistance.
pointer.
c. very high internal resistance.
d. none of the above.
d. none of the above.
2. For an analog VOM with a mirror along the printed
scale, 5. Voltmeter loading is usually a problem when measur-
a. the pointer deflection will be magnified by the ing voltages in
mirror when measuring small values of voltage, a. parallel circuits.
current, and resistance. b. low-resistance circuits.
b. the meter should always be read by looking at the c. a series circuit with low-resistance values.
meter from the side. d. high-resistance circuits.
c. the meter is read when the pointer and its mirror 6. To double the current range of a 50-␮A, 2-kV
reflection appear as one. moving-coil meter movement, the shunt
d. both a and b. resistance, RS, should be

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 a. 2 kV. c. 10 MV.
b. 1 kV. d. 1 kV.
c. 18 kV.
14. When using an ohmmeter to measure resistance in a
d. 50 kV.
circuit,
7. A voltmeter using a 20-␮A meter movement has an a. the power in the circuit being tested must be off.
V/V rating of b. the power in the circuit being tested must be on.
20 kV .
a. __ c. the power in the circuit being tested may be on or
V
off.
50
b. __ kV .
V d. the power in the circuit being tested should be
1 kV . turned on after the leads are connected.
c. _
V 15. Which of the following voltages cannot be displayed
d. 10
__ MV . by a DMM with a 3½-digit display?
V
a. 7.64 V.
8. As the current range of an analog meter is increased, b. 13.5 V.
the overall meter resistance, RM, c. 19.98 V.
a. decreases. d. 29.98 V.
b. increases.
16. What type of meter can be used to measure ac cur-
c. stays the same.
rents without breaking open the circuit?
d. none of the above.
a. An analog VOM.
9. As the voltage range of an analog VOM is increased, b. An amp-clamp probe.
the total voltmeter resistance, RV, c. A DMM.
a. decreases. d. There isn’t such a meter.
b. increases.
17. Which of the following measurements is usually
c. stays the same.
the most inconvenient and time-consuming when
d. none of the above.
troubleshooting?
10. An analog VOM has an V/V rating of 10 k/V. What a. Resistance measurements.
is the voltmeter resistance, RV, if the voltmeter is set b. DC voltage measurements.
to the 25-V range? c. Current measurements.
a. 10 kV. d. AC voltage measurements.
b. 10 MV.
18. An analog ohmmeter reads 18 on the R 3 10k range.
c. 25 kV.
What is the value of the measured resistance?
d. 250 kV.
a. 180 kV.
11. What shunt resistance, RS, is needed to make a b. 18 kV.
100-␮A, 1-kV meter movement capable of measuring c. 18 V.
currents from 0 to 5 mA? d. 180 V.
a. 25 V.
19. Which meter has a higher resistance, a DMM with
b. 10.2 V.
10 MV of resistance on all dc voltage ranges or an
c. 20.41 V.
analog VOM with a 50 kV/V rating set to the 250-V
d. 1 kV.
range?
12. For a 30-V range, a 50-␮A, 2-kV meter movement a. The DMM.
needs a multiplier resistor of b. The analog VOM.
a. 58 kV. c. They both have the same resistance.
b. 598 kV. d. It cannot be determined.
c. 10 MV. 20. When using an ohmmeter to measure the continuity
d. 600 kV. of a wire, the resistance should measure
13. When set to any of the voltage ranges, a typical DMM a. about 0 V if the wire is good.
has an input resistance of b. infinity if the wire is broken (open).
a. about 0 V. c. very high resistance if the wire is good.
b. 20 kV. d. both a and b.

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 CHAPTER 12 PROBLEMS

SECTION 12.2 Meter Shunts I M 5 1 mA

12.1 Calculate the value of the shunt resistance, RS, 2 1

needed to extend the range of the meter movement in

Fig. 12-20 to (a) 10 mA; (b) 25 mA. rM 5 50 V

Rmult
I M 5 1 mA
2 1

rM 5 50 V

Voltmeter leads

Figure 12-22
Rs

Figure 12-20 I M 5 20 m A
2 1

12.2 Calculate the value of the shunt resistance, RS,

needed to extend the range of the meter movement in rM 5 2.5 kV

Fig. 12-21 to (a) 100 ␮A; (b) 1 mA; (c) 5 mA; (d) 10
mA; (e) 50 mA; (f) 100 mA.
R mult

I M 5 50 m A
2 1

rM 5 1 k V
Voltmeter leads

Figure 12-23
Rs SECTION 12.4 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter
Figure 12-21 12.8 Refer to Fig. 12-24. (a) Calculate the dc voltage that
should exist across R2 without the voltmeter present.
(b) Calculate the dc voltage that would be measured
12.3 Why is it desirable for a current meter to have very across R2 using a 10 kV/V analog voltmeter set to
low internal resistance? the 10-V range. (c) Calculate the dc voltage that
would be measured across R2 using a DMM having
SECTION 12.3 Voltmeters an RV of 10 MV on all dc voltage ranges.
12.9 Refer to Fig. 12-25. (a) Calculate the dc voltage that
12.4 Calculate the required multiplier resistance, Rmult, in
should exist across R2 without the voltmeter present.
Fig. 12-22 for each of the following voltage ranges:
(b) Calculate the dc voltage that would be measured
(a) 10 V; (b) 500 V.
across R2 using a 100 kV/V analog voltmeter set
12.5 What is the V/V rating of the voltmeter in Prob. 12-4? to the 10-V range. (c) Calculate the dc voltage that
12.6 Calculate the required multiplier resistance, Rmult, in would be measured across R2 using a DMM with an
Fig. 12-23 for each of the following voltage ranges: RV of 10 MV on all dc voltage ranges.
(a) 3 V; (b) 100 V. 12.10 In Prob. 12-9, which voltmeter produced a greater
12.7 What is the V/V rating of the voltmeter in Prob. 12-6? loading effect? Why?

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 SECTION 12.5 Ohmmeters
R1 5 100 k V
12.11 Figure 12-26 shows a series ohmmeter and its cor-
1 responding meter face. How much is the external
V T 5 12 V resistance, RX, across the ohmmeter leads for (a)
2
full-scale deflection; (b) three-fourths full-scale de-
R2 5 150 k V V
flection; (c) one-half-scale deflection; (d) one-fourth
full-scale deflection; (e) no deflection?
12.12 For the series ohmmeter in Fig. 12-26, is the orien-
tation of the ohmmeter leads important when mea-
suring the value of a resistor?
Figure 12-24 12.13 Analog multimeters have a zero-ohm adjustment
control for the ohmmeter portion of the meter. What
R1 5 1 MV purpose does it serve and how is it used?

SECTION 12.8 Meter Applications

1 12.14 On what range should you measure an unknown
V T 5 12 V R2 5 1 MV value of voltage or current? Why?
2 V
12.15 What might happen to an ohmmeter if it is con-
nected across a resistor in a live circuit?
12.16 Why is one lead of a resistor disconnected from the
circuit when measuring its resistance value?
R3 5 1 MV
12.17 Is a current meter connected in series or in parallel?
Figure 12-25 Why?

Ohmmeter

R1 5 680 V

Ohmmeter leads
I M 5 2 mA

rM 5 70 V External resistor
RX

1
Vb 5 1.5 V
2

Meter Face

1/2
3/4
1/4

Full–
Scale

Figure 12-26

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 12.18 How can the inconvenience of opening a circuit to A R1 5 1 kV B
measure current be eliminated in most cases?
12.19 What is the resistance of a R2 5 2 kV
a. good fuse?
1
b. blown fuse? V T 5 24 V C
2
12.20 In Fig. 12-27, list the voltages at points A, B, C, and R3 5 1.2 kV
D (with respect to ground) for each of the following
situations:
G D
a. All resistors normal. R4 5 1.8 kV
b. R1 open.
c. R2 open.
Figure 12-27
d. R3 open.
e. R4 open.

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 Ch a pt er 13
DC Troubleshooting

Learning Outcomes The one activity that all technicians and engineers face
most often is troubleshooting. This of course is the logi-
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
cal process of tracking down defects, failures, and op-
Use a multimeter in measuring voltage, current, erational problems in electric and electronic equipment.
and resistance in dc circuits.
Troubleshooting is primarily a learned skill, but there are
Define an open and a short. basic fundamentals that all technicians and engineers
Identify when opens and shorts occur. should know. With these basic fundamentals and some
Identify defective components and/or connections real-world, hands-on experience, you can become an
in dc circuits. expert troubleshooter. This chapter brings together all
Test for continuity in components, wires, cables, the various rules and techniques for finding problems in
and connectors. almost any dc circuit.
Troubleshoot wires, cables, and connectors.
Troubleshoot a dc system.

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 13.1 Introduction to Troubleshooting to refer to Chap. 12 for usage information. Also have the
meter instruction manual handy in case you have operational
Troubleshooting begins when a component, circuit, piece
issues.
of equipment, or system is not working as it should. That
implies you know how the device under consideration ac-
13.2 Resistor Troubles
tually works so that you can recognize the malfunction or
improper operation. Once you realize something is wrong, The most common trouble in resistors is an open. When the
there are basic steps that will lead you to the problem. Once open resistor is a series component, there is no current in the
the problem has been discovered, repairing the defect is rela- entire series path.
tively easy. Finding the problem is always the challenge. It is Noisy Controls
clearly a puzzle to solve.
In applications requiring polentiometers, carbon controls are
A Basic Troubleshooting Procedure preferred because the smoother change in resistance results in
Here is a list of steps that will help you zero in on any prob- less noise when the variable arm is rotated. With use, however,
lem. Of course, you may modify the steps or their sequence the resistance element becomes worn by the wiper contact,
as information becomes available to you. making the control noisy. An example is when a volume or
tone control makes a scratchy noise as the shaft is rotated. That
• Recognize that the problem exists. Recognition as- indicates either a dirty or worn-out resistance element. If the
sumes that you know what to expect from a specific control is just dirty, it can be cleaned by spraying the resistance
component, circuit, or piece of equipment. Perhaps element (if accessible) with a special contact cleaner. If the re-
you are expecting to measure a specific voltage or see sistance element is worn out, the control must be replaced.
a visible response, like a light turning on, an audible
response, or a physical occurrence, like a relay being Checking Resistors with an Ohmmeter
actuated. Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter
• Obtain any available documentation. If any schemat- has its own voltage source so that it is always used without
ics, manuals, or other sources are available, acquire any external power applied to the resistance being measured.
them. These may be print, online, or simply derived by Separate the resistance from its circuit by disconnecting one
tracing existing circuits. lead of the resistor or remove it completely. Then connect the
• Verify that power is available. All dc circuits and ohmmeter leads across the resistance to be measured.
systems have a dc power source, such as a battery or An open resistor reads infinitely high ohms. For some
power supply. Make sure that source is providing the reason, infinite ohms is often confused with zero ohms. Re-
desired voltage. Measure it first. Be sure to check for member, though, that infinite ohms means an open circuit.
blown fuses or tripped circuit breakers if they are The current is zero, but the resistance is infinitely high. Fur-
present. thermore, it is practically impossible for a resistor to become
• Make a visual inspection. Look especially for broken short-circuited in itself. The resistor may be short-circuited
wires, poor solder connections, poorly fitting or dirty by some other part of the circuit. However, the construction
connectors, or burned resistors or wires. Smell is an- of resistors is such that the trouble they develop is an open
other sense to use as it may detect something burned. circuit with infinitely high ohms.
The ohmmeter must have an ohms scale capable of read-
• Trace the voltage through the circuit from source to
ing the resistance value, or the resistor cannot be checked. In
the ultimate load.
checking a 10-MV resistor, for instance, if the highest R the
• Check the load to see that it is good. Is a light burned ohmmeter can read is 1 MV, it will indicate infinite resis-
out, a motor defective, a relay damaged, or is there tance, even if the resistor has its normal value of 10 MV. An
another problem? ohms scale of 100 MV or more should be used for checking
• Use the techniques to be described in the following such high resistances.
sections to identify the specific problem. To check resistors of less than 10 V, a low-ohms scale of
• Repair the circuit. about 100 V or less is necessary. Center scale should be 6 V
• Test to ensure proper operation is restored. or less. Otherwise, the ohmmeter will read a normally low
resistance value as zero ohms.
Test Instruments When checking resistance in a circuit, it is important to
Your main aid in the dc troubleshooting process is your be sure there are no parallel resistance paths. Otherwise, the
multimeter. It can measure voltage, current, and resistance. measured resistance can be much lower than the actual re-
Either a digital or analog multimeter will do, but be sure sistor value, as illustrated in Fig. 13-1a. Here, the ohmmeter

212 Chapter 13

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 No current
S Ohmmeter
reads
5000 V I5 2 A 1
1 10 V Open

10,000 V

10,000 V
888 R55 V

R1 5

R2 5
10 V x circuit
V 2
2 infinite R

(a ) (b )

(a ) Figure 13-2 Effect of an open circuit. (a) Normal circuit

with current of 2 A for 10 V across 5 V. (b) Open circuit with
no current and infinitely high resistance.
S Ohmmeter
reads
10,000 V Excessive current
10,000 V

10,000 V

888
R1 5

R2 5

V I
I5 2 A Short
1 1
R55 V R circuit
10 V 10 V
zero R
2 2

(b )
(a ) (b)
Figure 13-1 Parallel R1 can lower the ohmmeter reading Figure 13-3 Effect of a short circuit. (a) Normal circuit
for testing R2. (a) The two resistances R 1 and R2 are in
with current of 2 A for 10 V across 5 V. (b) Short circuit with
parallel. (b) R2 is isolated by disconnecting one end of R 1.
zero resistance and excessively high current.

reads the resistance of R2 in parallel with R1. To check across infinitely high resistance and there is no current in any part
R2 alone, one end is disconnected, as in Fig. 13-1b. of the circuit. The trouble can be caused by an internal open
For very high resistances, it is important not to touch the in the resistor or a break in the wire conductors.
ohmmeter leads. There is no danger of shock, but the body In Fig. 13-3a, the same normal circuit is shown with I of
resistance of about 50,000 V as a parallel path will lower the 2 A. In Fig. 13-3b, however, there is a short-circuit path across
ohmmeter reading. R with zero resistance. The result is excessively high current in
the short-circuit path, including the wire conductors. It may be
Changed Value of R surprising, but there is no current in the resistor itself because
In many cases, the value of a carbon-composition resistor all the current is in the zero-resistance path around it.
can exceed its allowed tolerance; this is caused by normal Theoretically, the amount of current could be infinitely
resistor heating over a long period of time. In most instances, high with no R, but the voltage source can supply only a lim-
the value change is seen as an increase in R. This is known ited amount of I before it loses its ability to provide voltage
as aging. As you know, carbon-film and metal-film resis- output. The wire conductors may become hot enough to burn
tors age very little. A surface-mount resistor should never open, which would open the circuit. Also, if there is any fuse
be rubbed or scraped because this will remove some of the in the circuit, it will open because of the excessive current
carbon deposit and change its resistance. produced by the short circuit.
Note that the resistor itself is not likely to develop a short
13.3 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit circuit because of the nature of its construction. However, the
Troubles wire conductors may touch, or some other component in a cir-
cuit connected across the resistor may become short-circuited.
Ohm’s law is useful for calculating I, V, and R in a closed
circuit with normal values. However, an open circuit or a
short circuit causes trouble that can be summarized as fol-
13.4 Troubleshooting: Opens
lows: An open circuit (Fig. 13-2) has zero I because R is and Shorts in Series Circuits
infinitely high. It does not matter how much the V is. A short In many cases, electronics technicians are required to repair
circuit has zero R, which causes excessively high I in the a piece of equipment that is no longer operating properly.
short-circuit path because of no resistance (Fig. 13-3). The technician is expected to troubleshoot the equipment
In Fig. 13-2a, the circuit is normal with I of 2 A pro- and restore it to its original operating condition. To trouble-
duced by 10 V applied across R of 5 V. However, the resistor shoot means “to diagnose or analyze.” For example, a tech-
is shown open in Fig. 13-2b. Then the path for current has nician may diagnose a failed electronic circuit by using a

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 R 5 25 V
1 1 2 resistance between the open points, the current in the entire
series circuit is zero. With zero current throughout the series
1A V1
25 V 1
circuit, each resistor’s IR voltage will be 0 V even though
1 the applied voltage is still 40 V. To calculate V1, V2, and V3 in
V T 5 40 V 10 V V 2 R2 5 10 V Fig. 13-4b, simply use 0 A for I. Then, V15 0 A 3 25 V 5 0 V,
2
5V 2 V2 5 0 A 3 10 V 5 0 V, and V3 5 0 A 3 5 V 5 0 V. But
1A V3 how much voltage is across points P1 and P2? The answer
2 1 is 40 V. This might surprise you, but here’s the proof: Let’s
R3 5 5 V
assume that the resistance between P1 and P2 is 40 3 109 V,
(a )
which is 40 GV (40 gigohms). Since the total resistance
of a series circuit equals the sum of the series resistances,
RT is the sum of 25 V, 15 V, 10 V, and 40 GV. Since the
R1 5 25 V
40  GV of resistance between P1 and P2 is so much larger
0V
P1 than the other resistances, it is essentially the total resistance
Zero Open
40 V of the series circuit. Then the series current I is calculated
current Infinite ohms
1 P2
as 40  Vy40  GV 5 1 3 1029 A 5 1 nA. For all practical
V T 5 40 V
2 purposes, the current I is zero. This is the value of current in
0V R2 5 10 V
the entire series circuit. This small current produces about
0V
0 V across R1, R2, and R3, but across the open points P1 and
R3 5 5 V P2, where the resistance is high, the voltage is calculated as
(b )
Vopen 5 1 3 1029 A 3 40 3 109 V 5 40 V.
In summary, here is the effect of an open in a series
Figure 13-4 Effect of an open in a series circuit. (a) Normal circuit:
circuit with 1-A series current. (b) Open path between points P1
and P2 results in zero current in all parts of the circuit. 1. The current I is zero in all components.
2. The voltage drop across each good component is 0 V.
3. The voltage across the open points equals the applied
digital multimeter (DMM) to make voltage, current, and re- voltage.
sistance measurements. Once the defective component has
been located, it is removed and replaced with a good one. The Applied Voltage VT Is Still Present
But here is one very important point that needs to be made with Zero Current
about troubleshooting: To troubleshoot a defective circuit, The open circuit in Fig. 13-4b is another example of how
you must understand how the circuit is supposed to work in voltage and current are different. There is no current with
the first place. Without this knowledge, your troubleshoot- the open circuit because there is no complete path for current
ing efforts could be nothing more than guesswork. What we flow between the two battery terminals. However, the battery
will do next is analyze the effects of both opens and shorts still has its potential difference of 40 V across the positive
in series circuits. and negative terminals. In other words, the applied voltage
VT is still present with or without current in the external cir-
The Effect of an Open in a Series Circuit cuit. If you measure VT with a voltmeter, it will measure 40 V
An open circuit is a break in the current path. The resistance regardless of whether the circuit is closed, as in Fig. 13-4a,
of an open circuit is extremely high because the air between or open, as in Fig. 13-4b.
the open points is a very good insulator. Air can have bill- The same idea applies to the 120-Vac voltage from the
ions of ohms of resistance. For a series circuit, a break in the power line in our homes. The 120 V potential difference is
current path means zero current in all components. available from the terminals of the wall outlet. If you con-
Figure 13-4a, shows a series circuit that is operating nect a lamp or appliance to the outlet, current will flow in
normally. With 40 V of applied voltage and 40 V of total those circuits. When there is nothing connected, though,
resistance, the series current is 40 Vy40 V 5 1 A. This pro- the 120 V potential is still present at the outlet. If you acci-
duces the following IR voltage drops across R1, R2, and R3: dentally touch the metal terminals of the outlet when noth-
V1 5 1 A 3 25 V 5 25 V, V2 5 1 A 3 10 V 5 10 V, and V3 5 ing else is connected, you will get an electric shock. The
1 A 3 5 V 5 5 V. power company is maintaining the 120 V at the outlets as
Now consider the effect of an open circuit between points a source to produce current in any circuit that is plugged
P1 and P2 in Fig. 13-4b. Because there is practically infinite into the outlet.

214 Chapter 13

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 EXAMPLE 13-1

Assume that the series circuit in Fig. 13-5 has failed. A technician V3 5 I 3 R3
troubleshooting the circuit used a voltmeter to record the following 5 40 mA 3 180 V
resistor voltage drops. V3 5 7.2 V
V1 5 0 V V4 5 I 3 R4
V2 5 0 V 5 40 mA 3 150 V
V3 5 24 V V4 5 6 V
V4 5 0 V Next, compare the calculated values with those measured in Fig. 13-5.
When the circuit is operating normally, V1, V2, and V4 should measure
Based on these voltmeter readings, which component is defective
6 V, 4.8 V, and 6 V, respectively. Instead, the measurements made in
and what type of defect is it? (Assume that only one component
Fig. 13-5 show that each of these voltages is 0 V. This indicates that
is defective.)
the current I in the circuit must be zero, caused by an open some-
Answer: where in the circuit. The reason that V1, V2, and V4 are 0 V is simple:
To help understand which component is defective, let’s calculate V 5 I 3 R. If I 5 0 A, then each good resistor must have a voltage
what the values of V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4 are supposed to be. Begin by drop of 0 V. The measured value of V3 is 24 V, which is considerably
calculating R T and I. higher than its calculated value of 7.2 V. Because V3 is dropping the
full value of the applied voltage, it must be open. The reason the
RT 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 R4 open R3 will drop the full 24 V is that it has billions of ohms of resis-
5 150 V 1 120 V 1 180 V 1 150 V tance and, in a series circuit, the largest resistance drops the most
RT 5 600 V voltage. Since the open resistance of R3 is so much higher than the
V values of R 1, R2, and R4, it will drop the full 24 V of applied voltage.
I 5 ___T
RT
0V 0V
24 V
5 ______ R1 5 150 V R2 5 120 V
600 V
I 5 40 mA
Next, 1
V1 5 I 3 R1 V T 5 24 V
2
5 40 mA 3 150 V 0V 24 V
V1 5 6 V
V2 5 I 3 R2
R4 5 150 V R3 5 180 V
5 40 mA 3 120 V
V2 5 4.8 V Figure 13-5 Series circuit for Example 13-1.

The Effect of a Short in a Series Circuit R 5 25 V

1 1 2
A short circuit is an extremely low resistance path for cur-
rent flow. The resistance of a short is assumed to be 0 V. This 33.3 V
1
is in contrast to an open, which is assumed to have a resis-
V T 5 40 V 0V R2 5 10 V 0V
tance of infinite ohms. Let’s reconsider the circuit in Fig. 13-4 2
with R2 shorted. The circuit is redrawn for your convenience in 6.67 V
Fig. 13-6. Recall from Fig. 13-4a that the normal values of V1,
V2, and V3 are 25 V, 10 V, and 5 V, respectively. With the 10-V 2
R3 5 5 V
1

R2 shorted, the total resistance RT will decrease from 40 V to

30 V. This will cause the series current to increase from 1 A to Figure 13-6 Series circuit of Fig. 13-4 with R2 shorted.
1.33 A. This is calculated as 40 Vy30 V 5 1.33 A. The increase
in current will cause the voltage drop across resistors R1 and R3 The voltage drop across the shorted R2 is 0 V because the
to increase from their normal values. The new voltage drops short across R2 effectively makes its resistance value 0 V.
across R1 and R3 with R2 shorted are calculated as follows: Then,
V1 5 I 3 R1 5 1.33 A 3 25 V V3 5 I 3 R3 5 1.33 A 3 5 V V2 5 I 3 R2 5 1.33 A 3 0 V
5 33.3 V 5 6.67 V 50V

DC Troubleshooting 215

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 In summary, here is the effect of a short in a series circuit: normal value to 0 V. The defective component will have a
voltage increase from its normal value to the full applied
1. The current I increases above its normal value.
voltage. Likewise, in a series circuit containing a short, all
2. The voltage drop across each good component good components will have a voltage increase from their
increases. normal values and the defective component’s voltage drop
3. The voltage drop across the shorted component drops will decrease from its normal value to 0 V. The point to be
to 0 V. made here is simple: The component whose voltage changes
in the opposite direction of the other components is the de-
fective component. In the case of an open resistor, the volt-
EXAMPLE 13-2 age drop increases to the value of the applied voltage and all
other resistor voltages decrease to 0 V. In the case of a short,
Assume that the series circuit in Fig. 13-7 has failed. A technician
troubleshooting the circuit used a voltmeter to record the follow- all good components show their voltage drops increasing,
ing resistor voltage drops: whereas the shorted component shows a voltage decrease to
0 V. This same general rule applies to a series circuit that has
V1 5 8 V
components whose resistances have increased or decreased
V2 5 6.4 V
from their normal values but are neither open or shorted.
V3 5 9.6 V
V4 5 0 V
Based on the voltmeter readings, which component is defective 13.5 Troubleshooting: Opens and
and what type of defect is it? (Assume that only one component Shorts in Parallel Circuits
is defective.)
In a parallel circuit, the effect of an open or a short is much
Answer: different from that in a series circuit. For example, if one
This is the same circuit used in Example 13-1. Therefore, the nor- branch of a parallel circuit opens, the other branch cur-
mal values for V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4 are 6 V, 4.8 V, 7.2 V, and 6 V, rents remain the same. The reason is that the other branches
respectively. Comparing the calculated values with those mea-
sured in Fig. 13-7 reveals that V1 , V2 , and V3 have increased from
still have the same applied voltage even though one branch
their normal values. This indicates that the current has increased, has effectively been removed from the circuit. Also, if one
which is why we have a larger voltage drop across these resis- branch of a parallel circuit becomes shorted, all branches
tors. The measured value of 0 V for V4 shows a significant drop are effectively shorted. The result is excessive current in the
from its normal value of 6 V. The only way this resistor can have shorted branch and zero current in all other branches. In most
0 V, when all other resistors show an increase in voltage, is if R4
cases, a fuse will be placed in the main line that will burn
is shorted. Then V4 5 I 3 R4 5 I 3 0 V 5 0 V.
open (blow) when its current rating is exceeded. When the
fuse blows, the applied voltage is removed from each of the
8V 6.4 V
R1 5 150 V R2 5 120 V
parallel-connected branches. The effects of opens and shorts
are examined in more detail in the following paragraphs.
1 2 1 2
V1 V2
The Effect of an Open in a Parallel Circuit
1
V T 5 24 V An open in any circuit is an infinite resistance that results in
2
no current. However, in parallel circuits there is a difference
0V 9.6 V
V4 V3 between an open circuit in the main line and an open circuit in
a parallel branch. These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 13-8.
2 1
R4 5 150 V R3 5 180 V In Fig. 13-8a the open circuit in the main line prevents any
Figure 13-7 Series circuit for Example 13-2. electron flow in the line to all the branches. The current is zero
in every branch, therefore, and none of the bulbs can light.
However, in Fig. 13-8b the open is in the branch circuit for
bulb 1. The open branch circuit has no current, then, and
General Rules for Troubleshooting Series Circuits this bulb cannot light. The current in all the other parallel
When troubleshooting a series circuit containing three or branches is normal, though, because each is connected to the
more resistors, remember this important rule: The defective voltage source. Therefore, the other bulbs light.
component will have a voltage drop that will change in the These circuits show the advantage of wiring compo-
opposite direction as compared to the good components. In nents in parallel. An open in one component opens only one
other words, in a series circuit containing an open, all the branch, whereas the other parallel branches have their nor-
good components will have a voltage decrease from their mal voltage and current.

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 as shown in Fig. 13-9b. Since the wire is an excellent con-
Open circuit
Bulb 1 Bulb 2 Bulb 3 ductor, the short circuit results in practically zero resistance
in main line
120-V between points G and H. These two points are connected
source
directly across the voltage source. Since the short circuit
provides practically no opposition to current, the applied
voltage could produce an infinitely high value of current
(a )
through this current path.

The Short-Circuit Current

Bulb 1 Bulb 2 Bulb 3
Practically, the amount of current is limited by the small
120-V resistance of the wire. Also, the source usually cannot
source
maintain its output voltage while supplying much more
Open filament than its rated load current. Still, the amount of current can
be dangerously high. For instance, the short-circuit current
(b) might be more than 100 A instead of the normal line current
Figure 13-8 Effect of an open in a parallel circuit. of 2 A in Fig. 13-9a. Because of the short circuit, excessive
(a) Open path in the main line—no current and no light for all current flows in the voltage source, in the line to the short
bulbs. (b) Open path in any branch—bulb for that branch does circuit at point H, through the short circuit, and in the line
not light, but the other two bulbs operate normally. returning to the source from G. Because of the large amount
of current, the wires can become hot enough to ignite and
burn the insulation covering the wire. There should be a fuse
The Effect of a Short in a Parallel Circuit that would open if there is too much current in the main line
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its effect, because of a short circuit across any of the branches.
therefore, is to allow excessive current in the shorted circuit.
Consider the example in Fig. 13-9. In Fig. 13-9a, the circuit The Short-Circuited Components Have No Current
is normal, with 1 A in each branch and 2 A for the total For the short circuit in Fig. 13-9b, the I is 0 A in the parallel
line current. However, suppose that the conducting wire at resistors R1 and R2. The reason is that the short circuit is a
point G accidentally makes contact with the wire at point H, parallel path with practically zero resistance. Then all the
current flows in this path, bypassing the resistors R1 and R2.
Therefore R1 and R2 are short-circuited or shorted out of the
2A circuit. They cannot function without their normal current.
A If they were filament resistances of lightbulbs or heaters,
they would not light without any current.
1
The short-circuited components are not damaged, how-
20-V R1 5 R2 5 ever. They do not even have any current passing through
source 20 V 20 V
them. Assuming that the short circuit has not damaged the
2 voltage source and the wiring for the circuit, the components
can operate again when the circuit is restored to normal by
(a ) removing the short circuit.

G All Parallel Branches Are Short-Circuited

If there were only one R in Fig. 13-9 or any number of parallel
1
components, they would all be shorted out by the short circuit
Voltage R1 5 R2 5 Short across points G and H. Therefore, a short circuit across one
source 20 V 20 V circuit
branch in a parallel circuit shorts out all parallel branches.
2 This idea also applies to a short circuit across the volt-
age source in any type of circuit. Then the entire circuit is
H
shorted out.
(b)
Troubleshooting Procedures for Parallel Circuits
Figure 13-9 Effect of a short circuit across parallel
branches. (a) Normal circuit. (b) Short circuit across points G When a component fails in a parallel circuit, voltage, cur-
and H shorts out all the branches. rent, and resistance measurements can be made to locate the

DC Troubleshooting 217

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 defective component. To begin our analysis, let’s refer to the This is indicated by the voltmeter M2 as shown. The reason
parallel circuit in Fig. 13-10a, which is normal. The individ- M2 measures 120 V between points D and E is explained as
ual branch currents I1, I2, I3, and I4 are calculated as follows: follows: Notice that the positive (red) lead of M2 is connected
through S1 and F1 to the positive side of the applied voltage.
120 V
I1 5 ______ 5 6 A Also, the negative (black) lead of M2 is connected to the top
20 V
of resistors R3 and R4. Since the voltage across R3 and R4
120 V
I2 5 ______ 5 8 A is 0 V, the negative lead of M2 is in effect connected to the
15 V
120 V negative side of the applied voltage. In other words, M2 is ef-
I3 5 ______ 5 4 A fectively connected directly across the 120-V source.
30 V
120 V
______
I4 5 52A
60 V
By Kirchhoff’s current law, the total current IT equals
EX A M P L E 1 3 -3
6 A 1 8 A 1 4 A 1 2 A 5 20 A. The total current IT of 20 A
is indicated by the ammeter M1, which is placed in the main In Fig. 13-10a, suppose that the ammeter M 1 reads 16 A instead of
line between points J and K. The fuse F1 between points A 20 A as it should. What could be wrong with the circuit?
and B in the main line can safely carry 20 A, since its maxi- Answer:
mum rated current is 25 A, as shown. Notice that the current I 3 is supposed to be 4 A. If R 3 is open, this
Now consider the effect of an open branch between points D explains why M 1 reads a current that is 4 A less than its normal
and I in Fig. 13-10b. With R2 open, the branch current I2 is 0 A. value. To confirm that R 3 is open; open S 1 and disconnect the top
Also, the ammeter M1 shows a total current IT of 12 A, which lead of R 3 from point E. Next place an ammeter between the top
of R 3 and point E. Now, close S 1. If I 3 measures 0 A, you know that
is 8 A less than its normal value. This makes sense because
R 3 is open. If I 3 measures 4 A, you know that one of the other
I2 is normally 8 A. Notice that with R2 open, all other branch branches is drawing less current than it should. In this case, the
currents remain the same. This is because each branch is still next step would be to measure each of the remaining branch cur-
connected to the applied voltage of 120 V. It is important to re- rents to find the defective component.
alize that voltage measurements across the individual branches
would not help determine which branch is open because even
the open branch between points D and I will measure 120 V. Consider the circuit in Fig. 13-10d. Notice that the fuse F1 is
In most cases, the components in a parallel circuit provide blown and the ammeter M1 reads 0 A. Notice also that the volt-
a visual indication of failure. If a lamp burns open, it doesn’t age across each branch measures 0 V and the voltage across
light. If a motor opens, it stops running. In these cases, the the blown fuse measures 120 V as indicated by the voltmeter
defective component is easy to spot. M2. What could cause this? The most likely answer is that one
In summary, here is the effect of an open branch in a par- of the parallel-connected branches has become short-circuited.
allel circuit. This would cause the total current to rise well above the 25-A
1. The current in the open branch drops to 0 A. current rating of the fuse, thus causing it to blow. But how do
2. The total current IT decreases by an amount equal to we go about finding out which branch is shorted? There are at
the value normally drawn by the now open branch. least three different approaches. Here’s the first one: Start by
3. The current in all remaining branches remains the opening switch S1 and replacing the bad fuse. Next, with S1
same. still open, disconnect all but one of the four parallel branches.
For example, disconnect branch resistors R1, R2, and R3 along
4. The applied voltage remains present across all
the top (at points C, D, and E). With R4 still connected, close
branches whether they are open or not.
S1. If the fuse blows, you know R4 is shorted! If the fuse does
Next, let’s consider the effect of an open between two not blow, with only R4 connected, open S1 and reconnect R3 to
branch points such as points D and E in Fig. 13-10c. With an point E. Then, close S1 and see if the fuse blows.
open between these two points, the current through branch Repeat this procedure with branch resistors R1 and R2 until
resistors R3 and R4 will be 0 A. Since I3 5 4 A and I4 5 2 A the shorted branch is identified. The shorted branch will blow
normally, the total current indicated by M1 will drop from the fuse when it is reconnected at the top (along points C, D,
20 A to 14 A as shown. The reason that I3 and I4 are now 0 A E, and F) with S1 closed. Although this troubleshooting proce-
is that the applied voltage has effectively been removed from dure is effective in locating the shorted branch, another fuse
these two branches. If a voltmeter were placed across either has been blown and this will cost you or the customer money.
points E and H or F and G, it would read 0 V. A voltmeter Here’s another approach to finding the shorted branch. Open
placed across points D and E would measure 120 V, however. S1 and replace the bad fuse. Next, measure the resistance of

218 Chapter 13

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 A F1, 25 A B C D E F Figure 13-10 Parallel circuit for
S1
troubleshooting analysis. (a) Normal
circuit values; (b) circuit values with
1 branch R2 open; (c) circuit values with
R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
VA 5 120 V I1 5 6 A I2 5 8 A I3 5 4 A I4 5 2 A
an open between points D and E;
2 (d ) circuit showing the effects of a
shorted branch.
20 A
K J I H G
M1
(a )

A F1, 25 A B C D E F
S1

1 V1 5 120 V V2 5 120 V V3 5 120 V V4 5 120 V

VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 open R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 6 A I2 5 0 A I3 5 4 A I4 5 2 A

12 A
K J I H G
M1
(b )

M2

120 V

1 2
A F1, 25 A B S1 C D Red Black E F

1 V1 5 120 V V2 5 120 V V35 0 V V4 5 0 V

VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 6 A I2 5 8 A I3 5 0 A I4 5 0 A

14 A
K J I H G
M1
(c )

M2

120 V

1 F blown 2
Red 1 Black
A B S1 C D E F

1 V1 5 0 V V2 5 0 V V3 5 0 V V4 5 0 V
VA 5 120 V R1 5 20 V R2 5 15 V R3 5 30 V R4 5 60 V
2 I1 5 0 A I2 5 0 A I3 5 0 A I4 5 0 A

0A
K J I H G
M1
(d )

DC Troubleshooting 219

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 each branch separately. It is important to remember that when R1 5 10 V
A
R3 5 80 V

you make resistance measurements in a parallel circuit, one end

of each branch must be disconnected from the circuit so that the 1
R2 5
rest of the circuit does not affect the individual branch measure- V T 5 100 V S1
80 V
ment. The branch that measures 0 V is obviously the shorted 2
IT 5 2 A
branch. With this approach, another fuse will not get blown. B

Here is yet another approach that could be used to lo- (a )

cate the shorted branch in Fig. 13-10d. With S1 open, place
an ohmmeter across points C and J. With a shorted branch, R1 5 10 V
the ohmmeter will measure 0 V. To determine which branch A

is shorted, remove one branch at a time until the ohmmeter 1 Short

shows a value other than 0 V. The shorted component is lo- V T 5 100 V circuit
cated when removal of a given branch causes the ohmmeter 2
S1 closed
IT 5 10 A
to show a normal resistance.
B
In summary, here is the effect of a shorted branch in a (b)
parallel circuit:
Figure 13-11 Effect of a short circuit with series-parallel
1. The fuse in the main line will blow, resulting in zero connections. (a) Normal circuit with S 1 open. (b) Circuit with
current in the main line as well as in each parallel- short between points A and B when S 1 is closed; now R2 and
connected branch. R3 are short-circuited.
2. The voltage across each branch will equal 0 V, and the
voltage across the blown fuse will equal the applied
the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 13-11a becomes a series circuit
voltage.
with only R1 when there is a short circuit between terminals A
3. With power removed from the circuit, an ohmmeter and B. As an example of an open circuit, the series-parallel
will measure 0 V across all the branches. circuit in Fig. 13-12a becomes a series circuit with just R1 and
Before leaving the topic of troubleshooting parallel cir- R2 when there is an open circuit between terminals C and D.
cuits, one more point should be made about the fuse F1 and the
Effect of a Short Circuit
switch S1 in Fig. 13-10a: The resistance of a good fuse and the
resistance across the closed contacts of a switch are practically We can solve the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 13-11a to see
0 V. Therefore, the voltage drop across a good fuse or a closed the effect of the short circuit. For the normal circuit with
switch is approximately 0 V. This can be proven with Ohm’s S1 open, R2 and R3 are in parallel. Although R3 is drawn
law, since V 5 I 3 R. If R 5 0 V, then V 5 I 3 0 V 5 0 V.
When a fuse blows or a switch opens, the resistance increases R1 5 10 V R3 5 80 V
to such a high value that it is considered infinite. When used C
in the main line of a parallel circuit, the voltage across an open V1 5 20 V V3 5 80 V
1
switch or a blown fuse is the same as the applied voltage. One V T 5 100 V R2 5 V 2 5 80 V S2
80 V
way to reason this out logically is to treat all parallel branches 2
as a single equivalent resistance REQ in series with the switch
D
and fuse. The result is a simple series circuit. Then, if either
(a )
the fuse or the switch opens, apply the rules of an open to a
series circuit. As you recall from your study of series circuits, V1 5 11 V V3 5 0
the voltage across an open equals the applied voltage. C
R 1 5 10 V R 3 5 80 V
1
13.6 Troubleshooting: Opens and V T 5 100 V V2 5 89 V R 2 5 80 V V CD 5 89 V
2
Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its effect, there- D

fore, is to allow excessive current. An open circuit has the (b )

opposite effect because an open circuit has infinitely high re-

Figure 13-12 Effect of an open path in a series-parallel
sistance with practically zero current. Furthermore, in series- circuit. (a) Normal circuit with S2 closed. (b) Series circuit with
parallel circuits, an open or short circuit in one path changes R 1 and R2 when S2 is open. Now R3 in the open path has no
the circuit for the other resistances. For example, in Fig. 13-11, current and zero IR voltage drop.

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 horizontally, both ends are across R2. The switch S1 has no Troubleshooting Procedures
effect as a parallel branch here because it is open. for Series-Parallel Circuits
The combined resistance of the 80-V R2 in parallel with
The procedure for troubleshooting series-parallel circuits con-
the 80-V R3 is equivalent to 40 V. This 40 V for the bank
taining opens and shorts is a combination of the procedures
resistance is in series with the 10-V R1. Then RT is 40 1
used to troubleshoot individual series and parallel circuits.
10 5 50 V.
Figure 13-13a shows a series-parallel circuit with its normal
In the main line, IT is 100y50 5 2 A. Then V1 across the
operating voltages and currents. Across points A and B, the
10-V R1 in the main line is 2 3 10 5 20 V. The remaining
equivalent resistance REQ of R2 and R3 in parallel is calculated as
80 V is across R2 and R3 as a parallel bank. As a result, V2 5
80 V and V3 5 80 V. R2 3 R3
REQ 5 _______
R2 1 R3
Now consider the effect of closing switch S1. A closed
switch has zero resistance. Not only is R2 short-circuited, 100 V 3 150 V
5 _____________
but R3 in the bank with R2 is also short-circuited. The closed 100 V 1 150 V
switch short-circuits everything connected between terminals REQ 5 60 V
A and B. The result is the series circuit shown in Fig. 13-11b. Since R2 and R3 are in parallel across points A and B, this
Now the 10-V R1 is the only opposition to current. I equals equivalent resistance is designated RAB. Therefore, RAB 5 60 V.
VyR1, which is 100y10 5 10 A. This 10 A flows through the The total resistance, RT , is
closed switch, through R1, and back to the positive terminal
of the voltage source. With 10 A through R1, instead of its RT 5 R1 1 RAB 1 R4
normal 2 A, the excessive current can cause excessive heat in 5 120 V 1 60 V 1 180 V
R1. There is no current through R2 and R3, as they are short- 5 360 V
circuited out of the path for current. The total current, IT, is
VT
Effect of an Open Circuit IT 5 ___
RT
Figure 13-12a shows the same series-parallel circuit as
36 V
Fig.  13-11a, except that switch S2 is used now to connect 5 ______
360 V
R3 in parallel with R2. With S2 closed for normal operation, 5 100 mA
all currents and voltages have the values calculated for the
series-parallel circuit. However, let us consider the effect of The voltage drops across the individual resistors are cal-
opening S2, as shown in Fig. 13-12b. An open switch has in- culated as
finitely high resistance. Now there is an open circuit between V1 5 IT 3 R1
terminals C and D. Furthermore, because R3 is in the open 5 100 mA 3 120 V
path, its 80 V cannot be considered in parallel with R2. 5 12 V
The circuit with S2 open in Fig. 13-12b is really the same V2 5 V3 5 VAB 5 IT 3 RAB
as having only R1 and R2 in series with the 100-V source. The 5 100 mA 3 60 V
open path with R3 has no effect as a parallel branch because 56V
no current flows through R3. V4 5 IT 3 R4
We can consider R1 and R2 in series as a voltage divider, 5 100 mA 3 180 V
where each IR drop is proportional to its resistance. The total 5 18 V
series R is 80 1 10 5 90 V. The 10-V R1 is 10y90 or 1⁄9 of the
The current in resistors R2 and R3 across points A and B
total R and the applied VT. Then V1 is 1⁄9 3 100 V 5 11 V and V2
can be found as follows:
is 8⁄9 3 100 V 5 89 V, approximately. The 11-V drop for V1 and
VAB
89-V drop for V2 add to equal the 100 V of the applied voltage. I2 5 ____
R2
Note that V3 is zero. Without any current through R3, it
6V
cannot have any voltage drop. 5 ______
Furthermore, the voltage across the open terminals C and 100 V
D is the same 89 V as the potential difference V2 across R2. 5 60 mA
Since there is no voltage drop across R3, terminal C has the VAB
same potential as the top terminal of R2. Terminal D is di- I3 5 ____
R 3
rectly connected to the bottom end of resistor R2. Therefore, 6V
the potential difference from terminal C to terminal D is the 5 ______
150 V
same 89 V that appears across resistor R2. 5 40 mA

DC Troubleshooting 221

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 Figure 13-13 Series-parallel circuit for
troubleshooting analysis. (a) Normal circuit S1 R1 5 120 V
A
voltages and currents; (b) circuit voltages
with R3 open between points A and B; V1 5 12 V
(c) circuit voltages with R2 or R3 shorted
between points A and B.
1 V2 5 6 V V3 5 6 V
V T 5 36 V R2 5 100 V R3 5 150 V 6 V VAB
2 I2 5 60 mA I3 5 40 mA
IT 5 100 mA

V4 5 18 V

B
R4 5 180 V

(a )

S1 R1 5 120 V
A

V1 5 10.8 V

1
V T 5 36 V R2 5 100 V R3 5 150 V 9 V VAB
2

V4 5 16.2 V

B
R4 5 180 V

(b )

S1 R1 5 120 V
A

V1 5 14.4 V

1
V T 5 36 V R2 5 100 V R3 5 150 V 0 V VAB
2

V4 5 21.6 V

B
R4 5 180 V

(c )

222 Chapter 13

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 EXAMPLE 13-4 EXAMPLE 13-5

Assume that the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 13–13a has failed. A Assume that the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 13–13a has failed. A tech-
technician troubleshooting the circuit has measured the following nician troubleshooting the circuit has measured the following voltages:
voltages:
V1 5 14.4 V
V1 5 10.8 V VAB 5 0 V
VAB 5 9 V V4 5 21.6 V
V4 5 16.2 V These voltage readings are shown in Fig. 13-13c. Based on the
These voltage readings are shown in Fig. 13–13b. Based on the voltmeter readings shown, which component is defective and what
voltmeter readings shown, which component is defective and type of defect does it have?
what type of defect does it have? Answer:
Answer: Since the voltages V1 and V4 have both increased, and the voltage
If we consider the resistance between points A and B as a single VAB has decreased, the defective component must be either R 2 or
resistance, the circuit can be analyzed as if it were a simple series R 3 across points A and B. Because the voltage VAB is 0 V, either
circuit. Notice that V1 and V4 have decreased from their normal R 2 or R 3 must be shorted.
values of 12 V and 18  V respectively, whereas the voltage VAB But how can we find out which resistor is shorted? One way
across R 2 and R 3 has increased from 6 V to 9 V. would be to measure the currents I 2 and I 3. The shorted compo-
Recall that in a series circuit containing three or more compo- nent is the one with all the current.
nents, the voltage across the defective component changes in a Another way to find out which resistor is shorted would be to
direction that is opposite to the direction of the change in voltage open the switch S1 and measure the resistance across points A and
across the good components. Since the voltages V1 and V4 have B. Disconnect one lead of either R2 or R3 from point A while observ-
decreased and the voltage VAB has increased, the defective com- ing the ohmmeter. If removing the top lead of R3 from point A still
ponent must be either R 2 or R 3 across points A and B. shows a reading of 0 V, then you know that R2 must be shorted.
The increase in voltage across points A and B tells us that the Similarly, if removing the top lead of R2 from point A (with R3 still
resistance between points A and B must have increased. The in- connected at point A) still produces a reading of 0 V, then you know
crease in the resistance RAB could be the result of an open in either that R3 is shorted.
R2 or R3.
But how do we know which resistor is open? At least three
approaches may be used to find this out. One approach would be 13.7 Troubleshooting Hints for Wires
to calculate the resistance across points A and B. To do this, find and Connectors
the total current in either R 1 or R4. Let’s find I T in R 1.
For all types of electronic equipment, a common problem is
V an open circuit in the wire conductors, the connectors, and
IT 5 __1
R1 the switch contacts.
10.8 V You can check continuity of conductors, both wires and
5 ______
120 V printed wiring, with an ohmmeter. A good conductor reads
5 90 mA 0 V for continuity. An open reads infinite ohms.
A connector can also be checked for continuity between
Next, divide the measured voltage VAB by I T to find RAB.
the wire and the connector itself. Also, the connector may be
VAB tarnished, oxide-coated, or rusted. Then it must be cleaned with
RAB 5 ____
IT either fine sandpaper or emery cloth. Sometimes, it helps just to
9V pull out the plug and reinsert it to make sure of tight connections.
5 ______
90 mA With a plug connector for cable, make sure the wires have
5 100 V continuity to the plug. Except for the F-type connector, most
Notice that the value of RAB is the same as that of R 2. This means,
plugs require careful soldering to the center pin.
of course, that R 3 must be open. A switch with dirty or pitted contacts can produce intermit-
Another approach to finding which resistor is open would be tent operation. In most cases, the switch cannot be dissassem-
to open the switch S 1 and measure the resistance across points bled for cleaning. Therefore, the switch must be replaced with
A and B. This measurement would show that the resistance RAB a new one.
equals 100 V, again indicating that the resistor R 3 must be open.
The only other approach to determine which resistor is open 13.8 Troubleshooting a DC System
would be to measure the currents I 2 and I3 with the switch S 1
closed. In Fig. 13-13b, the current I 2 would measure 90 mA, whereas
The basic troubleshooting procedure for any dc system is simi-
the current I3 would measure 0 mA. With I3 5 0 mA, R3 must be lar to that as outlined earlier in Sec. 13-1. In most cases all you
open. will need is a good digital (or analog) multimeter to measure
dc voltage, current, and resistance and to check continuity.

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 The examples given here use the boat dc electrical system to measure the voltage at the breaker. Of course, it should be
described in the System Sidebar. See Fig. S13-1. 12 V or close to it.
If no voltage is present, trace the wiring back to the bat-
Defective Running Lights
teries. Check the position of switch SW4. If it is in posi-
Assume that one of the running lights (red) does not light. tion B, switch it to position A. It could be that battery 2 is
If only one of the lights does not work and the other run- not charged but battery 1 is. Measure the voltages at both
ning lights (green and white) are working, you can probably batteries. A common problem is that the batteries have not
assume that 12 V is available since the bulbs are all in par- been recharged. You will need to charge them, probably
allel. The OFF-ON switch SW5 is probably OK. The most from the ac dockside charger or the solar charger. Set SW1 to
likely defect is a bad bulb. Remove the bulb, and check it position B, and turn on the ac charger. Check to see that the
visually to see if the filament is present. If not, or if the bulb charger voltage to the batteries is in the 13- to 15-V range.
is black, the bulb is probably burned out. If you are unsure, Note that SW2 selects whether you charge BATT1 or BATT2.
check its continuity with an ohmmeter. Then replace it if Close SW3 if you wish to charge both at the same time.
defective. Be sure to use the same type and wattage.
Another possibility is that the bulb socket or wiring is AC Appliances Not Working
bad. Sockets exposed to salt water or air and a highly humid
environment can corrode and produce an open or a high- A cell phone charger and a microwave oven connected to the
resistance connection between the bulb and socket. A visual ac outlets are not working.
inspection will tell you. You may have to clean the bulb or First, check for the presence of 120 Vac at the inverter
socket contacts. Also check the connections from the power outlet with your multimeter. Be careful in measuring this
wiring to the socket for broken or corroded connections. high voltage. If is not present, check to see that the inverter
is turned on. It may or may not have an ON-OFF switch. If
Cabin Light Failure the unit is on and still no voltage is present, check the related
The problem has been determined as none of the cabin lights circuit breaker. If it is OK, verify that 12 V is present at the
work. breaker panel and the inverter input. If voltage is present, the
Logical thinking will lead you to the conclusion that all the inverter itself may be defective. It must be replaced.
cabin lightbulbs and switches are good as the chances of all DC troubleshooting is basically simple, at least electri-
of them being bad is very low. As a starting point, you might cally. The hard part is the actual physical wiring and me-
go to the circuit breaker box and check the condition of the chanics of mounting and attaching the various electric
breaker. If it is off, turn it back on. That should fix the prob- components. Mechanical devices tend to go bad more often
lem. However, if the breaker immediately trips again, then than electric devices so always expect problems there first.
there is probably a short in one of the light fixtures or in the Visual inspections are a must.
wiring. A visual inspection of each cabin light and its socket The hardest part of troubleshooting a dc system is the wiring.
is in order. Corrosion may have produced a short across the Tracing the wires from source to load is a problem because the
socket that is creating the high current that trips the breaker. wiring is often hidden behind walls or bulkheads or otherwise
Cleaning or replacing the socket may be necessary. If the cir- buried in pipes or conduit. You must have the system wiring
cuit breaker is not tripped, there may not be voltage at the diagram for fastest diagnosis. Use any available cable identifi-
breaker panel to distribute to the lights. Use your multimeter cation, like color coding, to help you trace the wiring.

CHAPTER 13 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

DC Power System
A good example of a dc electrical system is that used in an powerboat with inboard or outboard motors or a sailboat
automobile or boat. Both are powered by batteries with sub- with an auxiliary motor. There are significant variations and
systems for charging, lights, motors, controls, electronics, a wide range of electrical features and accessories, but this
and other accessories. This section describes a simplified ge- system describes all the most common equipment. Refer to
neric boat electrical system as an example. This hypothetical Fig. S13-1.
system is typical of what you may find on a small (,35-ft)

224 Chapter 13

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 Solar panel
Electronics
Battery
120 Vac VHF radio
charger

GPS

Boat engine Radar

Charge Depth meter

Starter controller

120 Vac Other

Regulator
to appliances
Instruments

A B C

SW1 DC-AC Bilge

Inverter M pump
motor
Circuit breakers
Starter relay
SW2

Running lights
A B
A
SW4
W R G
K1
ⴙ ⴙ
SW3 B

ⴚ BATT1 ⴚ BATT2
12 V 12 V SW5
Start
switch
(key)

Cabin
lights
Ground distribution bus

Figure S13-1 Boat dc electrical system.

Batteries Charging System

Most small boats use lead-acid 12-V batteries as the main In some systems, the boat engine also has an alternator or
power source. These are similar to standard 12-V car batter- generator, as do all cars. This alternator produces ac, but that
ies, but special high-capacity marine batteries are available is rectified into dc by some internal diodes. The resulting dc is
for larger boats and loads. Typically two batteries are used, then fed to a regulator circuit that delivers the correct amount
BATT1 and BATT2, one for backup as it would be dangerous of voltage and current to the batteries to be charged.
to lose battery power while a long way from dock or shore. Alternatively, an ac-operated battery charger can be used.
One of these batteries would be used to start the engine, al- In this system, a dockside ac outlet supplies 120-V, 60-Hz ac
though some larger boats have a separate engine-starting to the on-board battery charger that then charges the batter-
battery. In this system, battery 1 is used for starting but can ies. Some boats also have a solar panel and charge controller
also be used to power the other subsystems in the boat. Bat- to recharge the batteries if they get too low while at sea.
tery 2 is the main or “house” battery for all subsystems. On
larger boats, 24- or 48-V battery systems are used to handle Switching
the extra power for larger appliances and more accessories. You will note in Fig. S13-1 that many switches are used.
These permit you to make the necessary connections be-
Starting System tween the batteries and charging sources. Switch SW1 se-
The boat engine has a dc starter motor like a car engine. This lects the charging source. When the engine is running, the
motor requires a very high starting current of about 100 A or batteries can be recharged by the alternator. At the dock,
so; therefore, a simple starter switch cannot be used. Instead the ac battery charger is selected. At sea or anchor, the
a starter relay or solenoid is used. This is K1 in the figure. solar panel can be used for recharging. Switch SW2 lets
The starter switch is usually a key-operated, low-current you select which battery to recharge. If you close SW3,
switch that applies power to the relay. The relay or solenoid both batteries are connected in parallel and you can charge
magnetically engages the heavy-duty contacts that connect them at the same time. Switch SW3 can also be closed if
the battery to the starter motor. more power is needed to carry heavier accessory loads.

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 Switch SW4 selects which battery is used to power all the A separate circuit controls the nighttime running lights.
various loads. These include the red (left or port) and green (right or star-
The switching arrangements vary widely from boat to board) lights required by law. Often separate white transom
boat. Some kind of master switching panel is provided near or mast lights are also used.
the batteries to select which configuration is needed. The bilge pumps have a separate circuit. These pumps
use dc motors to power them. Separate on-off switches are
Wiring used, and multiple bilge pumps are common.
Another circuit is provided for such instruments as speed-
The battery and charging wiring require very heavy cables
ometer, engine tachometer, engine temperature, oil indica-
as they must carry many tens or even hundreds of amperes.
tor, depth indicator, and others including their lights. One or
Large wires ensure minimal voltage drop loss and over-
more circuits are also provided for electronics, including the
heating. Stranded wiring is the most common choice for
mandatory VHF radio, GPS navigation system, radar, fish
flexibility in routing. Load wires use smaller cables as less
finder, and other equipment (long-range SSB radio, weather
amperage is needed. There are safety standards for deter-
fax, etc.).
mining the minimal wire sizes for different cable lengths
Additional circuits may be used for a horn, an anchor
and amperage.
winch motor, or a small refrigerator, depending on how the
boat is outfitted.
Load Distribution Note that many boats now have an inverter to power ac
The 12 V from the batteries are distributed about the boat appliances and devices. An inverter is an electronic circuit
in much the same way ac house power is distributed. The that converts dc into 120-V, 60-Hz ac. These come in different
battery voltage is connected to power bus bars that provide sizes from a few hundred watts to several kilowatts or more,
a way to connect the wiring to the various electrical de- depending on the battery capacity. The inverter lets the boat
vices needing power. A set of fuses or circuit breakers are owner use a microwave oven, TV set, radio/stereo, or another
used to divide the loads into logical subsystems or circuits. low-power ac device. It also serves to recharge cell phones,
Loads connect to the power by a two-wire cable, with one music players, and all the other gadgets a person uses.
connection to the positive bus and another to the negative A dc power system like this is relatively simple in concept
ground bus. because it only uses batteries, switches, and simple loads.
In Fig. S13-1, note that a separate circuit breaker is used What makes it complex is the extensive wiring and switch-
for each separate circuit. For example, one breaker is used to ing that is difficult to install and troubleshoot. Operational
send power to the internal cabin lights. These are either 12-V details differ, depending on the equipment involved. A wir-
incandescent bulbs in fixtures or newer lower-power LED ing diagram and operations manual are essential to trouble-
lights. A switch is usually provided for each individual light. shooting such a system.

CHAPTER 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The main troubleshooting test instrument for dc sys- 3. The basic approach in dc troubleshooting could be
tems is a(n) described as
a. oscilloscope. a. signal injection.
b. multimeter. b. effect to cause reasoning.
c. clamp-on current meter. c. signal tracing.
d. neon test bulb. d. continuity checking.
2. The very first step in any troubleshooting procedure 4. Most dc system problems, excluding the voltage
is to source, are
a. acquire all necessary documentation. a. shorts or opens.
b. measure all source voltages. b. defective parts.
c. check the circuit breakers. c. corrosion.
d. verify that a problem actually exists. d. ground faults.

226 Chapter 13

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 5. In testing a resistor with an ohmmeter, you must 11. To measure the current in a series circuit, the amme-
a. remove the dc power source. ter is connected
b. make sure there are no other resistors or compo- a. across one of the resistors.
nents in parallel with it. b. across the voltage source.
c. remove the resistor or at least disconnect one lead. c. in the negative lead of the source.
d. all of the above. d. in series with any part of the circuit.
6. The resistance of a short is essentially 12. An open branch in a parallel circuit can be detected
a. zero. by
b. less than 100 V. a. a lower total source current.
c. depends on the circuit. b. a higher total source current.
d. infinity. c. complete circuit failure.
7. The resistance of an open is essentially d. a lower source voltage.
a. zero. 13. A short across a resistor in a parallel circuit will cause
b. over 100,000 V. the source current to be
c. depends on the circuit. a. zero.
d. infinity. b. some lower value.
8. In measuring the resistance across a resistor in a se- c. some extremely high value.
ries circuit and you measure the supply voltage, the d. infinite.
problem is probably a(n) 14. A common source of shorts and opens is
a. shorted resistor. a. defective connectors.
b. resistor whose value has changed. b. defective wiring.
c. open resistor. c. defective components.
d. wiring problem. d. all of the above.
9. An open in a series circuit causes the current to be 15. If a resistor in a series circuit becomes open, how
a. maximum. much is the voltage across each of the remaining
b. zero. resistors that are still good?
c. higher. a. Each good resistor has the full value of applied
d. lower. voltage.
10. A shorted component in a series circuit causes the b. The applied voltage is split evenly among the good
current to be resistors.
a. maximum. c. Zero.
b. zero. d. This is not possible to determine.
c. higher.
d. lower.

CHAPTER 13 PROBLEMS

SECTION 13.4 Troubleshooting: Opens and R1 5 1 kV

Shorts in Series Circuits

13.1 In Fig. 13-14, assume R1 becomes open. How much is 1
a. the total resistance, RT? VT 5 24 V R2 5 2 kV
2
b. the series current, I?
c. the voltage across each resistor, R1, R2, and R3?
13.2 In Fig. 13-14, assume R3 shorts. How much is
R3 5 3 kV
a. the total resistance, RT?
b. the series current, I? Figure 13-14
c. the voltage across each resistor, R1, R2, and R3?

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 13.3 In Fig. 13-14, assume that the value of R2 has in- 3V 5.4 V
R1 5 100 V R2 5 180 V
creased but is not open. What happens to
a. the total resistance, RT? 1
V1
2 1
V2
2

b. the series current, I? 1

1
c. the voltage drop across R2? V T 5 24 V 6.6 V V 3 R3 5 220 V
d. the voltage drops across R1 and R3? 2
5.4 V 3.6 V 2
13.4 Table 13-1 shows voltage measurements taken in V5 V4
Fig. 13-15. The first row shows the normal values
2 1 2 1
that exist when the circuit is operating properly. R5 5 180 V R4 5 120 V
Rows 2 to 15 are voltage measurements taken when
Figure 13-15 Circuit diagram. Normal values for V1, V2, V3,
one component in the circuit has failed. For each row, V4, and V5 are shown on schematic.
identify which component is defective and determine
the type of defect that has occurred in the component.

Table 13-1 Voltage Measurements Taken in Fig. 13-15

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 Defective Component
Volts

1 Normal values 3 5.4 6.6 3.6 5.4 None

2 Trouble 1 0 24 0 0 0
3 Trouble 2 4.14 7.45 0 4.96 7.45
4 Trouble 3 3.53 6.35 7.76 0 6.35
5 Trouble 4 24 0 0 0 0
6 Trouble 5 0 6.17 7.54 4.11 6.17
7 Trouble 6 0 0 0 24 0
8 Trouble 7 3.87 0 8.52 4.64 6.97
9 Trouble 8 0 0 24 0 0
10 Trouble 9 0 0 0 0 24
11 Trouble 10 2.4 4.32 5.28 2.88 9.12
12 Trouble 11 4 7.2 0.8 4.8 7.2
13 Trouble 12 3.87 6.97 8.52 4.64 0
14 Trouble 13 15.6 2.16 2.64 1.44 2.16
15 Trouble 14 3.43 6.17 7.55 0.68 6.17

SECTION 13.5 Troubleshooting: Opens and

Shorts in Parallel Circuits
13.5 Figure 13-16 shows a parallel circuit with its normal A Fuse, F1 C E G
operating voltages and currents. Notice that the fuse in
the main line has a 25-A rating. What happens to the 25 A Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 3

circuit components and their voltages and currents if 120 Vac

120 V Household 120 V
a. the appliance in branch 3 shorts? Power line Motor 120 V
appliance
voltage
b. the motor in branch 2 burns out and becomes an 100-W
lightbulb I2 5 8.33 A I3 5 10 A
open? I1 5 0.833 A
c. the wire between points C and E develops an open?
B D F H
d. the motor in branch 2 develops a problem and
begins drawing 16 A of current? Figure 13-16

228 Chapter 13

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 M3
F1, 5 A A B C D E
S1
1.8 A

M2
1 R1 5 24 V R2 5 36 V R3 5 60 V R4 5 30 V
VA 5 36 V 36 V I1 5 1.5 A I2 5 1 A I3 5 600 mA I4 5 1.2 A
2

4.3 A
J I H G F
M1

Figure 13-17 Circuit diagram. Normal values for I 1, I 2, I 3, and I4 are shown on schematic.

Figure 13-17 shows a parallel circuit with its normal op- 13.13 Assuming that the circuit is operating normally, how
erating voltages and currents. Notice the placement of the much voltage would be measured across (a) the fuse
meters M1, M2, and M3 in the circuit. M1 measures the total F1; (b) the switch S1?
current IT, M2 measures the applied voltage VA, and M3 13.14 If the branch resistor R3 opens, (a) how much voltage
measures the current between points C and D. The follow- would be measured across R3? (b) How much current
ing problems deal with troubleshooting the parallel circuit would be indicated by M1 and M3?
in Fig. 13-17.
13.15 If the wire between points B and C breaks open,
13.6 If M1 measures 2.8 A, M2 measures 36 V, and M3 (a) how much current will be measured by M1 and
measures 1.8 A, which component has most likely M3? (b) How much voltage would be measured
failed? How is the component defective? across points B and C? (c) How much voltage will
13.7 If M1 measures 2.5 A, M2 measures 36 V, and M3 be measured across points C and H?
measures 0 A, what is most likely wrong? How
could you isolate the trouble by making voltage SECTION 13.6 Troubleshooting: Opens and
measurements? Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits
13.8 If M1 measures 3.3 A, M2 measures 36 V, and M3
13.16 Refer to Fig. 13-18. How much voltage will be
measures 1.8 A, which component has most likely
indicated by the voltmeter when the wiper arm of the
failed? How is the component defective?
linear potentiometer R2 is set (a) to point A; (b) to
13.9 If the fuse F1 is blown, (a) how much current will point B; (c) midway between points A and B.
be measured by M1 and M3? (b) How much voltage
will be measured by M2? (c) How much voltage
will be measured across the blown fuse? (d) What is
most likely to have caused the blown fuse? (e) Using 136 V
resistance measurements, outline a procedure for
finding the defective component.
R1 5 3.3 kV
13.10 If M1 and M3 measure 0 A but M2 measures 36 V,
what is most likely wrong? How could you isolate
A
the trouble by making voltage measurements?
13.11 If the fuse F1 has blown because of a shorted branch,
R2 5 5 kV
how much resistance would be measured across
points B and I? Without using resistance measure-
ments, how could the shorted branch be identified? B
V
R4 5 15 kV
13.12 If the wire connecting points F and G opens,
R3 5 10 kV
(a) how much current will M3 show? (b) How much
voltage would be measured across R4? (c) How
much voltage would be measured across points D
and E? (d) How much voltage would be measured
across points F and G? Figure 13-18

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 Table 13-2 Voltage Measurements Taken in Fig. 13-19
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Defective
Volts Component

1 Normal values 5 36 6.6 24 5.4 9 None

2 Trouble 1 0 0 0 0 0 50
3 Trouble 2 17.86 0 0 0 0 32.14
4 Trouble 3 3.38 40.54 0 40.54 0 6.08
5 Trouble 4 3.38 40.54 0 0 40.54 6.08
6 Trouble 5 6.1 43.9 8.05 29.27 6.59 0
7 Trouble 6 2.4 43.27 7.93 28.85 6.49 4.33
8 Trouble 7 50 0 0 0 0 0
9 Trouble 8 7.35 29.41 16.18 0 13.24 13.24
10 Trouble 9 0 40 7.33 26.67 6 10
11 Trouble 10 3.38 40.54 40.54 0 0 6.08
12 Trouble 11 5.32 35.11 0 28.67 6.45 9.57
13 Trouble 12 5.25 35.3 7.61 27.7 0 9.45

13.17 Table 13-2 shows voltage measurements taken in R1 5 100 V R3 5 330 V

Fig. 13-19. The first row shows the normal values

V1 5 5 V V3 5 6.6 V
that exist when the circuit is operating normally.
Rows 2 to 13 are voltage measurements taken when
one component in the circuit has failed. For each row 1
R2 5 1.2 kV R4 5 1.2 kV
VT 5 50 V
in Table 13-2, identify which component is defective 2
V2 5 36 V V4 5 24 V
and determine the type of defect that has occurred in
the component.
V6 5 9 V V5 5 5.4 V
13.18 Table 13-3 shows voltage measurements taken in
Fig. 13-20. The first row shows the normal values R6 5 180 V R5 5 270 V
when the circuit is operating properly. Rows 2
to 9 are voltage measurements taken when one Figure 13-19 Circuit diagram. Normal operating voltages
are shown.
component in the circuit has failed. For each row,

Table 13-3 Voltage Measurements Taken in Fig. 13-20

VAG VBG VCG VDG Defective
Volts Component

1 Normal values 25 20 7.5 2.5 None

2 Trouble 1 25 25 0 0
3 Trouble 2 25 0 0 0
4 Trouble 3 25 18.75 3.125 3.125
5 Trouble 4 25 25 25 25
6 Trouble 5 25 15 15 5
7 Trouble 6 25 25 9.375 3.125
8 Trouble 7 25 25 25 0
9 Trouble 8 25 19.4 5.56 0

230 Chapter 13

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 identify which component is defective and deter- A

mine the type of defect that has occurred in the

component. R1 5 2 kV

Table 13-4 shows voltage measurements taken in

Fig. 13-21. The first row shows the normal values B

when the circuit is operating properly. Rows 2 to 9

are voltage measurements taken when one component R2 5 5 kV
in the circuit has failed. For each row, identify which 1
component is defective and determine the type of de- V T 5 25 V C
2
fect that has occurred in the component.
R3 5 2 kV

R4 5 1 kV

Figure 13-20 Series voltage divider.

Table 13-4 Voltage Measurements Taken in Fig. 13-21

VA VB VC VD Defective
Volts Comments Component

1 Normal values 36 24 15 6 — None

2 Trouble 1 36 32 0 0 —
3 Trouble 2 36 16.94 0 0 R2 Warm
4 Trouble 3 36 25.52 18.23 0 —
5 Trouble 4 36 0 0 0 R1 Hot
6 Trouble 5 36 0 0 0 —
7 Trouble 6 36 27.87 23.23 9.29 —
8 Trouble 7 36 23.25 13.4 0 —
9 Trouble 8 36 36 22.5 9 —

A
R1 5 200 V/2 W B Figure 13-21 Loaded voltage divider.

Load A
R2 5 200 V/1 W 24 V, 15 mA

1
Load B
V T 5 36 V R3 5 600 V/1⁄4 W
15 V, 30 mA
2

Load C
R4 5 1.2 kV
1⁄4 W 6 V, 10 mA

DC Troubleshooting 231

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 Ch a pt er 14
Alternating Voltage and Current

This chapter covers the analysis of alternating voltage. Learning Outcomes

An alternating voltage is a voltage that continuously
varies in amplitude and periodically reverses in polar- After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
ity. One cycle includes two alternations in polarity. The Describe how a sine wave of alternating voltage is
number of cycles per second is the frequency mea- generated.
sured in hertz (Hz). Every ac voltage has both amplitude Calculate the instantaneous value of a sine wave of
variations and polarity reversals. The amplitude values alternating voltage or current.
and rate of polarity reversal, however, vary from one ac Define the following values for a sine wave: peak,
waveform to the next. This chapter covers the theory, peak-to-peak, root-mean-square, and average.
the terminology, and the measurements of alternating Calculate the rms, average, and peak-to-peak values
of a sine wave when the peak value is known.
voltage and current. The emphasis is on an naturally
occurring ac waveform called the sine wave. Other Define frequency and period and list the units of each.
forms of ac include square waves, triangular waves, Calculate the wavelength when the frequency is
known.
and other nonsinusoidal shapes. The Fourier theory and
the frequency domain are introduced as a way to ana- Explain the concept of phase angles.
lyze and view nonsinusoidal waves. Describe the makeup of a nonsinusoidal waveform.
Define the term harmonics.
Define the Fourier theory.
232

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 14.1 Alternating Current Applications these voltage values are with respect to terminal 1. After a
half-cycle, the voltage at terminal 2 becomes negative, still
Figure 14-1 shows the output from an ac voltage generator
with respect to the other terminal. Then the same voltage
with the reversals between positive and negative polarities
variations are repeated at terminal 2, but they have negative
and the variations in amplitude. In Fig. 14-1a, the waveform
polarity compared to the reference level. Note that if we take
shown simulates an ac voltage as it would appear on the
the voltage at terminal 1 with terminal 2 as the reference,
screen of an oscilloscope, which is an important test instru-
the waveform in Fig. 14-1b would have the same shape but
ment for ac voltages. The oscilloscope shows a picture of any
be inverted in polarity. The negative half-cycle would come
ac voltage connected to its input terminals. It also indicates
first, but it does not matter which is first or second.
the amplitude. The details of how to use the oscilloscope for
The characteristic of varying values is the reason that ac
ac voltage measurements are explained in Chap. 26.
circuits have so many uses. For instance, a transformer can
In Fig. 14-1b, the graph of the ac waveform shows how the
operate only with alternating current to step up or step down
output from the generator in Fig. 14-1c varies with respect
an ac voltage. The reason is that the changing current pro-
to time. Assume that this graph shows V at terminal 2 with
duces changes in its associated magnetic field. This applica-
respect to terminal 1. Then the voltage at terminal 1 corre-
tion is just an example of inductance L in ac circuits, where
sponds to the zero axis in the graph as the reference level. At
the changing magnetic flux of a varying current can produce
terminal 2, the output voltage has positive amplitude varia-
induced voltage.
tions from zero up to the peak value and down to zero. All
A similar but opposite effect in ac circuits is capacitance
C. The capacitance is important with the changing electric
field of a varying voltage. Just as L has an effect with alter-
nating current, C has an effect that depends on alternating
voltage.
The L and C are additional factors, beside resistance R, in
the operation of ac circuits.
In general, electronic circuits are combinations of R,
L, and C, with both direct current and alternating current.
Audio, video, and radio signals are ac voltages and currents.
However, amplifiers that use transistors and integrated cir-
cuits need dc voltages to conduct any current at all. The re-
sulting output of an amplifier circuit, therefore, consists of
(a)
direct current with a superimposed ac signal.
1 cycle
T 5 1⁄60 s
14.2 Alternating-Voltage Generator
Positive peak An alternating voltage is a voltage that continuously var-
ies in magnitude and periodically reverses in polarity. In
1 1 Fig. 14-1, the variations up and down on the waveform show
the changes in magnitude. The zero axis is a horizontal line
0 Zero axis
across the center. Then voltages above the center have posi-
Time
tive polarity, and values below center are negative.
2 2
Figure 14-2 shows how such a voltage waveform is pro-
Negative peak duced by a rotary generator. The conductor loop rotates
(b) through the magnetic field to generate the induced ac voltage
across its open terminals. The magnetic flux shown here is
Terminal 2 vertical, with lines of force in the plane of the paper.
In Fig. 14-2a, the loop is in its horizontal starting position
in a plane perpendicular to the paper. When the loop rotates
Terminal 1 counterclockwise, the two longer conductors move around a
(c) circle. Note that in the flat position shown, the two long con-
ductors of the loop move vertically up or down but parallel
Figure 14-1 Waveform of ac power-line voltage with
frequency of 60 Hz. Two cycles are shown. (a) Oscilloscope to the vertical flux lines. In this position, motion of the loop
display. (b) Details of waveform and alternating polarities. does not induce a voltage because the conductors are not cut-
(c) Symbol for an ac voltage source. ting across the flux.

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 90 8

N N B

C A
180 8 08

v50 v 5 max
S S
D

(a) (b) 270 8

One cycle
Figure 14-2 A loop rotating in a magnetic field to
B
produce induced voltage v with alternating polarities. (a) Loop
A C
conductors moving parallel to magnetic field results in zero
voltage. (b) Loop conductors cutting across magnetic field A
1 D
produce maximum induced voltage. 2
0V 10 V 0V 10 V 0V

When the loop rotates through the upright position in

14 ⁄ turn ⁄
12 turn ⁄
34 turn 1 turn

Fig. 14-2b, however, the conductors cut across the flux, pro- 1 10 V

Induced voltage, v
ducing maximum induced voltage. The shorter connecting
wires in the loop do not have any appreciable voltage in-
duced in them. 0
90 8 180 8 270 8 360 8
Each of the longer conductors has opposite polarity of in- p 3p
rad p rad rad 2p rad
duced voltage because the conductor at the top is moving to 2 2
2 10 V
the left while the bottom conductor is moving to the right.
The amount of voltage varies from zero to maximum as the
loop moves from a flat position to upright, where it can cut Figure 14–3 One cycle of alternating voltage generated
by a rotating loop. The magnetic field, not shown here, is
across the flux. Also, the polarity at the terminals of the loop directed from top to bottom, as in Fig. 14-2.
reverses as the motion of each conductor reverses during
each half-revolution.
With one revolution of the loop in a complete circle back open ends of the loop. Now the top conductor is positive with
to the starting position, therefore, the induced voltage pro- respect to the bottom conductor.
vides a potential difference v across the loop, varying in the In the graph of induced voltage values below the loop in
same way as the wave of voltage shown in Fig. 14-1. If the Fig. 14-3, the polarity of the dark conductor is shown with
loop rotates at the speed of 60 revolutions per second, the ac respect to the other conductor. Positive voltage is shown
voltage has a frequency of 60 Hz. above the zero axis in the graph. As the dark conductor ro-
tates from its starting position parallel to the flux toward the
The Cycle top position, where it cuts maximum flux, more and more
One complete revolution of the loop around the circle is a induced voltage is produced with positive polarity.
cycle. In Fig. 14-3, the generator loop is shown in its posi- When the loop rotates through the next quarter-turn, it
tion at each quarter-turn during one complete cycle. The cor- returns to the flat position shown in C, where it cannot cut
responding wave of induced voltage also goes through one across flux. Therefore, the induced voltage values shown in
cycle. Although not shown, the magnetic field is from top to the graph decrease from the maximum value to zero at the
bottom of the page, as in Fig. 14-2. half-turn, just as the voltage was zero at the start. The half-
At position A in Fig. 14-3, the loop is flat and moves par- cycle of revolution is called an alternation.
allel to the magnetic field, so that the induced voltage is zero. The next quarter-turn of the loop moves it to the position
Counterclockwise rotation of the loop moves the dark con- shown at D in Fig. 14-3, where the loop cuts across the flux
ductor to the top at position B, where it cuts across the field again for maximum induced voltage. Note, however, that
to produce maximum induced voltage. The polarity of the here the dark conductor is moving left to right at the bot-
induced voltage here makes the open end of the dark con- tom of the loop. This motion is reversed from the direction
ductor positive. This conductor at the top is cutting across it had when it was at the top, moving right to left. Because
the flux from right to left. At the same time, the opposite the direction of motion is reversed during the second half-
conductor below is moving from left to right, causing its revolution, the induced voltage has opposite polarity with the
induced voltage to have opposite polarity. Therefore, maxi- dark conductor negative. This polarity is shown as negative
mum induced voltage is produced at this time across the two voltage below the zero axis. The maximum value of induced

234 Chapter 1 4

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 voltage at the third quarter-turn is the same as at the first around the circle equals 2r. A circle includes 2 rad, then,
quarter-turn but with opposite polarity. as each radian angle includes one length r of the circumfer-
When the loop completes the last quarter-turn in the ence. Therefore, one cycle equals 2 rad.
cycle, the induced voltage returns to zero as the loop returns As shown in the graph in Fig. 14-3, divisions of the cycle
to its flat position at A, the same as at the start. This cycle of can be indicated by angles in either degrees or radians. The
values of induced voltage is repeated as the loop continues to comparison between degrees and radians can be summa-
rotate with one complete cycle of voltage values, as shown, rized as follows:
for each circle of revolution. Zero degrees is also zero radians
Note that zero at the start and zero after the half-turn of 360  2 rad
an alternation are not the same. At the start, the voltage is 180  1⁄2  2 rad   rad
zero because the loop is flat, but the dark conductor is mov- 90  1⁄2   rad  兾2 rad
ing upward in the direction that produces positive voltage. 270  180  90 or  rad  兾2 rad  3兾2 rad
After one half-cycle, the voltage is zero with the loop flat,
but the dark conductor is moving downward in the direction The constant 2 in circular measure is numerically equal
that produces negative voltage. After one complete cycle, the to 6.2832. This is double the value of 3.1416 for . The Greek
loop and its corresponding waveform of induced voltage are letter  (pi) is used to represent the ratio of the circumfer-
the same as at the start. A cycle can be defined, therefore, ence to the diameter for any circle, which always has the
as including the variations between two successive points numerical value of 3.1416. The fact that 2 rad is 360 can
having the same value and varying in the same direction. be shown as 2  3.1416  57.3  360 for a complete cycle.
To convert from degrees to radians or vice versa, use the fol-
Angular Measure lowing conversion formulas:
Because the cycle of voltage in Fig. 14-3 corresponds to rota- 180
#deg  #rad  _____
tion of the loop around a circle, it is convenient to consider  rad
parts of the cycle in angles. The complete circle includes  rad
#rad  #deg  _____
180
360. One half-cycle, or one alternation, is 180 of revolution.
A quarter-turn is 90. The circle next to the loop positions in 14.3 The Sine Wave
Fig. 14-3 illustrates the angular rotation of the dark conduc- The voltage waveform in Figs. 14-1 and 14-3 is called a sine
tor as it rotates counterclockwise from 0 to 90 to 180 for one wave, sinusoidal wave, or sinusoid because the amount of in-
half-cycle, then to 270, and returning to 360 to complete duced voltage is proportional to the sine of the angle of rota-
the cycle. Therefore, one cycle corresponds to 360. tion in the circular motion producing the voltage. The sine is
Radian Measure a trigonometric function of an angle; it is equal to the ratio of
the opposite side to the hypotenuse in a right triangle. This nu-
In angular measure it is convenient to use a specific unit angle merical ratio increases from zero for 0 to a maximum value
called the radian (abbreviated rad), which is an angle equal of 1 for 90 as the side opposite the angle becomes larger.
to 57.3. Its convenience is due to the fact that a radian is the The voltage waveform produced by the circular motion of
angular part of the circle that includes an arc equal to the ra- the loop is a sine wave because the induced voltage increases
dius r of the circle, as shown in Fig. 14-4. The circumference to a maximum at 90, when the loop is vertical, in the same
way that the sine of the angle of rotation increases to a maxi-
mum at 90. The induced voltage and sine of the angle cor-
respond for the full 360 of the cycle.
The sine wave reaches one-half its maximum value in 30,
r r
which is only one-third of 90. This fact means that the sine
57.38 wave has a sharper slope of changing values when the wave
r is near the zero axis, compared with more gradual changes
near the maximum value.
The instantaneous value of a sine-wave voltage for any
angle of rotation is expressed by the formula
2p r v  VP sin  (14-1)
Circumference 5 2p rad
where  (Greek letter theta) is the angle, sin is the abbrevia-
Figure 14-4 One radian (rad) is the angle equal to 57.3. tion for its sine, VP is the maximum or peak voltage value,
The complete circle of 360 includes 2 rad. and v is the instantaneous value of voltage at angle .

Alternating Voltage and Current 235

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 1 A
EXAMPLE 14-1 100 V I
B
50 V 1
A sine wave of voltage varies from zero to a peak of 100 V.

Volts
R1 5
How much is the voltage at the instant of 30 of the cycle? V
100 V
45? 90? 270? 50 V Time 2

Answer: 100 V
2
v  VP sin   100 sin 
(a ) (b)
At 30: v  VP sin 30  100  0.5
1
 50 V 1A
At 45: v  VP sin 45  100  0.707 0.5 A
 70.7 V

Amperes
At 90: v  VP sin 90  100  1 0.5 A Time
 100 V
1A
At 270: v  VP sin 270  100  1 2

 100 V (c)

The value of 2100 V at 270 is the same as that at 90 but with
opposite polarity.
Figure 14-5 A sine wave of alternating voltage applied
across R produces a sine wave of alternating current in
the circuit. (a) Waveform of applied voltage. (b) AC circuit.
Note the symbol for sine-wave generator V. (c) Waveform of
To do the problems in Example 14-1, you must either refer current in the circuit.
to a table of trigonometric functions or use a scientific calcu-
lator that has trig functions.
Between zero at 0 and maximum at 90, the amplitudes of sine wave of alternating current is shown at the right in the
a sine wave increase exactly as the sine value of the angle of diagram. Note that the frequency is the same for v and i.
rotation. These values are for the first quadrant in the circle, During the first alternation of v in Fig. 14-5, terminal 1
that is, 0 to 90. From 90 to 180 in the second quadrant, the is positive with respect to terminal 2. Since the direction of
values decrease as a mirror image of the first 90. The values electron flow is from the negative side of v, through R, and
in the third and fourth quadrants, from 180 to 360, are ex- back to the positive side of v, current flows in the direction
actly the same as 0 to 180 but with opposite sign. At 360, the indicated by arrow A for the first half-cycle. This direction
waveform is back to 0 to repeat its values every 360. is taken as the positive direction of current in the graph for i,
In summary, the characteristics of the sine-wave ac wave- corresponding to positive values of v.
form are: The amount of current is equal to v兾R. If several instan-
taneous values are taken, when v is zero, i is zero; when v is
1. The cycle includes 360 or 2 rad. 50 V, i equals 50 V兾100, or 0.5 A; when v is 100 V, i equals
2. The polarity reverses each half-cycle. 100 V兾100, or 1 A. For all values of applied voltage with
3. The maximum values are at 90 and 270. positive polarity, therefore, the current is in one direction,
4. The zero values are at 0 and 180. increasing to its maximum value and decreasing to zero, just
like the voltage.
5. The waveform changes its values fastest when it
In the next half-cycle, the polarity of the alternating volt-
crosses the zero axis.
age reverses. Then terminal 1 is negative with respect to ter-
6. The waveform changes its values slowest when it is at minal 2. With reversed voltage polarity, current flows in the
its maximum value. The values must stop increasing opposite direction. Electron flow is from terminal 1 of the
before they can decrease. voltage source, which is now the negative side, through R,
A perfect example of the sine-wave ac waveform is the and back to terminal 2. This direction of current, as indi-
60-Hz power-line voltage in Fig. 14-1. cated by arrow B in Fig. 14-5, is negative.
The negative values of i in the graph have the same nu-
14.4 Alternating Current merical values as the positive values in the first half-cycle,
When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected across corresponding to the reversed values of applied voltage. As
a load resistance, the current that flows in the circuit is also a result, the alternating current in the circuit has sine-wave
a sine wave. In Fig. 14-5, let the sine-wave voltage at the left variations corresponding exactly to the sine-wave alternat-
in the diagram be applied across R of 100 . The resulting ing voltage.

236 Chapter 1 4

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 Only the waveforms for v and i can be compared. There is the positive and negative peaks are symmetrical. Note that
no comparison between relative values because the current the two opposite peak values cannot occur at the same
and voltage are different quantities. time. Furthermore, in some waveforms, the two peaks are
It is important to note that the negative half-cycle of ap- not equal.
plied voltage is just as useful as the positive half-cycle in
producing current. The only difference is that the reversed Average Value
polarity of voltage produces the opposite direction of current. This is an arithmetic average of all values in a sine wave
Furthermore, the negative half-cycle of current is just as for one alternation, or half-cycle. The half-cycle is used for
effective as the positive values when heating the filament to the average because over a full cycle the average value is
light a bulb. With positive values, electrons flow through the zero, which is useless for comparison. If the sine values for
filament in one direction. Negative values produce electron all angles up to 180 for one alternation are added and then
flow in the opposite direction. In both cases, electrons flow divided by the number of values, this average equals 0.637.
from the negative side of the voltage source, through the fila- Since the peak value of the sine function is 1 and the aver-
ment, and return to the positive side of the source. For either age equals 0.637, then
direction, the current heats the filament. The direction does Average value  0.637  peak value (14-2)
not matter, since it is the motion of electrons against resis-
tance that produces power dissipation. In short, resistance R With a peak of 170 V, for example, the average value is
has the same effect in reducing I for either direct current or 0.637  170 V, which equals approximately 108 V.
alternating current. Root-Mean-Square, or Effective, Value
14.5 Voltage and Current Values The most common method of specifying the amount of a
for a Sine Wave sine wave of voltage or current is by relating it to the dc volt-
age and current that will produce the same heating effect.
Since an alternating sine wave of voltage or current has many
This is called its root-mean-square value, abbreviated rms.
instantaneous values through the cycle, it is convenient to
The formula is
define specific magnitudes to compare one wave with an-
other. The peak, average, and root-mean-square (rms) values rms value  0.707  peak value (14-3)
can be specified, as indicated in Fig. 14-6. These values can
or
be used for either current or voltage.
Vrms  0.707VP
Peak Value
and
This is the maximum value VP or IP. For example, specifying
that a sine wave has a peak value of 170 V states the high- Irms  0.707IP
est value the sine wave reaches. All other values during the
With a peak of 170 V, for example, the rms value is 0.707 
cycle follow a sine wave. The peak value applies to either the
170, or 120 V, approximately. This is the voltage of the com-
positive or the negative peak.
mercial ac power line, which is always given in rms value.
To include both peak amplitudes, the peak-to-peak (p-p)
It is often necessary to convert from rms to peak value.
value may be specified. For the same example, the peak-to-
This can be done by inverting Formula (14-3), as follows:
peak value is 340 V, double the peak value of 170 V, since
1  rms  1.414  rms
Peak  _____ (14-4)
1
0.707
rms 5 or
0.707 peak
Average value 5 Peak VP  1.414Vrms
0.637 peak value
and
Peak-to-
Amplitude, v or i

p p 3p 2p peak value IP  1.414Irms

2 2
Dividing by 0.707 is the same as multiplying by 1.414.
For example, commercial power-line voltage with an
rms value of 120 V has a peak value of 120  1.414, which
2 equals 170 V, approximately. Its peak-to-peak value is 2 
170, or 340 V, which is double the peak value. As a formula,
Figure 14-6 Definitions of important amplitude values for
a sine wave of voltage or current. Peak-to-peak value  2.828  rms value (14-5)

Alternating Voltage and Current 237

fre7380X_ch14_232-256.indd 237 1/9/13 2:53 PM

 1 cycle
1100 V 1
A

v or i
120 V
0 0
220 V ⁄
14 ⁄
12
⁄
34 1 Time, s
Time
2
(a )
1 cycle
2100 V
1

Figure 14-7 Waveforms A and B have different

v or i
amplitudes, but they are both sine waves. 0 14 ⁄ ⁄
12 ⁄
34 1
Time, s

The factor 0.707 for the rms value is derived as the square 2
root of the average (mean) of all the squares of the sine val- (b)
ues. If we take the sine for each angle in the cycle, square
each value, add all the squares, divide by the number of val- Figure 14-8 Number of cycles per second is the
frequency in hertz (Hz) units. (a) f  1 Hz. (b) f  4 Hz.
ues added to obtain the average square, and then take the
square root of this mean value, the answer is 0.707.
The advantage of the rms value derived in terms of the is zero and ready to increase in the positive direction. Or the
squares of the voltage or current values is that it provides cycle can be measured between successive peaks.
a measure based on the ability of the sine wave to produce On the time scale of 1 s, waveform a goes through one
power, which is I2 R or V 2兾R. As a result, the rms value of cycle; waveform b has much faster variations, with four com-
an alternating sine wave corresponds to the same amount plete cycles during 1 s. Both waveforms are sine waves, even
of direct current or voltage in heating power. An alternating though each has a different frequency.
voltage with an rms value of 120 V, for instance, is just as In comparing sine waves, the amplitude has no rela-
effective in heating the filament of a lightbulb as 120 V from tion to frequency. Two waveforms can have the same fre-
a steady dc voltage source. For this reason, the rms value is quency with different amplitudes (Fig. 14-7), the same
also called the effective value. amplitude but different frequencies (Fig. 14-8), or differ-
Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave ac measure- ent amplitudes and frequencies. The amplitude indicates
ments are in rms values. The capital letters V and I are used, the amount of voltage or current, and the frequency indi-
corresponding to the symbols for dc values. As an example, cates the rate of change of amplitude variations in cycles
V  120 V for ac power-line voltage. per second.
Note that sine waves can have different amplitudes but
Frequency Units
still follow the sinusoidal waveform. Figure 14-7 compares
a low-amplitude voltage with a high-amplitude voltage. The unit called the hertz (Hz), named after Heinrich Hertz, is
Although different in amplitude, they are both sine waves. used for cycles per second. Then 60 cps  60 Hz. All metric
In each wave, the rms value  0.707  peak value. prefixes can be used. As examples
1 kilohertz per second  1  103 Hz  1 kHz
14.6 Frequency 1 megahertz per second  1  106 Hz  1 MHz
The number of cycles per second is the frequency, with 1 gigahertz per second  1  109 Hz  1 GHz
the symbol f. In Fig. 14-3, if the loop rotates through 60 1 terahertz per second  1  1012 Hz  1 THz
complete revolutions, or cycles, during 1 s, the frequency
of the generated voltage is 60 cps, or 60 Hz. You see only Audio and Radio Frequencies
one cycle of the sine waveform, instead of 60 cycles, be- The entire frequency range of alternating voltage or cur-
cause the time interval shown here is 1⁄60 s. Note that the rent from 1 Hz to many megahertz can be considered in two
factor of time is involved. More cycles per second means broad groups: audio frequencies (AF) and radio frequencies
a higher frequency and less time for one cycle, as illus- (RF). Audio is a Latin word meaning “I hear.” The audio
trated in Fig. 14-8. Then the changes in values are faster range includes frequencies that can be heard as sound waves
for higher frequencies. by the human ear. This range of audible frequencies is ap-
A complete cycle is measured between two successive proximately 20 to 20,000 Hz.
points that have the same value and direction. In Fig. 14-8, The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch or tone
the cycle is between successive points where the waveform of the sound. High audio frequencies, about 3000 Hz and

238 Chapter 1 4

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 above, provide treble tone. Low audio frequencies, about
EXAMPLE 14-2
300 Hz and below, provide bass tone.
Loudness is determined by amplitude. The greater the am- An alternating current varies through one complete cycle in 1⁄1000 s.
plitude of the AF variation, the louder its corresponding sound. Calculate the period and frequency.
Alternating current and voltage above the audio range Answer:
provide RF variations, since electrical variations of high fre-
1 s
T  _____
quency can be transmitted by electromagnetic radio waves. 1000
See the System Sidebar, “The Frequency Spectrum,” in this
1
1  ____
f  __
chapter for details. T 1⁄1000
1000  1000
 _____
Sonic and Ultrasonic Frequencies 1
Sonic and ultrasonic frequencies refer to sound waves, which  1000 Hz or 1 kHz
are variations in pressure generated by mechanical vibra-
tions, rather than electrical variations. The velocity of sound
waves through dry air at 20C equals 1130 ft/s. Sound waves
above the audible range of frequencies are called ultrasonic EX A M P L E 1 4 -3
waves. The range of frequencies for ultrasonic applications, Calculate the period for the two frequencies of 1 MHz and 2 MHz.
therefore, is from 16,000 Hz up to several megahertz. Sound
waves in the audible range of frequencies below 16,000 Hz Answer:
can be considered sonic or sound frequencies. The term a. For 1 MHz,
audio is reserved for electrical variations that can be heard 1  _______
T  __ 1
when converted to sound waves. f 1  106
 1  1026 s  1 s
14.7 Period b. For 2 MHz,
The amount of time it takes for one cycle is called the pe- 1  _______
T  __ 1
riod. Its symbol is T for time. With a frequency of 60 Hz, f 2  106
as an example, the time for one cycle is 1⁄60 s. Therefore,  0.5  1026 s  0.5 s
the period is 1⁄60 s. Frequency and period are reciprocals of To do these problems on a calculator, you need the reciprocal key,
each other: usually marked 1/x . Keep the powers of 10 separate, and remem-
ber that the reciprocal has the same exponent with opposite sign.
1
T  __ or 1
f  __ (14-6) With f of 2  106, for 1/f just punch in 2 and then press 2nd F and
f T the 1/x key to see 0.5 as the reciprocal. The 106 for f becomes
The higher the frequency, the shorter the period. In Fig. 14-8a, 1026 for T so that the answer is 0.5  1026 s or 0.5 s.
the period for the wave with a frequency of 1 Hz is 1 s, and
the higher frequency wave of 4 Hz in Fig. 14-8b has a period
of 1⁄4 s for a complete cycle. 14.8 Wavelength
Units of Time When a periodic variation is considered with respect to dis-
tance, one cycle includes the wavelength, which is the length
The second is the basic unit of time, but for higher frequen-
of one complete wave or cycle (Fig. 14-9). For example, when
cies and shorter periods, smaller units of time are conve-
a radio wave is transmitted, variations in the electromagnetic
nient. Those used most often are:
field travel through space. Also, with sound waves, the varia-
T  1 millisecond  1 ms  1  1023 s tions in air pressure corresponding to the sound wave move
T  1 microsecond  1 s  1  1026 s through air. In these applications, the distance traveled by
T  1 nanosecond  1 ns  1  1029 s the wave in one cycle is the wavelength. The wavelength de-
T  1 picosecond  1 ps  1  10212 s pends on the frequency of the variation and its velocity of
transmission:
These units of time for a period are reciprocals of the corre-
velocity
sponding units for frequency. The reciprocal of frequency in   _________ (14-7)
frequency
kilohertz gives the period T in milliseconds; the reciprocal
of megahertz is microseconds; the reciprocal of gigahertz is where  (the Greek letter lambda) is the symbol for one com-
nanoseconds. plete wavelength.

Alternating Voltage and Current 239

fre7380X_ch14_232-256.indd 239 1/9/13 2:53 PM

 l 5 40 cm
1 EXAMPLE 14-6

For the 6-m band used in amateur radio, what is the correspond-
ing frequency?
v or i 10 20 30 40
Answer:
Distance, The formula   v兾f can be inverted
cm
2 v
f  __

Figure 14-9 Wavelength  is the distance traveled by Then
the wave in one cycle. 3  10 cm/s  ____________
f  ___________ 3  10 cm/s 10

6m 6  102 cm
3  10  0.5  108 Hz
 __ 8
Wavelength of Radio Waves 6
The velocity of electromagnetic radio waves in air or vac-  50  106 Hz or 50 MHz
uum is 186,000 miⲐs, or 3  1010 cm/s, which is the speed of
light. Therefore,
Wavelength of Sound Waves
3  1010 cm /s
(cm) 5 ____________ (14-8)
f (Hz) The velocity of sound waves is much lower than that of radio
waves because sound waves result from mechanical vibra-
Note that the higher the frequency, the shorter the wave-
tions rather than electrical variations. In average conditions,
length. For instance, the shortwave radio broadcast band of
the velocity of sound waves in air equals 1130 ft /s. To calcu-
5.95 to 26.1 MHz includes frequencies higher than the stan-
late the wavelength, therefore,
dard AM radio broadcast band of 535 to 1705 kHz.
1130 ft /s
  ________ (14-9)
f Hz
EXAMPLE 14-4 This formula can also be used for ultrasonic waves. Although
their frequencies are too high to be audible, ultrasonic waves
Calculate  for a radio wave with f of 30 GHz.
are still sound waves rather than radio waves.
Answer:
3  10 cm/s  ___
  ____________
10
3  10 cm E X A M P L E 1 4 -7
30  109 Hz 30
 0.1  10 What is the wavelength of the sound waves produced by a loud-
speaker at a frequency of 100 Hz?
 1 cm
Answer:
Such short wavelengths are called microwaves. This range in-
cludes  of 1 m or less for frequencies of 300 MHz or more. 1130 ft /s
  ________
100 Hz
  11.3 ft

EXAMPLE 14-5
EXAMPLE 14-8
The length of a TV antenna is /2 for radio waves with f of
60 MHz. What is the antenna length in centimeters and feet? For ultrasonic waves at a frequency of 34.44 kHz, calculate the
wavelength in feet and in centimeters.
Answer:
3  10 cm/s  ___
10
1  104 cm Answer:
a.   ____________ 1130
60  106 Hz 20   __________
 0.05  104 34.44  103
 500 cm  32.8  1023 ft
Then, 兾2  ⁄2  250 cm.
500  0.0328 ft
b. Since 2.54 cm  1 in., To convert to inches,
250 cm  98.4 in.
兾2  __________ 0.0328 ft  12  0.3936 in.
2.54 cm / in. To convert to centimeters,
98.4 in  8.2 ft
 _______
12 in./ft 0.3936 in.  2.54  1 cm approximately

240 Chapter 1 4

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 Note that the 34.44-kHz sound waves in this example later. For instance, at 180 wave A is at zero, but B is al-
have the same wavelength (1 cm) as the 30-GHz radio waves ready at its negative maximum value, where wave A will
in Example 14-4. The reason is that radio waves have a much be later at 270.
higher velocity than sound waves. To compare the phase angle between two waves, they
must have the same frequency. Otherwise, the relative phase
14.9 Phase Angle keeps changing. Also, they must have sine-wave variations
because this is the only kind of waveform that is measured
Referring back to Fig. 14-3, suppose that the generator started
in angular units of time. The amplitudes can be different for
its cycle at point B, where maximum voltage output is pro-
the two waves, although they are shown the same here. We
duced, instead of starting at the point of zero output. If we
can compare the phases of two voltages, two currents, or a
compare the two cases, the two output voltage waves would
current with a voltage.
be as shown in Fig. 14-10. Each is the same waveform of al-
ternating voltage, but wave B starts at maximum, and wave The 90° Phase Angle
A starts at zero. The complete cycle of wave B through 360
The two waves in Fig. 14-10 represent a sine wave and a
takes it back to the maximum value from which it started.
cosine wave 90 out of phase with each other. The 90 phase
Wave A starts and finishes its cycle at zero. With respect to
angle means that one has its maximum amplitude when the
time, therefore, wave B is ahead of wave A in values of gener-
other is at zero value. Wave A starts at zero, corresponding
ated voltage. The amount it leads in time equals one quarter-
to the sine of 0, has its peak amplitude at 90 and 270, and
revolution, which is 90. This angular difference is the phase
is back to zero after one cycle of 360. Wave B starts at its
angle between waves B and A. Wave B leads wave A by the
peak value, corresponding to the cosine of 0, has its zero
phase angle of 90.
value at 90 and 270, and is back to the peak value after one
The 90 phase angle between waves B and A is main-
cycle of 360.
tained throughout the complete cycle and in all successive
However, wave B can also be considered a sine wave that
cycles, as long as they both have the same frequency. At
starts 90 before wave A in time. This phase angle of 90
any instant, wave B has the value that A will have 90
for current and voltage waveforms has many applications in
sine-wave ac circuits with inductance or capacitance.
The sine and cosine waveforms have the same variations
1 Sine wave A but displaced by 90. Both waveforms are called sinusoids.
Cosine wave B The 90 angle is called quadrature phase.

Phase-Angle Diagrams
Volts

0
908 1808 2708 3608
Time
To compare phases of alternating currents and voltages,
it is much more convenient to use phasor diagrams corre-
sponding to the voltage and current waveforms, as shown in
2
Fig. 14-10b. The arrows here represent the phasor quantities
corresponding to the generator voltage.
(a) A phasor is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
VB
The length of the arrow indicates the magnitude of the
alternating voltage in rms, peak, or any ac value, as long
as the same measure is used for all phasors. The angle of
the arrow with respect to the horizontal axis indicates the
phase angle.
The terms phasor and vector are used for a quantity that
has direction, requiring an angle to specify the value com-
pletely. However, a vector quantity has direction in space,
908 whereas a phasor quantity varies in time. As an example of
VA a vector, a mechanical force can be represented by a vector
(b) arrow at a specific angle, with respect to either the horizontal
or the vertical direction.
Figure 14-10 Two sine-wave voltages 90 out of phase.
(a) Wave B leads wave A by 90. (b) Corresponding phasors For phasor arrows, the angles shown represent differ-
VB and VA for the two sine-wave voltages with phase ences in time. One sinusoid is chosen as the reference.
angle   90. The right angle shows quadrature phase. Then the timing of the variations in another sinusoid can be

Alternating Voltage and Current 241

fre7380X_ch14_232-256.indd 241 1/9/13 2:53 PM

 compared to the reference by means of the angle between Wave C Wave D
120 Hz 120 Hz
the phasor arrows.
The phasor corresponds to the entire cycle of voltage, but
is shown only at one angle, such as the starting point, since 3608
the complete cycle is known to be a sine wave. Without the
908 1808 2708
extra details of a whole cycle, phasors represent the alternat- u 5 608
5 1⁄720 s
ing voltage or current in a compact form that is easier for
comparing phase angles.
In Fig. 14-10b, for instance, the phasor VA represents the
voltage wave A with a phase angle of 0. This angle can
be considered the plane of the loop in the rotary genera- 3608 5 ⁄
1 120 s

tor where it starts with zero output voltage. The phasor VB (a)

is vertical to show the phase angle of 90 for this voltage

wave, corresponding to the vertical generator loop at the VC
start of its cycle. The angle between the two phasors is the 2608
phase angle.
The symbol for a phase angle is  (the Greek letter theta).
In Fig. 14-10, as an example,   90.
VD

Phase–Angle Reference
The phase angle of one wave can be specified only with (b)

respect to another as reference. How the phasors are Figure 14-12 Phase angle of 60 is the time for 60⁄360
drawn to show the phase angle depends on which phase or ⁄6 of the cycle. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.
1

is chosen as the reference. Generally, the reference pha-

sor is horizontal, corresponding to 0. Two possibilities are
shown in Fig. 14-11. In Fig. 14-11a, the voltage wave A The phase is not actually changed by the method of show-
or its phasor VA is the reference. Then the phasor VB is ing it. In Fig. 14-11, VA and VB are 90 out of phase, and
90 counterclockwise. This method is standard practice, VB leads VA by 90 in time. There is no fundamental dif-
using counterclockwise rotation as the positive direction ference whether we say VB is ahead of VA by 90 or VA is
for angles. Also, a leading angle is positive. In this case, behind VB by 90.
then, VB is 90 counterclockwise from the reference VA to Two waves and their corresponding phasors can be out
show that wave B leads wave A by 90 of phase by any angle, either less or more than 90. For in-
However, wave B is shown as the reference in Fig. 14-11b. stance, a phase angle of 60 is shown in Fig. 14-12. For the
Now VB is the horizontal phasor. To have the same phase waveforms in Fig. 14-12a, wave D is behind C by 60 in
angle, VA must be 90 clockwise, or 90 from VB. This ar- time. For the phasors in Fig. 14-12b, this lag is shown by the
rangement shows that negative angles, clockwise from the 0 phase angle of 60.
reference, are used to show lagging phase angles. The refer-
ence determines whether the phase angle is considered lead- In-Phase Waveforms
ing or lagging in time. A phase angle of 0 means that the two waves are in phase
(Fig. 14-13).
VB Counter-
clockwise VB
VA
angle 2908
VB
908 Clockwise
angle
0
VA
VA
(a) (b)
VB VA
Figure 14-11 Leading and lagging phase angles for 90. (a) (b)
(a) When phasor VA is the horizontal reference, phasor VB
leads by 90. (b) When phasor VB is the horizontal reference, Figure 14-13 Two waveforms in phase, or the phase
phasor VA lags by 90. angle is 0. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.

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 VA consider wave D lagging wave C by 60, this lag is a time
delay of 1⁄ 720 s.
More generally, the time for a phase angle  can be cal-
0 culated as
VB 0   __
t  ____ 1 (14-10)
VB VA 360 f
(a) (b)
where f is in Hz,  is in degrees, and t is in seconds.
Figure 14-14 Two waveforms out of phase or in opposite The formula gives the time of the phase angle as its pro-
phase with phase angle of 180. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor portional part of the total period of one cycle. For the ex-
diagram. ample of  equal to 60 with f at 120 Hz,
  __
t  ____ 1
Out-of-Phase Waveforms 360 f
An angle of 180 means opposite phase, or that the two
waveforms are exactly out of phase (Fig. 14-14). Then the 60  ____
 ____ 1  ____
1  __ 1
360 120 6 120
amplitudes are opposing.
1 s
 ____
720
14.10 The Time Factor in Frequency
and Phase 14.11 Alternating Current Circuits
It is important to remember that the waveforms we are with Resistance
showing are graphs drawn on paper. The physical fac-
An ac circuit has an ac voltage source. Note the symbol in
tors represented are variations in amplitude, usually on
Fig. 14-15 used for any source of sine-wave alternating volt-
the vertical scale, with respect to equal intervals on the
age. This voltage connected across an external load resis-
horizontal scale, which can represent either distance or
tance produces alternating current of the same waveform,
time. To show wavelength, as in Fig. 14-9, the cycles
frequency, and phase as the applied voltage.
of amplitude variations are plotted against distance or
The amount of current equals V兾R by Ohm’s law. When V
length. To show frequency, the cycles of amplitude varia-
is an rms value, I is also an rms value. For any instantaneous
tions are shown with respect to time in angular measure.
value of V during the cycle, the value of I is for the corre-
The angle of 360 represents the time for one cycle, or
sponding instant.
the period T.
In an ac circuit with only resistance, the current vari-
As an example of how frequency involves time, a wave-
ations are in phase with the applied voltage, as shown
form with stable frequency is actually used in electronic
in Fig. 14-15b. This in-phase relationship between V
equipment as a clock reference for very small units of
and I means that such an ac circuit can be analyzed by
time. Assume a voltage waveform with the frequency of
the same methods used for dc circuits, since there is no
10 MHz. The period T is 0.1 s. Therefore, every cycle is
phase angle to consider. Circuit components that have R
repeated at 0.1-s intervals. When each cycle of voltage
alone include resistors, the filaments of lightbulbs, and
variations is used to indicate time, then, the result is ef-
heating elements.
fectively a clock that measures 0.1-s units. Even smaller
The calculations in ac circuits are generally in rms val-
units of time can be measured with higher frequencies. In
ues, unless noted otherwise. In Fig. 14-15a, for example, the
everyday applications, an electric clock connected to the
power line keeps correct time because it is controlled by
v
the exact frequency of 60 Hz.
Furthermore, the phase angle between two waves of I 5 12 A i
Amplitude

the same frequency indicates a specific difference in time.

V 5 RL 5
As an example, Fig. 14-12 shows a phase angle of 60, 120 V 10 V
Time
with wave C leading wave D. Both have the same fre-
quency of 120 Hz. The period T for each wave then is 1⁄120
s. Since 60 is one-sixth of the complete cycle of 360, this
(a) (b)
phase angle represents one-sixth of the complete period
of 1⁄120 s. If we multiply 1⁄6  1⁄120 , the answer is 1⁄ 720 s for Figure 14-15 An ac circuit with resistance R alone.
the time corresponding to the phase angle of 60. If we (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Waveforms.

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 120 V applied across the 10- RL produces rms current of 110
12 A. The calculations are 1
3608
1
2708

Volts
V  ______
120 V  12 A 0 20 V p-p
I  ___ 908
RL 10  2 2 Time
1808
2
Furthermore, the rms power dissipation is I R, or 210
(a )
P  144  10  1440 W

14.12 Nonsinusoidal AC and DC 110

Waveforms 1 1

Volts
The sine wave is the basic waveform for ac variations for 0 20 V p-p
2 2
several reasons. This waveform is produced by a rotary gen- Time
erator; the output is proportional to the angle of rotation. In 210
addition, electronic oscillator circuits with inductance and (b )
capacitance naturally produce sine-wave variations.
Because of its derivation from circular motion, any
sine wave can be analyzed in terms of angular measure, 110

either in degrees from 0 to 360 or in radians from 0 1 1

to 2 rad.

Volts
0 20 V p-p
Another feature of a sine wave is its basic simplicity; Time
2 2
the rate of change of the amplitude variations corresponds
to a cosine wave that is similar but 90 out of phase. The 210

sine wave is the only waveform that has this characteristic (c)

of a rate of change with the same waveform as the original

changes in amplitude. 115
In many electronic applications, however, other wave-
shapes are important. Any waveform that is not a sine 1 1
Volts

or cosine wave is a nonsinusoidal waveform. Common 20 V p-p

examples are the square wave and sawtooth wave in 0

Fig. 14-16. 2 2
Time
25
For either voltage or current nonsinusoidal waveforms, One cycle One cycle
there are important differences and similarities to consider. T 5 4 ms T 5 4 ms
Note the following comparisons with sine waves. (d )

1. In all cases, the cycle is measured between two Figure 14-16 Comparison of sine wave with
points having the same amplitude and varying in nonsinusoidal waveforms. Two cycles shown. (a) Sine
the same direction. The period is the time for one wave. (b) Sawtooth wave. (c) Symmetrical square wave.
cycle. In Fig. 14-16, T for any of the waveforms is (d ) Unsymmetrical rectangular wave or pulse waveform.
4 s and the corresponding frequency is 1兾T, equal
to 0.25 MHz. 4. Phase angles apply only to sine waves because angular
measure is used only for sine waves. Note that the hor-
2. Peak amplitude is measured from the zero axis to
izontal axis for time is divided into angles for the sine
the maximum positive or negative value. However,
wave in Fig. 14-16a, but there are no angles shown for
peak-to-peak amplitude is better for measuring
the nonsinusoidal waveshapes.
nonsinusoidal waveshapes because they can have
unsymmetrical peaks, as in Fig. 14-16d. For all 5. All waveforms represent ac voltages. Positive values
waveforms shown here, though, the peak-to-peak are shown above the zero axis, and negative values
(p-p) amplitude is 20 V. below the axis.
3. The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine The sawtooth wave in Fig. 14-16b represents a voltage
waves because this factor is derived from the sine that slowly increases to its peak value with a uniform or
values in the angular measure used only for the sine linear rate of change and then drops sharply to its starting
waveform. value. This waveform is also called a ramp voltage. It is also

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 often referred to as a time base because of its constant rate
of change. 5

Volts
Note that one complete cycle includes a slow rise and a OFF ON OFF ON OFF 5 Vp
fast drop in voltage. In this example, the period T for a com-
plete cycle is 4 s. Therefore, these sawtooth cycles are re- 0

peated at the frequency of 0.25 MHz. One cycle, T

The square wave in Fig. 14-16c represents a switching volt- (a)
age. First, the 10-V peak is instantaneously applied in positive
polarity. This voltage remains on for 2 s, which is one half- 0
cycle. Then the voltage is instantaneously switched to −10 V
for another 2 s. The complete cycle then takes 4 s, and the
frequency is 0.25 MHz.
12 Vp

Volts
OFF ON OFF ON
The rectangular waveshape in Fig. 14-16d is similar, but
the positive and negative half-cycles are not symmetrical ei-
ther in amplitude or in time. However, the frequency is the
same 0.25 MHz and the peak-to-peak amplitude is the same
12
20 V, as in all the waveshapes. This waveform shows pulses
of voltage or current, repeated at a regular rate. One cycle, T

(b)
DC Pulse Waveforms
The majority of nonsinusoidal waveforms are dc pulses. These
have the appearance of the rectangular waveforms shown in
Volts
Fig. 14-16c and d, but the voltage is of a single polarity, either 3.5

positive or negative with respect to ground. When the voltage OFF ON OFF ON 3.3 Vp
DC
is present, the pulse is said to be on. When the voltage is not 0.2 component
0
present, the pulse is said to be off. Figure 14-17 shows three
One cycle, T
examples. Such waveforms are typically generated by digital
circuits in which most signals have two distinct values. They (c)

are referred to as rectangular waves. Figure 14-17 DC pulses. (a) positive. (b) negative.
Some dc pulses also have a fixed dc component, that is (c) positive with dc component.
a constant dc value on which the pulses vary. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 14-17c. Here the constant dc value is 10.2 V.
The pulse varies from 0.2 to 3.5 V. The pulse amplitude
Another important characteristic of dc pulses is that their
is 3.3 V.
on and off times are often different. Figure 14-18 shows
DC pulses are covered here simply because their variable
several examples. In Fig. 14-18a, the pulse on time is very
nature makes them similar to ac voltages in that they are af-
short while the off time is long. Figure 14-18b shows a pulse
fected by inductors, transformers, and capacitors as ac waves
with a long on time and a short off time. This characteristic
are. Furthermore, because most electronic circuitry is digital
is referred to as the pulse duty cycle (D). Duty cycle is de-
today, it is essential to learn about dc or digital pulses as
fined as the ratio of the pulse on time (tp) to the period.
early as possible.
tp
The most important characteristics of dc pulses are illus- D 5 __ (14-11)
T
trated in Fig. 14-17. One cycle of a pulse is one interval at
one level plus another interval at the second level or one off The D value is a fraction that is often expressed as a percentage
period and one on period. The time between consecutive by simply multiplying it by 100. For instance in Fig. 14-18a,
positive rises or consecutive negative falls is one period (T). the duty cycle is
The frequency is as with all other waves, the reciprocal of D 5 5兾40 5 0.125 or 12.5%
the period The duty cycle indicates that the pulse is on for 12.5% of
1
f 5 __ the period.
T In Fig. 14-18b, the duty cycle is
The frequency is sometimes referred to as the pulse repeti-
D 5 60兾80 5 0.75 or 75%
tion rate (prr) or the pulse repetition frequency (prf).
The amplitude of the pulse is designated Vp as shown. The pulse is on for three-quarters of the cycle.

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 5 ␮s 5 ␮s
high value. This is called the leading edge of the pulse and
tp tp the rise time. In a similar way, the pulse gradually changes
Vp
from its high value to its lower value. This is the trailing
edge of a pulse and the fall time.
Volts

Actually the rise and fall times are more precisely de-
fined. The rise time (tr) is the time from the 10% to the 90%
value of the pulse amplitude. The fall time (tf) is the time
0 from the 90% value to the 10% value of the maximum pulse
T amplitude. For the pulse in Fig. 14-19, the peak pulse ampli-
40 ␮s
(a) tude (V) is 5 V. The 10 and 90% values are 0.5 and 4.5 V,
respectively. The rise and fall times are measured between
60 ms 60 ms these two values. In modern digital circuitry, typical rise and
tp tp
Vp fall times are in the nanosecond and picosecond region.
Another key pulse characteristic is pulse width or pulse
duration. This is the time duration that the pulse is on or
Volts

tp, as indicated earlier. That value is measured between the

50% amplitude points on the leading and trailing edges of
the pulse. See Fig. 14-19.
0
T T
80 ms 80 ms
(b)
EXAMPLE 14-9
Figure 14-18 Duty cycles. (a) Short. (b) Long.
A pulse waveform with a frequency of 10 MHz has a pulse duration
(t p) of 25 nanoseconds (ns). What is the period and duty cycle?
A pulse waveform with equal on and off times has a 50%
duty cycle and is called a square wave. Otherwise, pulse Answer:
waveforms are referred to as rectangular waves. T 5 1兾f 5 1/10,000,000 Hz
The pulse waveforms in Figs. 14-17 and 14-18 appear to 5 0.0000001 s or 0.1 s or 100 ns
indicate that the voltage switches instantaneously from one D 5 tp兾T 5 25兾100 5 0.25 or 25%
level to the next. In reality, it takes a finite period of time for
the pulse to switch from it low value to its high value and
vice versa. A more realistic pulse is shown in Fig. 14-19.
Note that the pulse rises gradually from its low value to its
EXAMPLE 14-10

A pulse waveform has a peak value of 2.5 V. At what levels are

the rise and fall times measured?
100%
90% Answer:
10% of 2.5 V is 0.25 V; 90% of 2.5 V is 2.25 V.
5V
50% 4.5 V

10%
0.5 V 14.13 The Frequency Domain and the
0%
Fourier Theory
There two different ways of looking at and examining elec-
tr tf
tronic signals: the time domain and the frequency domain.
We normally think about or analyze electronic signals as
voltage variations occurring over time. The amplitude of the
tp
signal is plotted versus time. For example, Fig. 14-20a shows
a 1-MHz sine wave with a peak amplitude of 2 V and peak
V = maximum pulse amplitude tf = fall time
tr = rise time tp = pulse width or duration
to peak of 4 V. Such signals are said to be in the time do-
main. An oscilloscope is an example of an instrument that
Figure 14-19 Pulse rise and fall times and pulse width. displays signals in the time domain.

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 Period as examples—raises the frequency by one octave. The rea-
T  1 ␮s
2 V son for this name is that an octave in music includes eight
consecutive tones, for double the frequency. One-half the
frequency is an octave lower. Another unit for representing
0V
frequency multiples is the decade. A decade corresponds to
a 10:1 range in frequencies such as 100 Hz to 1 kHz and
2 V
f
1

1 30 kHz to 300 kHz.
T 1  106
f  1 MHz
(a)
EXAMPLE 14-11
3V What is the fifth harmonic of 7 MHz?
Amplitude
V peak

2V Answer:

1V
7 MHz 3 5 5 35 MHz

0
500 kHz 1 MHz 2 MHz 3 MHz
EXAMPLE 14-12
(b)

Figure 14-20 Time and frequency domain displays. What is the fundamental frequency related to a third harmonic
(a) Time domain display of 1-MHz sine wave (4 Vp-p). of 81 MHz?
(b) Frequency domain display. Answer:
81 MHz 4 3 5 27 MHz
It is also possible to display a signal in the frequency do-
main. Figure 14-20b shows the same signal in a frequency
An easy-to-understand example is the Fourier analysis of
domain plot. The horizontal axis is frequency instead of
a square wave. Figure 14-21 shows an ac square wave with a
time, and the signal amplitude is simply plotted as a straight
peak voltage amplitude, Vp, of 1 volt. The waveform switches
vertical line proportional in length to the amplitude. The am-
between 11 V and 21 V, having a peak-to-peak value of
plitude may be rms or peak voltage. Signal amplitudes may
2 V. The frequency is 1 kHz, having a period of 1 ms with
also be plotted in terms of power levels or decibels (dB). In
positive and negative alternation times of 0.5 ms each. In a
communications electronics it is often more useful to work
square wave, the positive, or on times, and the negative, or
with a frequency domain display than a time domain dis-
off times, are equal, meaning the duty cycle is 50%. A Fou-
play. With this arrangement, all the frequency components
rier analysis of this square wave results in the mathematical
making up a complex analog or digital signal can be shown.
expression
The electronic test instrument known as a spectrum analyzer
4Vp ` ______
sin nt
provides a frequency domain display of an input signal. v 5 ___ o
 n51 n (14-12)
Fourier Analysis
The French mathematician Fourier discovered that any
complex nonsinusoidal signal can be represented as a fun- Vp  1 V
damental sine wave to which has been added harmonic sine
waves. A Fourier analysis of any complex waveform will T 2T ␻t
0
result in a mathematical expression made up of sine and/or ␻  2␲ft
cosine waves harmonically related. It is known as the Fou-
rier series. Vp  1 V
A harmonic is a sine wave whose frequency is some inte-
ger multiple of a fundamental sine-wave frequency. Consider T  1 ms
a fundamental sine wave of 50 MHz. The second harmonic
is simply 2 times the fundamental, or 100 MHz. The third
4 V
 ␲ p 兺
n1
sin n␻t
n
and fourth harmonics are 150 and 200 MHz, respectively. 4 V sin ␻t  sin 3␻t  sin 5␻t  sin 7␻t  …  etc.)
␲ p(
3 5 7
A common unit for frequency multiples is the octave,
which is a range of 2:1. Doubling the frequency range—from Figure 14-21 A square wave and its fourier
100 to 200 Hz, from 200 to 400 Hz, and from 400 to 800 Hz, expression.

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 To compute the instantaneous value, find the sine of 2.093
Vp 5V by setting your calculator to radian measure instead of de-
grees and pressing the sin key. The result is 0.866.
90
180
Degrees v 5 5(0.866) 5 4.33 V
120 270 360 (␪)
Volts

0 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲ Radians The angle of 120º is the same as 2.093 radians. Again

2 2 (rad)
t refer to Fig. 14-22. Recall that one radian is 57.3º. Dividing
333.33 ns 120º by 57.3 produces 2.093 radians.
2.093 rad
Vp In the expression (sin nt)/n, n is just the harmonic value.
A value of 2 means the second harmonic of frequency f, 7
T  1 ␮s
is the seventh harmonic of f, and so on. The n value in the
  Vp sin ␪ (angle in degrees) denominator modifies the amplitude of the harmonic sine
  Vp sin 2␲ ft  Vp sin ␻t (angle in radians) wave.
If you expand the expression it appears as shown below:
Figure 14-22 Sine wave expressed mathematically in
radian measure. v 5 4Vp兾 o (sin nt)兾n
5 4Vp兾 [(sin t) 1 (sin 3t)兾3 1 (sin 5t)兾5
The term v is the instantaneous voltage for given values of 1 (sin 7t)兾7 1 · · · 1 etc.]
time. The uppercase Greek sigma, o, means summation of
terms of the form (sin nt)/n, where n represents any integer All terms are multiplied by a coefficient of 4Vp/. Note that
from 1 to `. only odd values of integers show up as terms because terms
The expression (sin nt)/n is just another way to write the sine with even integers become zero and drop out. What you have
wave as a mathematical expression. As you have seen you can then is an expression that shows the addition of sine waves
represent a sine wave with the basic trigonometric equation of different frequencies. There is a fundamental sine wave
(sin t) and odd harmonic sine waves (sin 3t, sin 5t, etc.).
v 5 Vp sin  Figure 14-23 shows the result of adding the sine waves.
The value v is the instantaneous voltage that occurs at the As you can see, the square wave consists of a sine wave at
phase angle . Assume a sine wave with a peak voltage Vp of the fundamental frequency of 1 kHz plus additional sine
5 V. See Fig. 14-22. At the phase angle of 120º, the value of waves at higher harmonic frequencies. The third harmonic
the sine voltage is is 3 kHz, and so on. In the case of the square wave, only the
odd harmonics (third, fifth, seventh, etc.) exist. In Fig. 14-23,
v 5 5 sin 120° 5 5(0.866) 5 4.33 V the fundamental, third, and fifth harmonics are added to-
Another way to write the sine expression is gether, producing a composite wave that is beginning to look
like a square wave. If you continue to add in the higher har-
v 5 Vp sin 2ft (14-13) monics, the resulting wave will more closely approximate a
This is sometimes written as pure square wave with vertical sides and a flat top.
The Fourier analysis produces an infinite number of har-
v 5 Vp sin t (14-14)
monic components. Most of them are at such low amplitude
The term  (Greek lowercase omega) is equal to 2f. It is levels as to be negligible in any practical analysis. An excel-
called the angular velocity, and it defines how fast the phasor lent square wave results from adding harmonics up to the 9th
representing the sine wave rotates. In either case, 2ft or t or 11th. The higher harmonics are the ones responsible for
is the phase angle in radians (rad). the steep or fast rise and fall times.
Here, v is the instantaneous value of the sine voltage, f is A frequency domain plot of the square wave is a group of
the frequency, and t is the time duration from zero rads or vertical lines whose amplitude represents the fundamental
degrees. sine wave of 1 kHz and the odd harmonics. See Fig. 14-24.
Assume a frequency f of 1 MHz or 1 3 106 Hz. The pe- This is what a spectrum analyzer would show if the square
riod T of course is 1 microsecond (1 s). The time from 0 rad wave were connected to its input.
is 333.33 ns or 333.33 3 1029 s. Figure 14-25 shows the relationship between the time and
With a peak value of 5 V the instantaneous value is frequency domains. The two domains are at a right angle to
one another. The peak values of the sine waves are plotted in
v 5 Vp sin 2ft 5 5 sin 2(3.14159)(1 3 106)(333.33 3 1029)
the frequency domain.
5 5 sin 2.093
As indicated earlier, any nonsinusoidal wave can be ana-
In this expression, the value 2.093 is the angle in radians. lyzed by the Fourier method. For example, the square wave

248 Chapter 1 4

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 Fundamental Fundamental
Composite on sum of
 fundamental and 3rd harmonic

Amplitude, volts
3rd harmonic

T T
4 2 T ␻t
0
3T
4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Harmonic (H)
Frequency

Figure 14-24 Frequency domain plot of a square wave.

(a)

Frequency


ain
om
5th harmonic

yd
5th
har

nc
T T mo

ue
4 2 nic
T ␻t

eq
0 3rd

Fr
har
mo
nic
3T
4 Amplitude Fu
nd
am
en
tal

(b)

Fundamental

With 3rd harmonic Tim
ed
om
With 3rd and 5th harmonic ain

Square wave
Sum of fundamental Time
and 3rd and 5th harmonics
T
2 T ␻t
0
Figure 14-25 Relationship between the time and
frequency domains.

would show a dc component equal to the average voltage

over time. See Fig. 14-26. The average dc would be
100
Vp兾2 5 3.3兾2 5 1.15 V
(c)
Any repeating nonsinusoidal wave can be analyzed with
Figure 14-23 A square wave is the algebraic sum of a a Fourier series. Figure 14-27 shows the Fourier analysis
fundamental sine wave and all odd harmonics. of rectified sine waves. These waves are common in many
fields of electronics, including power supplies, signal pro-
shown in Fig. 14-21 is an ac square wave with equal posi- cessing, and communications. Rectification is the process
tive and negative voltage components. This resulted in fun- of converting an ac wave into pulses of dc. Figure 14-27a
damental and odd harmonic sine waves. If that same 1-kHz shows a half-wave rectified sine wave that is a series of posi-
square wave were a pulsating dc signal for which the levels tive half-sine pulses. A full-wave rectified signal is given in
switched between 0 and, say, 13.3 V, the Fourier analysis Fig. 14-27b. Both waveforms are made up of a fundamental
would be identical in terms of the fundamental and odd har- and even harmonics only. These signals also contain a dc
monic sine waves; however, the mathematical expression component equal to the average voltage value over time.

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+Vp
V

Vp Average
dc T  period
2 value f  1/T
  pulse width
D  duty cycle
0 

T 2T T
0V
T
T

Vp 2Vp

2
 兺 ␲n
n1
sin ␻t
Figure 14-28 Rectangular pulse train.
2Vp sin 3␻t sin 5␻t
 …  etc.)
Vp
  (sin ␻t   Fundamental
2 ␲ 3 5

1
f
DC T
component 2nd harmonic
DC 3rd harmonic
Figure 14-26 Fourier expression of a dc square wave. component
Envelope

Vp
1

Average
dc value
T f
0.318 V
2 T 2T ␻t
0 T ␻  2␲f 2 3
4  

1 1 2
  ␲ Vp  Vp sin t  ␲ Vp
2 兺
n  2, 4, 6
cos nt
n2  1
Harmonics phase-inverted

cos 2t cos 4t cos 6t Figure 14-29 Plot of spectrum of a rectangular pulse.
 …  etc.)
1 1 2
 ␲ Vp  Vp sin t  ␲ Vp
2 ( 3

15

35

of f 5 1兾T, and a pulse duration or width of  (the Greek low-

ercase tau). The duty cycle (D) is the ratio of the pulse width
Vp
to the period, or D 5 兾T.
Average
dc value If you were to work your way through the Fourier analy-
0.637 V sis, you would end up with the expression that contains sine
0
t wave of both odd and even harmonics and a dc component.
T T 2T ␻  2␲f If you plot the fundamental and harmonic amplitudes on
2
a frequency domain display, the resulting plot would look
2 4
  ␲ Vp  ␲ Vp 兺
n  2, 4, 6
cos nt
n2  1 like that shown in Fig. 14-29. This is a generalized plot rather
2 4
 ␲ Vp  ␲ Vp (
cos 2t

cos 4t

cos 6t
 …  etc.)
than one for a specific pulse train. The horizontal axis is
3 15 35
frequency, and the vertical lines represent the peak values of
(b) the harmonics. The spacing between the vertical lines is, of
Figure 14-27 Fourier analysis of rectified sine waves. course, the fundamental frequency of the pulse wave train,
(a) half-wave. (b) full-wave. or 1兾T. If the duty cycle is anything besides 50%, which is
indeed a special case, the resulting spectrum contains both
odd and even harmonics. The amplitudes of the harmonics
Since most electronics is digital by way of binary dc decease with frequency. At some higher frequency, the har-
pulses, a Fourier analysis of this type of waveform reveals monic amplitudes become negative. What this means is that
more about the nature of the signal and how to deal with they are reversed in phase, that is 180° out of phase with the
it. Let’s examine a dc pulse wave train with a duty cycle harmonic that starts in phase with the fundamental.
something other than the 50% duty cycle of the square wave. Continuing to refer to Fig. 14-29, notice that if you connect
Refer to the pulse wave train shown in Fig. 14-28. The pulse the peaks of the lines representing the harmonic amplitudes,
has a peak voltage amplitude of V, a period of T, a frequency you will trace out a curve which is called the envelope. This

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 envelope curve can be expressed mathematically as (sin x)/x. Why is the first zero-crossing point important? Mainly,
This is called the sinc function, or for most pulse trains, the first zero-crossing point defines
sin x the range or band of frequencies where most of the energy
sinc (x) 5 ____
x (14-15) in the wave is contained. The lower harmonics between the
This particular expression shows up in many mathematical origin and f 5 1/ have the highest amplitudes and con-
analyses in signal spectra. Using this expression, you can tribute the most to the shape and energy in the wave than
determine useful data from the plot of the harmonics. The do the higher harmonics. This, in turn, defines the mini-
most useful of these is the point where the sinc (x) curve first mum bandwidth or range of frequencies of the medium or
crosses the zero-amplitude line. Refer back to Fig. 14-29. As circuits required to pass the signal with minimum distor-
it turns out, that zero-crossing point is at a frequency of tion and attenuation. You will learn more about this in later
chapters.
f 5 1/ Just remember that you should try to think in terms of
Remember  is the pulse duration. The other zero-crossing both time and frequency domains when you observe vary-
points of the sinc (x) envelope are at integer multiples of the ing ac or dc signals. As you will discover, for some circuit
first zero-crossing point at 1/. The second zero-crossing analysis time domain analysis is best. For others a frequency
point then is a 2/ and so on. domain view is a better explanation.

CHAPTER 14 SYSTEMS SIDEBAR

The Frequency Spectrum

The sine wave is the basic shape of many if not most elec- Radio waves exist in free space. The range of electro-
tronic voltages. Examples are the ac power-line voltage at magnetic waves runs continuously from 0 Hz to many
60 Hz, pure audio tones in the 20- to 20,000-Hz range, THz and beyond. This range of frequencies is called the
and all radio waves. In addition, the sinusoidal shape can electromagnetic frequency spectrum. It can be pictured as
also apply to magnetic fields, electric fields, and even light shown in Fig. S14-1. Note several things. The wavelength
waves. A radio wave is actually an electric field that occurs is given as well as the frequency. In addition, the spectrum
at a right angle to a magnetic wave with both varying sinu- is usually divided into bands or segments for identification
soidally and traveling together in a direction perpendicular and classification of the different uses of the spectrum.
to the two fields. You will hear this referred to as an elec- The table below summarized these different ranges and
tromagnetic wave. classifications.

Radio waves
0.4  106 m (violet)
0.7  106 m (red)
106 m (1 micron)

Wavelength
101 m

102 m

103 m

104 m

105 m
107 m

106 m

105 m

104 m

103 m

102 m

10 m

1m

X-rays,
gamma rays,
ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
cosmic rays,
etc.
DC

Infrared Ultraviolet
30 Hz

300 Hz

3 kHz

30 kHz

300 kHz

3 MHz

30 MHz

300 MHz

3 GHz

30 GHz

300 GHz

3 THz

30 THz

Visible
light

Frequency The optical

spectrum

Figure S14-1 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum.

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 Frequency Band Frequency Range Application
Extremely low frequencies (ELF) 30 to 300 Hz Power line, low audio frequencies
Voice frequencies (VF) 300 to 3000 Hz Human voice range
Very low frequencies (VLF) 3 kHz to 30 kHz Upper audio frequencies
Low frequencies (LF) 30 kHz to 300 kHz Ultrasonic frequencies, sonar
Medium frequencies (MF) 300 kHz to 3 MHz Marine, aircraft navigation, AM radio band
High frequencies (HF) 3 MHz to 30 MHz Shortwave radio, ham, CB
Very high frequencies (VHF) 30 MHz to 300 MHz TV, FM, mobile radio
Ultrahigh frequencies (UHF) 300 MHz to 3000 MHz Cellular phone bands, short-range networks
Superhigh frequencies (SHF) 3 GHz to 30 GHz Microwaves, satellites, radar
Extremely high frequencies (EHF) 30 GHz to 300 GHz Millimeter waves, satellites, radar
Optical frequencies 1000 nm to 400 nm Infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet (UV)
(wavelength) light waves

Frequencies above 1 GHz are generally called micro- or a part of it can exist on a cable like coaxial (cable TV) or
waves. In the 30- to 300-GHz range, the signals are referred a fiber-optic cable.
to as millimeter waves because of their wavelength. Finally, the free-space spectrum is shared by everyone.
Note the optical frequency range, which is expressed in For that reason, there is potential for one signal interfer-
wavelength rather than frequency. The low-frequency end ing with another. As a result, the frequency spectrum is
of the infrared (IR) band is 1 micrometer (10 –6 meter), also managed by the federal governments of most countries.
called a micron. This can also be expressed in nanometers In the United States, that job falls to the Federal Commu-
(10 –9 meter) as 1000 nm. Examples of IR waves are those nications Commission (FCC) and the National Telecom-
emitted by most TV remote controls and light pulses that munications and Information Administration (NTIA). In
carry data over fiber-optic cables. IR is light but just not vis- the United States most of the available useful spectrum
ible. Visible light is 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). Ultra- has been assigned and is used. There is a spectrum short-
violet is a shorter wavelength of ,400 nm and not visible. age for future services. Think of the spectrum like land,
Light waves are also sine waves. for which there is only a finite amount available, and when
While we normally think of the frequency spectrum as that is all occupied, some different and perhaps unusual
free-space electromagnetic waves, remember the spectrum methods must be used.

CHAPTER 14 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. An alternating voltage is one that 3. For a sine wave, one-half cycle is often called a(n)
a. varies continuously in magnitude. a. alternation.
b. reverses periodically in polarity. b. harmonic.
c. never varies in amplitude. c. octave.
d. both a and b. d. period.
2. One complete revolution of a conductor loop through 4. One cycle includes
a magnetic field is called a(n) a. 1808.
a. octave. b. 3608.
b. decade. c. 2 rad.
c. cycle. d. both b and c.
d. alternation.

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 5. In the United States, the frequency of the ac power- c. 4.52 ft.
line voltage is d. 0.226 ft.
a. 120 Hz. 14. How many radians are in one cycle of a sine wave?
b. 60 Hz. a. 1.
c. 50 Hz. b. .
d. 100 Hz. c. 2.
6. For a sine wave, the number of complete cycles per d. 4.
second is called the 15. A sine wave with a peak value of 20 V has an rms value of
a. period. a. 28.28 V.
b. wavelength. b. 14.14 V.
c. frequency. c. 12.74 V.
d. phase angle. d. 56.6 V.
7. A sine wave of alternating voltage has its maximum 16. A sine wave whose rms voltage is 25.2 V has a peak
values at value of approximately
a. 908 and 2708. a. 17.8 V.
b. 08 and 1808. b. 16 V.
c. 1808 and 3608. c. 50.4 V.
d. 30 and 150. d. 35.6 V.
8. To compare the phase angle between two waveforms, 17. The unit of frequency is the
both must have a. hertz.
a. the same amplitude. b. maxwell.
b. the same frequency. c. radian.
c. different frequencies. d. second.
d. both a and b.
18. For an ac waveform, the period, T, refers to
9. A 2-kHz sine wave has a period, T, of a. the number of complete cycles per second.
a. 0.5 s. b. the length of time required to complete one cycle.
b. 50 s. c. the time it takes for the waveform to reach its peak
c. 500 s. value.
d. 2 ms. d. none of the above.
10. If a sine wave has a period, T, of 40 s, its frequency, 19. The wavelength of a radio wave is
f, equals a. inversely proportional to its frequency.
a. 25 kHz. b. directly proportional to its frequency.
b. 250 Hz. c. inversely proportional to its amplitude.
c. 40 kHz. d. unrelated to its frequency.
d. 2.5 kHz.
20. Exact multiples of the fundamental frequency are called
11. What is the wavelength of a radio wave whose a. ultrasonic frequencies.
frequency is 15 MHz? b. harmonic frequencies.
a. 20 m. c. treble frequencies.
b. 15 m. d. resonant frequencies.
c. 0.753 ft.
21. Raising the frequency of 500 Hz by two octaves cor-
d. 2000 m.
responds to a frequency of
12. The value of alternating current or voltage that has the same a. 2 kHz.
heating effect as a corresponding dc value is known as the b. 1 kHz.
a. peak value. c. 4 kHz.
b. average value. d. 250 Hz.
c. rms value.
22. The Fourier theory is used to analyze
d. peak-to-peak value.
a. sine waves.
13. The wavelength of a 500-Hz sound wave is b. square waves.
a. 60 km. c. triangular waves.
b. 2.26 ft. d. any nonsinusoidal wave.

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 23. The second harmonic of 7 MHz is 25. Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave ac
a. 3.5 MHz. measurements are in
b. 28 MHz. a. peak-to-peak values.
c. 14 MHz. b. peak values.
d. 7 MHz. c. rms values.
24. A sine wave has a peak voltage of 170 V. What is the d. average values.
instantaneous voltage at an angle of 458? 26. The duty cycle of a rectangular wave is the ratio of the
a. 240 V. a. off time to period.
b. 85 V. b. on time to period.
c. 0 V. c. on time to off time.
d. 120 V. d. off time to on time.

CHAPTER 14 PROBLEMS

SECTION 14.2 Alternating-Voltage Generator SECTION 14.4 Alternating Current

14.1 For a sine wave of alternating voltage, how many 14.7 In Fig. 14-30, the sine wave of applied voltage has
degrees are included in a peak or maximum value of 10 V, as shown. Calcu-
a. 1⁄4 cycle? late the instantaneous value of current for the phase
b. 1⁄2 cycle? angles listed.
c. 3⁄4 cycle? a. 30.
d. 1 complete cycle? b. 300.
14.2 For a sine wave of alternating voltage, how many
radians are included in 1
a. 1⁄4 cycle?
b. 1⁄2 cycle?
c. 3⁄4 cycle? Sine wave
R1 5 2 kV
VP 5 10 V
d. 1 complete cycle?
14.3 At what angle does a sine wave of alternating
voltage 2
a. reach its maximum positive value?
b. reach its maximum negative value? Figure 14-30
c. cross the zero axis?
14.4 One radian corresponds to how many degrees? 14.8 In Fig. 14-30, do electrons flow clockwise or coun-
terclockwise in the circuit during
a. the positive alternation?
SECTION 14.3 The Sine Wave
b. the negative alternation?
14.5 The peak value of a sine wave equals 20 V. Calcu- Note: During the positive alternation, terminal 1 is positive
late the instantaneous voltage of the sine wave for with respect to terminal 2.
the phase angles listed.
a. 45°. SECTION 14.5 Voltage and Current Values for a
b. 210°. Sine Wave
14.6 A sine wave of alternating voltage has an instanta- 14.9 If the sine wave in Fig. 14-31 has a peak value of
neous value of 45 V at an angle of 60. Determine 15 V, then calculate
the peak value of the sine wave. a. the peak-to-peak value.
b. the rms value.
c. the average value.

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 VP 14.17 What is the velocity in ft ⁄s of a sound wave pro-
duced by mechanical vibrations?
08 908 1808 2708 3608
14.18 What is the wavelength in meters of an electromag-netic
radio wave whose frequency is 150 MHz?
14.19 What is the wavelength in ft of a sound wave whose
Figure 14-31 frequency is
a. 50 Hz?
14.10 If the sine wave in Fig. 14-31 has an rms value of b. 4 kHz?
40 V, then calculate 14.20 What is the frequency of an electromagnetic radio
a. the peak value. wave whose wavelength is
b. the peak-to-peak value. a. 160 m?
c. the average value. b. 17 m?
SECTION 14.6 Frequency SECTION 14.9 Phase Angle
14.11 What is the frequency, f, of a sine wave that 14.21 Describe the difference between a sine wave and a
completes cosine wave.
a. 10 cycles per second?
14.22 Two voltage waveforms of the same amplitude, VX
b. 500 cycles per second?
and VY, are 45 out of phase with each other, with
c. 50,000 cycles per second?
VY lagging VX. Draw the phasors representing these
d. 2,000,000 cycles per second?
voltage waveforms if
14.12 How many cycles per second (cps) do the following a. VX is used as the reference phasor.
frequencies correspond to? b. VY is used as the reference phasor.
a. 2 kHz.
b. 15 MHz. SECTION 14.10 The Time Factor in Frequency
c. 10 kHz. and Phase
d. 5 GHz. 14.23 For two waveforms with a frequency of 1 kHz, how
SECTION 14.7 Period much time corresponds to a phase angle difference of
a. 30?
14.13 Calculate the period, T, for the following sine wave b. 90?
frequencies:
a. 2 kHz. SECTION 14.11 Alternating Current Circuits with
b. 4 kHz. Resistance
c. 200 kHz. 14.24 In Fig. 14-32, solve for the following values: RT, I,
d. 2 MHz. V1, V2, P1, P2, and PT.
14.14 Calculate the frequency, f, of a sine wave whose
period, T, is
a. 5 m-s. R1 5 100 V
b. 10 s.
c. 500 ns. VT 5 10 Vac
d. 33.33 s.
R2 5 150 V
14.15 For a 5-kHz sine wave, how long does it take for
a. 1⁄4 cycle?
b. 1⁄2 cycle?
c. 3⁄4 cycle? Figure 14-32
d. 1 full cycle?
SECTION 14.12 Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms
SECTION 14.8 Wavelength
14.25 Determine the peak-to-peak voltage and frequency
14.16 What is the velocity of an electromagnetic radio for the waveform in
wave in a. Fig. 14-33a.
a. miles per second (mi/s)? b. Fig. 14-33b.
b. meters per second (m/s)? c. Fig. 14-33c.

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 1 50 V 14.30 The speed of the rise and fall times of a pulse are
determined by
a. low-frequency harmonics.

Volts
0V
b. high-frequency harmonics.
c. pulse amplitude.
2 50 V d. duty cycle.
50 ms 14.31 Which nonsinusoidal waveform has only even
T
(a) harmonics?
a. Square waves.
1 20 V b. Triangular waves.
c. Sawtooth waves.
d. Half-sine waves.
Volts

0V
14.32 What instrument shows the frequency domain?
2 10 V
2 ms a. Spectrum analyzer.
T b. Oscilloscope.
(b)
c. Signal generator.
d. Digital multimeter.
1 100 V
14.33 Square waves are made up of
a. even harmonics.
Volts

0V b. odd harmonics.
400 ms
T c. both odd and even harmonics.
14.34 Half sine waves are made up of
(c) a. even harmonics.
b. odd harmonics.
Figure 14-33 c. both odd and even harmonics.
14.35 Rectangular waves (not square waves) are made
SECTION 14.13 The Frequency Domain and the
up of
Fourier Theory
a. even harmonics.
14.26 State the Fourier theory. b. odd harmonics.
14.27 What is the fifth harmonic of 2.5 GHz? c. both odd and even harmonics.
14.28 What is the fundamental frequency associated with 14.36 A dc square wave has a peak amplitude of 3 V.
a third harmonic of 76 MHz? What is the average dc voltage? What is the ampli-
14.29 A nonsinusoidal waveform is made up of funda- tude of the third harmonic?
mental and harmonic
a. sine waves.
b. cosine waves.
c. either or both sine and cosine waves.

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 Ch a pt er 15
Capacitance

Learning Outcomes Capacitance is the ability of a dielectric to hold or store

an electric charge. The more charge stored for a given
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: voltage, the higher the capacitance. The symbol for ca-
Describe how charge is stored in the dielectric of a pacitance is C, and the unit is the farad (F).
capacitor. A capacitor consists of an insulator (also called a
Describe how a capacitor charges and discharges. dielectric) between two conductors. The conductors
Define the farad unit of capacitance. make it possible to apply voltage across the insula-
List the physical factors affecting the capacitance tor. Different types of capacitors are manufactured for
of a capacitor. specific values of C. They are named according to the
List several types of capacitors and the dielectric. Common types are air, ceramic, mica, paper,
characteristics of each.
film, and electrolytic capacitors.
Explain how an electrolytic capacitor is constructed.
The most important property of a capacitor is its
Explain how ultracapacitors can have such high
ability to block a steady dc voltage while passing ac
values of capacitance.
signals. The higher the frequency, the less the opposi-
Give two examples of stray and distributed capacitance.
tion to ac voltage.
Calculate the total capacitance of parallel-
connected capacitors.
Calculate the equivalent capacitance of series-
connected capacitors.
257

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 15.1 How Charge Is Stored in a given amount of applied voltage means more capacitance.
a Dielectric Components made to provide a specified amount of capaci-
tance are called capacitors.
Figure 15-1a shows the construction of a capacitor with two Electrically, then, capacitance is the ability to store
conducting plates separated by an insulator or dielectric. A charge. A capacitor consists simply of two conductors sepa-
battery is used to charge the capacitor. Electrons from the rated by an insulator. For example, Fig. 15-1b shows a vari-
voltage source accumulate on the side of the capacitor con- able capacitor using air for the dielectric between the metal
nected to the negative terminal of V. The opposite side of plates. There are many types with different dielectric materi-
the capacitor connected to the positive terminal of V loses als, including paper, mica, and ceramics, but the schematic
electrons. symbols shown in Fig. 15-1c apply to all capacitors.
As a result, the excess of electrons produces a negative
charge on one side of the capacitor, and the opposite side has Electric Field in the Dielectric
a positive charge. As an example, if 6.25 3 1018 electrons Any voltage has a field of electric lines of force between the
are accumulated, the negative charge equals 1 coulomb (C). opposite electric charges. The electric field corresponds to
The charge on only one plate need be considered because the the magnetic lines of force of the magnetic field associated
number of electrons accumulated on one plate is exactly the with electric current. What a capacitor does is concentrate
same as the number taken from the opposite plate. the electric field in the dielectric between the plates. This
What the voltage source does is simply redistribute some concentration corresponds to a magnetic field concentrated
electrons from one side of the capacitor to the other. This in the turns of a coil. The only function of the capacitor plates
process is called charging the capacitor. Charging continues and wire conductors is to connect the voltage source V across
until the potential difference across the capacitor is equal to the dielectric. Then the electric field is concentrated in the
the applied voltage. Without any series resistance, the charg- capacitor, instead of being spread out in all directions.
ing is instantaneous. Practically, however, there is always
Electrostatic Induction
some series resistance. This charging current is transient, or
temporary; it flows only until the capacitor is charged to the The capacitor has opposite charges because of electrostatic
applied voltage. Then there is no current in the circuit. induction by the electric field. Electrons that accumulate
The result is a device for storing charge in the dielectric. on the negative side of the capacitor provide electric lines of
Storage means that the charge remains even after the voltage force that repel electrons from the opposite side. When this
source is disconnected. The measure of how much charge side loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. The opposite
can be stored is the capacitance C. More charge stored for charges induced by an electric field correspond to the opposite
poles induced in magnetic materials by a magnetic field.

15.2 Charging and Discharging

a Capacitor
Dielectric Metal
A
. .................. Charging and discharging are the two main functions of ca-
V .........
.......................
..
plates
.. .. . .. .. pacitors. Applied voltage puts charge in the capacitor. The
B
accumulation of charge results in a buildup of potential dif-
ference across the capacitor plates. When the capacitor volt-
age equals the applied voltage, there is no more charging.
(a) (b)
The charge remains in the capacitor, with or without the ap-
plied voltage connected.
The capacitor discharges when a conducting path is pro-
vided across the plates, without any applied voltage. Actually,
C C it is necessary only that the capacitor voltage be more than
the applied voltage. Then the capacitor can serve as a voltage
source, temporarily, to produce discharge current in the dis-
charge path. The capacitor discharge continues until the capaci-
Fixed Variable
tor voltage drops to zero or is equal to the applied voltage.
(c)
Applying the Charge
Figure 15-1 Capacitance stores the charge in the dielectric
between two conductors. (a) Structure. (b) Air-dielectric variable In Fig. 15-2a, the capacitor is neutral with no charge be-
capacitor. Length is 2 in. (c) Schematic symbols for fixed and cause it has not been connected to any source of applied
variable capacitors. voltage and there is no electrostatic field in the dielectric.

258 Chapter 15

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 S evidence, the dielectric can be ruptured by a very intense
S
field with high voltage across the capacitor.
iC The result of the electric field, then, is that the dielectric
A  A has charge supplied by the voltage source. Since the dielec-
 
10 V C 10 V C 10 V tric is an insulator that cannot conduct, the charge remains
   B
B in the capacitor even after the voltage source is removed, as
illustrated in Fig. 15-2c. You can now take this charged ca-
pacitor by itself out of the circuit, and it still has 10 V across
(a) (b) the two terminals.
Discharging
iD The action of neutralizing the charge by connecting a con-
  ducting path across the dielectric is called discharging the
10 V

capacitor. In Fig. 15-2d, the wire between plates A and

B is a low-resistance path for discharge current. With the
stored charge in the dielectric providing the potential dif-
ference, 10 V is available to produce discharge current.
(c) (d)
The negative plate repels electrons, which are attracted
Figure 15-2 Storing electric charge in a capacitance. to the positive plate through the wire, until the positive
(a) Capacitor without any charge. (b) Battery charges capacitor and negative charges are neutralized. Then there is no net
to applied voltage of 10 V. (c) Stored charge remains in the charge. The capacitor is completely discharged, the volt-
capacitor, providing 10 V without the battery. (d ) Discharging the
age across it equals zero, and there is no discharge current.
capacitor.
Now the capacitor is in the same uncharged condition as in
Fig. 15-2a. It can be charged again, however, by a source
Closing the switch in Fig. 15-2b, however, allows the neg- of applied voltage.
ative battery terminal to repel free electrons in the con- Nature of the Capacitance
ductor to plate A. At the same time, the positive terminal A capacitor can store the amount of charge necessary to pro-
attracts free electrons from plate B. The side of the dielec- vide a potential difference equal to the charging voltage. If
tric at plate A accumulates electrons because they cannot 100 V were applied in Fig. 15-2, the capacitor would charge
flow through the insulator, and plate B has an equal sur- to 100 V.
plus of protons. The capacitor charges to the applied voltage because it
Remember that opposite charges have an associated po- takes on more charge when the capacitor voltage is less. As
tential difference, which is the voltage across the capacitor. soon as the capacitor voltage equals the applied voltage, no
The charging process continues until the capacitor voltage more charging current can flow. Note that any charge or
equals the battery voltage, which is 10 V in this example. discharge current flows through the conducting wires to the
Then no further charging is possible because the applied plates but not through the dielectric.
voltage cannot make free electrons flow in the conductors.
Note that the potential difference across the charged ca- Charge and Discharge Currents
pacitor is 10 V between plates A and B. There is no potential In Fig. 15-2b, iC is in the opposite direction from iD in
difference from each plate to its battery terminal, however, Fig. 15-2d. In both cases, the current shown is electron flow.
which is why the capacitor stops charging. However, iC is charging current to the capacitor and iD is dis-
charge current from the capacitor. The charge and discharge
Storing the Charge currents must always be in opposite directions. In Fig. 15-2b,
The negative and positive charges on opposite plates have an the negative plate of C accumulates electrons from the volt-
associated electric field through the dielectric, as shown by age source. In Fig. 15-2d, the charged capacitor is a voltage
the dotted lines in Fig. 15-2b and c. The direction of these source to produce electron flow around the discharge path.
electric lines of force is shown repelling electrons from More charge and discharge current result from a higher
plate B, making this side positive. The effect of electric value of C for a given amount of voltage. Also, more V
lines of force through the dielectric results in storage of the produces more charge and discharge current with a given
charge. The electric field distorts the molecular structure so amount of capacitance. However, the value of C does not
that the dielectric is no longer neutral. The dielectric is actu- change with the voltage because the amount of C depends on
ally stressed by the invisible force of the electric field. As the physical construction of the capacitor.

Capacitance 259

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 15.3 The Farad Unit of Capacitance For all three formulas, the basic units are volts for V, cou-
lombs for Q, and farads for C. Note that the formula C 5
With more charging voltage, the electric field is stronger and
QyV actually defines one farad of capacitance as one cou-
more charge is stored in the dielectric. The amount of charge
lomb of charge stored for one volt of potential difference.
Q stored in the capacitance is therefore proportional to the
The letter C (in italic type) is the symbol for capacitance.
applied voltage. Also, a larger capacitance can store more
The same letter C (in roman type) is the abbreviation for the
charge. These relations are summarized by the formula
coulomb unit of charge. The difference between C and C
Q 5 CV coulombs (15-1) will be made clearer in the examples that follow.
where Q is the charge stored in the dielectric in coulombs
(C), V is the voltage across the plates of the capacitor, and C EX A M P L E 1 5 -3
is the capacitance in farads.
The C is a physical constant, indicating the capacitance in A constant current of 2 ␮A charges a capacitor for 20 s. How
terms of the amount of charge that can be stored for a given much charge is stored? Remember I 5 Qyt or Q 5 I 3 t.
amount of charging voltage. When one coulomb is stored Answer:
in the dielectric with a potential difference of one volt, the Q5I3t
capacitance is one farad. 5 2 3 1026 3 20
Practical capacitors have sizes in millionths of a farad, 5 40 3 1026 or 40 ␮C
or smaller. The reason is that typical capacitors store charge
of microcoulombs or less. Therefore, the common units are
1 microfarad 5 1 ␮F 5 1 3 1026 F EXAMPLE 15-4
1 nanofarad 5 1 nF 5 1 3 1029 F
1 picofarad 5 1 pF 5 1 3 10212 F The voltage across the charged capacitor in Example 15-3 is
20 V. Calculate C.
Answer:
EXAMPLE 15-1 Q 40 3 1026
C 5 _ 5 __ 5 2 3 1026
How much charge is stored in a 2-␮F capacitor connected across
V 20
a 50-V supply? 5 2 ␮F
Answer:
Q 5 CV 5 2 3 1026 3 50
5 100 3 1026 C EXAMPLE 15-5

A constant current of 5 mA charges a 10-␮F capacitor for 1 s. How

much is the voltage across the capacitor?
EXAMPLE 15-2 Answer:
How much charge is stored in a 40-␮F capacitor connected Find the stored charge first:
across a 50-V supply? Q 5 I 3 t 5 5 3 1023 3 1
Answer:
5 5 3 1023 C or 5 mC
Q 5 CV 5 40 3 1026 3 50 Q 5 3 1023 5 0.5 3 103
V 5 _ 5 __
5 2000 3 1026 C C 10 3 1026
5 500 V

Note that the larger capacitor stores more charge for the
same voltage, in accordance with the definition of capaci- Larger Plate Area Increases Capacitance
tance as the ability to store charge. As illustrated in Fig. 15-3, when the area of each plate is dou-
The factors in Q 5 CV can be inverted to bled, the capacitance in Fig. 15-3b stores twice the charge
Q of Fig. 15-3a. The potential difference in both cases is still
C5_ (15-2)
V 10 V. This voltage produces a given strength of electric field.
or A larger plate area, however, means that more of the di-
Q electric surface can contact each plate, allowing more lines
V5_ (15-3) of force through the dielectric between the plates and less
C

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 C
Table 15-1 Dielectric Materials*
   2 F 
10 V
C
Q 10 V 2Q
Dielectric Dielectric Strength,
1 F Material Constant K⑀ V/mil†
   

Air or vacuum 1 20
Aluminum oxide 7
(a) (b)
Ceramics 80–1200 600–1250
Glass 8 335–2000
  Mica 3–8 600–1500
C
10 V 2Q Oil 2–5 275
2 F
 
Paper 2–6 1250
Plastic film 2–3
(c) Tantalum oxide 25

Figure 15-3 Increasing stored charge and capacitance * Exact values depend on the specific composition of different types.
†
by increasing the plate area and decreasing the distance 1 mil equals one-thousandth of an inch or 0.001 in.

between plates. (a) Capacitance of 1 ␮F. (b) A 2-␮F

capacitance with twice the plate area and the same distance. capacitors. Also, plastic film is often used instead of paper
(c) A 2-␮F capacitance with one-half the distance and the for the rolled-foil type of capacitor.
same plate area. The dielectric constant for an insulator is actually its rela-
tive permittivity. The symbol ⑀r, or Ke, indicates the ability to
concentrate electric flux. This factor corresponds to relative
flux leakage outside the dielectric. Then the field can store permeability, with the symbol ␮r or Km, for magnetic flux.
more charge in the dielectric. The result of larger plate area Both ⑀r and ␮r are pure numbers without units as they are
is more charge stored for the same applied voltage, which just ratios.*
means that the capacitance is larger. These physical factors for a parallel-plate capacitor are
Thinner Dielectric Increases Capacitance summarized by the formula
As illustrated in Fig. 15-3c, when the distance between A 3 8.85 3 10212 F
C 5 Ke 3 _ (15-4)
plates is reduced by one-half, the capacitance stores twice d
the charge of Fig. 15-3a. The potential difference is still where A is the area in square meters of either plate, d is the
10  V, but its electric field has greater flux density in the distance in meters between plates, Ke is the dielectric con-
thinner dielectric. Then the field between opposite plates stant, or relative permittivity, as listed in Table 15-1, and C
can store more charge in the dielectric. With less distance is capacitance in farads. The constant factor 8.85 3 10212 is
between the plates, the stored charge is greater for the the absolute permittivity of air or vacuum, in SI, since the
same applied voltage, which means that the capacitance farad is an SI unit.
is greater.

Dielectric Constant K ⑀ EXAMPLE 15-6

The dielectric constant Ke indicates the ability of an insulator Calculate C for two plates, each with an area 2 m2, separated by
to concentrate electric flux. Its numerical value is specified 1 cm, or 1022 m, with a dielectric of air.
as the ratio of flux in the insulator compared with the flux in Answer:
air or vacuum. The dielectric constant of air or vacuum is 1, Substituting in Formula (15-4),
since it is the reference. 2 3 8.85 3 10212 F
Mica, for example, has an average dielectric constant of 6, C513_
1022
which means that it can provide a density of electric flux six 5 200 3 8.85 3 10212
times as great as that of air or vacuum for the same applied
voltage and equal size. Insulators generally have a dielectric 5 1770 3 10212 F or 1770 pF
constant Ke greater than 1, as listed in Table 15-1. Higher
values of Ke allow greater values of capacitance.
* The absolute permittivity ⑀0 is 8.854 3 10212 F/m in SI units for electric flux in air or
Note that the aluminum oxide and tantalum oxide listed vacuum. This value corresponds to an absolute permeability ␮0 of 4␲ 3 1027 H/m in
in Table 15-1 are used for the dielectric in electrolytic SI units for magnetic flux in air or a vacuum.

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 This value means that the capacitor can store 1770 3 10212 C the positive or negative side of the circuit. Note that the po-
of charge with 1 V. Note the relatively small capacitance, in larity of the charging source determines the polarity of the
picofarad units, with the extremely large plates of 2 m2, which capacitor voltage. Failure to observe the correct polarity can
is really the size of a tabletop or a desktop. damage the dielectric and lead to the complete destruction of
If the dielectric used is paper with a dielectric constant the capacitor.
of 6, then C will be six times greater. Also, if the spacing
between plates is reduced by one-half to 0.5 cm, the ca- Mica Capacitors
pacitance will be doubled. Note that practical capacitors Thin mica sheets as the dielectric are stacked between
for electronic circuits are much smaller than this parallel- tinfoil sections for the conducting plates to provide the
plate capacitor. They use a very thin dielectric with a high required capacitance. Alternate strips of tinfoil are con-
dielectric constant, and the plate area can be concentrated in nected and brought out as one terminal for one set of
a small space. plates, and the opposite terminal connects to the other
set of interlaced plates. The construction is shown
Dielectric Strength in Fig. 15-4a. The entire unit is generally in a molded
Table 15-1 also lists breakdown voltage ratings for typical Bakelite case. Mica capacitors are often used for small
dielectrics. Dielectric strength is the ability of a dielectric capacitance values of about 10 to 5000 pF; their length
to withstand a potential difference without arcing across the is 3⁄4 in. or less with about 1⁄8-in. thickness. A typical mica
insulator. This voltage rating is important because rupture of capacitor is shown in Fig. 15-4b.
the insulator provides a conducting path through the dielec-
tric. Then it cannot store charge because the capacitor has Paper Capacitors
been short-circuited. Since the breakdown voltage increases In this construction shown in Fig. 15-5a, two rolls of tin-
with greater thickness, capacitors with higher voltage ratings foil conductor separated by a paper dielectric are rolled into
have more distance between plates. This increased distance a compact cylinder. Each outside lead connects to its roll
reduces the capacitance, however, all other factors remain- of tinfoil as a plate. The entire cylinder is generally placed
ing the same. in a cardboard container coated with wax or encased in
plastic. Paper capacitors are often used for medium capaci-
15.4 Typical Capacitors tance values of 0.001 to 1.0 ␮F, approximately. The size of a
Commercial capacitors are generally classified according 0.05-␮F capacitor is typically 1 in. long and 3⁄8-in. in diameter.
to the dielectric. Most common are air, mica, paper, plastic A paper capacitor is shown in Fig. 15-5b. Paper capacitors are
film, and ceramic capacitors, plus the electrolytic type. Elec- no longer used in new designs.
trolytic capacitors use a molecular-thin oxide film as the di- A black or a white band at one end of a paper capacitor in-
electric, resulting in large capacitance values in little space. dicates the lead connected to the outside foil. This lead should
These types are compared in Table 15-2 and discussed in the be used for the ground or low-potential side of the circuit to
sections that follow. take advantage of shielding by the outside foil. There is no
Except for electrolytic capacitors, capacitors can be con- required polarity, however, since the capacitance is the same
nected to a circuit without regard to polarity, since either no matter which side is grounded. Also note that in the sche-
side can be the more positive plate. Electrolytic capacitors matic symbol for C, the curved line usually indicates the low-
are marked to indicate the side that must be connected to potential side of the capacitor.

Table 15-2 Types of Capacitors

Dielectric Construction Capacitance Breakdown, V
Air Meshed plates 10–400 pF 400 (0.02-in. air gap)
Ceramic Tubular 0.5–1600 pF 500–20,000
Disk 1 pF–1 ␮F
Electrolytic Aluminum 1–6800 ␮F 10–450
Tantalum 0.047–330 ␮F 6–50
Mica Stacked sheets 10–5000 pF 500–20,000
Paper Rolled foil 0.001–1 ␮F 200–1600
Plastic film Foil or metallized 100 pF–100 ␮F 50–600

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 Mica sheets film capacitors: the foil type and the metallized type. The foil
type uses sheets of metal foil, such as aluminum or tin, for its
conductive plates. The metallized type is constructed by de-
positing (spraying) a thin layer of metal, such as aluminum
Tinfoil plates or zinc, on the plastic film. The sprayed-on metal serves as
the plates of the capacitor. The advantage of the metallized
type over the foil type is that the metallized type is much
smaller for a given capacitance value and breakdown voltage
rating. The reason is that the metallized type has much thin-
ner plates because they are sprayed on. Another advantage
of the metallized type is that it is self-healing. This means
that if the dielectric is punctured because its breakdown volt-
(a) age rating is exceeded, the capacitor is not damaged perma-
nently. Instead, the capacitor heals itself. This is not true of
the foil type.
Film capacitors are very temperature-stable and are there-
fore used frequently in circuits that require very stable capac-
itance values. Some examples are radio-frequency oscillators
and timer circuits. Film capacitors are available with values
ranging from about 100 pF to 100 ␮F. Figure 15-6 shows a
typical film capacitor.
(b) Ceramic Capacitors
Figure 15-4 Mica capacitor. (a) Physical construction. The ceramic materials used in ceramic capacitors are made
(b) Example of a mica capacitor. from earth fired under extreme heat. With titanium diox-
ide or one of several types of silicates, very high values of
Tinfoil dielectric constant Ke can be obtained. Most ceramic ca-
pacitors come in disk form, as shown in Fig. 15-7. In the
disk form, silver is deposited on both sides of the ceramic
dielectric to form the capacitor plates. Ceramic capacitors
Paper dielectric
are available with values of 1 pF (or less) up to about 1 ␮F.
The wide range of values is possible because the dielectric
constant Ke can be tailored to provide almost any desired
value of capacitance.
(a)

(b) Figure 15-6 Film capacitor.

Figure 15-5 Paper capacitor. (a) Physical construction.
(b) Example of a paper capacitor.

Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are constructed much like paper capacitors
except that the paper dielectric is replaced with a plastic film
such as polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, or poly-
ethelene terepthalate (Mylar). There are two main types of Figure 15-7 Ceramic disk capacitor.

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 Note that ceramic capacitors are also available in forms maximum capacitance. Moving the rotor completely out of
other than disks. Some ceramic capacitors are available with mesh provides minimum capacitance.
axial leads and use a color code similar to that of a resistor. A common application is the tuning capacitor in radio
receivers. When you tune to different stations, the capaci-
Surface-Mount Capacitors tance varies as the rotor moves in or out of mesh. Combined
Like resistors, capacitors are also available as surface-mounted with an inductance, the variable capacitance then tunes the
components. Surface-mount capacitors are often called chip receiver to a different resonant frequency for each station.
capacitors. Chip capacitors are constructed by placing a Usually two or three capacitor sections are ganged on one
ceramic dielectric material between layers of conductive film common shaft.
which form the capacitor plates. The capacitance is determined
by the dielectric constant Ke and the physical area of the plates. Temperature Coefficient
Chip capacitors are available in many sizes. A common size is Ceramic capacitors are often used for temperature compen-
0.125 in. long by 0.063 in. wide in various thicknesses. Another sation to increase or decrease capacitance with a rise in tem-
common size is 0.080  in. long by 0.050 in. wide in various perature. The temperature coefficient is given in parts per
thicknesses. Figure 15-8 shows two sizes of chip capacitors. million (ppm) per degree Celsius, with a reference of 258C.
Like chip resistors, chip capacitors have their end electrodes As an example, a negative 750-ppm unit is stated as N750. A
soldered directly to the copper traces of the printed circuit positive temperature coefficient of the same value would be
board. Chip capacitors are available with values ranging from stated as P750. Units that do not change in capacitance are
a fraction of a picofarad up to several microfarads. labeled NPO.

Variable Capacitors Capacitance Tolerance

Figure 15-1b shows a variable air capacitor. In this construc- Ceramic disk capacitors for general applications usually
tion, the fixed metal plates connected together form the have a tolerance of 620%. For closer tolerances, mica or
stator. The movable plates connected together on the shaft film capacitors are used. These have tolerance values of 62
form the rotor. Capacitance is varied by rotating the shaft to to 20%. Silver-plated mica capacitors are available with a
make the rotor plates mesh with the stator plates. They do tolerance of 61%.
not touch, however, since air is the dielectric. Full mesh is The tolerance may be less on the minus side to make sure
that there is enough capacitance, particularly with electro-
lytic capacitors, which have a wide tolerance. For instance,
a 20-␮F electrolytic with a tolerance of –10%, 150% may
have a capacitance of 18 to 30 ␮F. However, the exact capac-
itance value is not critical in most applications of capacitors
for filtering, ac coupling, and bypassing.
Voltage Rating of Capacitors
This rating specifies the maximum potential difference
that can be applied across the plates without puncturing the
dielectric. Usually the voltage rating is for temperatures up
to about 608C. Higher temperatures result in a lower volt-
age rating. Voltage ratings for general-purpose paper, mica,
and ceramic capacitors are typically 200 to 500 V. Ceramic
capacitors with ratings of 1 to 20 kV are also available.
Electrolytic capacitors are typically available in 15-, 35-,
and 50-V ratings. For applications where a lower voltage rat-
ing is permissible, more capacitance can be obtained in a
smaller size.
The potential difference across the capacitor depends on
the applied voltage and is not necessarily equal to the voltage
rating. A voltage rating higher than the potential difference
applied across the capacitor provides a safety factor for long
life in service. However, the actual capacitor voltage of elec-
trolytic capacitors should be close to the rated voltage to pro-
Figure 15-8 Chip capacitors. duce the oxide film that provides the specified capacitance.

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 The voltage ratings are for dc voltage applied. The break- strips of aluminum foil and gauze, which are rolled into a
down rating is lower for ac voltage because of the internal compact cylinder with very high capacitance. For example,
heat produced by continuous charge and discharge. an electrolytic capacitor the same size as a 0.1-␮F paper ca-
pacitor, but rated at 10 V breakdown, may have 1000 ␮F of
Capacitor Applications capacitance or more. Higher voltage ratings, up to 450 V, are
In most electronic circuits, a capacitor has dc voltage ap- available, with typical C values up to about 6800 ␮F. The
plied, combined with a much smaller ac signal voltage. The very high C values usually have lower voltage ratings.
usual function of the capacitor is to block the dc voltage but
pass the ac signal voltage by means of the charge and dis- Polarity
charge current. These applications include coupling, bypass- Electrolytic capacitors are used in circuits that have a combi-
ing, and filtering of ac signals. nation of dc voltage and ac voltage. The dc voltage maintains
the required polarity across the electrolytic capacitor to form
15.5 Electrolytic Capacitors the oxide film. A common application is for electrolytic fil-
Electrolytic capacitors are commonly used for C values rang- ter capacitors to eliminate the 60- or 120-Hz ac ripple in a
ing from about 1 to 6800 ␮F because electrolytics provide dc power supply. Another use is for audio coupling capaci-
the most capacitance in the smallest space with least cost. tors in transistor amplifiers. In both applications, for filter-
ing or coupling, electrolytics are needed for large C with a
Construction
low-frequency ac component, whereas the circuit has a dc
Figure 15-9 shows the aluminum-foil type. The two alumi- component for the required voltage polarity. Incidentally, the
num electrodes are in an electrolyte of borax, phosphate, difference between filtering out an ac component or coupling
or carbonate. Between the two aluminum strips, absorbent it into a circuit is only a question of parallel or series connec-
gauze soaks up electrolyte to provide the required electrol- tions. The filter capacitors for a power supply are typically
ysis that produces an oxide film. This type is considered a 100 to 1000 ␮F. Audio capacitors are usually 10 to 47 ␮F.
wet electrolytic, but it can be mounted in any position. If the electrolytic is connected in opposite polarity,
When dc voltage is applied to form the capacitance in man- the reversed electrolysis forms gas in the capacitor. It
ufacture, the electrolytic action accumulates a molecular-thin becomes hot and may explode. This is a possibility only
layer of aluminum oxide at the junction between the positive with electrolytic capacitors.
aluminum foil and the electrolyte. The oxide film is an insula-
tor. As a result, capacitance is formed between the positive Leakage Current
aluminum electrode and the electrolyte in the gauze separator. The disadvantage of electrolytics, in addition to the required
The negative aluminum electrode simply provides a connec- polarization, is their relatively high leakage current compared
tion to the electrolyte. Usually, the metal can itself is the nega- with other capacitors, since the oxide film is not a perfect in-
tive terminal of the capacitor, as shown in Fig. 15-9c. sulator. The problem with leakage current in a capacitor is
Because of the extremely thin dielectric film, very large C that it allows part of the dc component to be coupled into the
values can be obtained. The area is increased by using long next circuit along with the ac component. In newer electro-
lytic capacitors, the leakage current is quite small.
Nonpolarized Electrolytics
Negative electrode
(electrolyte) Nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors are available for ap-
Gauze separator saturated
plications in circuits without any dc polarizing voltage, as
with electrolyte Oxide in a 60-Hz ac power line. One application is the starting
film capacitor for ac motors. A nonpolarized electrolytic actu-
Positive electrode
(aluminum foil)
ally contains two capacitors, connected internally in series-
opposing polarity.
(a)

Tantalum Capacitors

Another form of electrolytic capacitor, uses tantalum (Ta)

instead of aluminum. Titanium (Ti) is also used. Typical
tantalum capacitors are shown in Fig. 15-10. They feature
(b) (c)
1. Larger C in a smaller size
Figure 15-9 Construction of aluminum electrolytic
capacitor. (a) Internal electrodes. (b) Foil rolled into cartridge. 2. Longer shelf life
(c) Typical capacitor with multiple sections. 3. Less leakage current

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 Electrolyte Separator

   
   
   
   
   
   
 
 
 
 
 
   
   
 Plate  Plate
   
   
   
   
Porous
material    
with huge    
surface    
area  
   
   

 Ions  Ions

Figure 15-11 Construction of an ultracapacitor.

limitations are nearly reached with electrolytic capacitors.

Ultracapacitors use a different approach.
The general construction of an ultracapacitor is shown in
Fig. 15-11. It is made up of two metal plates that are coated
with a highly porous carbon material that provides a huge
surface area. These plates are immersed in a liquid electro-
Figure 15-10 Tantalum capacitors. lyte material that is highly ionized with both positive and
negative ions. A separator between the plates isolates the
charges on each plate. This construction gives the ultraca-
However, tantalum electrolytics cost more than the alumi- pacitor its alternate name, electrochemical double-layer ca-
num type. Construction of tantalum capacitors include the pacitor (EDLC).
wet-foil type and a solid chip or slug. The solid tantalum is When a voltage is applied to the capacitor plates, the
processed in manufacture to have an oxide film as the dielec- positive plate attracts negative ions from the electrolyte.
tric. Referring back to Table 15-1, note that tantalum oxide At the same time, the negative plate attracts positive ions
has a dielectric constant of 25, compared with 7 for alumi- from the electrolyte. This produces two separately charged
num oxide. surfaces on either side of the separator, which is the equiv-
alent to two capacitors in series. The charges on each plate
15.6 Ultracapacitors are separated by only a distance that is the size of the ions
Ultracapacitors, or supercapacitors as they are also called, in the electrolyte. This is the same as having a plate sepa-
are special high-capacitance capacitors used for energy ration of only a few angstroms. (Note: An angstrom is a
storage. Most capacitors used in electronics have smaller distance of one ten-billionth of a meter, or 10210 meter, or
values in the microfarad and picofarad range. Electrolytic 0.1 nanometer.) The thin spacing combined with the large
capacitors can have larger values up to 10,000 to 40,000 ␮F. plate area offered by the porous plate coating produces a
Ultracapacitors are available with values as high as several very large capacitance.
hundred farads. With such high capacitance, ultracapaci- This unique construction achieves very high capaci-
tors can store an enormous charge and can almost act as tance values but has one main limitation. The amount of
a battery. voltage that the capacitor can withstand without breaking
Conventional capacitors store an electric charge on two down is very small. A typical maximum working voltage
plates separated by a dielectric. The capacitance is a function value for a 1- to 100-F capacitor is only 2.7 V. This limita-
of the plate area, plate spacing, and the dielectric constant. tion can be overcome by connecting capacitors in series so
Large plates spaced very close together produce the highest that the externally applied voltage is spread across several
capacitance. However, there are physical limitations. These capacitors. Ultracapacitor modules made up of multiple

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 series capacitors are available with voltage ratings of up Insulation Copper wire
to about 150 V.
Ultracapacitors store energy for use later. They are
often used in conjunction with a battery to provide short
Cable
duration pulses of power or backup power. A common ar-
rangement is for the ultracapacitor to be connected in par-
allel with a battery. The battery charges the ultracapacitor.
Any load draws current from both the battery and the ul- Distributed capacitance
tracapacitor. However, if the load suddenly increases, re- (a)
quiring extra current, that current will be supplied by the
ultracapacitor rather than the battery. Batteries have peak Solid
pulse current limits, which are a function of the internal copper wire
resistance of the battery. The demand for a high pulse of Input
signal
current is met by the ultracapacitor with its low internal
resistance. Stray
For example, in an automotive sound system, which is Capacitance
powered by the car’s 12-V battery, high-amplitude bass notes
will produce pulses of current from the battery. The battery Cross talk
alone cannot supply such high pulses of current; thus the Plastic
bass amplitude becomes smaller or more washed out. How- insulation

ever with a parallel ultracapacitor, a high-current pulse can (b)

be provided. Most high-power sound systems in automobiles
have an ultracapacitor. Figure 15-12 Distributed capacitance. (a) on a cable and
Ultracapacitors also used in consumer products that re- (b) stray capacitance between two cables that produces
cross talk.
quire a battery. It provides voltage to the circuits if the bat-
tery dies or is being replaced. Examples are products with
memories that may be erased if power is lost or clocks that
will lose their time setting. Other uses include backup power Another example is the capacitance that exists between
for uninterruptible power supplies and wind generators. Ul- two copper patterns on a printed circuit board. There is
tracapacitors are found in electric vehicles for short-term also capacitance between two adjacent pins on a connec-
bursts of power and for storing energy from regenerative tor. Stray capacitance also exists between the pins on an
braking. integrated circuit or between the leads of a transistor or
resistor. In general, stray capacitance exists everywhere in
electronic circuits.
15.7 Stray and Distributed The important fact is to be aware that it exists. Just be-
Capacitance cause you cannot see it, it is still present and doing what
We normally think of capacitance as an electrical quantity capacitors do: charge, discharge, and store energy. Because
that comes packaged as a component with two connecting this capacitance is relatively small, for many applications it
leads. However, there are other forms of capacitance that can be ignored. In low-frequency circuits, stray capacitance
exist and must be taken into consideration when analyzing has minimal effects. However at high frequencies, stray ca-
or troubleshooting electronic circuits. Stray and distributed pacitance does have a significant impact on circuit perfor-
capacitance is present any place where two conductors mance. You will learn more about this type of capacitance
separated by an insulating medium are present. The most and its effects in ac circuits in the chapters to come. You
common example is the capacitance between two wires in will discover that it usually affects circuits negatively. For
a cable. Refer to Fig. 15-12a. The wires are separated by example, consider two cables running parallel and very close
an insulator so the combination forms a long capacitor dis- to one another as in Fig. 15-12b. The signal on one cable
tributed over the length of the cable. While the capacitance can be transferred to the other cable by the capacitance be-
is generally small per increment of length, long sections of tween them. The signals on each cable can interfere with
cable can have very large values of capacitance. It could be one another. This is called cross talk, and it is a common
many picofarads or even low microfarad values. Most cable problem associated with distributed capacitance. In addition,
specifications actually designate the amount of capacitance high capacitance can filter out high frequencies and greatly
per foot of the cable. attenuate them.

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  C1  600 V
C1  C2    1 F
CT 1 F 1 F
V T  900 V
  C2 
300 V
 2 F
CT  C1  C2
 2 F

Figure 15-13 Capacitances in parallel. Figure 15-15 With series capacitors, the smaller C has
more voltage for the same charge.

15.8 Parallel Capacitances of three equal capacitances in series has one-third the
Connecting capacitances in parallel is equivalent to add- applied voltage. A common arrangement is having two
ing the plate areas. Therefore, the total capacitance is capacitors in series. In this case, Formula (15-6) simpli-
the sum of the individual capacitances. As illustrated in fies to
Fig. 15-13, C 1 3 C2
Ceq 5 __
C1 1 C2
CT 5 C1 1 C2 1 ? ? ? 1 etc. (15-5)
Division of Voltage across Unequal Capacitances
A 10-␮F capacitor in parallel with a 5-␮F capacitor,
In series, the voltage across each C is inversely propor-
for example, provides a 15-␮F capacitance for the paral-
tional to its capacitance, as illustrated in Fig. 15-15. The
lel combination. The voltage is the same across the par-
smaller capacitance has the larger proportion of the applied
allel capacitors. Note that adding parallel capacitances
voltage. The reason is that the series capacitances all have
is opposite to inductances in parallel and resistances in
the same charge because they are in one current path. With
parallel.
equal charge, a smaller capacitance has a greater potential
difference.
15.9 Series Capacitances We can consider the amount of charge in the se-
Connecting capacitances in series is equivalent to increas- ries capacitors in Fig. 15-15. Let the charging current
ing the thickness of the dielectric. Therefore, the combined be 600 ␮A flowing for 1 s. The charge Q equals I 3 t or
capacitance is less than the smallest individual value. As 600 ␮C. Both C1 and C2 have Q equal to 600 ␮C because
shown in Fig. 15-14, the combined equivalent capacitance is they are in the same series path for charging current.
calculated by the reciprocal formula: Although the charge is the same in C1 and C2, they have
1 different voltages because of different capacitance values.
CEQ 5 _________________________ (15-6) For each capacitor, V 5 QyC. For the two capacitors in
_1 1_ 1 1_ 1 1 ? ? ? 1 etc.
C1 C2 C3 Fig. 15-15, then,
Any of the shortcut calculations for the reciprocal for- Q 600 ␮C
V1 5 _ 5 __ 5 600 V
mula apply. For example, the combined capacitance of two C1 1 ␮F
equal capacitances of 10 ␮F in series is 5 ␮F.
Capacitors are used in series to provide a higher work- Q 600 ␮C
V2 5 _ 5 __ 5 300 V
ing voltage rating for the combination. For instance, each C2 2 ␮F

Charging Current for Series Capacitances

The charging current is the same in all parts of the se-
ries path, including the junction between C1 and C2 , even
C1  1
though this point is separated from the source voltage by
500 V CEQ 
1 F 1 1 two insulators. At the junction, the current is the result

V T  1000 V C1 C2 of electrons repelled by the negative plate of C2 and at-
CEQ  0.5  F
C2 
500 V
tracted by the positive plate of C1. The amount of current
1 F
in the circuit is determined by the equivalent capacitance of
C1 and C2 in series. In Fig. 15-15, the equivalent capacitance
Figure 15-14 Capacitances in series. is 2⁄3 ␮F.

268 Chapter 15

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 CHAPTER 15 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Dynamic Random Access Memory

Most digital computers today use a type of memory called input. This operation is referred to as a write operation. The
dynamic random access memory (DRAM). It is the main transistor switch is then turned off, isolating the capacitor
memory in personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, and that continues to hold the charge.
cell phones. Programs and data are stored in the memory To access the cell, the transistor is turned on by the
as binary numbers or codes. The binary system uses the address line connecting the capacitor to the data line. The
digits 0 and 1 to represent numerical values, the alphabet, voltage stored on the capacitor is connected to a sense
special symbols, and codes. The 0s and 1s are called bits. amplifier through a transistor switch where is it amplified
For example, the 8-bit number 11001101 is used to repre- and otherwise conditioned to appear at the memory out-
sent the decimal value 205. The code 01001010 represents put used by the computer. This is called a read operation.
the letter J. Bits are represented in electronic circuits by Millions or billions of these cells are manufactured on a
voltage levels. For example, a voltage of +2.5 volts could chip of silicon. They are arranged in a large array or matrix of
mean a binary 1, while a value of zero volts could repre- rows and columns with digital circuitry that allows multiple
sent a binary 0. numbers, words, or codes to be stored. See Fig. S15-2. These
To store binary information, we need a circuit or device cells are organized into multibit words or numbers and each
that can assume either of two states to store either a 0 or a is assigned a unique number or address. By a computer ad-
1. Such a circuit is called a storage cell. There have been a dressing the memory, any word or number can be randomly
variety of storage cells invented and used over the years. One accessed for either a read or write operation on its cells. Thus
of the most common and widely used is the dynamic storage the name random access memory (RAM). The time to access
cell that has a capacitor. any cell is very short, on the order of a few nanoseconds.
Figure S15-1 shows a simplified dynamic storage cell. It
consists of a capacitor and a switch. The switch is a transis-
4-bit words
tor that can be turned off and on like any electrical switch.
The capacitor stores a 0 if it is fully discharged or a 1 if it is
charged.
To store a bit, the transistor is turned on by a signal on
One
the address line. Then the bit voltage is applied to the data capacitive
Address circuits

storage
line and through the transistor switch to the capacitor. The
Address

cell
capacitor is either charged or discharged according to the

Transistor switch is Tells

Data bit to be OFF for write and which
stored or read ON for read. word to
Data line out appears here. select
Output
Sense
amplifier
Read
Address Transistor Input/Output
line switch circuits

Turns
transistor
OFF or ON. Storage
Data In/Out
capacitor
cell
Figure S15-2 The dynamic RAM cells are organized into
Figure S15-1 A dynamic RAM storage cell is made a matrix of rows and columns where cells are grouped to
up of a transistor and a capacitor. The capacitor stores store multibit words. Here 4-bit words are used. Each word is
the bit while the transistors control the access to the accessed for a read or write operation by giving the memory
capacitor. an address in binary form.

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 Since capacitance of each capacitor in a cell is very
small and because of leakage resistance within the chip,
the charge on each cell will eventually leak off and the
data will be lost. However, in this type of RAM, the charge
status of each cell is automatically restored periodically
every few milliseconds, ensuring that the data are main-
tained. This refresh operation is what gives the memory
the name “dynamic.”
DRAM chips come in many sizes. Each can store
millions, even billion, of bits. For example, one type of
DRAM chip can store 512 Mb, or 512 million bits. The
chip may be organized as 128 M of 4-bit words or num-
bers. Larger chips are available. Multiple chips are then
connected together to form the main memory of most
computers. DRAM chips are typically mounted on small
printed circuit boards called dual in-line memory modules
(DIMM) that plug into the motherboard of a PC. See
Fig. S15-3. A common DRAM size in a computer is 2 to 8 GB.
The letter G means giga or billion and B means byte. A byte Figure S15-3 A dual in-line memory module (DIMM)
is an 8-bit number or word. contains multiple DRAM chips. The DIMMs plug into the
computer motherboard. (Courtesy Micron Inc).

CHAPTER 15 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. In general, a capacitor is a component that can c. two conductors separated by an insulator.

a. pass a dc current. d. none of the above.
b. store an electric charge. 6. A capacitance of 82,000 pF is the same as
c. act as a bar magnet. a. 0.082 ␮F.
d. step up or step down an ac voltage. b. 82 ␮F.
2. The basic unit of capacitance is the c. 82 nF.
a. farad. d. both a and c.
b. henry. 7. A 47-␮F capacitor has a stored charge of 2.35 mC.
c. tesla. What is the voltage across the capacitor plates?
d. ohm. a. 50 V.
3. Which of the following factors affect the capacitance b. 110 V approx.
of a capacitor? c. 5 V.
a. the area, A, of the plates. d. 100 V.
b. the distance, d, between the plates. 8. Which of the following types of capacitors typically
c. the type of dielectric used. has the highest leakage current?
d. all of the above. a. plastic film.
4. How much charge in coulombs is stored by a 50-␮F b. electrolytic.
capacitor with 20 V across its plates? c. mica.
a. Q 5 100 ␮C. d. air variable.
b. Q 5 2.5 ␮C. 9. One of the main applications of a capacitor is to
c. Q 5 1 mC. a. block ac and pass dc.
d. Q 5 1 ␮C. b. block both dc and ac.
5. A capacitor consists of c. block dc and pass ac.
a. two insulators separated by a conductor. d. pass both dc and ac.
b. a coil of wire wound on an iron core.

270 Chapter 15

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 10. Which insulating material has the highest dielectric 18. The leakage resistance of a capacitor is typically rep-
constant? resented as a(n)
a. Air. a. resistance in series with the capacitor plates.
b. Glass. b. electric field between the capacitor plates.
c. Plastic. c. resistance in parallel with the capacitor plates.
d. Ceramic. d. closed switch across the dielectric material.
11. The equivalent capacitance, CEQ, of a 10-␮F and a 19. A 2200-␮F capacitor with a voltage rating of 35 V is
40-␮F capacitor in series is most likely a(n)
a. 50 ␮F. a. electrolytic capacitor.
b. 125 ␮F. b. air variable capacitor.
c. 8 ␮F. c. mica capacitor.
d. 400 ␮F. d. paper capacitor.
12. A 0.33-␮F capacitor is in parallel with a 0.15-␮F 20. A capacitor that can store 100 ␮C of charge with 10 V
and a 220,000-pF capacitor. What is the total capaci- across its plates has a capacitance value of
tance, CT? a. 0.01 ␮F.
a. 0.7 ␮F. b. 10 ␮F.
b. 0.007 ␮F. c. 10 nF.
c. 0.07 ␮F. d. 100 mF.
d. 7 nF. 21. Calculate the permissible capacitance range of a ce-
13. A 5-␮F capacitor, C1, and a 15-␮F capacitor, C2 , ramic disk capacitor whose value is 0.068␮F with a
are connected in series. If the charge stored in C1 tolerance of +80 to –20%.
equals 90 ␮C, what is the voltage across the ca- a. 0.0544 ␮F to 0.1224 ␮F.
pacitor C2? b. 0.0136 ␮F to 0.0816 ␮F.
a. 18 V. c. 0.0136 ␮F to 0.1224 ␮F.
b. 12 V. d. 0.0544 pF to 0.1224 pF.
c. 9 V. 22. A two-wire cable has a capacitance of 30 pF per ft.
d. 6 V. What is the capacitance of a 15-ft piece of this cable?
14. The typical capacitance range of available ultraca- a. 2 pF
pacitors is approximately b. 15 pF
a. 1 to 400 pF. c. 30 pF
b. 1 to 400 ␮F. d. 450 pF
c. 1 to 400 nF. 23. The charge and discharge current of a capacitor flows
d. 1 to 400 F. a. through the dielectric.
15. Capacitors are never coded in b. to and from the capacitor plates.
a. nanofarad units. c. through the dielectric only until the capacitor is
b. microfarad units. fully charged.
c. picofarad units. d. straight through the dielectric from one plate to the
d. femtofarad units. other.
16. Which type of capacitor could explode if the polarity 24. Capacitance increases with
of voltage across its plates is incorrect? a. larger plate area and greater distance between the
a. air variable. plates.
b. mica. b. smaller plate area and greater distance between the
c. ceramic disk. plates.
d. aluminum electrolytic. c. larger plate area and less distance between the plates.
17. The voltage rating of a capacitor is not d. higher values of applied voltage.
affected by 25. Two 0.02-␮F, 500-V capacitors in series have an equiv-
a. the area of the plates. alent capacitance and breakdown voltage rating of
b. the distance between the plates. a. 0.04 ␮F, 1 kV.
c. the type of dielectric used. b. 0.01 ␮F, 250 V.
d. both b and c. c. 0.01 ␮F, 500 V.
d. 0.01 ␮F, 1 kV.

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 CHAPTER 15 PROBLEMS

SECTION 15.3 The Farad Unit of Capacitance 15.14 In Fig. 15-16,

15.1 Calculate the amount of charge, Q, stored by a ca- a. how much voltage is across each individual
pacitor if capacitor?
a. C 5 10 ␮F and V 5 5 V. b. how much charge is stored by C1?
b. C 5 680 pF and V 5 200 V. c. how much charge is stored by C2?
d. how much charge is stored by C3?
15.2 How much charge, Q, is stored by a 0.05-␮F
e. what is the total charge stored by all capacitors?
capacitor if the voltage across the plates equals
f. how much is CT?
a. 10 V?
b. 500 V?
15.3 How much voltage exists across the plates of a

200-␮F capacitor if a constant current of 5 mA VA  10 V C1  C2  C3 
charges it for  100 F 220 F 680 F

a. 100 ms?
b. 3 s?
15.4 Determine the voltage, V, across a capacitor if Figure 15-16
a. Q 5 2.5 ␮C and C 5 0.01 ␮F.
b. Q 5 49.5 nC and C 5 330 pF. SECTION 15.9 Series Capacitances
15.5 Determine the capacitance, C, of a capacitor if 15.15 A 0.1-␮F and 0.4-␮F capacitor are in series. How
a. Q 5 15 ␮C and V 5 1 V. much is the equivalent capacitance, CEQ?
b. Q 5 15 ␮C and V 5 30 V. 15.16 A 1500-pF and 0.001-␮F capacitor are in series.
15.6 List the physical factors that affect the capacitance, How much is the equivalent capacitance, CEQ?
C, of a capacitor. 15.17 A 0.082-␮F, 0.047-␮F, and 0.012 ␮F capacitor are in
15.7 Calculate the capacitance, C, of a capacitor for each series. How much is the equivalent capacitance, CEQ?
set of physical characteristics listed. 15.18 In Fig. 15-17, assume a charging current of 180 ␮A
a. A 5 0.1 cm2, d 5 0.005 cm, Ke 5 1. flows for 1 s. Solve for
b. A 5 0.05 cm2, d 5 0.001 cm, Ke 5 500. a. CEQ.
b. the charge stored by C1, C2, and C3.
SECTION 15.6 Ultracapacitors
c. the voltage across C1, C2, and C3.
15.8 Give two other names for an ultracapacitor. d. the total charge stored by all capacitors.
15.9 Ultracapacitors are polarized like electrolytic ca-
pacitors. (True or False)
15.10 The primary disadvantage of an ultracapacitor is
a. low breakdown voltage. C1  10 F

b. low capacitance.
c. very high capacitance.
d. high toxicity. 
VT  36 V C2  30 F

SECTION 15.8 Parallel Capacitances
15.11 A 5-␮F and 15-␮F capacitor are in parallel. How
much is CT? C3  15 F
15.12 A 0.1-␮F, 0.27-␮F, and 0.01-␮F capacitor are in
parallel. How much is CT?
15.13 A 150-pF, 330-pF, and 0.001-␮F capacitor are in
parallel. How much is CT? Figure 15-17

272 Chapter 15

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 Ch a pt er 16
Capacitive Reactance

Learning Outcomes When a capacitor charges and discharges with a

varying voltage applied, alternating current can flow.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Although there cannot be any current through the
Explain how alternating current can flow in a dielectric of the capacitor, its charge and discharge
capacitive circuit. produce alternating current in the circuit connected to
Calculate the reactance of a capacitor when the the capacitor plates. The amount of I that results from
frequency and capacitance are known. the applied sine-wave V depends on the capacitor’s
Calculate the total capacitive reactance of series- capacitive reactance. The symbol for capacitive reac-
connected capacitors. tance is XC , and its unit is the ohm. The X in XC in-
Calculate the equivalent capacitive reactance of dicates reactance, whereas the subscript C specifies
parallel-connected capacitors. capacitive reactance.
Explain how Ohm’s law can be applied to The amount of XC is a V/I ratio, but it can also be
capacitive reactance. calculated as XC 5 1/ (2fC ) in terms of the value
State the phase difference between the voltage of the capacitance and the frequency of the varying
across and current through a capacitor. V and I. With f and C in the units of the hertz and

273

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 farad, XC is in units of ohms. The reciprocal relation more charge and discharge current results either
in 1/(2fC ) means that the ohms of XC decrease with more capacitance or faster changes in the ap-
for higher frequencies and with more C because plied voltage.

16.1 Alternating Current capacitor has less charge and discharge current because of
in a Capacitive Circuit the smaller capacitance, and the light is not so bright. There-
fore, the smaller capacitor has more opposition to alternating
The fact that current flows with ac voltage applied is dem- current as less current flows with the same applied voltage;
onstrated in Fig. 16-1, where the bulb lights in Fig. 16-1a that is, it has more reactance for less capacitance.
and b because of the capacitor charge and discharge cur- In Fig. 16-1c, the steady dc voltage will charge the capaci-
rent. There is no current through the dielectric, which is an tor to 120 V. Because the applied voltage does not change,
insulator. While the capacitor is being charged by increasing though, the capacitor will just stay charged. Since the po-
applied voltage, however, the charging current flows in one tential difference of 120 V across the charged capacitor is
direction in the conductors to the plates. While the capaci- a voltage drop opposing the applied voltage, no current can
tor is discharging, when the applied voltage decreases, the flow. Therefore, the bulb cannot light. The bulb may flicker
discharge current flows in the reverse direction. With alter- on for an instant because charging current flows when volt-
nating voltage applied, the capacitor alternately charges and age is applied, but this current is only temporary until the
discharges. capacitor is charged. Then the capacitor has the applied volt-
First the capacitor is charged in one polarity, and then it age of 120 V, but there is zero voltage across the bulb.
discharges; next the capacitor is charged in the opposite po- As a result, the capacitor is said to block direct current or
larity, and then it discharges again. The cycles of charge and voltage. In other words, after the capacitor has been charged
discharge current provide alternating current in the circuit at by a steady dc voltage, there is no current in the dc circuit.
the same frequency as the applied voltage. This is the current All the applied dc voltage is across the charged capacitor
that lights the bulb. with zero voltage across any series resistance.
In Fig. 16-1a, the 4-F capacitor provides enough alternat- In summary, then, this demonstration shows the follow-
ing current to light the bulb brightly. In Fig. 16-1b, the 1-F ing points:
1. Alternating current flows in a capacitive circuit with ac
C C voltage applied.
4 F 1 F
2. A smaller capacitance allows less current, which
Bright Dim means more XC with more ohms of opposition.
3. Lower frequencies for the applied voltage result in less
V  V 
120 V 120 V current and more XC. With a steady dc voltage source,
60 Hz 60 Hz
  which corresponds to a frequency of zero, the opposi-
15-W tion of the capacitor is infinite and there is no current.
bulb
In this case, the capacitor is effectively an open circuit.
(a ) (b)
These effects have almost unlimited applications in prac-
C
4 F
tical circuits because XC depends on frequency. A very com-
mon use of a capacitor is to provide little opposition for ac
120 V
No voltage but to block any dc voltage. Another example is to
light
use XC for less opposition to a high-frequency alternating
V 
120 Vdc current, compared with lower frequencies.

0 Capacitive Current

(c) The reason that a capacitor allows current to flow in an ac
circuit is the alternate charge and discharge. If we insert an
Figure 16-1 Current in a capacitive circuit. (a) The 4-F ammeter in the circuit, as shown in Fig. 16-2, the ac meter
capacitor allows enough current I to light the bulb brightly.
(b) Less current with a smaller capacitor causes dim light. will read the amount of charge and discharge current. In this
(c) The bulb cannot light with dc voltage applied because a example, IC is 0.12 A. This current is the same in the voltage
capacitor blocks direct current. source, the connecting leads, and the plates of the capacitor.

274 Chapter 16

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 voltage change can produce more charge and discharge
A
current for a given value of capacitance, C. The result
IC  0.12 A is less XC.
V  120
XC 
120 V 0.12 3. The capacitance, C, indicates the physical factors of
60 Hz  1000 
the capacitor that determine how much charge and
discharge current it can produce for a given change in
voltage.
Figure 16-2 Capacitive reactance X C is the ratio VC yI C . 4. Capacitive reactance, XC, is measured in ohms cor-
VC
responding to the __
IC
ratio for sine-wave ac circuits.
However, there is no current through the insulator between The XC value determines how much current C allows
the plates of the capacitor. for a given value of applied voltage.

Values for XC
EXAMPLE 16-1
When we consider the ratio of VCyIC for the ohms of op-
position to the sine-wave current, this value is 120⁄0.12, which How much is XC for (a) 0.1 F of C at 1400 Hz? (b) 1 F of C at the
equals 1000 V. This 1000 V is what we call XC, to indicate same frequency?
how much current can be produced by sine-wave voltage ap- Answer:
plied to a capacitor. In terms of current, XC 5 VCyIC. In terms
a. 1 5 ______________________
XC 5 _____ 1
of frequency and capacitance, XC 5 1y(2fC). 2fC 6.28 3 1400 3 0.1 3 1026
The XC value depends on the amount of capacitance and
1
5 ________________ 5 0.00114 3 106
the frequency of the applied voltage. If C in Fig. 16-2 were 6.28 3 140 3 1026
increased, it could take on more charge for more charging
5 1140 V
current and then produce more discharge current. Then XC is
less for more capacitance. Also, if the frequency in Fig. 16-2 b. At the same frequency, with ten times more C, XC is one-tenth
were increased, the capacitor could charge and discharge or 1140⁄10, which equals 114 V.
faster to produce more current. This action also means that
VC yIC would be less with more current for the same applied
voltage. Therefore, XC is less for higher frequencies. Reac- EXAMPLE 16-2
tance XC can have almost any value from practically zero to
almost infinite ohms. How much is the XC of a 47-pF value of C at (a) 1 MHz? (b) 10 MHz?
Answer:
16.2 The Amount of XC Equals 1/(2␲fC )
a. 1 5 _________________________
XC 5 _____ 1
The effects of frequency and capacitance are included in the 2fC 6.28 3 47 3 10212 3 1 3 106
formula for calculating ohms of reactance. The f is in hertz 1
5 ____________ 5 0.003388 3 106
units and the C is in farads for XC in ohms. As an example, 295.16 3 1026
we can calculate XC for C of 2.65 F and f of 60 Hz. Then 5 3388 V
b. At 10 times the frequency,
1
XC 5 _____ (16-1)
2fC 3388 5 338 V.
XC 5 _____
1 1 10
5 ____________________ 5 ________________
2 3 60 3 2.65 3 1026 6.28 3 159 3 1026
5 0.00100 3 106 Note that XC in Example 16-2b is one-tenth the value in
5 1000 V Example 16-2a because f is 10 times greater.
Note the following factors in the formula XC 5 _____1 .
2fC XC Is Inversely Proportional to Capacitance
1. The constant factor 2 is always 2 3 3.14 5 6.28. It This statement means that XC increases as capacitance is de-
indicates the circular motion from which a sine wave is creased. In Fig. 16-3, when C is reduced by a factor of 1⁄10
1
derived. Therefore, the formula XC 5 ____
2fC
applies only from 1.0 to 0.1 F, then XC increases 10 times from 1000 to
to sine-wave ac circuits. The 2 is actually 2 rad or 10,000 V. Also, decreasing C by one-half from 0.2 to 0.1 F
3608 for a complete circle or cycle. doubles XC from 5000 to 10,000 V.
2. The frequency, f, is a time element. A higher frequency This inverse relation between C and XC is illustrated by the
means that the voltage varies at a faster rate. A faster graph in Fig. 16-3. Note that values of XC increase downward

Capacitive Reactance 275

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 C, F
X C increases as C decreases
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
EX A M P L E 1 6 -3
1
C, F X C*  , What C is needed for XC of 100 V at 3.4 MHz?
2 f C 2000

1.0 1000 4000 Answer:

XC , 
0.5 2000 1
1 5 ____________________
0.2 5000 6000 C 5 ______
0.1 10,000 2f XC 6.28 3 3.4 3 106 3 100
8000 f  159 Hz
*For f  159 Hz 1
10,000 5 ______________
628 3 3.4 3 106
Figure 16-3 A table of values and a graph to show that 5 0.000468 3 1026 F 5 0.000468 F or 468 pF
capacitive reactance XC decreases with higher values of C.
Frequency is constant at 159 Hz. A practical size for this capacitor would be 470 pF. The application
is to have low reactance at the specified frequency of 3.4 MHz.

on the graph, indicating negative reactance that is opposite

from inductive reactance. With C increasing to the right, the Calculating Frequency from the Reactance
decreasing values of XC approach the zero axis of the graph. Another use is to find the frequency at which a capacitor has
XC Is Inversely Proportional to Frequency a specified amount of XC. Again, the reactance formula can
be inverted to the form shown in Formula (16-3).
Figure 16-4 illustrates the inverse relationship between XC
and f. With f increasing to the right in the graph from 0.1 to 1
f 5 _______ (16-3)
2 CXC
1 MHz, the value of XC for the 159-pF capacitor decreases
from 10,000 to 1000 V as the XC curve comes closer to the The following example illustrates the use of this formula.
zero axis.
The graphs are nonlinear because of the inverse relation EXAMPLE 16-4
between XC and f or C. At one end, the curves approach infi-
nitely high reactance for zero capacitance or zero frequency. At what frequency will a 10-F capacitor have XC equal to 100 V?
At the other end, the curves approach zero reactance for in- Answer:
finitely high capacitance or frequency. 1
1 5 _____________________
f 5 ______
2CXC 6.28 3 10 3 1026 3 100
Calculating C from Its Reactance
In some applications, it may be necessary to find the value 1
5 ___________
6280 3 1026
of capacitance required for a desired amount of XC. For this
case, the reactance formula can be inverted to 5 0.000159 3 106

1 5 159 Hz
C 5 ______ (16-2)
2f XC This application is a capacitor for low reactance at audio
The value of 6.28 for 2 is still used. The only change from frequencies.
Formula (16-1) is that the C and XC values are inverted be-
tween denominator and numerator on the left and right sides
of the equation. Summary of XC Formulas
Formula (16-1) is the basic form for calculating XC when f
f, MHz
and C are known values. As another possibility, the value of
X C increases as f decreases
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
XC can be measured as VCyIC.
1 With XC known, the value of C can be calculated for a
f, MHz X C*  ,
2 f C 2000 specified f by Formula (16-2), or f can be calculated with a
1.0 1000 4000 known value of C by using Formula (16-3).
XC , 

0.5 2000
0.2 5000 6000
0.1 10,000
16.3 Series or Parallel Capacitive
*For C  159 pF
8000 C  159 pF Reactances
10,000 Because capacitive reactance is an opposition in ohms, se-
Figure 16-4 A table of values and a graph to show that ries or parallel reactances are combined in the same way as
capacitive reactance XC decreases with higher frequencies. C resistances. As shown in Fig. 16-5a, series capacitive reac-
is constant at 159 pF. tances are added arithmetically.

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 I1A I ⁄
13 A

X C1 
100  V 1  IX C1 X C1 
 331⁄3 V 100 
X C T  300 
V  XC  VT 
100 V 100  100 V
XC 2 
200  V 2  IX C 2 X C2 
 662⁄3 V 200 

(a)
(a ) (b)

IT  11⁄2 A
I1  1 A I2  ⁄
12 A

X CEQ  662⁄3  X C1  XC2 

100  200 
VA  X C1  XC2 
100 V 100  200 

(b)

Figure 16-5 Reactances alone combine like resistances. (c)

(a) Addition of series reactances. (b) Two reactances in
parallel equal their product divided by their sum. Figure 16-6 Example of circuit calculations with XC.
(a) With a single XC, the I 5 VyX C . (b) The sum of series
voltage drops equals the applied voltage VT. (c) The sum of
Series capacitive reactance: parallel branch currents equals total line current I T.
XCT 5 XC1 1 XC2 1 ? ? ? 1 etc. (16-4)
the voltage across each reactance is equal to its IXC prod-
For parallel reactances, the combined reactance is calcu- uct. The sum of these series voltage drops equals the ap-
lated by the reciprocal formula, as shown in Fig. 16-5b. plied voltage.
Parallel capacitive reactance: For the parallel circuit in Fig. 16-6c, each parallel re-
1 actance has its individual branch current, equal to the ap-
XC EQ 5 _________________________ (16-5)
1 1 ___
___ 1  1 ___
1  1 ? ? ? 1 etc. plied voltage divided by the branch reactance. The applied
XC1 XC2 XC3 voltage is the same across both reactances, since all are
In Fig. 16-5b, the parallel combination of 100 and 200 V in parallel. In addition, the total line current of 1½ A is
is 66 2⁄3 V for XC . The combined parallel reactance is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents of 1 and
EQ

less than the lowest branch reactance. Any shortcuts for ½ A each. Because the applied voltage is an rms value, all
combining parallel resistances also apply to parallel calculated currents and voltage drops in Fig. 16-6 are also
reactances. rms values.
Combining capacitive reactances is opposite to the way
capacitances are combined. The two procedures are com-
16.5 Sine-Wave Charge
patible, however, because capacitive reactance is inversely and Discharge Current
proportional to capacitance. The general case is that ohms In Fig. 16-7, sine-wave voltage applied across a capacitor pro-
of opposition add in series but combine by the reciprocal duces alternating charge and discharge current. The action is
formula in parallel. considered for each quarter-cycle. Note that the voltage vC
across the capacitor is the same as the applied voltage vA at
16.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC all times because they are in parallel. The values of current
The current in an ac circuit with XC alone is equal to the i, however, depend on the charge and discharge of C. When
applied voltage divided by the ohms of XC. Three examples vA is increasing, it charges C to keep vC at the same voltage
with XC are illustrated in Fig. 16-6. In Fig. 16-6a, there is just as vA; when vA is decreasing, C discharges to maintain vC at
one reactance of 100 V. The current I then is equal to VyXC, the same voltage as vA. When vA is not changing, there is no
or 100 Vy100 V, which is 1 A. charge or discharge current.
For the series circuit in Fig. 16-6b, the total reactance, During the first quarter-cycle in Fig. 16-7a, vA is positive
equal to the sum of the series reactances, is 300 V. Then the and increasing, charging C in the polarity shown. The elec-
current is 100 V/300 V, which equals 1⁄3 A. Furthermore, tron flow is from the negative terminal of the source voltage,

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 the source and back to the positive plate. Note that the direc-
tion of discharge current in Fig. 16-7b is opposite that of the
 vA  vA charge current in Fig. 16-7a.
 
vA  vC C vA  vC C For the third quarter-cycle in Fig. 16-7c, the applied volt-

age vA increases again but in the negative direction. Now
i i C charges again but in reversed polarity. Here the charging
current is in the direction opposite from the charge current in
(a) (b) Fig. 16-7a but in the same direction as the discharge current
in Fig. 16-7b. Finally, the negative applied voltage decreases
during the final quarter-cycle in Fig. 16-7d. As a result, C
i i
discharges. This discharge current is opposite to the charge

current in Fig. 16-7c but in the same direction as the charge
vA  vC C vA  vC C
 
current in Fig. 16-7a.
 vA  vA For the sine wave of applied voltage, therefore, the
capacitor provides a cycle of alternating charge and dis-
charge current. Notice that capacitive current flows for
(c) (d ) either charge or discharge, whenever the voltage changes,
Figure 16-7 Capacitive charge and discharge currents. for either an increase or a decrease. Also, i and v have the
(a) Voltage vA increases positive to charge C. (b) The C same frequency.
discharges as vA decreases. (c) Voltage vA increases negative Figure 16-8a shows a sine wave of voltage vC across a
to charge C in opposite polarity. (d ) The C discharges as 240-pF capacitance C. The capacitive current iC depends
reversed vA decreases. on the rate of change of voltage, rather than on the absolute
value of v. The rate of voltage change is greatest at the zero-
producing charging current in the direction indicated by the crossing points and produces the peak amount of current.
arrow for i. Next, when the applied voltage decreases during The rate of voltage change is least at the voltage peaks, both
the second quarter-cycle, vC also decreases by discharging. positive and negative, therefore producing zero current.
The discharge current is from the negative plate of C through Figure 16-8b shows the actual capacitive current iC.

100
80
 Sine wave of v
60
40
20
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Volts 0
20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
s s s s s s s s s s s s
40
60

80
100

(a )

6

4 dv
iC  C  Cosine wave
2 dt

iC , mA 0
2
4

6

(b)

Figure 16-8 Waveshapes of capacitive circuits. (a) Waveshape of sine-wave voltage

at top. (b) Changes in voltage cause current iC charge and discharge waveshape.

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 908 Phase Angle makes iC a cosine wave. More details of this 908 phase angle
The iC curve at the bottom of Fig. 16-8 has its zero values for capacitance are explained in the next chapter.
when the vC curve at the top is at maximum. The maximum For each of the curves, the period T is 24 s. Therefore,
current values appear at the zero-voltage points. This com- the frequency is 1/T or 1 ⁄24, which equals 41.67 kHz. Each
parison shows that the curves are 908 out of phase with one curve has the same frequency, although there is a 908 phase
another. Since the voltage is a sine wave, the 90º difference difference between i and v.

CHAPTER 16 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The capacitive reactance, XC, of a capacitor is 8. What is the instantaneous value of charging current,
a. inversely proportional to frequency. iC, of a 10-F capacitor if the voltage across the
b. unaffected by frequency. capacitor plates changes at the rate of 250 V per
c. directly proportional to frequency. second?
d. directly proportional to capacitance. a. 250 A.
2. The charge and discharge current of a capacitor flows b. 2.5 A.
a. through the dielectric. c. 2.5 A.
b. only when a dc voltage is applied. d. 2.5 mA.
c. to and from the plates. 9. For a capacitor, the charge and discharge current, iC,
d. both a and b. a. lags the capacitor voltage, vC, by a phase angle of
3. For direct current (dc), a capacitor acts like a(n) 908.
a. closed switch. b. leads the capacitor voltage, vC, by a phase angle
b. open. of 908.
c. short. c. is in phase with the capacitor voltage, vC.
d. small resistance. d. none of the above.
4. At the same frequency, a larger capacitance provides 10. Two 1-kV XC values in series have a total capacitive
a. more charge and discharge current. reactance of
b. less charge and discharge current. a. 1.414 kV.
c. less capacitive reactance, XC. b. 500 V.
d. both a and c. c. 2 kV.
d. 707 V.
5. How much is the capacitance, C, of a capacitor that
draws 4.8 mA of current from a 12-Vac generator? 11. Two 5-kV XC values in parallel have an equivalent ca-
The frequency of the ac generator is 636.6 Hz. pacitive reactance of
a. 0.01 F. a. 7.07 kV.
b. 0.1 F. b. 2.5 kV.
c. 0.001 F. c. 10 kV.
d. 100 pF. d. 3.53 kV.
6. At what frequency does a 0.015-F capacitor have an 12. For any capacitor,
XC value of 2 kV? a. the stored charge increases with more capacitor
a. 5.3 MHz. voltage.
b. 5.3 Hz. b. the charge and discharge currents are in opposite
c. 5.3 kHz. directions.
d. 106 kHz. c. iC leads vC by 908.
d. all of the above.
7. What is the capacitive reactance, XC, of a 330-pF
capacitor at a frequency of 1 MHz? 13. The unit of capacitive reactance, XC, is the
a. 482 V. a. ohm.
b. 48.2 V. b. farad.
c. 1 kV. c. hertz.
d. 482 MV. d. radian.

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 14. The main difference between resistance, R, and ca- 15. A very common use for a capacitor is to
pacitive reactance, XC, is that a. block any dc voltage but provide very little
a. XC is the same for both dc and ac, whereas R opposition to an ac voltage.
depends on frequency. b. block both dc and ac voltages.
b. R is the same for both dc and ac, whereas XC c. pass both dc and ac voltages.
depends on frequency. d. none of the above.
c. R is measured in ohms and XC is measured in farads.
d. none of the above.

CHAPTER 16 PROBLEMS

SECTION 16.1 Alternating Current in a 16.4 In Fig. 16-11, calculate the capacitive reactance, XC,
Capacitive Circuit for the following values of Vac and I ?
16.1 With the switch, S1, closed in Fig. 16-9, how much is a. Vac 5 10 V and I 5 20 mA.
a. the current, I, in the circuit? b. Vac 5 24 V and I 5 8 mA.
b. the dc voltage across the 12–V lamp? c. Vac 5 15 V and I 5 300 A.
c. the dc voltage across the capacitor? d. Vac 5 100 V and I 5 50 A.

C1  100 F 

mA


VT  12 V 12-V lamp Vac C

S1
Figure 16-11
Figure 16-9
16.5 In Fig. 16-11, list three factors that can affect the
16.2 In Fig. 16-9 explain why the bulb will light for just
amount of charge and discharge current flowing in
an instant when S1 is initially closed.
the circuit.
16.3 In Fig. 16-10, the capacitor and the lightbulb draw
400 mA from the 120-Vac source. How much cur- SECTION 16.2 The Amount of XC Equals 1/(2fC)
rent flows 16.6 Calculate the capacitive reactance, XC, of a 0.1-F
a. to and from the terminals of the 120-Vac source? capacitor at the following frequencies:
b. through the lightbulb? a. f 5 50 Hz.
c. to and from the plates of the capacitor? b. f 5 10 kHz.
d. through the connecting wires? 16.7 Calculate the capacitive reactance, XC, of a 10-pF
e. through the dielectric of the capacitor? capacitor at the following frequencies:
C1  10 F a. f 5 60 Hz.
b. f 5 2.4 GHz.
16.8 What value of capacitance will provide an XC of
1 kV at the following frequencies?
V  120 Vac a. f 5 318.3 Hz.
Lightbulb
f  60 Hz b. f 5 433 MHz.
16.9 At what frequency will a 0.047-F capacitor
  400 mA
provide an XC value of
a. 100 kV?
Figure 16-10 b. 50 V?

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 16.10 How much is the capacitance of a capacitor that 16.18 What is the equivalent capacitive reactance, XCEQ,for
draws 2 mA of current from a 10-Vac generator the following parallel capacitive reactances:
whose frequency is 3.183 kHz? a. XC1 5 100 V and XC2 5 400 V.
16.11 At what frequency will a 820-pF capacitance have b. XC 5 1.2 kV and XC2 5 1.8 kV.
1

an XC value of 250 V? SECTION 16.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC

16.12 A 0.01-F capacitor draws 50 mA of current when 16.19 In Fig. 16-12, calculate the current, I.
connected directly across a 50-Vac source. What is
the value of current drawn by the capacitor when
a. the frequency is doubled?
b. the frequency is decreased by one-half?
c. the capacitance is doubled to 0.02 F?
d. the capacitance is reduced by one–half VA  75 Vac XC  1.5 k
to 0.005 F?
16.13 A capacitor has an XC value of 10 kV at a given 
frequency. What is the new value of XC when the
frequency is
a. cut in half? Figure 16-12
b. doubled?
c. quadrupled?
16.20 In Fig. 16-12, what happens to the current, I, when
d. increased by a factor of 10?
the frequency of the applied voltage
16.14 Calculate the capacitive reactance, XC, for the fol- a. decreases?
lowing capacitance and frequency values: b. increases?
a. C 5 0.47 F, f 5 1 kHz.
16.21 In Fig. 16-13, solve for C1, C2, C3, and CT if the fre-
b. C 5 250 pF, f 5 1 MHz.
quency of the applied voltage is 6.366 kHz.
16.15 Determine the capacitance value for the following
frequency and XC values:
a. XC 5 1 kV, f 5 3.183 kHz.
b. XC 5 200 V, f 5 63.66 kHz.
16.16 Determine the frequency for the following capaci-
VA  XC3 
tance and XC values: XC1  120  XC2  60 
120 Vac 40 
a. C 5 0.05 F, XC 5 4 kV.
b. C 5 0.1 F, XC 5 1.591 kV.
SECTION 16.3 Series or Parallel Capacitive
Reactances Figure 16-13
16.17 How much is the total capacitive reactance, XC ,for
T

the following series capacitive reactances:

a. XC1 5 1 kV, XC2 5 1.5 kV, XC3 5 2.5 kV.
b. XC1 5 500 V, XC2 5 1 kV, XC 5 1.5 kV.
3

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 Ch a pt er 17
Capacitive Circuits

This chapter analyzes circuits that combine capacitive Learning Outcomes

reactance XC and resistance R. The main questions
are, How do we combine the ohms of opposition, how After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
much current flows, and what is the phase angle? Al- Explain why the current leads the voltage by 908
though both XC and R are measured in ohms, they for a capacitor.
have different characteristics. Specifically, XC decreases Define the term impedance.
with more C and higher frequencies for sine-wave ac Calculate the total impedance and phase angle of a
voltage applied, whereas R is the same for dc and ac series RC circuit.
circuits. Furthermore, the phase angle for the voltage Describe the operation and application of an RC
across XC is at 2908 measured in the clockwise direc- phase-shifter circuit.
tion with iC as the reference at 08. Calculate the total current, equivalent impedance,
In addition, the practical application of a coupling ca- and phase angle of a parallel RC circuit.
pacitor shows how a low value of XC can be used to Explain how a capacitor can couple some ac
pass the desired ac signal variations while blocking the frequencies but not others.
steady dc level of a fluctuating dc voltage. In a coupling Calculate the individual capacitor voltage drops
circuit with C and R in series, the ac component is for capacitors in series.

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 across R for the output voltage, but the dc component changes is shown with nonsinusoidal voltage variations.
across C is not present across the output terminals. In this case, we compare the waveshapes of vC and iC.
Finally, the general case of capacitive charge and Remember that the 2908 angle for an IXC voltage ap-
discharge current produced when the applied voltage plies only to sine waves.

17.1 Sine Wave vC Lags i C by 908 changing its direction. Then v is not changing and C is not
charging or discharging. The result is zero current at this time.
For a sine wave of applied voltage, a capacitor provides a
Also note that iC is maximum when vC is zero. When vC
cycle of alternating charge and discharge current, as shown
crosses the zero axis, iC has its maximum value because then
in Fig. 17-1a. In Fig. 17-1b, the waveshape of this charge and
the voltage is changing most rapidly.
discharge current iC is compared with the voltage vC.
Therefore, iC and vC are 908 out of phase, since the maxi-
Examining the vC and i C Waveforms mum value of one corresponds to the zero value of the other;
In Fig. 17-1b, note that the instantaneous value of iC is zero iC leads vC because iC has its maximum value a quarter-cycle
when vC is at its maximum value. At either its positive or its before the time that vC reaches its peak. The phasors in
negative peak, vC is not changing. For one instant at both Fig. 17-1c show iC leading vC by the counterclockwise angle
peaks, therefore, the voltage must have a static value before of 908. Here vC is the horizontal phasor for the reference
angle of 08. In Fig. 17-1d, however, the current iC is the hori-
zontal phasor for reference. Since iC must be 908 leading, vC
iC is shown lagging by the clockwise angle of 2908. In series
circuits, the current iC is the reference, and then the voltage
vC can be considered to lag iC by 908.
vA C vC
Why i C Leads vC by 908
The 908 phase angle results because iC depends on the rate of
iC change of vC. In other words, iC has the phase of dv/dt, not the
phase of v. As shown previously in Fig. 16-8 for a sine wave
(a) of vC, the capacitive charge and discharge current is a cosine
wave. This 908 phase between vC and iC is true in any sine-
vC wave ac circuit, whether C is in series or parallel and whether
C is alone or combined with other components. We can always
say that for any XC, its current and voltage are 908 out of phase.
Amplitude

0 Capacitive Current Is the Same

iC Time
in a Series Circuit
The leading phase angle of capacitive current is only with
respect to the voltage across the capacitor, which does not
(b) change the fact that the current is the same in all parts of a
series circuit. In Fig. 17-1a, for instance, the current in the
iC
generator, the connecting wires, and both plates of the capac-
90
iC itor must be the same because they are all in the same path.
90
Capacitive Voltage Is the Same across
vC
vC
Parallel Branches
(c) (d) In Fig. 17-1a, the voltage is the same across the generator
and C because they are in parallel. There cannot be any lag
Figure 17-1 Capacitive current i C leads vC by 908. or lead in time between these two parallel voltages. At any
(a) Circuit with sine wave vA across C. (b) Waveshapes of
instant, whatever the voltage value is across the generator
i C 908 ahead of vC . (c) Phasor diagram of i C leading the
horizontal reference vC by a counterclockwise angle of 908. at that time, the voltage across C is the same. With respect
(d ) Phasor diagram with i C as the reference phasor to show to the series current, however, both vA and vC are 908 out of
vC lagging i C by an angle of 2908. phase with iC.

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 The Frequency Is the Same for vC and i C Note the following points about a circuit that combines
Although vC lags iC by 908, both waves have the same fre- both XC and R in series, like that in Fig. 17-2a.
quency. For example, if the frequency of the sine wave vC in 1. The current is labeled I, rather than IC, because I flows
Fig. 17-1b is 100 Hz, this is also the frequency of iC. through all series components.
2. The voltage across XC, labeled VC, can be considered an
17.2 X C and R in Series
IXC voltage drop, just as we use VR for an IR voltage drop.
When a capacitor and a resistor are connected in series, as
3. The current I through XC must lead VC by 908 because
in Fig. 17-2a, the current I is limited by both XC and R. The
this is the phase angle between the voltage and current
current I is the same in both XC and R since they are in se-
for a capacitor.
ries. However, each component has its own series voltage
drop, equal to IR for the resistance and IXC for the capacitive 4. The current I through R and its IR voltage drop are in
reactance. phase. There is no reactance to sine-wave alternating
current in any resistance. Therefore, I and IR have a
phase angle of 08.
V R  100 V
R  100 
It is important to note that the values of I and V may be
in rms, peak, peak to peak, or instantaneous, as long as the
I1A
same measure is applied to the entire circuit. Peak values
will be used here for convenience in comparing waveforms.
VT  XC  VC 
141 V 100  100 V
Phase Comparisons
Note the following points about a circuit containing series
resistance and reactance:
(a)
1. The voltage VC is 908 out of phase with I.
1
2. However, VR and I are in phase.
360
3. Since I is common to all circuit components and the
I voltage source, it is commonly used as the reference in
90 180 270
phasor diagrams of series RC circuits.
1 4. If I is used as the reference, VC is 908 out of phase with VR.
100
Specifically, VC lags VR by 908 just as the voltage VC lags
180 360 the current I by 908. The phase relationships between I, VR, VC,
VR
90 270 and VT are shown by the waveforms in Fig. 17-2b. Figure 17-2c
shows the phasors representing I, VR, and VC.
100
100 Combining VR and VC
90 270
As shown in Fig. 17-2b, when the voltage wave VR is com-
VC bined with the voltage wave VC, the result is the voltage wave
180 360
of the applied voltage VT. The instantaneous values of the ca-
100 pacitor and resistor voltage drops are added together at each
141 point along the horizontal time axis. The voltage drops, VR
100 I VR and VC, must add to equal the applied voltage VT. The 100-V
peak values for VR and VC total 141 V, however, instead of
90
VT
200 V, because of the 908 phase difference.
90 180 270 360
Consider some instantaneous values in Fig. 17-2b, to see
why the 100-V peak VR and 100-V peak VC cannot be added
100
arithmetically. When VR is at its maximum of 100 V, for in-
141 VC
stance, VC is at zero. The total voltage VT at this instant, then,
(b) (c) is 100 V. Similarly, when VC is at its maximum of 100 V, VR
Figure 17-2 Circuit with XC and R in series. (a) Schematic is at zero and the total voltage VT is again 100 V.
diagram. (b) Waveforms of current and voltages. (c) Phasor Actually, VT reaches its maximum of 141 V when VC and
diagram. VR are each at 70.7 V. When series voltage drops that are

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 VR  IR VR  IR
VR  100 V VR  100 V
17.3 Impedance Z Triangle
  45 A triangle of R and XC in series corresponds to the volt-
90 90
age triangle, as shown in Fig.  17-4. It is similar to the
VC  IXC V T  √ V R2  V C2 VC  IXC
VC  100 V
voltage triangle in Fig. 17-3b, but the common factor I
V T  141 V VC  100 V
cancels because the series current I is the same in XC and
R. The resultant of the phasor addition of XC and R is
their total opposition in ohms, called impedance, with the
(a) (b) symbol ZT. The Z takes into account the 908 phase relation
Figure 17-3 Addition of two voltages 908 out of phase. between R and XC.
(a) Phasors for vC and vR are 908 out of phase. (b) Resultant of For the impedance triangle of a series circuit with capaci-
the two phasors is the hypotenuse of the right triangle for v T. tive reactance XC and resistance R,
________
2
ZT 5 ÏR 1 X C2 (17-2)
out of phase are combined, therefore, they cannot be added
without taking the phase difference into account. where R, XC, and ZT are all in ohms. For the phasor triangle
in Fig. 17-4,
____________ ________________
Phasor Voltage Triangle
ZT 5 Ï 1002 1 1002 5 Ï 10,000 1 10,000
Instead of combining waveforms that are out of phase, as _______
5 Ï 20,000
in Fig. 17-2b, we can add them more quickly by using their
equivalent phasors, as shown in Fig. 17-3. The phasors in 5 141 V
Fig. 17-3a show the 908 phase angle without any addition. This is the total impedance Z T in Fig. 17-2a.
The method in Fig. 17-3b is to add the tail of one phasor Note that the applied voltage VT of 141 V divided by the
to the arrowhead of the other, using the angle required total impedance of 141  V results in 1 A of current in the
to show their relative phase. Note that voltages VR and VC series circuit. The IR voltage VR is 1 A 3 100 V or 100 V;
are at right angles to each other because they are 908 out the IXC voltage is also 1 A 3 100 V or 100 V. The series IR
of phase. Note also that the phasor for VC is downward at and IXC voltage drops of 100 V each are added using phasors
an angle of 2908 from the phasor for VR. Here VR is used to equal the applied voltage VT of 141 V. Finally, the applied
as the reference phasor because it has the same phase as voltage equals IZT or 1 A 3 141 V, which is 141 V.
the series current I, which is the same everywhere in the Summarizing the similar phasor triangles for voltage and
circuit. The phasor VT, extending from the tail of the VR ohms in a series RC circuit,
phasor to the arrowhead of the VC phasor, represents the
applied voltage VT, which is the phasor sum of VR and VC. 1. The phasor for R, IR, or VR is used as a reference at 08.
Since VR and VC form a right angle, the resultant phasor VT 2. The phasor for XC, IXC, or VC is at 2908.
is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The hypotenuse is the 3. The phasor for ZT, IZT, or VT has the phase angle  of the
side opposite the 908 angle. complete circuit.
From the geometry of a right triangle, the Pythagorean
Phase Angle with Series XC and R
theorem states that the hypotenuse is equal to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the sides. For the voltage tri- The angle between the applied voltage VT and the series cur-
angle in Fig. 17-3b, therefore, the resultant is rent I is the phase angle of the circuit. Its symbol is  (theta).
_________
2 2
In Fig. 17-3b, the phase angle between VT and IR is 2458.
VT 5 ÏVR 1 VC (17-1) Since IR and I have the same phase, the angle is also 2458
where VT is the phasor sum of the two voltages VR and VC 908 between VT and I.
out of phase.
This formula is for VR and VC when they are in series,
R  100 
since they are 908 out of phase. All voltages must be ex-
  45
pressed in the same units. When VT is an rms value, VR 90
and VC must also be rms values. For the voltage triangle in Z T  √ R 2  X C2 X C  100 
Fig. 17-3b, Z T  141 

____________ ________________
VT 5 Ï 1002 1 1002 5 Ï 10,000 1 10,000
_______
5 Ï 20,000
Figure 17-4 Addition of R and XC 908 out of phase in a
5 141 V series RC circuit to find the total impedance ZT.

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 In the corresponding impedance triangle in Fig. 17-4, the
Table 17-1 Series R and XC Combinations
angle between ZT and R is also equal to the phase angle.
Therefore, the phase angle can be calculated from the im- Z T, V Phase
pedance triangle of a series RC circuit by the formula R, V Xc , V (Approx.) Angle ␪Z
XC ____
tan Z 5 2_ R (17-3) 1 10 Ï 101 5 10 284.38
____
The tangent (tan) is a trigonometric function of an angle, 10 10 Ï 200 5 14 2458
____
equal to the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side of 10 1 Ï 101 5 10 25.78
a triangle. In this impedance triangle, XC is the opposite side
Note: Z is the phase angle of ZT or VT with respect to the reference phasor I in
and R is the adjacent side of the angle. We use the subscript series circuits.
Z for  to show that Z is found from the impedance triangle
for a series circuit. To calculate this phase angle,
XC 100 Series Combinations of XC and R
tan Z 5 2_ _
R 5 2 100 5 21 In series, the higher the XC compared with R, the more ca-
The angle that has the tangent value of 21 is 2458 in this pacitive the circuit. There is more voltage drop across the
example. The numerical values of the trigonometric func- capacitive reactance XC, and the phase angle increases to-
tions can be found by using a scientific calculator. The math- ward 90. The series XC always makes the series current I
ematical expression for this is lead the applied voltage VT. With all XC and no R, the entire
 5 tan21 _C
X
R ( ) applied voltage VT is across XC and  equals 90.
Several combinations of XC and R in series are listed in
The term tan 21 is also called the inverse tangent, or arc- Table 17-1 with their resultant impedance values and phase
tangent (arctan). Note that the phase angle of 2458 is half- angle. Note that a ratio of 10:1, or more, for XC 冒R means that
way between 08 and 2908 because R and XC are equal. the circuit is practically all capacitive. The phase angle of
84.3 is almost 90, and the total impedance ZT is ap-
E X A M P L E 1 7- 1 proximately equal to XC. The voltage drop across XC in the
series circuit is then practically equal to the applied voltage
If a 30-V R and a 40-V XC are in series with 100 V applied, VT with almost none across R.
find the following: Z T , I, VR, VC, and Z . What is the phase angle At the opposite extreme, when R is 10 times more than
between VC and VR with respect to I? Prove that the sum of the
series voltage drops equals the applied voltage VT.
XC , the series circuit is mainly resistive. The phase angle of
5.7 then means that the current is almost in phase with
Answer: ________ _________
the applied voltage VT; ZT is approximately equal to R, and
Z T  Ï R2  X 2C  Ï 302  402
___________ the voltage  drop across R is practically equal to the ap-
 Ï 900  1600 plied voltage VT with almost none across XC. In summary,
_____
 Ï 2500 if the resistive voltage drop is greater than the capacitive
voltage drop, the circuit is resistive. If the capacitive volt-
 50 
age drop is greater than the resistive voltage, the circuit is
V 100 V  2 A
I  _T  __ capacitive.
ZT 50  When XC and R equal each other, the resultant impedance
VR  IR  2 A  30   60 V ZT is 1.41 times either one. The phase angle then is 45,
VC  IXC  2 A  40   80 V halfway between 0 for resistance alone and 90 for ca-
XC 40 pacitive reactance alone.
_
tan Z  _
R   30  1.333
Z  53.1
17.4 RC Phase-Shifter Circuit
Therefore, VT lags I by 53.1. Furthermore, I and VR are in phase,
Figure 17-5 shows an application of XC and R in series to
and VC lags I by 90. Finally, provide a desired phase shift in the output VR compared with
_________ __________ _____________ the input VT. The R can be varied up to 100 k to change the
VT  Ï V R  V C  Ï 60  80  Ï 3600  6400
2 2 2 2

_______ phase angle. The C is 0.05 F here for the 60-Hz ac power-
 Ï 10,000 line voltage, but a smaller C would be used for a higher
 100 V frequency. The capacitor must have an appreciable value of
Note that the phasor sum of the voltage drops equals the applied reactance for the phase shift.
voltage VT. For the circuit in Fig. 17-5a, assume that R is set for 50 k
at its middle value. The reactance of the 0.05-F capacitor

286 Chapter 17

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 semiconductors in power-control circuits. In this case, the
output voltage is taken across the capacitor C. This provides
C  0.05 F
X C  53 k
C a lagging phase angle with respect to the input voltage VT. As
R is varied from 0  to 100 k, the phase angle between VC
V T  120 V,
Input
60 Hz and VT decreases from 0 to about 62. If R were changed
V R  IR
so that it varied from 0 to 1 M, the phase angle between VC
R  0–100 k
(Set for 50 k)
output and VT would vary between 0 and 90 approximately. If
the positions of the resistor and capacitor in Fig. 17-5a are re-
versed, the current and voltage drops will remain the same.
(a)
However, the output is now taken from across the capacitor.
I For this reason, the output voltage will lag the input voltage.
You can see this in Fig. 17-5c. The input is VT, but the output
is VC rather than VR. A negative angle means a lagging phase
IR shift on the output.

R
V

V R  IR I 46.7

46.7 43.3
VT
17.5 X C and R in Parallel
VT
VC VC For parallel circuits with XC and R, the 90 phase angle must
be considered for each of the branch currents. Remember
that any series circuit has different voltage drops but one
(b) (c) common current. A parallel circuit has different branch cur-
rents but one common voltage.
Figure 17-5 An RC phase-shifter circuit. (a) Schematic In the parallel circuit in Fig. 17-6a, the applied voltage VA
diagram. (b) Phasor triangle with IR, or VR, as the horizontal
is the same across XC, R, and the generator, since they are all
reference. VR leads VT by 46.78 with R set at 50 kV.
(c) Phasors shown with VT as the horizontal reference. in parallel. There cannot be any phase difference between
these voltages. Each branch, however, has its own individual
current. For the resistive branch, IR  VA 兾R; for the capaci-
at 60 Hz is approximately 53 k. For these values of XC and tive branch, IC  VA 兾XC .
R, the phase angle of the circuit is 46.7. This angle has a The resistive branch current IR is in phase with the gen-
tangent of 53⁄50  1.06. erator voltage VA. The capacitive branch current IC leads VA,
The phasor triangle in Fig. 17-5b shows that IR or VR is out however, because the charge and discharge current of a ca-
of phase with VT by the leading angle of 46.7. Note that VC is pacitor leads the capacitor voltage by 90. The waveforms
always 90 lagging VR in a series circuit. The angle between for VA, IR, IC, and IT in Fig. 17-6a are shown in Fig. 17-6b.
VC and VT then becomes 90  46.7  43.3. The individual branch currents IR and IC must add to equal
This circuit provides a phase-shifted voltage VR at the out- the total current IT. The 10-A peak values for IR and IC total
put with respect to the input. For this reason, the phasors are 14.14 A, however, instead of 20 A, because of the 90 phase
redrawn in Fig. 17-5c to show the voltages with the input VT difference.
as the horizontal reference. The conclusion, then, is that the Consider some instantaneous values in Fig. 17-6b to see
output voltage across R leads the input VT by 46.7, whereas why the 10-A peak for IR and 10-A peak for IC cannot be
VC lags VT by 43.3. added arithmetically. When IC is at its maximum of 10 A,
Now let R be varied for a higher value at 90 k, while XC for instance, IR is at zero. The total for IT at this instant
stays the same. The phase angle becomes 30.5. This angle then is 10 A. Similarly, when IR is at its maximum of 10 A,
has a tangent of 53⁄90  0.59. As a result, VR leads VT by IC is at zero and the total current IT at this instant is also
30.5, and VC lags VT by 59.5. 10 A.
For the opposite case, let R be reduced to 10 k. Then Actually, IT has its maximum of 14.14 A when IR and IC
the phase angle becomes 79.3. This angle has the tangent are each 7.07 A. When branch currents that are out of phase
53⁄10  5.3. Then VR leads VT by 79.3 and VC lags VT by are combined, therefore, they cannot be added without tak-
10.7. Notice that the phase angle between VR and VT be- ing the phase difference into account.
comes larger as the series circuit becomes more capacitive Figure 17-6c shows the phasors representing VA, IR, and
with less resistance. IC. Notice that IC leads VA and IR by 90. In this case, the ap-
A practical application for this circuit is providing a plied voltage VA is used as the reference phasor since it is the
voltage of variable phase to set the conduction time of same across both branches.

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 IT  14.14 A IR  10 A IC  10 A

IT  √ IR2  IC2 IC  10 A
VA  100 V R  10  XC  10 
IT  14.14 A

90
  45
IR  10 A
(a)

100 Figure 17-7 Phasor triangle of capacitive and resistive

branch currents 908 out of phase in a parallel circuit to find
the resultant I T.
180 360
VA
90 270

squares of the sides. For the current triangle in Fig.  17-7

100
10
therefore, the resultant I T is
_______
IT  ÏIR  IC
2 2
(17-4)
180 360
IR
90 270 For the values in Fig. 17-6,
__________ ___________
10 I T  Ï 102  102  Ï 100  100
____
10  Ï 200
90  14.14 A
IC
180 270 360
Impedance of X C and R in Parallel
10 A practical approach to the problem of calculating the total
14 or equivalent impedance of XC and R in parallel is to calcu-
IC late the total line current IT and divide the applied voltage VA
10
by this value.
IT
V
90 180 270 360 ZEQ  _A (17-5)
IT
10 90 For the circuit in Fig. 17-6a, VA is 100 V, and the total cur-
rent IT, obtained as the phasor sum of IR and IC , is 14.14 A.
14 VA IR
Therefore, we can calculate the equivalent impedance
(b) (c)
Z EQ as
Figure 17-6 Capacitive reactance XC and R in parallel. V 100 V
(a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms of the applied voltage VA, branch ZEQ  _A  __
IT 14.14 A
currents I R and I C, and total current I T. (c) Phasor diagram.
 7.07 
This impedance, the combined opposition in ohms across
Phasor Current Triangle the generator, is equal to the 10- resistance in parallel with
Figure 17-7 shows the phasor current triangle for the parallel the 10- XC.
RC circuit in Fig. 17-6a. Note that the resistive branch cur- Note that the impedance Z EQ for equal values of R and XC
rent IR is used as the reference phasor since VA and IR are in in parallel is not one-half but instead equals 70.7% of either
phase. The capacitive branch current IC is drawn upward at one. Still, the value of Z EQ will always be less than the lowest
an angle of 90 since IC leads VA and thus IR by 90. The ohm value in the parallel branches.
sum of the IR and IC phasors is indicated by the phasor for For the general case of calculating the Z EQ of XC and
IT, which connects the tail of the IR phasor to the tip of the IC R in parallel, any number can be assumed for the ap-
phasor. The IT phasor is the hypotenuse of the right triangle. plied voltage VA because, in the calculations for Z EQ in
The phase angle between IT and IR represents the phase angle terms of the branch currents, the value of VA cancels. A
of the circuit. Peak values are shown here for convenience, good value to assume for VA is the value of either R or
but rms and peak-to-peak values could also be used. XC , whichever is the larger number. This way, there are
Using the Pythagorean theorem, the total current I T could no fractions smaller than that in the calculation of the
be calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the branch currents.

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 Table 17-2 Parallel Resistance and Capacitance Combinations*

I T, A ZEQ , V Phase
R, V Xc , V IR , A IC , A (Approx.) (Approx.) Angle ␪I
____
1 10 10 1 √ 101 5 10 1 5.78
__
10 10 1 1 √ 2 5 1.4 7.07 458
____
10 1 1 10 √ 101 5 10 1 84.38

* VA 5 10 V. Note that I is the phase angle of /T with respect to the reference VA in parallel circuits.

Phase Angle in Parallel Circuits Parallel Combinations of XC and R

In Fig. 17-7, the phase angle  is 45 because R and XC are equal, In Table 17-2, when XC is 10 times R, the parallel circuit is
resulting in equal branch currents. The phase angle is between practically resistive because there is little leading capacitive
the total current IT and the generator voltage VA. However, VA current in the main line. The small value of IC results from
and IR are in phase. Therefore  is also between IT and IR. the high reactance of shunt XC. Then the total impedance of
Using the tangent formula to find  from the current tri- the parallel circuit is approximately equal to the resistance,
angle in Fig. 17-7 gives since the high value of XC in a parallel branch has little ef-
I fect. The phase angle of 5.7 is practically 0 because almost
tan I  _C (17-6) all of the line current is resistive.
IR
The phase angle is positive because the IC phasor is up- As XC becomes smaller, it provides more leading ca-
ward, leading VA by 90. This direction is opposite from the pacitive current in the main line. When XC is 1 ⁄10 R, practi-
lagging phasor of series XC. The effect of XC is no different, cally all of the line current is the IC component. Then the
however. Only the reference is changed for the phase angle. parallel circuit is practically all capacitive with a total im-
Note that the phasor triangle of branch currents for par- pedance practically equal to XC. The phase angle of 84.3
allel circuits gives I as the angle of IT with respect to the is almost 90 because the line current is mostly capacitive.
generator voltage VA. This phase angle for IT is labeled I Note that these conditions are opposite to the case of XC
with respect to the applied voltage. For the phasor triangle of and R in series. With XC and R equal, their branch cur-
voltages in a series circuit, the phase angle for ZT and VT is rents are equal and the phase angle is 45. In summary,
labeled Z with respect to the series current. the branch with the highest current determines the state of
the circuit. A higher capacitive current means the circuit
is mostly capacitive. A higher resistive current means that
E X A M P L E 1 7- 2 the circuit is resistive.
A 30-mA I R is in parallel with another branch current of 40 mA for
As additional comparisons between series and parallel RC
I C . The applied voltage VA is 72 V. Calculate I T, Z EQ, and I . circuits, remember that
Answer: 1. The series voltage drops VR and VC have individual
This problem can be calculated in mA units for I and k for Z without values that are 90 out of phase. Therefore, VR and
powers of 10. VC are added by phasors to equal the applied volt-
_______ ____________
IT  Ï I R2  IC2  Ï (30)2  (40)2 age VT. The negative phase angle Z is between
___________ _____ VT and the common series current I. More series
 Ï 900  1600  Ï 2500 XC allows more VC to make the circuit more capaci-
 50 mA tive with a larger negative phase angle for VT with
V respect to I.
72 V
ZEQ  _A  __
IT 50 mA 2. The parallel branch currents IR and IC have individual
 1.44 k values that are 90 out of phase. Therefore, IR and IC
are added by phasors to equal IT, which is the main-
I 40  1.333
tan I  _C  _ line current. The positive phase angle I is between
IR 30
the line current IT and the common parallel voltage
 arctan (1.333) VA. Less parallel XC allows more IC to make the circuit
I  53.1 more capacitive with a larger positive phase angle for
IT with respect to VA.

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 X C  10 k coupling capacitor having the same reactance. At 100 MHz
in the VHF range, the required capacitance is only 1 pF.
CC Note that the CC values are calculated for each frequency
V T 
R  R Output as a lower limit. At higher frequencies, the same size CC will
10 V 9.95 V 100 k signal  have less reactance than one-tenth of R, which improves
9.95 V
coupling.
Choosing a Coupling Capacitor for a Circuit
Figure 17-8 Series circuit for RC coupling. Small XC As an example of using these calculations, suppose that we
compared with R allows practically all the applied voltage to have the problem of determining CC for an audio amplifier.
be developed across R for the output, with little across C.
This application also illustrates the relatively large capaci-
tance needed with low series resistance. The C is to be a
17.6 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors coupling capacitor for audio frequencies of 50 Hz and up
with a series R of 4000 . Then the required XC is 4000⁄10, or
In Fig. 17-8, CC is used in the application of a coupling ca-
400 . To find C at 50 Hz,
pacitor. Its low reactance allows developing practically all
the ac signal voltage of the generator across R. Very little C  __1  ____ 1
of the ac voltage is across CC. Any dc in series with the ac 2f XC 6.28  50  400
signal is blocked.  __ 1  0.0000079
The coupling capacitor is used for this application because 125,600
it provides more reactance at lower frequencies, resulting in  7.9  106 or 7.9 F
less ac voltage coupled across R and more across CC. For dc
voltage, all voltage is across C with none across R, since the A 10-F electrolytic capacitor would be a good choice for
capacitor blocks direct current. As a result, the output signal this application. The slightly higher capacitance value is bet-
voltage across R includes the desired higher frequencies but ter for coupling. The voltage rating should exceed the actual
not direct current or very low frequencies. This application voltage across the capacitor in the circuit. Although electro-
of CC, therefore, is called ac coupling. lytic capacitors have a slight leakage current, they can be
The dividing line for CC to be a coupling capacitor at a used for coupling capacitors in this application because of
specific frequency can be taken as XC one-tenth or less of the low series resistance.
the series R. Then the series RC circuit is primarily resis-
tive. Practically all the voltage drop of the ac generator is 17.7 Capacitive Voltage Dividers
across R, with little across C. In addition, the phase angle When capacitors are connected in series across a voltage
is almost 0. source, the series capacitors serve as a voltage divider. Each
Typical values of a coupling capacitor for audio or radio capacitor has part of the applied voltage, and the sum of all
frequencies can be calculated if we assume a series resis- the series voltage drops equals the source voltage.
tance of 16,000 . Then XC must be 1600  or less. Typical The amount of voltage across each is inversely propor-
values for CC are listed in Table 17-3. At 100 Hz, a cou- tional to its capacitance. For instance, with 2 F in series
pling capacitor must be 1 F to provide 1600  of reac- with 1 F, the smaller capacitor has double the voltage of the
tance. Higher frequencies allow a smaller value of CC for a larger capacitor. Assuming 120 V applied, one-third of this,
or 40 V, is across the 2-F capacitor, and two-thirds, or 80 V,
is across the 1-F capacitor.
The two series voltage drops of 40 and 80 V add to equal
Table 17-3 Coupling Capacitors with a Reactance
of 1600 V* the applied voltage of 120 V. The phasor addition is the same
as the arithmetic sum of the two voltages because they are
f CC Remarks in phase. When voltages are out of phase with each other,
arithmetic addition is not possible and phasor addition be-
100 Hz 1 F Low audio frequencies comes necessary.
1000 Hz 0.1 F Audio frequencies
AC Divider
10 kHz 0.01 F Audio frequencies
1000 kHz 100 pF Radio frequencies With sine-wave alternating current, the voltage division be-
100 MHz 1 pF Very high frequencies
tween series capacitors can be calculated on the basis of re-
actance. In Fig. 17-9a, the total reactance is 120  across the
* For an XC one-tenth of a series R of 16,000 V. 120-V source. The current in the series circuit is 1 A. This

290 Chapter 17

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 potential difference provided by the equal charges is inversely

 1 A C1  2 F proportional to capacitance. The reason is that Q  CV, or
V 1  40 V
X C1  40  V  QyC. Therefore, the 1-F capacitor has double the volt-
V T  120 V age of the 2-F capacitor with the same charge in both.
f  2 kHz
If you measure across C1 with a dc voltmeter, the meter
C2  1 F
V 2  80 V reads 40 V. Across C2, the dc voltage is 80 V. The measure-
X C2  80 
ment from the negative side of C2 to the positive side of C1 is
the same as the applied battery voltage of 120 V.
(a )
If the meter is connected from the positive side of C2 to
the negative plate of C1, however, the voltage is zero. These


C1  2 F V 1  40 V
plates have the same potential because they are joined by a
 conductor of zero resistance.

V T  120 V The polarity marks at the junction between C1 and C2 in-

 dicate the voltage at this point with respect to the opposite
C2  1 F V 2  80 V

 plate of each capacitor. This junction is positive compared
with the opposite plate of C2 with a surplus of electrons.
(b )
However, the same point is negative compared with the op-
posite plate of C1, which has a deficiency of electrons.
Figure 17-9 Series capacitors divide VT inversely In general, the following formula can be used for capaci-
proportional to each C. The smaller C has more V. (a) An ac tances in series as a voltage divider:
divider with more XC for the smaller C. (b) A dc divider.
CEQ
V C  _  VT (17-7)
C
current is the same for XC1 and XC2 in series. Therefore, the
IXC voltage across C1 is 40 V with 80 V across C2. The total equivalent capacitance, CEQ, of two capacitors in
The voltage division is proportional to the series reactances, series is
as it is to series resistances. However, reactance is inversely pro- C 3_ C2
CEQ 5 _1 _
portional to capacitance. As a result, the smaller capacitance C1 1 C2
has more reactance and a greater part of the applied voltage. The CEQ is in the numerator, since it must be less than the
DC Divider smallest individual C with series capacitances. For the di-
vider examples in Fig. 17-9a and b,
In Fig. 17-9b, both C1 and C2 will be charged by the bat-
tery. The voltage across the series combination of C1 and CEQ  (2 3 1)y(2 1 1) 5 2/3 F
C2 must equal VT. When charging current flows, electrons CEQ 2
repelled from the negative battery terminal accumulate on V1  _  120  _⁄3  120  40 V
C1 2
the negative plate of C2, repelling electrons from its posi-
CEQ 2
tive plate. These electrons flow through the conductor to the V2  _  120  _⁄3  120  80 V
C2 1
negative plate of C1. As the positive battery terminal attracts
electrons, the charging current from the positive plate of C1 This method applies to series capacitances as dividers for ei-
returns to the positive side of the dc source. Then C1 and C2 ther dc or ac voltage, as long as there is no series resistance.
become charged in the polarity shown. Note that the case of capacitive dc dividers also applies to
Since C1 and C2 are in the same series path for charging pulse circuits. Furthermore, bleeder resistors may be used
current, both have the same amount of charge. However, the across each of the capacitors to ensure more exact division.

CHAPTER 17 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. For a capacitor in a sine-wave ac circuit, 2. In a series RC circuit,

a. VC lags iC by 908. a. VC leads VR by 908.
b. iC leads VC by 908. b. VC and I are in phase.
c. iC and VC have the same frequency. c. VC lags VR by 908.
d. all of the above. d. both b and c.

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 3. In a series RC circuit where VC 5 15 V and VR 5 c. XC one–tenth or less the series resistance.
20 V, how much is the total voltage, VT? d. none of the above.
a. 35 V. 10. A 100- resistance is in series with a capacitive
b. 25 V. reactance of 75 . The total impedance, ZT, is
c. 625 V. a. 125 .
d. 5 V. b. 25 .
4. A 10-V resistor is in parallel with a capacitive c. 175 .
reactance of 10 V. The combined equivalent d. 15.625 k.
impedance, Z EQ, of this combination is 11. In a series RC circuit,
a. 7.07 V. a. VC and VR are in phase.
b. 20 V. b. VT and I are always in phase.
c. 14.14 V. c. VR and I are in phase.
d. 5 V. d. VR leads I by 90.
5. In a parallel RC circuit, 12. In a parallel RC circuit,
a. IC lags I R by 908. a. VA and IR are in phase.
b. IR and IC are in phase. b. VA and IC are in phase.
c. IC leads IR by 908. c. IC and IR are in phase.
d. IR leads IC by 908. d. VA and IR are 90 out of phase.
6. In a parallel RC circuit where IR 5 8 A and IC 5 13. When the frequency of the applied voltage increases
10 A, how much is the total current, IT? in a parallel RC circuit,
a. 2 A. a. the phase angle, I, increases.
b. 12.81 A. b. Z EQ increases.
c. 18 A. c. Z EQ decreases.
d. 164 A. d. both a and c.
7. In a series RC circuit where R 5 XC, the phase angle, 14. When the frequency of the applied voltage increases
Z , is in a series RC circuit,
a. 1458. a. the phase angle, , becomes more negative.
b. 2908. b. ZT increases.
c. 08. c. ZT decreases.
d. 2458. d. both a and c.
8. A 10-F capacitor, C1, and a 15-F capacitor, C2, are 15. Capacitive reactance, XC,
connected in series with a 12-Vdc source. How much a. applies only to nonsinusoidal waveforms or dc.
voltage is across C2? b. applies only to sine waves.
a. 4.8 V. c. applies to either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal
b. 7.2 V. waveforms.
c. 12 V. d. is directly proportional to frequency.
d. 0 V.
9. The dividing line for a coupling capacitor at a specific
frequency can be taken as
a. XC 10 or more times the series resistance.
b. XC equal to R.

CHAPTER 17 PROBLEMS

SECTION 17.1 Sine Wave vC Lags i C by 90

17.1 In Fig. 17-10, what is the VA  10 V Peak XC  1 k
a. peak value of the capacitor voltage, VC? f  10 kHz
b. peak value of the charge and discharge current, iC? i
c. frequency of the charge and discharge current?
d. phase relationship between VC and iC?
Figure 17-10
292 Chapter 17

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 17.2 In Fig. 17-10, draw the phasors representing VC and 17.9 Draw the impedance triangle for the circuit in
iC using Fig. 17-13. (Use R as the reference phasor.)
a. VC as the reference phasor. 17.10 In Fig. 17-14, what happens to each of the follow-
b. iC as the reference phasor. ing quantities if the frequency of the applied voltage
SECTION 17.2 XC and R in Series increases?
a. XC.
17.3 In Fig. 17-11, how much current, I, is flowing
b. ZT.
a. through the 30- resistor, R?
c. I.
b. through the 40- capacitive reactance, XC?
d. VC.
c. to and from the terminals of the applied voltage, VT?
e. VR.
VR  60 V f. Z.
R  3.9 k
R  30 

VT  36 V C  0.01 F
VT XC  40  VC  80 V f  3.183 kHz

2A

Figure 17-11 Figure 17-14

SECTION 17.4 RC Phase-Shifter Circuit
17.4 In Fig. 17-11, what is the phase relationship between
a. I and VR? 17.11 With R set to 50 k in Fig. 17-15, solve for XC, ZT,
b. I and VC? I, VR, VC, and Z.
c. VC and VR?
17.5 In Fig. 17-11, how much is the applied voltage, VT?
C  0.1 F
17.6 Draw the phasor voltage triangle for the circuit in
Fig. 17-11. (Use VR as the reference phasor.) VT  120 Vac
f  60 Hz
17.7 In Fig. 17-12, solve for R  0 –100 k
a. the resistor voltage, VR. output
b. the capacitor voltage, VC.
c. the total voltage, VT.
R  2 k Figure 17-15
17.12 With R set to 50 k in Fig. 17-15, what is the phase
relationship between
VT XC  1.5 k a. VT and VR?
b. VT and VC?

 20 mA
17.13 Draw the phasors for VR, VC, and VT in Fig. 17-15
with R set at 50 k. Use VT as the reference phasor.
Figure 17-12
SECTION 17.5 XC and R in Parallel
SECTION 17.3 Impedance Z Triangle 17.14 In Fig. 17-16, how much voltage is across
17.8 In Fig. 17-13, solve for ZT, I, VC, VR, and Z. a. the 40- resistor, R?
b. the 30- capacitive reactance, XC?
R  15 

R
VT  100 V XC  20  VA  120 V XC  30 
40 

Figure 17-13 Figure 17-16

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 17.15 In Fig. 17-16, what is the phase relationship between 17.22 In Fig. 17-19, assume that CC  0.047 F and R 
a. VA and IR? 1 k, as shown. For these values, what is the lowest
b. VA and IC? frequency of the applied voltage that will provide
c. IC and IR? an XC of 100 ? At this frequency, what is the phase
17.16 In Fig. 17-16, solve for IR, IC, IT, ZEQ, and I. angle, Z?
17.17 Draw the phasor current triangle for the circuit in SECTION 17.7 Capacitive Voltage Dividers
Fig. 17-16. (Use IR as the reference phasor.) 17.23 In Fig. 17-20, calculate the following:
17.18 In Fig. 17-17, solve for IR, IC, IT, ZEQ, and I. a. XC1, XC2 , XC3, XC4, and XC T.
b. I.
c. VC1, VC2, VC3, and VC4.

R
VA  18 V XC  90 
90 
C1  0.001 F

C2  0.005 F
Figure 17-17
VT  30 V
17.19 In Fig. 17-18, solve for XC, IR, IC, IT, ZEQ, and I. f  15.915 kHz C3  0.022 F

C4  0.22 F

VA  24 V R
C  0.15 F
f  2.122 kHz 1.2 k
Figure 17-20

Figure 17-18 17.24 In Fig. 17-21, calculate VC1, VC2, and VC3.

17.20 In Fig. 17-18, what happens to each of the

following quantities if the frequency of the applied
voltage increases?
a. IR. C1  0.02 F
b. IC.
c. IT.
d. ZEQ. 
VT  80 V C2  0.05 F
e. I. 

SECTION 17.6 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors

17.21 In Fig. 17-19, calculate the minimum coupling
C3  0.1 F
capacitance, CC, in series with the 1-k resistance,
R, if the frequency of the applied voltage is
a. 1591 Hz.
b. 15.91 kHz.
Figure 17-21
Cc

R output
V IN
1 k

Figure 17-19

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 Ch a pt er 18
Inductance and Transformers

Learning Outcomes Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce in-

duced voltage when the current varies. Components
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: manufactured to have a definite value of inductance
Explain the concept of self-inductance. are coils of wire, called inductors. The symbol for in-
Define the henry unit of inductance. ductance is L, and the unit is the henry (H). Inductors
Calculate the inductance when the induced voltage are reactive components like capacitors. Changes in
and rate of current change are known. current through an inductor produces a self-induced
List the physical factors affecting the inductance of voltage that opposes current changes. Inductors op-
an inductor. pose current flow in ac circuits but do it in a different
Describe how a transformer works and list way than capacitors do. You will learn about inductors
important transformer ratings. and their many forms in this chapter.
Calculate the currents, voltages, and impedances A special form of inductor is the transformer. It uses
of a transformer circuit. induction to produce useful effects like voltage transfor-
Identify the different types of transformer cores. mation and impedance matching, as you will also see
Calculate the total inductance of series and
in this chapter.
parallel connected inductors.

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 18.1 Induction by Alternating Current carrying current, also is cut by the varying flux and has
induced voltage.
Induced voltage is the result of magnetic flux cutting across a
It is important to note that induction by a varying current
conductor. This action can be produced by physical motion of
results from the change in current, not the current value
either the magnetic field or the conductor. When the current
itself. The current must change to provide motion of the
in a conductor varies in amplitude, however, the variations
flux. A steady direct current of 1000 A, as an example of a
of current and its associated magnetic field are equivalent
large current, cannot produce any induced voltage as long
to motion of the flux. As the current increases in value, the
as the current value is constant. A current of 1 ␮A chang-
magnetic field expands outward from the conductor. When
ing to 2 ␮A, however, does induce voltage. Also, the faster
the current decreases, the field collapses into the conductor.
the current changes, the higher the induced voltage because
As the field expands and collapses with changes of current,
when the flux moves at a higher speed, it can induce more
the flux is effectively in motion. Therefore, a varying current
voltage.
can produce induced voltage in the conductor without the
Since inductance is a measure of induced voltage, the
need for motion of the conductor.
amount of inductance has an important effect in any cir-
Figure 18-1 illustrates the changes in the magnetic field of
cuit in which the current changes. The inductance is an ad-
a sine wave of alternating current. Since the alternating cur-
ditional characteristic of a circuit beside its resistance. The
rent varies in amplitude and reverses in direction, its mag-
characteristics of inductance are important in
netic field has the same variations. At point A, the current is
zero and there is no flux. At B, the positive direction of cur- 1. AC circuits. Here the current is continuously chang-
rent provides some field lines taken here in the counterclock- ing and producing induced voltage. Lower frequen-
wise direction. Point C has maximum current and maximum cies of alternating current require more inductance
counterclockwise flux. to produce the same amount of induced voltage as a
At D there is less flux than at C. Now the field is col- higher-frequency current. The current can have any
lapsing because of reduced current. At E, with zero current, waveform, as long as the amplitude is changing.
there is no magnetic flux. The field can be considered as hav- 2. DC circuits in which the current changes in value.
ing collapsed into the wire. It is not necessary for the current to reverse direc-
The next half-cycle of current allows the field to ex- tion. One example is a dc circuit turned on or off.
pand and collapse again, but the directions are reversed. When the direct current is changing between zero
When the flux expands at points F and G, the field lines and its steady value, the inductance affects the cir-
are clockwise, corresponding to current in the negative di- cuit at the time of switching. This effect of a sudden
rection. From G to H and I, this clockwise field collapses change is called the circuit’s transient response. A
into the wire. steady direct current that does not change in value
The result of an expanding and collapsing field, then, is not affected by inductance, however, because
is the same as that of a field in motion. This moving flux there can be no induced voltage without a change
cuts across the conductor that is providing the current, in current.
producing induced voltage in the wire itself. Further-
more, any other conductor in the field, whether or not
18.2 Self-Inductance L

The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in itself when
C
the current changes is its self-inductance or simply induc-
B D
Varying current

A tance. The symbol for inductance is L, for linkages of the

E I
0 magnetic flux, and its unit is the henry (H).
F H Time
G Definition of the Henry Unit

As illustrated in Fig. 18-2, one henry is the amount of in-
Varying ductance that allows one volt to be induced when the current
magneticfield
changes at the rate of one ampere per second. The formula is
Counterclockwise Clockwise vL
L 5 _____ (18-1)
Figure 18-1 The magnetic field of an alternating current
diydt
is effectively in motion as it expands and contracts with where vL is in volts and di兾dt is the current change in amperes
current variations. per second.

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 i  1 A/s
Answer:
For this example, the 1ydt factor in the denominator of Formula
vind  L (18-1) can be inverted to the numerator.
v 1V 1H
vL vL 3 dt
L 5 _____ 5 _______
diydt di
3 26
1 3 10 3 2 3 10
5 _________________
Figure 18-2 When a current change of 1 A/s induces 50 3 1023
1 V across L, its inductance equals 1 H. Note that Di is the 2 3 1023 5 ___
2
equivalent expression of the factor di/dt. 5 _________
50 3 1023 50
The symbol d is used to indicate an infinitesimally small  0.04 H or 40 mH
change in current with time. The factor diydt for the current
variation with respect to time specifies how fast the current’s
magnetic flux is cutting the conductor to produce vL.
Notice that the smaller inductance in Example 18-4 pro-
duces much more vL than the inductance in Example 18-3.
EXAMPLE 18-1 The very fast current change in Example 18-4 is equivalent
to 25,000 A兾s.
The current in an inductor changes from 12 to 16 A in 1 s. How
much is the diydt rate of current change in amperes per second?
Answer:
Inductance of Coils
The di is the difference between 16 and 12, or 4 A in 1 s. Then In terms of physical construction, the inductance depends on
how a coil is wound. Note the following factors.
di 5 4 Ays
__
dt 1. A greater number of turns N increases L because more
voltage can be induced. L increases in proportion to
N 2. Double the number of turns in the same area with
EXAMPLE 18-2 the same length will increase the inductance four
The current in an inductor changes by 50 mA in 2 ␮s. How much times.
is the diydt rate of current change in amperes per second? 2. More area A enclosed by each turn increases L.
Answer: This means that a coil with larger turns has more
inductance. The L increases in direct proportion
50 3 1023 5 25 3 103
di 5 _________
__
dt to A and as the square of the diameter of each
2 3 1026
turn.
5 25,000 Ays
3. The L increases with the permeability of the core.
For an air core, ␮r is 1. With a magnetic core, L is in-
creased by the ␮r factor because the magnetic flux is
EX A M P L E 1 8 -3
concentrated in the coil.
How much is the inductance of a coil that induces 40 V when its 4. The L decreases with more length for the same
current changes at the rate of 4 Ays? number of turns because the magnetic field is less
Answer: concentrated.
vL 40
L 5 _____ 5 ___ These physical characteristics of a coil are illustrated in
diydt 4
Fig. 18-3. For a long coil, where the length is at least 10 times
5 10 H the diameter, the inductance can be calculated from the
formula
N 2 3 A 3 1.26 3 1026 H
L 5 ␮r 3 _______ (18-2)
EXAMPLE 18-4 l
How much is the inductance of a coil that induces 1000 V when where L is in henrys, l is in meters, and A is in square meters.
its current changes at the rate of 50 mA in 2 ␮s? The constant factor 1.26  10 – 6 is the absolute permeability
of air or vacuum in SI units to calculate L in henrys.

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 N  100 turns

A  2  10 4 m2

l  0.2 m

Figure 18-3 Physical factors for inductance L of a coil.

See text for calculating L.
(a)

For the air-core coil in Fig. 18-3,

4 24
10 3 2 3 10 3 1.26 3 1026
L 5 1 3 _____________
0.2
5 12.6 3 10 H 5 12.6 ␮H
26

This value means that the coil can produce a self-induced

voltage of 12.6 ␮V when its current changes at the rate of
1 Ays because vL 5 L(diydt). Furthermore, if the coil has an
iron core with ␮r 5 100, then L will be 100 times greater.

Typical Coil Inductance Values

Air-core coils for RF applications have L values in milli-
henrys (mH) and microhenrys (␮H). A typical air-core RF (b)
inductor (called a choke) is shown with its schematic symbol
in Fig. 18-4a. Note that
1 mH 5 1 3 1023 H
1 ␮H 5 1 3 1026 H
1 nH 5 1 3 1029 H
For example, an RF coil for the radio broadcast band of
535 to 1605 kHz may have an inductance L of 250 ␮H, or
0.250 mH. An inductor used in a cell phone at 850 MHz may
have a value of 4 nH.
Iron-core inductors for the 60-Hz power line and for
(c)
audio frequencies have inductance values of about 1 to
25 H. An iron-core choke is shown in Fig. 18-4b. The Figure 18-4 Typical inductors with symbols. (a) Air-core
inductor in Fig. 18-4c has a unique core called a toroid. coil used as RF choke. Length is 2 in. (b) Iron-core coil used
It uses a core of powdered iron or ferrite material. A for 60 Hz. Height is 2 in. (c) Toroidal inductor.
typical toroidal inductor has an inductance in the 50- to
200-mH range. the induced voltage across the coil is actually the result of
inducing electrons to move in the conductor, so that there is
18.3 Self-Induced Voltage v L also an induced current. In using Formula (18-3) to calculate
The self-induced voltage across an inductance L produced vL , multiply L by the diydt factor.
by a change in current diydt can be stated as
EXAMPLE 18-5
di
vL 5 L __ (18-3)
dt How much is the self-induced voltage across a 4-H inductance
where vL is in volts, L is in henrys, and diydt is in amperes produced by a current change of 12 Ays?
per second. This formula is an inverted version of Formula Answer:
(18-1), which defines inductance. di 5 4 3 12
When the magnetic flux associated with the current var- vL 5 L __
dt
ies the same as i, then Formula (18-3) gives the same re- 5 48 V
sults for calculating induced voltage. Remember also that

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 EXAMPLE 18-6
i increasing

The current through a 200-mH L changes from 0 to 100 mA in Voltage
vL
2 ␮s. How much is v L? source

Answer: 

di
vL 5 L __ (a)
dt
23
100 3 10
5 200 3 1023 3 __________
2 3 1026 i decreasing 
5 10,000 V or 10 kV vL

Note the high voltage induced in the 200-mH inductance

because of the fast change in current. (b)

The induced voltage is an actual voltage that can be

measured, although vL is produced only while the current
is changing. When diydt is present for only a short time, vL 

is in the form of a voltage pulse. For a sine-wave current, vL

which is always changing, vL is a sinusoidal voltage 90° out i increasing

of phase with iL.

18.4 How v L Opposes a Change (c)

in Current
By Lenz’s law, the induced voltage vL must produce current 
with a magnetic field that opposes the change of current that
vL
induces vL. The polarity of vL , therefore, depends on the di-
rection of the current variation di. When di increases, vL has i decreasing 
polarity that opposes the increase in current; when di de-
creases, vL has opposite polarity to oppose the decrease in (d)
current.
In both cases, the change in current is opposed by the
Figure 18-5 Determining the polarity of v L that opposes
the change in i. (a) The i is increasing, and v L has the polarity
induced voltage. Otherwise, vL could increase to an unlim- that produces an opposing current. (b) The i is decreasing,
ited amount without the need to add any work. Inductance, and v L produces an aiding current. (c) The i is increasing but
therefore, is the characteristic that opposes any change in is flowing in the opposite direction. (d ) The same direction of
current. This is the reason that an induced voltage is often i as in (c) but with decreasing values.
called a counter emf or back emf.
More details of applying Lenz’s law to determine the po- voltage shown with the top side positive now opposes the
larity of v L in a circuit are shown in Fig. 18-5. Note the di- decrease. The reason is that this polarity of vL can produce
rections carefully. In Fig. 18-5a, the electron flow is into the current in the same direction, tending to keep the current
top of the coil. This current is increasing. By Lenz’s law, vL from decreasing.
must have the polarity needed to oppose the increase. The In Fig. 18-5c, the voltage source reverses polarity to pro-
induced voltage shown with the top side negative opposes duce current in the opposite direction, with electron flow into
the increase in current. The reason is that this polarity of vL the bottom of the coil. The current in this reversed direction is
can produce current in the opposite direction, from minus to now increasing. The polarity of vL must oppose the increase.
plus in the external circuit. Note that for this opposing cur- As shown, now the bottom of the coil is made negative by vL
rent, vL is the generator. This action tends to keep the current to produce current opposing the source current. Finally, in
from increasing. Fig. 18-5d, the reversed current is decreasing. This decrease
In Fig. 18-5b, the source is still producing electron flow is opposed by the polarity shown for vL to keep the current
into the top of the coil, but i is decreasing because the source flowing in the same direction as the source current.
voltage is decreasing. By Lenz’s law, vL must have the polar- Notice that the polarity of vL reverses for either a rever-
ity needed to oppose the decrease in current. The induced sal of direction for i or a reversal of change in di between

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 increasing or decreasing values. When both the direction of
the current and the direction of change are reversed, as in a
comparison of Fig. 18-5a and d, the polarity of vL remains L1 L2 L1 L2

unchanged.
Sometimes the formulas for induced voltage are written
with minus signs to indicate that vL opposes the change, as (a) (b)
specified by Lenz’s law. However, the negative sign is omit-
ted here so that the actual polarity of the self-induced voltage Figure 18-7 Schematic symbols for two coils with
mutual inductance. (a) Air core. (b) Iron core.
can be determined in typical circuits.
In summary, Lenz’s law states that the reaction v L opposes
its cause, which is the change in i. When i is increasing, vL Coefficient of Coupling
produces an opposing current. For the opposite case when i The fraction of total flux from one coil linking another coil
is decreasing, vL produces an aiding current. is the coefficient of coupling k between the two coils. As
examples, if all the flux of L1 in Fig. 18-6 links L2, then k
18.5 Mutual Inductance L M equals 1, or unity coupling; if half the flux of one coil links
When the current in an inductor changes, the varying the other, k equals 0.5. Specifically, the coefficient of cou-
flux can cut across any other inductor nearby, produc- pling is
ing induced voltage in both inductors. In Fig. 18-6, the flux linkages between L1 and L2
coil L1 is connected to a generator that produces varying k 5 ___________________________
flux producted by L1
current in the turns. The winding L 2 is not connected to
L1, but the turns are linked by the magnetic field. A vary- There are no units for k, because it is a ratio of two values of
ing current in L 1, therefore, induces voltage across L 1 and magnetic flux. The value of k is generally stated as a decimal
across L 2 . If all flux of the current in L1 links all turns of fraction, like 0.5, rather than as a percent.
the coil L 2 , each turn in L 2 will have the same amount of The coefficient of coupling is increased by placing the
induced voltage as each turn in L 1. Furthermore, the in- coils close together, possibly with one wound on top of the
duced voltage vL can produce current in a load resistance other, by placing them parallel rather than perpendicular to
connected across L 2 .
2
each other, or by winding the coils on a common iron core.
When the induced voltage produces current in L2, its Several examples are shown in Fig. 18-8.
varying magnetic field induces voltage in L1. The two coils, A high value of k, called tight coupling, allows the current
L1 and L2, have mutual inductance, therefore, because cur- in one coil to induce more voltage in the other coil. Loose
rent in one can induce voltage in the other. coupling, with a low value of k, has the opposite effect. In
The unit of mutual inductance is the henry, and the sym- the extreme case of zero coefficient of coupling, there is no
bol is L M. Two coils have L M of 1 H when a current change
of 1 A兾s in one coil induces 1 V in the other coil.
The schematic symbol for two coils with mutual induc-
L2
tance is shown in Fig. 18-7a for an air core and in Fig. 18-7b
L1 L2
for an iron core. Iron increases the mutual inductance, since
it concentrates magnetic flux. Any magnetic lines that do not L1

link the two coils result in leakage flux.

(a) (b)
LM

i L1
L1 L2

L1 L2 vL2
L2

(c) (d)

Figure 18-8 Examples of coupling between two coils

Magnetic flux linked by LM . (a) L1 or L2 on paper or plastic form with air
core; k is 0.1. (b) L1 wound over L2 for tighter coupling; k is 0.3.
Figure 18-6 Mutual inductance LM between L1 and L2 (c) L1 and L2 on the same iron core; k is 1. (d ) Zero coupling
linked by magnetic flux. between perpendicular air-core coils.

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 mutual inductance. Two coils may be placed perpendicular
EXAMPLE 18-9
to each other and far apart for essentially zero coupling to
minimize interaction between the coils. Two 400-mH coils L1 and L 2 have a coefficient of coupling k equal
Air-core coils wound on one form have values of k equal to 0.2. Calculate L M .
to 0.05 to 0.3, approximately, corresponding to 5 to 30% Answer:
linkage. Coils on a common iron core can be considered to _______
have practically unity coupling, with k equal to 1. As shown L M 5 k Ï L1 3 L 2
______________________
in Fig. 18-8c, for both windings L1 and L2, practically all 5 0.2Ï 400 3 1023 3 400 3 1023
magnetic flux is in the common iron core. Mutual induc-
tance is also called mutual coupling. 5 0.2 3 400 3 1023
5 80 3 1023 H or 80 mH

E X A M P L E 1 8 -7

A coil L1 produces 80 ␮Wb of magnetic flux. Of this total flux, EXAMPLE 18-10
60 ␮Wb are linked with L 2 . How much is k between L1 and L 2?
If the two coils in Example 18-9 had a mutual inductance L M of
Answer: 40 mH, how much would k be?
60 ␮W b Answer:
k 5 ________
80 ␮W b Formula (18-4) can be inverted to find k.
5 0.75 LM
k 5 _________
_______
Ï L1 3 L2
40 3 1023
5 ________________________
______________________
EXAMPLE 18-8 Ï 400 3 1023 3 400 3 1023
40 3 1023
5 __________
A 10-H inductance L1 on an iron core produces 4 Wb of magnetic 400 3 1023
flux. Another coil L 2 is on the same core. How much is k between
5 0.1
L1 and L 2?
Answer:
Unity or 1. All coils on a common iron core have practically perfect
coupling.
Notice that the same two coils have one-half the mutual
inductance L M because the coefficient of coupling k is 0.1
instead of 0.2.

Calculating L M 18.6 Transformers

Mutual inductance increases with higher values for the pri- The transformer is an important application of mutual in-
mary and secondary inductances and tighter coupling: ductance. As shown in Fig. 18-9, a transformer has a pri-
_______ mary winding inductance L P connected to a voltage source
LM 5 kÏ L1 3 L2 (18-4) that produces alternating current, and the secondary wind-
ing inductance L S is connected across the load resistance RL.
where L1 and L2 are the self-inductance values of the two
The purpose of the transformer is to transfer power from the
coils, k is the coefficient of coupling, and L M is the mutual
inductance linking L1 and L2, in the same units as L1 and L2.
The k factor is needed to indicate the flux linkages between P  NP  NS  S 
the two coils. 10 A 10 turns 100 turns 1A

As an example, suppose that L1 5 2 H and L2 5 8 H, VP  VS  RL 

LP LS
10 V 100 V 100 
with both coils on an iron core for unity coupling. Then the
mutual inductance is
______ ___
LM 5 1Ï 2 3 8 5 Ï 16 5 4 H
V P  P  V S S

The value of 4 H for L M in this example means that when Figure 18-9 Iron-core transformer with a 1:10 turn ratio.
the current changes at the rate of 1 A/s in either coil, it will Primary current I P induces secondary voltage VS, which
induce 4 V in the other coil. produces current in secondary load R L .

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 Voltage Ratio
k  0.2
Blue Green
With unity coupling between primary and secondary, the
voltage induced in each turn of the secondary is the same as
the self-induced voltage of each turn in the primary. There-
RP  RS  fore, the voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the turns
40  4
ratio:
Red Black or VP ___
___ N
5 P (18-6)
white VS NS
(a) (b ) When the secondary has more turns than the primary, the
secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and
Figure 18-10 (a) Air-core RF transformer. Height is 2 in. the primary voltage is said to be stepped up. This principle
(b) Color code and typical dc resistance of windings.
is illustrated in Fig. 18-9 with a step-up ratio of 10⁄100, or 1:10.
When the secondary has fewer turns, the voltage is stepped
down.
In either case, the ratio is in terms of the primary voltage,
which may be stepped up or down in the secondary winding.
These calculations apply only to iron-core transformers
with unity coupling. Air-core transformers for RF circuits
(as shown in Fig. 18-10a) are generally tuned to resonance.
In this case, the resonance factor is considered instead of the
turns ratio.

Figure 18-11 Iron-core power transformer. EXAMPLE 18-11

primary, where the generator is connected, to the secondary, A power transformer has 100 turns for N P and 600 turns for N S.
where the induced secondary voltage can produce current in What is the turns ratio? How much is the secondary voltage VS if
the primary voltage VP is 120 V?
the load resistance that is connected across L S.
Although the primary and secondary are not physically Answer:
connected to each other, power in the primary is coupled The turns ratio is 100⁄600, or 1:6. Therefore, VP is stepped up by the
into the secondary by the magnetic field linking the two factor 6, making VS equal to 6  120, or 720 V.
windings. The transformer is used to provide power for the
load resistance RL , instead of connecting RL directly across
the generator, whenever the load requires an ac voltage
higher or lower than the generator voltage. By having more EXAMPLE 18-12
or fewer turns in L S, compared with L P, the transformer can
A power transformer has 100 turns for N P and 5 turns for N S.
step up or step down the generator voltage to provide the What is the turns ratio? How much is the secondary voltage VS
required amount of secondary voltage. Typical transform- with a primary voltage of 120 V?
ers are shown in Figs. 18-10 and 18-11. Note that a steady
Answer:
dc voltage cannot be stepped up or down by a transformer
The turns ratio is 100⁄5, or 20: 1. The secondary voltage is stepped
because a steady current cannot produce induced voltage. down by a factor of 1⁄20, making VS equal to 120⁄20, or 6 V.
Turns Ratio
The ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the num-
ber in the secondary is the turns ratio of the transformer: Secondary Current
N By Ohm’s law, the amount of secondary current equals the
Turns ratio 5 ___P (18-5)
NS secondary voltage divided by the resistance in the secondary
where NP  number of turns in the primary and NS  num- circuit. In Fig. 18-9, with a value of 100 V for RL and negli-
ber of turns in the secondary. For example, 500 turns in the gible coil resistance assumed,
primary and 50 turns in the secondary provide a turns ratio VS 100 V 5 1 A
IS 5 ___ 5 ______
of 500⁄50, or 10:1, which is stated as “ten-to-one.” RL 100 V

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 Power in the Secondary EXAMPLE 18-14
The power dissipated by RL in the secondary is I2S 3 RL or VS 3 IS,
which equals 100 W in this example. The calculations are A transformer with a 20 : 1 voltage step-down ratio has 6 V across
0.6 V in the secondary. (a) How much is I S? (b) How much is I P?
P 5 I 2S 3 RL 5 1 3 100 5 100 W
P 5 VS 3 IS 5 100 3 1 5 100 W Answer:
V 6V
It is important to note that power used by the secondary a. IS 5 ___S 5 _____
RL 0.6 V
load, such as RL in Fig. 18-9, is supplied by the generator in
the primary. How the load in the secondary draws power from 5 10 A
the generator in the primary can be explained as follows. b. IP 5 1⁄20 3 IS 5 1⁄20 3 10
With current in the secondary winding, its magnetic field
opposes the varying flux of the primary current. The generator 5 0.5 A
must then produce more primary current to maintain the self-
induced voltage across LP and the secondary voltage developed
in LS by mutual induction. If the secondary current doubles, for As an aid in these calculations, remember that the side
instance, because the load resistance is reduced by one-half, with the higher voltage has the lower current. The primary
the primary current will also double in value to provide the and secondary V and I are in the same proportion as the
required power for the secondary. Therefore, the effect of the number of turns in the primary and secondary.
secondary-load power on the generator is the same as though Total Secondary Power Equals Primary Power
RL were in the primary, except that the voltage for RL in the
Figure 18-12 illustrates a power transformer with two sec-
secondary is stepped up or down by the turns ratio.
ondary windings L1 and L2. There can be one, two, or more
Current Ratio secondary windings with unity coupling to the primary as
With zero losses assumed for the transformer, the power in long as all the windings are on the same iron core. Each
the secondary equals the power in the primary: secondary winding has induced voltage in proportion to its
turns ratio with the primary winding, which is connected
VSIS 5 VP IP (18-7)
across the 120 V source.
or The secondary winding L1 has a voltage step-up of 6:1,
IS ____
__ V providing 720 V. The 7200-V load resistance R1, across L1,
5 P (18-8) allows the 720 V to produce 0.1 A for I1 in this secondary
IP VS
circuit. The power here is 720 V 3 0.1 A 5 72 W.
The current ratio is the inverse of the voltage ratio, that is,
The other secondary winding L2 provides voltage step-
voltage step-up in the secondary means current step-down,
down with the ratio 20:1, resulting in 6 V across R2. The
and vice versa. The secondary does not generate power but
0.6-V load resistance in this circuit allows 10 A for I2.
takes it from the primary. Therefore, the current step-up or
Therefore, the power here is 6 V 3 10 A, or 60 W. Since
step-down is in terms of the secondary current IS, which is de-
the windings have separate connections, each can have its
termined by the load resistance across the secondary voltage.
individual values of voltage and current.
These points are illustrated by the following two examples.
The total power used in the secondary circuits is supplied
by the primary. In this example, the total secondary power is
EXAMPLE 18-13
P1  72 W

A transformer with a 1 : 6 turns ratio has 720 V across 7200  L1 1 

0.1 A
in the secondary. (a) How much is I S? (b) Calculate the value of I P. R1 
V 1  720 V
7200 
Answer:
VP  P  1.1 A
V 720 V 120 V
a. IS 5 ___S 5 _______
RL 7200 V
PP  132 W L2 R2 
V2  6 V 2 
5 0.1 A 10 A 0.6 

b. With a turns ratio of 1 : 6, the current ratio is 6 : 1. Therefore, P2  60 W

IP 5 6 3 IS 5 6 3 0.1 Figure 18-12 Total power used by two secondary loads

5 0.6 A R 1 and R2 is equal to the power supplied by the source in the
primary.

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 132 W, equal to 72 W for P1 and 60 W for P2. The power supplied voltage. Voltage VP between 1 and 2 is connected across
by the 120-V source in the primary then is 72 1 60 5 132 W. part of the total turns, and VS is induced across all the
The primary current IP equals the primary power PP di- turns. With six times the turns for the secondary voltage,
vided by the primary voltage VP. This is 132 W divided by VS also is six times VP.
120 V, which equals 1.1 A for the primary current. The same In Fig. 18-13b, the autotransformer steps down the pri-
value can be calculated as the sum of 0.6 A of primary cur- mary voltage connected across the entire coil. Then the sec-
rent providing power for L1 plus 0.5 A of primary current for ondary voltage is taken across less than the total turns.
L2, resulting in the total of 1.1 A as the value of IP. The winding that connects to the voltage source to sup-
This example shows how to analyze a loaded power trans- ply power is the primary, and the secondary is across the
former. The main idea is that the primary current depends load resistance RL. The turns ratio and voltage ratio apply
on the secondary load. The calculations can be summarized the same way as in a conventional transformer having an
as follows: isolated secondary winding.
Autotransformers are used often because they are com-
1. Calculate VS from the turns ratio and VP.
pact and efficient and usually cost less since they have only
2. Use VS to calculate IS: IS 5 VS yRL. one winding. Note that the autotransformer in Fig. 18-13 has
3. Use IS to calculate PS: PS 5 VS 3 IS. only three leads, compared with four leads for the trans-
4. Use PS to find PP: PP 5 PS. former in Fig. 18-9 with an isolated secondary.
5. Finally, IP can be calculated: IP 5 PP yVP.
Isolation of the Secondary
With more than one secondary, calculate each IS and PS.
Then add all PS values for the total secondary power, which In a transformer with a separate winding for L S, as in
equals the primary power. Fig. 18-9, the secondary load is not connected directly to the
ac power line in the primary. This isolation is an advantage
Autotransformers in reducing the chance of electric shock. With an autotrans-
As illustrated in Fig. 18-13, an autotransformer consists former, as in Fig. 18-13, the secondary is not isolated. An-
of one continuous coil with a tapped connection such other advantage of an isolated secondary is that any direct
as terminal 2 between the ends at terminals 1 and 3. In current in the primary is blocked from the secondary. Some-
Fig. 18-13a, the autotransformer steps up the generator times a transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio is used for isolation
from the ac power line.
3
Transformer Efficiency
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power out to power in.
VS 
Stated as a formula,
720 V RL
2 Pout
LP
across LS % efficiency 5 ___ 3 100 (18-9)
VP  Pin
120 V
For example, when the power out in watts equals one-half
1 the power in, the efficiency is one-half, which equals 0.5 3
(a ) 100, or 50%. In a transformer, power out is secondary power,
and power in is primary power.
3
Assuming zero losses in the transformer, power out
equals power in and the efficiency is 100%. Actual power
transformers, however, have an efficiency slightly less
VP 
120 V than 100%. The efficiency is approximately 80 to 90% for
2
across LP transformers that have high power ratings. Transformers
LS
VS 
20 V
RL for higher power are more efficient because they require
heavier wire, which has less resistance. In a transformer
1 that is less than 100% efficient, the primary supplies more
(b) than the secondary power. The primary power that is lost is
dissipated as heat in the transformer, resulting from I2 R in
Figure 18-13 Autotransformer with tap at terminal 2 for
10 turns of the complete 60-turn winding. (a) VP between the conductors and certain losses in the core material. The
terminals 1 and 2 stepped up across 1 and 3. (b) VP between R of the primary winding is generally about 10 V or less for
terminals 1 and 3 stepped down across 1 and 2. power transformers.

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 18.7 Transformer Ratings Note that manufacturers may specify the secondary volt-
ages of a transformer differently. For example, the second-
Like other components, transformers have voltage, current,
ary in Fig. 18-14a may be specified as 25.2 V CT, where CT
and power ratings that must not be exceeded. Exceeding any
indicates a center-tapped secondary. Another way to specify
of these ratings will usually destroy the transformer. What
the secondary voltage in Fig. 18-14a would be 12.6 V each
follows is a brief description of the most important trans-
side of center.
former ratings.
Regardless of how the secondary voltage of a transformer
is specified, the rated value is always specified under full-load
Voltage Ratings conditions with the rated primary voltage applied. A trans-
Manufacturers of transformers always specify the volt- former is considered fully loaded when the rated current is
age rating of the primary and secondary windings. Under drawn from the secondary. When unloaded, the secondary volt-
no circumstances should the primary voltage rating be age will measure a value that is approximately 5 to 10% higher
exceeded. In many cases, the rated primary and second- than its rated value. Let’s use the transformer in Fig. 18-14a
ary voltages are printed on the transformer. For example, as an example. It has a rated secondary current of 2 A. If 120 V
consider the transformer shown in Fig. 18-14a. Its rated is connected to the primary and no load is connected to the
primary voltage is 120 V, and its secondary voltage is secondary, each half of the secondary will measure some-
specified as 12.6–0–12.6, which indicates that the second- where between 13.2 and 13.9 V approximately. However, with
ary is center-tapped. The notation 12.6–0–12.6 indicates the rated current of 2 A drawn from the secondary, each half
that 12.6 V is available between the center tap connection of the secondary will measure approximately 12.6 V.
and either outside secondary lead. The total secondary Figure 18-14b shows the schematic diagram for the trans-
voltage available is 2 3 12.6 V or 25.2 V. In Fig. 18-14a, former in Fig. 18-14a. Notice that the colors of each lead are
the black leads coming out of the top of the transformer identified for clarity.
provide connection to the primary winding. The two yel- As you already know, transformers can have more than one
low leads coming out of the bottom of the transformer secondary winding. They can also have more than one pri-
provide connection to the outer leads of the secondary mary winding. The purpose is to allow using the transformer
winding. The bottom middle black lead connects to the with more than one value of primary voltage. Figure 18-15
center tap on the secondary winding. shows a transformer with two separate primaries and a sin-
gle secondary. This transformer can be wired to work with
a primary voltage of either 120 or 240 V. For either value
of primary voltage, the secondary voltage is 24 V. Figure
18-15a shows the individual primary windings with phas-
ing dots to identify those leads with the same instantaneous
polarity. Figure 18-15b shows how to connect the primary
windings to 240 V. Notice the connections of the leads with
the phasing dots. With this connection, each half of the pri-
mary voltage is in the proper phase to provide a series-aiding
connection of the induced voltages. Furthermore, the series
connection of the primary windings provides a turns ratio
NP兾NS of 10:1, thus allowing a secondary voltage of 24 V.
Figure 18-15c shows how to connect the primaries to 120 V.
(a) Again, notice the connection of the leads with the phasing
dots. When the primary windings are in parallel, the total
Black
Yellow 12.6 V primary current IP is divided evenly between the windings.
Secondary voltages The parallel connection also provides a turns ratio NP兾NS of
Black
120 V  rated primary 25.2 V specified under 5:1, thus allowing a secondary voltage of 24 V.
voltage Yellow full-load conditions
Black
Figure 18-16 shows a transformer that can operate with a
12.6 V
primary voltage of either 120 or 440 V. In this case, only one
(b) of the primary windings is used with a given primary volt-
age. For example, if 120 V is applied to the lower primary,
Figure 18-14 Transformer with primary and secondary
voltage ratings. (a) Top black leads are primary leads. the upper primary winding is not used. Conversely, if 440 V
Yellow and black leads on bottom are secondary leads. is applied to the upper primary, the lower primary winding
(b) Schematic symbol. is not used.

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 Phasing dots secondary current exceeds its rated value, excessive I2 R
losses will result in the secondary winding. This will cause
the secondary, and perhaps the primary, to overheat, thus
120-V primary
eventually destroying the transformer. The IR voltage drop
VS  24 Vac across the secondary windings is the reason that the second-
ary voltage decreases as the load current increases.
120-V primary

EXAMPLE 18-15
(a )
In Fig. 18-14b, calculate the primary current I P if the secondary
NP : NS current I S equals its rated value of 2 A.
10:1
Answer:
Rearrange Formula (18-8) and solve for the primary current I P.
V
VP  240 Vac VS  24 Vac IP 5 ___S 3 IS
VP
25.2 V  2 A
 ______
120 V
(b)
 0.42 A or 420 mA

NP : NS
5:1
Power Ratings
VP  120 Vac
The power rating of a transformer is the amount of power the
transformer can deliver to a resistive load. The power rating
VS  24 Vac is specified in volt-amperes (VA) rather than watts (W) be-
cause the power is not actually dissipated by the transformer.
The product VA is called apparent power, since it is the
power that is apparently used by the transformer. The unit
(c) of apparent power is VA because the watt unit is reserved for
the dissipation of power in a resistance.
Figure 18-15 Transformer with multiple primary
windings. (a) Phasing dots show primary leads with same Assume that a power transformer whose primary and sec-
instantaneous polarity. (b) Primary windings connected in ondary voltage ratings are 120 and 25 V, respectively, has
series to work with a primary voltage of 240 V; N P /N S 5 a power rating of 125 VA. What does this mean? It means
10 : 1. (c) Primary windings connected in parallel to work with a that the product of the transformer’s primary, or secondary,
primary voltage of 120 V; N P /N S 5 5 : 1. voltage and current must not exceed 125 VA. If it does, the
transformer will overheat and be destroyed. The maximum
allowable secondary current for this transformer can be cal-
culated as
440 V Primary winding
125 VA
IS(max) 5 _______
Secondary winding 25 V
55A
120 V Primary winding
The maximum allowable primary current can be calcu-
lated as
Figure 18-16 Transformer that has two primaries, which 125 VA
IP(max) 5 _______
are used separately and never together. 120 V
5 1.04A
Current Ratings With multiple secondary windings, the VA rating of each
Manufacturers of transformers usually specify current rat- individual secondary may be given without any mention of
ings only for the secondary windings. The reason is quite the primary VA rating. In this case, the sum of all secondary
simple. If the secondary current is not exceeded, there is no VA ratings must be divided by the rated primary voltage to
possible way the primary current can be exceeded. If the determine the maximum allowable primary current.

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 In summary, you will never overload a transformer or exceed To find the required turns ratio when the impedance ratio
any of its maximum ratings if you obey two fundamental rules: is known, rearrange Formula (18-10) as follows:
___
1. Never apply more than the rated voltage to the primary. NP
___ ZP
___
2. Never draw more than the rated current from the NS
5
Ï ZS
(18-11)

secondary.
EXAMPLE 18-16
Frequency Ratings
Determine the primary impedance Z P for the transformer circuit
All transformers have a frequency rating that must be adhered
in Fig. 18-18.
to. Typical frequency ratings for power transformers are 50,
NP : NS
60, and 400 Hz. A power transformer with a frequency rating 4:1
of 400 Hz cannot be used at 50 or 60 Hz because it will over-
heat. However, many power transformers are designed to op- VP  32 V
Z S  RL  8 
erate at either 50 or 60 Hz because many types of equipment ZP  ?
may be sold in both Europe and the United States, where the
power-line frequencies are 50 and 60 Hz, respectively. Power
transformers with a 400-Hz rating are often used in aircraft Figure 18-18 Circuit for Example 18-16.
because these transformers are much smaller and lighter than Answer:
50- or 60-Hz transformers having the same power rating. Use Formula (18-10). Since Z S 5 R L, we have
Modern power supplies operate at very high frequencies over
the range from about 50 kHz to 4 MHz. Smaller transformers
can be used, and the core is commonly a toroid.
( )
N 2
Z P  ___P  RL
NS

18.8 Impedance Transformation ( )

4 28
 __
1
Transformers can be used to change or transform a secondary  16  8 
load impedance to a new value as seen by the primary. The  128 
secondary load impedance is said to be reflected back into the
The value of 128  obtained for Z P using Formula (18-10) can be
primary and is therefore called a reflected impedance. The re- verified as follows.
flected impedance of the secondary may be stepped up or down N
in accordance with the square of the transformer turns ratio. VS  ___S  VP
NP
By manipulating the relationships between the currents,
1  32 V
 __
voltages, and turns ratio in a transformer, an equation for the 4
reflected impedance can be developed. This relationship is
8V

NS( )
N 2
Z P 5 ___P 3 Z S (18-10) V
IS  ___S
RL
where ZP 5 primary impedance and ZS 5 secondary imped- 8V
 ____
ance (see Fig. 18-17). If the turns ratio NPyNS is greater than 1, 8
ZS will be stepped up in value. Conversely, if the turns ratio
1A
NPyNS is less than 1, ZS will be stepped down in value. It should
be noted that the term impedance is used rather loosely here, VS
IP  ___  IS
since the primary and secondary impedances may be purely VP
resistive. In the discussions and examples that follow, ZP and ZS 8V 1A
 _____
will be assumed to be purely resistive. The concept of reflected 32 V
impedance has several practical applications in electronics.  0.25 A
NP : NS And finally,
V
Z P 5 ___P
(NN )  Z
2
ZP  P
S ZS IP
S

32 V
5 ______
0.25 A
Figure 18-17 The secondary load impedance ZS is
reflected back into the primary as a new value that is 5 128 V
proportional to the square of the turns ratio, N PyN S .

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 Amplifier
EXAMPLE 18-17 ri  200 

In Fig. 18-19, calculate the turns ratio N PyN S that will produce a
reflected primary impedance Z P of (a) 75 V; (b) 600 V.
VG  Load
NP : NS
100 V RL  8 
?

ZP ZS  300 

(a)
Figure 18-19 Circuit for Example 18-17.
Answer:
Amplifier
(a) Use Formula (18-11).
___ ri  200 
NP
___ ZP
___
NS
5
Ï ZS
______ VG  RL  8 
75 V
______ 100 V PL  1.85 W
5
Ï 300 V
__
1
5
Ï __4
1
5 __ (b)
2 ___
N
___P 5 ___ZP
(b)
NS Ï ZS
______
Amplifier

600 V
5
Ï ______
300 V
__
ri  200 

VP  50 V
N P : NS

2
__ VG  50 V ZP  200  RL  8 
5
Ï 1 100 V PP  12.5 W PL  12.5 W

1.414
5 _____
1
(c)

Figure 18-20 Transferring power from an amplifier to

Impedance Matching for a load R L . (a) Amplifier has ri 5 200 V and R L 5 8 V.
Maximum Power Transfer (b) Connecting the amplifier directly to RL . (c) Using a
transformer to make the 8-V R L appear like 200 V in the
Transformers are used when it is necessary to achieve maxi-
primary.
mum transfer of power from a generator to a load when the
generator and load impedances are not the same. This appli- in Fig. 18-20c. We know that to transfer maximum power
cation of a transformer is called impedance matching. from the amplifier to the load, RL must be transformed to a
As an example, consider the amplifier and load in value equaling 200 V in the primary. With Z P equaling ri,
Fig. 18-20a. Notice that the internal resistance ri of the am- maximum power will be delivered from the amplifier to the
plifier is 200 V and the load RL is 8 V. If the amplifier and primary. Since the primary power PP must equal the second-
load are connected directly, as in Fig. 18-20b, the load re- ary power PS, maximum power will also be delivered to the
ceives 1.85 W of power, which is calculated as load RL. In Fig. 18-20c, the turns ratio that provides a Z P of
200 V can be calculated as
(VG 2
PL 5 ______
ri 1 RL
3 RL ) NP
___
___
ZP
___

( 100 V
5 ____________
2
38V )
NS
5
Ï ZS
______
200 V 1 8 V
200 V
5 1.85 W 5
Ï ______
8V
To increase the power delivered to the load, a transformer 5
5 __
can be used between the amplifier and load. This is shown 1

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 With ri and Z P equal, the power delivered to the primary Eddy current

can be calculated as
Eddy-

( VG 2
PP 5 ______
ri 1 Z P )
3 ZP current
flux
 flux
( )
100 V 2 3 200 V
5 ______
400 V
5 12.5 W
Since PP 5 PS, the load RL also receives 12.5 W of power. 

As proof, calculate the secondary voltage.  

N Figure 18-21
VS 5 ___S 3 VP Cross-sectional view of iron core showing
NP eddy currents.
1 3 50 V
5 __
5 a coil has eddy-current losses in a metal cover. In fact, the
5 10 V technique of induction heating is an application of heat re-
sulting from induced eddy currents.
(Notice that VP is ½ VG, since ri and Z P divide VG evenly.)
Next, calculate the load power PL. RF Shielding
VS2 The reason that a coil may have a metal cover, usually cop-
PL 5 ___ per or aluminum, is to provide a shield against the varying
RL
flux of RF current. In this case, the shielding effect depends
102 V
5 _____ on using a good conductor for the eddy currents produced
8V
by the varying flux, rather than magnetic materials used for
5 12.5 W shielding against static magnetic flux.
Notice how the transformer has been used as an imped- The shield cover not only isolates the coil from external
ance matching device to obtain the maximum transfer of varying magnetic fields but also minimizes the effect of the
power from the amplifier to the load. Compare the power coil’s RF current for external circuits. The reason that the
dissipated by RL in Fig. 18-20b to that in Fig. 18-20c. There shield helps both ways is the same, as the induced eddy cur-
is a big difference between the load power of 1.85 W in rents have a field that opposes the field that is inducing the
Fig. 18-20b and the load power of 12.5 W in Fig. 18-20c. current. Note that the clearance between the sides of the coil
and the metal should be equal to or greater than the coil
18.9 Core Losses radius to minimize the effect of the shield in reducing the
The fact that the magnetic core can become warm, or even inductance.
hot, shows that some of the energy supplied to the coil is
used up in the core as heat. The two main effects are eddy- Hysteresis Losses
current losses and hysteresis losses. Another loss factor present in magnetic cores is hysteresis,
although hysteresis losses are not as great as eddy-current
Eddy Currents
losses. The hysteresis losses result from the additional power
In any inductance with an iron core, alternating current in- needed to reverse the magnetic field in magnetic materials
duces voltage in the core itself. Since it is a conductor, the in the presence of alternating current. The greater the fre-
iron core has current produced by the induced voltage. This quency, the more hysteresis losses.
current is called an eddy current because it flows in a circu-
lar path through the cross section of the core, as illustrated Air-Core Coils
in Fig. 18-21. Note that air has practically no losses from eddy currents or
The eddy currents represent wasted power dissipated as hysteresis. However, the inductance for small coils with an
heat in the core. Note in Fig. 18-21 that the eddy-current flux air core is limited to low values in the microhenry or mil-
opposes the coil flux, so that more current is required in the lihenry range.
coil to maintain its magnetic field. The higher the frequency
of the alternating current in the inductance, the greater the 18.10 Types of Cores
eddy-current loss. To minimize losses while maintaining high flux density,
Eddy currents can be induced in any conductor near a coil the core can be made of laminated steel layers insulated
with alternating current, not only in its core. For instance, from each other. Insulated powdered-iron granules and

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 used for high frequencies with minimum eddy-current losses.
Most toroidal cores use ferrite. See Fig. 18-23.

18.11 Variable Inductance

The inductance of a coil can be varied by one of the
methods illustrated in Fig. 18-24. In Fig. 18-24a, more or
(a) (b) (c)
fewer turns can be used by connection to one of the taps
on the coil. Also, in Fig. 18-24b, a slider contacts the coil
Figure 18-22 Laminated iron core. (a) Shell-type to vary the number of turns used. These methods are for
construction. (b) E- and I-shaped laminations. (c) Symbol for large coils.
iron core.
Figure 18-24c shows the schematic symbol for a coil
with a slug of powdered iron or ferrite. The dotted lines
indicate that the core is not solid iron. The arrow shows
that the slug is variable. Usually, an arrow at the top means
that the adjustment is at the top of the coil. An arrow
at the bottom, pointing down, shows that the adjustment
is at the bottom.
The symbol in Fig. 18-24d is a variometer, which is an
arrangement for varying the position of one coil within the
other. The total inductance of the series-aiding coils is mini-
mum when they are perpendicular.
For any method of varying L, the coil with an arrow in
Figure 18-23 Most toroid inductors use ferrite cores. Fig. 18-24e can be used. However, an adjustable slug is usu-
Some also use powdered iron cores at radio frequencies. ally shown as in Fig. 18-24c.
A practical application of variable inductance is the
ferrite materials can also be used. These core types are il- Variac. The Variac is an autotransformer with a variable
lustrated in Figs. 18-22 and 18-23. The purpose is to reduce tap to change the turns ratio. The output voltage in the
the amount of eddy currents. The type of steel itself can help
reduce hysteresis losses.

Laminated Core
Figure 18-22a shows a shell-type core formed with a
group of individual laminations. Each laminated section
is insulated by a very thin coating of iron oxide, silicon
steel, or varnish. The insulating material increases the re-
sistance in the cross section of the core to reduce the eddy
currents but allows a low-reluctance path for high flux
density around the core. Transformers for audio frequen- (a) (b) (c)
cies and 60-Hz power are generally made with a lami-
nated iron core.

Powdered-Iron Core
Powdered iron is generally used to reduce eddy currents in
the iron core of an inductance for radio frequencies. It con-
sists of individual insulated granules pressed into one solid
form. Some toroidal cores use powdered iron.

Ferrite Core (d) (e)

Ferrites are synthetic ceramic materials that are ferromagnetic. Figure 18-24 Methods of varying inductance. (a) Tapped
They provide high values of flux density, like iron, but have the coil. (b) Slider contact. (c) Adjustable slug. (d ) Variometer.
advantage of being insulators. Therefore, a ferrite core can be (e) Symbol for variable L.

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 secondary can be varied from 0 to approximately 140 V,
with input from the 120-V, 60-Hz power line. One use is
to test equipment with voltage above or below the normal
line voltage. L2

The Variac is plugged into the power line, and the equip-
ment to be tested is plugged into the Variac. Note that the L1
power rating of the Variac should be equal to or more than
the power used by the equipment being tested. 1
LEQ  1
/L1  1/L2  1/L3 ... etc.

18.12 Inductances in Series Figure 18-26 Inductances L1 and L2 in parallel without

or Parallel mutual coupling.
As shown in Fig. 18-25, the total inductance of coils con-
nected in series is the sum of the individual L values, as for EXAMPLE 18-19
series R. Since the series coils have the same current, the
total induced voltage is a result of the total number of turns. Inductances L1 and L 2 in Fig. 18-26 are each 8 mH. How much is
L EQ?
Therefore, total series inductance is,
Answer:
LT 5 L1 1 L2 1 L3 1 . . . 1 etc. (18-12)
1
L EQ 5 ______
where LT is in the same units of inductance as L1, L 2 , and 1
⁄8 1 1⁄8
L 3. This formula assumes no mutual induction between 5 4 mH
the coils.

All shortcuts for calculating parallel R can be used with

EXAMPLE 18-18 parallel L, since both are based on the reciprocal formula. In
this example, L EQ is 1⁄2  8  4 mH.
Inductance L1 in Fig. 18-25 is 5 mH and L 2 is 10 mH. How much
is LT? Series Coils with LM
Answer: This depends on the amount of mutual coupling and on
whether the coils are connected series-aiding or series-
LT 5 5 mH 1 10 mH 5 15 mH.
opposing. Series aiding means that the common current pro-
duces the same direction of magnetic field for the two coils.
The series-opposing connection results in opposite fields.
The coupling depends on the coil connections and direc-
With coils connected in parallel, the equivalent induc-
tion of winding. Reversing either one reverses the field. In-
tance is calculated from the reciprocal formula
ductances L1 and L2 with the same direction of winding are
1
L EQ 5 ______________________ (18-13) connected series-aiding in Fig. 18-27a. However, they are
1 1 __
__ 1 1 __
1 1 . . . 1 etc.
L1 L 2 L 3 series-opposing in Fig. 18-27b because L1 is connected to the
opposite end of L2. To calculate the total inductance of two
Again, no mutual induction is assumed, as illustrated in
coils that are series-connected and have mutual inductance,
Fig. 18-26.
L T 5 L1 1 L2 6 2L M (18-14)
L1 The mutual inductance L M is plus, increasing the total induc-
tance, when the coils are series-aiding, or minus when they
are series-opposing to reduce the total inductance.
Note the phasing dots above the coils in Fig. 18-27. Coils
L2 with phasing dots at the same end have the same direction of
winding. When current enters the dotted ends for two coils,
their fields are aiding and L M has the same sense as L.
LT  L1  L2 How to Measure LM
Figure 18-25 Inductances L1 and L2 in series without Formula (18-14) provides a method of determining the
mutual coupling. mutual inductance between two coils L1 and L2 of known

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 Series-aiding Coils may also be in parallel with mutual coupling. How-
LM
ever, the inverse relations with parallel connections and the
question of aiding or opposing fields make this case compli-
cated. Actually, it would hardly ever be used.
L1 L2

18.13 Stray Capacitive

and Inductive Effects
LT  L1  L2  2LM
Stray capacitive and inductive effects can occur in all cir-
(a) cuits with all types of components. A capacitor has a small
Series-opposing amount of inductance in the conductors. A coil has some ca-
LM pacitance between windings. A resistor has a small amount
of inductance and capacitance. After all, physically a capaci-
tance is simply an insulator between two conductors having
L1 L2
a difference of potential. An inductance is basically a con-
ductor carrying current.
Actually, though, these stray effects are usually quite
LT  L1  L2  2LM small, compared with the concentrated or lumped values of
(b)
capacitance and inductance. Typical values of stray capaci-
tance may be 1 to 10 pF, whereas stray inductance is usually
Figure 18-27 Inductances L1 and L2 in series but with a fraction of 1 ␮H. For very high radio frequencies, however,
mutual coupling LM . (a) Aiding magnetic fields. (b) Opposing when small values of L and C must be used, the stray effects
magnetic fields.
become important. As another example, any wire cable has
capacitance between the conductors.
inductance. First, the total inductance is measured for the se-
A practical case of problems caused by stray L and C is a
ries-aiding connection. Let this be LTa. Then the connections
long cable used for RF signals. If the cable is rolled in a coil
to one coil are reversed to measure the total inductance for
to save space, a serious change in the electrical characteris-
the series-opposing coils. Let this be LTo. Then
tics of the line will take place. Specifically, for twin-lead or
LTa 2 LTo
L M 5 ________ (18-15) coaxial cable feeding the antenna input to a television re-
4
ceiver, the line should not be coiled because the added L or
When the mutual inductance is known, the coefficient of cou-
____ C can affect the signal. Any excess line should be cut off,
pling k can be calculated from the fact that L M 5 kÏ L1L2 . leaving the little slack that may be needed. This precaution
is not so important with audio cables.
EXAMPLE 18-20
Stray Circuit Capacitance
Two series coils, each with an L of 250 ␮H, have a total induc-
tance of 550 ␮H connected series-aiding and 450 ␮H series-
The wiring and components in a circuit have capacitance
opposing. (a) How much is the mutual inductance L M between the to the metal chassis. This stray capacitance CS is typi-
two coils? (b) How much is the coupling coefficient k? cally 5 to 10 pF. To reduce CS, the wiring should be short
Answer: with the leads and components placed high off the chassis.
LTa 2 LTo Sometimes, for very high frequencies, stray capacitance is
a. L M 5 ________ included as part of the circuit design. Then changing the
4
100
550 2 450 5 ____ placement of components or wiring affects the circuit op-
5 _________ eration. Such critical lead dress is usually specified in the
4 4
5 25␮H manufacturer’s service notes.
____
b. L M 5 k Ï L1 L 2 , or Stray Inductance
LM 25 Although practical inductors are generally made as coils, all
k 5 _______
____ 5 ____________
__________
L
Ï 1 2L Ï 250 3 250 conductors have inductance. The amount of L is v Ly(diydt),
25 5 ___
1 as with any inductance producing induced voltage when
5 ____
250 10 the current changes. The inductance of any wiring not
5 0.1 included in the conventional inductors can be considered
stray inductance. In most cases, stray inductance is very

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 small; typical values are less than 1 ␮H. For high radio fre-
quencies, though, even a small L can have an appreciable
inductive effect. L Re
One source of stray inductance is connecting leads. A
wire 0.04 in. in diameter and 4 in. long has an L of approxi-
Cd Cd
mately 0.1 ␮H. At low frequencies, this inductance is neg-
(a) (b)
ligible. However, consider the case of RF current, where i
varies from 0- to 20-mA peak value, in the short time of Figure 18-28 Equivalent circuit of an RF coil.
0.025 ␮s, for a quarter-cycle of a 10-MHz sine wave. Then (a) Distributed capacitance Cd between turns of wire.
vL equals 80 mV, which is an appreciable inductive effect. (b) Equivalent circuit.
This is one reason that connecting leads must be very short
in RF circuits.
As another example, wire-wound resistors can have ap- or universal winding, with the turns crossing each other at
preciable inductance when wound as a straight coil. This is right angles; and the bank winding, with separate sections
why carbon resistors are preferred for minimum stray in- called pies. These windings are for RF coils. In audio and
ductance in RF circuits. However, noninductive wire-wound power transformers, a grounded conductor shield, called a
resistors can also be used. These are wound so that adjacent Faraday screen, is often placed between windings to reduce
turns have current in opposite directions and the magnetic capacitive coupling.
fields oppose each other to cancel the inductance. Another
application of this technique is twisting a pair of connecting Reactive Effects in Resistors
leads to reduce the inductive effect. As illustrated by the high-frequency equivalent circuit
in Fig. 18-29, a resistor can include a small amount of
Inductance of a Capacitor inductance and capacitance. The inductance of carbon-
Capacitors with coiled construction, particularly paper composition resistors is usually negligible. However, ap-
and electrolytic capacitors, have some internal inductance. proximately 0.5 pF of capacitance across the ends may
The larger the capacitor, the greater its series inductance. have an effect, particularly with large resistances used for
Mica and ceramic capacitors have very little inductance, high radio frequencies. Wire-wound resistors definitely
however, which is why they are generally used for radio have enough inductance to be evident at radio frequencies.
frequencies. However, special resistors are available with double wind-
For use above audio frequencies, the rolled-foil type of ings in a noninductive method based on cancellation of op-
capacitor must have noninductive construction. This means posing magnetic fields.
that the start and finish of the foil winding must not be the
terminals of the capacitor. Instead, the foil windings are off- Capacitance of an Open Circuit
set. Then one terminal can contact all layers of one foil at An open switch or a break in a conducting wire has capaci-
one edge, and the opposite edge of the other foil contacts the tance CO across the open. The reason is that the open consists
second terminal. Most rolled-foil capacitors, including the of an insulator between two conductors. With a voltage source
paper and film types, are constructed this way. in the circuit, CO charges to the applied voltage. Because of the
small CO, of the order of picofarads, the capacitance charges
Distributed Capacitance of a Coil to the source voltage in a short time. This charging of CO is
As illustrated in Fig. 18-28, a coil has distributed capaci- the reason that an open series circuit has the applied voltage
tance Cd between turns. Note that each turn is a conductor across the open terminals. After a momentary flow of charging
separated from the next turn by an insulator, which is the current, CO charges to the applied voltage and stores the charge
definition of capacitance. Furthermore, the potential of each needed to maintain this voltage.
turn is different from the next, providing part of the total
voltage as a potential difference to charge Cd. The result then
is the equivalent circuit shown for an RF coil. The L is the LS
R
inductance and Re its internal effective ac resistance in series
with L, and the total distributed capacitance Cd for all turns
Cd
is across the entire coil.
Special methods for minimum Cd include space-wound Figure 18-29 High-frequency equivalent circuit of a
coils, where the turns are spaced far apart; the honeycomb resistor.

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 CHAPTER 18 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

AC Motors
There are two basic types of motors, dc and ac. You learned
about the importance of motors and dc motor operation in the
Chap. 11 sidebar. This sidebar introduces you to ac motors.
Generally speaking, ac motors are more widely used than
dc motors. With ac power so common to home, business,
and industry, it makes sense just to plug the motor into the
existing ac source.
AC motors are also used where higher power is needed. S N N S S N
While most dc motors have a power of less than several
horsepower (hp), ac motors are available in power levels
Rotor shaft
of hundreds, even thousands, of horsepower. Furthermore,
an ac motor is usually smaller than a dc motor of the same
horsepower. In addition, ac motors are typically more reliable
and require less maintenance than a dc motor. The primary
reason for this is that some ac motors do not have brushes
and commutators, which are the most common failures.
One primary advantage of dc over ac motors is variable
speed. It is easier to change the speed of a dc motor than the AC source
speed of an ac motor. Most ac motors are used in constant-
speed applications. This advantage of dc over ac motors has Figure S18-1 A universal ac or dc motor.
mostly disappeared over the years as electronic drive circuits
using high-power semiconductor devices like IGBTs (insu-
lated gate bipolar transistors) make it possible to generate an
field that interacts with the magnetic field of the stator to
ac voltage of any desired frequency. The circuits are called
produce rotation. The key to this operation is making the
variable-frequency drives.
stator field rotate from pole to pole to produce the rotary
There are three basic types of ac motors: series or uni-
motion. The magnetic field in the rotor essentially “chases”
versal, induction, and synchronous. What follows is a brief
the stator field as the fields attract or repel one another. This
look at each.
rotary field generation is easiest to accomplish in a three-
phase motor.
Universal Motor Figure S18-2a and b shows the stator poles and wind-
The simplest and most widely used ac motor is the so-called ings of a three-phase inductor motor. The windings are
universal motor. Also known as a series motor, it actually connected in a Y-configuration, as indicated in Fig. S18-2c.
works with either dc or ac. Most ac universal motors are You can visualize how the fields rotate if you remember
rated at less than 1 hp. Typical applications are appliances, that the three-phase ac voltages applied to the windings
fans, and drills. Figure S18-1 shows the basic universal motor are 120º out of phase with one another, as Fig. S18-2d
configuration. The stator and rotor coils are in series. As the illustrates.
ac varies, it produces opposing magnetic fields in each of The rotor of an induction motor is a group of wind-
the coils producing the mechanical force that creates rotary ings arranged around a magnetic core. One common
motion. The universal motor has a commutator and set of type is the squirrel-cage rotor shown in Fig. S18-3. The
brushes to keep the magnetic fields in the rotor and stator in windings are the individual copper bars which, when
opposition to sustain rotation. shorted by the shorting rings, produce multiple shorted
single loops. These loops act as secondary windings on
Induction Motor a transformer. The magnetic fields of the stator induce
An induction motor works like a transformer. A magnetic voltages into the loops which, in turn, produce the mag-
field produced in the stator induces a voltage into a rotor netic fields that sustain rotation with the push and pull
winding. The resulting current flow produces a magnetic of the stator fields.

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 Magnetic fields
Shorting ring

Shorting ring
1

2
3

3
2

1 Copper bars are

continuous shorted loops

(a)
Figure S18-3 Induction motor rotor.

1a
Single-Phase Induction Motor
2a 3b A three-phase induction motor is overkill for many appli-
cations because of its power and the need for a three-phase
source. But there are single-phase induction motors. In fact,
the single-phase induction motor is the most commonly used
3a 2b appliance motor. It is used in air-conditioning and heating
systems, washers, dryers, dishwashers, fans, and many other
1b common devices. Without the three-phase voltages such mo-
tors are difficult to start. The three-phase voltages keep the
fields rotating as well as the rotor in a three-phase induction
(b) motor. With a single fixed stator field that does not rotate,
Phase 1 there is no rotation until there is relative motion between rotor
and stator. What the rotor needs is a kick-start to get it moving,
then the attraction and repulsion of the rotor and stator fields
1a
will sustain rotation. A manual start is impractical.
The solution to this problem is to introduce a starting
1b
winding and a phase shift, as shown in Fig. S18-4. The start-
ing winding is placed at a 90º angle to the main stator wind-
2b 3a ing and connected in series with a phase-shift capacitor and
2a 3b
a starting switch. When the motor is turned on, the switch
is closed. The ac is applied to both the starting winding and

Phase 2 Phase 3
Stator winding
(c)

Phase 2 Phase 3 Squirrel-cage

rotor

AC source

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Phase 1

Start capacitor
(d) Centrifugal
start switch
Figure S18-2 Stator of a three-phase induction motor.
(a) Poles. (b) coils. (c) Y-connected stator windings. Figure S18-4 A single-phase induction motor with a
(d) applied ac voltages. starting capacitor and switch.

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 the stator winding in parallel. The capacitor introduces just of an induction motor slows as a load is applied. The speed
enough phase shift to create a temporary rotational effect of the induction motor rotor is always a bit less than the ro-
that gets the rotor going. Once the rotor is up to speed, the tational speed of the stator fields in order for there to be rela-
switch contacts are automatically opened by centrifugal tive motion between stator and rotor windings as required
force. for magnetic induction to take place. The section to follow
shows how the speed of an ac motor is determined.
Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor is similar to an induction motor in AC Motor Speed
construction except that the rotor has a winding that is pow- The speed, S, in revolutions per minute (rpm) of an ac motor
ered by a dc source. For that reason, the rotor has a com- is determined by the number of stator pole pairs, P, and the
mutator and brushes. Synchronous motors operate from frequency, f, of the applied ac.
three-phase ac, and the rotor is commonly a squirrel-cage 120f
design. When voltage is first applied, the dc is not connected. S 5 ____
P
Instead the motor acts like a standard induction motor and
For three pole pairs and 60-Hz ac the speed is
begins to turn. Once the rotor is up to speed, a centrifugal
switch turns the dc on. The strong dc field produces more 120 3 60 5 2400 rpm
S 5 ________
torque for turning. 3
Synchronous motors produce the greatest amount of Most ac motors operate from the main ac power lines that
power of any type of ac motor. Some synchronous motors supply 60-Hz voltage. Special electronic drive circuits are
have ratings of up to several thousand hp. Another benefit also used to produce variable-frequency ac so that the speed
of the synchronous motor is that its speed is not affected by can be changed. Electric and hybrid cars use variable-speed
connecting a load as it is with an induction motor. The speed induction motors.

CHAPTER 18 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The unit of inductance is the 5. If the secondary current in a step-down transformer

a. henry. increases, the primary current will
b. farad. a. not change.
c. ohm. b. increase.
d. volt-ampere. c. decrease.
2. The inductance, L, of an inductor is affected by d. drop a little.
a. number of turns. 6. Inductance can be defined as the characteristic that
b. area enclosed by each turn. a. opposes a change in current.
c. permeability of the core. b. opposes a change in voltage.
d. all of the above. c. aids or enhances any change in current.
3. A transformer cannot be used to d. stores electric charge.
a. step up or down an ac voltage. 7. If the number of turns in a coil is doubled in the same
b. step up or down a dc voltage. length and area, the inductance, L, will
c. match impedances. a. double.
d. transfer power from primary to secondary. b. quadruple.
4. The interaction between two inductors physically c. stay the same.
close together is called d. be cut in half.
a. counter emf. 8. An open coil has
b. self-inductance. a. zero resistance and zero inductance.
c. mutual inductance. b. infinite inductance and zero resistance.
d. hysteresis. c. normal inductance but infinite resistance.
d. infinite resistance and zero inductance.

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 9. Two 10-H inductors are connected in series aiding 15. A 400-␮H coil is in series with a 1.2-mH coil without
and have a mutual inductance, L M, of 0.75 H. The mutual inductance. How much is LT?
total inductance, L T, of this combination is a. 401.2 ␮H.
a. 18.5 H. b. 300 ␮H.
b. 20.75 H. c. 160 ␮H.
c. 21.5 H. d. 1.6 mH.
d. 19.25 H. N
16. A step-down transformer has a turns ratio, __P , of 4:1.
NS
10. How much is the self-induced voltage, VL, across a If the primary voltage, VP, is 120 Vac, how much is
100-mH inductor produced by a current change of the secondary voltage, VS?
50,000 A/s? a. 480 Vac.
a. 5 kV. b. 120 Vac.
b. 50 V. c. 30 Vac.
c. 5 MV. d. It cannot be determined.
d. 500 kV. NP
17. If an iron-core transformer has a turns ratio, __
NS
, of 3:1
11. The measured voltage across an unloaded secondary and Z S 5 16 V, how much is Z P?
of a transformer is usually a. 48 V.
a. the same as the rated secondary voltage. b. 144 V.
b. 5 to 10% higher than the rated secondary voltage. c. 1.78 V.
c. 50% higher than the rated secondary voltage. d. 288 V.
d. 5 to 10% lower than the rated secondary voltage.
18. How much is the induced voltage, VL, across a 5-H in-
12. A laminated iron-core transformer has reduced eddy- ductor carrying a steady dc current of 200 mA?
current losses because a. 0 V.
a. the laminations are stacked vertically. b. 1 V.
b. more wire can be used with less dc resistance. c. 100 kV.
c. the magnetic flux is in the air gap of the core. d. 120 Vac.
d. the laminations are insulated from each other.
19. The secondary current, IS, in an iron-core transformer
13. How much is the inductance of a coil that induces NP
equals 1.8 A. If the turns ratio, __
NS
, equals 3:1, how
50 V when its current changes at the rate of 500 A/s?
much is the primary current, IP?
a. 100 mH.
a. IP 5 1.8 A.
b. 1 H.
b. IP 5 600 mA.
c. 100 ␮H.
c. IP 5 5.4 A.
d. 10 ␮H.
d. none of the above.
14. A 100-mH inductor is in parallel with a 150-mH and
20. For a coil, the dc resistance, ri, and inductance, L, are
a 120-mH inductor. Assuming no mutual inductance
a. in parallel.
between coils, how much is L EQ?
b. infinite.
a. 400 mH.
c. the same thing.
b. 370 mH.
d. in series.
c. 40 mH.
d. 80 mH.

CHAPTER 18 PROBLEMS

SECTION 18.1 Induction by Alternating Current (using the letters A–I) where the rate of current
change, __
di
dt
, is
18.1 Which can induce more voltage in a conductor, a
a. greatest.
steady dc current of 10 A or a small current change
b. zero.
of 1 to 2 mA?
18.3 Which will induce more voltage across a conduc-
18.2 Examine the sine wave of alternating current in
tor, a low-frequency alternating current or a high-
Fig. 18-1. Identify the points on the waveform
frequency alternating current?

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 SECTION 18.2 Self-Inductance L NP : NS
5:1
18.4 Convert the following current changes, __
di
dt
, to am-
peres per second: VP  120 Vac VS RL  12 

a. 0 to 3 A in 2 s.
b. 0 to 50 mA in 5 ␮s.
Figure 18-30
18.5 How much inductance, L, will be required to pro-
duce an induced voltage, VL, of 15 V for each of 18.16 In Fig. 18-31, solve for
NP
the __
di
values listed in Prob. 18-4? a. the turns ratio __
NS
.
dt
b. the secondary current, IS.
18.6 How much is the inductance, L, of a coil that in-
c. the primary current, IP.
duces 75 V when the current changes at the rate of
2500 A/s?
18.7 Calculate the inductance, L, for the following long VP  120 Vac VS  40 Vac RL  16 

coils: (Note: 1 m 5 100 cm and 1 m2 5 10,000 cm2.)

a. air core, 20 turns, area 3.14 cm2, length 25 cm.
b. same coil as step a with ferrite core having a ␮r Figure 18-31
N
of 5000. 18.17 In Fig. 18-32, what turns ratio, __
P
NS
, is required to ob-
c. iron core with ␮r of 2000, 100 turns, area 5 cm2, tain a secondary voltage of
length 10 cm. a. 600 Vac?
18.8 What is another name for an RF inductor? b. 24 Vac?
NP : NS
SECTION 18.3 Self-Induced Voltage VL
VP  120 Vac VS
18.9 How much is the self-induced voltage across a 5-H
inductance produced by a current change of 100 to
200 mA in 1 ms?
Figure 18-32
18.10 How much is the self-induced voltage across a
33-mH inductance when the current changes at the 18.18 A transformer delivers 400 W to a load connected
rate of 1500 A/s? to its secondary. If the input power to the primary is
500 W, what is the efficiency of the transformer?
18.11 Calculate the self-induced voltage across a 100-mH
18.19 Explain the advantages of a transformer having an
inductor for the following values of __
di
dt
:
isolated secondary.
a. 100 A/s.
b. 1000 A/s. SECTION 18.7 Transformer Ratings
SECTION 18.5 Mutual Inductance L M 18.20 How is the power rating of a transformer specified?
18.21 To avoid overloading a transformer, what two rules
18.12 A coil, L1, produces 40 ␮Wb of magnetic flux. A
should be observed?
coil, L2, nearby, is linked with L1 by 30 ␮Wb of
magnetic flux. What is the value of k? 18.22 What is the purpose of phasing dots on the sche-
matic symbol of a transformer?
18.13 Two inductors, L1 and L2, have a coefficient of cou-
pling, k, equal to 0.5. L1 5 100 mH and L2 5 150 18.23 Refer to the transformer in Fig. 18-33. How much
mH. Calculate LM. voltage would a DMM measure across the follow-
ing secondary leads if the secondary current is 2 A?
18.14 What is the assumed value of k for an iron-core
a. VAB.
transformer?
b. VAC.
SECTION 18.6 Transformers c. VBC.
18.15 In Fig. 18-30, solve for Black Yellow A

a. the secondary voltage, VS. Black 12.6 Vac, center tap (at C)
VP  120 Vac C Rated Secondary
b. the secondary current, IS. Black Yellow Current  2 A
c. the secondary power, Psec.
B
d. the primary power, Ppri.
e. the primary current, IP. Figure 18-33

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 18.24 How much is the primary current, IP, in Fig. 18-33 18.28 Using your answer from Prob. 18-27, calculate
if the secondary current is 2 A? a. the primary impedance, Z P.
b. the power delivered to the 4-V speaker.
SECTION 18.8 Impedance Transformation
c. the primary power.
18.25 In Fig. 18-34, calculate the primary impedance, ZP,
NP SECTION 18.12 Inductances in Series or Parallel
for a turns ratio __
NS
of
a. 2:1. 18.29 Calculate the total inductance, LT, for the following
b. 1:3.16. combinations of series inductors. Assume no mutual
induction.
NP : NS a. L1 5 5 mH and L2 5 15 mH.
b. L1 5 220 ␮H, L2 5 330 ␮H, and L3 5 450 ␮H.
ZP RL  50  c. L1 5 1 mH, L2 5 500 ␮H, L3 5 2.5 mH, and
L4 5 6 mH.
Figure 18-34 18.30 Assuming that the inductor combinations listed in
Prob. 18-29 are in parallel rather than series, cal-
NP
18.26 In Fig. 18-35, calculate the required turns ratio __
N
for culate the equivalent inductance, LEQ. Assume no
S
a. Z P 5 50 V and RL 5 600 V. mutual induction.
b. ZP 5 200 V and RL 5 10 V. 18.31 A 100-mH and 300-mH inductor are connected in
series aiding and have a mutual inductance, LM, of
NP : NS
130 mH. What is the total inductance, LT?
ZP RL
18.32 A 20-mH and 40-mH inductor have a coefficient of
coupling, k, of 0.4. Calculate LT if the inductors are
a. series-aiding.
Figure 18-35 b. series-opposing.
NP
18.27 In Fig. 18-36, what turns ratio, __
NS
, will provide
maximum transfer of power from the amplifier to
the 4-V speaker?
Amplifier

ri  500 
NP : NS

VG  RL  4 
100 Vrms Speaker

Figure 18-36

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 Ch a pt er 19
Inductive Reactance

When alternating current flows in an inductance L, Learning Outcomes

the amount of current is much less than the dc resis-
tance alone would allow. The reason is that the current After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
variations induce a voltage across L that opposes the Explain how inductive reactance reduces the
applied voltage. This additional opposition of an induc- amount of alternating current.
tance to sine-wave alternating current is specified by Calculate the reactance of an inductor when the
the amount of its inductive reactance XL. It is an op- frequency and inductance are known.
position to current, measured in ohms. The XL is the Calculate the total reactance of series-connected
ohms of opposition, therefore, that an inductance L has inductors.
for sine-wave current. Calculate the equivalent reactance of parallel-
The amount of XL equals 2␲fL ohms, with f in hertz connected inductors.
and L in henrys. Note that the opposition in ohms Explain how Ohm’s law can be applied to inductive
of XL increases for higher frequencies and more in- reactance.
ductance. The constant factor 2␲ indicates sine-wave Describe the waveshape of induced voltage
variations. produced by sine-wave alternating current.

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 The requirements for XL correspond to what is For a steady direct current without any changes in cur-
needed to produce induced voltage. There must be rent, XL is zero. However, with sine-wave alternating
variations in current and its associated magnetic flux. current, XL is the best way to analyze the effect of L.

19.1 How X L Reduces the Amount of I In Fig. 19-1c, the coil is also in series with the bulb, but the
applied battery voltage produces a steady value of direct cur-
Figure 19-1 illustrates the effect of XL in reducing the alter-
rent. Without any current variations, the coil cannot induce any
nating current for a lightbulb. The more ohms of XL , the less
voltage and, therefore, it has no reactance. The amount of direct
current flows. When XL reduces I to a very small value, the
current, then, is practically the same as though the dc voltage
bulb cannot light.
source were connected directly across the bulb, and it lights
In Fig. 19-1a, there is no inductance, and the ac voltage
with full brilliance. In this case, the coil is only a length of wire
source produces a 2.4-A current to light the bulb with full
because there is no induced voltage without current variations.
brilliance. This 2.4-A I results from 120 V applied across the
The dc resistance is the resistance of the wire in the coil.
50- R of the bulb’s filament.
In summary, we can draw the following conclusions:
In Fig. 19-1b, however, a coil is connected in series with
the bulb. The coil has a dc resistance of only 1 , which is 1. An inductance can have appreciable XL in ac circuits
negligible, but the reactance of the inductance is 1000 . to reduce the amount of current. Furthermore, the
This 1000- XL is a measure of the coil’s reaction to sine- higher the frequency of the alternating current, and the
wave current in producing a self-induced voltage that op- greater the inductance, the higher the XL opposition.
poses the applied voltage and reduces the current. Now I is 2. There is no XL for steady direct current. In this case, the
120 V兾1000 , approximately, which equals 0.12 A. This I coil is a resistance equal to the resistance of the wire.
is not enough to light the bulb.
Although the dc resistance is only 1 , the XL of 1000  These effects have almost unlimited applications in practi-
for the coil limits the amount of alternating current to such cal circuits. Consider how useful ohms of XL can be for differ-
a low value that the bulb cannot light. This XL of 1000  for ent kinds of current, compared with resistance, which always
a 60-Hz current can be obtained with an inductance L of ap- has the same ohms of opposition. One example is to use XL
proximately 2.65 H. where it is desired to have high ohms of opposition to alter-
nating current but little opposition to direct current. Another
X L  1000  example is to use XL for more opposition to a high-frequency
alternating current, compared with lower frequencies.
R1 X L Is an Inductive Effect
V  V  An inductance can have XL to reduce the amount of alternat-
120 Vac 120 Vac
ing current because self-induced voltage is produced to op-
  2.4 A R   0.12 A R pose the applied voltage. In Fig. 19-2, VL is the voltage across
50  50  L, induced by the variations in sine-wave current produced
(a) (b) by the applied voltage VA.
The two voltages VA and VL are the same because they
are in parallel. However, the current IL is the amount that
allows the self-induced voltage VL to be equal to VA. In this
R1 example, I is 0.12 A. This value of a 60-Hz current in the
V  inductance produces a VL of 120 V.
120 Vdc

  2.4 A R
50   L  0.12 A
VA  120
(c) XL 
120 V V L  120 V 0.12
60 Hz  1000 
Figure 19-1 Illustrating the effect of inductive reactance
X L in reducing the amount of sine-wave alternating current.
(a) Bulb lights with 2.4 A . (b) Inserting an XL of 1000  reduces
I to 0.12 A, and the bulb cannot light. (c) With direct current, the Figure 19-2 The inductive reactance XL equals the VL 兾I L
coil has no inductive reactance, and the bulb lights. ratio in ohms.

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 The Reactance Is a V兾I Ratio X L increases as f increases

The V兾I ratio for the ohms of opposition to the sine-wave cur- Frequency, X L  2 f L,
Hz 
rent is 120⁄0.12, which equals 1000 . This 1000  is what we
0 0
call XL, to indicate how much current can be produced by sine- 100 200
200 400
wave voltage across an inductance. The ohms of XL can be 300 600
almost any amount, but the 1000  here is a typical example. 400 800
800
L  0.32 H
The Effect of L and f on XL 700

The XL value depends on the amount of inductance and on 600

the frequency of the alternating current. If L in Fig. 19-2
500
were increased, it could induce the same 120 V for VL with

X L, 
less current. Then the ratio of VL兾IL would be greater, mean- 400

ing more XL for more inductance. 300

Also, if the frequency were increased in Fig. 19-2, the 200
current variations would be faster with a higher frequency.
100
Then the same L could produce the 120 V for VL with less
current. For this condition also, the VL兾IL ratio would be 100 200 300 400
greater because of the smaller current, indicating more XL Frequency (f ), Hz
for a higher frequency.
Figure 19-3 Graph of values to show linear increase of
19.2 XL  2␲f L X L for higher frequencies. The L is constant at 0.32 H.
The formula XL  2␲f L includes the effects of frequency and The formula 2␲f L shows that XL is proportional to fre-
inductance for calculating the inductive reactance. The fre- quency. When f is doubled, for instance, XL is doubled. This
quency is in hertz, and L is in henrys for an XL in ohms. As linear increase in inductive reactance with frequency is il-
an example, we can calculate XL for an inductance of 2.65 H lustrated in Fig. 19-3.
at the frequency of 60 Hz: The reactance formula also shows that XL is proportional
XL  2␲f L (19-1) to the inductance. When the value of henrys for L is doubled,
 6.28  60  2.65 the ohms of XL is also doubled. This linear increase of induc-
tive reactance with inductance is illustrated in Fig. 19-4.
 1000 
X L increases as L increases
Note the following factors in the formula XL  2␲f L.
Inductance, X L  2 f L,
1. The constant factor 2␲ is always 2  3.14  6.28. It H 
indicates the circular motion from which a sine wave 0 0
0.32 200
is derived. Therefore, this formula applies only to sine- 0.64 400
0.96 600
wave ac circuits. The 2␲ is actually 2␲ rad or 360 for 1.28 800
a complete circle or cycle. 800
f  100 Hz
2. The frequency f is a time element. Higher frequency 700
means that the current varies at a faster rate. A faster
600
current change can produce more self-induced voltage
across a given inductance. The result is more XL. 500
X L, 

3. The inductance L indicates the physical factors of the 400

coil that determine how much voltage it can induce for 300
a given current change.
200
4. Inductive reactance XL is in ohms, corresponding to a
100
VL兾IL ratio for sine-wave ac circuits, to determine how
much current L allows for a given applied voltage.
0.32 0.64 0.96 1.28
Stating XL as VL兾IL and as 2␲f L are two ways of specify- L, H

ing the same value of ohms. The 2␲f L formula gives the Figure 19-4 Graph of values to show linear increase
effect of L and f on the XL. The VL兾IL ratio gives the result of of X L for higher values of inductance L. The frequency is
2␲f L in reducing the amount of I. constant at 100 Hz.

322 Chapter 19

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 It should be noted that Formula (19-2) can also be stated as
EXAMPLE 19-1
L_ 1 X
How much is X L of a 6-mH L at 41.67 kHz? 2␲f L

Answer: This form is easier to use with a calculator because 1兾2␲f

can be found as a reciprocal value and then multiplied by XL.
XL  2␲f L
The following problems illustrate how to find XL from
 6.28  41.67  103  6  103 V and I measurements and using XL to determine L with
 1570  Formula (19-2).

EXAMPLE 19-4
EXAMPLE 19-2 A coil with negligible resistance has 62.8 V across it with 0.01 A
of current. How much is X L?
Calculate the X L of (a) a 10-H L at 60 Hz and (b) a 5-H L at 60 Hz.
Answer:
Answer: V 62.8 V
a. For a 10-H L,
XL  _L  __
IL 0.01 A
XL  2␲f L  6.28  60  10  6280 
 3768 
b. For a 5-H L,
XL  1 ⁄2  3768  1884  EXAMPLE 19-5

Calculate L of the coil in Example 19-4 when the frequency is

1000 Hz.
EX A M P L E 1 9 -3 Answer:
XL 6280
L_  ___
Calculate the X L of a 250-␮H coil at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 10 MHz. 2␲f 6.28  1000
Answer: 1H
a. At 1 MHz,
XL  2␲f L  6.28  1  106  250  106
 1570  EXAMPLE 19-6

b. At 10 MHz, Calculate L of a coil that has 15,700  of XL at 12 MHz.

XL  10  1570  15,700  Answer:
XL 1 X
L_ _ L
2␲f 2␲f
The last two examples illustrate the fact that X L is pro-  ___ 1  15,700
portional to frequency and inductance. In Example 19-2b, 6.28  12  106
X L is one-half the value in Example 19-2a because the in-  0.0133  10 –6  15,700
ductance is one-half. In Example 19-3b, the X L is 10 times
 208.8  10 –6 H or 208.8 ␮H
more than in Example 19-3a because the frequency is
10 times higher.
Finding f from XL
Finding L from XL
For a third version of the inductive reactance formula,
Not only can XL be calculated from f and L, but if any two XL
factors are known, the third can be found. Very often XL f_ 2 ␲L (19-3)
can be determined from voltage and current measurements.
Use the basic units of ohms fowr XL and henrys for L to
With the frequency known, L can be calculated as
calculate the frequency in hertz.
XL Formula 19-3 can also be stated as
L_ (19-2)
2␲f
f_ 1 X
This formula has the factors inverted from Formula (19-1). 2 ␲L L

Use the basic units with ohms for XL and hertz for f to calcu- This form is easier to use with a calculator. Find the reciprocal
late L in henrys. value and multiply by XL, as explained before in Example 19-6.

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 The combined parallel reactance will be less than the low-
E X A M P L E 1 9 -7
est branch reactance. Any shortcuts for calculating parallel
At what frequency will an inductance of 1 H have a reactance of resistances also apply to parallel reactances. For instance,
1000 ? the combined reactance of two equal reactances in parallel
Answer: is one-half either reactance.

f_ 1  X  __ 1  1000
2␲L L
6.28  1 19.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to X L
 0.159  1000 The amount of current in an ac circuit with only inductive re-
 159 Hz actance is equal to the applied voltage divided by XL. Three
examples are given in Fig. 19-6. No dc resistance is indi-
cated, since it is assumed to be practically zero for the coils
shown. In Fig. 19-6a, there is one reactance of 100 . Then
I equals V兾XL , or 100 V兾100 , which is 1 A.
19.3 Series or Parallel Inductive In Fig. 19-6b, the total reactance is the sum of the two in-
Reactances dividual series reactances of 100  each, for a total of 200 .
Since reactance is an opposition in ohms, the values of XL in The current, calculated as V兾XLT, then equals 100 V兾200 ,
series or in parallel are combined the same way as ohms of which is 0.5 A. This current is the same in both series reac-
resistance. With series reactances, the total is the sum of the tances. Therefore, the voltage across each reactance equals its
individual values, as shown in Fig. 19-5a. For example, the IXL product. This is 0.5 A  100 , or 50 V across each XL.
series reactances of 100 and 200  add to equal 300  of XL In Fig. 19-6c, each parallel reactance has its individual branch
across both reactances. Therefore, in series, current, equal to the applied voltage divided by the branch
reactance. Then each branch current equals 100 V兾100 ,
XLT  XL1 XL2 XL3


etc. (19-4)
which is 1 A. The voltage is the same across both reactances,
The combined reactance of parallel reactances is calculated equal to the generator voltage, since they are all in parallel.
by the reciprocal formula. As shown in Fig. 19-5b, in parallel The total line current of 2 A is the sum of the two individ-
1 ual 1-A branch currents. With the rms value for the applied
XLEQ  ______ (19-5) voltage, all calculated values of currents and voltage drops in
_1 _1 _1


etc.
XL1 XL2 XL3 Fig. 19-6 are also rms values.

1A  12⁄ A
X L 1  V L 1   XL 1
100   50 V
XL 1 
100  V  XL  V 
100 V 100  100 V
X LT  100 200
 300  X L 2  V L 2   XL 2
100   50 V
XL 2 
200 

(a) (b)

(a)

T  L 1  L 2 
2A 1A 1A

V  XL 1  XL 2 
1
XL 1 XL 1  X L2  100 V 100  100 
EQ /100 1/200
100  200 
X LEQ  662⁄3 

(c)
(b)
Figure 19-6 Circuit calculations with V, I, and ohms of
Figure 19-5 Combining ohms of X L for inductive reactance XL . (a) One reactance. (b) Two series reactances.
reactances. (a) XL1 and XL2 in series. (b) XL1 and XL 2 in parallel. (c) Two parallel reactances.

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 19.5 Applications of X L for Different Compare this frequency factor for ohms of XL with ohms
Frequencies of resistance. The XL increases with frequency, but R has the
same effect in limiting direct current or alternating current
The general use of inductance is to provide minimum re- of any frequency.
actance for relatively low frequencies but more for higher
frequencies. In this way, the current in an ac circuit can be
reduced for higher frequencies because of more XL. There 19.6 Waveshape of v L Induced
are many circuits in which voltages of different frequencies by Sine-Wave Current
are applied to produce current with different frequencies. More details of inductive circuits can be analyzed by means
Then, the general effect of XL is to allow the most current of the waveshapes in Fig. 19-7, plotted from calculated val-
for direct current and low frequencies, with less current for ues. The top curve shows a sine wave of current iL flow-
higher frequencies, as XL increases. ing through a 6-mH inductance L. Since induced voltage

100
80
di i  sine wave
60

40
dt
20
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
i, mA

0
20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
s s s s s s s s s s s s
40

60
80
100
(a)

30
di
20  cosine wave
dt
10
di , mA
dt  s

0
10
20

30
(b)

160
140
120
100
di
80 vL  cosine wave  L
dt

60
40
,V

20
di
dt

0
vL  L

20
40
60

80
100
120
140
160
(c)

Figure 19-7 Waveshapes in inductive circuits. (a) Sine-wave current i.

(b) changes in current with time di兾dt . (c) induced voltage v L .

Inductive Reactance 325

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 depends on the rate of change of current rather than on the VL 3

absolute value of i, the curve in Fig. 19-7b shows how much L3

the current changes. In this curve, the di兾dt values are plot-
ted for the current changes every 30 of the cycle. The bot-
tom curve shows the actual induced voltage vL. This vL curve R2 L1 V L 1

is similar to the di兾dt curve because vL equals the constant

VT 3 2 1
factor L multiplied by di兾dt. Note that di兾dt indicates infi-
nitely small changes in i and t. L2 V L 2 R1

90ⴗ Phase Angle

The vL curve at the bottom of Fig. 19-7 has its zero values R3
when the iL curve at the top is at maximum. This comparison
shows that the curves are 90 out of phase. The vL is a cosine Figure 19-8 How a 90 phase angle for the VL applies in
a complex circuit with more than one inductance. The current
wave of voltage for the sine wave of current iL. I 1 lags VL 1 by 90, I 2 lags VL 2 by 90, and I 3 lags VL 3 by 90.
The 90 phase difference results from the fact that vL
depends on the di兾dt rate of change, rather than on i itself.
More details of this 90 phase angle between vL and iL for XL would be 1570 , the same as 2␲f L  with a 6-mH L and
inductance are explained in the next chapter. a frequency of 41.67 kHz. This is the same XL problem as
Example 19-1.
Frequency
For each of the curves, the period T is 24 ␮s. Therefore, the Application of the 90ⴗ Phase Angle in a Circuit
frequency is 1兾T or 1⁄24 ␮s, which equals 41.67 kHz. Each The phase angle of 90 between VL and I will always apply
curve has the same frequency. for any L with sine-wave current. Remember, though, that
the specific comparison is only between the induced voltage
Ohms of X L across any one coil and the current flowing in its turns. To
The ratio of vL兾iL specifies the inductive reactance in ohms. emphasize this important principle, Fig. 19-8 shows an ac cir-
For this comparison, we use the actual value of iL, which has cuit with a few coils and resistors. The details of this complex
a peak value of 100 mA. The rate-of-change factor is included circuit are not to be analyzed now. However, for each L in the
in the induced voltage vL. Although the peak of vL at 150 V circuit, the VL is 90 out of phase with its I. The I lags VL by
is 90 before the peak of iL at 100 mA, we can compare these 90, or VL leads I. For the three coils in Fig. 19-8,
two peak values. Then vL 兾iL is 150⁄0.1, which equals 1500 . Current I1 lags VL1 by 90.
This XL is only approximate because vL cannot be deter- Current I2 lags VL2 by 90.
mined exactly for the large dt changes every 30. If we used Current I3 lags VL3 by 90.
smaller intervals of time, the peak vL would be 157 V. Then Note that I3 is also IT for the series-parallel circuit.

CHAPTER 19 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The unit of inductive reactance, XL , is the c. is in phase with the inductor current, iL.
a. henry. d. none of the above.
b. ohm. 4. For a steady dc current, the XL of an inductor is
c. farad. a. infinite.
d. hertz. b. extremely high.
2. The inductive reactance, XL , of an inductor is c. usually about 10 k.
a. inversely proportional to frequency. d. 0 .
b. unaffected by frequency. 5. What is the inductive reactance, XL , of a 100-mH coil
c. directly proportional to frequency. at a frequency of 3.183 kHz?
d. inversely proportional to inductance. a. 2 k.
3. For an inductor, the induced voltage, VL , b. 200 .
a. leads the inductor current, iL , by 90. c. 1 M.
b. lags the inductor current, iL , by 90. d. 4 .

326 Chapter 19

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 6. At what frequency does a 60-mH inductor have an c. 4.47 k.
XL value of 1 k? d. 2 k.
a. 377 Hz. 9. Two inductors, L1 and L2, are in parallel. If XL1 
b. 265 kHz. 1 k and XL2  1 k, how much is XLEQ?
c. 2.65 kHz. a. 707 .
d. 15.9 kHz. b. 2 k.
7. What value of inductance will provide an XL of 500  c. 1.414 k.
at a frequency of 159.15 kHz? d. 500 .
a. 5 H. 10. How much is the inductance of a coil that draws
b. 500 ␮H. 25 mA of current from a 24-Vac source whose
c. 500 mH. frequency is 1 kHz?
d. 750 ␮H. a. 63.7 ␮H.
8. Two inductors, L1 and L2, are in series. If XL1  4 k b. 152.8 mH.
and XL2  2 k, how much is XL T? c. 6.37 H.
a. 6 k. d. 15.28 mH.
b. 1.33 k.

CHAPTER 19 PROBLEMS

SECTION 19.1 How XL Reduces the Amount of I 19.6 In Fig. 19-10, how much is the inductive reactance,
19.1 How much is the inductive reactance, XL, of a coil XL, for each of the following values of Vac and I ?
for a steady dc current? a. Vac  10 V and I  2 mA.
b. Vac  50 V and I  20 ␮A.
19.2 List two factors that determine the amount of induc-
c. Vac  12 V and I  15 mA.
tive reactance a coil will have.
d. Vac  6 V and I  40 ␮A.
19.3 In Fig. 19-9, how much dc current will be indicated e. Vac  120 V and I  400 mA.
by the ammeter, M1, with S1 in position 1?

M1
2
S1 A
A

Vac L
L
V2  V1  ri  40 
100 Vac 100 Vdc 


Figure 19-10
Figure 19-9

19.4 In Fig. 19-9, how much inductive reactance, XL, SECTION 19.2 XL  2␲f L
does the coil have with S1 in position 1? Explain 19.7 Calculate the inductive reactance, XL, of a 100-mH
your answer. inductor at the following frequencies:
19.5 In Fig. 19-9, the ammeter, M1, reads an ac current a. f  60 Hz.
of 25 mA with S1 in position 2. b. f  10 kHz.
a. Why is there less current in the circuit with S1 in 19.8 Calculate the inductive reactance, XL, of a 50-␮H
position 2 compared to position 1? coil at the following frequencies:
b. How much is the inductive reactance, XL, of the a. f  60 Hz.
coil? (Ignore the effect of the coil resistance, ri.) b. f  3.8 MHz.

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 19.9 What value of inductance, L, will provide an XL
value of 1 k at the following frequencies?
a. f  1.591 kHz.
b. f  5 kHz. V  120 Vac XL  1.5 k

19.10 At what frequency will a 30-mH inductor provide

an XL value of
a. 50 ?
b. 40 k? Figure 19-11
19.11 How much is the inductance of a coil that draws
15 mA from a 24-Vac source whose frequency is
1 kHz? 19.21 In Fig. 19-11, what happens to the current, I, when
the frequency of the applied voltage
19.12 At what frequency will a stray inductance of
a. decreases?
0.25 ␮H have an XL value of 100 ?
b. increases?
19.13 A 25-mH coil draws 2 mA of current from a 10-Vac
19.22 In Fig. 19-12, solve for
source. What is the value of current drawn by the
a. XL T.
inductor when
b. I.
a. the frequency is doubled?
c. VL1, V L 2, and VL3.
b. the inductance is reduced by one-half to
12.5 mH?
19.14 A coil has an inductive reactance, XL, of 10 k at a XL  100 
1
given frequency. What is the value of XL when the
frequency is
a. cut in half?
b. increased by a factor 10?
VT  24 Vac XL  120 
2
19.15 Calculate the inductive reactance, XL, for the fol-
lowing inductance and frequency values:
a. L  7 H, f  60 Hz.
b. L  1 mH, f  159.2 kHz.
XL  180 
3
19.16 Determine the inductance value for the following
frequency and XL values: Figure 19-12
a. XL  2 k, f  5 kHz.
b. XL  10 , f  795.7 kHz.
19.17 Determine the frequency for the following induc- SECTION 19.5 Applications of XL for Different
tance and XL values: Frequencies
a. L  60 ␮H, XL  200 . 19.23 Calculate the value of inductance, L, required to
b. L  150 mH, XL  7.5 k. produce an XL value of 500  at the following
frequencies:
SECTION 19.3 Series or Parallel Inductive a. f  250 Hz.
Reactances b. f  7.957 kHz.
19.18 How much is the total inductive reactance, XLT, for
the following series inductive reactances: SECTION 19.6 Waveshape of VL Induced by
a. XL1  250  and XL2  1.5 k . Sine-Wave Current
b. XL1  1.8 k, XL2  2.2 k and XL31 k. 19.24 For an inductor, what is the phase relationship be-
19.19 What is the equivalent inductive reactance, XLEQ, for tween the induced voltage, VL, and the inductor cur-
the following parallel inductive reactances? rent, iL? Explain your answer.
a. X L1  1.2 k and X L 2  1.8 k. 19.25 For a sine wave of alternating current flowing
b. X L1  1.5 k and X L 2  1 k. through an inductor, at what angles in the cycle will
the induced voltage be
SECTION 19.4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XL a. maximum?
19.20 In Fig. 19-11, calculate the current, I. b. zero?

328 Chapter 19

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 Ch a pt er 20
Inductive Circuits

Learning Outcomes This chapter analyzes circuits that combine inductive

reactance XL and resistance R. The main questions are,
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: How do we combine the ohms of opposition, how much
Explain why the voltage leads the current by 90° current flows, and what is the phase angle? Although
for an inductor. XL and R are both measured in ohms, they have differ-
Calculate the total impedance and phase angle of a ent characteristics. Specifically, XL increases with more
series RL circuit. L and higher frequencies, when sine-wave ac voltage
Calculate the total current, equivalent impedance, is applied, whereas R is the same for dc or ac circuits.
and phase angle of a parallel RL circuit. Furthermore, the phase angle for the voltage across XL
Define what is meant by the Q of a coil. is at 90° with respect to the current through L.
Explain how an inductor can be used to pass some In addition, the practical application of using a coil as
ac frequencies but block others. a choke to reduce the current for a specific frequency
Calculate the real, apparent, and reactive power is explained here. For a circuit with L and R in se-
and power factor in an RL or RC circuit. ries, the XL can be high for an undesired ac signal fre-
Express the impedance of an RL or RC circuit as a quency, whereas R is the same for either direct current
complex number. or alternating current.

329

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 20.1 Sine Wave i L Lags v L by 90° the inductance. This condition does not change the fact that
the current is the same in all parts of a series circuit. In Fig.
When sine-wave variations of current produce an induced
20-1a, the current in the generator, the connecting wires, and
voltage, the current lags its induced voltage by exactly 90°,
L must be the same because they are in series. Whatever
as shown in Fig. 20-1. The inductive circuit in Fig. 20-1a
the current value is at any instant, it is the same in all series
has the current and voltage waveshapes shown in Fig. 20-1b.
components. The time lag is between current and voltage.
The phasors in Fig. 20-1c show the 90° phase angle between
iL and vL. Therefore, we can say that iL lags vL by 90°, or vL Inductive Voltage Is the Same
leads iL by 90°. across Parallel Branches
This 90° phase relationship between iL and vL is true in
In Fig. 20-1a, the voltage across the generator and the volt-
any sine-wave ac circuit, whether L is in series or parallel
age across L are the same because they are in parallel. There
and whether L is alone or combined with other components.
cannot be any lag or lead in time between these two parallel
We can always say that the voltage across any XL is 90° out
voltages. Whatever the voltage value is across the generator
of phase with the current through it.
at any instant, the voltage across L is the same. The parallel
Why the Phase Angle Is 90° voltage vA or vL is 90° out of phase with the current.
The 90° phase angle results because vL depends on the rate The voltage across L in this circuit is determined by the
of change of iL. As previously shown in Fig. 19-7 for a sine applied voltage, since they must be the same. The inductive
wave of iL, the induced voltage is a cosine wave. In other effect here is to make the current have values that produce
words, vL has the phase of diydt, not the phase of i. L(diydt) equal to the parallel voltage.
The Frequency Is the Same for i L and vL
Why i L Lags vL
Although iL lags vL by 90°, both waves have the same fre-
The 90° difference can be measured between any two points
quency. The iL wave reaches its peak values 90° later than
having the same value on the iL and vL waves. A convenient
the vL wave, but the complete cycles of variations are re-
point is the positive peak value. Note that the iL wave does
peated at the same rate. As an example, if the frequency of
not have its positive peak until 90° after the vL wave. There-
the sine wave vL in Fig. 20-1b is 100 Hz, this is also the
fore, iL lags vL by 90°. This 90° lag is in time. The time lag
frequency for iL.
equals one quarter-cycle, which is one-quarter of the time
for a complete cycle. 20.2 XL and R in Series
Inductive Current Is the Same in a Series Circuit When a coil has series resistance, the current is limited by
The time delay and resultant phase angle for the current in both XL and R. This current I is the same in XL and R, since
an inductance apply only with respect to the voltage across they are in series. Each has its own series voltage drop, equal
to IR for the resistance and IXL for the reactance.
Note the following points about a circuit that combines
iL
series XL and R, as in Fig. 20-2:
1. The current is labeled I, rather than IL, because I flows
vA L vL
through all series components.
2. The voltage across XL, labeled VL, can be considered
an IXL voltage drop, just as we use VR for an IR voltage
drop.
(a)
3. The current I through XL must lag VL by 90° because
this is the phase angle between current through an in-
vL vL
ductance and its self-induced voltage.
Amplitude v or i

iL
360 4. The current I through R and its IR voltage drop are in
90 180 270 phase. There is no reactance to sine-wave current in any
Time
resistance. Therefore, I and IR have a phase angle of 0°.
90
Resistance R can be either the internal resistance of the
iL
coil or an external series resistance. The I and V values may
(b) (c)
be rms, peak, or instantaneous, as long as the same measure
Figure 20-1 (a) Circuit with inductance L . (b) Sine wave is applied to all. Peak values are used here for convenience
of i L lags v L by 90°. (c) Phasor diagram. in comparing waveforms.

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 V R  100 V
V T  √ V R2  V L2
R  100 
V L  IX L V T  141 V V L  IX L
I1A  100 V  100 V
90 90
XL  VL    45
V T  141 V
100  100 V
V R  IR  100 V V R  IR  100 V

(a ) (b )

(a) Figure 20-3 Addition of two voltages 90° out of phase.

(a) Phasors for VL and VR are 90° out of phase. (b) Resultant
1 of the two phasors is the hypotenuse of a right triangle for
270 360
I
90 180 the value of VT.
1 Time
100
When VR is at its maximum value of 100 V, for instance, VL
180 270 360
VR is at zero. The total for VT then is 100 V. Similarly, when VL
90
Time is at its maximum value of 100 V, then VR is zero and the
100
total VT is also 100 V.
100
Actually, VT has its maximum value of 141 V when VL and
90 180 270 360
VL VR are each 70.7 V. When series voltage drops that are out of
Time VL phase are combined, therefore, they cannot be added without
100
taking the phase difference into account.
141
100

VT
90 180 270 360 Phasor Voltage Triangle
45 135 225 90
Time Instead of combining waveforms that are out of phase, we
100
141 I VR can add them more quickly by using their equivalent pha-
(b) (c)
sors, as shown in Fig. 20-3. The phasors in Fig. 20-3a show
only the 90° angle without any addition. The method in
Figure 20-2 Inductive reactance XL and resistance R Fig. 20-3b is to add the tail of one phasor to the arrowhead
in series. (a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms of current and voltage. of the other, using the angle required to show their relative
(c) Phasor diagram.
phase. Voltages VR and VL are at right angles because they
are 90° out of phase. The sum of the phasors is a resultant
phasor from the start of one to the end of the other. Since the
Phase Comparisons
VR and VL phasors form a right angle, the resultant phasor is
Note the following: the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The hypotenuse is the side
1. Voltage VL is 90° out of phase with I. opposite the 90° angle.
2. However, VR and I are in phase. From the geometry of a right triangle, the Pythagorean
theorem states that the hypotenuse is equal to the square root
3. If I is used as the reference, VL is 90° out of phase
of the sum of the squares of the sides. For the voltage tri-
with VR.
angle in Fig. 20-3b, therefore, the resultant is
Specifically, VR lags VL by 90°, just as the current I lags ________
VL. These phase relations are shown by the waveforms in VT 5 Ï V 2R 1 V2L (20-1)
Fig. 20-2b and the phasors in Fig. 20-2c.
where VT is the phasor sum of the two voltages VR and VL 908
Combining VR and VL out of phase.
As shown in Fig. 20-2b, when the VR voltage wave is com- This formula is for VR and VL when they are in series,
bined with the VL voltage wave, the result is the voltage wave since then they are 908 out of phase. All voltages must be in
for the applied generator voltage VT. The voltage drops must the same units. When VT is an rms value, VR and VL are also
add to equal the applied voltage. The 100-V peak values for rms values. For the example in Fig. 20-3,
VR and for VL total 141 V, however, instead of 200 V, because ___________ _______________
VT 5 Ï 1002 1 1002 5 Ï 10,000 1 10,000
of the 90° phase difference. ______
Consider some instantaneous values to see why the 100-V 5 Ï 20,000
peak VR and 100-V peak VL cannot be added arithmetically. 5 141 V

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 IR and I have the same phase, the angle is also 458 between
VT and I.
ZT  √R 2  X L2 In the corresponding impedance triangle in Fig. 20-4, the
ZT  141  XL  angle between Z T and R is also equal to the phase angle.
100 
Therefore, the phase angle can be calculated from the im-
pedance triangle of a series circuit by the formula
  45
X
R  100 
tan Z 5 ___L (20-3)
R
Figure 20-4 Addition of R and X L 90° out of phase in The tangent (tan) is a trigonometric function of any angle,
series circuit, to find the resultant impedance Z T . equal to the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side of
a right triangle. In this impedance triangle, XL is the oppo-
20.3 Impedance Z Triangle site side and R is the adjacent side of the angle. We use the
subscript z for  to show that Z is found from the impedance
A triangle of R and XL in series corresponds to a voltage
triangle for a series circuit. To calculate this phase angle,
triangle, as shown in Fig. 20-4. It is similar to the voltage tri-
angle in Fig. 20-3, but the common factor I cancels because X 100 5 1
tan Z 5 ___L 5 ____
the current is the same in XL and R. The resultant of the R 100
phasor addition of R and XL is their total opposition in ohms, The angle whose tangent is equal to 1 is 458. Therefore,
called impedance, with the symbol Z T.* The Z takes into ac- the phase angle is 458 in this example. The numerical values
count the 908 phase relation between R and XL. of the trigonometric functions can be found from a table or
For the impedance triangle of a series circuit with reac- from a scientific calculator.
tance and resistance, Note that the phase angle of 458 is halfway between 08
________
Z T 5 Ï R2 1 X2L (20-2) and 908 because R and XL are equal.

where R, XL, and ZT are all in ohms. For the example in

Fig. 20-4, EXAMPLE 20-1
___________ _______________
ZT 5 Ï 1002 1 1002 5 Ï 10,000 1 10,000
______ If a 30-V R and a 40-V X L are in series with 100 V applied, find
5 Ï 20,000 the following: ZT, I, VR, VL, and Z. What is the phase angle between
VL and VR with respect to I? Prove that the sum of the series volt-
5 141 V age drops equals the applied voltage VT .
Note that the applied voltage of 141 V divided by the total Answer:
impedance of 141 V results in 1 A of current in the series _______ ___________
circuit. The IR voltage is 1 3 100, or 100 V; the IXL voltage ZT 5 Ï R2 1 X2L 5 Ï 900 1 1600
_____
is also 1 3 100, or 100 V. The total of the series IR and IXL 5 Ï 2500
drops of 100 V each, added by phasors, equals the applied 5 50 V
voltage of 141 V. Finally, the applied voltage equals IZ, or V 100 5 2 A
1 3 141, which is 141 V. I 5 ___T 5 ____
ZT 50
Summarizing the similar phasor triangles for volts and VR 5 IR 5 2 3 30 5 60 V
ohms in a series circuit, VL 5 IXL 5 2 3 40 5 80 V
1. The phasor for R, IR, or VR is used as a reference at 08. X 40 5 __
4 5 1.33
tan Z 5 ___L 5 ___
2. The phasor for XL, IXL, or VL is at 908. R 30 3
Z 5 53.18
3. The phasor for Z, IZ, or VT has the phase angle  of the
complete circuit. Therefore, I lags V T by 53.1°. Furthermore, I and VR are in phase,
and I lags VL by 90 °. Finally,
________ _________ ____________
Phase Angle with Series X L
VT 5 Ï V 2R 1 V 2L 5 Ï 602 1 802 5 Ï 3600 1 6400
The angle between the generator voltage and its current ______
is the phase angle of the circuit. Its symbol is  (theta). In 5 Ï 10,000
Fig. 20-3, the phase angle between VT and IR is 458. Since 5 100 V
Note that the phasor sum of the voltage drops equals the applied
* Although Z T is a passive component, we consider it a phasor here because it determines voltage.
the phase angle of V and I.

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 Series Combinations of X L and R IT 
14.14 A
In a series circuit, the higher the value of X L compared IR  IL 
with R, the more inductive the circuit. This means that 10 A 10 A

there is more voltage drop across the inductive reactance VA  R1  XL 

100 V 10  10 
and the phase angle increases toward 908. The series
current lags the applied generator voltage. With all X L
and no R, the entire applied voltage is across X L , and Z
equals 908. (a)

At the opposite extreme, when R is much larger than XL,

the series circuit is mainly resistive. The total impedance ZT 100
VA 270 360
is approximately equal to R, and the voltage drop across R 90 180
100 Time
is practically equal to the applied voltage, with almost none 10
across XL.
IR
When XL and R equal each other, their resultant imped-
Time
10
ance ZT is 1.41 times the value of either one. The phase angle
10
then is 458, halfway between 08 for resistance alone and 908
IL
for inductive reactance alone.
Time
10
20.4 XL and R in Parallel VA IR

14
For parallel circuits with X L and R, the 90° phase angle 10 90
must be considered for each of the branch currents, in- IT
135 180 315 360
stead of the voltage drops. Remember that any series cir- 45 90 225 270 Time
10
cuit has different voltage drops but one common current. 14
A parallel circuit has different branch currents but one IL
common voltage.
(b) (c)
In the parallel circuit in Fig. 20-5a, the applied voltage VA
is the same across XL, R, and the generator, since they are all Figure 20-5 Inductive reactance XL and R in parallel.
in parallel. There cannot be any phase difference between (a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms of applied voltage and branch
currents. (c) Phasor diagram.
these voltages. Each branch, however, has its individual cur-
rent. For the resistive branch, IR 5 VAyR; in the inductive
branch, IL 5 VAyXL. The phasor for IL is down, compared with up for an XL
The resistive branch current IR is in phase with the gen- phasor. Here the parallel branch current IL lags the parallel
erator voltage VA. The inductive branch current IL lags VA, voltage reference VA. In a series circuit, the XL voltage leads
however, because the current in an inductance lags the volt- the series current reference I. For this reason, the IL phasor is
age across it by 908. shown with a negative 908 angle. The 2908 means that the
The total line current, therefore, consists of IR and IL, current IL lags the reference phasor VA.
which are 908 out of phase with each other. The phasor sum The phasor addition of the branch currents in a parallel
of IR and IL equals the total line current IT. These phase re- circuit can be calculated by the phasor triangle for currents
lations are shown by the waveforms in Fig. 20-5b, and the shown in Fig. 20-6. Peak values are used for convenience in
phasors in Fig. 20-5c. Either way, the phasor sum of 10 A for
IR and 10 A for IL is equal to 14.14 A for IT.
IR  10 A
Both methods illustrate the general principle that quadra-
  45
ture components must be combined by phasor addition. The
branch currents are added by phasors here because they are
IT  √ IR2  IL2
the factors that are 908 out of phase in a parallel circuit. This IL 
IT  14.14 A 10 A
method is similar to combining voltage drops 908 out of
phase in a series circuit.

Phasor Current Triangle

Note that the phasor diagram in Fig. 20-5c has the applied Figure 20-6 Phasor triangle of inductive and resistive
voltage VA of the generator as the reference phasor because branch currents 90° out of phase in a parallel circuit to find
VA is the same throughout the parallel circuit. resultant I T.

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 this example, but when the applied voltage is an rms value,
EXAMPLE 20-2
the calculated currents are also in rms values. To calculate
the total line current, What is the total Z of a 600-V R in parallel with a 300-V X L?
Assume 600 V for the applied voltage.
_______
IT 5 Ï I 2R 1 I 2L (20-4) Answer:

IR 5 600 V 51A
______
For the values in Fig. 20-6, 600 V

_________ __________ IL 5 600 V 52A

______
2 2 300 V
IT 5 Ï 10  1 10 5 Ï 100 1 100 _______
____ IT 5 Ï I2R 1 I 2L
5 Ï 200 ______ __
5 Ï1 1 4 5 Ï5
5 14.14 A
5 2.24 A
Impedance of X L and R in Parallel Then, dividing the assumed value of 600 V for the applied voltage
A practical approach to the problem of calculating the total by the total line current gives
impedance of X L and R in parallel is to calculate the total V 600 V
line current IT and divide this value into the applied volt- Z EQ 5 ___A 5 ______
IT 2.24 A
age VA:
5 268 V
V
Z EQ 5 ___A (20-5)
IT
The combined impedance of a 600-V R in parallel with
For example, in Fig. 20-5, VA is 100 V and the resultant IT, a 300-V XL is equal to 268 V, no matter how much the ap-
obtained as the phasor sum of the resistive and reactive plied voltage is.
branch currents, is equal to 14.14 A. Therefore, we calculate
the impedance as Phase Angle with Parallel X L and R
In a parallel circuit, the phase angle is between the line
V 100 V current IT and the common voltage VA applied across all
Z EQ 5 ___A 5 _______
IT 14.14 A branches. However, the resistive branch current IR has the
same phase as VA. Therefore, the phase of IR can be substi-
5 7.07 V
tuted for the phase of VA. This is shown in Fig. 20-5c. The
triangle of currents is shown in Fig. 20-6. To find I from the
This impedance is the combined opposition in ohms across branch currents, use the tangent formula:
the generator, equal to the resistance of 10 V in parallel with IL
the reactance of 10 V. tan 1 5 2__
IR (20-6)
Note that the impedance for equal values of R and XL in
parallel is not one-half but equals 70.7% of either one. Still, We use the subscript I for  to show that I is found from the
the combined value of ohms must be less than the lowest triangle of branch currents in a parallel circuit. In Fig. 20-6,
ohms value in the parallel branches. I is −458 because IL and IR are equal. Then tan I 5 −1.
For the general case of calculating the impedance of The negative sign is used for this current ratio because
X L and R in parallel, any number can be assumed for IL is lagging at −908, compared with IR. The phase angle of
the applied voltage because the value of VA cancels in −458 here means that IT lags IR and VA by 458.
the calculations for Z in terms of the branch currents. Note that the phasor triangle of branch currents gives I as
A good value to assume for VA is the value of either R the angle of IT with respect to the generator voltage VA. This
or X L , whichever is the higher number. This way, there phase angle for IT is with respect to the applied voltage as the
are no fractions smaller than 1 in the calculation of the reference at 08. For the phasor triangle of voltages in a series
branch currents. For XL in parallel with R, Z EQ can also be circuit, the phase angle Z for ZT and VT is with respect to the
calculated as series current as the reference phasor at 08.
Parallel Combinations of X L and R
XL R
Z EQ 5 __________
_______
2
When XL is 10 times R, the parallel circuit is practically re-
2
Ï R 1 XL sistive because there is little inductive current in the line.

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 The small value of IL results from the high XL. The total Because of these losses, the Q of a coil does not increase
impedance of the parallel circuit is approximately equal to without limit as XL increases for higher frequencies. Gener-
the resistance, then, since the high value of XL in a parallel ally, Q can increase by a factor of about 2 for higher frequen-
branch has little effect. cies, within the range for which the coil is designed. The
As XL becomes smaller, it provides more inductive cur- highest Q for RF coils generally results from an inductance
rent in the main line. When XL is 1⁄10 R, practically all of the value that provides an XL of about 1000 V at the operating
line current is the IL component. Then the parallel circuit frequency.
is practically all inductive, with a total impedance practi- More fundamentally, Q is defined as the ratio of reactive
cally equal to XL. The phase angle of −84.38 is almost −908 power in the inductance to the real power dissipated in the
because the line current is mostly inductive. Note that these resistance. Then
conditions are opposite from those of XL and R in series. P I 2 XL ___
X 2f L
When XL and R are equal, their branch currents are equal Q 5 ___L 5 ____ 5 rL 5 _____
ri
Pri 2
I ri i
and the phase angle is −458. All these phase angles are nega-
tive for parallel IL and IR. which is the same as Formula (20-7).

20.5 Q of a Coil Skin Effect

The ability of a coil to produce self-induced voltage is indi- Radio-frequency current tends to flow at the surface of a
cated by XL, since it includes the factors of frequency and conductor at very high frequencies, with little current in
inductance. However, a coil has internal resistance equal to the solid core at the center. This skin effect results from the
the resistance of the wire in the coil. This internal ri of the fact that current in the center of the wire encounters slightly
coil reduces the current, which means less ability to produce more inductance because of the magnetic flux concentrated
induced voltage. Combining these two factors of XL and ri, in the metal, compared with the edges, where part of the flux
the quality or merit of a coil is indicated by is in air. For this reason, conductors for VHF currents are
XL _____ often made of hollow tubing. The skin effect increases the
2f L
Q 5 ___
r 5 r (20-7) effective resistance because a smaller cross-sectional area is
i i
used for the current path in the conductor.
As shown in Fig. 20-7, the internal ri is in series with XL.
As an example, a coil with XL of 500 V and ri of 5 V AC Effective Resistance
has a Q of 500⁄5 5 100. The Q is a numerical value without
any units, since the ohms cancel in the ratio of reactance When the power and current applied to a coil are measured
to resistance. This Q of 100 means that the XL of the coil is for RF applied voltage, the I2 R loss corresponds to a much
100 times more than its ri. higher resistance than the dc resistance measured with an
The Q of coils may range in value from less than 10 for ohmmeter. This higher resistance is the ac effective resis-
a low-Q coil up to 1000 for a very high Q. Radio-frequency tance Re. Although it is a result of high-frequency alternat-
(RF) coils generally have Qs of about 30 to 300. ing current, Re is not a reactance; Re is a resistive component
At low frequencies, ri is just the dc resistance of the wire in because it draws in-phase current from the ac voltage source.
the coil. However, for RF coils, the losses increase with higher The factors that make the Re of a coil more than its dc
frequencies and the effective ri increases. The increased re- resistance include skin effect, eddy currents, and hysteresis
sistance results from eddy currents and other losses. losses. Air-core coils have low losses but are limited to small
values of inductance.
For a magnetic core in RF coils, a powdered-iron or fer-
rite slug is generally used. In a powdered-iron slug, the gran-
ules of iron are insulated from each other to reduce eddy
XL
currents. Ferrite materials have small eddy-current losses
because they are insulators, although magnetic. A ferrite
XL core is easily saturated. Therefore, its use must be limited to
Q
ri
coils with low values of current.
ri As an example of the total effect of ac losses, assume that
an air-core RF coil of 50-H inductance has a dc resistance
of 1 V measured with the battery in an ohmmeter. However,
in an ac circuit with a 2-MHz current, the effective coil re-
Figure 20-7 The Q of a coil depends on its inductive sistance Re can increase to 12 V. The increased resistance
reactance XL and resistance ri. reduces the Q of the coil.

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 Actually, the Q can be used to determine the effective ac 20.6 AF and RF Chokes
resistance. Since Q is XLyRe, then Re equals XLyQ. For this
Inductance has the useful characteristic of providing
50-H L at 2 MHz, its XL, equal to 2f L, is 628 V. The Q
more ohms of reactance at higher frequencies. Resis-
of the coil can be measured on a Q meter, which operates on
tance has the same opposition at all frequencies and for
the principle of resonance. Let the measured Q be 50. Then
direct current. The skin effect for L at very high frequen-
Re 5 628 ⁄50, equal to 12.6 V.
cies is not being considered here. These characteristics of
In general, the lower the internal resistance of a coil, the
L and R are applied to the circuit in Fig. 20-8 where X L
higher its Q.
is much greater than R for the frequency of the ac source
VT. The result is that L has practically all the voltage drop
in this series circuit with very little of the applied voltage
EX A M P L E 20 -3
across R.
An air-core coil has an X L of 700 V and an Re of 2 V. Calculate The inductance L is used here as a choke. Therefore, a
the value of Q for this coil. choke is an inductance in series with an external R to prevent
Answer: the ac signal voltage from developing any appreciable output
X across R at the frequency of the source.
700
Q 5 ____L 5 ____
Re 2 The dividing line in calculations for a choke can be taken
5 350 as XL 10 or more times the series R. Then the circuit is pri-
marily inductive. Practically all the ac voltage drop is across
L, with little across R. This case also results in  of practi-
cally 908, but the phase angle is not related to the action of
EXAMPLE 20-4 XL as a choke.
Figure 20-8b illustrates how a choke is used to pre-
A 200-H coil has a Q of 40 at 0.5 MHz. Find Re.
vent ac voltage in the input from developing voltage in
Answer: the output for the next circuit. Note that the output here is
X 2f L VR from point A to earth ground. Practically all ac input
Re 5 ___L 5 _____
Q Q voltage is across X L between points B and C. However,
6 26 this voltage is not coupled out because neither B nor C is
2 3 0.5 3 10 3 200 3 10
5 __________________________
40 grounded.
628
____ The desired output across R could be direct current from
5 the input side without any ac component. Then X L has no
40
5 15.7 V effect on the steady dc component. Practically all dc volt-
age would be across R for the output, but the ac voltage
would be just across X L. The same idea applies to passing
The Q of a Capacitor an AF signal through to R, while blocking an RF signal
as IX L across the choke because of more X L at the higher
The quality Q of a capacitor in terms of minimum loss is
frequency.
often indicated by its power factor. The lower the numerical
value of the power factor, the better the quality of the capaci-
V L  IX L  99.5 V
tor. Since the losses are in the dielectric, the power factor of
X L  1000  In
the capacitor is essentially the power factor of the dielectric, B C
A Out
independent of capacitance value or voltage rating. At radio
frequencies, approximate values of power factor are 0.000 VR 
9.95 V
for air or vacuum, 0.0004 for mica, about 0.01 for paper, and VT  R
100 V 100 
0.0001 to 0.03 for ceramics.
The reciprocal of the power factor can be considered the
Q of the capacitor, similar to the idea of the Q of a coil. For
instance, a power factor of 0.001 corresponds to a Q of 1000. (a) (b)
A higher Q therefore means better quality for the capacitor.
If the leakage resistance Rl is known, the Q can be calculated Figure 20-8 Coil used as a choke with XL at least
10 3 R. Note that R is an external resistor; VL across L
as Q 5 2f RlC. Capacitors have Qs that are much higher is practically all of the applied voltage with very little VR.
than those of inductors. The Q of capacitors typically ranges (a) Circuit with XL and R in series. (b) Input and output
into the thousands, depending on design. voltages.

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 20.7 Power in AC Circuits Reactive Power
In any ac circuit with inductive or capacitive reactance, the Reactive power is the power that appears to be consumed
current either lags or leads to applied voltage by some phase by the reactive component in a circuit. In reality, reactive
angle between 0 and 90º. With this condition, computing the components do not consume any power. During part of an
power consumed by the circuit can be confusing. As it turns ac cycle, the component does consume power as it stores en-
out, there are actually three different types of power involved ergy. In another part of the cycle, the reactive component
in any reactive circuit: real power (P), reactive power (Q) and gives that power back to the circuit. The net consumption is
apparent power (S). zero. However, any resistive part of the reactive component
will dissipate power. Examples are the resistance of the wire
Real Power in an inductor and the resistance of the plates and leads of a
Real power, or true power, is the power dissipated by the capacitor.
resistance in the circuit. You can always calculate it with the The reactive power Q is computed with the expression
familiar expression Q 5 I2 X (20-9)
P 5 I2 R (20-8) Further expressions for finding Q include

This is the power that generates the heat in the circuit. V2

Q 5 ___X
Using the circuit in Fig. 20-9a, you can see that the cur- X
rent in the circuit is 2 A and the resistance is 100 V. The real Q 5 VX I
power therefore is
where X is the capacitive or inductive reactance and VX is the
P 5 I2 R 5 4 3 100 5 400 W voltage across the reactance.
You could also compute the real power with the expressions In Fig. 20-9a, the voltage across the inductor is
VX 5 IX 5 2 3 173 5 364 V
V2
P 5 ___R
R The reactive power then is
P 5 VR I V2X ____ 2
Q5 ___ 5 364 5 765.87 VAR
where VR is the voltage drop across the resistor, not the ap- X 173
plied voltage. Both these formulas will give you the same The unit of reactive is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR). The
400 W of real power. watt is reserved only for real power.
The unit of real power is the watt, as in dc circuits.
Apparent Power
2
I R 400 W Apparent power is as the name implies is the power that is
assumed to be consumed by the circuit. Apparent power is
R 100 
I 2 A computed as
VT  X L S 5 VI (20-10)
400 V 173 
P  0W where V is the applied voltage VT and I is the total circuit
V I cos   400 W current. The apparent power in Fig. 20-9a is
(a) S 5 400 3 2 5 800 VA
The unit of apparent power is the volt-ampere (VA).
Most ac power components that have some reactance like
transformers, and motors are rated in VA rather than watts
Z 200  X L 173  because VA gives a more accurate indication of what the
actual current the total load will draw and use. And that,
 Z  60  in turn, dictates the wire sizes that must be used for safety
reasons.
R 100 

(b) Power Factor

Figure 20-9 Real power, P, in a series circuit. The ideal condition of most power circuits is that there be
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Impedance triangle with phase angle. no reactance so that the real power and the apparent power

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 are the same. A reactive component in the circuit means
EXAMPLE 20-5
that the generator capacity and the current-handling ca-
pability of any related power lines must be greater than if A series RC circuit contains a capacitor with a reactance of 70 V
the load were purely resistive. Therefore, it is important to and a resistance of 90 V. The applied voltage is 240 V. What are
have some measure that indicates the relationship between the real, reactive, and apparent power values? What is the power
the real and apparent power values. This measure is called factor? What is the phase angle?
the power factor (PF). It is the ratio of the real to apparent Answer:
_______ _________ ______
power, or Z 5 Ï R2 1 X2 5 Ï 902 1 702 5 Ï 13,000 5 114 V
P I 5 VyZ 5 240y114 5 2.1 A
PF 5 __ (20-11)
S S 5 IV 5 2.1(240) 5 505.2 VA
It tells the percentage of real power in relationship to the Q 5 I2 X 5 2.12 3 70 5 308.7 VAR
apparent power. In the circuit of Fig. 20-9a, the power fac- P 5 I2 R 5 2.12 3 90 5 396.9 W
tor is PF 5 RyZ 5 90/114 5 0.79 or PF 5 PyS 5 0.79
P 5 ____
400 5 0.5 PF 5 cos  5 0.79
PF 5 __
S 800  5 cos21 0.79 5 arcos 0.79 5 37.86°
Therefore, 50% of the total apparent power is real power.
You can also express power factor as the ratio of the resis-
tance in the circuit to the total impedance, or EXAMPLE 20-6
R
PF 5 __ A parallel RC circuit has a resistance of 7 ohm and a capacitive
Z reactance of 10 V. The applied voltage is 120 V. Calculate the real,
reactive, and apparent power and the power factor.
In Fig. 20-9, the power factor is
Answer:
R 5 ____
PF 5 __ 100 5 0.5 All of the formulas given earlier work for parallel circuits as well
Z 200 as series circuits.

As it turns out, as you can see in Fig. 20-9b, the ratio of R P 5 V2yR 5 1202y7 5 2057 W or 2.057 kW
to Z is the ratio of the adjacent side of the triangle to the hy- Q 5 V yX 5 120 y10 5 1440 VAR
2 2

potenuse. This is the same as the cosine of the phase angle.

IR 5 VyR 5 120y7 5 17.14 A
Therefore the power factor is
IC 5 VyXC 5 120y10 5 12 A
PF 5 R/Z 5 cos  (20-12) The total current is
_______ ___________
IT 5 Ï I2R 1 I2X 5 Ï 17.142 1 122 5 20.93 A
In the circuit of Fig. 20-9a, the phase angle is 60°.
Z 5 VyIT 5 120/20.93 5 5.73 Ω
PF 5 cos  5 cos 60 5 0.5 S 5 VIT 5 120 3 20.93 5 2511.6 VA
PF 5 PyS 5 2057y2511.6 5 0.81
You can compute the real power from the power factor
and the apparent power:

P 5 S cos  20.8 Complex Impedances

As you have seen in Formula (20-2), the impedance of a se-
In the example we have been using, ries RL or RC circuit is calculated with the expression
_______
P 5 S cos  5 80(0.5) 5 400 W Z 5 Ï R2 1 X2
This relationship is expressed in the form of an impedance
Remember, the goal is a power factor of 1 where the
triangle. As an example, assume we have a series RL circuit,
real and apparent power are the same. That goal is rarely
as shown in Fig. 20-10a. With R 5 3 V and XL 5 4 V, the
achieved, but the idea is to have the power factor as close to 1
impedance is
as possible. A power factor of 0 would indicate no real power _______ _______
dissipation or only pure reactive power. Z 5 Ï R2 1 X2 5 Ï 32 1 42 5 5 V

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 j
7

R3 6

Z5 XL  4  5
Z5 3  j4
4

XL  4  3

2
R3
1
(a) (b)

Figure 20-10 Impedance of (a) a curcuit expressed as 0

5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
(b) an impedance triangle. 1

2
This is illustrated in the impedance triangle shown in 3
Fig.20-10b.
4
Another way to express this impedance is with a complex
number such as 5

6
Z 5 R 1 jX 5 3 1 j4
7
This is called the complex impedance. That format is used
8
in certain circuit analysis and calculation methods. 5  j8
This complex number is derived by plotting the resistance
and reactance on a set of rectangular coordinates, as shown Figure 20-11 Real and imaginary axis for plotting
complex impedances.
in Fig. 20-11. There is a real axis and an imaginary axis. The
horizontal real axis is used for plotting real numbers, either
positive or negative. The real axis is used to plot the resis- related impedance triangle. This is the same impedance tri-
tance. Since there is no negative resistance, only the positive angle you are familiar with, but it is on the set of axes.
axis to the right is used. A capacitive circuit is plotted in the same way. Assume
The vertical axis is called the j axis and is used to plot a series RC circuit with R 5 5 V and XC 5 8 Ω. The com-
imaginary numbers. The imaginary numbers are the reac- plex impedance is Z 5 5 2 j8 and is plotted on the chart in
tance values. The j factor simply indicates a 90° phase shift. Fig. 20-11.
(You do not multiply by j or 90.) It indicates that the reac- Voltages and currents can also be expressed in complex
tance causes a 90° shift. An inductance produces a 190° form. Moreover, there are rules for adding, subtracting, mul-
shift, and a capacitance produces a 290° shift. tiplying, and dividing complex numbers.
We plot the impedance Z 5 3 1j4 on the chart as shown You won’t generally need to use these complex numbers,
in Fig. 20-11. Using the plotted points, we can then draw the but it is helpful to know what they mean.

CHAPTER 20 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Power Factor Correction

When sine-wave power is delivered to customers as the util- to require the utility power generators to supply more power
ity companies do, the desire is for a power factor of 1, where at a higher current level. This increases the losses in the sys-
the actual real power consumed is equal to the apparent tem and makes it necessary for more power to be generated
power. However, because there are so many inductive loads than actually used. This wastes energy. The solution to this
in the form of transformers and motors, the power factor is problem is power factor correction.
always less than 1. How much less is a matter of the actual Power factor correction is the process of adding a capaci-
number of inductive loads, which can vary widely from loca- tor across the ac line to offset the effects of the inductive
tion to location as well as the time of day. The effect of this is loads. See Fig. S20-1. Here the total inductive reactance of

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 Inductive inductive effects. What we need is a capacitor that provides
loads
(motors, etc.) a reactance of 40 V at 60 Hz.
Recall that the capacitive reactance is
1
XC 5 _____
XL  40  2fC
Power factor Knowing XC and f, we can find C:
AC power
correction Xc  40 
generator 1 5 ___________
1
capacitor C 5 ______ 5 66.35 3 1026 or about 66 F
2fXC 6.28(60)(40)
Placing the capacitor across the load will produce a lead-
ing phase shift that will offset the lagging phase shift of
the inductive load. The capacitive current will almost com-
Resistive
loads pletely cancel the inductive component of the load current.
The resulting line current will be very low. The cancellation
Figure S20-1 Power factor correction with a parallel
will not be complete because there still is a resistive part of
capacitor.
the load. The power factor will be near 1.
All utility companies have a way to switch in power fac-
the load is a hypothetical 40 V at 60 Hz. Assume that this is tor correction capacitors to help improve the efficiency of the
producing a lagging phase shift of 30°. This means that the power delivery. These capacitors may be located in substations
power factor is or may actually be on power poles near transformers. By moni-
toring the phase angle of the power, the correct amount of ca-
PF 5 cos  5 cos 30° 5 0.866
pacitance can be switched in as needed. The inductive loading
To correct for this phase shift, the idea is to connect a ca- will vary over time so the process of monitoring and correcting
pacitor in parallel with the load that will offset or cancel the is a continuous one. The resulting energy savings is enormous.

CHAPTER 20 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Inductive reactance, XL, c. 15 V.

a. applies only to nonsinusoidal waveforms or dc. d. 3 V.
b. applies only to sine waves. 5. A 50-V resistor is in parallel with an inductive reac-
c. applies to either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal tance, XL, of 50 V. The combined equivalent imped-
waveforms. ance, Z EQ of this combination is
d. is inversely proportional to frequency. a. 70.7 V.
2. For an inductor in a sine-wave ac circuit, b. 100 V.
a. VL leads iL by 90°. c. 35.36 V.
b. VL lags iL by 90°. d. 25 V.
c. VL and iL are in phase. 6. In a parallel RL circuit,
d. none of the above. a. IL lags IR by 90°.
3. In a series RL circuit, b. IL leads IR by 90°.
a. VL lags VR by 90°. c. IL and IR are in phase.
b. VL leads VR by 90°. d. IR lags IL by 90°.
c. VR and I are in phase. 7. In a parallel RL circuit, where IR 5 1.2 A and
d. both b and c. IL 5 1.6 A, how much is the total current, IT?
4. In a series RL circuit where VL 5 9 V and VR 5 12 V, a. 2.8 A.
how much is the total voltage, VT? b. 2 A.
a. 21 V. c. 4 A.
b. 225 V. d. 400 mA.

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 8. In a series RL circuit where XL 5 R, the phase c. skin effect.
angle, Z, is d. all of the above.
a. 245°. 15. If the current through a 300-mH coil increases at
b. 0°. the linear rate of 50 mA per 10 s, how much is the
c. 190°. induced voltage, VL?
d. 145°. a. 1.5 V.
9. In a parallel RL circuit, b. 1.5 kV.
a. VA and IL are in phase. c. This is impossible to determine because XL is
b. IL and IR are in phase. unknown.
c. VA and IR are in phase. d. This is impossible to determine because VL also
d. VA and IR are 90° out of phase. increases at a linear rate.
10. A 1-kV resistance is in series with an inductive reac- 16. The unit for real power is
tance, XL, of 2 kV. The total impedance, ZT, is a. watts.
a. 2.24 kV. b. kilowatt-hours.
b. 3 kV. c. VA.
c. 1 kV. d. VAR.
d. 5 MV. 17. Real power is the power dissipated by the
11. When the frequency of the applied voltage decreases a. complete circuit.
in a parallel RL circuit, b. capacitor.
a. the phase angle, I, becomes less negative. c. inductor.
b. Z EQ increases. d. Resistance.
c. Z EQ decreases. 18. Ideal reactive components like inductors or capacitors
d. both a and b. dissipate heat.
12. When the frequency of the applied voltage increases a. True.
in a series RL circuit, b. False.
a. Z increases. 19. Power factor is the ratio of the
b. ZT decreases. a. real power to reactive power.
c. ZT increases. b. reactive power to real power.
d. both a and c. c. real power to apparent power.
13. The dividing line for calculating the value of a choke d. reactive power to apparent power.
inductance is to make 20. The ideal power factor is
a. XL 10 or more times larger than the series R. a. 0.
b. XL one-tenth or less than the series R. b. 1.
c. XL equal to R. c. less than 10.
d. R 10 or more times larger than the series XL. d. infinite.
14. The Q of a coil is affected by
a. frequency.
b. the resistance of the coil.

CHAPTER 20 PROBLEMS

SECTION 20.1 Sine Wave i L Lags v L by 90° VA 

20.1 In Fig. 20-12, what is the

a. peak value of the inductor voltage, vL? vA  10 V Peak
0 XL  1 k
f  10 kHz
b. peak value of the inductor current, iL?
c. frequency of the inductor current, iL?
d. phase relationship between vL and iL?

Figure 20-12

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 20.2 In Fig. 20-12, what is the value of the induced SECTION 20.3 Impedance Z Triangle
voltage, vL, when iL is at
20.9 In Fig. 20-15, solve for ZT, I, VL, VR, and Z.
a. 0 mA?
b. its positive peak of 10 mA?
R  100 
c. its negative peak of 10 mA?
20.3 In Fig. 20-12, draw the phasors representing vL and
iL using
VT  36 Vac XL  75 
a. iL as the reference phasor.
b. vL as the reference phasor.
SECTION 20.2 XL and R in Series
20.4 In Fig. 20-13, how much current, I, is flowing Figure 20-15
a. through the 15-V resistor, R?
20.10 Draw the impedance triangle for the circuit in
b. through the 20-V inductive reactance, XL?
Fig. 20-15. (Use R as the reference phasor.)
c. to and from the terminals of the applied
voltage, VT? 20.11 In Fig. 20-16, what happens to each of the follow-
ing quantities if the frequency of the applied voltage
increases?
VR  60 V a. XL.
b. ZT.
R  15 
c. I.
d. VR.
e. VL.
VT XL  VL  80 V f. Z.
20 
 4A
R  2.7 k

Figure 20-13
VT  100 Vac
L  18 mH
f  15.915 kHz
20.5 In Fig. 20-13, what is the phase relationship
between
a. I and VR?
b. I and VL? Figure 20-16
c. VL and VR?
SECTION 20.4 XL and R in Parallel
20.6 In Fig. 20-13, how much is the applied voltage, VT?
20.12 In Fig. 20-17, how much voltage is across
20.7 Draw the phasor voltage triangle for the circuit in
a. the 30-V resistor, R?
Fig. 20-13. (Use VR as the reference phasor.)
b. the 40-V inductive reactance, XL?
20.8 In Fig. 20-14, solve for
a. the resistor voltage, VR.
b. the inductor voltage, VL.
c. the total voltage, VT. VA  12 Vac R  30  XL  40 

R  1.6 k

Figure 20-17
VT XL  1.2 k 20.13 In Fig. 20-17, what is the phase relationship
between
  30 mA
a. VA and IR?
b. VA and IL?
Figure 20-14 c. IL and IR?

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 20.14 Draw the phasor current triangle for the circuit in 20.18 Why can’t the Q of a coil increase without limit as
Fig. 20-17. (Use IR as the reference phasor.) the value of XL increases for higher frequencies?
20.15 In Fig. 20-18, solve for IR, IL, IT, ZEQ, and I. 20.19 Calculate the ac effective resistance, Re, of a
350-H inductor whose Q equals 35 at 1.5 MHz.
SECTION 20.6 AF and RF Chokes
VA  120 Vac R  40  XL  60  20.20 In Fig. 20.21, calculate the required value of the
choke inductance, L, at the following frequencies:
a. f 5 500 Hz.
b. f 5 1 MHz.
Figure 20-18
L
20.16 In Fig. 20-19, what happens to each of the follow- Output
ing quantities if the frequency of the applied voltage Choke

increases?
Input R  1.5 k
a. IR.
b. IL.
c. IT.
d. ZEQ.
e. I.
Figure 20-21

20.21 If L 5 50 mH in Fig. 20-21, then what is the lowest

VA  15 Vac
R  1.5 k L  50 mH
frequency at which L will serve as a choke?
f  3.183 kHz
SECTION 20.7 Power in AC Circuits
20.22 In Fig. 20-13, calculate the real, reactive, and
Figure 20-19 apparent power and power factor.
20.23 In Fig. 20-18, calculate the real, reactive, and
SECTION 20.5 Q of a Coil apparent power and power factor.
20.17 For the inductor shown in Fig. 20-20, calculate the SECTION 20.8 Complex Impedances
Q for the following frequencies:
a. f 5 500 Hz. 20.24 Express the impedance of the circuit in Fig. 20-4 as
b. f 5 10 kHz. a complex number.
20.25 A series RC circuit has a resistance of 55 V and
capacitive reactance of 90 V. What is the complex
impedance?
L  100 mH

ri  100 

Figure 20-20

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 Ch a pt er 21
RC and L/R Time Constants

Many applications of inductance are for sine-wave ac Learning Outcomes

circuits, but anytime the current changes, L has the effect
of producing induced voltage. Examples of nonsinusoi- After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
dal waveshapes include dc voltages that are switched Define the term time constant.
on or off, square waves, sawtooth waves, and rectan- Calculate the time constant of a circuit containing
gular pulses. For capacitance, also, many applications resistance and inductance.
are for sine waves, but whenever the voltage changes, Explain the effect of producing a high voltage
C produces charge or discharge current. when opening an RL circuit.
With nonsinusoidal voltage and current, the effect Calculate the time constant of a circuit containing
of L or C is to produce a change in waveshape. This resistance and capacitance.
effect can be analyzed by means of the time constant List the criteria for proper differentiation and
for capacitive and inductive circuits. The time constant integration.
is the time for a change of 63.2% in the current through Explain why a long time constant is required for an
L or the voltage across C. RC coupling circuit.
Actually, RC circuits are more common than RL cir- Use the universal time constant graph to solve for
voltage and current values in an RC or RL circuit
cuits because capacitors are smaller and more eco-
that is charging or discharging.
nomical and do not have strong magnetic fields.

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 21.1 Response of Resistance Alone opened, the transient response of the RL circuit opposes the
decay of current toward the steady-state value of zero.
Figure 21-1a illustrates how an ordinary resistive circuit be-
The transient response is measured in terms of the ratio
haves. When the switch is closed, the battery supplies 10 V
L兾R, which is the time constant of an inductive circuit. To
across the 10- R and the resultant I is 1 A. The graph in
calculate the time constant,
Fig. 21-1b shows that I changes from 0 to 1 A instantly when
the switch is closed. If the applied voltage is changed to 5 V, T  __ L (21-1)
R
the current will change instantly to 0.5 A. If the switch is
opened, I will immediately drop to zero. where T is the time constant in seconds, L is the inductance
Resistance has only opposition to current; there is no reac- in henrys, and R is the resistance in ohms. The resistance in
tion to a change because R has no concentrated magnetic field series with L is either the coil resistance, an external resis-
to oppose a change in I, like inductance, and no electric field tance, or both in series. In Fig. 21-2,
to store charge that opposes a change in V, like capacitance. L  ___
T  __ 1  0.1 s
R 10
21.2 L /R Time Constant Specifically, the time constant is a measure of how long it
Consider the circuit in Fig. 21-2, where L is in series with R. takes the current to change by 63.2%, or approximately 63%.
When S is closed, the current changes as I increases from In Fig. 21-2, the current increases from 0 to 0.63 A, which is
zero. Eventually, I will reach the steady value of 1 A, equal to 63% of the steady-state value, in a period of 0.1 s, which is
the battery voltage of 10 V divided by the circuit resistance of one time constant. In a period of five time constants, the cur-
10 . While the current is building up from 0 to 1 A, however, rent is practically equal to its steady-state value of 1 A.
I is changing and the inductance opposes the change. The ac-
tion of the RL circuit during this time is its transient response, EXAMPLE 21-1
which means that a temporary condition exists only until the
steady-state current of 1 A is reached. Similarly, when S is What is the time constant of a 20-H coil having 100  of series
resistance?
I1A
Answer:
S L  ______
T  __ 20 H
I R 100 
V  R  0.2 s
10 V 10 

Time
EXAMPLE 21-2
(a) (b)
An applied dc voltage of 10 V will produce a steady-state current
Figure 21-1 Response of circuit with R alone. When of 100 mA in the 100- coil of Example 21-1. How much is the cur-
switch is closed, current I is 10 V/10   1 A. (a) Circuit. rent after 0.2 s? After 1 s?
(b) Graph of steady I.
Answer:
Steady-state value of 1 A
Since 0.2 s is one time constant, I is 63% of 100 mA, which equals
63 mA. After five time constants, or 1 s (0.2 s  5), the current will
S reach its steady-state value of 100 mA and remain at this value
R
10  as long as the applied voltage stays at 10 V.
I 0.63 A

V  L
10 V 1H EX A M P L E 2 1 -3

If a 1-M R is added in series with the coil of Example 21-1, how

L 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
much will the time constant be for the higher resistance RL circuit?
T   0.1 s
R
Time, s Answer:
(a) (b)
L  ___________
T  __ 20 H
Figure 21-2 Transient response of circuit with R and R 1,000,000 
inductance L. When the switch is closed, I rises from zero to  20  1026 s
the steady-state value of 1 A. (a) Circuit with time constant
L/R of 1 H/ 10   0.1 s. (b) Graph of I during five time  20 ␮s
constants. Compare with graph in Fig. 21-1b.

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 The L兾R time constant becomes longer with larger val- The steady-state I is V兾R1  8⁄100  0.08 A. This value of I is
ues of L. More series R, however, makes the time constant reached after five time constants.
shorter. With more series resistance, the circuit is less induc- One time constant is L兾R  2兾100  0.02 s. Five time
tive and more resistive. constants equal 5  0.02  0.1 s. Therefore, I is 0.08 A after
0.1 s, or 100 ms. The energy stored in the magnetic field is
21.3 High Voltage Produced 64  1024 J, equal to 1⁄2 LI 2.
by Opening an RL Circuit
Opening the Circuit
When an inductive circuit is opened, the time constant for cur-
rent decay becomes very short because L兾R becomes smaller When the switch is opened in Fig. 21-3b, R2 is in series with
with the high resistance of the open circuit. Then the current L, making the total resistance 4100 , or approximately
drops toward zero much faster than the rise of current when 4 k. The result is a much shorter time constant for current
the switch is closed. The result is a high value of self-induced decay. Then L兾R is 2⁄4000, or 0.5 ms. The current decays prac-
voltage VL across a coil whenever an RL circuit is opened. This tically to zero in five time constants, or 2.5 ms.
high voltage can be much greater than the applied voltage. This rapid drop in current results in a magnetic field
There is no gain in energy, though, because the high- collapsing at a fast rate, inducing a high voltage across L.
voltage peak exists only for the short time the current is de- The peak v L in this example is 320 V. Then v L serves as the
creasing at a very fast rate at the start of the decay. Then, as voltage source for the bulb connected across the coil. As a
I decays at a slower rate, the value of VL is reduced. After the result, the neon bulb becomes ionized, and it lights for an
current has dropped to zero, there is no voltage across L. instant. One problem is arcing produced when an inductive
This effect can be demonstrated by a neon bulb connected circuit is opened. Arcing can destroy contact points on me-
across a coil, as shown in Fig. 21-3. The neon bulb requires 90 V chanical switches and completely ruin any series transistor
for ionization, at which time it glows. The source here is only switch.
8 V, but when the switch is opened, the self-induced voltage is Applications of Inductive Voltage Pulses
high enough to light the bulb for an instant. The sharp voltage
pulse or spike is more than 90 V just after the switch is opened, There are many uses for the high voltage generated by open-
when I drops very fast at the start of the decay in current. ing an inductive circuit. One example is the high voltage
Note that the 100- R1 is the internal resistance of the 2-H produced for the ignition system in an automobile. Here the
coil. This resistance is in series with L whether S is closed circuit of the battery in series with a high-inductance spark
or open. The 4-k R2 across the switch is in the circuit only coil is opened by the breaker points of the distributor to pro-
when S is opened, to have a specific resistance across the duce the high voltage needed for each spark plug. When an
open switch. Since R2 is much more than R1, the L兾R time inductive circuit is opened very rapidly, voltages as high as
constant is much shorter with the switch open. 50,000 V can easily be produced.

Closing the Circuit 21.4 RC Time Constant

In Fig. 21-3a, the switch is closed to allow current in L The transient response of capacitive circuits is measured in
and to store energy in the magnetic field. Since R2 is short- terms of the product R  C. To calculate the time constant,
circuited by the switch, the 100- R1 is the only resistance. TRC (21-2)
S
S where R is in ohms, C is in farads, and T is in seconds. In
  Fig. 21-4, for example, with an R of 3 M and a C of 1 ␮F,
R2  4 k L R2  4 k L
2H 2H T  3  106  1  1026
V   V   3s
8V 8V

R1  R1  Note that the 106 for megohms and the 1026 for microfarads
100  100  cancel. Therefore, multiplying the units of M  ␮F gives
I  0.08 A
the RC product in seconds.
(a) (b) Common combinations of units for the RC time con-
stant are
Figure 21-3 Demonstration of high voltage produced by
opening inductive circuit. (a) With switch closed, 8 V applied M  ␮F  s
cannot light the 90-V neon bulb. (b) When the switch is
opened, the short L /R time constant results in high VL , which
k  ␮F  ms
lights the bulb. M  pF  ␮s

346 Chapter 21

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 100
S1
R  3 M 80
63 V
  60
VT  C vC vC
100 V 1 F 
 40
RC time
20

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Time, s

(a )

100
S1
R  3 M 80
 60
VT  C vC
S2 vC
100 V 1 F  37 V
40

20 RC time

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Time, s

(b)

Figure 21-4 Details of how a capacitor charges and discharges in an

RC circuit. (a) With S 1 closed, C charges through R to 63% of v T in one RC
time constant of 3 s and is almost completely charged in five time constants.
(b) With S 1 opened to disconnect the battery and S2 closed for C to discharge
through R, VC drops to 37% of its initial voltage in one time constant of 3 s and
is almost completely discharged in five time constants.

The reason that the RC product is expressed in units of On discharge, the shorter time constant will allow C to
time can be illustrated as follows: C  Q兾V. The charge Q discharge from 100 to 37 V in 1 s instead of 3 s. Also, vC will
is the product of I  T. The factor V is IR. Therefore, RC is be down to zero in 5 s instead of 15 s.
equivalent to (R  Q)兾V, or (R  IT)兾IR. Since I and R can- For the opposite case, a longer time constant means slower
cel, T remains to indicate the dimension of time. charge or discharge of the capacitor. More R or C results in
a longer time constant.
The Time Constant Indicates the Rate
of Charge or Discharge RC Applications
RC specifies the time it takes C to charge to 63% of the Several examples are given here to illustrate how the time
charging voltage. Similarly, RC specifies the time it takes C constant can be applied to RC circuits.
to discharge 63% of the way down to the value equal to 37%
of the initial voltage across C at the start of discharge.
In Fig. 21-4a, for example, the time constant on charge EXAMPLE 21-4
is 3 s. Therefore, in 3 s, C charges to 63% of the 100 V ap-
plied, reaching 63 V in RC time. After five time constants, What is the time constant of a 0.01-␮F capacitor in series with a
which is 15 s here, C is almost completely charged to the 1-M resistance?
full 100 V applied. If C discharges after being charged to Answer:
100 V, then C will discharge down to 36.8 V or approxi-
mately 37 V in 3 s. After five time constants, C discharges T  R  C  1  106  0.01  1026
to zero.  0.01 s
A shorter time constant allows the capacitor to charge
or discharge faster. If the RC product in Fig. 21-4 is 1 s,
then C will charge to 63 V in 1 s instead of 3 s. Also, vC
will reach the full applied voltage of 100 V in 5 s instead The time constant in Example 21-4 is for charging or
of 15 s. Charging to the same voltage in less time means a discharging, assuming the series resistance is the same for
faster charge. charge or discharge.

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 Note that the RC time constant only specifies a rate. The
EXAMPLE 21-5
actual amount of voltage across C depends on the amount of
With a dc voltage of 300 V applied, how much is the voltage applied voltage as well as on the RC time constant.
across C in Example 21-4 after 0.01 s of charging? After 0.05 s? A capacitor takes on charge whenever its voltage is less
After 2 hours? After 2 days? than the applied voltage. The charging continues at the RC
Answer: rate until the capacitor is completely charged, or the voltage
Since 0.01 s is one time constant, the voltage across C then is is disconnected.
63% of 300 V, which equals 189 V. After five time constants, or A capacitor discharges whenever its voltage is more
0.05 s, C will  be charged practically to the applied voltage of than the applied voltage. The discharge continues at the
300 V. After 2 hours or 2 days, C will still be charged to 300 V if RC rate until the capacitor is completely discharged, the
the applied voltage is still connected.
capacitor voltage equals the applied voltage, or the load is
disconnected.
To summarize these two important principles:
EXAMPLE 21-6
1. Capacitor C charges when the net charging voltage is
If the capacitor in Example 21-5 is allowed to charge to 300 V more than vC.
and then discharged, how much is the capacitor voltage 0.01 s 2. Capacitor C discharges when vC is more than the net
after the start of discharge? The series resistance is the same on
charging voltage.
discharge as on charge.
Answer: The net charging voltage equals the difference between vC
In one time constant, C discharges to 37% of its initial voltage, or and the applied voltage.
0.37  300 V, which equals 111 V.
21.5 RC Charge and
Discharge Curves
E X A M P L E 2 1 -7 In Fig. 21-4, the rise is shown in the RC charge curve be-
Assume the capacitor in Example 21-5 is discharging after being
cause the charging is fastest at the start and then tapers
charged to 200 V. How much will the voltage across C be 0.01 s off as C takes on additional charge at a slower rate. As
after the beginning of discharge? The series resistance is the C charges, its potential difference increases. Then the dif-
same on discharge as on charge. ference in voltage between VT and vC is reduced. Less po-
Answer: tential difference reduces the current that puts the charge
In one time constant, C discharges to 37% of its initial voltage, or in C. The more C charges, the more slowly it takes on ad-
0.37  200, which equals 74 V. ditional charge.
Example 21-7 shows that the capacitor can charge or dis- Similarly, on discharge, C loses its charge at a declining
charge from any voltage value. The rate at which it charges or rate. At the start of discharge, vC has its highest value and
discharges is determined by RC, counting from the time the
can produce maximum discharge current. As the discharge
charge or discharge starts.
continues, vC goes down and there is less discharge current.
The more C discharges, the more slowly it loses the remain-
der of its charge.
EXAMPLE 21-8

If a 1-M resistance is added in series with the capacitor and

Charge and Discharge Current
resistor in Example 21-4, how much will the time constant be? There is often the question of how current can flow in a ca-
Answer: pacitive circuit with a battery as the dc source. The answer is
Now the series resistance is 2 M. Therefore, RC is 2  0.01, that current flows anytime there is a change in voltage. When
or 0.02 s. VT is connected, the applied voltage changes from zero. Then
charging current flows to charge C to the applied voltage.
After vC equals VT, there is no net charging voltage and I is
The RC time constant becomes longer with larger val- zero.
ues of R and C. More capacitance means that the capacitor Similarly, C can produce discharge current anytime vC is
can store more charge. Therefore, it takes longer to store the greater than VT. When VT is disconnected, vC can discharge
charge needed to provide a potential difference equal to 63% down to zero, producing discharge current in the direction
of the applied voltage. More resistance reduces the charging opposite from the charging current. After vC equals zero,
current, requiring more time to charge the capacitor. there is no current.

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 Capacitance Opposes Voltage Changes The flashbulb needs 5 A to ignite, but this is too much load
across Itself current for the small 15-V battery, which has a rating of
This ability of capacitance to oppose voltage changes across 30 mA for normal load current. Instead of using the bulb as a
itself corresponds to the ability of inductance to oppose a load for the battery, though, the 100-␮F capacitor is charged
change in current. When the applied voltage in an RC circuit by the battery through the 3-k R in Fig. 21-5a, and then the
increases, the voltage across the capacitance cannot increase capacitor is discharged through the bulb in Fig. 21-5b.
until the charging current has stored enough charge in C. Charging the Capacitor
The increase in applied voltage is present across the resis-
In Fig. 21-5a, S1 is closed to charge C through the 3-k R
tance in series with C until the capacitor has charged to the
without the bulb. The time constant of the RC charging cir-
higher applied voltage. When the applied voltage decreases,
cuit is 0.3 s.
the voltage across the capacitor cannot go down immediately
After five time constants, or 1.5 s, C is charged to the
because the series resistance limits the discharge current.
15 V of the battery. The peak charging current, at the first
The voltage across the capacitance in an RC circuit, there-
instant of charge, is V兾R or 15 V兾3 k, which equals 5 mA.
fore, cannot follow instantaneously the changes in applied
This value is an easy load current for the battery.
voltage. As a result, the capacitance is able to oppose changes
in voltage across itself. The instantaneous variations in VT are Discharging the Capacitor
present across the series resistance, however, since the series In Fig. 21-5b, vC is 15 V without the battery. Now S2 is
voltage drops must add to equal the applied voltage at all times. closed, and C discharges through the 3- resistance of the
21.6 High Current Produced by bulb. The time constant for discharge with the lower r of the
bulb is 3  100  1026, which equals 300 ␮s. At the first
Short-Circuiting an RC Circuit instant of discharge, when vC is 15 V, the peak discharge
A capacitor can be charged slowly by a small charging cur- current is 15⁄3, which equals 5 A. This current is enough to
rent through a high resistance and then be discharged quickly fire the bulb.
through a low resistance to obtain a momentary surge, or
pulse, of discharge current. This idea corresponds to the pulse Energy Stored in C
of high voltage obtained by opening an inductive circuit. When the 100-␮F C is charged to 15 V by the battery, the
The circuit in Fig. 21-5 illustrates the application of a energy stored in the electric field is CV 2兾2, which equals
battery-capacitor (BC) unit to fire a flashbulb for cameras. 0.01 J, approximately. This energy is available to maintain vC
at 15 V for an instant when the switch is closed. The result is
R  3 k the 5-A I through the 3- r of the bulb at the start of the decay.
Then vC and iC drop to zero in five time constants.
S1

V  C

vC
21.7 RC Waveshapes
15 V 100 F 
The voltage and current waveshapes in the RC circuit in
Fig. 21-6 show when a capacitor is allowed to charge through
a resistance for RC time and then discharge through the
(a) same resistance for the same amount of time. Note that this
particular case is not typical of practical RC circuits, but the
S2 waveshapes show some useful details about the voltage and
current for charging and discharging. The RC time constant
 Bulb
C  100 F here equals 0.1 s to simplify the calculations.
vC  15 V r  3


5A
Square Wave of Applied Voltage
The idea of closing S1 to apply 100 V and then opening it to
(b)
disconnect VT at a regular rate corresponds to a square wave
of applied voltage, as shown by the waveform in Fig. 21-6a.
Figure 21-5 Demonstration of high current produced by When S1 is closed for charge, S2 is open; when S1 is open, S2
discharging a charged capacitor through a low resistance. is closed for discharge. Here the voltage is on for the RC time
(a) When S 1 is closed, C charges to 15 V through 3 k.
(b) Without the battery, S2 is closed to allow VC to produce of 0.1 s and off for the same time of 0.1 s. The period of the
the peak discharge current of 5 A through the 3- bulb. VC square wave is 0.2 s, and f is 1兾0.2 s, which equals 5 Hz for
in (b) is across the same C used in (a). the frequency.

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 S1 Charge and Discharge Current
C As shown in Fig. 21-6c, the current i has its positive peak
vC
S2 1 F
VT  at the start of charge and its negative peak at the start of
100 V
R vR
discharge. On charge, i is calculated as the net charging volt-
100 k age, which is (VT  vC) divided by R. On discharge, i always
equals vC兾R.
ON
At the start of charge, i is maximum because the net
100 V charging voltage is maximum before C charges. Similarly,
the peak i for discharge occurs at the start, when vC is maxi-
VT (a ) mum before C discharges.
OFF
Note that i is an ac waveform around the zero axis, since
0
RC 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 the charge and discharge currents are in opposite directions.
We are arbitrarily taking the charging current as positive
100 V Time, s
71.6 V
values for i.
63 V
vC (b) Resistor Voltage vR
26.5 V
This waveshape in Fig. 21-6d follows the waveshape of cur-
23.3 V
0 rent because vR is i  R. Because of the opposite directions
of charge and discharge current, the iR waveshape is an ac
1 mA
0.767 mA voltage.
i, on
charge
Note that on charge, vR must always be equal to VT  vC
0.37 mA 0.284 mA because of the series circuit.
0 (c) On discharge, vR has the same values as vC because they
i, on 0.233 mA 0.265 mA
discharge are in parallel, without VT. Then S2 is closed to connect R
0.63 mA across C.
0.716 mA
1 mA
Why the i C Waveshape Is Important
100 V
The vC waveshape of capacitor voltage in Fig. 21-6 shows the
76.7 V
charge and discharge directly, but the iC waveshape is very
interesting. First, the voltage waveshape across R is the same
37 V
28.4 V as the iC waveshape. Also, whether C is charging or discharg-
vR 
0 (d)
iR
23.3 V 26.5 V ing, the iC waveshape is the same except for the reversed po-
larity. We can see the iC waveshape as the voltage across R.
It generally is better to connect an oscilloscope for voltage
63 V 71.6 V waveshapes across R, especially with one side grounded.
100 V
Finally, we can tell what vC is from the vR waveshape. The
Figure 21-6 Waveshapes for the charge and discharge
of an RC circuit in RC time. Circuit on top with S 1 and S2 reason is that at any instant, VT must equal the sum of vR and vC.
provides the square wave of applied voltage. Therefore vC is equal to VT  vR, when VT is charging C. When
C is discharging, there is no VT. Then vR is the same as vC.

21.8 Long and Short Time Constants

Capacitor Voltage vC Useful waveshapes can be obtained by using RC circuits
As shown in Fig. 21-6b, the capacitor charges to 63 V, equal with the required time constant. In practical applications,
to 63% of the charging voltage, in the RC time of 0.1 s. RC circuits are used more than RL circuits because almost
Then the capacitor discharges because the applied VT drops any value of an RC time constant can be obtained easily.
to zero. As a result, vC drops to 37% of 63 V, or 23.3 V in With coils, the internal series resistance cannot be short-
RC time. circuited and the distributed capacitance often causes reso-
The next charge cycle begins with vC at 23.3 V. The net nance effects.
charging voltage now is 100  23.3  76.7 V. The capacitor
voltage increases by 63% of 76.7 V, or 48.3 V. When 48.3 V is Long RC Time
added to 23.3 V, vC rises to 71.6 V. On discharge, after 0.3 s, vC Whether an RC time constant is long or short depends on
drops to 37% of 71.6 V, or to 26.5 V. the pulse width of the applied voltage. We can arbitrarily

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 define a long time constant as at least five times longer than C  0.001  F

the pulse width, in time, for the applied voltage. As a result,

C takes on very little charge. The time constant is too long
VT  R
for vC to rise appreciably before the applied voltage drops to 100 V 100 k vR
zero and C must discharge. On discharge also, with a long f  25 Hz
RC  0.1 ms
time constant, C discharges very little before the applied
voltage rises to make C charge again.
Short RC Time
A short time constant is defined as no more than one-fifth the 100 V
(a )
pulse width, in time, for the applied voltage VT. Then VT is ap- VT
plied for a period of at least five time constants, allowing C to 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

become completely charged. After C is charged, vC remains Time, s

at the value of VT while the voltage is applied. When VT drops 100 V

(b)
to zero, C discharges completely in five time constants and
vC
remains at zero while there is no applied voltage. On the next
cycle, C charges and discharges completely again.
1 mA
Differentiation
The voltage across R in an RC circuit is called a differenti- i (c)
ated output because vR can change instantaneously. A short
1 mA
time constant is always used for differentiating circuits to
provide sharp pulses of vR.
Integration 100 V

The voltage across C is called an integrated output because vR  iR (d)

it must accumulate over a period of time. A medium or long
time constant is always used for integrating circuits. 100 V

21.9 Charge and Discharge with a Figure 21-7 Charge and discharge of an RC circuit with a
Short RC Time Constant short time constant. Note that the waveshape of VR in (d ) has
sharp voltage peaks for the leading and trailing edges of the
Usually, the time constant is made much shorter or longer square-wave applied voltage.
than a factor of 5 to obtain better waveshapes. In Fig. 21-7,
RC is 0.1 ms. The frequency of the square wave is 25 Hz,
with a period of 0.04 s, or 40 ms. One-half this period is
the time when VT is applied. Therefore, the applied voltage Actually, the pulses are much sharper than shown. They
is on for 20 ms and off for 20 ms. The RC time constant of are not to scale horizontally to indicate the charge and dis-
0.1 ms is shorter than the pulse width of 20 ms by a factor of charge action. Also, vC is actually a square wave, like the
1
⁄200. Note that the time axis of all waveshapes is calibrated in applied voltage, but with slightly rounded corners for the
seconds for the period of VT, not in RC time constants. charge and discharge.

Square Wave of VT Is across C Sharp Pulses of vR

The waveshape of vC in Fig. 21-7b is the same as the square The waveshape of voltage across the resistor follows the cur-
wave of applied voltage because the short time constant al- rent waveshape because vR  iR. Each current pulse of 1 mA
lows C to charge or discharge completely very soon after VT across the 100-k R results in a voltage pulse of 100 V.
is applied or removed. The charge or discharge time of five More fundamentally, the peaks of vR equal the applied
time constants is much less than the pulse width. voltage VT before C charges. Then vR drops to zero as vC rises
to the value of VT.
Sharp Pulses of i On discharge, vR  vC, which is 100 V at the start of dis-
The waveshape of i shows sharp peaks for the charge or dis- charge. Then the pulse drops to zero in five time constants.
charge current. Each current peak is VT兾R  1 mA, decaying The pulses of vR in Fig. 21-7 are useful as timing pulses
to zero in five RC time constants. These pulses coincide with that match the edges of the square-wave applied voltage VT.
the leading and trailing edges of the square wave of VT. Either the positive or the negative pulses can be used.

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 The RC circuit in Fig. 21-7a is a good example of an RC of 0.1  ms is 200 times longer than the 0.5-␮s pulse width
differentiator. With the RC time constant much shorter than of VT with a frequency of 1 MHz. Note that the time axis is
the pulse width of VT, the voltage VR follows instantaneously calibrated in microseconds for the period of VT, not in RC
the changes in the applied voltage. Keep in mind that a dif- time constants.
ferentiator must have a short time constant with respect to
the pulse width of VT to provide good differentiation. For Very Little of VT Is across C
best results, an RC differentiator should have a time constant The waveshape of vC in Fig. 21-8b shows very little voltage
which is one-tenth or less of the pulse width of VT. rise because of the long time constant. During the 0.5 ␮s
when VT is applied, C charges to only 1⁄200 of the charging
21.10 Long Time Constant for an RC voltage. On discharge, also, vC drops very little.
Coupling Circuit
Square Wave of i
The RC circuit in Fig. 21-8 is the same as that in Fig. 21-7,
but now the RC time constant is long because of the higher The waveshape of i stays close to the 1-mA peak at the
frequency of the applied voltage. Specifically, the RC time start of charging. The reason is that vC does not increase
much, allowing VT to maintain the charging current. On
C  0.001 F discharge, the reverse i for discharge current is very small
because vC is low.

VT  R Square Wave of VT Is across R

100 V 100 k vR
f  1 MHz The waveshape of v R is the same square wave as i because
RC  0.1 ms v R  iR. The waveshapes of i and v R are essentially the
same as the square-wave VT applied. They are not shown
to scale vertically to indicate the slight charge and dis-
100 V charge action.
Eventually, vC will climb to the average dc value of 50 V, i
VT (a )
will vary 60.5 mA above and below zero, and vR will vary
650 V above and below zero. This application is an RC cou-
0.5 1 1.5 2 pling circuit to block the average value of the varying dc
100 V Time,  s
voltage VT as the capacitive voltage vC, and vR provides an ac
voltage output having the same variations as VT.
vC (b )
If the output is taken across C rather than R in Fig. 21-8a,
0.5 V
the circuit is classified as an RC integrator. In Fig. 21-8b, it
can be seen that C combines or integrates its original volt-
1 mA
0.995 mA
age with the new change in voltage. Eventually, however,
the voltage across C will reach a steady-state value of 50 V
after the input waveform has been applied for approximately
i (c) five RC time constants. Keep in mind that an integrator must
have a long time constant with respect to the pulse width of
VT to provide good integration. For best results, an RC inte-
grator should have a time constant which is 10 or more times
1 mA
longer than the pulse width of VT.
100 V
99.5 V
21.11 Advanced Time Constant Analysis
We can determine transient voltage and current values
vR (d ) for any amount of time with the curves in Fig. 21-9. The
rising curve a shows how v C builds up as C charges in
an RC circuit; the same curve applies to i L , increasing in
the inductance for an RL circuit. The decreasing curve
100 V
b shows how v C drops as C discharges or i L decays in an
Figure 21-8 Charge and discharge of an RC circuit inductance.
with a long time constant. Note that the waveshape of VR in Note that the horizontal axis is in units of time constants
(d ) has the same waveform as the applied voltage. rather than absolute time. Suppose that the time constant of

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 100 Slope at t ⴝ 0
Slope at start
90
of rise
The curves in Fig. 21-9 can be considered approximately
80
linear for the first 20% of change. In 0.1 time constant,
Percentage of full voltage or current

for instance, the change in amplitude is 10%; in 0.2 time

70
(a ) vC on charge constant, the change is 20%. The dashed lines in Fig. 21-9
i L on rise
60 show that if this constant slope continued, the result would
(b) vC on discharge be 100% charge in one time constant. This does not hap-
50 i L on decay
i C on charge or discharge pen, though, because the change is opposed by the energy
40 vR on charge or discharge stored in L and C. However, at the first instant of rise or
30
decay, at t  0, the change in vC or iL can be calculated from
the dotted slope line.
20

Slope at start Equation of the Decay Curve

10 of decay
The rising curve a in Fig. 21-9 may seem more interesting
0 1 2 3 4 5 because it describes the buildup of vC or iL , but the decay-
Time in RC or L/R time constants ing curve b is more useful. For RC circuits, curve b can be
applied to
Figure 21-9 Universal time constant chart for RC and RL
circuits. The rise or fall changes by 63% in one time constant. 1. vC on discharge
2. i and vR on charge or discharge
an RC circuit is 5 ␮s. Therefore, one RC time unit  5 ␮s, two If we use curve b for the voltage in RC circuits, the equa-
RC units  10 ␮s, three RC units  15 ␮s, four RC units  tion of this decay curve can be written as
20 ␮s, and five RC units  25 ␮s.
As an example, to find vC after 10 ␮s of charging, we v  V  ⑀t兾RC (21-3)
can take the value of curve a in Fig. 21-9 at two RC. This where V is the voltage at the start of decay and v is the in-
point is at 86% amplitude. Therefore, we can say that in stantaneous voltage after the time t. Specifically, v can be vR
this RC circuit with a time constant of 5 ␮s, vC charges to on charge and discharge or vC only on discharge.
86% of the applied VT after 10 ␮s. Similarly, some impor- The constant ⑀ is the base 2.718 for natural logarithms.
tant values that can be read from the curve are listed in The negative exponent t兾RC indicates a declining expo-
Table 21-1. nential or logarithmic curve. The value of t兾RC is the ratio of
If we consider curve a in Fig. 21-9 as an RC charge curve, actual time of decline t to the RC time constant.
vC adds 63% of the net charging voltage for each additional This equation can be converted to common logarithms
unit of one time constant, although it may not appear so. For for easier calculations. Since the natural base ⑀ is 2.718, its
instance, in the second interval of RC time, vC adds 63% of logarithm to base 10 equals 0.434. Therefore, the equation
the net charging voltage, which is 0.37 VT. Then 0.63  0.37 becomes
equals 0.23, which is added to 0.63 to give 0.86, or 86%, as
t
the total charge from the start. (
v  antilog log V  0.434  ___
RC ) (21-4)

Calculations for vR
Table 21-1 Time Constant Factors As an example, let us calculate vR dropping from 100 V, after
RC time. Then the factor t兾RC is 1. Substituting these values,
Factor Amplitude
vR  antilog (log100  0.434  1)
0.2 time constant 20%  antilog (2  0.434)
0.5 time constant 40%  antilog 1.566
0.7 time constant 50%  37 V
1 time constant 63% All these logs are to base 10. Note that log 100 is taken first
2 time constants 86% so that 0.434 can be subtracted from 2 before the antilog of
3 time constants 96% the difference is found. The antilog of 1.566 is 37.
4 time constants 98% We can also use VR to find VC, which is VT  VR. Then 100 
37  63 V for VC. These answers agree with the fact that in
5 time constants 99%
one time constant, VR drops 63% and VC rises 63%.

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 V R  100 V V R  37 V
EXAMPLE 21-9

An RC circuit has a time constant of 3 s. The capacitor is charged to

40 V. Then C is discharged. After 6 s of discharge, how much is VR?
VT  VC  VT  VC 
100 V 0V 100 V 63 V
Answer:
Note that 6 s is twice the RC time of 3 s. Then t兾RC  2.
VR  antilog (log 40  0.434  2)
 antilog (1.602  0.868)
(a) (b)
 antilog 0.734

V R  14 V VR  0 V
 5.42 V
Note that in two RC time constants, the VR is down to approxi-
mately 14% of its initial voltage, a drop of about 86%.

VT  VC  VT  VC 
100 V 86 V 100 V 100 V Calculations for t
Furthermore, Formula (21-4), can be transposed to find the
time t for a specific voltage decay. Then

t  2.3 RC log __V (21-6)

(c) (d) v
Figure 21-10 How vC and v R add to equal the applied where V is the higher voltage at the start and v is the lower
voltage v T of 100 V. (a) Zero time at the start of charging. voltage at the finish. The factor 2.3 is 1⁄0.434.
(b) After one RC time constant. (c) After two RC time As an example, let RC be 1 s. How long will it take for vR
constants. (d ) After five or more RC time constants. to drop from 100 to 50 V? The required time for this decay is
100  2.3  1  log 2
t  2.3  1  log ____
Figure 21-10 illustrates how the voltages across R and C 50
in series must add to equal the applied voltage VT. The four  2.3  1  0.3
examples with 100 V applied are  0.7 s approximately
1. At time zero, at the start of charging, VR is 100 V and This answer agrees with the fact that a drop of 50% takes
VC is 0 V. Then 100  0  100 V. 0.7 time constant. Formula (21-6) can also be used to calcu-
2. After one time constant, VR is 37 V and VC is 63 V. late the time for any decay of vC or vR.
Then 37  63  100 V. Formula (21-6) cannot be used for a rise in vC. However,
if you convert this rise to an equivalent drop in vR, the calcu-
3. After two time constants, VR is 14 V and VC is 86 V.
lated time is the same for both cases.
Then 14  86  100 V.
4. After five time constants, VR is 0 V and VC is 100 V,
approximately. Then 0  100  100 V EXAMPLE 21-10
It should be emphasized that Formulas (21-3) and (21-4) An RC circuit has an R of 10 k and a C of 0.05 ␮F. The ap-
can be used to calculate any decaying value on curve b in plied voltage for charging is 36 V. (a) Calculate the time constant.
Fig. 21-9. These applications for an RC circuit include VR on (b) How long will it take C to charge to 24 V?
charge or discharge, i on charge or discharge, and VC only on Answer:
discharge. For an RC circuit in which C is charging, Formula a. RC is 10 k  0.05 ␮F  0.5 ms or 0.5  1023 s.
(21-5) can be used to calculate the capacitor voltage vC at any b. The vC rises to 24 V while v R drops from 36 to 12 V. Then
point along curve a in Fig. 21-9: V
t  2.3 RC log __
v
vC  V(1  ⑀t兾RC ) (21-5) 36
 2.3  0.5  103  log ___
12
In Formula (21-5), V represents the maximum voltage to
which C can charge, whereas vC is the instantaneous capaci-  2.3  0.5  103  0.477
tor voltage after time t. Formula (21-5) is derived from the  0.549  103 s or 0.549 ms
fact that vC must equal VT  VR while C is charging.

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 CHAPTER 21 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Data Rate vs. Bandwidth

The amount of information that can be transmitted over creating one cycle. The period of one cycle, T, is twice the
a signal path is limited by the bandwidth of that path. bit time, or
The signal path, or medium of communications, may
just be a coaxial cable, some copper lines on a printed 1
T 5 ___
circuit board, a fiber- optic cable, or the free space of 2t b
a wireless path. All those have a finite bandwidth ei-
ther inherent or imposed by regulation. The greater the The maximum frequency of the data then is
bandwidth, the greater the amount of information that
1 5 ___
f 5 __ 1
can be sent. T 2t b
While analog information like voice, music, and
video is still transmitted over such communication For a 100-ns bit time, the maximum frequency is
paths, most information today is in the form of digital
data. Communicated information is a serial stream of 1 5 ___
f 5 __ 1
1 5 ____________ 1
5 __________ 5 5 MHz
binary numbers or words that represent the informa- T 2t b 2(100 3 1029) 200 3 1029
tion such as computer data, including digitized voice,
music, or video. The data are a sequential train of volt-
age pulses representing the binary 0s and 1s as shown Bandwidth
in Fig. S21-1. Bandwidth (BW) is a segment of the frequency spectrum.
All filters, amplifiers, and other circuits including cables
have a finite bandwidth. For example a bandpass filter with a
Data Rate center frequency of 9 MHz may only pass frequencies in the
The speed of the data refers to how many Os and 1s, or bits, range of 8,996,000 Hz to 9,004,000 Hz. See Fig. S21-2a. The
are transmitted per second, or bits per second (bps). The bandwidth is the difference between these upper and lower
faster the better. Data rate or speed is simply the reciprocal cutoff frequencies, or
of the time interval of each bit (t b) or:
BW 5 9,004,000 2 8,996,000 5 8000 Hz or 8 kHz
1
bps 5 __
t b
This BW sets the upper limit on how fast digital data can
For example, if the bit time is 100 ns, or 100 3 129, the pass through that circuit or path.
rate is Another example is an audio amplifier that passes fre-
quencies from dc to its upper cutoff frequency 20,000 Hz.
bps 5 1/100 3 1029 5 10,000,000 Refer to Figure S21-2b. Its bandwidth is

BW 5 20,000 2 0 5 20,000 Hz 5 20 kHz

This is the same as 10 megabits per second (Mbps).
The fastest data are alternating binary 0 s and 1s as
Fig. S21-1 shows. The frequency, f, of the data is the recip- Relationship between Data
rocal of one binary 0 interval plus one binary 1 interval, Rate and Bandwidth
If you want to transmit a sine wave, then the bandwidth need
only be that sufficient to pass a sine wave of the desired fre-
One cycle, T quency. However, if the data are a series of square waves
tb
1
as it is when transmitting alternating 0s and 1s, then the
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 transmission medium must also pass a sufficient number of
0 harmonics to maintain the shape of the signal. Generally, if
Time
you can pass up to the fifth harmonic of the basic frequency
Figure S21-1 Binary or digital data transmitted as a of the data, then a reasonable waveform shape is retained
streams of voltage pulses representing the binary 0s and 1s. to ensure reliable recovery the data. To amplify a 30-MHz

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 BW  8 kHz
Transmitted
signal

Noise

Received signal
with less amplitude
BW and noise

Figure S21-3 The transmission medium introduces

attenuation and noise to a transmitted signal.

8.996 9 9.004
Frequency (MHz)
the transmitted signal. Furthermore, noise gets added to the
(a)
signal along the way. Figure S21-3 illustrates this.
Noise is any interference that conflicts with the main
signal. It may be other signals picked up by inductive or
BW
Cutoff capacitive coupling to other cables or equipment. Or it
frequency
could be electrical interference from power lines, auto
ignitions, fluorescent lights, motors, or other electronic
equipment. In any case, the received signal is not only
smaller at the receiver but also has noise added to it.
The noise may be great enough to cause bit errors in
the data. As a result, noise must be taken into account
when determining the maximum possible data rate in a
specific bandwidth. This is expressed as the Shannon-
0 20,000 Hartley law:
Frequency (Hz)
(b) C 5 B log 2 (1 1 SyN)

Figure S21-2 Examples of bandwidth. (a) Bandpass filter. Converting the logarithm of the base 2 to standard common
(b) Audio amplifier. base 10 logarithm changes this to

C 5 3.32B log (1 1 SyN)

square wave, you need to pass the third and fifth harmonics
of 90 MHz and 150 MHz. The minimum bandwidth then is where S is the signal power in watts and N is the noise power
from 30 to 150 MHz or 120 MHz. in watts.
In terms of bits per second, the basic relationship is As an example, assume the signal power is 500 ␮W
and the noise power is 2 ␮W. Again assume a band-
C 5 2B width of 8 kHz. The maximum data rate without error
where C is the channel capacity, another name for data rate, will be
in bps, and B is the bandwidth in Hz. C 5 3.32(8 kHz) log (1 1 500y2) 5 64 kbps
For example, what is the channel capacity of the 8-kHz
bandwidth of the 9-MHz channel mentioned earlier? This seems in conflict with the previously discussed rela-
tionship of C 5 28. What is not explained in the Shannon-
C 5 2(8 kHz) 5 16 kbps Hartley law specifically is that special multilevel modulation
This relationship assumes no errors and no noise or and data compression schemes may be used to achieve this
interference in the channel. maximum data rate.
The important takeaway information here is that the data
rate is generally proportional to bandwidth. The higher the
The Shannon-Hartley Law desired speed such as that needed to transmit digital video
There is no perfect communications medium. All media in- over a cell phone channel, the greater the amount of band-
troduce attenuation, which is the loss of signal strength over width needed. Noise, modulation, and other factors also play
the path. The received signal is always much smaller than an important role.

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 CHAPTER 21 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the time constant of the circuit in Fig. 21-11 7. In Fig. 21-11, what is the value of the current 35 ␮s
with S1 closed? after S1 is closed?
a. 250 ␮s. a. Approximately 20 mA.
b. 31.6 ␮s. b. Approximately 12.5 mA.
c. 50 ␮s. c. 15.8 mA.
d. 5 ms. d. 20 mA.
8. With S1 closed in Fig. 21-11, the length of one time
R  1 k
constant could be increased by
S1
a. decreasing L.
b. decreasing R.
 c. increasing L.
V  L
25 V 50 mH d. both b and c.

9. In Fig. 21-11, what is the value of the inductor voltage
five time constants after S1 is closed?
a. 50 kV.
Figure 21-11 b. 25 V.
c. 0 V.
2. With S1 closed in Fig. 21-11, what is the eventual
d. 9.2 V.
steady-state value of current?
a. 15.8 mA. 10. In Fig. 21-11, how much is the resistor voltage exactly
b. 12.5 mA. 100 ␮s after S1 is closed?
c. 0 mA. a. 12 V.
d. 25 mA. b. 21.6 V.
3. In Fig. 21-11, how long does it take the current, I, to c. 3.4 V.
reach its steady-state value after S1 is closed? d. 15.8 V.
a. 50 ␮s. 11. In Fig. 21-12, what is the time constant of the circuit
b. 250 ␮s. with S1 in position 1?
c. 500 ␮s. a. 2 s.
d. It cannot be determined. b. 5 s.
4. In Fig. 21-11, how much is the resistor voltage at the c. 10 s.
very first instant (t  0 s) S1 is closed? d. 1 s.
a. 0 V.
R1  1 M
b. 25 V. 1 S1
c. 15.8 V.
2
d. 9.2 V.
5. In Fig. 21-11, what is the value of the resistor voltage 
VT  C
exactly one time constant after S1 is closed? 
100 V R2  1 M 1 ␮F
a. 15.8 V.
b. 9.2 V.
c. 6.32 V.
d. 21.5 V.
Figure 21-12
6. If a 2-M resistor is placed across the switch, S1, in
Fig. 21-11, how much is the peak inductor voltage, VL , 12. In Fig. 21-12, what is the time constant of the circuit
when S1 is opened? with S1 in position 2?
a. 0 V. a. 2 s.
b. 25 V. b. 5 s.
c. 50 kV. c. 10 s.
d. It cannot be determined. d. 1 s.

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 13. In Fig. 21-12, how long will it take for the voltage c. 22.3 V.
across C to reach 100 V after S1 is placed in d. 36.8 V.
position 1? 20. In Fig. 21-12, assume that C is charging with S1 in
a. 1 s. position 1. At the instant the capacitor voltage reaches
b. 2 s. 75 V, S1 is moved to position 2. What is the approxi-
c. 10 s. mate value of the capacitor voltage 0.7 time constant
d. 5 s. after S1 is moved to position 2?
14. In Fig. 21-12, how much voltage is across resistor, R1, a. 75 V.
at the first instant the switch is moved from position 2 b. 27.6 V.
to position 1? (Assume that C was completely c. 50 V.
discharged with S1 in position 2.) d. 37.5 V.
a. 100 V. 21. For best results, an RC coupling circuit should
b. 63.2 V. have a
c. 0 V. a. short time constant.
d. 36.8 V. b. medium time constant.
15. In Fig. 21-12, assume that C is fully charged to 100 V c. long time constant.
with S1 in position 1. How long will it take for C to d. zero time constant.
discharge fully if S1 is moved to position 2? 22. A differentiator is a circuit whose
a. 1 s. a. output combines its original voltage with the new
b. 5 s. change in voltage.
c. 10 s. b. output is always one-half of Vin.
d. 2 s. c. time constant is long with the output
16. In Fig. 21-12, assume that C is completely discharged across C.
while in position 2. What is the voltage across C d. output is proportional to the change in
exactly 1s after S1 is moved to position 1? applied voltage.
a. 50 V. 23. An integrator is a circuit whose
b. 63.2 V. a. output combines its original voltage with
c. 36.8 V. the new change in voltage.
d. 100 V. b. output is always equal to Vin.
17. In Fig. 21-12, assume that C is completely discharged c. output is proportional to the change in
while in position 2. What is the voltage across R1 applied voltage.
exactly two time constants after S1 is moved to d. time constant is short with the output
position 1? across R.
a. 37 V. 24. The time constant of an RL circuit is 47 ␮s. If
b. 13.5 V. L  4.7 mH, calculate R.
c. 50 V. a. R  10 k.
d. 86 V. b. R  100 .
18. In Fig. 21-12, what is the steady-state value of current c. R  10 M.
with S1 in position 1? d. R  1 k.
a. 100 ␮A. 25. The time constant of an RC circuit is 330 ␮s. If
b. 50 ␮A. R  1 k, calculate C.
c. 1 A. a. C  0.33 ␮F.
d. 0 ␮A. b. C  0.033 ␮F.
19. In Fig. 21-12, assume that C is fully charged to 100 V c. C  3.3 ␮F.
with S1 in position 1. What is the value of the capaci- d. C  330 pF.
tor voltage 3s after S1 is moved to position 2?
a. 77.7 V.
b. 0 V.

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 CHAPTER 21 PROBLEMS

SECTION 21.1 Response of Resistance Alone SECTION 21.3 High Voltage Produced by
21.1 In Fig. 21-13, how long does it take for the current, Opening an RL Circuit
I, to reach its steady-state value after S1 is closed? 21.6 Assume that the switch, S1, in Fig. 21-14 has been
closed for more than five L兾R time constants. If a
1-M resistor is placed across the terminals of the
S1 switch, calculate
a. the approximate time constant of the circuit with

V  R S1 open.
12 V 2 b. the peak inductor voltage, VL, when S1 is opened.

c. how long it takes for the current to decay to zero
after S1 is opened (approximately).
Figure 21-13 21.7 Without a resistor across S1 in Fig. 21-14, is it
possible to calculate the time constant of the
21.2 In Fig. 21-13, what is the current with S1 closed? circuit with the switch open? Also, what effect
will probably occur inside the switch when it is
SECTION 21.2 L/R Time Constant opened?
21.3 In Fig. 21-14, SECTION 21.4 RC Time Constant
a. what is the time constant of the circuit with S1
closed? 21.8 In Fig. 21-15, what is the time constant of the
b. what is the eventual steady-state current with S1 circuit with the switch, S1, in position
closed? a. 1?
c. what is the value of the circuit current at the first b. 2?
instant S1 is closed? (t  0 s)
1 R  100 k
d. what is the value of the circuit current exactly S1

one time constant after S1 is closed? 2

e. how long after S1 is closed will it take before the
circuit current reaches its steady-state value? 
V C
50 V 0.2 ␮F

R 1.5 k

S1

 Figure 21-15
V  L
120 V 60 mH

21.9 Assume that the capacitor in Fig. 21-15 is fully
discharged with S1 in position 2. How much is the
capacitor voltage, VC,
a. exactly one time constant after S1 is moved to
Figure 21-14 position 1?
b. five time constants after S1 is moved to position 1?
21.4 Calculate the time constant for an inductive circuit c. 1 week after S1 is moved to position 1?
with the following values: 21.10 Assume that the capacitor in Fig. 21-15 is fully
a. L  500 mH, R  2 k. charged with S1 in position 1. How much is the
b. L  250 ␮H, R  50 . capacitor voltage, VC,
21.5 List two ways to a. exactly one time constant after S1 is moved to
a. increase the time constant of an inductive circuit. position 2?
b. decrease the time constant of an inductive b. five time constants after S1 is moved to position 2?
circuit. c. 1 week after S1 is moved to position 2?

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 21.11 Calculate the time constant of a capacitive circuit SECTION 21.7 RC Waveshapes
with the following values: 21.17 For the circuit in Fig. 21-17,
a. R  1M , C  1 ␮F. a. calculate the RC time constant.
b. R  5 k, C  40 ␮F. b. draw the capacitor voltage waveform and include
21.12 List two ways to voltage values at times t0, t1, t2, t3, and t4.
a. increase the time constant of a capacitive circuit. c. draw the resistor voltage waveform and include
b. decrease the time constant of a capacitive circuit. voltage values at times t0, t1, t2, t3, and t4.
d. draw the charge and discharge current waveform
SECTION 21.5 RC Charge and Discharge Curves
and include current values at times t0, t1, t2, t3,
21.13 Assume that the capacitor in Fig. 21-15 is fully and t4.
discharged with S1 in position 2. What is
a. the value of the charging current at the first
instant S1 is moved to position 1?
b. the value of the charging current five time
constants after S1 is moved to position 1? C  0.1 ␮F

c. the value of the resistor voltage exactly one time

constant after S1 is moved to position 1? 20 V
R
d. the value of the charging current exactly one VT 0 V 2 k
time constant after S1 is moved to position 1?
21.14 Assume that the capacitor in Fig. 21-15 is fully
charged to 50 V with S1 in position 1. What is the
value of the discharge current
20 V
a. at the first instant S1 is moved to position 2? ON OFF
b. exactly one time constant after S1 is moved to VT
position 2? 200 ␮s 200 ␮s
c. five time constants after S1 is moved to 0V
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
position 2?
SECTION 21.6 High Current Produced by
Short-Circuiting an RC Circuit
VC 0
21.15 In Fig. 21-16, what is the RC time constant with S1
in position
a. 1?
b. 2?
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4

R1  100  1 S1

i 0
2


V C
3V
R  0.25  1000 ␮F

Flashbulb t0 t1 t2 t3 t4

Figure 21-16 0
VR

21.16 In Fig. 21-16, how long will it take the capacitor

voltage to t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
a. reach 3 V after S1 is moved to position 1?
b. discharge to 0 V after S1 is moved to position 2? Figure 21-17

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 SECTION 21.8 Long and Short Time Constants c. draw the resistor voltage waveform and include
21.18 In Fig. 21-17, is the time constant of the circuit voltage values at times t0, t1, t2, t3, and t4.
considered long or short with respect to the pulse d. specify the ratio of the pulse width of the applied
width of the applied voltage, VT, if the resistance, R, is voltage to the RC time constant.
a. increased to 10 k?
b. decreased to 400 ?
SECTION 21.10 Long Time Constant
for an RC Coupling Circuit
21.19 For an RC circuit used as a differentiator,
21.22 Assume that the resistance, R, in Fig. 21-18 is in-
a. across which component is the output taken?
creased to 100 k but the frequency of the applied
b. should the time constant be long or short with
voltage, VT, remains the same. Determine
respect to the pulse width of the applied voltage?
a. the new RC time constant of the circuit.
21.20 For an RC circuit used as an integrator, b. the ratio of the pulse width of the applied voltage
a. across which component is the output taken? to the RC time constant.
b. should the time constant be long or short with re- c. the approximate capacitor and resistor voltage
spect to the pulse width of the applied voltage? waveforms, assuming that the input voltage
SECTION 21.9 Charge and Discharge has been applied for longer than five RC time
with a Short RC Time Constant constants.
21.21 For the circuit in Fig. 21-18,
SECTION 21.11 Advanced Time
a. calculate the RC time constant.
Constant Analysis
b. draw the capacitor voltage waveform and include
voltage values at times t0, t1, t2, t3, and t4. 21.23 What is the time constant of the circuit in
Fig. 21-19?
C  0.01 ␮F

5 V
R R1  1 M
Output 1 S1
VT 0 V 1 k


VT  C
300 V 1 ␮F
5 V 
ON OFF
VT
100 ␮s 100 ␮s
0V
Figure 21-19

VC 0
21.24 Assume that C in Fig. 21-19 is completely dis-
charged with S1 in position 2. If S1 is moved to
position 1, how much is the capacitor voltage at the
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 following time intervals?
a. t  0.7 s.
b. t  1.5 s.
c. t  3.5 s.
VR 0
21.25 Assume that C in Fig. 21-19 is fully charged with
S1 in position 1. If S1 is moved to position 2, how
much is the resistor voltage at the following time
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
intervals?
a. t  0.7 s.
Figure 21-18 b. t  2.5 s.

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 21.26 What is the time constant of the circuit in 21.28 Assume that C in Fig. 21-20 is completely dis-
Fig. 21-20? charged with S1 in position 2. If S1 is moved back to
position 1, how much is the resistor voltage at the
1 S1
R  150 k following time intervals?
a. t  4.5 ms.
2 b. t  15 ms.
 21.29 Assume that C in Fig. 21-20 is fully charged with S1
V C
24 V
in position 1. If S1 is moved to position 2, how long
 0.05 ␮F
will it take the capacitor to discharge to
a. 4 V ?
b. 18 V ?

Figure 21-20
21.27 Assume that C in Fig. 21-20 is completely dis-
charged with S1 in position 2. If S1 is moved back
to position 1, how long will it take for the capacitor
voltage to reach
a. 3 V ?
b. 20 V ?

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 Ch a pt er 22
Resonance

Learning Outcomes This chapter explains how XL and XC can be com-

bined to favor one particular frequency, the resonant
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: frequency to which the LC circuit is tuned. The reso-
Define the term resonance. nance effect occurs when the inductive and capacitive
List four characteristics of a series resonant circuit. reactances are equal.
List three characteristics of a parallel resonant circuit. In radio-frequency (RF) circuits, the main application
Calculate the Q of a series or parallel resonant circuit. of resonance is for tuning to an ac signal of the desired
Calculate the equivalent impedance of a parallel frequency. Applications of resonance include tuning in
resonant circuit. communication receivers, transmitters, and electronic
Explain what is meant by the bandwidth of a equipment in general.
resonant circuit. Tuning by means of the resonant effect provides a
Calculate the bandwidth of a series or parallel practical application of selectivity. The resonant circuit
resonant circuit. can be operated to select a particular frequency for the
Explain the effect of varying L or C in tuning an output with many different frequencies at the input.
LC circuit.
Calculate L or C for a resonant circuit.

363

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 rS 
22.1 The Resonance Effect 10 
Inductive reactance increases as the frequency is increased,
but capacitive reactance decreases with higher frequencies.
Because of these opposite characteristics, for any LC com- L  239 H
bination, there must be a frequency at which the XL equals X L  1500 
VT 
the XC because one increases while the other decreases. This 300 V
f r  1000 kHz
case of equal and opposite reactances is called resonance,
and the ac circuit is then a resonant circuit. C  106 pF
Any LC circuit can be resonant. It all depends on the X C  1500 

frequency. At the resonant frequency, an LC combina-

tion provides the resonance effect. Off the resonant fre- (a )
quency, either below or above, the LC combination is just
another ac circuit. X L  2 fL

The frequency at which the opposite reactances are equal X L,


is the resonant frequency.
___ This frequency can be calculated X L  X C at f r
as fr 5 1y(2Ï LC ), where L is the inductance in henrys, C 0
Freq.
is the capacitance in farads, and fr is the resonant frequency fr
in hertz that makes XL 5 XC. X C,
In general, we can say that large values of L and C provide 
1
a relatively low resonant frequency. Smaller values of L and XC 
2 fC
C allow higher values for fr. The resonance effect is most
(b)
useful for radio frequencies, where the required values of
microhenrys for L and picofarads for C are easily obtained. Figure 22-2 Series resonance. (a) Schematic diagram
The most common application of resonance in RF cir- of series rS, L, and C. (b) Graph to show that reactances XC
cuits is called tuning. In this use, the LC circuit provides and XL are equal and opposite at the resonant frequency
fr. Inductive reactance is shown up for XL and capacitive
maximum voltage output at the resonant frequency, com- reactance is down for 2XC .
pared with the amount of output at any other frequency ei-
ther below or above resonance. This idea is illustrated in
Fig. 22-1, where the LC circuit resonant at 1000 kHz mag- this LC combination is resonant at 1000 kHz. This is fr be-
nifies the effect of this particular frequency. The result is cause the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are
maximum output at 1000 kHz, compared with lower or equal at this frequency.
higher frequencies. Another application of resonance is In a series ac circuit, inductive reactance leads by 908,
filtering. Filters are circuits that select one frequency or a compared with the zero reference angle of the resistance,
band of frequencies and reject others. Resonant circuits are and capacitive reactance lags by 908. Therefore, XL and XC
often used as filters or as parts of filters. are 1808 out of phase. The opposite reactances cancel each
other completely when they are equal.
22.2 Series Resonance Figure 22-2b shows XL and XC equal, resulting in a net
When the frequency of the applied voltage is 1000 kHz in the reactance of zero ohms. The only opposition to current, then,
series ac circuit in Fig. 22-2a, the reactance of the 239-H is the coil resistance rS, which limits how low the series re-
inductance equals 1500 V. At the same frequency, the reac- sistance in the circuit can be. With zero reactance and just
tance of the 106-pF capacitance also is 1500 V. Therefore, the low value of series resistance, the generator voltage pro-
duces the greatest amount of current in the series LC circuit
500 kHz
at the resonant frequency. The series resistance should be as
small as possible for a sharp increase in current at resonance.
750 kHz Maximum
Resonant
output
1000 kHz
LC circuit
at 1000 kHz Maximum Current at Series Resonance
1
fr 
1250 kHz 2 √ LC The main characteristic of series resonance is the resonant
 1000 kHz rise of current to its maximum value of VTyrS at the resonant
1500 kHz
frequency. For the circuit in Fig. 22-2a, the maximum cur-
rent at series resonance is 30 A, equal to 300 Vy10 V.
Figure 22-1 LC circuit resonant at fr of 1000 kHz to At any other frequency, either below or above the resonant
provide maximum output at this frequency. frequency, there is less current in the circuit.

364 Chapter 2 2

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 Highest current At the resonant frequency, XL and XC are equal, the net
value at f r
reactance is zero, and the current has its maximum value
equal to VTyrS.
Above resonance at 1200 and 1400 kHz, XL is greater
than XC, providing net reactance that limits the current to
values much smaller than at resonance. In summary,
Small current Small current
values below f r values above f r 1. Below the resonant frequency, XL is small, but XC has
high values that limit the amount of current.
2. Above the resonant frequency, XC is small, but XL has
high values that limit the amount of current.
(a) 3. At the resonant frequency, XL equals XC, and they can-
Current
cel to allow maximum current.
30
maximum
at f r Minimum Impedance at Series Resonance
Since reactances cancel at the resonant frequency, the im-
20
pedance of the series circuit is minimum, equal to just the
I,  A

low value of series resistance. This minimum impedance at

resonance is resistive, resulting in zero phase angle. At reso-
10
nance, therefore, the resonant current is in phase with the
generator voltage.

600 800 1000 1200 1400

Resonant Rise in Voltage across Series L or C
Frequency, kHz The maximum current in a series LC circuit at resonance is
(b) useful because it produces maximum voltage across either
XL or XC at the resonant frequency. As a result, the series
Figure 22-3 Graphs showing maximum current at resonant circuit can select one frequency by providing much
resonance for the series circuit in Fig. 22-2. (a) Amplitudes of
individual cycles. (b) Response curve to show the amount of I more voltage output at the resonant frequency, compared
below and above resonance. with frequencies above and below resonance. Figure 22-4
illustrates the resonant rise in voltage across the capacitance
in a series ac circuit. At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz,
This resonant rise of current to 30 A at 1000 kHz is
the voltage across C rises to 45,000 V, and the input voltage
shown in Fig. 22-3. In Fig. 22-3a, the amount of current is
is only 300 V.
shown as the amplitude of individual cycles of the alternat-
The voltage across C is calculated as IXC, and across L
ing current produced in the circuit by the ac generator volt-
as IXL. Below the resonant frequency, XC has a higher value
age. Whether the amplitude of one ac cycle is considered in
than at resonance, but the current is small. Similarly, above
terms of peak, rms, or average value, the amount of current is
the resonant frequency, XL is higher than at resonance,
greatest at the resonant frequency. In Fig. 22-3b, the current
but the current has a low value because of inductive reac-
amplitudes are plotted on a graph for frequencies at and near
tance. At resonance, although XL and XC cancel each other
the resonant frequency, producing a typical response curve
to allow maximum current, each reactance by itself has an
for a series resonant circuit. The response curve in Fig. 22-3b
can be considered an outline of the increasing and decreasing
amplitudes of the individual cycles shown in Fig. 22-3a.
The response curve of the series resonant circuit shows L
rS  239 H
that the current is small below resonance, rises to its maxi- 10 
Voltage output
mum value at the resonant frequency, and then drops off to VT  maximum at
C
small values above resonance. Frequency 300 V 106 pF
vC 1000 kHz
600–1400 kHz equals
Below resonance, at 600 kHz, XC is more than XL and 45,000  V
there is appreciable net reactance, which limits the current to
a relatively low value. At the higher frequency of 800 kHz,
XC decreases and XL increases, making the two reactances Figure 22-4 Series circuit selects frequency by
closer to the same value. The net reactance is then smaller, producing maximum IXC voltage output across C at
allowing more current. resonance.

Resonance 365

fre7380X_ch22_363-380.indd 365 1/9/13 3:10 PM

 V R  300 V

L  239 H
rS  10  X L  1500 
f r  1000 kHz C  106 pF
V A  300 V X C  1500 
XL  VL  rS  10 
1500  45,000 V
V T  300 V
f r  1000 kHz 0 V
I  30 A

XC  VC  (a)
1500  45,000 V

1000 kHz
Figure 22-5 Voltage drops around series resonant fr
circuit.

appreciable value. Since the current is the same in all parts

of a series circuit, the maximum current at resonance pro- IT

duces maximum voltage IXC across C and an equal IXL volt-

age across L for the resonant frequency.
Although the voltage across XC and XL is reactive, it is an Line current
actual voltage that can be measured. In Fig. 22-5, the volt- 0.00133 A minimum at fr

age drops around the series resonant circuit are 45,000 V

across C, 45,000 V across L, and 300 V across rS. The Frequency
voltage across the resistance is equal to and in phase with (b)
the generator voltage.
Across the series combination of both L and C, the volt-
Line impedance
age is zero because the two series voltage drops are equal 225,000  maximum at f r
and opposite. To use the resonant rise of voltage, therefore,
the output must be connected across either L or C alone. We
can consider the VL and VC voltages similar to the idea of two
batteries connected in series opposition. Together, the resul- Z EQ
tant is zero for equal and opposite voltages, but each battery
still has its own potential difference.
In summary, the main characteristics of a series resonant
circuit are
fr
1. The current I is maximum at the resonant 1000 kHz
frequency fr. Frequency
2. The current I is in phase with the generator voltage, or (c)
the phase angle of the circuit is 08.
Figure 22-6 Parallel resonant circuit. (a) Schematic
3. The voltage is maximum across either L or C alone. diagram of L and C in parallel branches. (b) Response
4. The impedance is minimum at fr, equal only to the curve of I T shows that the line current dips to a minimum
low rS. at fr. (c) Response curve of ZEQ shows that it rises to a
maximum at fr.
22.3 Parallel Resonance
When L and C are in parallel, as shown in Fig. 22-6, and
XL equals XC, the reactive branch currents are equal and op- Minimum Line Current at Parallel Resonance
posite at resonance. Then they cancel each other to produce With L and C the same as in the series circuit of Fig. 22-2, XL
minimum current in the main line. Since the line current is and XC have the same values at the same frequencies. Since L,
minimum, the impedance is maximum. These relations are C, and the generator are in parallel, the voltage applied across
based on rS being very small compared with XL at resonance. the branches equals the generator voltage of 300 V. There-
In this case, the branch currents are practically equal when fore, each reactive branch current is calculated as 300 V di-
XL and XC are equal. vided by the reactance of the branch.

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 At 600 kHz, the capacitive branch current equals only for an ac signal at the resonant frequency. Also, L has
300 Vy2500 V, or 0.12 A. The inductive branch cur- practically no dc resistance, which means practically no
rent at this frequency is 300 Vy900 V, or 0.33 A. Since dc voltage drop.
this is a parallel ac circuit, the capacitive current leads by The total impedance of the parallel ac circuit is calcu-
908, whereas the inductive current lags by 908, compared lated as the generator voltage divided by the total line cur-
with the reference angle of the generator voltage, which is rent. At 600 kHz, for example, Z EQ equals 300 Vy0.21 A,
applied across the parallel branches. Therefore, the oppo- or 1400 V. At 800 kHz, the impedance is higher because
site currents are 1808 out of phase. The net current in the there is less line current.
line, then, is the difference between 0.33 and 0.12, which At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz, the line current is
equals 0.21 A. at its minimum of 0.00133 A. Then the impedance is maxi-
Following this procedure, the calculations show that as mum and is equal to 300 Vy0.00133 A, or 225,000 V. At
the frequency is increased toward resonance, the capacitive resonance, the parallel resonant circuit looks like a 225-kV
branch current increases because of the lower value of XC resistor.
and the inductive branch current decreases with higher val- Above 1000 kHz, the line current increases, and the im-
ues of XL. As a result, there is less net line current as the two pedance decreases from its maximum.
branch currents become more nearly equal. How the line current can be very low even though the
At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz, both reactances reactive branch currents are appreciable is illustrated in
are 1500 V, and the reactive branch currents are both Fig. 22-7. In Fig. 22-7a, the resistive component of the total
0.20 A, canceling each other completely. line current is shown as though it were a separate branch
Above the resonant frequency, there is more current in the drawing an amount of resistive current from the generator
capacitive branch than in the inductive branch, and the net in the main line equal to the current resulting from the coil
line current increases above its minimum value at resonance. resistance. Each reactive branch current has its value equal
The dip in IT to its minimum value at fr is shown by the to the generator voltage divided by the reactance. Since they
graph in Fig. 22-6b. At parallel resonance, IT is minimum are equal and of opposite phase, however, in any part of
and Z EQ is maximum.
The in-phase current due to rS in the inductive branch
can be ignored off-resonance because it is so small com- I LC

pared with the reactive line current. At the resonant fre- A

quency when the reactive currents cancel, however, the
IT A 0.00133 A 0 A 0.2 A 0.2  A
resistive component is the entire line current. Its value at
resonance equals 0.00133 A in this example. This small
resistive current is the minimum value of the line current at VA
IR A 0.00133 A A IC A IL
parallel resonance.

Maximum Line Impedance at Parallel

Resonance
(a)
The minimum line current resulting from parallel reso-
nance is useful because it corresponds to maximum im-
pedance in the line across the generator. Therefore, an IC
impedance that has a high value for just one frequency
I
but a low impedance for other frequencies, either below or
above resonance, can be obtained by using a parallel LC IR  IT

circuit resonant at the desired frequency. This is another

Time
method of selecting one frequency by resonance. The re-
sponse curve in Fig. 22-6c shows how the impedance rises
to a maximum for parallel resonance. IL
The main application of parallel resonance is the use of
an LC tuned circuit as the load impedance Z L in the output (b)
circuit of RF amplifiers. Because of the high impedance,
Figure 22-7 Distribution of currents in a parallel circuit
then, the gain of the amplifier is maximum at fr. The volt- at resonance. Resistive current shown as an equivalent
age gain of an amplifier is directly proportional to Z L . The branch for I R . (a) Circuit with branch currents for R, L, and C.
advantage of a resonant LC circuit is that Z is maximum (b) Graph of equal and opposite reactive currents I L and I C .

Resonance 367

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 the circuit where both reactive currents are present, the net Using the values given previously in Fig, 22-6, the equiv-
amount of electron flow in one direction at any instant cor- alent resistance is
responds to zero current. The graph in Fig. 22-7b shows how
26
equal and opposite currents for IL and IC cancel. Z EQ 5 ___ 239 3 10 5 225,472 V
L 5 __________
If a meter is inserted in series with the main line to in- CrS 106 3 10212
dicate total line current IT, it dips sharply to the minimum Using the other formula we get
value of line current at the resonant frequency. With mini-
mum current in the line, the impedance across the line is Q 5 XLyrs 5 1500y10 5 150
maximum at the resonant frequency. The maximum imped-
Z EQ 5 rs(Q2 1 1) 5 10(1502 1 1) 5 225,010 V
ance at parallel resonance corresponds to a high value of
resistance, without reactance, since the line current is then The slightly different values result from the formula deri-
resistive with zero phase angle. vations in which some approximations are used.
In summary, the main characteristics of a parallel reso-
nant circuit are
1. The line current IT is minimum at the resonant frequency. EXAMPLE 22-1
2. The current IT is in phase with the generator voltage
Calculate the equivalent resistance of a parallel resonant circuit
VA, or the phase angle of the circuit is 08. with in inductance of 14 nH and a capacitance of 9 pF. The induc-
3. The impedance Z EQ, equal to VAyIT, is maximum at fr tor resistance is 2 V. Assume XL is 39.4 V.
because of the minimum IT. Answer:
26
The LC Tank Circuit L 5 _________
Z EQ 5 ___ 14 3 10 5 777.77 V
CrS 9 3 10212
Note that the individual branch currents are appreciable at
resonance, although IT is minimum. At fr, either the IL or the Q 5 XLyrs 5 39.4y2 5 19.7
IC equals 0.2 A. This current is greater than the IC values
Z EQ 5 rs(Q2 1 1) 5 2(19.72 1 1) 5 779.77 V
below fr or the IL values above fr.
The branch currents cancel in the main line because IC is
at 908 with respect to the source VA while IL is at 2908, mak-
ing them opposite with respect to each other. 22.4 Resonant Frequency
However, inside the LC circuit, IL and IC do not cancel be- }
cause they are in separate branches. Then IL and IC provide a
fr 5 1兾(2 Ï LC )
circulating current in the LC circuit, which equals 0.2 A in The formula for the resonant frequency is derived from
this example. For this reason, a parallel resonant LC circuit XL 5 XC. Using fr to indicate the resonant frequency in the
is often called a tank circuit. formulas for XL and XC,
Because of the energy stored by L and C, the circulat-
1
2fr L 5 _____
ing tank current can provide full sine waves of current and 2frC
voltage output when the input is only a pulse. The sine-wave
output is always at the natural resonant frequency of the LC Inverting the factor fr gives
tank circuit. This ability of the LC circuit to supply complete
sine waves is called the flywheel effect. Also, the process of 1
2L ( fr)2 5 ____
2C
producing sine waves after a pulse of energy has been ap-
plied is called ringing of the LC circuit. Inverting the factor 2L gives

Impedance at Resonance 1
(fr)2 5 _______
As you have seen, a parallel LC circuit at resonance appears (2)2 LC
to the generator as a high value of resistance. That value can The square root of both sides is then
be calculated from the circuit values directly. The two for-
mulas give approximately the same value: 1 ____
fr 5 _________ (22-3)
2 Ï LC
Z EQ 5 LyCrs (22-1)
where L is in henrys, C is in farads, and the resonant fre-
Z EQ 5 rs(Q2 1 1) (22-2)
quency fr is in hertz (Hz). For example, to find the resonant
Remember that Q 5 XLyrs. frequency of the LC combination in Fig. 22-2, the values

368 Chapter 2 2

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 of 239 3 1026 and 106 3 10212 are substituted for L and C.
EX A M P L E 22-3
Then,
1 ___ 5 ____________________________
1 Calculate the resonant frequency for a 2-H inductance and a
fr 5 ________ _______________________
3-pF capacitance.
2 Ï LC 2 Ï 239 3 1026 3 106 3 10212
Answer:
1
5 ___________________
_____________ 1
5 __________________
6.28Ï 25,334 3 10218 6.28 3 159.2 3 1029 1 ___
fr 5 ________
2 Ï LC
1
5 ___________
1000 3 1029 1
5 ________________________
___________________
2 Ï 2 3 1026 3 3 3 10212
5 1 3 106 Hz 5 1 MHz 5 1000 kHz
1
5 _______________
_________
For any___series or parallel LC circuit, the fr equal to 6.28 Ï 6 3 10218
1y(2 Ï LC ) is the resonant frequency that makes the in- 1
ductive and capacitive reactances equal. 5 _________________
6.28 3 2.45 3 1029
How the fr Varies with L and C 1
5 __________ 5 0.065 3 109
It is important to note that higher values of L and C result in 15.4 3 1029
lower values of fr. Either L or C, or both, can be varied. An 5 65 3 106 Hz 5 65 MHz
LC circuit can be resonant at any frequency from a few hertz
to many megahertz.
As examples, an LC combination with the relatively large
values of an 8-H inductance and a 20-F capacitance is reso- Specifically, because of the square root in the denomina-
nant at the low audio frequency of 12.6 Hz. For a much higher tor of Formula (22.3), the fr decreases inversely as the square
frequency in the RF range, a small inductance of 2 H will res- root of L or C. For instance, if L or C is quadrupled, the fr is
onate with the small capacitance of 3 pF at an fr of 64.9 MHz. reduced by one-half. The 1⁄2 is equal to the square root of 1⁄4.
These examples are solved in the next two problems for more As a numerical example, suppose that fr is 6 MHz with
practice with the resonant frequency formula. Such calcula- particular values of L and C. If either L or C is made four
tions are often used in practical applications of tuned circuits. times larger, then fr will be reduced to 3 MHz.
Probably the most important feature of any LC combination is Or, to take the opposite case of doubling the frequency
its resonant frequency, especially in RF circuits. The applica- from 6 MHz to 12 MHz, the following can be done:
tions of resonance are mainly for radio frequencies. 1. Use one-fourth the L with the same C.
2. Use one-fourth the C with the same L.
3. Reduce both L and C by one-half.
EXAMPLE 22-2
4. Use any new combination of L and C whose product
Calculate the resonant frequency for an 8-H inductance and a will be one-fourth the original product of L and C.
20-F capacitance.
Answer: LC Product Determines fr
There are any number of LC combinations that can be reso-
1 ___
fr 5 ________ nant at one frequency. With more L, then less C can be used
2 Ï LC
for the same fr. Or less L can be used with more C. When
1
5 __________________
_____________ either L or C is increased by a factor of 10 or 2, the other is
2 Ï 8 3 20 3 1026 decreased by the same factor, resulting in a constant value
1
5 ________________
__________ for the LC product.
6.28 Ï 160 3 1026 The reactance at resonance changes with different combi-
1 nations of L and C, but XL and XC are equal to each other at
5 __________________
6.28 3 12.65 3 1023 1000 kHz. This is the resonant frequency determined by the
___
1 value of the LC product in fr 5 1y(2Ï LC ).
5 ___________
79.44 3 1023
Measuring L or C by Resonance
5 0.0126 3 103 Of the three factors L, C, and fr in the resonant-frequency
5 12.6 Hz (approx.) formula, any one can be calculated when the other two are
known. The resonant frequency of the LC combination can

Resonance 369

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 be found experimentally by determining the frequency that
EXAMPLE 22-5
produces the resonant response in an LC combination. With
a known value of either L or C, and the resonant frequency What value of L resonates with a 106-pF C at 1000 kHz, equal
determined, the third factor can be calculated. This method to 1 MHz?
is commonly used for measuring inductance or capacitance. Answer:
A test instrument for this purpose is the Q meter, which also
1
L 5 _______
measures the Q of a coil.
4 2fr2C
Calculating C from fr 1
5 ___________________________
39.48 3 1 3 1012 3 106 3 10212
The C can be taken out of the square root sign or radical in
the resonance formula, as follows: 1
5 _______
4184.88
1 ___
fr 5 ________ 5 0.000239 H 5 239 H
2 Ï LC 12
Note that 10 and 10212 in the denominator cancel each other. Also,
Squaring both sides to eliminate the radical gives 1 3 1012 is the square of 1 3 106, or 1 MHz.

1
fr2 5 ________
(2)2 LC The values in Examples 22-4 and 22-5 are from the
Inverting C and fr gives 2 LC circuit illustrated in Fig.  22-2 for series resonance and
Fig. 22-6 for parallel resonance.
1
C 5 _______ (22-4)
4 2fr2C 22.5 Q Magnification Factor
of a Resonant Circuit
where fr is in hertz, C is in farads, and L is in henrys.
The quality, or figure of merit, of the resonant circuit, in
Calculating L from fr sharpness of resonance, is indicated by the factor Q. In gen-
eral, the higher the ratio of the reactance at resonance to the
Similarly, the resonance formula can be transposed to find series resistance, the higher the Q and the sharper the reso-
L. Then nance effect.
1
L 5 _______ (22-5) Q of Series Circuit
4 2fr2C
In a series resonant circuit, we can calculate Q from the fol-
With Formula (22-5), L is determined by fr with a known lowing formula:
value of C. Similarly, C is determined from Formula (22-4) XL
by fr with a known value of L. Q 5 ___
rS (22-6)

where Q is the figure of merit, X L is the inductive reactance

EXAMPLE 22-4 in ohms at the resonant frequency, and r S is the resistance
in ohms in series with X L . For the series resonant circuit in
What value of C resonates with a 239-H L at 1000 kHz? Fig. 22-2,
Answer: 1500 V 5 150
Q 5 _______
1 10 V
C 5 ______
4 2fr2 L The Q is a numerical factor without any units, because
1 it is a ratio of reactance to resistance and the ohms can-
5 ________________________ cel. Since the series resistance limits the amount of cur-
4 2(1000 3 103)2 239 3 1026
rent at resonance, the lower the resistance, the sharper the
1
5 ____________________
39.48 3 1 3 106 3 239 increase to maximum current at the resonant frequency,
and the higher the Q. Also, a higher value of reactance at
1
5 _____________ resonance allows the maximum current to produce higher
9435.75 3 106
voltage for the output.
5 0.000106 3 1026 F 5 106 pF The Q has the same value if it is calculated with XC instead
Note that 39.48 is a constant for 42 . of XL , since they are equal at resonance. However, the Q of
the circuit is generally considered in terms of XL , because

370 Chapter 2 2

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 usually the coil has the series resistance of the circuit. In this at the resonant frequency. Also, measure the generator input
case, the Q of the coil and the Q of the series resonant circuit of 300 V. Then
are the same. If extra resistance is added, the Q of the circuit Vout
will be less than the Q of the coil. The highest possible Q for Q 5 ___
Vin
the circuit is the Q of the coil.
45,000 V
The value of 150 can be considered a high Q. Typical val- 5 __________
ues are 50 to 250, approximately. Less than 10 is a low Q; 300 V
more than 300 is a very high Q. 5 150
This method is better than the X Lyr S formula for de-
Higher L 兾C Ratio Can Provide Higher Q termining Q because r S is the ac resistance of the coil,
which is not so easily measured. Remember that the
Different combinations of L and C can be resonant at
coil’s ac resistance can be more than double the dc re-
the same frequency. However, the amount of reactance
sistance measured with an ohmmeter. In fact, measuring
at resonance is different. More X L can be obtained with
Q with Formula (25-8) makes it possible to calculate the
a higher L and lower C for resonance, although X L and
ac resistance. These points are illustrated in the following
XC must be equal at the resonant frequency. Therefore,
examples.
both X L and XC are higher with a higher LyC ratio for
resonance.
More XL can allow a higher Q if the ac resistance does not EXAMPLE 22- 6
increase as much as the reactance. An approximate rule for
typical RF coils is that maximum Q can be obtained when A series circuit resonant at 0.4 MHz develops 100 mV across a
250-H L with a 2-mV input. Calculate Q.
XL is about 1000 V. In many cases, though, the minimum C
is limited by stray capacitance in the circuit. Answer:
Vout _______
Q 5 ___ 5 100 mV
Vin 2 mV
Q Rise in Voltage across Series L or C
5 50
The Q of the resonant circuit can be considered a magnifica-
tion factor that determines how much the voltage across L
or C is increased by the resonant rise of current in a series
circuit. Specifically, the voltage output at series resonance is E X A M P L E 2 2 -7
Q times the generator voltage:
What is the ac resistance of the coil in the preceding example?
VL 5 VC 5 Q 3 Vgen (22-7) Answer:
In Fig. 22-4, for example, the generator voltage is 300 V The Q of the coil is 50. We need to know the reactance of this
and Q is 150. The resonant rise of voltage across either L 250-H coil at the frequency of 0.4 MHz. Then,
or C then equals 300 V 3 150, or 45,000 V. Note that XL 5 2 f L 5 6.28 3 0.4 3 106 3 250 3 1026
this is the same value calculated in Fig. 22-2 for VC or VL
at resonance. 5 628 V
XL X
Also, Q 5 ___
r or rS 5 ___L
S Q
How to Measure Q in a Series Resonant Circuit
628 V
rS 5 ______
The fundamental nature of Q for a series resonant circuit 50
is seen from the fact that the Q can be determined experi- 5 12.56 V
mentally by measuring the Q rise in voltage across either L
or C and comparing this voltage with the generator voltage.
As a formula, Q of Parallel Circuit
Vout
Q 5 ___ (22-8) In a parallel resonant circuit where rS is very small com-
Vin
pared with XL , the Q also equals XLyrS. Note that rS is still
where Vout is the ac voltage measured across the coil or ca- the resistance of the coil in series with XL (see Fig. 22-8).
pacitor and Vin is the generator voltage. The Q of the coil determines the Q of the parallel circuit
Referring to Fig. 22-5, suppose that you measure with an here because it is less than the Q of the capacitive branch.
ac voltmeter across L or C and this voltage equals 45,000 V Capacitors used in tuned circuits generally have a very high

Resonance 371

fre7380X_ch22_363-380.indd 371 1/9/13 3:10 PM

 R1  225 k

XL  V R1 
1500  150 V
XL
Q XC  XL 
rS
1500  1500 
 150
rS  V LC  150 V
10  VT  XC 
300 V 1500 
Z EQ  225 k
rS 
10 

Figure 22-8 The Q of a parallel resonant circuit in terms

of XL and its series resistance rS .

Figure 22-9 How to measure ZEQ of a parallel resonant

Q because of their low losses. In Fig. 22-8, the Q is 1500 Vy circuit. Adjust R 1 to make its VR equal to VLC . Then Z EQ 5 R 1 .
10 V, or 150, the same as the series resonant circuit with
the same values.
its ac voltage equal to the ac voltage across the tuned
This example assumes that the generator resistance is
circuit. With equal voltages, the Z EQ must have the same
very high and that there is no other resistance branch shunt-
value as R1.
ing the tuned circuit. Then the Q of the parallel resonant
For the example here, which corresponds to the paral-
circuit is the same as the Q of the coil. Actually, shunt re-
lel resonance shown in Figs. 22-6 and 22-8, Z EQ is equal to
sistance can lower the Q of a parallel resonant circuit, as
225,000 V. This high value is a result of parallel resonance.
analyzed in Sec. 22-8.
The XL is 1500 V. Therefore, to determine Q, the calcula-
Q Rise in Impedance across a Parallel tions are
Resonant Circuit Z EQ 225,000
Q 5 ___ 5 _______ 5 150
For parallel resonance, the Q magnification factor determines XL 1500
by how much the impedance across the parallel LC circuit is
increased because of the minimum line current. Specifically,
the impedance across the parallel resonant circuit is Q times EXAMPLE 22-8
the inductive reactance at the resonant frequency:
In Fig. 22-9, assume that with a 4-mVac input signal for VT, the
Z EQ 5 Q 3 XL (22-9) voltage across R 1 is 2 mV when R 1 is 225 kV. Determine Z EQ and Q.

Referring back to the parallel resonant circuit in Fig. 22-6 as Answer:

an example, XL is 1500 V and Q is 150. The result is a rise Because they divide V T equally, Z EQ is 225 kV, the same as R 1 .
The amount of input voltage does not matter, as the voltage divi-
of impedance to the maximum value of 150 3 1500 V, or
sion determines the relative proportions between R 1 and Z EQ. With
225,000 V, at the resonant frequency. 225 kV for Z EQ and 1.5 kV for X L, the Q is 225⁄1.5, or Q 5 150.
Since the line current equals VAyZ EQ, the minimum line
current is 300 Vy225,000 V, which equals 0.00133 A.
At fr, the minimum line current is 1yQ of either branch
current. In Fig. 22-7, IL or IC is 0.2 A and Q is 150. There- EXAMPLE 22-9
fore, IT is 0.2⁄150, or 0.00133 A, which is the same answer as
A parallel LC circuit tuned to 200 kHz with a 350-H L has a
VAyZ EQ. Or, stated another way, the circulating tank current
measured Z EQ of 17,600 V. Calculate Q.
is Q times the minimum IT.
Answer:
How to Measure ZEQ of a Parallel First, calculate X L as 2 f L at f r:
Resonant Circuit
XL 5 2 3 200 3 103 3 350 3 1026 5 440 V
Formula (22-9) for Z EQ is also useful in its inverted form as
Then,
Q 5 Z EQyXL. We can measure Z EQ by the method illustrated
in Fig. 22-9. Then Q can be calculated from the value of Z EQ Z EQ 17,600
Q 5 ___ 5 ______
and the inductive reactance of the coil. XL 440
To measure Z EQ, first tune the LC circuit to resonance. 5 40
Then adjust R1 in Fig. 22-9 to the resistance that makes

372 Chapter 2 2

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 22.6 Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit Fig. 22-10a. Therefore, the bandwidth is measured between
the two frequencies f1 and f 2 producing 70.7% of the maxi-
When we say that an LC circuit is resonant at one fre-
mum current at fr.
quency, this is true for the maximum resonance effect.
For a parallel circuit, the resonant response is increas-
However, other frequencies close to fr also are effective.
ing impedance Z EQ. Then the bandwidth is measured
For series resonance, frequencies just below and above fr
between the two frequencies allowing 70.7% of the maxi-
produce increased current, but a little less than the value
mum Z EQ at fr.
at resonance. Similarly, for parallel resonance, frequencies
The bandwidth indicated on the response curve in
close to fr can provide high impedance, although a little less
Fig. 22-10b equals 20 kHz. This is the difference between f2
than the maximum Z EQ.
at 60 kHz and f1 at 40 kHz, both with 70.7% response.
Therefore, any resonant frequency has an associated band
Compared with the maximum current of 100 mA for fr at
of frequencies that provide resonance effects. How wide the
50 kHz, f1 below resonance and f2 above resonance each al-
band is depends on the Q of the resonant circuit. Actually, it
lows a rise to 70.7 mA. All frequencies in this band 20 kHz
is practically impossible to have an LC circuit with a reso-
wide allow 70.7 mA, or more, as the resonant response in
nant effect at only one frequency. The width of the resonant
this example.
band of frequencies centered around fr is called the band-
width of the tuned circuit.
Bandwidth Equals fr 兾Q
Measurement of Bandwidth Sharp resonance with high Q means narrow bandwidth.
The group of frequencies with a response 70.7% of maxi- The lower the Q, the broader the resonant response and the
mum, or more, is generally considered the bandwidth of greater the bandwidth.
the tuned circuit, as shown in Fig. 22-10b. The resonant Also, the higher the resonant frequency, the greater the
response here is increasing current for the series circuit in range of frequency values included in the bandwidth for
a given sharpness of resonance. Therefore, the bandwidth
of a resonant circuit depends on the factors fr and Q. The
formula is
rS
f
f2 2 f1 5 D f 5 __r (22-10)
Q
Frequencies
VT L
0 – 100 kHz where D f is the total bandwidth in the same units as the
resonant frequency fr. The bandwidth D f can also be abbre-
C viated BW.
For example, a series circuit resonant at 800 kHz with
a Q of 100 has a bandwidth of 800⁄100, or 8 kHz. Then the
(a)
I is 70.7% of maximum, or more, for all frequencies for a
band 8 kHz wide. This frequency band is centered around
fr 800 kHz, from 796 to 804 kHz.
100 With a parallel resonant circuit having a Q higher than 10,
Formula (22-10) also can be used for calculating the band-
f1 f2
80 70.7% width of frequencies that provide 70.7% or more of the maxi-
response
mum Z EQ. However, the formula cannot be used for parallel
Bandwidth
60
 f  20 kHz resonant circuits with low Q, as the resonance curve then
I , mA

becomes unsymmetrical.
40

High Q Means Narrow Bandwidth

20
The effect for different values of Q is illustrated in
0
Fig. 22-11. Note that a higher Q for the same resonant fre-
20 40 60 80 100 quency results in less bandwidth. The slope is sharper for
Frequency, kHz
the sides or skirts of the response curve, in addition to its
(b) greater amplitude.
Figure 22-10 Bandwidth of a tuned LC circuit. (a) Series High Q is generally desirable for more output from the
circuit with input of 0 to 100 kHz. (b) Response curve with resonant circuit. However, it must have enough bandwidth to
bandwidth Df equal to 20 kHz between f1 and f2 . include the desired range of signal frequencies.

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 Q  80
100% EXAMPLE 22-11

Repeat Example 22–10 for an f r equal to 6000 kHz and the same
Q of 100.

f
Answer:
70.7% 
10 kHz half-power point f
f 5 __r 5 6000 kHz 5 60 kHz
_________
Q 100
f1 5 6000 2 30 5 5970 kHz
Amplitude

Q  40
f2 5 6000 1 30 5 6030 kHz
Notice that Df is three times as wide as Df in Example 22–10 for
f the same Q because f r is three times higher.
20 kHz

Q  10
Half-Power Points
f
80 kHz It is simply for convenience in calculations that the band-
fr  width is defined between the two frequencies having 70.7%
800 kHz response. At each of these frequencies, the net capacitive or
Frequency, kHz inductive reactance equals the resistance. Then the total im-
pedance of the series reactance and resistance is 1.4 times
Figure 22-11 Higher Q provides a sharper resonant
response. Amplitude is I for series resonance or ZEQ for greater than R. With this much more impedance, the current
parallel resonance. Bandwidth at half-power frequencies is reduced to 1⁄1.414, or 0.707, of its maximum value.
is Df. Furthermore, the relative current or voltage value of
70.7% corresponds to 50% in power, since power is I 2 R or
The Edge Frequencies V 2yR and the square of 0.707 equals 0.50. Therefore, the
bandwidth between frequencies having 70.7% response in
Both f1 and f2 are separated from fr by one-half of the total
current or voltage is also the bandwidth in terms of half-
bandwidth. For the top curve in Fig. 22-11, as an example,
power points. Formula (22-10) is derived for Df between the
with a Q of 80, Df is 65 kHz centered around 800 kHz for fr.
points with 70.7% response on the resonance curve.
To determine the edge frequencies,
Df Measuring Bandwidth to Calculate Q
f1 5 fr 2 ___ 5 800 2 5 5 795 kHz
2 The half-power frequencies f1 and f2 can be determined ex-
Df perimentally. For series resonance, find the two frequencies
f2 5 fr 1 ___ 5 800 1 5 5 805 kHz
2 at which the current is 70.7% of maximum I, or for parallel
These examples assume that the resonance curve is sym- resonance, find the two frequencies that make the imped-
metrical. This is true for a high-Q parallel resonant circuit ance 70.7% of the maximum Z EQ. The following method uses
and a series resonant circuit with any Q. the circuit in Fig. 22-9 for measuring Z EQ, but with different
values to determine its bandwidth and Q:
1. Tune the circuit to resonance and determine its maxi-
EXAMPLE 22-10
mum Z EQ at fr. In this example, assume that Z EQ is
An LC circuit resonant at 2000 kHz has a Q of 100. Find the total 10,000 V at the resonant frequency of 200 kHz.
bandwidth Df and the edge frequencies f 1 and f2 . 2. Keep the same amount of input voltage, but change
Answer: its frequency slightly below fr to determine the
f frequency f1 that results in a Z1 equal to 70.7% of
Df 5 __r 5 2000 kHz 5 20 kHz
_________
Z EQ. The required value here is 0.707 3 10,000, or
Q 100
7070 V, for Z1 at f1. Assume that this frequency f1 is
Df
f1 5 fr 2 ___ 5 2000 2 10 5 1990 kHz determined to be 195 kHz.
2
3. Similarly, find the frequency f 2 above fr that results
Df
f2 5 fr 1 ___ 5 2000 1 10 5 2010 kHz in the impedance Z 2 of 7070 V. Assume that f 2 is
2
205 kHz.

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 4. The total bandwidth between the half-power frequen- voltage output is less than the input. With C at 424  pF,
cies equals f2 2 f1 or 205 2 195. Then the value of therefore, the LC circuit tuned to 500 kHz selects this
Df 5 10 kHz. frequency by providing much more voltage output than
5. Then Q 5 fryDf or 200 kHzy10 kHz 5 20 for the calcu- other frequencies.
lated value of Q. Suppose that we want maximum output for the ac input
voltage that has the frequency of 707 kHz. Then C is set at
In this way, measuring the bandwidth makes it possible to 212 pF to make the LC circuit resonant at 707 kHz for fr2.
determine Q. With D f and fr, Q can be determined for either Similarly, the tuned circuit can resonate at a different fre-
parallel or series resonance. quency for each input voltage. In this way, the LC circuit is
tuned to select the desired frequency.
22.7 Tuning The variable capacitance C can be set to any capacitance
Tuning means obtaining resonance at different frequencies value between 26.5 and 424 pF and can tune the 239-H
by varying either L or C. As illustrated in Fig. 22-12, the coil to resonance at any frequency in the range of 500 to
variable capacitance C can be adjusted to tune the series 2000 kHz. Note that a parallel resonant circuit also can be
LC circuit to resonance at any one of the five different fre- tuned by varying C or L.
quencies. Each of the voltages V1 to V5 indicates an ac input
with a specific frequency. Which one is selected for maxi- Radio Tuning Dial
mum output is determined by the resonant frequency of the Figure 22-13 illustrates a typical application of resonant cir-
LC circuit. cuits in tuning a receiver to the carrier frequency of a de-
When C is set to 424 pF, for example, the resonant sired station in the AM broadcast band. The tuning is done
frequency of the LC circuit is 500 kHz for fr 1. The input by the air capacitor C, which can be varied from 360 pF
voltage whose frequency is 500 kHz then produces a reso- with the plates completely in mesh to 40 pF out of mesh.
nant rise of current that results in maximum output volt- The fixed plates form the stator, whereas the rotor has
age across C. At other frequencies, such as 707 kHz, the plates that move in and out.
Note that the lowest frequency F L at 540 kHz is tuned
L with the highest C at 360  pF. Resonance at the highest
rS 239 H frequency F H at 1620 kHz results from the lowest C at
40 pF. Also note that the resonant circuit appears to be a
V5 2000 kHz
parallel circuit. Because the RF input signal causes cur-
V4 1410 kHz rent to flow in its winding, it induces a voltage into the
1000 kHz
C 239-H inductor. That voltage appears in series with the
V3 26.5–424 pF
inductor and capacitor. The output is taken from across
V2 707 kHz the capacitor.
V1 500 kHz

1080 kHz
540 kHz 1620 kHz
C  360 pF C  40 pF
(a) FL 90 pF FH
Frequency range
540–1600 kHz
(AM broadcast band)
C  26.5 pF

C
C  106 pF

C  53 pF
C  212 pF
C  424 pF

VC Capacitance range
40–360 pF

f r1 fr 2 fr 3 f r4 fr 5 rS
L  239  H
500 707 1000 1410 2000
Frequency, kHz
RF
(b) signal
input
Figure 22-12 Tuning a series LC circuit. (a) Input
voltages at different frequencies. (b) Relative response for Figure 22-13 Application of tuning an LC circuit through
each frequency when C is varied (not to scale). the AM radio band.

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 The capacitance range of 40 to 360 pF tunes through rS because the resonant response is more symmetrical with
the frequency range from 1620 kHz down to 540 kHz. Fre- shunt damping.
quency FL is one-third FH because the maximum C is nine The effect of varying the parallel RP is opposite from that
times the minimum C. of the series rS. A lower value of RP lowers the Q and reduces
The same idea applies to tuning through the commer- the sharpness of resonance. Remember that less resistance in
cial FM broadcast band of 88 to 108 MHz with smaller a parallel branch allows more current. This resistive branch
values of L and C. Also, television receivers are tuned to current cannot be canceled at resonance by the reactive cur-
a specific broadcast channel by resonance at the desired rents. Therefore, the resonant dip to minimum line current
frequencies. is less sharp with more resistive line current. Specifically,
For electronic tuning, the C is varied by a varactor. This when Q is determined by parallel resistance
is a semiconductor diode that varies in capacitance when its R
voltage is changed. Q 5 ___P (22-11)
XL
22.8 Damping of Parallel This relationship with shunt RP is the reciprocal of the Q
Resonant Circuits formula with series rS. Reducing RP decreases Q, but reduc-
ing rS increases Q. The damping can be done by series rS,
In Fig. 22-14a, the shunt RP across L and C is a damping re-
parallel RP, or both.
sistance because it lowers the Q of the tuned circuit. The RP
may represent the resistance of the external source driving Parallel RP without rS
the parallel resonant circuit, or RP can be an actual resistor In Fig. 22-14a, Q is determined only by the RP, as no series
added for lower Q and greater bandwidth. Using the parallel rS is shown. We can consider that rS is zero or very small.
RP to reduce Q is better than increasing the series resistance Then the Q of the coil is infinite or high enough to be greater
than the damped Q of the tuned circuit, by a factor of 10 or
more. The Q of the damped resonant circuit here is RPyXL 5
50,000
⁄500 5 100.

Series rS without RP
RP RP  XL  XC 
Q  100
XL 50 k 500  500  In Fig. 22-14b, Q is determined only by the coil resistance rS,
as no shunt damping resistance is used. Then Q 5 XLyrS 5
500
⁄5 5 100. This is the Q of the coil, which is also the Q of the
parallel resonant circuit without shunt damping.
(a)
Conversion of rS or RP
For the circuits in both Fig. 22-14a and b, Q is 100 because
XL 
500  the 50,000-V RP is equivalent to the 5-V rS as a damp-
XL XC  ing resistance. One value can be converted to the other.
Q  100
rS 500 
rS  Specifically,
5 
X2
rS 5 ___L
RP
(b)
or
XL2
XL 
RP 5 ___
r S
500 
Q  50
RP  XC  In this example, rS equals ⁄50,000 5 5 V, or RP is 250,000⁄5 5
250,000
50 k 500 
rS 
50,000 V.
5 
Damping with Both rS and RP
(c)
Figure 22-14c shows the general case of damping where both
rS and RP must be considered. Then the Q of the circuit can
Figure 22-14 The Q of a parallel resonant circuit in be calculated as
terms of coil resistance rS and parallel damping resistor
XL
R P . See Formula (22-12) for calculating Q. (a) Parallel R P but Q 5 __________ (22-12)
negligible rS . (b) Series rS but no R P branch. (c) Both R P and rS . rS 1 XL2yRP

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 Table 22-1 Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance
Series Resonance Parallel Resonance (high Q)
1 ___
fr 5 _______ 1 ___
fr 5 _______
2Ï LC 2Ï LC
I maximum at fr with  of 0° IT minimum at fr with  of 0°
Impedance Z minimum at fr Impedance Z maximum at fr
Q 5 XLyrS, or Q 5 XLyrS, or
Q 5 VoutyVin Q 5 ZmaxyXL
Q rise in voltage 5 Q 3 Vgen Q rise in impedance 5 Q 3 VL
Bandwidth Df 5 fryQ Bandwidth Df 5 fryQ
Circuit capacitive below fr, but inductive above fr Circuit inductive below fr, but capacitive above fr
Needs low-resistance source for low rS, high Q, and Needs high-resistance source for high RP, high Q, and sharp
sharp tuning tuning
Source is inside LC circuit Source is outside LC circuit

For the values in Fig. 22-14c, Note that for an rS of zero, Formula (22-12) can be in-
verted and simplified to Q 5 RPyXL. This is the same as For-
500
Q 5 _________________ 500 5 ____
5 _____ 500
5 1 250,000y50,000 5 1 5 10 mula (22-11) for shunt damping alone.
For the opposite case where RP is infinite, that is, an open
5 50
circuit, Formula (22-12) reduces to XLyrS. This is the same as
The Q is lower here compared with Fig. 22-14a or b because Formula (22-6) without shunt damping. For an overall com-
this circuit has both series and shunt damping. parison of series and parallel LC circuits, see Table 22-1.

CHAPTER 22 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is the c. different in each component.

frequency where d. maximum.
a. XL 5 0 V and XC 5 0 V. 5. The impedance of a parallel LC circuit at
b. XL 5 XC. resonance is
c. XL and rS of the coil are equal. a. zero.
d. XL and XC are in phase. b. maximum.
2. The impedance of a series LC circuit at c. minimum.
resonance is d. equal to the rS of the coil.
a. maximum. 6. The phase angle of an LC circuit at resonance is
b. nearly infinite. a. 08.
c. minimum. b. 1908.
d. both a and b. c. 1808.
3. The total line current, IT, of a parallel LC circuit at d. 2908.
resonance is 7. Below resonance, a series LC circuit appears
a. minimum. a. inductive.
b. maximum. b. resistive.
c. equal to IL and IC. c. capacitive.
d. Q times larger than IL or IC. d. none of the above.
4. The current at resonance in a series LC circuit is 8. Above resonance, a parallel LC circuit appears
a. zero. a. inductive.
b. minimum. b. resistive.

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fre7380X_ch22_363-380.indd 377 1/9/13 3:10 PM

 c. capacitive. c. IC is less than IL.
d. none of the above. d. IL is more than IC.
9. A parallel LC circuit has a resonant frequency of 15. To double the resonant frequency of an LC circuit
3.75 MHz and a Q of 125. What is the bandwidth? with a fixed value of L, the capacitance, C, must be
a. 15 kHz. a. doubled.
b. 30 kHz. b. quadrupled.
c. 60 kHz. c. reduced by one-half.
d. None of the above. d. reduced by one-quarter.
10. What is the resonant frequency of an LC cir- 16. A higher Q for a resonant circuit provides a
cuit with the following values: L 5 100 H and a. dampened response curve.
C 5 63.3 pF? b. wider bandwidth.
a. fr 5 1 MHz. c. narrower bandwidth.
b. fr 5 8 MHz. d. none of the above.
c. fr 5 2 MHz. 17. The current at the resonant frequency of a series LC
d. fr 5 20 MHz. circuit is 10 mAp-p. What is the value of current at the
11. What value of capacitance is needed to pro- half-power points?
vide a resonant frequency of 1 MHz if L equals a. 7.07 mAp-p.
50 H? b. 14.14 mAp-p.
a. 506.6 pF. c. 5 mAp-p.
b. 506.6 F. d. 10 mAp-p.
c. 0.001 F. 18. The Q of a parallel resonant circuit can be lowered by
d. 0.0016 F. a. placing a resistor in parallel with the tank.
12. When either L or C is increased, the resonant fre- b. adding more resistance in series with the coil.
quency of an LC circuit c. decreasing the value of L or C.
a. decreases. d. both a and b.
b. increases. 19. The ability of an LC circuit to supply complete sine
c. doesn’t change. waves when the input to the tank is only a pulse is
d. cannot be determined. called
13. A series LC circuit has a Q of 100 at resonance. If Vin 5 a. tuning.
5 mVp-p, how much is the voltage across C ? b. the flywheel effect.
a. 50 Vp-p. c. antiresonance.
b. 5 mVp-p. d. its Q.
c. 50 mVp-p. 20. What is the phase angle of the current with respect to
d. 500 mVp-p. the applied voltage in a resonant circuit?
14. In a low Q parallel resonant circuit, when a. 0º.
XL 5 X C , b. 90º.
a. IL 5 IC. c. 180º.
b. IL is less than IC. d. Depends on the frequency.

CHAPTER 22 PROBLEMS

SECTION 22.1 The Resonance Effect SECTION 22.2 Series Resonance

22.1 Define what is meant by a resonant circuit. 22.4 Figure 22-15 shows a series resonant circuit with
22.2 What is the main application of resonance? the values of XL and XC at fr. Calculate the
a. net reactance, X.
22.3 If an inductor in a resonant LC circuit has an XL
b. total impedance, ZT.
value of 1 kV, how much is XC?
c. current, I.

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 XL  2 k r S  40  22.10 What value of inductance, L, must be connected in
L  212 ␮H series with a 50-pF capacitance to obtain an fr of
3.8 MHz?
VT  1 mV C  53 pF 22.11 What value of capacitance, C, must be connected in
f  fr  1.5 MHz XC  2 k
parallel with a 100-H inductance to obtain an fr of
1.9 MHz?
22.12 In Fig. 22-17, what is the range of resonant frequen-
Figure 22-15 cies as C is varied from 40 to 400 pF?

d. phase angle, . L  20 ␮H r S  12.56 

e. voltage across L.
f. voltage across C.
g. voltage across rS.
22.5 In Fig. 22-15, what happens to ZT and I if the fre- VT  10 mV C  40–400 pF

quency of the applied voltage increases or decreases

from the resonant frequency, fr? Explain your
answer.
22.6 In Fig. 22-15, why is the phase angle, , 08 at fr? Figure 22-17
SECTION 22.3 Parallel Resonance
22.13 In Fig. 22-17, what value of C will provide an fr of
22.7 Figure 22-16, shows a parallel resonant circuit with 2.5 MHz?
the same values for XL, XC, and rS as in Fig. 22-15.
22.14 If C is set at 360 pF in Fig. 22-17, what is the reso-
With an applied voltage of 10 V and a total line cur-
nant frequency, fr? What value of C will double the
rent, IT, of 100 A, calculate the
resonant frequency?
a. inductive current, IL (ignore rS).
b. capacitive current, IC. SECTION 22.5 Q Magnification Factor of a
c. net reactive branch current, IX. Resonant Circuit
d. equivalent impedance, ZEQ, of the tank circuit.
22.15 What is the Q of the series resonant circuit in
Fig. 22-17 with C set at
a. 202.7 pF?
IT  100 ␮A
b. 50.67 pF?
L  212 ␮H
XL  2 k 22.16 A series resonant circuit has the following values:
XC  2 k
VA  10 V L 5 50 H, C 5 506.6 pF, rS 5 3.14 V, and
f  fr  1.5 MHz
C  53 pF Vin 5 10 mV. Calculate the following:
rS  40  a. fr.
b. Q.
c. VL and VC.
Figure 22-16 22.17 What is the Q of a series resonant circuit if the out-
put voltage across the capacitor is 15 Vp-p with an
22.8 In Fig. 22-16, what happens to ZEQ and IT as the fre- input voltage of 50 mVp-p?
quency of the applied voltage increases or decreases 22.18 Explain why the Q of a resonant circuit cannot
from the resonant frequency, fr? Explain your increase without limit as X L increases for higher
answer. frequencies.
SECTION 22.4 ___Resonant Frequency SECTION 22.6 Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit
f r 5 1兾(2 Ï LC )
22.19 With C set at 50.67 pF in Fig. 22-17, calculate the
22.9 Calculate the resonant frequency, fr, of an LC circuit following:
with the following values: a. the bandwidth, Df.
a. L 5 250 H and C 5 633.25 pF. b. the edge frequencies f1 and f2.
b. L 5 50 H and C 5 20.26 pF. c. the current, I, at fr, f1, and f2.

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 22.20 Does a higher Q correspond to a wider or narrower SECTION 22.7 Tuning
bandwidth?
22.23 In Fig. 22-17, calculate the ratio of the highest to
22.21 In Fig. 22-18, calculate the following: lowest resonant frequency when C is varied from its
a. fr. lowest to its highest value.
b. XL and XC at fr.
c. ZT at fr. SECTION 22.8 Damping of Parallel
d. I at fr. Resonant Circuits
e. Q. 22.24 In Fig. 22-20, calculate the Q and bandwidth, Df, if
f. VL and VC at fr. a 100-kV resistor is placed in parallel with the tank
g. Z at fr. circuit.
h. Df, f1, and f2.
i. I at f1 and f2.

L  50 ␮H r S  18.85 

L  100 ␮H

VA  10 Vp-p C
162.11 pF
Vin  50 ␮V C  56.3 pF
rS  7.85 

Figure 22-18 Figure 22-20

22.22 In Fig. 22-19, calculate the following: 22.25 In Fig. 22-19, calculate the Q and bandwidth, Df, if
a. fr. a 2-MV resistor is placed in parallel with the tank
b. XL and XC at fr. circuit.
c. IL and IC at fr.
22.26 In Fig. 22-20, convert the series resistance, rS, to an
d. Q.
equivalent parallel resistance, RP.
e. ZEQ.
f. IT. 22.27 Repeat Prob. 22.26 for Fig. 22-19.
g. I.
h. Df, f1, and f2.

L  250 ␮H

VA  2 Vp-p C  101.3 pF

rS  12.57 

Figure 22-19

380 Chapter 2 2

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 Ch a pt er 23
Filters

Learning Outcomes A filter is a frequency selective circuit. It passes some

frequencies but rejects others. Filters are used to select
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: one radio signal and block others. Filters are also used
Name and define the five basic types of filters. to reject noise and interference.
List the key specifications of a filter. The key quality of a filter is its selectivity, the abil-
Determine the attenuation of a filter is decibels ity to discriminate between signals that are close in
(dB). frequency. We say that a filter has good selectivity if
Plot a filter response on log graph paper. its response curve is very steep and sharply defined
Calculate the cutoff frequencies of RC and LC
rather than gradual.
filters. Passive filters can be made with resistors and capac-
Explain how crystal, ceramic, and SAW filters
itors (RC) or with inductors and capacitors (LC). These
operate. RC and LC filters come in five basic forms: low pass,
Describe how a DSP filter works.
high pass, bandpass, bandstop, and all pass. There are
many variations.

381

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 Other types are active filters made with RC networks This chapter provides an overview of the most
and operational amplifiers (op amps). Crystal and ce- widely used passive filters and a brief look at some of
ramic filters are also available. A surface acoustic wave the more specialized crystal and SAW filters.
(SAW) filter is used at very high frequencies.

23.1 Ideal Responses High-Pass Filter

The frequency response of a filter is the graph of its volt- Figure 23-2 shows the ideal frequency response of a high-
age gain versus frequency. There are five types of filters: pass filter. A high-pass filter blocks all frequencies from
low pass, high pass, bandpass, bandstop, and all pass. This zero up to the cutoff frequency and passes all frequencies
section discusses the ideal frequency response of each. The above the cutoff frequency.
next section describes the approximations for these ideal With a high-pass filter, the frequencies between zero and
responses. the cutoff frequency are the stopband. The frequencies above
the cutoff frequency are the passband. An ideal high-pass fil-
Low-Pass Filter ter has infinite attenuation in the stopband, zero attenuation
Figure 23-1 shows the ideal frequency response of a low- in the passband, and a vertical transition.
pass filter. It is sometimes called a brick wall response
because the right edge of the rectangle looks like a brick Bandpass Filter
wall. A low-pass filter passes all frequencies from zero to A bandpass filter is useful when you want to tune in a radio
the cutoff frequency and blocks all frequencies above the or television signal. It is also useful in telephone communi-
cutoff frequency, cations equipment for separating the different phone conver-
With a low-pass filter, the frequencies between zero and sations that are being simultaneously transmitted over the
the cutoff frequency are called the passband. The frequen- same communication path.
cies above the cutoff frequency are called the stopband. Figure 23-3 shows the ideal frequency response of a
The roll-off region between the passband and the stopband bandpass filter. A brick wall response like this blocks all fre-
is called the transition. An ideal low-pass filter has zero at- quencies from zero up to the lower cutoff frequency. Then,
tenuation (signal loss) in the passband, infinite attenuation in
the stopband, and a vertical transition. Av

One more point: The ideal low-pass filter has zero phase
shift for all frequencies in the passband. Zero phase shift is
important when the input signal is nonsinusoidal. When a fil-
ter has zero phase shift, the shape of the nonsinusoidal signal
is preserved as it passes through the ideal filter. For instance,
if the input signal is a square wave, it has a fundamental fre-
quency and harmonics. If the fundamental frequency and all Stopband Passband
significant harmonics (approximately the first 10) are inside
f
the passband, the square wave will have approximately the fc
same shape at the output.
Figure 23-2 Ideal high-pass response.

Av Av

Passband Stopband BW

f f
fc f1 f2

Figure 23-1 Ideal low-pass response. Figure 23-3 Ideal bandpass response.

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 it passes all the frequencies between the lower and upper Av

cutoff frequencies. Finally, it blocks all frequencies above

the upper cutoff frequency.
With a bandpass filter, the passband is all the frequen-
cies between the lower and upper cutoff frequencies. The
frequencies below the lower cutoff frequency and above the
upper cutoff frequency are the stopband. An ideal bandpass
filter has zero attenuation in the passband, infinite attenua-
tion in the stopband, and two vertical transitions.
f
The bandwidth (BW) of a bandpass filter is the difference f1 f2
between its upper and lower 3-dB cutoff frequencies:
Figure 23-4 Ideal bandstop response.
BW 5 f2 2 f1 (23-1)
For instance, if the cutoff frequencies are 450 and 460 kHz,
of 95 and 105 kHz has a bandwidth of 10 kHz. This is a nar-
the bandwidth is
rowband because Q is approximately 10. A filter with cutoff
BW 5 460 kHz 2 450 kHz 5 10 kHz frequencies of 300 and 3300 Hz has a center frequency of
approximately 1000 Hz and a bandwidth of 3000 Hz. This is
As another example, if the cutoff frequencies are 300 and
wideband because Q is approximately 0.333.
3300 Hz, the bandwidth is
BW 5 3300 Hz 2 300 Hz 5 3000 Hz Bandstop Filter
Figure 23-4 shows the ideal frequency response of a band-
The center frequency is symbolized by f0 and is given by
stop filter. This type of filter passes all frequencies from
the geometric average of the two cutoff frequencies:
____ zero up to the lower cutoff frequency. Then, it blocks all the
f 0 5 Ï f1 f 2 (23-2) frequencies between the lower and upper cutoff frequen-
cies. Finally, it passes all frequencies above the upper cutoff
For instance, telephone companies use a bandpass filter with
frequency.
cutoff frequencies of 300 and 3300 Hz to separate phone
With a bandstop filter, the stopband is all the frequen-
conversations. The center frequency of these filters is
cies between the lower and upper cutoff frequencies. The
________________
f0 5 Ï (300 Hz)(3300 Hz) 5 995 Hz frequencies below the lower cutoff frequency and above the
upper cutoff frequency are the passband. An ideal bandstop
To avoid interference between different phone conversations, filter has infinite attenuation in the stopband, no attenuation
the bandpass filters have responses that approach the brick in the passband, and two vertical transitions.
wall response shown in Fig. 23-3. The definitions for bandwidth, narrowband, and cen-
The Q of a bandpass filter is defined as the center fre- ter frequency are the same as before. In other words, with
quency divided by the bandwidth: a bandstop filter, we use Formulas (23-l) through (23-3) to
f0 calculate BW, f0, and Q. Incidentally, the bandstop filter is
Q 5 ____ (23-3)
BW sometimes called a notch filter because it notches out or re-
For instance, if f0 5 200 kHz and BW 5 40 kHz, then Q 5 5. moves all frequencies in the stopband.
When the Q is greater than 10, the center frequency can
All-Pass Filter
be approximated by the arithmetic average of the cutoff
frequencies: Figure 23-5 shows the frequency response of an ideal all-
f1 1 f 2 pass filter. It has a pass-band and no stopband. Because of
f0 ù ______ this, it passes all frequencies between zero and infinite fre-
2
quency. It may seem rather unusual to call it a filter since
For instance, in a radio receiver the cutoff frequencies of the
it has zero attenuation for all frequencies. The reason it is
bandpass filter (IF stage) are 450 and 460 kHz. The center
called a filter is because of the effect it has on the phase of
frequency is approximately
signals passing through it. The all-pass filter is useful when
f0 ù 450 kHz 1 460 kHz 5 455 kHz
_________________ we want to produce a certain amount of phase shift for the
2 signal being filtered without changing its amplitude.
If Q is less than 1, the bandpass filter is called a wide- The phase response of a filter is defined as the graph of
band filter. If Q is greater than 1, the filter is called a nar- phase shift versus frequency. As mentioned earlier, the ideal
rowband filter. For example, a filter with cutoff frequencies low-pass filter has a phase response of 0° at all frequencies.

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 Av The reactance XL of either low-pass or high-pass filters
with L and C increases with higher frequencies, while XC
decreases. The frequency characteristics of XL and XC cannot
be changed. However, the circuit connections are opposite to
reverse the filtering action.
The ability of any filter to reduce the amplitude of unde-
sired frequencies is called the attenuation of the filter. The
frequency at which the attenuation reduces the output to
70.7% is the cutoff frequency, usually designated fc.
f
23.3 Low-Pass Filters
Figure 23-5 Ideal all-pass response.
Figure 23-6 illustrates low-pass circuits from a single fil-
ter element with a shunt bypass capacitor in Fig. 23-6a or
Because of this, a nonsinusoidal input signal has the same
shape after passing through an ideal low-pass filter, provided
its fundamental frequency and all significant harmonics are Output = low L
R frequencies
in the passband. Input = low
and high C RL RL
The phase response of an all-pass filter is different from frequencies
that of the ideal low-pass filter. With the all-pass filter, each
distinct frequency can be shifted by a certain amount as it
passes through the filter. (a) (b)

23.2 Filter Circuits

L L1 L2
The most widely used types of filters are the low pass or high
pass. A low-pass filter allows the lower-frequency compo- C RL RL
C
nents of the applied voltage to develop output voltage across
the load resistance, whereas the higher-frequency compo-
nents are attenuated, or reduced, in the output. A high-pass
(c) (d )
filter does the opposite, allowing the higher-frequency com-
ponents of the applied voltage to develop voltage across the
output load resistance.
An RC coupling circuit is an example of a high-pass L

filter because the ac component of the input voltage is de-

C1 C2 RL
veloped across R while the dc voltage is blocked by the
series capacitor. Furthermore, with higher frequencies in
the ac component, more ac voltage is coupled. For the op-
posite case, a bypass capacitor is an example of a low-pass (e)
filter. The higher frequencies are bypassed, but the lower
the frequency, the less the bypassing action. Then lower
frequencies can develop output voltage across the shunt
R
bypass capacitor.
To make the filtering more selective in terms of which C1 C2 RL

frequencies are passed to produce output voltage across the

load, filter circuits generally combine inductance and ca-
pacitance. Since inductive reactance increases with higher (f )
frequencies and capacitive reactance decreases, the two op-
posite effects improve the filtering action. Figure 23-6 Low-pass filter circuits. (a) Bypass
capacitor C in parallel with R L . (b) Choke L in series with R L .
With combinations of L and C, filters are named to cor-
(c) Inverted-L type with choke and bypass capacitor. (d ) The
respond to the circuit configuration. Most common types of T type with two chokes and one bypass capacitor. (e) The 
filters are the L, T, and . Any one of the three can function type with one choke and bypass capacitors at both ends.
as either a low-pass filter or a high-pass filter. (f ) The  type with a series resistor instead of a choke.

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 a series choke in b, to the more elaborate combinations of The response curve in Fig. 23-7 is illustrated for the ap-
an inverted-L type filter in c, a T type in d, and a  type plication of a low-pass filter attenuating RF voltages while
in e and f. With an applied input voltage having different passing audio frequencies to the load. This is necessary
frequency components, the low-pass filter action results in when the input voltage has RF and AF components but
maximum low-frequency voltage across RL , while most of only the audio voltage is desired for the AF circuits that
the high-frequency voltage is developed across the series follow the filter.
choke or resistance.
In Fig. 23-6a, the shunt capacitor C bypasses RL at high Circuit Variations
frequencies. In Fig. 23-6b, the choke L acts as a voltage di- The choice between the T-type filter with a series input
vider in series with RL. Since L has maximum reactance for choke and the  type with a shunt input capacitor depends on
the highest frequencies, this component of the input voltage the internal resistance of the generator supplying input volt-
is developed across L with little across RL. At lower frequen- age to the filter. A low-resistance generator needs the T filter
cies, L has low reactance, and most of the input voltage can so that the choke can provide high series impedance for the
be developed across RL. bypass capacitor. Otherwise, the bypass capacitor must have
In Fig. 23-6c, the use of both the series choke and the by- extremely large values to short-circuit the low-resistance
pass capacitor improves the filtering by providing a sharper generator at high frequencies.
cutoff between the low frequencies that can develop volt- The  filter is more suitable with a high-resistance gen-
age across RL and the higher frequencies stopped from the erator when the input capacitor can be effective as a bypass.
load by producing maximum voltage across L. Similarly, For the same reasons, the L filter can have the shunt bypass
the T-type circuit in Fig. 23-6d and the -type circuits in e either in the input for a high-resistance generator or across
and f improve filtering. the output for a low-resistance generator.
Using the series resistance in Fig. 23-6f instead of a choke In all filter circuits, the series choke can be connected
provides an economical  filter in less space. either in the high side of the line, as in Fig. 23-6, or in
series in the opposite side of the line, without having any
effect on the filtering action. Also, the series components
Passband and Stopband
can be connected in both sides of the line for a balanced
As illustrated in Fig. 23-7, a low-pass filter attenuates filter circuit.
frequencies above the cutoff frequency fc of 15 kHz in
this example. Any component of the input voltage hav- 23.4 High-Pass Filters
ing a frequency lower than 15 kHz can produce out-
As illustrated in Fig. 23-8, the high-pass filter passes to
put voltage across the load. These frequencies are in
the load all frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency fc,
the passband. Frequencies of 15 kHz or more are in
whereas lower frequencies cannot develop appreciable volt-
the stopband. The sharpness of filtering between the
age across the load. The graph in Fig. 23-8a shows the re-
passband and the stopband depends on the type of cir-
sponse of a high-pass filter with a stopband of 0 to 50 Hz.
cuit. In general, the more L and C components, the
Above the cutoff frequency of 50 Hz, the higher audio fre-
sharper the response of the filter. Therefore,  and
quencies in the passband can produce AF voltage across the
T types are better filters than the L type and the bypass
output load resistance.
or choke alone.
The high-pass filtering action results from using C C
as a coupling capacitor in series with the load, as in
15-kHz cutoff frequency, fc Fig. 23-8b. The L, T, and  types use the inductance for
a high-reactance choke across the line. In this way, the
Voltage across load

higher-frequency components of the input voltage can

develop very little voltage across the series capacitance,
Stopband
radio frequencies allowing most of this voltage to be produced across R L .
The inductance across the line has higher reactance with
Passband
audio increasing frequencies, allowing the shunt impedance to
frequencies
be no lower than the value of R L .
For low frequencies, however, RL is effectively short-
Frequency circuited by the low inductive reactance across the line.
Figure 23-7 The response of a low-pass filter with Also, CC has high reactance and develops most of the voltage
cutoff at 15 kHz. The filter passes the audio signal but at low frequencies, stopping these frequencies from develop-
attenuates radio frequencies. ing voltage across the load.

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 Cutoff frequency, fc R 5 10 kV
50 Hz

Stopband
0 – 50 Hz Output 5 high
Voltage across load

CC
frequencies C5
Input voltage, Vin Output voltage, Vout
0.01 mF
Passband Input 5 RL
audio high and low
frequencies frequencies

(a)

Frequency

(a) (b) Vout 5 Vin

0.707 Vin

C C1 C2
Output voltage, Vout
fc
RL RL
Frequency
L L
(b)

Figure 23-9 RC low-pass filter. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of

Vout versus frequency.

(c) (d)
when f 5 0 Hz (dc) and f 5 ` Hz. At f 5 0 Hz, the capacitor
C has infinite capacitive reactance XC, calculated as

C 1
XC  _____
2fC
RL 1
 _____________________
L1 L2 2    0 Hz  0.01 F
`V
Figure 23-10a shows the equivalent circuit for this condi-
tion. Notice that C appears as an open. Since all of the input
(e) voltage appears across the open in a series circuit, Vout must
equal Vin when f  0 Hz.
Figure 23-8 High-pass filters. (a) The response curve for
an audio frequency filter cutting off at 50 Hz. (b) An RC coupling At the other extreme, consider the circuit when the fre-
circuit. (c) Inverted-L type. (d ) The T type. (e) The  type. quency f is very high or infinitely high. Then XC  0 V,
calculated as
1
XC  _____
23.5 Analyzing Filter Circuits 2fC
1
 ______________________
Any low-pass or high-pass filter can be thought of as a 2    ` Hz  0.01 F
frequency-dependent voltage divider, since the amount of
output voltage is a function of frequency. Special formulas 0V
can be used to calculate the output voltage for any frequency Figure 23-10b shows the equivalent circuit for this con-
of the applied voltage. What follows is a more mathematical dition. Notice that C appears as a short. Since the voltage
approach in analyzing the operation of the most basic low- across a short is zero, the output voltage for very high fre-
pass and high-pass filter circuits. quencies must be zero.
When the frequency of the input voltage is somewhere
RC Low-Pass Filter between zero and infinity, the output voltage can be deter-
Figure 23-9a shows a simple RC low-pass filter, and mined by using Formula (23-4):
Fig. 23-9b shows how its output voltage Vout varies with fre- X
Vout  ___C  Vin (23-4)
quency. Let’s examine how the RC low-pass filter responds ZT

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 R 5 10 kV
EXAMPLE 23-1

In Fig. 23-9a, calculate (a) the cutoff frequency fc; (b) Vout at f c; (c) 
at f c. (Assume Vin  10 Vp-p for all frequencies.)
Vin XC 5 ` V Vout 5 Vin when f 5 0 Hz
Answer:
a. To calculate f c, use Formula (23-6):

1
fc  ______
(a) 2RC
1
 _______________________
R 5 10 kV
2    10 kV  0.01 F
 1.592 kHz
b. To calculate Vout at f c, use Formula (23-4). First, however, cal-
Vin XC 5 0 V Vout 5 0 Vp-p when f 5 ` Hz culate XC and ZT at f c:
1
XC  _____
2fcC
1
 __________________________
(b) 2    1.592 kHz  0.01 F
Figure 23-10 RC low-pass equivalent circuits.  10 kV
(a) Equivalent circuit for f  0 Hz. (b) Equivalent circuit for _______
very high frequencies, or f   Hz. ZT  Ï R2  XC2
_______________
 Ï 102 kV  102 kV
where  14.14 kV
_______
ZT  Ï R2  XC2 Next,

At very low frequencies, where XC approaches infinity, X

Vout  ___C  Vin
Vout is approximately equal to Vin. This is true because the ZT
ratio XCyZT approaches one as XC and ZT become approxi- 10 kV  10 V
 ________ p-p
mately the same value. At very high frequencies, where XC 14.14 kV
approaches zero, the ratio XCyZT becomes very small, and  7.07 Vp-p
Vout is approximately zero.
c. To calculate , use Formula (23-5):
With respect to the input voltage Vin, the phase angle  of
R
the output voltage Vout can be calculated as   arctan 2 ___
X C
R
  arctan  ___
XC (23-5) 10 kV
 arctan 2 ______
At very low frequencies, XC is very large and  is approxi- 10 kV
mately 08. At very high frequencies, however, XC is nearly  arctan 2 1
zero and  approaches 2908.  2458
The frequency where XC  R is the cutoff frequency,
The phase angle of 458 tells us that Vout lags Vin by 458 at the
designated fc. At fc, the series current I is at 70.7% of its cutoff frequency fc.
maximum value because the total impedance ZT is 1.41
times larger than the resistance of R. The formula for the
cutoff frequency fc of an RC low-pass filter is derived as RL Low-Pass Filter
follows. Because XC  R at fc, Figure 23-11a shows a simple RL low-pass filter, and
1 R
_____ Fig. 23-11b shows how its output voltage Vout varies with fre-
2fcC quency. The performance of an RL filter is similar to that of
Solving for fc gives an RC low-pass filter. The RL version is not used as much
1 because an inductor is larger, more expensive, and has higher
fc  ______ (23-6)
2RC resistive losses. Most low-pass filters are of the RC type.
The response curve in Fig. 23-9b shows that Vout  The frequency at which XL  R is the cutoff frequency fc.
0.707Vin at the cutoff frequency fc. At fc, the series current I is at 70.7% of its maximum value,

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 L 5 50 mH C 5 0.01 mF

R5 R5
Input voltage, Vin Output voltage, Vout Input voltage, Vin 0utput voltage, Vout
1 kV 1.5 kV

(a) (a)

Vout 5 Vin Vout 5 Vin

0.707 Vin 0.707 Vin

Output voltage, Vout Output voltage, Vout

fc fc
Frequency Frequency

(b) (b)

Figure 23-11 RL low-pass filter. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of Figure 23-12 RC high-pass filter. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of
Vout versus frequency. Vout versus frequency.

since Z T  1.41R when XL  R. The formula for the cutoff At very low frequencies where XC is very large,  is approxi-
frequency of an RL low-pass filter is mately 908. At very high frequencies where XC approaches
zero,  is approximately 08.
R
fc  ____ (23-7)
2L To calculate the cutoff frequency fc for an RC high-pass
filter, use Formula (23-6). Although this formula is used to
The response curve in Fig. 23-11b shows that Vout 5 0.707Vin calculate fc for an RC low-pass filter, it can also be used to
at the cutoff frequency fc. calculate fc for an RC high-pass filter. The reason is that, in
both circuits, XC  R at the cutoff frequency. In Fig. 23-12b,
RC High-Pass Filter
notice that Vout  0.707Vin at fc.
Figure 23-12a shows an RC high-pass filter. Notice that the
output is taken across the resistor R rather than across the RL High-Pass Filter
capacitor C. Figure 23-12b shows how the output voltage An RL high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 23-13a, and its re-
varies with frequency. To calculate the output voltage Vout at sponse curve is shown in Fig. 23-13b. In Fig. 23-13a, no-
any frequency, use Formula (23-8): tice that the output is taken across the inductor L rather than
across the resistance R. Like an RL low-pass filter, an RL
R V
Vout  ___ (23-8)
ZT in high-pass filter is not widely used because of the inductor
disadvantages mentioned earlier.
where
_______
ZT  Ï R2  XC2 EXAMPLE 23-2

At very low frequencies, the output voltage approaches Calculate the cutoff frequency for the RC high-pass filter in
zero because the ratio RyZT becomes very small as XC Fig. 23-12a.
and thus ZT approach infinity. At very high frequencies, Answer:
Vout is approximately equal to Vin, because the ratio RyZT Use Formula (23-6):
approaches one as ZT and R become approximately the 1
same value. fc  _____
2RC
The phase angle of Vout with respect to Vin for an RC high- 1
 _______________________
pass filter can be calculated using Formula (23-9): 2    1.5 kV  0.01 F
X  10.61 kHz
  arctan ___C (23-9)
R

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 R 5 1.5 kV section. Notice that the individual filters are in parallel.
The frequency of maximum attenuation is called the notch
frequency, identified as f N in Fig. 23-14b. Notice that the
L5
Input voltage, Vin 100 mH Output voltage, Vout maximum value of Vout below f N is less than the maximum
value of Vout above f N. The reason for this is that the series
resistances (2R1) in the low-pass filter provide greater circuit
losses than the series capacitors (C1) in the high-pass filter.
(a )
To calculate the notch frequency f N in Fig. 23-14a, use
Vout 5 Vin Formula (23-10):
1
f N 5 _______ (23-10)
0.707 Vin
4R1C1
Output voltage, Vout
fc
EX A M P L E 2 3 -3
Frequency
Calculate the notch frequency f N in Fig. 23-14a if R 1  1 kV and
(b) C1  0.01 F. Also, calculate the required values for 2R 1 and 2C1
in the low-pass filter.
Figure 23-13 RL high-pass filter. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of
Vout versus frequency. Answer:
Use Formula (23-10):

RC Bandstop Filter 1
f N  _______
4R1C1
A high-pass filter can also be combined with a low-pass fil-
ter when it is desired to block or severely attenuate a cer- 1
 ______________________
tain band of frequencies. Such a filter is called a bandstop 4    1 kV  0.01 F
or notch filter. Figure 23-14a shows an RC bandstop filter,  7.96 kHz
and Fig.  23-14b shows how its output voltage varies with
2R1  2  1 kV
frequency. In Fig. 23-14a, the components identified as 2R1
and 2C1 constitute the low-pass filter section, and the com-  2 kV
ponents identified as R1 and C1 constitute the high-pass filter 2C1  2  0.01 F
 0.02 F
2R1 2R1

2C1 23.6 Decibels and Frequency

Response Curves
C1 C1 Vout
Vin RL In analyzing filters, the decibel (dB) unit is often used to de-
scribe the amount of attenuation offered by the filter. In basic
terms, the decibel is a logarithmic expression that compares
R1
two power levels. Expressed mathematically,
Pout
NdB  10 log ___ (23-11)
Pin
(a )
where
Vout 5 Vin NdB  gain or loss in decibels
Pin  input power
Pout  output power
Output voltage, Vout
fN If the ratio PoutyPin is greater than one, the NdB value is
Frequency
positive, indicating an increase in power from input to out-
put. If the ratio PoutyPin is less than one, the NdB value is nega-
(b)
tive, indicating a loss or reduction in power from input to
Figure 23-14 Notch filter. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of Vout output. A reduction in power, corresponding to a negative
versus frequency. NdB value, is referred to as attenuation.

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 Dividing both sides of the equation by Vin gives
EXAMPLE 23-4
X
Vout ___
___
A certain amplifier has an input power of 1 W and an output power  C
Vin ZT
of 100 W. Calculate the dB power gain of the amplifier.
Answer: Substituting XCyZ T for VoutyVin in Formula (23-11) gives
Use Formula (23-11): X
Pout NdB  20 log ___C
ZT
NdB  10 log ___
Pin
100 W
 10 log ______ EXAMPLE 23-6
1W
 10  2 In Fig. 23-15, calculate the attenuation, in decibels, at the following
 20 dB frequencies: (a) 0 Hz; (b) 1.592 kHz; (c) 15.92 kHz. (Assume that Vin 
10 Vp-p at all frequencies.)

Answer:
EXAMPLE 23-5 a. At 0 Hz, Vout  Vin  10 Vp-p, since the capacitor C appears as
an open. Therefore,
The input power to a filter is 100 mW, and the output power is
Vout
5 mW. Calculate the attenuation, in decibels, offered by the filter. NdB  20 log ___
Vin
Answer:
Pout 10 Vp-p
NdB  10 log ___  20 log ______
Pin 10 Vp-p
5 mW
 10 log ________  20 log 1
100 mW
 20  0
 10  (21.3)
 213 dB  0 dB
b. Since 1.592 kHz is the cutoff frequency f c, Vout will be 0.707 
V in or 7.07 Vp-p. Therefore,
The power gain or loss in decibels can also be computed
from a voltage ratio if the measurements are made across Vout
equal resistances. NdB  20 log ___
Vin
Vout
NdB  20 log ___ (23-12) 7.07 Vp-p
Vin
 20 log ________
where 10 Vp-p
NdB  gain or loss in decibels  20 log 0.707
Vin  input voltage
Vout  output voltage  20  (20.15)
The NdB values of the passive filters discussed in this chapter  23 dB
can never be positive because Vout can never be greater than Vin. c. To calculate N dB at 15.92 kHz, XC and Z T must first be determined.
Consider the RC low-pass filter in Fig. 23-15. The cutoff fre-
quency fc for this circuit is 1.592 kHz, as determined by For- 1
XC  _____
mula (23-6). Recall that the formula for Vout at any frequency is 2fC
X 1
Vout  ___C  Vin  __________________________
ZT 2    15.92 kHz  0.01 F
R 5 10 kV  1 kV
_______
Z T  Ï R2  XC2
Vin 5 10 VP-P C 5 0.01 m F Vout ______________
 Ï 102 k  12 k
fC 5 1.592 kHz

 10.05 k
Figure 23-15 RC low-pass filter.

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 if the frequency response extends from 25 Hz to 40 kHz,
Next,
4 cycles are necessary to plot the frequencies correspond-
X ing to the decades 10 Hz to 100 Hz, 100 Hz to 1 kHz, 1
NdB  20 log ___C
ZT kHz to 10 kHz, and 10 kHz to 100 kHz. A typical sheet of
log-log graph paper is shown in Fig. 23-16. Because there
1 kV
 20 log ________
10.05 kV are three decades on the horizontal axis and five decades
on the vertical axis, this graph paper is called 3-cycle by
 20 log 0.0995 5-cycle log-log paper. Notice that each octave corresponds
 20(21) to a 2-to-1 range in values and each decade corresponds to
a 10-to-1 range in values. For clarity, several octaves and
 220 dB
decades are shown in Fig. 23-16.
When semilog graph paper is used to plot a frequency
response, the observed or calculated values of gain (or loss)
In Example 23-6, notice that NdB is 0 dB at a frequency must first be converted to decibels before plotting. On the
of 0 Hz, which is in the filter’s passband. This may seem other hand, since decibel voltage gain is a logarithmic func-
unusual, but the 0-dB value simply indicates that there is tion, the gain or loss values can be plotted on log-log paper
no attenuation at this frequency. For an ideal passive filter, without first converting to decibels.
NdB 5 0 dB in the passband. As another point of interest
from Example 23-6, NdB is 23 dB at the cutoff frequency
of 1.592 kHz. Since Vout 5 0.707 Vin at fc for any passive RC Low-Pass Frequency Response Curve
filter, NdB is always 23 dB at the cutoff frequency of a pas- Figure 23-17a shows an RC low-pass filter whose cut-
sive filter. off frequency fc is 1.592 kHz as determined by Formula
(23-6). Figure 23-17b shows its frequency response curve
Frequency Response Curves plotted on semilog graph paper. Notice there are 6 cycles
on the horizontal axis, which spans a frequency range
The frequency response of a filter is typically shown by plot-
from 1 Hz to 1 MHz. Notice that the vertical axis specifies
ting its gain (or loss) versus frequency on logarithmic graph
the NdB loss, which is the amount of attenuation offered by
paper. The two types of logarithmic graph paper are log-log
the filter in decibels. Notice that NdB  –3 dB at the cutoff
and semilog. On semilog graph paper, the divisions along
frequency of 1.592 kHz. Above fc, NdB decreases at the rate
one axis are spaced logarithmically, and the other axis has
of approximately 6 dB/octave, which is equivalent to a rate
conventional linear spacing between divisions. On log-log
of 20 dB/decade.
graph paper, both axes have logarithmic spacing between
divisions. Logarithmic spacing results in a scale that ex-
pands the display of smaller values and compresses the dis- E X A M P L E 2 3 -7
play of larger values. On logarithmic graph paper, a 2-to-1
range of frequencies is called an octave, and a 10-to-1 range From the graph in Fig. 23-17b, what is the attenuation in decibels
of values is called a decade. at (a) 100 Hz; (b) 10 kHz; (c) 50 kHz?
One advantage of logarithmic spacing is that a larger
Answer:
range of values can be shown in one plot without los-
a. At f   100 Hz, N dB  0 dB, as indicated by point A on the
ing resolution in the smaller values. For example, if fre- graph.
quencies between 10 Hz and 100 kHz were plotted on b. At f   10 kHz, N dB  16 dB, as indicated by point B on the
100 divisions of linear graph paper, each division would graph.
represent approximately 1000 Hz and it would be im- c. At f   50 kHz, N dB  30 dB, as indicated by point C.
possible to plot values in the decade between 10 Hz and
100 Hz. On the other hand, by using logarithmic graph
paper, the decade between 10 Hz and 100 Hz would oc- For filters such as the inverted-L, T, or  type, the re-
cupy the same space on the graph as the decade between sponse curve rolloff is much steeper beyond the cutoff
10 kHz and 100 kHz. frequency fc. For example, a low-pass filter with a series
Log-log or semilog graph paper is specified by the num- inductor and a shunt capacitor has a rolloff rate of 12 dB/
ber of decades it contains. Each decade is a graph cycle. For octave or 40 dB/decade above the cutoff frequency fc. To
example, 2-cycle by 4-cycle log-log paper has two decades increase the rate of rolloff, more inductors and capacitors
on one axis and four on the other. The number of cycles must be used in the filter design. Filters are available whose
must be adequate for the range of data plotted. For example, rolloff rates exceed 36 dB/octave.

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
1 100
9
8
7
6
5

One octave
8–16 1 10
9
8
7
6
5

2
One octave One octave

20–40 5,000–10,000
1 1.0
9
8
7
6
5

One decade
3
0.1–1.0

One octave
0.1–0.2
1 0.1
9
8
7
6
5

2
One decade One decade

10–100 1,000–10,000
1 0.01
9
8
7
6
5

3
One decade

300–3,000 2

1 0.001
10 100 1,000 10,000

Figure 23-16 Log-log graph paper. Notice that each octave corresponds to a 2-to-1
range of values and each decade corresponds to a 10-to-1 range of values.

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 R  10 k

Vin  10 Vp-p C Vout

0.01 F
fc  1.592 kHz

(a )

5 6 7 891

1,000,000
4
3
One decade

100,000
5 6 7 891
C

4
3
2
20 dB
octave
One
23 dB

10,000
B

5 6 7 891
6 dB

4
3
2

Frequency (Hz)
1,000

(b)
5 6 7 891
fc

4
3
2

100
A

5 6 7 891
4
3
2

10
5 6 7 891
4
3
2

1
1
210

220

230

240

250

260
0
NdB

Figure 23-17 RC low-pass filter frequency response curve. (a) Circuit. (b) Frequency response curve.

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 23.7 Resonant Filters The series resistor RS in Fig. 23-18b is used to isolate the
low resistance of the LC filter from the input source. At the
Tuned circuits provide a convenient method of filtering a
resonant frequency, practically all of the input voltage is
band of radio frequencies because relatively small values of
across RS with little across RL because the LC tuned circuit
L and C are necessary for resonance. A tuned circuit pro-
then has very low resistance due to series resonance.
vides filtering action by means of its maximum response at
the resonant frequency. Parallel Resonance Filters
The width of the band of frequencies affected by reso- A parallel resonant circuit has maximum impedance at
nance depends on the Q of the tuned circuit; a higher Q pro- the resonant frequency. Connected in series with RL , as in
vides a narrower bandwidth. Because resonance is effective Fig. 23-19a, the parallel-tuned LC circuit provides maxi-
for a band of frequencies below and above fr, resonant filters mum impedance in series with RL at and near the resonant
are called bandstop or bandpass filters. Series or parallel frequency. Then these frequencies produce maximum volt-
LC circuits can be used for either function, depending on the age across the LC circuit but minimum output voltage across
connections with respect to RL. In the application of a band- RL. This is a bandstop filter, therefore, for the bandwidth of
stop filter to suppress certain frequencies, the LC circuit is the tuned circuit.
often called a wavetrap. The parallel LC circuit connected across RL , however,
Series Resonance Filters as in Fig. 23-19b, provides a bandpass filter. At resonance,
the high impedance of the parallel LC circuit allows RL to
A series resonant circuit has maximum current and mini-
develop its output voltage. Below resonance, RL is short-
mum impedance at the resonant frequency. Connected in
circuited by the low reactance of L; above resonance, RL is
series with RL , as in Fig. 23-18a, the series-tuned LC circuit
short-circuited by the low reactance of C. For frequencies at
allows frequencies at and near resonance to produce maxi-
or near resonance, though, RL is shunted by high impedance,
mum output across RL. Therefore, this is bandpass filtering.
resulting in maximum output voltage.
When the series LC circuit is connected across RL as in
The series resistor RS in Fig. 23-19b is used to improve
Fig. 23-18b, however, the resonant circuit provides a low-
the filtering effect. Note that the parallel LC combination
impedance shunt path that short-circuits RL. Then there is
and RS divide the input voltage. At the resonant frequency,
minimum output. This action corresponds to a shunt bypass
capacitor, but the resonant circuit is more selective, short-
L
circuiting RL just for frequencies at and near resonance. For
the bandwidth of the tuned circuit, the series resonant circuit
in shunt with RL provides bandstop filtering. Parallel
resonant

L C

C
Input RL
Series resonant

Input RL

(a )

(a ) RS

RS

L Parallel
Input L C RL
Series resonant
Input RL
resonant

(b) (b )

Figure 23-18 The filtering action of a series resonant Figure 23-19 The filtering action of a parallel resonant
circuit. (a) Bandpass filter when L and C are in series with R L . circuit. (a) Bandstop filter when LC tank is in series with R L .
(b) Bandstop filter when LC circuit is in shunt with R L . (b) Bandpass filter when LC tank is in shunt with R L .

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 L1 C2

R2 R1
vin +
C1 vout
L2
C1 –
Input RL

C2 (a)

(a) C R2

R1
L3 C3
vin –
vout
C
+

Input L4 C4 RL
(b)

Figure 23-21 Active filters. (a) Second-order, low-pass

filter. (b) Bandpass active filter.
(b)

high frequencies. These disadvantages can be overcome

Figure 23-20 Inverted-L filter with resonant circuits.
(a) Bandstop filtering action. (b) Bandpass filtering action. with several special filters. These include active filters, crys-
tal and ceramic filters, and surface acoustic wave filters.

though, the LC circuit has very high resistance for parallel Active Filters
resonance. Then most of the input voltage is across the LC Active filters are those that combine RC networks with op-
circuit and RL with little across RS. erational amplifiers (op amps). The amplifiers provide gain
to offset the normal loss of RC networks, and the feedback
L-Type Resonant Filter techniques provide improved selectivity. Any of the five
Series and parallel resonant circuits can be combined in L, basic types of filters can be implemented with active filter
T, or  sections for sharper discrimination of the frequen- circuits.
cies to be filtered. Examples of an L-type filter are shown in Figure 23-21a shows a typical second-order, low-pass fil-
Fig. 23-20. ter. Both R and C1 form one of the RC sections, while R
The circuit in Fig. 23-20a is a bandstop filter. The reason and C2 form the other. It provides a rolloff rate of 40 dB per
is that the parallel resonant L1C1 circuit is in series with the decade. The gain is usually set to one, but other op amps can
load, whereas the series resonant L2C2 circuit is in shunt with be added to boost that as required. Greater selectivity can
RL. There is a dual effect as a voltage divider across the input be achieved by cascading stages without the loss of gain. A
source voltage. The high resistance of L1C1 reduces voltage bandpass active filter is shown in Fig. 23-21b. High-pass and
output to the load. Also, the low resistance of L2C2 reduces notch filters can be formed in a similar way.
the output voltage. Most active filters are used at low frequencies to elimi-
For the opposite effect, the circuit in Fig. 23-20b is a nate the need for large expensive inductors. They are also
bandpass filter. Now the series resonant L3C3 circuit is in used at audio frequencies to set the frequency response of an
series with the load. Here the low resistance of L3C3 allows amplifier or other circuit. Active filters are not widely used at
more output for RL at resonance. Also, the high resistance of the higher frequencies but with wide-band op amps they can
L 4C4 allows maximum output voltage. function well into the 100-MHz RF range.

23.8 Special Filter Types Crystal Filters

RC and LC filters are widely used, but there are instances Crystal filters are thin slices of quartz that act as a reso-
where they are less desirable because of their excessive at- nant circuits. The crystal freely vibrates at a precise fre-
tenuation, poor selectivity, or inability to work well at very quency when voltage is applied to it. Maximum vibration

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 L

Figure 23-23 Crystal filter as a bandpass filter.

Cp Cs

Interdigital Interdigital
transducers transducers
R
Surface acoustic
waves

Input

(a) (b) Output

Piezoelectric ceramic
Figure 23-22 Equivalent circuit of a crystal filter and its
schematic symbol.
Figure 23-24 Basic construction of a surface acoustic
wave (SAW) filter.
occurs at this resonant frequency. The equivalent cir-
cuit of a crystal and its schematic symbol are shown in
Fig. 23-22. Depending on the frequency, the crystal may Surface Acoustic Wave Filters
operate as a parallel resonant circuit or as a series reso- A surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter is a special bandpass fil-
nant circuit. The Q of the crystal is very high, usually ter used primarily for radio-frequency selectivity. Figure 23-24
over 10,000 or more. As a result, the crystal can be used shows the basic construction. The base is a piezoelectric ce-
to build very selective filters. ramic substrate such as lithium niobate. A pattern of interdigital
Most of these filters are bandpass filters. An example is fingers are made on the surface. The pattern on the left converts
shown in Fig. 23-23. The response curve has extremely steep the signals into acoustic waves that travel across the filter sur-
rolloffs, making the filter useful in separating closely spaced face. By controlling the shape, size, and spacing of the inter-
signals. Most crystal filters are used at radio frequencies digital fingers, the response can be tailored to any frequency or
from roughly 1 MHz to 100 MHz. desired shape. The interdigital pattern on the right in Fig. 23-24
Special ceramic materials, such as lead titanate, can also converts the acoustic waves back into an electronic signal.
be used like a crystal. Ceramic resonators are available to SAW filters are available with a frequency range of 10
make filters. Ceramic filters are smaller, with a lower Q, MHz 4 GHz. The attenuation is very high and in the 10- to
but still have better selectivity than larger LC or crystal 35-dB range. As a result they are used with appropriate am-
filters. Most are used at radio frequencies from 400 kHz plifiers. SAW filters are widely used in TV sets, cell phones,
to 50 MHz. and many types of wireless equipment.

CHAPTER 23 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

DSP Filters
As you have seen in this chapter, filters are made up of com- DSP refers to a way to process analog signals with digital
ponents like resistors, capacitors, inductors, or op amps. circuits. The analog signal to be processed, in this case, is first
Special filters are made of ceramic and crystal resonators converted to digital form. Then a special processor or digital
and unique components, like SAW filters. All these filters computer processes the equivalent digital data to perform the
are still widely in use. However, a newer and more com- filtering function. Almost any type of filter, as described ear-
plex filter has found many applications in modern electronic lier, can be implemented with software to perform the filtering
circuits and systems. This is the digital signal processing digitally. Once processed, the data are then converted back
(DSP) filter. into analog form. The result is the desired filtering effect.

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 It may seem as though a DSP filter is overly complex and Memory

expensive. That was once true, but today, thanks to modern Analog Data Filtered
signal to be analog
semiconductor technology, the circuitry and processors can filtered signal
ADC DAC
be made small enough and cheap enough to make DSP filters
practical. And they are easily integrated onto larger chips to
create a complete system on a chip (SoC). Better still, the digi-
tal filters are usually more effective than equivalent analog
Program
filters. They are usually more selective with steeper rolloff and
less attenuation, and with proper tailoring of the program, the Filter
Algorithm
phase and other characteristics can be controlled as desired.
Figure S23-1 shows a simplified block diagram of a DSP
filter. The analog signal to be filtered is first digitized in a Digital signal
circuit called an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This processor
circuit produces a stream of binary numbers that represent
samples of the analog signal at closely spaced time intervals. Figure S23-1 The concept of digital signal processing (DSP).
The binary numbers are stored in a data memory.
The analog signal data are then processed by the digital signal. The output is similar to that obtained with an analog
signal processor (DSP). The processing may be done by a filter. Typically, the filtering action is superior in some way.
special microcontroller designed for DSP, or it can be any And the filter characteristics can be changed on the fly by
microprocessor or controller with DSP capability. using a new or modified processing algorithm.
Stored in the processor’s memory is the program that DSP filters are invisible, since they are implemented in-
does the processing. It is usually a special mathematical side a small processor or other chip. They are widely used in
algorithm that performs any one of the normal filter func- all forms of electronics, including TV sets, cell phones, MP3
tions like low pass, high pass, bandpass, or bandstop. The players, military radios, and many other types of equipment.
processed data are then stored back in data memory. Finally, The mathematics of DSP is well beyond the scope of this
the processed data are fed to a digital-to-analog converter text, but you should know of its existence because it is not
(DAC) that translates the digital data back into an analog experimental but very widely used in many applications.

CHAPTER 23 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of 20 kHz. c. Bandwidth.

Its bandwidth is d. Discrimination.
a. 4 kHz. 4. In an RC low-pass filter, the output is taken across the
b. 10 kHz. a. resistor.
c. 20 kHz. b. inductor.
d. 40 kHz. c. capacitor.
2. What kind of filter would you use to select one radio d. none of the above.
station from dozens or others around it in the same 5. On logarithmic graph paper, a 10-to-1 range of
spectrum? frequencies is called a(n)
a. High pass. a. octave.
b. Low pass. b. decibel (dB).
c. Bandpass. c. harmonic.
d. Bandstop. d. decade.
3. What term describes a filter’s ability to sharply 6. The cutoff frequency, fc, of a filter is the frequency at
discriminate one signal from another adjacent one? which the output voltage is
a. Selectivity. a. reduced to 50% of its maximum.
b. Sensitivity. b. reduced to 70.7% of its maximum.

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 c. practically zero. 15. In an RL high-pass filter, the output is taken across the
d. exactly equal to the input voltage. a. resistor.
7. The decibel attenuation of a passive filter at the cutoff b. inductor.
frequency is c. capacitor.
a. 23 dB. d. none of the above.
b. 0 dB. 16. An RL high-pass filter uses a 60-mH L and a 1-k R.
c. 220 dB. What is its cutoff frequency?
d. 26 dB. a. 2.65 kHz.
8. To increase the cutoff frequency of an RL high-pass b. 256 kHz.
filter, you can c. 600 kHz.
a. decrease the value of R. d. 32 kHz.
b. decrease the value of L. 17. A T-type low-pass filter consists of
c. increase the value of R. a. series capacitors and a parallel inductor.
d. both b and c. b. series inductors and a bypass capacitor.
9. An RC low-pass filter uses a 2.2-k R and a c. series capacitors and a parallel resistor.
0.01-F C. What is its cutoff frequency? d. none of the above.
a. 3.5 MHz. 18. A ␲-type high-pass filter consists of
b. 72.3 Hz. a. series inductors and parallel capacitors.
c. 7.23 kHz. b. series inductors and a parallel resistor.
d. 1.59 kHz. c. a series capacitor and parallel inductors.
10. For either an RC low-pass or high-pass filter, d. none of the above.
a. Xc  0 V at the cutoff frequency. 19. When examining the frequency response curve of an
b. Xc  R at the cutoff frequency. RC low-pass filter, it can be seen that the rate of roll-
c. Xc is infinite at the cutoff frequency. off well above the cutoff frequency is
d. none of the above. a. 6 dB/octave.
11. What type of filter would you use to get rid of a b. 6 dB/decade.
156-kHz sine wave that is interfering with audio c. 20 dB/decade.
signals in the 20-Hz to 20-kHz range? d. both a and c.
a. Low pass. 20. For signal frequencies in the passband, an RC high-
b. High pass. pass filter has a phase angle of approximately
c. Bandpass. a. 458.
d. Bandstop. b. 08.
12. A power-line filter used to reduce RF interference is c. 1908.
an example of a d. 2908.
a. low-pass filter. 21. The main component in an active filter besides the RC
b. high-pass filter. networks is a(n)
c. notch filter. a. transistor.
d. bandpass filter. b. op amp.
13. On logarithmic graph paper, a 2-to-1 range of fre- c. inductor.
quencies is called a(n) d. transformer.
a. decade. 22. The equivalent circuit of a quartz crystal is a(n)
b. decibel (dB). a. RC network.
c. harmonic. b. mechanical vibrator.
d. octave. c. low-pass filter.
14. What is the decibel (dB) attenuation of a filter d. LC resonant circuit.
with a 100-mV input and a 1-mV output at a given 23. Why is a crystal filter so much more selective than an
frequency? LC or RC filter?
a. 240 dB. a. Its high Q.
b. 220 dB. b. Its small size.
c. 23 dB. c. Its lower losses.
d. 0 dB. d. Its power-handling capability.

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 24. Which of the following best describes a SAW filter? 25. Cascading filter circuits produce a larger filter with
a. Low-frequency, low-pass filter. a. lower selectivity and higher attenuation.
b. High-frequency bandpass filter. b. improved selectivity with gain.
c. High-frequency, high-pass filter. c. improved selectivity with greater attenuation.
d. A microwave notch filter. d. lower selectivity but higher gain.

CHAPTER 23 PROBLEMS

SECTION 23.1 Ideal Responses c. Fig. 23-27.

23.1 A bandpass filter has an upper cutoff frequency of d. Fig. 23-28.
10.8 MHz and a lower cutoff frequency 10.6 MHz.
The bandwidth is R  2.2 k
a. 100 kHz.
b. 200 kHz.
Vin  50 mV C
c. 10.7 MHz. for all frequencies
Output
0.022 mF
d. 21.4 MHz.
23.2 An all-pass filter has
a. no lower cutoff frequency.
b. no upper cutoff frequency.
Figure 23-25
c. a constant phase shift.
d. all of the above.
C  0.047 ␮F
SECTION 23.2 Filter Circuits
23.3 What type of filter, low pass or high pass, uses
a. series inductance and parallel capacitance? Vin  2 V R
Output
for all frequencies 10 k
b. series capacitance and parallel inductance?
23.4 Suppose that a low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency
of 1 kHz. If the input voltage for a signal at this fre-
quency is 30 mV, how much is the output voltage?
Figure 23-26
SECTION 23.3 Low-Pass Filters
23.5 For a low-pass filter, define what is meant by the terms L 5 30 mH
a. passband.
b. stopband.
23.6 Assume that both the RC low-pass filter in Vin 5 100 mV R5
Output
for all frequencies 1 kV
Fig. 23-6a and the -type filter in Fig. 23-6e have
the same cutoff frequency, fc. How do the filtering
characteristics of these two filters differ?
SECTION 23.4 High-Pass Filters Figure 23-27
23.7 Do the terms passband and stopband apply to high-
pass filters? R  1.8 k
23.8 In Fig. 23-8, does the T-type filter provide sharper
filtering than the RC filter? If so, why?
Vin  5 V L
SECTION 23.5 Analyzing Filter Circuits Output
for all frequencies 250 mH

23.9 Identify the filters in each of the following figures

as either low-pass or high-pass:
a. Fig. 23-25.
b. Fig. 23-26. Figure 23-28

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 23.10 Calculate the cutoff frequency, fc, for the filters in SECTION 23.6 Decibels and Frequency
each of the following figures: Response Curves
a. Fig. 23-25. 23.17 Calculate the decibel (dB) power gain of an ampli-
b. Fig. 23-26. fier for the following values of Pin and Pout:
c. Fig. 23-27. a. Pin  1 W, Pout  2 W.
d. Fig. 23-28. b. Pin  1 W, Pout  10 W.
23.11 In Fig. 23-25, calculate the output voltage, Vout, and c. Pin  50 W, Pout  1 kW.
phase angle, , at the following frequencies: d. Pin  10 W, Pout  400 W.
a. 50 Hz. 23.18 Calculate the decibel (dB) attenuation of a filter for
b. 200 Hz. the following values of Pin and Pout:
c. 1 kHz. a. Pin  1 W, Pout  500 mW.
d. fc. b. Pin  100 mW, Pout  10 mW.
e. 10 kHz. c. Pin  5 W, Pout  5 W.
f. 20 kHz. d. Pin  10 W, Pout  100 mW.
g. 100 kHz.
23.19 What is the rolloff rate of an RC low-pass filter
23.12 In Fig. 23-26, calculate the output voltage, Vout, and for signal frequencies well beyond the cutoff
phase angle, , at the following frequencies: frequency?
a. 10 Hz.
b. 50 Hz. SECTION 23.7 Resonant Filters
c. 100 Hz. 23.20 What determines the width of the band of frequen-
d. fc. cies that are allowed to pass through a resonant
e. 1 kHz. bandpass filter?
f. 20 kHz. 23.21 Identify the following configurations as either
g. 500 kHz. bandpass or bandstop filters:
23.13 For the filters in Figs. 23-25 through 23-28, what is a. series LC circuit in series with RL.
the ratio of Vout/Vin at the cutoff frequency? b. parallel LC circuit in series with RL.
23.14 Without regard to sign, what is the phase angle, c. parallel LC circuit in parallel with RL.
, at the cutoff frequency for each of the filters in d. series LC circuit in parallel with RL.
Figs. 23-25 through 23-28?
23.15 For a low-pass filter, what is the approximate phase
angle, , for frequencies
a. well below the cutoff frequency?
b. well above the cutoff frequency?
23.16 Calculate the notch frequency, fN, in Fig. 23-29.

2R1 5 36 kV 2R1 5 36 kV

2C1 5
0.002 ␮F

Vin C1 5 0.001 ␮F C1 5 0.001 ␮F RL 5

100 kV

R1 5 18 kV

Figure 23-29

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 Ch a pt er 24
AC Power

Learning Outcomes Most of the energy used to power electronic equipment

and systems comes from our ac electric grid. Electrical
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: utility companies supply 60-Hz ac voltage to all of our
Explain the operation of an ac generator. homes, businesses, and industries. For this reason, it is
Name five different forms of energy used to important for every electronics technician and engineer
generate electric power. to know something about the ac power grid and the
State the function of a turbine. related systems. This chapter introduces you to the ac
Name five alternative energy sources, and explain power grid and provides details on common electric
how the two most promising generate power. wiring and components. Three-phase electric power is
Explain why electric power is distributed at a high also discussed.
voltage level.
State the main components at an electrical
substation.
Name the two ways that three-phase ac generators
and transformers are connected.

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 Calculate the output voltage of both Y and D three- equipment requiring electricity. This section discusses the
phase generators and transformers. power generation part of the system.
State the names and colors of the wires in a typical A utility power plant consists of three main components:
home electrica cable. an energy source, a turbine, and an electric generator. The
energy source may be water, fossil fuels (such as coal, oil,
State the voltages available in most homes and and natural gas), nuclear, wind, or solar. While wind and
offices. solar power sources are increasing, today they still represent
Explain the purpose of a circuit breaker. a small fraction of the power sources for the electrical utility
Explain the purpose of the third ground wire in business. In the United States, for example, nearly half of all
standard electric wiring. energy is generated by burning coal because it is the least
expensive and most abundant energy source.
Figure 24-2 shows the typical power generating process.
The energy source could be coal, oil, or natural gas that is
24.1 Power Generation burned in a furnace. The furnace heats water. Or a nuclear
The ac electric power system used throughout the world con- reactor could also heat the water. The heated water inside a
sists of four major components, as shown in Fig. 24-1. An heat exchanger is used to heat another water source that is
energy source is used to generate the electric power which flowing through a series of water tubes. The water is heated
is then distributed to the end users. The external distribu- until it is turned into steam. The steam is sent to a turbine
tion system, also known as the grid, is part of the utility that that is used to rotate the generator.
generates the power. Once the electricity is delivered to the A turbine is a machine that converts the motion of a fluid
home or business, an internal distribution system or prem- such as water or steam into rotational movement. The main
ises wiring is used to deliver the ac voltage to those devices element in a turbine is a set of rotor blades similar to that on
requiring it. The final part of the system, of course, is the a fan or a propeller. The high-pressure steam turns the rotor
various loads that consist of the lights, appliances, and other blades that, in turn, rotate a shaft. The shaft is mechanically

Energy (coal, gas, nuclear, etc.)

Power Power Premises

Loads
generation distribution wiring

External distribution Internal distribution

Figure 24-1 Simplified model of the electric power system.

Heat exchanger 3-phase AC

(heats water to steam)

Steam
Turbine Generator
Nuclear
reactor Heat
Rotary
shaft
Water

or

Heat
Furnace Pump Cooling
water

Coal, oil, or
natural gas Condenser
(converts spent steam
Water back into water)

Figure 24-2 General concept of an electric power generating plant.

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 coupled to the electric generator, which produces the alter- Magnetic lines
of force
nating current.
AC output
After turning the turbine rotor, the high-pressure steam
goes into a condenser unit where it is cooled by circulating
Stator ⫹
water. The steam is thus converted back into water, and the (fixed pole
piece)
water is filtered and then again pumped into the heat ex-
⫺
changer where it is reheated. Rotor
As you can see, the energy in the form of heat is con- (moving
magnet) N Stator
verted into mechanical motion by the turbine. The turbine windings
Slip (connected
in turn rotates the generator to produce the electric power. rings in series)
In coal, oil, and natural gas plants the furnace and heat
S
exchanger may be the same. In nuclear energy plants the
Turbine
reactor heats the heat exchanger. Natural gas is far more Brushes
⫹
shaft
efficient and significantly cleaner burning than coal or oil.
Nuclear energy is the cleanest of all energy whereby the
⫺
nuclear fission process produces heat that generates steam ⫺
DC input
for the turbine. voltage ⫹
The process of wind and solar power generation is consid- Stator

erably different from that of a conventional power plant and

will be discussed separately.
Figure 24-4 An alternative method of generating ac.
Electric Generators
In Chap. 14 you saw how a basic sine wave of voltage was
generated by a simple generator circuit consisting of a coil new arrangement is used whereby the coil is fixed and the
rotating inside a magnetic field. Figure 24-3 shows the basic magnetic field is rotated. The basic concept is illustrated in
arrangement. As the coil rotates inside the magnetic field, Fig. 24-4.
a voltage is induced into it. This is transferred through the The generator in Fig. 24-4 uses a rotating electromag-
slip rings and brushes to the circuit to be powered. To pro- net. Direct current is applied to the coil through a sys-
duce the 60-Hz voltage commonly used in this country, the tem of brushes and slip rings. The direct current flows
coil has to rotate 60 revolutions per second to produce the through the coil, around the rotating core, and produces
60 cycles per second standard. This requires a rotational an electromagnet with north and south poles. A low volt-
speed of 3600 revolutions per minute. age, approximately 250 V, is normally used to generate
While the approach in Fig. 24-3 is useful in low-voltage the magnetic field.
generators, the technique cannot be used in the high- It is the turbine shaft that causes the electromagnet to ro-
voltage generation process used by the utilities. Instead a tate inside the fixed poles. These poles have coils, and the as-
sembly is referred to as a stator. As the magnetic field rotates
between the stator poles, alternating current is induced into
Permanent magnet the stator windings.
Recall that the amount of voltage induced into a coil is
greatest when the maximum number of magnetic lines of
force cut the turns of the coil. When the rotating magnet
Coil
poles are even with the stator pole, the maximum magnetic
field flows in the stator windings and induces the peak volt-
age. One complete rotation of the electromagnet produces
one cycle of the sine wave.
N S
A single set of stator windings produces a single sine
Slip rings wave. This is called a single phase. A utility generator pro-
Shaft
(provide a
rotating electric duces three separate sine waves or phases of voltage simul-
Brushes
connection to taneously. Each phase of sine-wave voltage is shifted from
(transfer current
brushes)
flow from slip rings) the other by 120º, as shown in Fig. 24-5. To generate three
AC voltage
separate sine waves of voltage requires three separate gen-
Figure 24-3 A basic ac generator. erators; however, the generators themselves can be combined

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 Phase Phase Phase 3-phase AC output
A B C DC field voltage

60⬚ 120⬚ 180⬚ 240⬚ 300⬚ 360⬚

AC DC
Turbine
0⬚ generator generator
30⬚ 90⬚ 150⬚ 210⬚ 270⬚ 330⬚

Rotary shafts

Figure 24-7 Physical arrangement of turbine, ac

Figure 24-5 Three ac voltages or phases. generator, and dc field generator.

A critically important consideration in the construction

Phase B
and operation of the ac generator is the frequency produced.
Electromagnetic
The standard power-line frequency in the United States and
rotor assembly many other countries is 60 Hz. However, in Europe and
A other parts of the world the power-line frequency is 50 Hz.
The frequency of the sine wave produced by the generator is
B1 C1
dependent on the number of stator poles in the generator and
N Phase C
the speed of rotation. This basic relationship is expressed as
Stator coils N3S
(phase windings)
To DC
source
f 5 ______ (24-1)
120
S where f is the frequency in hertz, N is the number of poles
C B
per phase, and S is the speed of rotation in revolutions per
minute (rpm). In the case of the generator in Fig. 24-6, there
A1
are two poles per phase. To compute the frequency of the
generator in Fig. 24-6, assume that the rotating magnetic
field turns at 3600 rpm. The frequency then is
2(3600) _____
N 3 S 5 _______
Phase A
f 5 ______ 5 7200 5 60 Hz
120 120 120
Figure 24-6 A basic 3-phase ac generator. Since the number of poles in a generator is fixed, it is strictly
the speed of the rotation that determines the output fre-
quency. Speed control is a very important part of the generat-
into a common structure. A typical arrangement is shown in ing process. Usually some form of speed-control mechanism
Fig. 24-6. It consists of three pairs of stator poles on which is built into the turbine to ensure a constant speed. This
are wound fixed coils into which the voltage will be in- mechanism is called a governor, or regulator, and it provides
duced. Each north and south pair is mounted opposite each automatic speed control. Speed control is excellent in most
other, and the pairs are spaced 60º apart. A magnetic core power plants as the frequency of ac generated typically has
is wrapped with the windings connected to the dc source, as an error of less than 0.1%.
described earlier. This produces the rotating magnetic field. The three-phase output from the generator can be con-
As the turbine rotates the magnetic field, ac voltages are in- nected in two different ways. The two configurations are
duced in each pair of stator poles. The coils on each opposite referred to as the Y (or wye) and delta (or D) connections.
pair of poles are connected in series to form the A, B, and C They are shown in Fig. 24-8, in which Vg is the generator
output phases. Figure 24-7 shows the physical arrangement output voltage from the series-connected stator windings
of the turbine, ac generator, and dc field generator. The tur- and Vo is the output from the generator after the windings
bine rotary shaft turns both generator shafts. are connected.
The voltage induced into each winding is typically very The Y connection in Fig. 24-8a has all the phases con-
high. Most commercial power generators generally produce nected to a common junction labeled X. This point is usually
a voltage of 13,800 V. Some ac generators produce even grounded for safety purposes. The three voltage outputs are
higher voltages. taken between any two pairs of the wires.

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 voltage is taken from across a coil so the output is just equal
Vo to the generator voltage.
(phase A)
Most power generators use the Y connection because it
does provide a voltage step-up of 1.73 over the generated
voltage and provides for a common ground.
A Vg B
Vg Once the voltage is generated, it is ready for distribution.
Distribution consists of transformers for stepping voltage up
A1 B1 Vo
and down, as well as the cables over which the power is car-
(phase C) ried to the distribution system.
X Vo
(phase B) 24.2 Power Distribution
C The power distribution system consists of the wiring from
Vg the power generating station to the substations and the wir-
ing from the substations to the ultimate source in homes, of-
C1 fice buildings, and factories. The resulting network of wires
is large and complex. Most wiring operates at very high volt-
ages because of the efficiency of high-voltage transmission.
Vo 5 1.73 3 Vg
Power plants are usually located a considerable distance
(a) from the end user. The first step in getting power to the user
is transmitting it over longer distances using high-voltage
transmission lines.
The utility generator output of 13,800 V is typically
stepped up to a higher voltage before being transmitted over
A B
Vg Vg Vo long distances. A step-up transformer at the generating station
(phase B) typically increases the voltage to significantly higher levels de-
Vo
A1 B1 (phase C)
pending on the distance of transmission. While voltages vary
Vg from one utility to another, typical voltage levels are 138 kV,
C C1 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV. Some systems have even
used voltages as high as 1 megavolt. A few systems even use
Vo
(phase A)
high-voltage dc distribution. The higher voltages are used for
transmitting the power over the longer distances which could
Vo 5 Vg
be over 100 miles. Once the voltage reaches the various sub-
stations in selected areas, the voltage is stepped down to lower
(b) levels before it is distributed to the user. The purpose of the
Figure 24-8 Three-phase generator stator winding substation is to perform this voltage step-down process.
connections. (a) Y or wye. (b) Delta or D. The reason why electric power is distributed in such
high voltage is that it is more efficient to do so. That is, less
power is lost in the wiring at higher voltages than it is for
The output voltage between any two output wires is lower voltages. In any electric power distribution system, the
1.73 times the voltage produced by the stator coils, or distances involved are considerable, and the long distribu-
tion wires all have resistance. When loads are connected to
Vout 5 1.73Vg (24-2)
consume the power, current flows in the distribution wiring.
The output voltage is basically the sum of two of the coil Because the wiring has resistance, the current flow causes
outputs connected in series. With the two voltages 120º voltage drops develop. The voltage drops subtract from the
out of phase with one another, the summation results in the amount of voltage available at the load end of the line. Fur-
1.73 multiplication factor. For example, if the output voltage thermore, current flow in the resistance of the lines generates
from the coils in series produces 8000 V, the output voltage heat, wasting energy.
between any pair of wires is One way to minimize the voltage drop of course is to sim-
ply increase the size of the wires. Increasing the wire diameter
Vo 5 1.73Vg 5 1.73 3 8000 5 13,840 V
lowers its resistance and so lowers the voltage drop for a given
Another common arrangement for connecting the coils is current level. When large-diameter wires are used, the wire
the delta connection shown in Fig. 24-8b. Here each output is heavier. The weight of the long wires requires heavy-duty

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 1 mile As you can see, with 827 W consumed by the load, the re-
0.5 V maining 173 W is dissipated as heat in the conductors them-
selves. This is a significant waste of power. The solution to
this problem is to step the voltage up before it is distributed.
Resistance Load
AC generator 100 V
of wires 10 V High-Voltage Transmission
Refer to Fig. 24-10. Here the 100 V produced by the genera-
tor is stepped up by a transformer to 10,000 V. The 10,000 V
0.5 V
is then connected to 1 mile of interconnecting cables. At the
Figure 24-9 How power is lost in distribution wiring. destination the voltage is stepped down by a transformer to
the original 100 V, which is applied to the load.
power poles to support that weight. In most cases, aluminum Remembering how a transformer works, we can assume
rather than copper conductors are used for the wires in order that the power output is approximately equal to the power
to reduce the amount of weight carried in the conductors. input. While most transformers are not 100% efficient, they
Large-diameter wires are used to ensure the lowest possible are nearly so, and for this example let’s consider them to be
resistance. Yet resistance cannot be completely eliminated. 100% efficient. This means that the primary and secondary
To illustrate the importance of using high-voltage trans- powers are the same. If the load consumes 1000 W, then
mission techniques, consider the basic example shown in the secondary of transformer T2 must also have a power of
Fig. 24-9. Here it is desired to distribute the 100 V generated 1000 W. Therefore, we can compute the amount of current
by an ac generator to a 10-V load 1 mile away. Applying flowing in the transmission line, which is
100 V to a 10-V load will produce a load current of 10 A. I 5 PyV 5 1000y10,000 5 0.1 A
This translates to a power of 1000 W.
With the voltage at such a high level but with the same power
Next, assume that each mile length of wire has a resis-
consumption, the amount of current flowing in the conduc-
tance of 0.5 V. These two cables are in effect two 0.5-V
tors is considerably less. With less current, less voltage will
resistors connected in series with the 10-V load. The total
be dropped across the conductors. The voltage drop across
additional resistance in the circuit then is 1 V. The total load
each conductor, therefore, is
on the generator, therefore, is the 10-V load plus this wiring
resistance for a total of 11 V. Vdrop 5 IR 5 0.1(0.5) 5 .05 V
With a 100-V source, the current in the circuit is now
In this case only 0.05 V is dropped across each conductor for
9.09 A instead of the desired 10 A. With this information, you
a total voltage loss of 0.1 volt. This tenth of a volt is a tiny
can calculate the amount of voltage drop across each wire, or
fraction of the total 10,000 V being transmitted. In fact, it
Vdrop 5 IR 5 9.09(0.5) 5 4.545 V is so low that it is practically negligible. So while some loss
still occurs at the high voltage, low current produces voltage
The 4.545 V across each interconnecting wire represents a
drops that are a small percentage of the overall transmitted
total voltage loss of 9.09 V. Subtracting this from the 100-V
voltage. The power lost in the transmission process is, there-
source leaves only 90.91 V across the load. Now the power
fore, considerably less at the higher voltage levels. In this case
consumed by the load is only
P 5 VI 5 0.1(0.1) 5 0.01 W or 10 mW
P 5 V 2yR 5 90.912(10) 5 8264.63y10 5 826.63 W
or approximately 827 W That is 10 mW out of a total of 1000 W. That is negligible.

1 mile

T1 0.5 V T2

100 V 10 kV 100 V 10 V

Step-up 0.5 V Step-down

transformer transformer

Figure 24-10 How stepping the voltage up for transmission reduces

power loss.

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 The longer the distance that electric power must be trans- side of the lightning arrester is connected to the power line,
mitted, the higher the transmission-line voltage. That’s why while the other side is connected to ground. Normally it is
hundreds of thousands of voltage are often used in long- an open circuit and draws no current from the system. How-
distance power distribution systems. ever, if an extremely high voltage from lightning hits the
conductor, the lightning arrester will arc over and act as a
Substations low resistance or near short circuit. This directs the high-
Once the high voltage has been distributed to the desired voltage lightning to the earth ground, thereby protecting
areas, it is ready for local distribution. The high voltage ter- the conductors, transformers, and other components in the
minates in a facility called a substation. A substation is sim- subsystem.
ply a facility that accepts the very high voltage input and Another important component is the power factor correc-
steps it down to lower levels for further distribution in local tion capacitors used in most substations. While a high per-
wiring. Transformers at the substation reduce the high volt- centage of the loads connected to the system are resistive,
ages down to various levels, depending on what the utility many motors and other inductive components like trans-
company uses. For example, one substation may step the formers are connected to the system. This will cause the
voltage down to values of approximately 12,500 or 34,500 V. loads to be somewhat inductive, which causes a phase shift
Additional transmission lines are used for secondary sub- that effectively reduces the efficiency of the system. Much
stations whose transformers further step the voltage down. of the power goes to power the inductive loads, and less is
Some systems step the voltage down to the 7000-V range converted to the desired electric energy in the resistive loads.
or to the 2300- or 4100-V levels. The voltage level is deter- To correct for the inductive loading, capacitors are con-
mined by whether the distribution is for homes in neighbor- nected across the line to offset the inductive reactance. Dif-
hoods or for industrial facilities. ferent size capacitors are available to switch across the line
Finally, the voltage reaches the neighborhood for final to correct for the inductive loading effects. The capacitive
distribution. This is typically a 4100-V level that is applied reactance offsets the inductive reactance, making the load
to a transformer mounted on a pole or in some cases a steel appear as though it is purely resistive. Most substations have
housing on a concrete pad. The transformer steps the voltage power factor correction capacitors that can be switched into
down to the 120/240-V level typical of that distributed to the line as inductive load conditions are detected.
homes and businesses. One final thought: There are literally hundreds of electric
The complete example of the voltage generating and dis- power generating plants and distribution systems through-
tribution system is illustrated in Fig. 24-11. Note that three- out the country. These thousands of utility companies do
phase voltages are transmitted. The 13,800 V produced by not operate separately. Instead, most of them are connected
generator is stepped up in transformer T1 to 138,000 V. At together in one large power distribution system referred to
the first substation the 138 kV is stepped down to 34,500 V as the power grid or power pool. The power grid is a huge
in T2. At the next substation it is stepped down to 4,100 V network of cooperating utilities that come together to share
in T3 for further local distribution. The final transformers electric power across a specific region. The United States
T4, T5, T6, and T7 step the voltage down to the 480-, 208-, and Canada, for example, are divided into nine regional
and 120y240-V levels that supply homes, apartments, office power grid networks. The utility companies in each region
buildings, and industrial plants. are connected together to share power. The result is as if
Most substations also have a variety of other pieces of multiple power generating plants are all connected in paral-
equipment. These include switches, fuses and circuit break- lel to provide voltage. The overall result is a higher current
ers, lightning arresters, and power factor correction capaci- capacity. Various coordinating control stations within vari-
tors. Large manually operated switches are usually installed ous regions measure the power demands and loads and then
at substations to physically connect and disconnect power provide automatically switching in different systems to meet
from different parts of the system. the needs of the various regions.
Fuses and circuit breakers are used to protect the system The grid itself is roughly divided into three large seg-
from shorts or excessively heavy loads. Excessive current ments. There is an eastern segment that handles power in
drawn from the system will cause the breaker to trip, thereby all the eastern states from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky
disconnecting the power and protecting the transformers and Mountains. A western segment handles all the power from
other parts of the system. the Rockies to the Pacific Ocean. A third segment covers
A lightning arrester is a special component that pro- Texas.
tects the substation wiring and components from lightning The interconnection of utility systems provides an overall
strikes. The lightning arrester is an extremely high resis- system reliability. A power failure in one system can usually
tance or open-circuit device connected to the wiring. One be compensated for by power coming from a neighboring

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 Power Generating Plant

13,800 V

Primary Secondary

T1

3–phase 3–phase step-up

alternator transformer at
power station

High-voltage
transmission
34,500 V 138,000 V lines

Secondary Primary

T2

First sbstation
step-down transformer

Primary Secondary

T3

Second substation
step-down transformer 4100-V
3–phase to local distribution

240 V Secondary

Primary
T7 T6 T5
120 V T5
T4
208 V
240 V 480 V
Step-down
Industrial transformer
Apartment Office
plant at plant
building building
motors, etc.
240 V
Neutral To
other
houses

House House House

A B C

Figure 24-11 The complete power transmission system.

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 system. Computers at the various coordinating stations sense
the power conditions and can automatically make the differ-
ent switching connections required. High-v
oltage
wires
24.3 Home Electric Wiring Insulator

Most homes and small businesses use the standard 120/240- Transformer
Vac power provided by the utility. This voltage is derived
from the high voltage distributed by the utility to the vari-
ous localities and neighborhoods. The power distribution in
Utility pole
the form of a three-wire voltage connection terminates at
the home or office in what we call the service entrance. The
service entrance refers to all the wiring, components, and 3-wires to home
or building
fittings that carry electricity from the utility’s transformer to Insulators (service drop)
the home or office building. The main purpose of the service
entrance is to measure the electric power consumed, protect
the wiring from excessive current, and distribute the power
to all the installed outlets, fixtures, and other equipment.
The service entrance includes the following:
Figure 24-12 Step-down transformer on a poles for
1. The utility’s wires from the transformer to the building service drop distribution.
2. The service entrance wiring and associated conduit
3. A kilowatt-hour meter for measuring power consump-
tion with the associated connections, enclosure, and Steel housing for
transformer
wiring Electric
meter
4. The service entrance box or distribution panel con-
Concrete
taining circuit breakers and switches plus the connec- pad
tion points for distributing the wiring throughout the
facility
5. An electric ground
All of these are discussed in more detail in this section. Service drop
High-voltage
lines to
Power Distribution transformer Underground
wiring
As you have seen earlier, the voltage from the utility’s gener-
ating station is transmitted and distributed at very high volt- Figure 24-13 Underground wiring for the service drop.
age levels to minimize power loss. Transformers are used at
some stations to reduce the voltage several times along the
way to the consumer. The final voltage translation is done by For most modern homes, the service drop contains wiring
a power transformer that is very near to the homes or offices that is capable of handling a current of up to 200 A. Larger
being served. This transformer is mounted on a utility pole, homes and most businesses will typically have a higher-
as shown in Fig. 24-12. Two wires, with typical values being current capacity.
4,100, 7,000 or 12,000 V, carry the final high voltage to the The connection to the utility’s power transformer con-
neighborhood and are connected to the step-down trans- sists of three wires that come from a secondary winding that
former, which reduces the voltage to the normal 120/240-V provides 240 V across the two outer connections. A center
level. The transformer voltage is carried to the residence tap on the transformer, therefore, provides two 120-V con-
or buildings by three wires, two hot wires and a neutral, or nections. The first device encountered by this wiring is the
ground, wire. The wires running from the utility transformer kilowatt-hour meter, as shown in Fig. 24-14. All utilities re-
to the building are referred to as the service drop. quire homes and offices to have a meter for measuring the
In older neighborhoods, the final distribution transformer amount of electric power consumed. This so-called kilowatt-
is mounted on a nearby utility pole. In newer suburban hour meter typically has a heavy glass enclosure that houses
neighborhoods, most power distribution is underground, four or five dials showing the amount of power used. The
and, therefore, the transformer is typically mounted in a meter itself is an electromechanical device that converts the
steel enclosure on a concrete pad, as shown in Fig. 24-13. mechanical energy used into rotary motion to operate the

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 High-voltage line The kilowatt-hour meter usually consists of two sets of
coils that operate the mechanism operating the dials. One set
of coils is connected in series with the power line and moni-
tors the voltage. The other coils produce a magnetic field that
is proportional to the amount of current drawn.
Step-down Both the voltage and current coils are physically arranged
transformer so that the resulting magnetic field developed turns a small
aluminum disk. The rotational speed of this disk is propor-
240 V
Service tional to the amount of power being consumed. As the disk
drop turns, it rotates a shaft connected to it. This shaft, in turn, is
120 V 120 V
attached to a series of gears. The gears turn the indicating
dials.
Electric While most of the kilowatt-hour meters in use today are
meter
still of this variety, newer homes are beginning to receive so-
called smart meters that use electronic circuits to measure
the current and voltage. An internal microcontroller com-
putes the amount of power and kilowatt-hours used. Most
smart meters are designed so that there is some form of com-
To internal
distribution munications built in so that the power consumption figures
can be communicated over the power line or wirelessly to
Figure 24-14 The service drop and the kilowatt-hour
meter. an in-home energy monitoring device. Some meters also
contain built-in wireless or communications connections to
dials. The meter is almost always located outside the home permit the utility to read the meter remotely. These smart
or office so that the utility company can read the meter. For meters become part of the overall larger utility power system
underground wiring source drops, the wiring comes into the generally known as the smart grid.
meter from a conduit below the ground.
The electric meter itself measures the amount of power How to Read a Standard Electric Meter
consumed in kilowatt-hours. A kilowatt, of course, is Most electric meters have either four or five dials. Each dial
1000 W. A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is equal to the total power is marked with the numbers 0 through 9, providing a total
used by a 1-kilowatt load over a 1-hour period. To calculate of 10 increments. Figure 24-15 shows an example. Notice
the number of kilowatt-hours for a device, simply multiply that some of the dials have their numbers arranged clock-
the power, in watts, consumed by the device by the num- wise, while others are incrementally counterclockwise. In
ber of hours the device is used. Divide the result by 1000. all cases, it is the right-hand dial that rotates the fastest, and
For example, an appliance draws 400 W of power during its each succeeding dial to the left rotates at one-tenth the speed
normal use, and it is used for 5 hours, the total watt-hours of the dial to the right. It takes one complete rotation of a dial
consumed is 400 3 5 5 2000 Wh. Dividing by 1000 gives to the right in order for the dial to the left to move one incre-
the final total of 2 kWh. ment. Figure 24-15 is an example of how to read the meter.

10,000 1000 100 10 Units

0 0 0 0 0
9 1 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 1

8 2 2 8 8 2 2 8 8 2
Monthly
7 3 3 7 7 3 3 7 7 3 reading
6 4 4 6 6 4 4 6 6 4
5 5 5 5 5

1 7 9 9 5

0 0 0 0 0
9 1 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 1

8 2 2 8 8 2 2 8 8 2 Next
month
7 3 3 7 7 3 3 7 7 3 reading
6 4 4 6 6 4 4 6 6 4
5 5 5 5 5

2 5 1 3 4

Figure 24-15 Reading a kilowatt-hour meter.

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 The upper dials indicate the reading at the end of a month, building. The service entrance box is generally located in a
while the lower dials indicate the reading at the end of the garage, basement, or utility room. Some are mounted on the
next month. To read the dials, simply write down the num- wall with service near the electric meter, while others are
bers corresponding to the dial pointers from left to right. If a more remotely mounted and recessed into an existing wall.
pointer is right on top of a number, write down that number.
If the pointer is between the two numbers, write down the The Service Panel
smaller number. If you can’t tell if a pointer is directly on top
The main components of the service panel are
of a number, then look at the dial directly to the right. If the
pointer is a little bit past 0 or 1, then the previous pointer is 1. A master on/off switch
on top of a number. If the pointer to the right is in the 8, 9, or 2. Voltage distribution bus bars
0 range, the pointer to be read is not yet on top of the number, 3. Overcurrent protection devices like circuit breakers
so write down the next lower number. 4. Connectors/buses for attaching the wires to the indi-
To find the total power used, write down the reading for vidual branch circuits
one day of the month. Then at the same time a month later,
5. An earth ground
write down the new reading. Next, subtract the smaller read-
ing from the larger. In this example, 25,134 2 17,995 5 Figure 24-16 shows a basic schematic diagram of the wiring at
7139. This is the total number of kilowatt-hours used in one the service entrance. The high-voltage, step-down transformer
month. The utility will use this number to compute the elec- from the utility provides 240 V from the secondary winding.
trical bill based on the price per kilowatt-hour. Assuming a This secondary winding is center-tapped providing two 120-V
rate of 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, the monthly bill would circuits. The center tap and wire are known as the neutral,
equal 7,139 3 0.10 5 $713.90. which is connected to earth ground. The other two sides of
The wiring from electric meter is then fed to the service the transformer are known as hot wires. All three connections
entrance box. This enclosure is also called the breaker box or are attached to the bus bars. The bus bars then distribute the
service panel. It is a rectangular steel enclosure that contains voltage to the various circuits. Note the main circuit breaker
the circuit breakers and switches, as well as the bus bars and or switch. Then note that each of the individual circuits shown
connectors for distributing the wiring to other parts of the has its own circuit breaker with the peak current designated.

High-voltage lines

Step-down
transformer

Neutral
CT
Service drop

Earth
ground

Electric
Meter
Neutral Service
Hot Hot panel

200 A
Main circuit Circuit
breaker breaker

20 A

120-V 120-V
branch 15 A branches
circuits
15 A

30 A 240-V
circuit

Figure 24-16 The service panel.

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 Some service panels contain a master switch that can be It would be possible to use one set of wires for every out-
used to cut all the power to the building. In some installa- let, lighting fixture, or other load. However, this is not done
tions, the master switch is in a separate enclosure near the in practice because an overload on a single circuit would
kilowatt-hour meter. This switch is usually a double-pole cause all power to be lost. By using multiple parallel circuits,
device that will interrupt both the hot wires coming from an overload on one shuts down only that circuit while allow-
the meter. In most modern installations, the master switch ing the power to continue to be provided to the other circuits.
is also a circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is an overcur- Power to the various outlets, fixtures, and appliances is di-
rent protection device that senses when a particular current vided into multiple paths for current flow. Each run is called
level has been exceeded. Should the current level go over the a branch circuit. Each branch circuit is protected by its own
rated value of the circuit breaker, the circuit breaker switch circuit breaker.
contacts open automatically and disconnect the power. This Virtually all homes and businesses use three basic types
protects the wiring from overheating that could lead to a fire. of branch circuits: general purpose, appliance, and single
A typical home may have a master circuit breaker switch purpose. The general-purpose branch circuit is used to sup-
with a rating of 200 A. ply 120 V to electric outlets and light fixtures. There may
The bus bars are heavy rectangular copper rods that are be as many as 10 or 20 individual general-purpose branch
insulated from the box itself. Screws or other methods of circuits for supplying outlets and overhead lights. Usu-
attachment are used to connect the circuit breakers and the ally, 15-A circuit breakers are used on each of the general-
circuit wiring to the bus bars. One of these bars is in each of purpose circuits.
the three main connections to the system. An appliance branch circuit is designed to handle higher
The bus bars are used so that individual circuits or spe- currents for operating small appliances. Appliance branch
cific runs of cable can be developed. This divides the home circuits generally terminate in the kitchen or laundry areas.
or building into separate power areas. Each will get the volt- These are usually set up for a maximum current of 20 A at
age as required, but the current load is divided among the 120 V. These circuits will handle such appliances as refrig-
different circuits. erators, toasters, and dishwashers.
Each individual circuits that is developed from the bus Single-purpose branch circuits are designed to handle
bars will have its own circuit breaker for overcurrent detec- a special appliance or device. It may be either a 120-V or
tion. The circuit breakers typically have maximum current 240-V circuit. Most single-purpose branch circuits supply
ratings of 15, 20, 25, or 30 A. There is one circuit breaker 240 V to electric kitchen ranges, clothes dryers, or hot water
for each branch circuit to be used. The circuit breakers are heaters. Many central heating and air-conditioning units use
grouped together inside the service panel box. The circuit a single-purpose branch circuit. They can handle 30 to 50 A
breakers mount onto or connect to the bus bars. The circuit of current, depending on the device.
breakers also serve as switches so that you can conveniently An important part of connecting the various branch cir-
turn off selected circuits for installation or maintenance pur- cuits to bus bars is to ensure that they are generally evenly
poses. This allows you to work on one circuit without dis- divided between the two 120-V lines. The goal is to balance
abling the others. the branch currents on one of the 120-V outputs to be ap-
All service entrance boxes also contain a common ground proximately equal to the loads on the other 120-V circuit.
bus bar. The ground is in every case connected to an earth The reason for attempting to balance the loads on the
ground at some point. It is usually done with a heavy copper 120-V circuits is to ensure that the neutral wire never has to
wire that connects the neutral or ground crossbar to a copper carry a large amount of current. If the loads on the two sides
water pipe, which is typically buried in the earth. In those are perfectly equal, no current will flow in the neutral wire.
instances if no copper water pipe is available, a separate cop- However, if the loads are unbalanced, considerable current
per ground rod driven into the earth nearby is used for the will flow in the neutral wire. If the neutral wire is not large
ground. enough, overheating can occur.
You can understand this concept better by considering the
Branch Circuits basic transformer connections from the utility. Referring to
As you have seen, the power-line voltage coming in from the Fig. 24-17, you can see that the secondary of the power trans-
utility from the power transformer is distributed throughout former is center-tapped. There is 240 V between the two
the home or building by multiple cables that terminate at the outer wires and 120 V between each of the outer wires and
circuit entrance box. All these cables are in effect connected the neutral wire. The neutral wire is connected to ground.
in parallel. Each provides a separate path for current to flow With this arrangement, you have two 120-V sources, but
through the various loads. These individual current paths are they are 180º out of phase with one another. The reference
called branch circuits. point is the neutral wire or ground. When one 120-V line is

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 120 V Phase 3
⫹ Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 3
1208
Phase 1
120 V Loads 2408 1208

High Neutral 0 1208 1808 3608 1208

⫺
voltage ⫹
Phase 2

120 V Loads (a ) (b)

⫺ Figure 24-18 Three-phase alternating voltage or current

120 V with 120° between each phase, (a) Sine waves. (b) Phasor
diagram.
Figure 24-17 Current in the neutral wire.
C C

positive, the other is negative and vise versa. Since the two
A A
120-V circuits are 180º out of phase with one another, the
current in the neutral wire will be zero if the loads are equal.
However, if one circuit has a greater load than the other, then B B
the neutral wire will have some amount of current flowing. (a ) (b )
Figure 24-17 shows the polarities of one half-cycle of the
sine wave and the direction of electron flow in the wires and
Figure 24-19 Types of connections for three-phase
power. (a) Wye or Y. (b) Delta or D.
loads. Note the opposite directions in the neutral. If the loads
are equal, the neutral currents will be equal and so will can- The two basic generator output formats are the Y and delta
cel one another. With unequal loads the two branch currents connections described earlier. They are shown again here in
will cancel one another in the neutral but not completely. Fig. 24-19. In the Y connection, all three coils are connected
Most home and building wire is designed to equally dis- at one end, and the opposite ends are for the output terminals:
tribute the loads on the two 120-V circuits. Depending on the A, B, and C. Note that any pair of terminals is across two
lights, appliances, and other devices that are being used, the coils in series. With each coil at 120 V, the output across any
loads will always be unequal, but in most cases, the neutral terminal is 1.73 3 120 or 208 V. The 208-V level is a standard
current will be fairly small, and, therefore, the neutral wire three-phase ac voltage value and is widely used in industry.
does not have to carry heavy currents. In Fig. 24-19b the three windings are connected in the
24.4 Three-phase AC Power form of the Greek letter delta, or D. Any pair of output ter-
minals is across one of the generator output windings. The
As you saw earlier in Sec. 24-1, all ac generators produce output is then simply 120 V. However, the other coils are in
three-phase output. While most homes and businesses simply a parallel branch. Therefore, the current capacity of the line
use a single phase of either 120 V or 240 V, many industrial is increased by a factor of 1.73.
applications use three-phase power. The main advantage of Note in Fig. 24-20, the center point of the Y used as a
three-phase ac voltage is that it is more efficient for power fourth line distribution for the neutral wire in a three-phase
distribution. In addition, one of the most popular types of ac
motors used in industry for high-power applications operate B
from three-phase voltage. The three-phase induction motors
are also self-starting with three-phase voltage rather than 208 V
requiring special starting circuitry on single-phase voltage. A 208-V
Finally, the ac ripple produced as a result of rectifying the three-
ac is easier to filter. Rectification is the process of converting phase
208 V
ac into dc. With single-phase ac, the rectification produces
C
half-sine pulses that drop to zero at some point during the
process. This is inefficient and more difficult to smooth into Neutral
continuous dc voltage. With three-phase output, the ripple is
smaller and continuous and simply easier to filter. 120-V 120-V 120-V
phase 2 phase 1 phase 3
Figure 24-18a shows the three ac voltages being gener-
ated and distributed. They are spaced 120º from one another. Figure 24-20 Y connections to a four-wire line with
Figure 24-18b shows the ac voltages represented as phasors. neutral.

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 power distribution system. With this arrangement, the volt- Paper Hot wire (black)

age available is either 208-V three phase or 120-V single

Ground wire
phase. Be sure to note that a three-phase voltage is 208 V and Flexible, (green or bare)
not the 240 V that is standard for single-phase distribution. spiral
steel
covering
24.5 Wires, Cables, and Components
Neutral wire
The wiring in virtually all homes, businesses, and industrial (white)
electrical systems is insulated solid copper wire. In Chap. 9,
you learned about the basic characteristics of wire sizes and Figure 24-22 Armored cable.
their basic characteristics. The wiring for ac electrical sys-
tems typically uses a wire no smaller than No. 14 and as for use in dry wiring situations or in wet conditions. Others
large as type No. 2 or 1 AWG. The size of wiring is a func- are designed specifically for underground usage.
tion of the amount of current carried by the circuits used. Note in Fig. 24-21 that the basic specifications of the
The National Electrical Code (NEC) defines the amount cable are usually printed on it. This includes wire size, num-
of current different wire sizes can carry at some specified ber of conductors, the presence of a ground wire, and volt-
temperature. The idea is to prevent wiring with its insula- age rating. The basic wire colors are white for the neutral
tion from overheating and causing a fire. Excessive current wire, black for the hot wire, and green for the ground wire.
in small conductor wire can produce sufficient heat to cause In some cables the ground wire is not insulated and is just
electric insulation to burn. bare copper.
One method for defining current ratings is called ampac- Another form of electric cable is known as armored cable.
ity. Ampacity is the maximum current-carrying capability It is generally known in the trade as BX cable. It too has two
of popular wire sizes at a temperature of 86º Fahrenheit standard insulated wires and a ground wire. The outer jacket
(30 Celsius). is of flexible galvanized steel. The steel is wound in a spiral
As an example, consider the fact that most general- fashion to make it flexible. This type of cable is shown in
purpose electric circuits in a home have a maximum current Fig. 24-22. It is used in outdoor and hazardous environments
rating of 15 A. This means a wire size of No. 14. A 20-A to protect the wires.
circuit requires a minimum wire size of No. 12. For a 40-A There are many other different types of electric cables.
circuit, No. 8 or larger wire should be used. Another common one is called lamp cord or zip cord. This
Most wiring is in the form of cables rather than in individ- is the common two-conductor cable you see connected to
ual wires. A cable, of course, is a collection of two or more lamps and many other appliances. This cable uses stranded
wires combined in a common outer covering. The wires are copper wire rather than solid. It comes in various sizes, but
generally insulated and color-coded. Standard electric ca- the most common are No. 16 and 18 wire, depending on the
bles come in a variety of sizes. Most of these cables contain current-carrying requirements. The outer insulation is a rub-
three wires: two wires for the electric connection and a third ber or thermoplastic. Stranded wires are more flexible than
ground wire. solid wires.
The most commonly used cable for electric wiring is called Some installations use low-voltage devices, such as door-
nonmetallic-sheathed cable. It usually has three insulated bells and special lighting. Such devices typically operate
wires contained in a common thermoplastic outer covering. at 24 V and carry only a small amount of current. In these
Figure 24-21 shows the basic construction of this type of cable. cases, standard electric cable is not used. Instead a typical
The nonmetallic-sheathed cable is often called by its commer- type of cable is preferred, known as twisted pair, which is
cial brand name, Romex. These cables come in different types shown in Fig. 24-23. Two solid copper wires with insulation
are loosely twisted together to form the cable. Typical sizes
Plastic sheath Type of Hot wire Ground wire are No. 16 through 24. The 120 V from one of the branches
cable (black) (green or bare)
is usually fed to a small transformer that steps the voltage

ith ground type NM 600 V

14/2 w (UL) Plastic insulation
Solid copper
wire
Wire
Paper Neutral wire (white)
size Voltage
Number of rating
conductors

Figure 24-21 Standard nonmetallic-sheathed cable for

electric wiring. Figure 24-23 Twisted-pair cable.

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 Internal connections the fixture. Note that the actual connections are made with
To
ground Neutral (white) wire nuts. The two wires to be connected are tightly twisted
together, and a wire nut is screwed on top of them. The wire
From To other nut ensures a tight copper-to-copper connection and at the
service outlets
entrance
120 Vac
or
same time insulates the connection.
breaker fixtures Another important point is that the switch is connected
Hot
(black) in series with the hot wire and not the neutral. The neutral
is never switched. Also notice that the ground wire is not
Ground (green or bare) shown. It is not often used in light fixtures. If it is, all ground
wires from the switch cable and the service box cable will be
Figure 24-24 A common duplex outlet.
tied together in the fixture box with a wire nut.

down to the 24-V level. The devices to be connected are then 24.6 Electrical Safety
wired with the twisted-pair cable. The voltages in standard home, business, and industrial wir-
Twisted-pair cable is also used in telephone wiring, using ing are considerably high and can be lethal. In working with
size No. 24 or 26 wire. Special computer cables for network- electric wiring, components, and systems, it is essential that
ing also use twisted pair. A common form is four twisted you use every safety measure possible to prevent shock.
pairs per cable. It is generally referred to as category 5, or
CAT5. Multiple versions are available (CAT6, etc.). Electric Shock
While you are working on electric circuits, there is often
Outlets and Fixtures the possibility of receiving an electric shock by touching the
The most common electric connector is the duplex outlet “live” conductors when the power is on. The shock is a sud-
shown in Fig. 24-24. The three wires from the service en- den involuntary contraction of the muscles, with a feeling of
trance box terminate at the outlet. The wires are attached to pain, caused by current through the body. If severe enough,
the outlet usually by screws, copper-colored screws for the the shock can be fatal. Safety first, therefore, should always
hot wire and silver-colored screws for the neutral connec- be the rule.
tion. A green screw is used to attach the ground wire. Note The greatest shock hazard is from high-voltage circuits
in the outlet itself that the large slot is the neutral connec- that can supply appreciable amounts of power. The resis-
tion. Some outlets are switched. That is, one of the outlets is tance of the human body is also an important factor. If you
designed to be enabled by a wall switch. In this case, the hot hold a conducting wire in each hand, the resistance of the
side of one outlet is opened and connected to the switch with body across the conductors is about 10,000 to 50,000 V.
a separate cable. Holding the conductors tighter lowers the resistance. If you
Another common connection point is a light fixture. A hold only one conductor, your resistance is much higher. It
typical fixture is shown in Fig. 24-25. The power cable from follows that the higher the body resistance, the smaller the
the service box comes into the fixture box usually on the current that can flow through you.
ceiling. Another cable connects the remote wall switch to A safety tip, therefore, is to work with only one of your
hands if the power is on. Place the other hand behind your
Fixture box
Cable from back or in your pocket. Therefore, if a live circuit is touched
Hot service box
with only one hand, the current will normally not flow di-
Cable from Neutral rectly through the heart. Also, keep yourself insulated from
switch to
fixture box Wire nuts earth ground when working on power-line circuits, since one
side of the power line is connected to earth ground. The final
and best safety rule is to work on circuits with the power dis-
Light fixture
connected if at all possible and make resistance tests.
Screw Note that it is current through the body, not through the
terminals
circuit, which causes the electric shock. This is why high-
Switch box voltage circuits are most important, since sufficient poten-
tial difference can produce a dangerous amount of current
Switch through the relatively high resistance of the body. For in-
stance, 500 V across a body resistance of 25,000 V produces
0.02 A, or 20 mA, which can be fatal. As little as 1 mA
Figure 24-25 Wiring for lighting fixture and switch. through the body can cause an electric shock. The chart

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 1 equipment to which the voltages are applied. Many who do
this simply believe they are safe enough to get away with it, so
to speak. However, the most prudent approach is to turn the
Severe burns, power off first before you do the work. Many think it is time-
breathing stops
0.2 consuming and inconvenient to go to the service entrance box
DEATH and turn off the breaker for the circuit you are investigating.
0.1 The key point about electric shock is that it is the amount
Extreme breathing
difficulties of current flowing that determines the degree of severity.
Breathing upset, And because of Ohm’s law, we know that the level of the
labored voltages will determine how much current flows. Generally
Severe shock speaking, any voltage below approximately 40 to 50 V will
Amperes

Muscular paralysis have little or no effect. That’s why you cannot get shocked
Cannot let go from a 12-V car battery or any of the lower-voltage batteries.
Painful
Above the 40- to 50-V level, the currents will begin to be
0.01
Mild sensation higher and fall into the range when some shock will occur.
The secret to avoiding shock is simply to have the proper
attitude toward working on powered electric circuits. Shock
is invariably caused by a combination of carelessness, lazi-
Threshold of ness, and impatience.
sensation Another precaution is to approach defective wiring,
0.001
components or circuits with care. Defective parts, such as
Figure 24-26 Physiological effects of electric current. switches, light fixtures, outlets, or even appliances, can have
unknown conditions that can lead to a shock. Again, the best
shown in Fig. 24-26 is a visual representation of the physi- approach is simply to disconnect the equipment from the ac
ological effects of an electric current on the human body. power before you work on it. Perform your tests and repairs
As the chart shows, the threshold of sensation occurs when first before powering up again.
the current through the body is only slightly above 0.001 Finally, it is absolutely essential that ground connections
A or 1 mA. Slightly above 10 mA, the sensation of current in all electric wiring components be maintained. For some
through the body becomes painful, and the person can no simple circuits, such as lamps and low-power equipment,
longer let go or get free from the circuit. When the current electric connections use only the hot and neutral wires. For
through the body exceeds approximately 100 mA, the result larger appliances and equipment, there is always a third
is usually death. ground wire. The ground wire is included specifically for
In addition to high voltage, the other important consid- safety purposes. Any attempt to eliminate this ground con-
eration in how dangerous the shock can be is the amount of nection can produce an electric shock as you will see in the
power the source can supply. A current of 0.02 A through next section.
25,000 V means that the body resistance dissipates 10 W. If
the source cannot supply 10 W, its output voltage drops with Grounds and Grounding
the excessive current load. Then the current is reduced to the One of the most important safety features of electric wiring
amount corresponding to the amount of power the source systems is the ground connection. A ground is the electric
can produce. connection made between one side of the electric circuit
In summary, then, the greatest danger is from a source and ground, or earth. Sometimes the ground connection is
having an output of more than about 30 V with enough made to a large conductor, such as a metal frame or water
power to maintain the load current through the body when it pipe. Connecting one side of an electric circuit to ground
is connected across the applied voltage. In general, compo- provides a low-resistance path for current flow that may in
nents that can supply high power are physically big because many instances prevent shock for certain types of accidents
of the need for dissipating heat. and equipment failures.
The electric power to homes and businesses is supplied
Avoiding Electric Shock over three wires, as previously shown in Fig. 24-16. The
With your life on the line or potential injury imminent, it is es- three wires come from the step-down transformer provided
sential to avoid shock at any cost. Most electric shocks occur by the utility company. The three wires from the power
simply because individuals are working on live circuits. This transformer terminate at the service entrance box. That
means you are working with the wiring, components, and box contains the circuit breakers and bus bars for wiring

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 Appliance
metal housing

AC plug
AC outlet
Motor
Motor attached
to housing
Neutral
Ground Potential short from hot
Hot side of motor winding to
motor housing to appliance
housing (Housing is “hot.”)
Ground

Hot

Current

Earth ground

Ground

Figure 24-27 How grounds prevent shock.

distribution. In Fig.  24-16, you can see that the center tap Note in Fig. 24-27 that the ground connection on an
(CT) wire is referred to as the neutral. This wire is usually electric outlet connects by a separate third wire back to the
white. The other two wires are referred to as the hot wires. ground bus at the service entrance box. This is the same
These wires are usually black but could be red or blue. The bus to which the neutral wire is connected. In effect then
voltage between either of the hot wires and the neutral wire is you actually have two ground wires running from the ser-
120 V. The voltage between the two hot wires is 240 V. The vice entrance box to an outlet or other piece of equipment.
higher voltage is used in heavy appliances, clothes dryers, The question becomes, How does this redundancy eliminate
air-conditioning and heating systems, and hot water heaters. shock?
The neutral wire is connected to ground. This may be Figure 24-27 shows how the grounding arrangement can
done at the utility company’s transformer but also at the ser- protect against shock. This arrangement is typical of large
vice entrance box in the facility. Note the special symbol electric appliances containing motors, such as refrigerators,
used for ground. A large wire connected to the neutral bus washing machines, dryers, and many electric tools including
bar is usually attached to a long copper rod or plate which saws and drills. The motor winding is connected to the hot
is buried in the earth. This ground wire provides a path for and neutral wires, with the neutral going to ground through
current flow to the earth under some conditions. The ground the plug, outlet, and service box. The third ground connec-
exists primarily for safety purposes. tion is made to the external metal housing of the appliance.
Obviously, if you touch two hot wires or one of the hot But assume for a minute that the ground connection at the
wires and the neutral, you will receive a shock. But you can appliance housing does not exist.
also receive a shock by just touching one of the hot wires If an electric short occurs between the electric windings
if you happen to be standing on the ground. Since the neu- of the motor and its metal housing, the hot side of the line
tral wire is connected to ground, current can flow from will actually come into contact through the housing of the
the ground through the earth and through your shoes and appliance itself by way of its contact with the motor mount-
socks. There may be sufficient resistance to prevent at least ing equipment. If for some reason then you should touch the
a minimal shock. The shock could be especially severe if enclosure of the appliance while coming into contact with
the ground is damp and your shoes are wet or you happen to some other earth-grounded position, a shock will occur.
be standing in water. It is the third ground connection in the This problem is dealt with if the equipment has a third
electric wiring that is designed to help eliminate or at least grounding wire. A third ground wire is connected to the
minimize the possibility of such a shock occurring. metal housing of the motor and the appliance enclosure

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 itself. This ground wire will be attached to the third prong standing on the ground, particularly moist or wet ground, then
in the electric outlet and will ultimately be connected back the connection between the hot side of the line and ground
to the ground at the service entrance box. Now, if a short oc- is complete and a shock will occur. A GFCI will detect this
curs between the motor windings and the metal housing of problem and automatically interrupt the power-line voltage.
the appliance, the hot side will actually be connected back to Another example is that a hair dryer with a frayed cord
ground. The ground wire, in effect, causes a short across the can cause serious electric shock if the individual comes into
line that forces the circuit breaker to open, thereby protect- contact with any exposed hot wire and ground. Ground is
ing the equipment and eliminating the shock hazard. usually connected to water pipes, and should the individual
touch the faucet or metal basin, then a shock may occur. Ga-
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters rage and outdoor electric outlets are always susceptible to
A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), or sometimes moisture and ground faults. Any outdoor electric equipment,
called just a ground fault interrupter (GFI), is an electronic particularly pump motors associated with swimming pools,
circuit that is used to protect against shock and damage to are subject to such dangerous conditions. The solution in all
electric equipment caused by a ground fault. these cases is a ground fault circuit interrupter.
A ground fault is a type of short that occurs between one A GFCI is an electronic circuit that is used to sense high-
of the hot wires and ground. Should a load accidentally touch resistance ground faults. A simplified diagram of one type
a hot wire while coming into contact with earth ground or of GFCI is shown in Fig. 24-29. AC power passes through
something touching earth ground, then a ground fault oc- the contacts of a double-pole relay. Normally the relay con-
curs. This unintended load will cause current to flow which tacts are closed to complete the circuit. Note that both the
may or may not result in shock, depending on the load. hot and neutral wires pass through the center of the magnetic
Most ground faults are not of the low-resistance short core. The hot and neutral wires act as the primary wind-
variety. Low-resistance shorts cause the circuit breaker to ings of a transformer. Another winding around the magnetic
open. However, it is possible for a high-resistance short to core acts as a secondary winding. The secondary winding is
occur. The high-resistance short will not trip the breaker but connected to a high-gain amplifier that operates a magnetic
will cause current to flow between a hot wire and the earth coil on a relay. The magnetic core is called a differential
ground. Figure 24-28 illustrates this concept. Such high- transformer.
resistance shorts are sometimes referred to as leakage resis- Under normal conditions, the current in the hot wire is
tance. The current may be small, but in some instances it can the same as in the ground or neutral wire, and, therefore,
cause serious shock or may cause equipment damage. If a magnetic fields produced around the wires are equal and op-
ground fault interrupter is used in the circuit, such faults will posite and do not produce any magnetism in the core. As
be detected and the circuit will be automatically opened, a result, no voltage is induced into the secondary winding.
eliminating the problem. Most such ground faults are caused However if a ground fault occurs, the current in the hot wire
by the presence of moisture or wetness in some form. is usually higher than the current in the neutral wire. This
One example of a shock condition that may occur is if an causes the magnetic fields to be unequal. The small differ-
individual is using a power tool such as an electric saw or ence created by the higher current in the hot wire causes
electric drill/screwdriver. If the electric cord should become a magnetic field to be induced into the magnetic core. The
frayed or otherwise damaged, it could cause one of the hot magnetic field induces a voltage into the secondary winding.
wires to make contact with the metal housing of the tool. If The voltage is stepped up, amplified, and then used to oper-
this is the case, the person using the tool will come into con- ate the relay. When the relay is energized, the contacts on the
tact with the hot wire. If that person is also at the same time hot and ground wires are opened, disconnecting the power.

Hot GFCI Protected

outlet
Differential
From service transformer
Load Hot
box
Neutral
Neutral

Ground fault load Relay

(could be a person)
Electronic
Current Circuit

Figure 24-28 A ground fault. Figure 24-29 A ground fault circuit interrupter.

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 U.S. Net Electric Power Generation
by energy source, 2011

Natural gas
25%
Coal
42%
Nuclear
19%

13%

Other 1%
Hydro and
renewables

Figure 24-31 U.S. energy sources from 2011.

Source: U.S. Energy information Administration.

Figure 24-30 Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). carbon dioxide (CO2). There is concern that this produces
global warming, and the consensus is that the use of fossil
fuels should be decreased or eliminated completely if practi-
Most ground fault interrupters are designed to sense ex- cal alternative energy sources can be found and developed.
tremely low values of current. For example, GFCIs used in While there are many alternatives, only a few appear to be
hospitals are the most sensitive for the typical maximum- practical and affordable. Each has its advantages and disad-
sense current of 2 mA. GFCIs used in residences are usually vantages. Currently the primary disadvantage is that these
set in the 5-mA range. alternative sources of energy are too inefficient and overly
There are multiple types of GFCIs; however, most of expensive. While the entire U.S. grid could theoretically be
them are built into the standard electric outlet, as shown fully powered by wind, solar, or some combination, the price
in Fig. 24-30. The unit fits in a standard duplex receptacle of electricity would be far greater than the average person,
and is usually accompanied by a push button that is used family, or business could afford.
for resetting the unit if it is activated. Most GFCIs contain a Of the alternative energy sources, wind and solar are
built-in self-test and reset function. Pressing the test button the most practical, and it is believed that ongoing research,
produces a simulated ground fault that instantly triggers the development, and deployment will ultimately make them
unit to remove power. The purpose of the test button is to practical and affordable. Government subsidies and test de-
verify that the unit is operational. Some GFCIs also contain ployments have made excellent progress, but it will be many
an indicator light to designate the status of the unit. years in the future before these two energy sources will sub-
stantially replace legacy sources.
24.7 Alternative Energy Of all the sources, nuclear is the source with the great-
An estimated 86% of all power generated in the United est potential. It is nonpolluting and could easily handle all
States is produced by coal, natural gas, or nuclear. Refer to current and future demands. However, government regula-
Fig. 24-31. Coal alone accounts for 42%.. The remainder of tions, politics, and a negative image has left nuclear energy’s
the power comes from alternative energy sources. Alterna- potential untapped. A cleaner alternative is natural gas. It is
tive energy refers to any sources other than coal, oil, gas, abundant and low in cost. Most new power plants are natural
or nuclear and includes hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, bio gas, and many coal plants are converting to gas. Natural gas
fuels, and hydrogen. Geothermal is the use of hot water or appears to be the best combination of low cost and lower
steam from the interior of the earth to generate power. Bio pollution for the years to come. However, most of the focus,
fuels and ethanol are plant-derived fuels that can be burned attention, and funding is alternative energy, including wind
like gasoline. Hydrogen refers to making hydrogen gas that and solar. Both are decades away from being practical and
can then be used to supply large fuel cells. Altogether, wind affordable, especially the latter.
and solar only account for about 3% of the total energy gen-
erated despite their visibility and potential. Solar Power
Over the past years there has been concern over the pol- The sun’s energy is massive. Solar energy striking the earth
lution effects of burning fossil fuel: coal, oil, and gas, which could potentially power the entire world. The problem is
produce what is believed to be detrimental quantities of converting that heat and light energy into electricity. There

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 are two basic approaches. One technique uses shaped mir- ⫹

rors to focus the sun’s rays on pipes through which water is

flowing. The sun heats the water and converts it into steam.
The steam then drives the turbines that operate the tradi-
tional generators. While this system works, it is complex and
expensive and impractical on a large scale. This concept of
using the sun for heating is used practically on a smaller
scale. For example there are solar hot water heaters and
swimming pool heaters that use this direct heating method.
A more practical method is to use devices that convert the Series cells
producing higher
sun’s light energy into electricity directly. The device that voltage
does this is a semiconductor component called a solar cell or
photovoltaic (PV) cell. This device is usually made of silicon
and generates an output voltage of about 0.5 V of direct cur-
rent (dc) when light strikes it. Figure 24-32 show the basic
construction. The silicon is in two parts, n-type semiconduc-
tor material with extra electrons and p-type semiconductor
material with extra positive charges. When light strikes the
Parallel cells
n-type side, electrons flow from it through a load and back providing higher
to the p-type element. The current-supplying capacity is a current
⫺
function of the cell’s size but is usually tens or hundreds of
mA. Other materials have also been used, but silicon is still
the most abundant and inexpensive.
Figure 24-33 A solar array connects cells in series and
parallel to provide higher voltage and current.
To make the PV cell practical, many of them must be con-
nected into series to get higher voltages and in parallel to
such as 24 or 48 V. Panels are rated by power capacity. Fig-
achieve higher current-carrying capacity. Refer to Fig. 24-33.
ure 24-34 shows a typical panel of multiple cells.
If each cell can provide 0.5 V at 100 mA, the array will
Solar panels are simple and generally affordable. But they
produce 3 V with a maximum current capacity of 200 mA.
do have disadvantages. First, they produce dc and not the ac
Large arrays of cells are built to produce high voltage levels
required for most uses. Most solar electric systems therefore
with high-current output potential. While PV cells can be
include a piece of equipment called an inverter. The inverter
connected to provide any desired voltage or current capacity,
is a circuit that converts dc into ac. The 12 Vdc from the
the most common panel voltage is 12 V or some multiple
panels is converted to the standard 120-V, 60-Hz ac output.
The output may be a pure sine wave or an approximated sine
Light wave that works just as well in most applications.
Negative terminal Some inverters are designed to connect directly to stan-
(–) dard house wiring. Their output is effectively in parallel with
Metal ring
the power line. The inverter senses the phase and connects
N type semiconductor

P type semiconductor
Metal back plate

(+)

Positive terminal
(a)

⫹
␭

(b)

Figure 24-32 Solar cell. (a) Construction and

(b) Schematic symbol. Figure 24-34 A typical solar panel.

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 Inverter
Solar panels

120 Vac

1 1

Charge
controller
2 2

12 Vdc Battery, 12 Vdc

from panel 120 Vac

Inverter

Figure 24-35 A complete home solar power system.

so that its voltage is in phase with the line phase. Such an panels that can generate megawatts. The power is very ex-
inverter is called a grid-tied or grid-direct inverter. The in- pensive, but with subsidies from the utility and the govern-
verter and/or the ac grid then supply the loads. If no load is ment, power cost will decline. As efficiencies improve and
present, the inverter just puts its voltage on the line and sends costs decrease, solar power will be more affordable.
it back to the utility.
A key disadvantage of solar power is that the voltage dis- Wind Power
appears when the sun sets. There is no voltage at night. For Wind power systems use the prevailing winds as an energy
that reason, some means must be provided to supply ac at source. Large windmills and turbines use wind mechanical
night. If grid-tied inverters are used, they become inactive energy to turn generators that produce the electricity. Again,
without sun power, so the power is supplied by the utility as like the sun, the energy is free and readily available and very
usual. Another approach is to have the solar panels charge a clean. However, the means for converting the energy is still
large bank of batteries. Standard 12-V automobile batteries complex, expensive, and even offensive to some.
or some variation thereof are used for the energy storage. At Wind also has its disadvantages. First, the wind genera-
night, the batteries supply power to the inverters. The batter- tors must be located where the prevailing winds are steady.
ies are then recharged during the day. Figure 24-35 shows the In the United States, the area in the center of the country
solar panel array supplying 12 Vdc to a charge controller, an from the Texas panhandle to the Canadian border is best.
electronic circuit that charges the batteries. The 12-V battery Some coastal areas also have good wind locations. Even in
supplies power to one or more inverters. The inverters sup- the best areas, the wind does not blow continuously.
ply 120 Vac. Inverters come in many sizes, capable of a few Another problem is that of appearances and aesthetics.
hundred watts to larger units that can supply many kilowatts. Everyone likes the idea of a wind power source, but no one
A third disadvantage of solar power is that very large panels wants to live near one. That is the so-called not in my back
are required to generate the kind of power used by the home yard, or NIMBY, effect. The towers are ugly, and they make
or business. Daily averages vary, but typical average power annoying noises. Wind turbines kill millions of birds each
consumption in a home is many kilowatts. This translates into year as well. Finally, since wind farms are built long dis-
huge panels that may occupy all or most of the roof space. The tances from civilized areas, there is a need for a whole new
expense is rather high and typically runs tens of thousands of structure of transmission lines to get the power to the utility
dollars for the average home. Such costs are generally out of and the end users. In many cases, these lines do not yet exist,
reach of the average family despite the energy and cost sav- and the funding is not available to build them. But despite
ings of not using the existing utility power. Furthermore, in these disadvantages, wind power has progressed thanks to
many areas, solar panels are still prohibited by homeowner’s government subsidies and the eagerness of utilities to build
associations or cities because of aesthetics and appearances. alternative energy sources.
Overall, solar power is clean and readily available. But
it is expensive. Cost of electric power is compared on a Wind Turbine
kilowatt-hour cost basis. Average utility prices are in the 10 The basic power generating unit is the wind turbine. See
to 20 cents per kilowatt-hour, but solar power costs almost Fig. 24-36. A cylindrical steel tower anywhere from 200 to
10 times that. Several utilities have built large fields of solar 300 ft tall contains a nacelle, or housing, that contains the

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 steps up the speed from 5 to 20 rpm to some value in the
700- to 3600-rpm range. The gear box output shaft turns the
electric generator. The generator may produce ac directly or
dc which is converted to ac.
A major part of the wind turbine is the control unit. An
anemometer measures wind speed and direction, and these
inputs go to the control unit that generates control signals to
a yaw motor and drive. This motor rotates the nacelle and
blades to maximize facing the speed of the wind and the
rotational speed and torque. Pitch motors in the blades rotate
the blades to change pitch for maximum wind application. A
braking system is also provided to stop rotation completely.
Figure 24-36 A wind tower with blades. The control unit can function alone or can be operated re-
motely via a communications link either wired or wireless.
generator and all the control equipment. The turbine is pow- The electric power is produced in several different ways.
ered by the wind with blades that can be from 60 to 120 ft In some systems a standard ac generator is used. A speed
long. Most have three blades. The wind blows, and the blades governor system ensures that the shaft speed is accurate to
turn at a rate from 5 to 20 revolutions per minute (rpm). Wind product 60-Hz sine waves. In other systems, the turbine shaft
speeds can be from 0 to over 100 miles per hour. Most tur- turns a dc generator that does not require speed control. The
bines shut down if the wind is too great. The internal electric dc output is then fed to inverters that provide the ac power to
generator has a power capacity from 500 kW to over 2 MW. the grid. In some installations, battery backup is used. The
Figure 24-37 shows what the turbine looks like inside. dc generator charges the batteries that supply the inverters
The shaft from the blades is connected to a gear box that when the wind is not blowing.

6
4 9
12
1
8
7 10

13

11
14
1. Blades
2. Rotor
3. Pitch
4. Brake
5. Low-speed shaft
6. Gear box
15 7. Generator
8. Controller
9. Anemometer
10. Wind Vane
11. Nacelle
12. High-speed shaft
13. Yaw drive
14. Yaw motor
15. Tower

Figure 24-37 Internal view of a wind turbine.

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 CHAPTER 24 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

The Smart Grid

The smart grid is the term used to describe a fully revital-
ized and intelligent electric grid. The smart grid embodies
a plan to modernize and update the aging electric grid with
computers and communications networks. The goal is to im-
prove the efficiency, reliability, and economics of the grid.
The electric grid is a huge one-way power system. It gen-
erates and distributes power to homes, offices, and manufac-
turing facilities. Once the power is delivered, the utility gets
little or no feedback on the status of the power other than
measuring and monitoring usage so that billing can be ac-
complished. To make the grid more efficient and reliable, the
utility needs to more closely monitor and control the energy
along the delivery path. The smart grid provides a way to in-
Figure S24-1 The iControl Networks OpenHome
crease the monitoring of generating plants, substations, and monitoring and control platform.
other points in the system to better understand the status of
the grid. This means installing sensors in more locations and better monitor and control energy usage to save money. Fig-
then providing a communications network to send the sen- ure S24-1 shows one such home monitoring device. It can be
sor data back to the utility where computers can diagnose, installed by the utility, service providers such as broadband
record, and display the grid status and, in some cases, take service providers and home security companies who offer
corrective control action if needed. home management services, or the homeowner. One interest-
At the heart of the smart grid is a vast communications ing and useful feature of such control devices is that they can
network to connect the grid back to computers at the utility. also be used to monitor and control individual appliances.
This network is only partially in place. It consists of both The appliance is plugged into a control unit that measures en-
wired and wireless connections. Fiber-optic cable is used in ergy usage and can turn the appliance off or on typically via
some areas, while wireless links including the cellular net- a home wireless network implemented in the control panel.
work are used in others. Most smart meters also provide the capability of allowing
A key part of the smart grid is the smart meters that will the utility to control the power to the home. The utility may
eventually be installed in each home, office, and other facil- turn the power off for short periods in peak usage periods to
ity. The currently used electric meters are not smart. They prevent overloads and brownouts. For example, during hot
just monitor usage, and the data are sent to the utility. Some summers when all air conditioners are running at full capac-
meters are still read by field personnel, while a few may be ity, the energy usage in some areas is more than the utility
remotely read. can supply. Cutting the power for short periods on many cus-
Smart meters have an internal microcontroller to monitor tomers can prevent brownouts and even save money. Cus-
voltage and current used and compute power consumption. tomers must first grant permission to the utility to do this.
The data collected are then sent back to the utility. This is The smart grid is an idea and a work in progress. It will
usually done by a wireless link to a neighborhood collection be many years before it is fully implemented. And most
point that sends the data to the utility. In some cases power- homes still do not have smart meters. But even without a
line communication (PLC) is used. PLC converts the data smart meter, a consumer can buy an energy monitoring unit
with modulation and transmits them back over the power to install at the service entrance box. With this unit, the con-
line. The data actually ride on the power line as the com- sumer can conduct an energy audit and better manage en-
munication medium. ergy usage to save money and energy.
The smart meter also has another wireless capability Over the coming years, utility companies will slowly
built in to communicate with a home monitoring and con- install smart meters and implement other improvements to
trol unit. Power usage is communicated to a device called an their part of the grid. The cost is high, but the end result
energy dashboard that shows the consumer the energy used, should be greater efficiency and better conservation of
how and when. With this information, the consumer can existing energy sources.

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 CHAPTER 24 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The most widely used energy source in the United 9. AC power is distributed by high voltage because it
States is a. is more efficient.
a. oil. b. costs less.
b. natural gas. c. is safer.
c. coal. d. is a tradition.
d. ethanol. 10. What is the main component of a substation?
2. A turbine is a(n) a. Capacitor.
a. electric generator that produces the ac voltage. b. Transformer.
b. type of furnace that burns coal, oil, or natural gas. c. Lightning arrestor.
c. heat exchanger that transfers heat energy to water d. Circuit breaker.
flow. 11. The longer the transmission line, the lower the ac
d. machine that converts liquid or gas flow into rotary voltage.
motion. a. True.
3. Which energy source does not produce heat and b. False.
steam? 12. What range of voltage is used to distribute power to
a. Hydro. local neighborhoods?
b. Nuclear. a. 120 to 240 V.
c. Geothermal. b. 480 to 1200 V.
d. Natural gas. c. 4 kV to 7 kV.
4. What rotates the electric generator? d. 13 kV to 34 kV.
a. A motor. 13. Which three-phase connection produces the highest
b. A turbine. output voltage for a given input?
c. A windmill. a. Y.
d. A water wheel. b. Delta.
5. Most ac generators use which configuration? c. Both a and b are the same.
a. Rotate a magnetic field inside the stator coils. d. A combination of the two.
b. Rotate a coil inside a fixed magnetic field. 14. The three-phase sine waves are spaced by
c. Both a and b are used equally. a. 45º.
d. Both magnetic field and coil rotate in b. 90º.
synchronism. c. 120º.
6. An electromagnetic generator produces what type of d. 180º.
voltage? 15. A common three-phase ac voltage is
a. DC. a. 240 V.
b. Square wave. b. 208 V.
c. Sine wave. c. 480 V.
d. Triangular wave. d. 4 kV.
7. Most ac is generated is 16. The service drop to the building or house comes from
a. single phase. a transformer that is
b. Two phase. a. mounted on a power pole.
c. polyphasic. b. mounted on a concrete slab.
d. three phase. c. either a or b.
8. Most power generators produce a voltage in which d. inside the building.
range? 17. The service drop provides voltages of
a. 12 to 48 V. a. 120 V only.
b. 120 to 240 V. b. 208 V.
c. 1 kV to 10 kV. c. 480 V.
d. 10 kV to 50 kV. d. 120/240 V.

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 18. The service drop voltages are c. Hot.
a. single phase. d. Circuit breaker.
b. dual phase. 28. A device that helps ensure a tight electric connection
c. three phase. between two copper wires is a
d. delta-connected. a. screw terminal.
19. The first device encountered by the service drop b. wire nut.
voltages is the c. solder.
a. service entrance box. d. weld.
b. electric meter. 29. The third or ground wire in an outlet or electric plug
c. master circuit breaker. is provided for
d. distribution bus bars. a. shock safety.
20. Each branch circuit from the bus bars has its own b. backup redundancy.
a. metering circuit. c. center-tap connections.
b. center tap. d. 240-V connections.
c. twisted-pair cable. 30. A GFCI usually detects
d. circuit breaker. a. direct shorts.
21. Which wire connects to the earth? b. high-resistance leakage.
a. Hot. c. presence of human contact.
b. Neutral. d. presence of a load.
c. Ground. 31. Most electric energy in the United States is produced
d. Both b and c. by
22. The wiring color scheme assigns which color to the a. nuclear.
hot wire? b. natural gas.
a. Red. c. oil.
b. White. d. coal.
c. Black. 32. Which of the following is not an alternative energy
d. Green. source?
23. Why is three-phase power preferred over single phase? a. Wind.
a. It is more efficient. b. Hydrogen.
b. It is better suited to large motors. c. Wood.
c. It is best in rectification. d. Solar.
d. All of the above. 33. What makes alternative energy sources less desirable
24. What is the most common wire size in house wiring? than conventional methods?
a. No. 14, stranded. a. Politically correctness.
b. No. 14, solid. b. High cost.
c. No. 12, stranded. c. Lack of national interest.
d. No. 24, solid. d. Lagging technology.
25. Electric shock is determined by 34. The cleanest, most practical, and affordable energy
a. voltage. source is
b. resistance of the human. a. nuclear.
c. current level. b. natural gas.
d. all of the above. c. ethanol.
26. Which voltage is most likely to provide a shock? d. wind.
a. 1.5-V AA cell. 35. The output from a typical solar cell is about
b. 12-V auto battery. a. 0.5 V.
c. 90-V power supply. b. 1.5 V.
d. Solar cell. c. 3 V.
27. The wide slot on a standard duplex outlet is connected d. 12 V.
to which line? 36. A solar cell produces
a. Neutral. a. ac.
b. Ground. b. dc.

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 37. The device that converts dc into ac is a(n) 39. A key disadvantage of wind turbines is
a. power supply. a. no wind, no power.
b. rectifier. b. large, ugly blight on landscape.
c. charge controller. c. long-distance transmission lines needed.
d. inverter. d. all of the above.
38. Wind generators produce 40. What is the approximate percentage of all U.S. power
a. ac directly. generated by solar and wind?
b. dc. a. 2%.
c. either ac or dc. b. 10%.
d. ac and dc at the same time. c. 19%.
d. 35%.

CHAPTER 24 PROBLEMS

SECTION 24.1 Power Generation SECTION 24.4 Three-Phase AC Power

24.1 In a four-pole generator producing a 50-Hz sine 24.8 A transformer secondary produces 240 V in each
wave, what is the generator shaft speed? phase of a Y connection. What is the voltage from
24.2 How could a 50-Hz generator be used to produce ground to each Y connection? What is the voltage
60 Hz? between any two Y outputs?
24.9 A delta-to-delta transformer connection has a turns
SECTION 24.2 Power Distribution
ratio of 1:1. If the input is 208 V, what is the output?
24.3 A 120-V source is transmitted over a distance of 24.10 If a Y-connected output transformer has a voltage
2 miles to a load of 3 V. If each wire has a of 750 V between each of the Y outputs, what is the
resistance of 1.5 V, how much power is lost in the winding voltage?
transmission lines? What is the efficiency?
SECTION 24.6 Electrical Safety
24.4 To correct the efficiency described in Prob. 24-3,
a step-up transformer with a ratio of 1:12 is 24.11 What level of current in a human body will cause a
used before the transmission line. A step-down mild shock? Certain death?
transformer with a 12:1 turns ratio is used at the 24.12 Explain how the third or ground wire provides
load. What is the power lost in the transmission shock protection.
lines if each has a resistance of 1.5 V?
SECTION 24.7 Alternative Energy
SECTION 24.3 Home Electric Wiring
24.13 A solar panel consists of 48 cells in series with a
24.5 A big-screen TV set uses 750 W of power. It is second 48-cell panel. Each cell can provide up to
on for 5 hours per day. What is the kilowatt-hour 75 mA. What is the output voltage and the
consumption? maximum current capacity?
24.6 An electric power meter reads 45,018 for the first 24.14 Name three disadvantages of solar power.
month and 52,396 the following month. How much
24.15 Name three disadvantages of wind power.
power was consumed? If the electric rate is 12 cents
per kilowatt-hour, what is the monthly bill?
24.7 A 240-V hot water heater consumes 2500 W. Will
a 15-A circuit breaker be adequate to operate and
protect the unit?

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 Ch a pt er 25
Cables and Transmission Lines

Learning Outcomes Cables are the connecting media between pieces of

equipment, from antenna to radio, from one printed cir-
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: cuit board to another, from test instrument to circuit,
Define the terms cable and transmission line. and over large networks of interconnected computers.
Define wavelength and calculate it given the They are also a source of trouble in many systems if
frequency of operation. they become defective or if they are applied incorrectly.
State the equivalent circuit of a transmission line. And as you will find out in this chapter, many cables
Define and calculate characteristic impedance of a are just not pairs of interconnecting wires. Instead they
transmission line.
are transmission lines, cables that behave like circuits.
State the rule for properly terminating a
transmission line. Knowledge of basic cables and transmission lines is
Explain why reflections occur on a transmission line. essential for all technicians today.
Define the terms attenuation and delay and state
how they are measured in transmission lines.
List the advantages and disadvantages of twisted
pair line.
List the advantages and disadvantages of coaxial line.
Name the most commonly used connectors used
with twisted pair and coaxial transmission lines.

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 25.1 Cables vs. Transmission Lines Whenever wire conductors are used to carry signals at the
lower ac frequencies, they are called cables. There are many
Cables are two or more wires or other conductors packaged
such wire cables used in electronics. You are already famil-
together in one unit. AC power-line cords are cables. The
iar with the basic types, such as ac power cords, speaker
coaxial cable from your cable box to the TV is a cable. The
cables, microphone cables, and telephone wire. Short cables,
wire connecting a microphone to an amplifier is a cable.
especially those carrying low-frequency ac, such as 60-Hz
The networking line from your PC to a router or network
power or audio signals like voice and music in the 20-Hz
switch is a cable. Cables are everywhere. As a technician or
to 20-kHz range, are essentially noncritical. They consist of
engineer you will work with cables on a daily basis. They
two or more insulated copper conductors bundled in a com-
are literally the lifelines of electronics.
mon jacket and terminated on one or both ends by connec-
Cables can carry either analog or digital signals. Cables
tors. In most cases, we don’t give much thought to cables as
for analog signals are mostly for carrying audio like voice
they are simply nothing more than copper conductors that
and music or video. Cables for digital carry binary signals
make an electric connection between one point and another.
for networks, the Internet, and even digital video. Most ca-
The only critical factor in such cables is that the wire size be
bles today handle more digital than analog signals. There are
sufficiently large to carry the desired current without over-
both long cables and short cables.
heating. Electrons flow through them and carry power from
The actual determination of what is a “short” or “long”
one place to another. The cables themselves have very little
distance really depends on the frequencies of operation.
or at least minimal effect on the signals themselves.
The higher the frequency, the “longer” a cable looks to
However, whenever the cables are required to carry high-
the transmitting and receiving circuits. Inside a computer,
frequency signals, the cables themselves begin to act more
a bus operating at 100 MHz over a distance of about one
like complex electronic circuits than simply interconnect-
foot is relatively slow, and few special precautions must be
ing wires. This is particularly true when the length of the
observed to design and use this bus. However, if you try to
cables begin to approach the size of one-tenth to one full
operate this bus with a microprocessor that runs at 2 GHz,
wavelength at the operating frequency. When signal wave-
suddenly the bus lines look like multiple “long” transmission
length and cable lengths become the same order of magni-
lines, and special consideration must be given to the design
tude, the cables themselves are more appropriately referred
of the bus if it is to work correctly, if at all.
to as transmission lines. They have a significant effect on
On the other hand, slow-speed serial transmission at
the signals being carried. These transmission lines must be
9600 bps can take place over cables of 50 to 100 feet with
analyzed, designed, and used as if they are circuits that “pro-
no difficulty. But as the distance increases, even at this rel-
cess” as well as transport the signal from one place to an-
atively low speed, the cable begins to look like a “long”
other. The goal is to minimize the effect of the transmission
transmission line. Special conditions must be observed to
line on the signal so that the signal arrives at the receiver
ensure proper operation.
with essentially the same characteristics it has at the output
For analog signals an audio signal with its low frequen-
of the transmitter.
cies can tolerate a long cable without difficulty. For video
The basic rule for determining whether a cable is a trans-
signals in the 4- to 10-MHz range, any cable begins to look
mission line is that the line must have a length at least one-
long. And the type of cable becomes an issue.
tenth wavelength or more at the frequency of operation.
There are two basic kinds of media used in electronic
systems: copper wire cables and fiber-optic cables. The Frequency and Wavelength
most common types of wire cables are coaxial (or coax) and
Figure 25-1 shows a sine-wave signal. It is the variation of
twisted pair cable. Fiber-optic cable is a thin glass or plastic
voltage with respect to time. Many signals to be carried by a
cable that carries the digital data in the form of light pulses.
transmission line are analog signals like sine waves. Radio-
In this chapter, you will learn about transmission lines
frequency signals and telephone voice signals are good ex-
and the two most common types of wire media, twisted pair
amples. Our main interest in this chapter is in digital signals,
and coaxial cable.
especially binary signals, which are rectangular waves of
varying frequency and duty cycle. However, keep in mind
25.2 Principles of Transmission Lines that such signals, according to Fourier theory, are composed
A transmission line is a structure of two conductors used of a fundamental sine wave and harmonic sine wave added
to carry electric energy from one place to another. It is a together. For that reason, we can understand pulse signals by
pair of wires that not only carry electrons but also guide the using standard sine-wave analysis techniques.
electric and magnetic fields set up by the applied voltage The frequency of a sine wave (f) indicate how many com-
and the current flow. plete cycles occur per second. One cycle is defined as one

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 Positive One period (T)
One period (T)
alternation

Binary 1
1V
Time Time
Binary 0
0V
One period (T)
2V Period (T)
Figure 25-2 The period of a binary signal.
Negative
alternation
T
Period 5 1 cycle 5 T f 5 1/T Wavelength
f 5 cycles per second (cps): T 5 1/f
Wavelength refers to the distance between the maximum
Figure 25-1 The relationship between frequency amplitude points of the electric and magnetic fields pro-
and period. duced by a signal in a cable. Wavelength is also the dis-
tance traveled by a signal in the time of one cycle or one
period of the signal. Wavelength is illustrated in Fig. 25-3.
positive alternation and one negative alternation. The frequency It too is represented as a sine wave, but the horizontal axis
is expressed in terms of cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). is a physical distance rather than time. Wavelength is the
Note also in Fig. 25-1 that the time for one cycle is re- distance between adjacent positive or adjacent negative
ferred to as the period, T. One period consists of one positive peaks of the signal. When a sine-wave signal is applied
alternation and one negative alternation and has the time du- to a transmission line, it produces patterns of electric and
ration of T. You can also measure the period between every magnetic fields along the cable. Try to visual these patterns
other zero-crossing point, but the zero crossings are hard to of maximum and minimum points along the line. The dis-
determine in practical measurements, so it is easier to mea- tance between the maximum amplitude peaks can actually
sure the time between any two adjacent positive peaks or be measured.
negative peaks as shown. Wavelength is computed with the formula
The relationship between frequency and period is the fa-
miliar reciprocal relationship indicated below. l 5 300,000,000yf (25-5)
1 In this expression, wavelength is represented by the lower-
T 5 __ (25-1)
f case Greek letter lambda. The quantity 300,000,000 is the
1 speed of light which is also the speed of any radio or elec-
f 5 __ (25-2) tric signal in free space. That speed is 300,000,000 meters
T
If the frequency is 9600 Hz or 9.6 kHz, the period is (m) per second or about 186,400 miles per second. The fre-
quency f is in cycles per second or hertz.
T 5 1/9600 5 1/(9.6 3 103) 5 0.104 3 1023 Consider the wavelength of an audio frequency signal, say
5 0.104 ms or 104 ␮s 3 kHz or 3,000 Hz. Computing the wavelength we get:
If the period is 75 ␮s, the frequency is l 5 300,000,000y3000 5 100,000 m
f 5 1/T 5 1/(75 3 1026) 5 1.3333 3 104 5 13,333 Hz
One wavelength
5 13.333 kHz
For rectangular waves like binary signals, the definitions
are similar. One period is one “on” level or binary 1 interval Distance
plus one “off” level or binary 0. See Fig. 25-2. Frequency is
the number of cycles per second as with a sine wave, but you
will also hear the terms pulse repetition rate (prr) or pulse
repetition frequency (prf) used instead of frequency. The re-
lationship between T and prr is as described earlier.
␭
1
prr 5 __ (25-3) Wavelength 5 ␭
T ␭ 5 300,000,000/f

1
T 5 ___ 25-4) Figure 25-3 Wavelength is the distance between peaks
prr of the magnetic and electric fields produced by a signal.

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 Since there are 3.28 feet per meter, this distance repre- Cables act like a low-pass filter passing dc and lower
sents 328,000 ft. Since there are 5280 ft per mile, this figure frequencies below some cutoff frequency that is a function
also represents a distance of of the cable characteristics and length. However, depend-
ing on the frequency of operation and how the cables are
328,000y5280 5 62.12 miles
connected and terminated, they can also appear to be in-
As you can see, the wavelength of audio and other low- ductive or capacitive reactances or complex impedances.
frequency signals is extremely great. Most of the cables Thus the cables perform filtering effects and can highly
that we use to carry signals at these low frequencies rep- distort nonsinusoidal signals. Under these conditions, the
resent only a tiny fraction of one wavelength, and, there- only proper way to analyze the effect of a cable on a signal
fore, the cables tend to have little or no real effect on is to use the techniques of analysis established for trans-
the signal with the exception of resistive attenuation and mission lines.
capacitive loading. In practical length cables, which are
rarely longer than several hundred feet, it is never pos- Equivalent Circuit
sible to measure maximum magnetic or electric fields
The general equivalent circuit of a two-wire transmission
along the cable.
line is shown in Fig. 25-4a. To a signal, the transmission line
Now consider the wavelength of a higher-frequency signal.
appears to be a low-pass filter made up of series inductances
Assume a frequency of 100 MHz. This is a radio-frequency
and shunt capacitances. Individual inductors, capacitors,
signal but is also a frequency that represents a common data
and resistors are shown in the figure, but in reality, the ca-
transmission speed. The wavelength of a 100-MHz signal
pacitance, inductance, and resistance are evenly distributed
can be computed with Formula (25-5):
along the line.
l 5 300,000,000y100,000,000 5 3 m For example, the copper conductors making up the
cable have dc resistance. The conductors also offer addi-
When working with frequencies in the MHz range, the for-
tional resistance at high frequencies caused by skin effect.
mula can be simplified to
Skin effect is a phenomenon that causes the electrons in a
l 5 300yf MHz (25-6) copper conductor to flow near the surface of the conductor
where f is in MHz. rather than in the center of the conductor and thus reduc-
ing the effective cross-sectional area of the conductor and
l 5 300y100 5 3 m increasing its resistance. This effect becomes recognizable
Three meters represents a distance of 3 3 3.28 5 9.84 ft. at several megahertz and gets progressively worse at higher
In this case, the wavelength is in the same ballpark as the frequencies. At VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies, it
length of cables used in practical applications. In fact, many is severely pronounced, and, in most cases, the current flow
of the cables in common use are actually multiple wave- is by electrons on or right near the surface of the conduc-
lengths long at the operating frequency. Such cables have tor. This effectively reduces the cross-sectional area of the
a profound effect upon the signals that they carry. At high conductor and, therefore, represents a significant increase
frequencies, these cables function like electronic circuits in resistance.
rather than simply conductors providing a connection from As for inductance, we normally think of inductors as coils
one place to another. of wire. However, a straight piece of wire also has induc-
tance. The inductance per foot is very low and may only be
picohenrys (pH) or nanohenrys (nH). Just remember that the
EXAMPLE 25-1
inductive reactance, however, is directly proportional to the
A signal has a frequency of 400 MHz. It is to be carried by a cable frequency of operation.
with a length of 15 ft. Is the cable a transmission line?
XL 5 2␲fL (25-7)
Answer:
So while the inductance may be small, at high frequencies
l 5 300yfMHz 5 300y400 5 0.75 m it produces significant reactance that can oppose high fre-
The cable is 15 ft long. With 3.28 feet per meter, the length in quency signals.
meters is 15y3.28 5 4.573 m. The capacitance in the circuit, of course, is the result of
If the wavelength of the signal is one-tenth or less of the cable
having two conductors separated by an insulating medium.
length, the cable is a transmission line.
One-tenth of 4.573 m is 0.4573 m. The cable is definitely a Capacitance is distributed continuously along the cable. This
transmission line. capacitance is rather significant and may only be a few pico-
farads (pF) per foot up to hundreds of picofarads for a long

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 Distributed resistance and inductance

Stray or distributed capacitance

(a)

Distributed resistance and inductance

Stray or distributed capacitance

(b)

Figure 25-4 The equivalent electric circuit of a cable or transmission line is a low-pass filter.
(a) Balanced. (b) Unbalanced.

cable. This has a dramatic effect on high frequency signals, resistance and inductance and shunt capacitance, with one
especially pulse signals. Remember that the capacitive reac- side of the cable being connected to ground. For the discus-
tance decreases with frequency. sions to follow, assume that each LC segment represents
1 one foot of cable.
XC 5 _____ (25-8)
2␲fC
At higher frequencies, the capacitive reactance is low and, 25.3 Transmission Line
therefore, acts as a loading or shorting effect on the signal. Specifications and Characteristics
Although not illustrated in Fig. 25-4a, there is also a
There are several important characteristics and specifica-
distributed shunt resistance or conductance along the line.
tions associated with transmission lines. These include
It is caused by the resistance of any insulating material
characteristic impedance, attenuation, velocity factor, ca-
between the two conductors or any leakage resistance be-
pacitance per foot, and delay. The specifications determine
tween the two. In most cases it is so high that it is neg-
the type of transmission line to be used in different applica-
ligible in determining the overall effect of the line on a
tions and also determine how the cable will affect the signal
signal being carried.
to be transmitted.
The equivalent circuit is an attempt to illustrate the dis-
tributed parameters. You can think of the cable being small
low-pass filter segments made up of the inductors, resistors, Characteristic Impedance
and a capacitor. Many of these low-pass filter sections are Perhaps the most important characteristic of a transmis-
then cascaded. sion line is its characteristic impedance. Also known as
The equivalent circuit in Fig. 25-4a represents a bal- the surge impedance, it is the impedance that a genera-
anced two-wire parallel transmission line. For unbalanced tor driving the cable would see if the cable were infinitely
or single-ended lines, the equivalent circuit is best shown long. The characteristic impedance represented by the
as in Fig. 25-4b. Again, the cable is made up of series designation Z o is basically a complex impedance that is a

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 function of the distributed inductance and capacitance of In addition, in order for maximum transfer of power to
the cable. occur from the generator to the load, the generator output
The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is impedance and the load impedance should be equal. Recall
calculated using the expression that the maximum power transfer theorem states that maxi-
___ mum power will be dissipated in the load when the genera-
L
Zo 5
Ï __C (25-9) tor internal impedance and load impedances are equal.
If the load and generator impedances are not equal,
The values for inductance (L) and capacitance (C) are the
maximum transfer of power will not take place. In addi-
distributed values for any length of cable. A typical method
tion, if the load resistance is not matched to the characteris-
of calculating the characteristic impedance is to determine
tic impedance of the transmission line, standing waves and
the inductance and capacitance of the cable per foot and use
reflections will occur that can seriously distort the signal as
these values in the expression.
well as lower the amount of power delivered to the load. We
Assume that the capacitance for one foot of cable is 28 pF
discuss more about standing waves and reflections later.
and the total inductance per foot is 70 nH, the characteristics
of the impedance of the cable is Attenuation
__________
29 _____ All transmission lines attenuate the signal applied to them.
70 3 10
Zo 5
Ï _________
28 3 10
5 Ï 2500 5 50 V
212
The voltage appearing across the load at the end of the cable
The characteristic impedance of most cables and transmis- is less than the input voltage. The signal loss in the cable
sion lines is in the 50- to 600-V range. Coaxial cables typi- occurs as a result of the resistance, inductance, and capac-
cally have impedance values of 50 V, 75 V, and 93 V. By far itance of the cable. Looking back at Fig. 25-4b, you can
the most common are 50-V coaxial cables. see that the equivalent circuit appears to be a chain of volt-
A twisted pair transmission line typically has a charac- age dividers made up of series resistance and inductance
teristic impedance of something between 90 V and 200 V, and shunt capacitance. The longer the cable, the greater
with 100 to 150 V being the most common. The exact value the number of equivalent voltage divider circuits and the
depends considerably on the wire size and the tightness of greater the signal loss.
the twist. Attenuation in a cable is usually expressed in decibels of
The importance of characteristic impedance is that it loss per unit of length. Recall that a decibel is a number that
must match the internal impedance of the generator and gives a relative indication of the gain or loss in the circuit.
the load. Figure 25-5 shows a generator with its output im- The gain or loss of a circuit is expressed as the ratio of the
pedance (Ri or Z g) driving a resistive load (RL) through a output voltage to the input voltage or the output power to the
transmission line. In order for this arrangement to work input power. This ratio can be converted to decibels with the
satisfactorily, the load impedance must match that of the basic formulas given below.
characteristic impedance of the cable. V
dB 5 20 log __o (25-11)
RL 5 Z o (25-10) Vi
P
If the load is 150 V, then the characteristic impedance of the dB 5 10 log __o (25-12)
cable carrying the signal must be 150 V. Pi
Two examples of the use of these formulas to compute
Transmission line, Zo gain are given next.
Generator Load
The input voltage to an amplifier is 20 ␮V. The output
voltage is 4 V. The gain of the amplifier in dB is
Ri or Zg
V 4
RL dB 5 20 log __o 5 20 log _________
Vi 20 3 1026
5 20 log 200,000 5 20(5.3)
5 106 dB
Ri 5 internal resistance of the source generator (or Zg)
RL 5 load resistance terminating the transmission line
The input power to a filter is 80 mW. The output power is
Zo 5 characteristic impedance of transmission line
500 ␮W.
RL 5 Zo
RL 5 Ri or RL 5 Zg The loss of the filter in dB is
P 500 3 1026
dB 5 10 log __o 5 10 log __________
Figure 25-5 The load on the transmission line must Pi 80 3 1023
equal the characteristic impedance of the line.

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 5 10 log (6.25 3 1023) 5 10(22.2) The attenuation in a cable is generally stated as the
dB loss per 100 ft. This is a power dB loss rather than
5 222 dB
voltage loss. For example, one type of coaxial cable has
Note in the last example that the power ratio is a fraction an attenuation of 6 dB per 100 ft. The dB attenuation per
giving a negative logarithm. A negative dB value indicates a foot then is 6y100 5 0.06 dB/ft. The important thing to
loss rather than a gain. remember about this specification is that the attenuation
You can rearrange the dB formula so that if you know the value is only valid at a single frequency. The attenuation
dB gain or attenuation and either the input or output value, rate will be stated at a frequency of 100 MHz, 400 MHz,
you can calculate the other. 1 GHz, or as determined by the manufacturer. The higher
Po
__ dB the frequency, the greater the attenuation of that cable for
5 log21 ___ (25-13) a given length.
Pi 10
Assume that a cable has an attenuation of 4.8 dBy100 ft
Alternative formulas include
at 400 MHz. What is the attenuation of 265 ft of this cable
Po
__ dB
5 antilog ___ or 10dB/10 at that frequency?
Pi 10
The attenuation per foot is 4.8/100 5 0.048 dB/ft
For example, if a circuit or cable has an attenuation of
–15 dB and the input to the cable is 500 mW, what is the Attenuation 5 0.048(265) 5 12.72 dB
output of the cable?
PoyPi 5 log21 (215/10) 5 0.0316 EX A M P L E 2 5 -3
Poy0.5 5 0.0316
A coaxial cable has an attenuation of 3.5 dB per 100 ft at 100 MHz.
Po 5 0.0316(0.5) 5 0.0158 W or 15.8 mW
a. What is the attenuation of 60 ft of cable?
You can use the same dB formulas to compute the loss in b. How is attenuation affected if the frequency is raised to
a circuit or a cable. Since the output voltage or power will 300 MHz?
be lower than the input voltage or power, the ratio will be a Answer:
fraction. Taking the logarithm of a fraction produces a nega- a. Attenuation per foot is 3.5/100 5 0.035 dB/ft, so attenuation
tive value. A negative dB value indicates attenuation or loss. for 60 ft is 0.35 3 60 5 2.1 dB.
b. The same cable used at 300 MHz would have significantly
higher attenuation.

EXAMPLE 25-2

a. The input to an amplifier is 30 W. The output is 100 W. What Capacitance per Foot
is the gain?
b. A cable has an input 4 W and an output 1 W. What is the loss? Capacitance per foot is another typical cable specification. It
c. The output of a cable is measured to be 24 mW. The cable loss is a measure of the amount of capacitance across the cable
is –8 dB. What is the input power? conductors for each foot of length. The capacitance can be
Answer: anything from approximately 5 pF for a loosely twisted pair
a. From Formula (25-12), of wires to over 30 pF per foot for certain types of coaxial.
The capacitance affects the upper cutoff frequency or band-
100 5 10(0.523)
dB 5 10 log ____
30 width of the cable. The capacitance will also cause signifi-
5 5.23 cant signal distortion, especially of digital signals.
In general, the lower the capacitance per foot, the better
b. From Formula (25-12),
the cable, because it will produce less attenuation and signal
1 5 10(20.602)
dB 5 10 log __ distortion and will have a wider bandwidth.
4
5 26.02 Velocity Factor
c. From Formula (25-13), The velocity factor is a fraction that indicates the speed of
PoyPi 5 log21 (28y10) 5 6.3 the signal in the cable. Light and radio waves travel at the
speed of light, which is 300,000,000 meters per second. This
24yPi 5 6.3 translates to a speed of approximately 186,400 miles per sec-
Pi 5 24(6.3) 5 151.4 mW ond. These speed figures are for the velocity in free space,
meaning in air or a vacuum.

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 Whenever electric signals are applied to a cable, the in- When C1 is nearly fully charged, C2 will begin charg-
ductance and capacitance of the cable slow the signal down. ing to the voltage across C1 through R 2 and L 2 . Again, it
The velocity factor indicates the percentage of the speed of takes a fi nite amount of time for C2 to charge. As the volt-
light at which the signal will travel in the cable. age across C2 becomes fully charged, capacitor C3 begins
Velocity factors of coaxial and twisted pair cable range to charge through R 3 and L 3. Depending on the number of
from approximately 0.5 to 0.95. Typical coaxial cable veloc- LC sections in the line, the charging action will continue
ity factors are 0.66 and 0.8. Twisted pair cable has a higher until all the capacitors are charged. It is at that time that
velocity factor of 0.8 to 0.95. You will also see velocity fac- the dc applied voltage appears across the resistive load
tors expressed as a percentage, such as 66%, 78%, or 80%. R L . The dc voltage at the end of the line will be less than
The velocity factor is usually quoted by the manufacturer in the applied battery voltage by an amount dependent upon
the cable specifications. the dc resistance of the conductors in the line, which is
usually low compared to the terminating load resistance.
25.4 How a Transmission Line Works Therefore, most of the battery voltage will appear across
You have already learned that the equivalent circuit of any the load.
type of transmission line is a series of low-pass filter sections. The amount of time that it takes for the dc voltage to ap-
Refer to Fig. 25-6. For our discussion here, assume that each pear across the load is dependent on the values of inductance
series inductance is the combined inductance of both conduc- and capacitance on the line. This delay time can be com-
tors of the transmission line, one foot in length, and that each puted with the expression
___
capacitor represents the capacitance between the conductors td 5 Ï LC (25-14)
for each foot of line. The resistance in the circuit represents where L is the inductance per foot in henrys, C is the capaci-
the resistance of both conductors for each foot of line. tance per foot in farads, and t is the delay time in seconds.
Now let’s consider the operation of this line with a dc A typical way to determine the delay time is to determine
voltage pulse. The battery and switch will be used to apply a the inductance and capacitance values for a given length of
dc step voltage to the line so that we may analyze its result. line, such as one foot. For example, if a transmission line has
Only three sections of line have been shown for simplicity, a capacitance of 31.5 pF per foot and an inductance of 96.8
and the final section is terminated in a resistance equal to the nH per foot, the amount of delay introduced by one foot of
characteristic resistance of the transmission line. this line is
Keep in mind during this analysis that an inductor opposes ___ _______________________
changes in current, while the capacitor opposes changes in td 5 Ï LC 5 Ï 96.8 3 1029 3 31.5 3 1021 2
voltage. In the equivalent circuit of the transmission line, the ___________
5 Ï 3.05 3 1021 8 5 1.746 3 1029
capacitors will charge to the applied dc voltage through the
inductive and resistive sections. 5 1.746 nsyft
When switch SW is closed, the battery voltage will be
applied to the line. Inductor L1 opposes any current change, Given the amount of delay per foot, you can calculate the
while capacitor C1 initially has zero volts across it. Eventu- total delay of a transmission line by simply multiplying the
ally, capacitor C1 begins to charge to the applied voltage delay per foot by the number of feet in the total length. For
through R1 and L1. Remember that it takes a finite amount a 15-ft length of the line given above, the total propagation
of time for the capacitor to charge through the inductance delay (tp) is
and resistance. tp 5 1.746 3 15 5 26.2 ns

SW R1 L1 R2 L2 R3 L3

V C1 C2 C3 RL

Figure 25-6 The equivalent circuit of a transmission line driven by a dc

step pulse.

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 SW ON SW OFF off and on at a relatively high rate of speed. The capaci-
(a) V
tance in the line will charge to the applied voltage and
then discharge when the pulse is removed. The longer the
transmission line, the greater amount of inductance and
0V
capacitance and the longer it takes for the line to charge
(b) V and discharge. Thus the rise and fall times of the pulse
50% V across the load increases with the length of the line. Fur-
Capacitor Capacitor
0V charge discharge
thermore, the greater the length of the line, the greater the
tp amount of resistance and the lower the amplitude of the
pulse at the end of the line.
Figure 25-7 (a) Input and (b) Output pulses of the Figure 25-8 shows the effect on the signal for different
transmission line showing propagation delay t p. lengths of line. The longer the line, the lower the amplitude
of the signal across the load, the greater the rise and fall
times, and the longer the signal delay. The line greatly dis-
This is a significant amount of time in electronics. The delay torts the square wave into a more rounded wave. Further-
is the same order of magnitude of many modern circuits. more the wave amplitude is also attenuated.
Figure 25-7 shows this delay from the application of the One way to understand the effect of the transmission
dc voltage to the time it appears fully across the load. Note line on the square wave input signal is to recognize that the
that the voltage across the load is a nonlinear rise because of transmission line itself is a low-pass filter. The response of
the charging action of the capacitors. The propagation delay a typical low-pass filter is illustrated in Fig. 25-9. Signals
is measured at the 50% amplitude point, which is the stan- below the cutoff frequency are passed unattenuated. Above
dard measuring point for pulse times. the cutoff frequency, the higher frequencies are gradually
If the switch SW in Fig. 25-6 is now opened to termi- “rolled off”; that is, they are gradually attenuated by a
nate the pulse, the voltage applied to the line is removed. greater amount. In a transmission line, the cutoff frequency
All the capacitors in the line are charged to the battery is determined by the inductance and capacitance per foot
voltage V. They will now discharge into the load resis- and the length of the line. The greater the length, the lower
tance. The voltage will be maintained across the load for the cutoff frequency.
a short period of time. Eventually all the capacitors will The higher-frequency harmonics in the square wave are
be discharged, and the voltage across the resistive load being filtered out by this low-pass effect. This leaves only
will be zero. See Fig. 25-7. The pulse at the load has been the lower harmonics and the fundamental. If the line is long
rounded, delayed, and attenuated but still usable. enough or the frequency of the square wave high enough,
Now assume a continuous square wave is applied to the virtually all the harmonics will be filtered out, leaving only
line. The pulses are simply dc voltage levels that switch a low-amplitude fundamental sine wave at the output.

Cable input

Output (short line)

Output (longer line)

Output (long line)

Figure 25-8 Input and output signals of transmission lines of different lengths.

Cables and Transmission Lines 435

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 BW signal will add to the forward signal creating a highly dis-
torted and totally incoherent pulse stream. Massive data er-
rors will occur.
Output amplitude

A similar thing happens if the line is shorted at the end.

The energy reaching the shorted load is reflected back as
Signals below fco are passed before. If a single pulse is transmitted, the reflection will be
with little attenuation.
a similar but attenuated pulse that is inverted in polarity, as
Fig. 25-10b shows. Again, if a binary pulse train were ap-
plied with a shorted load, no data reach the end of the line
but massive reflections add to the forward signal to create a
0 Hz (dc) fco
real mishmash of a signal back at the generator.
Frequency
If the cable does have a load but its impedance is not
BW 5 bandwidth of line equal to the line impedance, there will be some reflected
BW 5 fco signals above the cutoff frequency are attenuated.
signal but not as large. A minimal mismatch will generally
Figure 25-9 The low-pass filter response of a not affect the signal as much, and operation will be close to
transmission line. normal. The detrimental effects will be in proportion to the
degree of mismatch.
A similar thing happens with analog signals like sine
waves. If the load is not equal to the line impedance, reflec-
Improperly Terminated Transmission Line tions will occur and the signal will be modified. Normally,
A transmission line terminated in a load resistance equal
to the characteristic impedance of the line works perfectly Original transmitted Reflected pulse somewhat
well, and its performance is predictable. However, if the pulse distorted and attenuated

load on the transmission line is not equal to the charac-

teristic impedance of the line, some unusual effects de- 1V
velop. These effects are particularly pronounced if the load
is open or shorted. An open, shorted, or otherwise mis-
matched line causes a signal to be developed at the load
end of the transmission line that is reflected back toward 0
the source. Such reflections are undesirable because they
tp tp
change the shape of the signal and thus introduce distortion
and data errors. Furthermore, the reflected signal could Propagation delay of line Propagation delay of line
(forward) (reflected)
damage the generator.
(a)
If the load is equal to the line impedance, all is well. The
signal from the generator is propagated down the line and is Original
absorbed by the load. Pulses applied to the line appear at the pulse

load somewhat delayed by the line, attenuated in amplitude,

and rounded by the filtering effect. Overall, the load signal 1V
is very usable. For an analog signal like a sine wave, the load
signal is again delayed and attenuated but more than accept-
able. Power is delivered to the load as desired.
Now consider the effect of an open line or no load. Pulses 0
travel down the line charging the capacitance. As the pulse
tp tp
arrives at the end of the line, its energy is not absorbed since
there is no load. What happens is that the signal turns around
2V
and starts its way back down the line toward the generator.
We say that the signal is reflected. The result is that a pulse Reflected
pulse
similar to the originally transmitted pulse appears back at
the generator a time later equal to twice the propagation (b)
delay (tp) of the line. See Fig. 25-10a. Now imagine a serial
Figure 25-10 Pulse transmitted on a line showing
string of pulses representing binary data applied to the line reflected pulse at the generator. (a) Open line. (b) Shorted
with its mix of binary 0 and 1 voltage levels. The reflected line.

436 Chapter 2 5

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 if the load is matched to the line, then the voltage and cur-
rent along the line are constant. In other words, if you mea- Short

sured the voltage and current anywhere along the line, they I V
would be the same from generator to load. This is what is
called a flat line.
Now if the load does not match the line impedance, the
sine wave travels down the line and does not get fully ab-
sorbed by the load. Power is lost because some of the sig- 0
␭
nal is reflected back toward the generator. The reflected sine (a)
wave adds to the forward signal creating a new sine wave of
a different phase and amplitude. The result is that the volt-
Open
age and current, as well as the accompanying electric and
magnetic fields along the line, are no longer constant but I V
vary in patterns of half-sine pulses. These are called stand- Peak
ing waves. The distribution of voltage and current along the
line depends on the length of the line and the degree of mis-
match. The goal is to have no standing waves by eliminating 0 Zero
the reflected signal. In this way, most of the power reaches 
the load as desired. (b)
Figure 25-11 shows the standing wave effect. In Fig.
25-11a, a shorted line produces the voltage and current dis-
tribution shown. Note that the voltage and current actually
go to zero every l/2. With a short at the end of the line, the RL RL =/ Zo

voltage is zero but the current is at its peak.

The effect of an open line is shown in Fig. 25-11b. The
standing wave pattern is similar, but the voltage is at its peak I V

at the load end of the line while current is zero.

Fig. 25-11c shows a mismatched line. The load R L does
not match the characteristic impedance Z o of the line. The Imax Vmax
Imin Vmin
standing waves are similar but not as pronounced and the
voltage and current do not go to zero. The degree of mis- 0

match is usually expressed as the ratio of the load resis- (c)

tance to the line impedance. This is called the standing Figure 25-11 Standing waves on a transmission line.
wave ratio (SWR). (a) Shorted. (b) Open. (c) Mismatched.
SWR 5 RLyZ o (25-15)
Or if Z o is greater than RL , A similar thing occurs with analog signals if the trans-
mission line is improperly terminated. If the signal is a sine
SWR 5 Z oyRL wave and the transmission line is open, shorted, or mis-
When the load and line impedances match, the SWR is matched, reflections occur. This sets up a pattern of stand-
1. This is the ideal condition. As the mismatch and SWR ing waves along the line. The signal at the load is severely
become greater, the power lost at the load becomes signifi- attenuated.
cant because of the reflection. For example, an SWR of 2; 1
produces a loss of 10% power at the load. 25.5 Twisted Pair Cables
In summary, the proper operation of a transmission line The two most popular types of transmission lines are co-
using pulse signals occurs when the transmission line is axial and twisted pair. Coaxial is the primary cable used in
terminated in a resistance equal to the characteristic im- radio-frequency (RF) work for connecting transmitters and
pedance of the line. In addition, the source impedance receivers to antennas. Coaxial is also the preferred cable for
should also be equal to the load impedance to ensure max- analog video. It is also sometimes used in data communica-
imum power transfer. Any line mismatch will produce re- tions applications. Twisted pair is the primary type of wiring
flections which, if severe enough, will alter the data of a used in the telephone system. It is also used in most types of
binary signal. data communications systems, especially networking.

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 Cable Requirements for Binary
Communications
If cables are to carry high-speed digital data, they must
meet specific requirements. First, they must certainly have
the bandwidth or frequency response suitable for passing 
the range of frequencies of interest. Coaxial cable is use-
ful at frequencies up to approximately 10 GHz or more if
they are kept short. Twisted pair can operate at frequencies
over 100 MHz. Both types of cables are widely used to carry
high-speed digital data, but only RF coaxial cable is used in
radio applications. 
Another requirement is that the cable have minimum at-
tenuation. All cables exhibit resistive and other losses and,
therefore, will attenuate any signal applied to them. While
attenuation is inherent in any cable, it must be minimized
to prevent excessive reduction in signal strength that occurs
over long sections of cable. Solid lines: Electric field
Dashed lines: Magnetic field
Finally, a primary requirement is that the cable not radi-
ate energy. Whenever voltage is applied across a cable, cur-
Figure 25-12 Electric and magnetic fields around
rent flows in the conductors. The voltage causes the buildup parallel current-carrying conductors can radiate.
of an electric field between the conductors. Furthermore,
current flowing in the conductors produces a magnetic field.
At very high frequencies, these electric and magnetic fields the wires around one another produces cancellation of the
combine to form an electromagnetic wave which can radiate. magnetic fields, thus minimizing the radiation to surround-
An electromagnetic wave is a radio signal that can propagate ing cables and other objects.
over long distances if the conditions are correct. Radiation
from a cable means loss of energy and possible interference Twisted Pair Cable Construction
to other adjacent cables or equipment. Twisted pair cable is made up of two insulated copper wires
A simple cable made of two parallel conductors, such as twisted loosely together. Figure 25-13a shows a common
an ac power cord, speaker cable, or certain types of telephone twisted pair cable. The wire is solid copper usually in the
wire, will radiate. The electric and magnetic fields around the 22- to 28-gage range. Each wire is insulated with a plastic
cables appear something like that shown in Fig. 25-12. Note covering. The two wires are loosely twisted together not
the polarity of the conductors which will reverse periodically only to hold them together physically but also to help mini-
if the conductors are carrying ac. The electric field is shown mize radiation as indicated earlier. There are anywhere from
as solid lines, while the magnetic field is shown as dashed three twists per foot to eight twists per foot depending on the
lines. Note the magnetic fields aid one another, that is, are type of twisted pair. Such a cable is usually referred to as
in the same direction, between the conductors. This varying unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
magnetic field around the conductors can cause a voltage to A popular variation of the twisted pair is the shielded
be induced into any nearby conductor. Capacitance between twisted pair (STP) cable shown in Fig. 25-13b. In this
one cable and another adjacent cable can cause a signal to be case, a conductive shield is placed around the twisted pair.
transferred. This is called cross talk, and it is an undesirable This may be a thin continuous foil attached to a wire or a
characteristic of a cable. It must be minimized. fine-braided mesh of copper wires. The shield is usually
Both twisted pair and coaxial meet these technical re- grounded, and its purpose is to eliminate radiation from
quirements. Both have a wideband frequency response and the twisted pair and the pickup of stray signals from other
thus are capable of handling high-frequency signals. Both cables. Most shielded twisted pair is covered with an outer
are made so as to minimize attenuation. And the construc- insulated jacket.
tion of both coaxial and twisted pair is such that radiation is Twisted pair cables are used individually, meaning a sin-
greatly minimized or completely eliminated. Radiation is al- gle twisted pair by itself. However, most twisted pairs usu-
most completely eliminated in a coaxial cable by its unique ally come bundled two or more to a cable inside a common
construction, while it is greatly minimized in twisted pair outer jacket, as shown in Fig. 25-13c. There are many varia-
by twisting the two conductors together. The act of twisting tions. Cables with two and four pairs per cable are available.

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 PVC Category 1: Standard unshielded twisted pair used for
insulation
voice grade telephone applications. Most telephone
Outer jacket
Solid cable installed before the early 1980s was this type.
copper wire It can support baseband digital transmissions at rates
(a)
up to about 1 Mbps.
Category 2: For data communications applications
Outer jacket at data rates up to 4 Mbps. It is typically used in
unshielded form with four pairs per cable. It is not
a widely used type of cable today.
Wire braid or Category 3: For data rates up to 16 Mbps and once
foil shield
widely used in early Ethernet and other local area net-
(b)
works. It has now been replaced with CAT 5 wiring in
Inner jackets most applications.
or shields
Outer jacket Category 4: Unshielded twisted pair, suitable for data
rates up to 20 Mbps. It is no longer widely used.
Category 5: By far the most popular and widely used
type of UTP. It contains four pairs, and each supports
(c)
data rates up to and over 100 Mbps. A more recent
version, CAT 5e, is available to support rates up to
Figure 25-13 Types twisted pair cables. (a) Unshielded 1 Gbps.
twisted pair (UTP). (b) Shielded twisted pair (STP).
(c) Multiple twisted pairs per cable. Category 6: For data rates up to about 10 Gbps.
Version CAT 6a can support higher rates.
Each twisted pair may be contained within its own insulated Category 7: Shielded cable that is sometimes referred
jacket or with its own individual shield. In all cases, the in- to as Class F cable. It is for ultrahigh-speed applica-
dividual pairs are contained within a larger outer jacket. The tions. It uses a special connector unlike that used on
wires are color-coded so that they can be easily identified at the other classes of UTP cables.
each end of the cable. Most of these cables come with four twisted pairs. The
wire size is either No. 23 or 24. A color code is used to dis-
Types of Twisted Pair Cable
tinguish the different wires. The EIA/TIA 568 color codes
There are many varieties of twisted pair cable in use. The are as follows:
oldest and the most common is that used in the telephone
network. Telephones are usually connected to the telephone Pair 1: Solid blue or blue-white stripe
central office by a twisted pair referred to as the local or Pair 2: Solid orange or orange-white stripe
subscriber loop. Twisted pair cable is also widely used in Pair 3: Solid green or green-white stripe
private telephone systems like those in big companies and Pair 4: Solid brown or brown-white stripe
other large organizations. And it is used in most local area
All these cables can be purchased in two variations, stan-
networks.
dard and plenum. Plenum cable means that the insulation is
National and international standards have been developed
made of plastic materials that do not produce toxic fumes or
for twisted pair cable to provide consistency in design and
excessive smoke should they burn in a fire. Plenum cables
application. These standards have been set and agreed on
are designed for use in long cable runs inside walls, ceilings,
by several organizations, including the American National
and vertical plenum chambers in tall buildings. The local
Standards Institute (ANSI), the Electronic Industries As-
fire codes may require plenum cable. Plenum cable has iden-
sociation (EIA), the Telecommunications Industries Asso-
tical specifications and performance as standard cable, but it
ciation (TIA), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
is more expensive.
Engineers (IEEE). The most widely followed standard is the
joint EIA/TIA document 568, known as the Commercial
Building Wiring Standard. This standard defines several Twisted Pair Specifications
basic categories of twisted pair wiring. Despite the simplicity of twisted pair and the similarities
You will see UTP designated as CAT n or Cat n, where n from one cable to another, twisted pair cables have a wide
is the category number. range of specifications. The most important specifications

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 when you are designing or installing systems or replacing 100 MHz. Bandwidth is related to speed, but the relation-
wiring are discussed below. ship of the two depends on the format of the data being
transmitted.
Wire Size Solid copper wire is used in twisted pair.
The size varies from the larger No. 22 to the smaller No. Insertion Loss Insertion loss is the same as attenuation. It
28. The most widely used size is No. 24. There are defi- is usually given in dB per 100 m at a specific frequency. For
nite trade-offs to selecting a wire size. The smaller wire CAT 5e the attenuation is 24 dB per 100 m.
sizes give the cable less capacitance per foot. This makes
the bandwidth of the cable greater so higher data rates Near-End Cross Talk (NEXT) Cross talk, as indicated ear-
can be accommodated. However, a smaller cable has a lier, is the transfer of a signal from one cable to a nearby
much higher dc ohmic resistance. Therefore its attenua- cable. With four pairs in one cable, there will be some
tion of the signal is greater, especially over longer dis- signal transfer by capacitive or inductive coupling from
tances at the higher data rates. The fi nal choice is usually one pair to the others. The twisted wires do help cancel
a compromise. or minimize this effect, but it is not complete. Near-end
cross talk (NEXT) is the transfer of one strong signal at
Capacitance per Foot Capacitance per foot is another im- the transmission end of one cable to the receiving end of
portant specification as it determines the bandwidth of the an adjacent cable carrying a weak signal. It is measured
cable and sets the upper data rate for a given length. The in dB.
lower the capacitance per foot (C/ft), the greater the band-
width and higher the data speed the cable can support. Far End Cross Talk (FEXT) Far-end cross talk (FEXT) is
The amount of capacitance per foot is dependent on the similar to NEXT but is the signal transferred from a signal
wire size, the thickness and type of insulation, and the num- entering the cable to an adjacent cable with an outgoing sig-
ber of twists per foot. Larger wire sizes and thinner insu- nal. The measure is dB.
lation produce higher capacitance figures. The greater the
number of twists per foot, the higher the capacitance. The Propagation Delay Propagation delay is the amount of
best twisted pair cable has only two or three twists per foot delay in nanoseconds for 100 m of cable or some similar
to keep capacitance low. measure.
The amount of capacitance per foot varies from about
10 pF to 20 pF per foot. The popular CAT 5 twisted pair has Twisted Pair Connectors
14 to 15 pF/ft. All cables, including twisted pair, use terminating con-
nectors at their ends to provide a convenient and reliable
Characteristic Impedance Twisted pair is a transmission way to attach them to the equipment and to one another.
line so it has a definite characteristic impedance (Z o). The The most widely used connectors are the modular type
value runs between about 90 and 200 V. Common values similar to those used in on most modern telephones. The
are 100, 110, and 150 V. CAT 5 cable has a Z o of 100 V. Re- smallest is the RJ-11 modular connector, as shown in Fig.
member that all twisted pair cable must be terminated with 25-14a. It has four connections and can accommodate two
a resistance value equal to the characteristic impedance to pair.
minimize reflections. By far the most popular twisted pair connector is the
RJ-45, shown in Fig. 25-14b. It is similar in shape and con-
Speed Some cables are rated by the upper data rate they can struction to the RJ-11, but it is larger. There are two kinds of
handle. Even the lowly CAT 1 voice grade telephone cable modular connectors, plugs, and jacks. The plugs are male,
can handle rates up to about 1 Mbps. CAT 5 cable can pass like those shown in Fig. 25-14. These are mounted on the
data at a rate of 100 Mbps and beyond. ends of the cable. The plugs connect to the female jacks that
Just keep in mind that the speed a cable can accommo- are mounted in the equipment.
date depends not only on the capacitance per foot but also The RJ-45 connectors can handle eight connections or
on the actual length of the cable. At greater lengths the four pairs. The connections to the RJ-45 vary, depending
bandwidth becomes more limited. This true for any type on the application and the manufacturer of the equipment or
of cable. system. Figure 25-15 shows some of the ways that the pairs
can be wired. Connections are shown for both the jacks and
Bandwidth Bandwidth is the low-pass filter response usu- plugs. The T568A and T568B connections conform to the
ally for 100 m of cable. For CAT 5e cable the bandwidth is EIA/TIA standards.

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 25.6 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable Construction
Coaxial, or coax, cable is named for the fact that the two
conductors in the cable share a common central axis.
Cable The construction of the typical coaxial cable is shown in
Fig. 25-16a. One conductor is a copper wire, while the
other is a copper shield. The central copper wire is usually
4 connections solid but may also be stranded. It is covered by an insulator,
(2 twisted pair)
(a) usually solid or foam plastic. The insulator is usually called
the dielectric. Polyethylene is the most common insulation.
Other insulators such as Teflon are also used. Some large
cables are constructed so the dielectric is air or some other
gas such as nitrogen. The dielectric is usually covered with
a continuous shield braid. The braid is made of many fine
copper wires arranged in a crossing pattern, as shown in
the illustration. This shield continues for the length of the
Cable cable. Larger cables use a solid pipe or conduit for the
outer conductor. An outer plastic insulating jacket covers
the shield.
A special variation of coaxial cable is the so-called twin-
8 connections axial cable, shown in Fig. 25-16b. It has the same basic con-
(4 twisted pair)
(b) struction as standard coaxial but has two inner conductors
instead of one.
Figure 25-14 Modular connectors used with twisted
pair cable. (a) RJ-11. (b) RJ-45. The primary benefit of coaxial cable over twisted pair is
that the shield totally contains the signal. Any magnetic field

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 1 Pair 3

Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 2 Pair 4

Insulated core Jacket

12345678 12345678

T568A T568B
Inner conductor Shield
(a)
(a)

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 1 Pair 3

Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 2 Pair 4 Insulation

PVC jacket (dielectric)

12345678 12345678
Two solid
inner conductors

Shield
braid

(b) (b)

Figure 25-15 Connections on some types of RJ-45 Figure 25-16 Physical construction of (a) coaxial cable
UTP connectors. (a) Jacks (female). (b) Plugs (male). and (b) twinaxial cable.

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 is also fully contained, so no signal is radiated. As a result, widely used. Most manufacturers use it although many
the coaxial cable cannot radiate magnetic fields that can be manufacturers have their own numbering system. A four-
picked up by adjacent cables or other circuits. digit number is common.
Coaxial cable is preferred over twisted pair in those situ- The main point to keep in mind is that there are many
ations where radiation cannot tolerated. It is also the cable variations of the basic types given in Table 25-1. The varia-
of choice in noisy environments, since coaxial cable is less tions are usually indicated by an A or B at the end of the
immune to the pickup noise and interfering signals. designation. The primary difference is the use of a differ-
On the other hand, coaxial is more expensive. It also ent type of dielectric or conductor size that usually lowers
has greater attenuation per foot than twisted pair. Yet de- the capacitance and the attenuation per foot and changes the
spite these limitations, it very useful and probably at least velocity factor.
as popular as twisted pair. The choice between twisted pair The cable designation is usually printed on the side of the
and coaxial depends on the specific application where all cable. Always check to see what type it is, and by all means
the advantages and disadvantages of each type of cable are get a manufacturer’s catalog or specification sheet so you
compared and contrasted and trade-offs weighed. know exactly what you are dealing with.
As for applications, the RG-8 and RG-58 types are used
Types of Coaxial Cable in radio installations connecting transmitters and receivers
Coaxial cable comes in a variety of sizes and characteris- to antennas. RG-6A is used in cable TV and consumer elec-
tics. Popular cable diameters are just slightly less than one- tronic equipment.
quarter inch and one-half inch although many other sizes Coaxial Specifications
are available. Coaxial is flexible like most cable but is also
The specifications for coaxial cable are essentially the same
available in large sizes where the shield and the conductors
as those for twisted pair. However, let’s discuss them again
themselves are rigid like pipe or tubing. Larger and rigid
in the context of coaxial.
coaxial cables are used primarily for carrying signals to
and from high-frequency antennas. Cell phone sites are a Characteristic Impedance Characteristic impedance (Z o)
good example. The smaller sizes are widely used wireless of coaxial is dependent on the physical dimensions of the
applications. cable, which establishes the inductance and capacitance per
There are literally dozens of types of coaxial cable foot. The characteristic impedance of coaxial is lower than
manufactured for RF and other applications. However, that of twisted pair. Values in the 50- and 75-V range are the
only a few types are widely used in data communications. most common.
Listed in Table 25-1 are the most popular types and their
major characteristics. The cable designation has the let- Capacitance per Foot Because of its construction, the ca-
ters RG followed by a number and sometimes includes pacitance per foot of coaxial is much higher than that of
a slash and the letter U. This numbering designation twisted pair. This capacitance depends on the dimensions
was initiated many years ago by the military and is still of the cable, but is greatly influenced by the type of dielec-
tric material used as the inner insulator. Values typically run
from 20 to 30 pF per foot, although a few types have less
Table 25-1 Popular Types of Coaxial Cables capacitance. Lower capacitance per foot is preferred as it
produces less loading on the driving circuit and has less at-
VF Attenuation tenuation at the higher frequencies.
Designation Zo OD C/ft (%) (dB)
RG-8 52 0.405 29.5 66 2.5
Velocity Factor Velocity factor (VF) is the ratio of the ve-
locity (speed) of a signal in the cable (Vp) to the speed of
RG-6A 75 0.332 20.6 66 2.5
light (Vc) in free space. As you saw earlier, it takes time
RG-58 53.5 0.195 28.5 66 4.5
for a signal to travel down a cable as the capacitance of
RG-59 73 0.242 21 66 3.6
the cable charges. The speed of the signal in a cable is less
RG-62 93 0.242 13.5 86 2.7 than that of the same signal in free space. For example, the
Twinaxial 100 0.33 15.5 – – speed of light in free space of a vacuum is usually rounded
CAT 5 UTP 100 – 14 .85 6.7 off to the value 300,000,000 m per second. The speed of
the signal in the cable may be 210,000,000 m/s. This pro-
Note: The terms include the characteristic impedance (Z o); the outside diam-
eter (OD) in inches; the capacitance per foot (C/ft) in pF; the velocity factor (VF)
duces a velocity factor of
given as a percentage; and the attenuation, which is usually given in dB per
100 ft at some given frequency, 100 MHz here. The specifications of popular VF 5 VpyVc 5 210,000,000y300,000,000 5 0.70
CAT 5 UTP is given in contrast.

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 10 0
RG-58A
5.0
UTP 5
T5 A
CA -58
2.0 RG -6A 10
Loss (dB/100 ft)

Total loss (dB)

RG 1A 100 ft
1
1.0 G- 200 ft
/R 15
-8A
RG 500 ft
0.5
20

0.2 1000 ft
25

Frequency Frequency
0.1 30
(MHz) (MHz)
1.0 10 100 1000 0 10 100 1000

Figure 25-17 Attenuation vs. frequency for popular Figure 25-18 Attenuation vs. length of RG-58A
coaxial cable types. coaxial cable.

This is normally expressed as a percentage, or 70%. Coaxial Connectors

You can calculate the speed of propagation in a cable with
Like twisted pair, coaxial must be terminated in some type
the above expression if you know the velocity factor of the
of connector to make it convenient to connect and discon-
type of cable. For instance, the speed of propagation in a
nect cables. The connector also maintains a constant im-
RG-58 coaxial cable with a VF of 66%, or 0.66, is
pedance through the connection. There are many different
Vp 5 300,000,000 3 0.66 5 198,000,000 mys types of coaxial connectors, and the most widely used are
discussed below.
Velocity is usually not a specification quoted for twisted
A widely used one for video and cable TV is the F-
pair. However, it does apply. The velocity factor is much
connector, shown in Fig. 25-19a. You will find it in TV
higher in twisted pair with values running from 0.8 to 0.95,
sets, cable boxes, and DVD players. It uses the solid cen-
depending on the type.
ter conductor as the connector pin. The cable is usually
Attenuation The attenuation or loss in coaxial cable is RG-6A.
high but typically less than that of twisted pair. But it is One of the oldest and most common coaxial connec-
still useful even over very long distances. Cable runs of tors for audio and video is the RCA phono connector
many miles are routinely used in cable TV systems. Many shown in Fig. 25-19b. It was originally developed to con-
large LANs cover distances of hundreds and even thou- nect phonographs to audio amplifiers but is still widely
sands of feet with coaxial. However, in all cases where the used for connecting video equipment. Audio and video
distances are great, booster amplifiers and repeater units cables are all 75-V types and use this connector. The
are used to regenerate a signal. connector is also used for some RF applications to fre-
As in any other transmission line, attenuation var- quencies as high as 150 MHz. Common cable types are
ies directly with distance logarithmically with frequency. RG-58 and RG-59.
Figure 25-17 shows the attenuation with frequency for Another popular connector for the smaller coaxial types,
several popular types of coaxial cables. A plot for CAT 5 like RG-58 and RG-59 coaxial, is the BNC connector shown
unshielded pair is show for comparison. The horizontal fre- in Fig. 25-19c. Its most common use is connecting test equip-
quency scale is logarithmic. Figure 25-18 shows the attenua- ment like an oscilloscope and its probe or function generator
tion versus frequency for different lengths of RG-58A cable. to other equipment. This male BNC connector is usually at-
Notice the low-pass response curve and how attenuation tached to each end of the cable. It has a metallic outer struc-
greatly increases with distance and frequency. ture that attaches to the coaxial shield braid and a center
pin to which the coaxial center conductor is connected. It
Speed Coaxial cable can handle frequencies above 1 GHz, mates to a female jack that is mounted in the equipment to
and it is regularly used in RF applications at these frequen- be connected. The outer housing of the plug has a camlike
cies. Although coaxial can be used with data speeds up to slot that links with a pin on the jack for fast easy connect and
about 150 Mbps, it rarely is. Twisted pair is preferred for the disconnect.
newer 1-Gbps and 10-Gbps LANs.

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 Rotate outer shield F-jack on Outer
to screw on F-jack equipment shield
(threaded) Center
conductor

Molded RCA
phonograph plug

Coaxial
cable F-plug Center wire

(a)

RCA phonograph
jack on equipment

(b)

Cam slot
for rotating slide
connection

Coaxial cable

(d)

Pin for cam slot Hex sides

(c) of body

Smaller cable

(e) (f)

Figure 25-19 Common coaxial connectors. (a) F-connector. (b) RCA connectors. (c) BNC connectors. (d) UHF
connectors. (e) N-type connector. (f ) SMA connector.

A popular coaxial connector for radio and other RF con- Fig. 25-19e. It is considerably larger than the UHF and BNC
nections is the UHF connector, shown in Fig. 25-19d. The connectors and uses screw threads for attachment to the fe-
male connector is also known as a PL-259, while the match- male connector.
ing socket is known as an SO-239. Both attach with screw A smaller connector for high-frequency RF applications
threads. They are used with 50-V coaxial cable like RG-8 is the SMA connector, shown in Fig. 25-19f. It is primarily
and RG-11 or equivalents. used with smaller 50-V cables in test instruments and some
Another common connector for the larger coaxial cables radio equipment.
like RG-8 and RG-11 is the N-type connector shown in

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 CHAPTER 25 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Fiber-Optic Cable and Its Application

While most cable uses good conductors like copper wires, fi- Fiber cables are also more secure for sending sensitive in-
ber-optic cable uses a good insulator like glass or plastic. The formation since they cannot be easily tapped or otherwise
signals to be carried by the cable are first converted into light compromised.
and then applied to the cable. The light received at the other
end of the cable is converted back into an electric signal. Both How Fiber-Optic Cable Works
analog and digital signals can be transmitted this way.
Most fiber carries binary data in the form of pulses. The stream
of binary 1s and 0s are applied to a driver circuit that operates
Structure of a Fiber-Optic Cable a light-emitting diode (LED) or laser. See Fig. S25-2. The LED
Figure S25-1 shows the basic structure of a fiber-optic cable. or laser produces infrared (IR) light. Infrared is less distorted
The light is actually carried by a thin glass or plastic core. and attenuated by the cable than other frequencies of light.
Glass has less loss or attenuation, but it is more fragile and Typical IR wavelengths are in the 800- to 1600-nm range.
expensive. It is also best for very long runs of cable. Plastic The digital pulses turn the IR light off and on at a rapid
is larger and has more attenuation but is less expensive. It is rate. Pulses can occur from 10 million pulses per second to
used for shorter runs. Most fiber cables are very thin. Typical over 100 billion pulses per second. Common pulse rates are
size is a core diameter of 62.5 μm (micrometer or micron) 2.5, 10, 40, and 100 Gbps.
where a μm is one-millionth of a meter. The outer cladding, At the receiving end of the cable, a light-sensitive diode
or covering, is 125 μm. Even smaller sizes are used. detects the pulses and sends them to an amplifier to regener-
The benefits of using fiber include the ability to carry ate the original pulses. These are then used by a computer.
higher-speed digital signals and higher-frequency analog
signals over a longer distance than with copper cables. Fiber Fiber Applications
cables easily carry pulses at a rate up to several hundred bil-
A common fiber application is in cable TV systems. A mod-
lion per second. Such signals are not subject to electric noise
ern cable system is shown in Fig. S25-3. The main source
or interference caused by inductive or capacitive coupling.
of the video and other services is the cable office called the
head end. It collects the video from TV antennas, satellites,
Outer plastic Plastic or glass center and the Internet and processes the data for transmission over
sheath carries the IR light cable. Most cable TV systems also offer high-speed Internet
service. The TV and Internet data from the cable company
are put on a fiber-optic trunk cable that is then routed by
underground paths or on poles to various neighborhood con-
nections points. Distribution amplifiers along the way keep
the signal amplitude up to overcome cable attenuation. From
there, the signals go by coaxial cable to homes or other fa-
Plastic cilities. Such a system is called a hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC)
cladding
system. A few cable TV systems with Internet connectivity
Figure S25-1 Structure of a fiber-optic cable. use only fiber from the cable office directly to the home.

Driver To
computer

IR Fiber optic cable IR

light light
Serial Received
digital digital
Laser PIN or avalanche
data data
diode diode light detector

Figure S25-2 How a fiber-optic cable works.

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 Distribution PC
amplifiers
TV signals
Feeder cables
(coaxial)

Cable
modem

Distribution
amplifiers
Headend
cable station
Amplifier Trunk
cable

(Fiber-optic cable)

Combiner

Drops
to homes
(Coaxial 75 V)
The internet
Cable set
top box

TV set

Figure S25-3 Modern fiber-optic cable system.

Fiber-optic cable also forms the core or backbone of the Another common application is in computer networks
Internet. All Internet data accesses and transfers go by fiber where servers, routers, switches, and other networking
cable, whether local or worldwide. equipment are used to interconnect computers.

CHAPTER 25 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. All cables are transmission lines. 4. Wavelength is the

a. True. a. distance between amplitude peaks of a sine wave.
b. False. b. the distance traveled by a wave in one cycle.
c. Depends on the cable length. c. length of one cycle.
d. Depends on signal frequency. d. all of the above.
e. Both c and d. 5. Wavelength is shorter at the higher frequencies.
2. Cables at certain frequencies act like a a. True.
a. high-pass filter. b. False.
b. low-pass filter. 6. The wavelength at a frequency of 1500 kHz is
c. bandpass filter. a. 2 meters.
d. phase shifter. b. 50 meters.
3. Cables are more likely to be transmission lines at c. 200 meters.
a. high frequencies. d. 2 km.
b. low frequencies.

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 7. The frequency associated with a wavelength of 16. The most widely used type of twisted pair line is
70 cm is a. CAT 3.
a. 70 MHz. b. CAT 5.
b. 428 MHz. c. CAT 7.
c. 450 MHz. d. the shielded type.
d. 915 MHz. 17. Cross talk is a common problem with twisted pair cable.
8. A cable is a transmission line if the cable length is a. True.
a. one wavelength. b. False.
b. ten times one wavelength. 18. A common network cable connector used with
c. at least one-tenth wavelength. twisted pair is the
d. any length over a wavelength. a. RJ-11.
9. The most identifying specification of a transmission b. F-connector.
line is the c. RJ-45.
a. attenuation. d. N-type connector.
b. characteristic impedance. 19. Twisted pair cable has higher attenuation per foot
c. capacitance per foot. than coaxial.
d. velocity factor. a. True.
10. What factor determine the characteristic impedance b. False.
of a cable? 20. Coaxial is preferred over twisted pair because it
a. Capacitance per foot. a. has lower attenuation.
b. Inductance per foot. b. better shielding.
c. Both a and c. c. higher characteristic impedance.
d. Length.
21. The approximate characteristic impedance of twisted
11. How is cable attenuation specified? pair line is
a. Decibels. a. 50 V.
b. Voltage loss per foot. b. 75 V.
c. Power lost per foot. c. 100 V.
d. Resistance per foot. d. 300 V.
12. The speed of a signal in a cable is 22. The most common coaxial line characteristic
a. the same as the speed of light. impedance is
b. depends on the frequency. a. 50 V.
c. higher than the speed of light. b. 75 V.
d. less than the speed of light. c. 100 V.
13. The effect of a mismatched transmission line is d. 300 V.
a. power loss. 23. Which coaxial connector is widely used in TV?
b. high standing waves. a. N-type connector.
c. reflections. b. UHF connector.
d. all of the above. c. SMA connector.
14. To avoid reflections in a transmission lines, the load d. F-connector.
impedance should be 24. Standing waves are
a. higher than the line impedance. a. patterns of varying electric and magnetic waves on
b. lower than the line impedance. a line.
c. same as the line impedance. b. reflections.
d. Twice the line impedance. c. constant voltage and current along the line.
15. The capacitance per foot of a twisted pair line is d. signals that are not moving.
dependent on 25. The most ideal SWR of a transmission line is
a. twists per foot. a. 0.
b. wire size. b. 1.
c. type of insulation. c. 50.
d. all of the above. d. infinite.

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 CHAPTER 25 PROBLEMS

SECTION 25.2 Principles of Transmission Lines 25.12 A transmission line has an input of 15 W. The line
length is 180 ft with an attenuation of 5 dB per
25.1 What is the period of a 100-MHz signal?
100 ft. What is the output at the load?
25.2 A sine wave has a period of 42 ns. What is its
25.13 A transmission line has an attenuation of 2.6 dB per
frequency?
100 ft. What is the attenuation for 230 ft?
25.3 What is the wavelength of a signal at 162 MHz?
25.14 A cell phone tower is 300 ft high with a transmis-
25.4 A signal has a wavelength of 20 m. What is the sion line length between transmitter and antenna of
frequency? 350 ft. The power into the line is 40 W. How much
25.5 How far does a 150-MHz signal travel in one pe- power is radiated by the antenna if the line attenua-
riod? What is that period? tion is 0.03 dB per foot?
25.6 A signal of 433 MHz uses a coaxial cable of one SECTION 25.4 How a Transmission Line Works
foot. Is it a transmission line?
25.15 A transmission line has a capacitance per foot of
25.7 At what frequency does a 15-ft cable become a
28.5 pF. The inductance per foot is 87 nH per foot.
transmission line?
What is the characteristic impedance of the line?
SECTION 25.3 Transmission Line Specifications What is the signal delay per foot?
and Characteristics 25.16 A 300-m transmission line has a delay of 2.4 pF per
25.8 A transmission line has a capacitance per foot of foot. What is the total delay?
22 pF and an inductance of 0.6 nH per foot. What is 25.17 A twisted pair line has an impedance of 120 V.
the characteristic impedance? What is the desired load resistance?
25.9 What is the time delay produced by the line in 25.18 A coaxial transmission line of 50 V has a load of
Prob. 25-8? 72 V. What is the SWR?
25.10 A 50-V transmission line has a capacitance per foot 25.19 What SWR would be produced by a 75-V coaxial
of 32 pF. What is the inductance per foot? cable with an open load?
25.11 A transmission line has an input power of 100 W 25.20 A transmission line has an impedance of 50 V and
and an output of 70 W. What is the attenuation in a delay of 1.2 ns per foot. It is driven by a 700-MHz
dB? If the line is 50 ft long, what is the line attenua- sine wave. What is the amount of phase shift that
tion per foot? the signal sees from input to output?

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 Ch a pt er 26
AC Testing and Troubleshooting

Learning Outcomes Troubleshooting and testing circuits that process both

analog and digital ac signals involve the same basic
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: procedures outlined in Chapter 13. You may wish to
Explain the basic operation of both analog and review that chapter briefly before beginning this one.
digital oscilloscopes. The key ac test instrument is the oscilloscope, which
Display an analog signal on an oscilloscope. is introduced in this chapter. Basic measurements are
Measure signal amplitude, period, frequency, and outlined. The chapter then covers the function genera-
phase on the oscilloscope. tor, an instrument that generates sine and rectangular
Set and adjust a function generator. waves over a wide frequency range. Then some basic
Explain the concept of virtual instrumentation. troubleshooting procedures that work with many types
of circuits and equipment are outlined.
Use the scope and function generator to
troubleshoot analog circuits.

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 26.1 Introduction to the Oscilloscope directly apply the voltage being measured to an electron
beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. This volt-
The cathode-ray oscilloscope or “scope,” as it is commonly
age deflects the beam up, down, and across, thus tracing
known, is one of the most versatile test instruments in elec-
the waveform on the screen. Digital oscilloscopes sample
tronics. Oscilloscopes have the ability to measure the time,
the input waveform and then use an analog-to-digital con-
frequency, and voltage level of a signal; view rapidly chang-
verter (ADC) to change the voltage being measured into
ing waveforms; and determine if an output signal is dis-
digital information. The digital information is then used
torted. The technician must therefore be able to operate this
to reconstruct the waveform to be displayed on the screen.
instrument and understand how and where it is used.
A digital or analog oscilloscope may be used for many of
Oscilloscopes can be classified as either analog or digi-
the same applications. Each type of oscilloscope possesses
tal. Both types are shown in Fig. 26-1. Analog oscilloscopes

(a)

(b)

Figure 26-1 Oscilloscope types. (a) Analog oscilloscope. (b) Digital oscilloscope.

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 unique characteristics and capabilities. The analog oscillo- Vertical system Display
scope can display high-frequency varying signals in “real system
time,” whereas a digital oscilloscope allows you to capture Vertical
Attenuator amplifier
and store information which can be accessed at a later time
CRT
or be interfaced to a computer. While analog scopes are still
found in some labs, most scopes in use today are digital.

26.2 Analog Oscilloscopes

Probe
An analog oscilloscope displays the instantaneous ampli- Horizontal system
tude of an ac voltage waveform versus time on the screen
Trigger system Sweep Horizontal
of a cathode-ray tube (CRT). Basically, the oscilloscope is a generator amplifier
graph-displaying device. It has the ability to show how sig-
nals change over time. As shown in Fig. 26-2, the vertical Ramp time base
axis (y) represents voltage and the horizontal axis (x) repre-
sents time. The z axis or intensity is sometimes used in spe- Figure 26-3 Analog oscilloscope block diagram.
cial measurement applications. Inside the cathode-ray tube is
an electron gun assembly, vertical and horizontal deflection vertical amplifier. This is necessary because the oscilloscope
plates, and a phosphorous screen. The electron gun emits a must handle a wide range of signal-voltage amplitudes. The
high-velocity, low-inertia beam of electrons that strike the vertical amplifier then processes the input signal to produce
chemical coating on the inside face of the CRT, causing it to the required voltage levels for the vertical deflection plates.
emit light. The brightness (called intensity) can be varied by The signal voltage applied to the vertical deflection plates
a control located on the oscilloscope front panel. The motion causes the electron beam of the CRT to be deflected verti-
of the beam over the CRT screen is controlled by the deflec- cally. The resulting up-and-down movement of the beam on
tion voltages generated in the oscilloscope’s circuits outside the screen, called the trace, is significant in that the extent
of the CRT and the deflection plates inside the CRT to which of vertical deflection is directly proportional to the ampli-
the deflection voltages are applied. tude of the signal voltage applied to the vertical, or V, input.
Figure 26-3 is an elementary block diagram of an analog A portion of the input signal, from the vertical amplifier,
oscilloscope. The block diagram is composed of a CRT and travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a horizontal
four system blocks. These blocks include the display system, sweep. The trigger system determines when and if the sweep
vertical system, horizontal system, and trigger system. The generator will be activated. With the proper LEVEL and
CRT provides the screen on which waveforms of electric SLOPE control adjustment, the sweep will begin at the same
signals are viewed. These signals are applied to the vertical trigger point each time. This will produce a stable display
input system. Depending on how the Volts/Div control is set, as shown in Fig. 26-4. The sweep generator produces a lin-
the vertical attenuator—a variable voltage divider—reduces ear time-based deflection voltage. The resulting time-based
the input signal voltage to the desired signal level for the signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied
to the CRT’s horizontal deflection plates. This makes it pos-
sible for the oscilloscope to graph a time-varying voltage.
The sweep generator may be triggered from sources other
than the vertical amplifier. External trigger input signals or
internal 60-Hz (line) sources may be selected.
The display system includes the controls and circuits
necessary to view the CRT signal with optimum clarity and
y (voltage)

position. Typical controls include intensity, focus, and trace

rotation along with positioning controls.
z (intensity)

Dual-Trace Oscilloscopes
Most oscilloscopes have the ability to measure two input sig-
nals at the same time. These dual-trace oscilloscopes have
two separate vertical amplifiers and an electronic switch-
x (time)
ing circuit. It is then possible to observe two time-related
Figure 26-2 The x, y, and z components of a displayed waveforms simultaneously at different points in an electric
waveform. circuit.

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 Figure 26-4 Triggering produces a stable display because the same trigger point starts the sweep
each time. The SLOPE and LEVEL controls define the trigger points on the trigger signal. The waveform on
the screen is all those sweeps overlaid in what appears to be a single picture.

Operating Controls of a Triggered Oscilloscope

The type, location, and function of the front panel controls of an 100
analog oscilloscope differ from manufacturer to manufacturer 90
and from model to model. The descriptions that follow apply to
Rise time
the broadest range of general-use analog scope models. marks

Intensity This control sets the level of brightness or inten-

sity of the light trace on the CRT. Rotation in a clockwise
(CW) direction increases the brightness. Too high an inten- 10
0%
sity can damage the phosphorous coating on the inside of the
CRT screen.
Focus This control is adjusted in conjunction with the inten-
sity control to give the sharpest trace on the screen. There is
Minor Major
interaction between these two controls, so adjustment of one division
division marks
may require readjustment of the other. (Subdivision)

Astigmatism This is another beam-focusing control found Figure 26-5 An oscilloscope graticule.
on older oscilloscopes that operates in conjunction with the
focus control for the sharpest trace. The astigmatism control
is sometimes a screwdriver adjustment rather than a manual
frequently a click-stop control that provides step adjustment
control.
of vertical sensitivity. A separate Volts/Div control is avail-
Horizontal and Vertical Positioning or Centering These able for each channel of a dual-trace scope. Some scopes
are trace-positioning controls. They are adjusted so that the mark this control Volts/cm.
trace is positioned or centered both vertically and horizon-
Variable In some scopes this is a concentric control in the
tally on the screen. In front of the CRT screen is a faceplate
center of the Volts/Div control. In other scopes this is a
called the graticule, on which is etched a grid of horizon-
separately located control. In either case, the functions are
tal and vertical lines. Calibration markings are sometimes
similar. The variable control works with the Volts/Div con-
placed on the center vertical and horizontal lines on this
trol to provide a more sensitive control of the vertical height
faceplate. This is shown in Fig. 26-5.
of the waveform on the screen. The variable control also
Volts/Div This control attenuates the vertical input sig- has a calibrated position (CAL) either at the extreme coun-
nal waveform that is to be viewed on the screen. This is terclockwise or clockwise position. In the CAL position

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 the Volts/Div control is calibrated at some set value—for the time it takes the trace to move horizontally across one
example, 5  mV/div, 10 mV/div, or 2 V/div. This allows the division of the screen graticule is known. Dual-trace scopes
scope to be used for peak-to-peak voltage measurements of generally have one Time/Div control. Some scopes mark
the vertical input signal. Dual-trace scopes have a separate this control Time/cm.
variable control for each channel.
X-Y Switch When this switch is engaged, one channel of
Input Coupling AC-GND-DC Switches This three-position the dual-trace scope becomes the horizontal, or x, input,
switch selects the method of coupling the input signal into while the other channel becomes the vertical, or y, input.
the vertical system. In this condition the trigger source is disabled. On some
scopes, this setting occurs when the Time/Div control is
AC—The input signal is capacitively coupled to the fully counterclockwise.
vertical amplifier. The dc component of the input
signal is blocked. Triggering Controls The typical dual-trace scope has a
GND—The vertical amplifier’s input is grounded to number of controls associated with the selection of the trig-
provide a zero volt (ground) reference point. It does gering source, the method by which it is coupled, the level at
not ground the input signal. which the sweep is triggered, and the selection of the slope
at which triggering takes place:
DC—This direct-coupled input position allows all
signals (ac, dc, or ac-dc combinations) to be applied 1. Level Control. This is a rotary control which deter-
directly to the vertical system’s input. mines the point on the triggering waveform where
the sweep is triggered. When no triggering signal is
Vertical Mode Switches These switches select the mode of present, no trace will appear on the screen. Associ-
operation for the vertical amplifier system. ated with the level control is an Auto switch, which
is often an integral part of the level rotary control or
CH1—Selects only the Channel 1 input signal for display.
may be a separate push button. In the Auto position
CH2—Selects only the Channel 2 input signal for the rotary control is disengaged and automatic trig-
display. gering takes place. In this case a sweep is always gen-
Both—Selects both Channel 1 and Channel 2 input erated, and therefore a trace will appear on the screen
signals for display. When in this position, ALT, CHOP, even in the absence of a triggering signal. When a
or ADD operations are enabled. triggering signal is present, the normal triggering pro-
ALT—Alternatively displays Channel 1 and Channel cess takes over.
2 input signals. Each input is completely traced before 2. Coupling. This control is used to select the man-
the next input is traced. Effectively used at sweep ner in which the triggering is coupled to the signal.
speeds of 0.2 ms per division or faster. The types of coupling and the way they are labeled
CHOP—During the sweep the display switches be- vary from one manufacturer and model to another.
tween Channel 1 and Channel 2 input signals. The For example, ac coupling usually indicates the use of
switching rate is approximately at 500 kHz. This capacitive coupling that blocks dc; line coupling indi-
is useful for viewing two waveforms at slow sweep cates the 50- or 60-Hz line voltage is the trigger. If the
speeds of 0.5 ms per division or slower. oscilloscope was designed for television testing, the
ADD—This mode algebraically sums the Channel 1 coupling control might be marked for triggering by the
and Channel 2 input signals. horizontal or vertical sync pulses.
INVERT—This switch inverts Channel 2 (or Channel 1 3. Source. The trigger signal may be external or internal.
on some scopes) to enable a differential measurement As already noted, the line voltage may also be used as
when in the ADD mode. the triggering signal.
4. Slope. This control determines whether triggering of
Time/Div This is usually two concentric controls that affect the sweep occurs at the positive-going or negative-going
the timing of the horizontal sweep or time-base generator. portion of the triggering signal. The switch itself is usu-
The outer control is a click-stop switch that provides step se- ally labeled positive or negative, or simply 1 or 2.
lection of the sweep rate. The center control provides a more
sensitive adjustment of the sweep rate on a continuous basis. 26.3 Oscilloscope Probes
In its extreme clockwise position, usually marked CAL, the Oscilloscope probes are the test leads used for connecting the
sweep rate is calibrated. Each step of the outer control is vertical input signal to the oscilloscope. There are three types:
therefore equal to an exact time unit per scale division. Thus, a direct lead that is just a shielded cable, the low-capacitance

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  10 9V
Probe
To V
S1  1 Amplifier
Signal  RP  9 M
10 V Probe
R1  9 M Cable shield Plug Input  1 V
Tip
RS  1 M
1V
C1  13 to 17 pF Oscilloscope

Figure 26-6 Circuit for low-capacitance probe (LCP) for

an oscilloscope. Figure 26-7 Voltage division of 1:10 with a
low-capacitance probe.

probe (LCP) with a series-isolating resistor, and a demodu- 3. The waveshape is nonsinusoidal, especially with
lator probe. Figure 26-6 shows a circuit for an LCP for an square waves and sharp pulses.
oscilloscope. The LCP usually has a switch to short out the
Without the LCP, the observed waveform can be distorted.
isolating resistor so that the same probe can be used either as
The reason is that too much capacitance changes the circuit
a direct lead or with low capacitance. (See S1 in Fig. 26-6.)
while it is being tested.
Direct Probe
The 1:10 Voltage Division of the LCP
The direct probe is just a shielded wire without any isolating
Refer to the voltage divider circuit in Fig. 26-7. The 9-MV
resistor. A shielded cable is necessary to prevent any pickup
of RP is a series resistor in the probe. Also, RS of 1 MV is a
of interfering signals, especially with the high resistance at
typical value for the shunt resistance at the vertical terminals
the vertical input terminals of the oscilloscope. The higher
of the oscilloscope. Then RT 5 9 1 1 5 10 MV. The volt-
the resistance, the more voltage that can be developed by
age across RS for the scope equals RSyRT or 1y10 of the input
induction. Any interfering signals in the test lead produce
voltage. For the example in Fig. 26-7 with 10 V at the tip of
distortion of the trace pattern. The main sources of interfer-
the LCP, 1 V is applied to the oscilloscope.
ence are 60-Hz magnetic fields from the power line and stray
Remember, when using the LCP, multiply by 10 for the
RF signals.
actual signal amplitude. As an example, for a trace pattern on
The direct probe as a shielded lead has relatively high ca-
the screen that measures 2.4 V, the actual signal input at the
pacitance. A typical value is 90 pF for 3 ft (0.9 m) of 50-V
probe is 24 V. For this reason, the LCP is generally called
coaxial cable. Also, the vertical input terminals of the oscil-
the “3 10” probe. Check to see whether or not the switch on
loscope have a shunt capacitance of about 40 pF. The total C
the probe is in the direct or LCP position. Even though the
then is 90 1 40 5 130 pF. This much capacitance can have
scope trace is reduced by the factor of 1y10, it is preferable
a big effect on the circuit being tested. For example, it could
to use the LCP for almost all oscilloscope measurements to
detune a resonant circuit. Also, nonsinusoidal waveshapes
minimize distortion of the waveshapes.
are distorted. Therefore, the direct probe can be used only
when the added C has little or no effect. These applications Trimmer Capacitor of the LCP
include voltages for the 60-Hz power line or sine-wave audio Referring back to Fig. 26-6, note that the LCP has an inter-
signals in a circuit with a relatively low resistance of several nal variable capacitor C1 across the isolating resistor R1. The
kilohms or less. The advantage of the direct probe is that it purpose of C1 is to compensate the LCP for high frequencies.
does not divide down the amount of input signal, since there Its time constant with R1 should equal the RC time constant
is no series-isolating resistance. of the circuit at the vertical input terminals of the oscillo-
Low-Capacitance Probe (LCP) scope. When necessary, C1 is adjusted for minimum tilt on a
square-wave signal.
Refer to the diagram in Fig. 26-6. The 9-MV resistor in the
probe isolates the capacitance of the cable and the oscillo- 26.4 Digital Oscilloscopes
scope from the circuit connected to the probe tip. With an
LCP, the input capacitance of the probe is only about 10 pF. Digital oscilloscopes have replaced analog oscilloscopes in
The LCP must be used for oscilloscope measurements when most electronic industries and educational facilities. In addi-
tion to being able to make the traditional voltage, time, and
1. The signal frequency is above audio frequencies. phase measurements, digital scopes can also store a mea-
2. The circuit being tested has R higher than about sured waveform for later viewing. Digital scopes are also
50 kV. much smaller and weigh less than their analog counterparts.

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 Figure 26-8 Four-channel digital oscilloscope.

These two advantages alone have prompted many schools

and industries to make the switch from analog to digital
scopes.
Like any piece of test equipment there is a learning curve
involved before you will be totally comfortable operating a
digital oscilloscope. The biggest challenge facing you will
be familiarizing yourself with the vast number of menus and
submenus in which a digital scope uses to access its features
and functions. But it’s not too bad once you sit down and
start with some simple and straightforward measurements.
It’s always best if you can obtain the operating manual and
educational materials for the digital scope you are learning to
use. Keep these materials nearby so you can refer to them
when you need help in making a measurement. This is not
an uncommon practice, even for very experienced users of
digital oscilloscopes.
Figure 26-9 A mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) that
Figure 26-8 shows a modern TDS-224 (four-channel) dig- can display analog signals and multiple binary signals
ital oscilloscope. You will often see digital scopes referred simultaneously.
to as digital storage oscilloscopes (DSO) because they store (Courtesy Agilent Technologies.)
the digitized analog input signal in memory. Another com-
mon term is mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO). An MSO can
display analog and digital signals simultaneously. The digi- Vertical 8 bits
Input
tal signals are applied to separate inputs. A typical MSO can signal
amplifier
LCD
display 8 or 16 digital signals along with two or four chan- Attenuator ADC Memory DAC
(display)
nels of analog signals. Figure 26-9 shows an MSO with an
analog signal being displayed along with eight channels of
digital signals. Timing &
Trigger
horizontal
circuits
How a Digital Oscilloscope Works sweep

Figure 26-10 shows a simplified block diagram of a DSO.

System
The input signal to be displayed is applied to an attenu- microcontroller
ator that selects the attenuation level based on the am-
plitude of the signal. This attenuator is controlled by the Figure 26-10 Simplified block diagram of a DSO.

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 front panel controls. The correctly sized signal is then ap- HORIZONTAL
plied to the vertical amplifier that boosts the signal level MENU
SEC/DIV
to a range making it compatible with the ADC. The ADC
POSITION
digitizes the signal into a stream of 8-bit binary numbers
proportional to multiple samples of the input signal. The
digital samples are stored in a memory. The stored signals
are then sent to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that 5s 5 ns
recovers the original input signal for the liquid-crystal TDS 224

display (LCD). The timing circuitry controls the digitiz- Figure 26-12
ing process, as well as the storage and retrieval rate of
the data from memory, and provides the horizontal sweep TRIGGER
timing for the display. The trigger circuits ensure a stable SET TO 50%
display. MENU

DSO Controls and Operation FORCE TRIG LEVEL

The controls on a DSO vary from model to model, but the

functions are mostly similar. Here is a brief description of TRIG VIEW
HOLDOFF
the controls of the DSO shown in Fig. 26-8. Just remember
to have for reference the instruction/operation manual for the TDS 224
scope you are using.
Figure 26-13
Vertical Controls (See Fig. 26-11)
Ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 and Cursor 1 and 2 Position Positions the Volts/Div (Ch. 1, Ch. 2, Ch. 3, and Ch. 4) Selects calibrated
waveform vertically. When cursors are turned on and the scale factors also referred to as Volts/Div. settings.
cursor menu is displayed, these knobs position the cursors. Math Menu Displays waveform math operations menu, and
(Note: Cursors are horizontal or vertical lines that can be can also be used to toggle the math waveform on and off.
moved up and down or left and right to make either voltage
or time measurements.) Horizontal Controls (See Fig. 26-12)
Ch. 1, Ch. 2, Ch. 3, and Ch. 4 Menu Displays the channel Position Adjusts the horizontal position of all channels and
input menu selections, and toggles the channel display on math waveforms. The resolution of this control varies with
and off. the time base.
Horizontal Menu Displays the horizontal menu.
Sec/Div Selects the horizontal time/div setting (scale factor).
MATH Trigger Controls (See Fig. 26-13)
MENU
Level and Holdoff This control has a dual purpose. As an
VERTICAL
edge trigger level control, it sets the amplitude level the sig-
nal must cross to cause an acquisition. As a holdoff control,
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
it sets the amount of time before another trigger event can
be accepted. (Note: The term acquisition refers to the pro-
cess of sampling signals from input channels, digitizing the
CURSOR 1 CURSOR 2
CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 samples, processing the results into data points, and assem-
MENU MENU MENU MENU bling the data points into a waveform record. The waveform
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV record is stored in memory.)
Trigger Menu Displays the trigger menu.
Set Level to 50% The trigger level is set to the vertical
midpoint between the peaks of the trigger signal.
5V 2 mV 5V 2 mV 5V 2 mV 5V 2 mV
Force Trigger Starts an acquisition regardless of an ad-
TDS 224
equate trigger signal. This button has no effect if the acquisi-
Figure 26-11 tion is already stopped.

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 SAVE/RCL MEASURE ACQUIRE
HARDCOPY AUTOSET RUN/STOP

UTILITY CURSOR DISPLAY

TDS 224

Figure 26-14

Trigger View Displays the trigger waveform in place of the y axis

channel waveform while the TRIGGER VIEW button is

held down. You can use this to see how the trigger settings
affect the trigger signal, such as trigger coupling.

Menu and Control Buttons (See Fig. 26-14)

Save/Recall Displays the save/recall menu for setups and
waveforms.

x axis
Measure Displays the automated measurements menu.
Acquire Displays the acquisition menu.
Display Displays the display menu.
Cursor Displays the cursor menu. Vertical position controls
adjust cursor position while displaying the cursor menu and
the cursors are turned on. Cursors remain displayed (un-
less turned off) after leaving the cursor menu but are not Figure 26-15 Oscilloscope screen (graticule).
adjustable.
Utility Displays the utility menus. Sec/div 5 0.1 ms/div Volts/div 5 2 V/div

Autoset Automatically sets the scopes controls to produce a

usable display of the input signal.
Hardcopy Starts print operations.
Run/Stop Starts and stops waveform acquisition.

26.5 Voltage and Time Measurements

In general, an oscilloscope is normally used to make two
basic measurements: amplitude and time. After making
these two measurements, other values can be determined.
Figure 26-15 shows the screen of a typical oscilloscope.
As mentioned earlier, the vertical or y axis represents
values of voltage amplitude whereas the horizontal or x axis
represents values of time. The Volts/Div control on the os-
cilloscope determines the amount of voltage needed at the Figure 26-16 Determining VP-P, T, and f from the sine
scope input to deflect the electron beam one division verti- wave displayed on the scope graticule.
cally on the y axis. The Seconds/Div control on the oscillo-
scope determines the time it takes for the scanning electron Refer to the sine wave being displayed on the oscil-
beam to scan one horizontal division. In Fig. 26-15, note loscope graticule in Fig. 26-16. To calculate the peak-to-
that there are eight vertical divisions and ten horizontal peak value of the waveform, simply count the number
divisions. of vertical divisions occupied by the waveform and then

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 multiply this number by the Volts/Div setting. Expressed
Sec/div 5 0.2 ms/div Volts/div 5 0.5 V/div
as a formula,
volts setting (26-1)
VP-P 5 # vertical divisions 3 _______
division
In Fig. 26-16, the sine wave occupies 6 vertical divisions.
Since the volts/div setting equals 2 V/division, the peak-to-
peak calculations are as follows.

2 V 5 12 V
VP-P 5 6 vertical divisions 3 _______ P-P
division
To calculate the period, T, of the waveform, all you do is
count the number of horizontal divisions occupied by one
cycle. Then, simply multiply the number of horizontal divi-
sions by the sec/div setting. Expressed as a formula,
sec setting
T 5 # horizontal divisions 3 _______ (26-2)
division
Figure 26-17 Determining VP-P, T, and f from the sine
In Fig. 26-16, one cycle of the sine wave occupies exactly wave displayed on the scope graticule.
10 horizontal divisions. Since the sec/div setting is set to
0.1 ms/div, the calculations for T are as follows:
0.1 ms 5 1 ms
T 5 10 horizontal divisions 3 ______ EXAMPLE 26-2
div
With the period, T, known, the frequency, f, can be found In Fig. 26-18, determine the pulse time, t p, pulse repetition time, prt,
as follows: and the peak value, Vpk, of the displayed waveform. Also, calculate
the waveform’s % duty cycle and the pulse repetition frequency, prf.
1
f 5 __
T Answer:
1 To find the pulse time, t p, count the number of horizontal divisions
5 _____ occupied by just the pulse. In Fig. 26-18, the pulse occupies ex-
1 ms
actly 4 horizontal divisions. With the Sec/Div control set to 1 ␮s/
5 1 kHz div, the pulse time, t p, is calculated as
1 ␮s
tp 5 4 horizontal divisions 3 ____ 5 4 ␮s
div
EXAMPLE 26-1 The pulse repetition time, prt, is found by counting the number of
horizontal divisions occupied by one cycle of the waveform. Since
In Fig. 26-17, determine the peak-to-peak voltage, the period, T, one cycle occupies 10 horizontal divisions, the pulse repetition
and the frequency, f, of the displayed waveform. time, prt, is calculated as follows:

Answer: 1 ␮s
prt 5 10 horizontal divisions 3 ____ 5 10 ␮s
Careful study of the scope’s graticule reveals that the height of Div
the waveform occupies 3.4 vertical divisions. With the volts/div With t p and prt known, the % duty cycle is calculated as follows:
setting at 0.5 V/div, the peak-to-peak voltage is calculated as
tp
follows: % duty cycle 5 ___
prt 3 100
0.5 V 5 1.7 V
VP-P 5 3.4 vertical divisions 3 _____ 4 ␮s
5 _____ 3 100
P-P
div
To find the period, T, of the displayed waveform, count the number 10 ␮s
of horizontal divisions occupied by just one cycle. By viewing the 5 40%
scope’s graticule, we see that one cycle occupies 5 horizontal di-
visions. Since the Sec/Div control is set to 0.2 ms/div, the period, The pulse repetition frequency, prf, is calculated by taking the
T, is calculated as reciprocal of prt.

0.2 ms 5 1 ms 1
prf 5 ___
T 5 5 horizontal divisions 3 ______ prt
div
To calculate the frequency, f take the reciprocal of the period, T. 1
5 _____
10 ␮s
1 5 _____
f 5 __ 1 5 1 kHz
T 1 ms 5 100 kHz

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 CH 1 CH 2
Sec/div 5 1 ms/div Volts/div 5 5 V/div

100
90

B Measure
tp no.of division
Vpk
time from
A to B
A
0V

prt 10
0 Horizontal
difference

8 divisions
(3608)

Figure 26-19 Oscilloscope phase-shift measurement.

Note: tp 5 the length of time the pulse exists.
prt 5 pulse repetition time (period)
prf 5 pulse repetition frequency
% duty cycle 5 the percentage of prt
for which the pulse exists. 3. Set the Vertical MODE to Both; then select either ALT
tp
% duty cycle 5 X 100 or CHOP, depending on the input frequency.
prt
4. Although not necessary, set both Volts/Div and both
Figure 26-18 Determining Vpk, tp, prt, prf, and % duty Variable controls so that both traces are approximately
cycle from the rectangular wave displayed on the scope the same height.
graticule.
5. Adjust the TRIGGER LEVEL to obtain a stable dis-
play. Typically set so that the beginning of the refer-
ence trace begins at approximately zero volts.
The peak value of the waveform is based on the fact that the 6. Set the Time/Div switch to display about one full cycle
baseline value of the waveform is 0 V as shown. The positive of the reference waveform.
peak of the waveform is shown to be three vertical divisions
above zero. Since the volts/div setting of the scope is 5 V/div, the 7. Use the Position controls, Time/Div switch, and Vari-
peak value of the waveform is able time control so that the reference signal occupies
exactly 8 horizontal divisions. The entire cycle of this
5 V 5 15 V
Vpk 5 3 vertical divisions 3 ____ waveform represents 360°, and each division of the
div
graticule now represents 45° of the cycle.
Notice that the waveform shown in Fig. 26-18 is entirely positive
8. Measure the horizontal difference between corre-
because the waveform’s pulse makes a positive excursion from
the zero-volt reference. sponding points of each waveform on the horizontal
graticule line as shown in Fig. 26-19.
9. Calculate the phase shift by using the formula:
Phase Shift 5 (no. of horizontal difference divisions)
3 (no. of degrees per division)
Phase Measurement
Phase measurements can be made with a dual-trace oscillo- As an example, Fig. 26-19 displays a difference of 0.6 divi-
scope when the signals are of the same frequency. To make sion at 458 per division. The phase shift 5 (0.6 div) 3
this measurement, the following procedure can be used: (458/div) 5 278.

1. Preset the scope’s controls and obtain a baseline trace Oscilloscope Specifications
(the same for both channels). Set the Trigger Source While an oscilloscope is a versatile instrument capable of
to whichever input is chosen to be the reference input. being used for many electronic measurements, you must be
Channel 1 is often used as the reference, but Channel sure the scope specifications match the type of measure-
2 as well as External Trigger or Line could be used. ments you need to make. Specifically, you must take into
2. Set both Vertical Input Coupling switches to the same consideration the frequency and time characteristics of the
position, depending on the type of input. signals being measured to be sure the scope can display and

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 measure them accurately. Following are main specifications the memory is full, a new samples replace the previ-
to be considered. ous ones. This process is continuous. The more samples
stored, the better the display, and the refresh rate on the
Bandwidth Bandwidth refers to the frequency range of the
screen can be increased. The Agilent scope in Fig. 26-1b
signals to be displayed. For example, the digital scope in Fig.
has a basic memory size of 100 kilobytes (kB) or 100
26-1b has a basic bandwidth of 70 MHz. That means it can
kilopoints (kpts). (A byte is 8 bits.) Some DSOs can have
display signals with frequencies up to 70 MHz. This number
their memory size increased to many megasamples or
is the upper cutoff (3 dB down) frequency of the vertical am-
megapoints (Mpts). The screen refresh rate is 50 kpts
plifier. Scopes with greater bandwidth are also available. For
per second.
the scope in Fig. 26-1b, models with bandwidths of 100 and
200 MHz are available. Other scope models can be obtained Input Voltage Range The measurement resolution states
with bandwidths of 1 GHz and above. the range of signal amplitudes that can be displayed. An ex-
The bandwidth also defines the limit on how fast a pulse ample is a range from 1 mV per division to 5 V per division.
waveform displays. The bandwidth essentially sets the fast- Smaller signals (,1 mV) need to be preamplified before dis-
est rise and fall times of pulses to be displayed. The mini- play, and large signals (.50 V) need to be attenuated before
mum rise time (tf) that can be displayed is computed with the display.
expression
0.35 Options When selecting a scope, take a look at the vari-
tf 5 ____ (26-3) ous options. For example, the Agilent scope of Fig. 26-1b
BW
where tf is the shortest rise time possible in microseconds has the option of a 20-MHz function generator and/or digital
and BW is the scope bandwidth in MHz. voltmeter (DVM) built in. Other options are greater sample
The 70-MHz bandwidth will let you display rise times as memory size and software options for specific measure-
short as ments. The mixed signal option is to add the digital signal
measurement capability to the scope.
tf 5 0.35y70 5 0.005 ␮s or 5 ns
Remember that to display digital pulses, the scope amplifier 26.6 Function Generators
must be able to pass the harmonics and the fundamental A function generator is a signal generator. The term func-
frequency of the signal. The greater the number of harmon- tion refers to the mathematical expression for the signal it
ics passed, the greater the fidelity of the displayed signal. is generating, such as a sine wave. Most function genera-
As a general rule of thumb, the scope must pass up to at tors generate sine waves, rectangular/square waves, and tri-
least the fifth harmonic for a reasonable representation angular waves. The function generator is usable in a wide
of the signal. For instance, if the basic pulse frequency is range of testing applications and can cover a wide frequency
26 MHz, then the scope needs to display up to the fifth har- range continuously from a fraction of a Hz to 10 MHz or
monic, or 5 3 26 5 130 MHz. Consequently, the scope even higher. The signal amplitude is also variable from a few
bandwidth should be greater than 130 MHz. The 70-MHz millivolts to many volts.
bandwidth scope can faithfully display pulses up to a rate Most of the newer generators are usually referred to
of 70y5 5 14 MHz. as arbitrary waveform generators (AWG). Because of the
Sample Rate The speed with which the ADC samples unique way that function generators produce their signals
or digitizes the input signal is the sample rate. An ADC digitally, it is possible to program the generator yourself
takes a measurement at a specific time and rate and con- to produce waves of almost any shape, either analog or
verts that measurement into a binary number. The result is digital or pulse. Most modern generators also provide
a stepped approximation of the analog input. The greater amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation
the number of samples taken per second, the more faithful (FM) of a sine-wave carrier for testing radio and wireless
the digital reproduction. As a general rule, a signal should circuits.
be sampled at least 10 times or more than the frequency Figure 26-20 shows the basic idea behind the operation
of the signal. An 8-MHz signal then needs to be sampled of a function generator. A digital version of a sine wave is
at least 10 3 8 MHz, or 80 samples per second (S/s). The stored in memory. It consists of a sequence of binary num-
Agilent scope shown in Fig. 26-1b has a minimum sample bers that are precise values of sine-wave amplitude samples
rate of 1 GS/s. spaced at close intervals. These digital values are fed to a
DAC that converts them into the actual analog values of
Memory Size of Depth The memory size of depth is the the binary numbers. A high-speed clock circuit steps the
actual number of samples the memory can hold. Once memory and the DAC. The rate of feeding the samples to

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 Low-pass Most function generators are easy to use once you be-
filter
come familiar with them. This takes some practice and ex-
Waveform
DAC Output perience. Because of the ease of use, it is best to go ahead
memory
and start using the generator. You should also have the in-
struction manual available for reference. The procedure is to
Stepped approximation
connect the generator output to an oscilloscope. Then select
Timing and
control circuits
of output a waveform type, set the frequency and output amplitude,
and make the measurements on an oscilloscope. Repeat this
Figure 26-20 The concept of a modern function with a square wave and any other signal of interest, just to
generator. get the feel of the instrument.
Some special features to try out are the swept frequency
output and the AM and FM modulations to see what they
the DAC determines the actual frequency of the output sine look like. The sweep frequency essentially linearly in-
wave. The DAC output is a stepped approximation of the creases the output frequency continuously over time.
desired sine wave. A low-pass filter is then used to smooth This is useful for testing filters and plotting their output
out the steps into a continuous sine wave. response. The AM and FM functions may have provi-
The function generator has stored digital patterns for sion for different modulating signals, such as another sine
sine, square, and triangular waves as well as AM and FM wave. Using binary pulses for modulation will allow you
signals. However, an arbitrary wave generator has extra to create amplitude shift keying (ASK) and frequency shift
room in memory that you can use to store any special waves keying (FSK), both of which are widely used in wireless
you want to create for test purposes. Some generators have equipment.
auxiliary software that lets you program a desired custom
waveform. 26.7 Virtual Instruments
Function generators come in a wide range of sizes and Virtual instruments (VIs) are digital instruments imple-
shapes. Most have the appearance of the unit shown in mented on a personal computer, either a desktop or laptop.
Fig. 26-21. A large knob on the right adjusts frequency. A Digital instruments are capable of measuring and generating
keyboard lets you enter a desired frequency directly. Push both analog and digital signals. The most common virtual
buttons select the type of waveform and adjust output signal instruments are the digital multimeter, oscilloscope, and
amplitude. This generator also has a small LCD display that function generator.
shows the shape, frequency, and amplitude of the signal se- Virtual instruments work like the previously described
lected for the output. Lower-cost generators do not have this digital scope and function generator. For the DMM, the
screen, so you will need to observe the generator output on voltage to be measured is connected to an ADC to produce
an oscilloscope. The generator output is on the lower right. a digital version. The binary representation of the input is
It uses a BNC connector and has a 50-V output impedance. stored in memory and then analyzed by software. The soft-
A coaxial cable connects the output signal to the circuit or ware is stored on the host PC. The software also implements
equipment being tested. an output screen on the PC video monitor that will show
the numerical value of the input signal. With virtual instru-
ments, the computer screen is used for simulating the front
panel of a real instrument.
A virtual oscilloscope works the same way. The sig-
nal to be measured is digitized by the ADC, and a binary
version is stored in memory. The values are measured
and analyzed by the software. Then the binary values
representing the signal are sent to a DAC to re-create the
input analog signal. It is then sent to the PC where the
waveform is displayed on a graticule as it would be on an
oscilloscope.
A function generator works like the one described earlier.
Sine waves and other signals are stored in the PC software
and then fed to DAC that reproduces the desired output. The
Figure 26-21 A modern arbitrary waveform generator. whole idea of virtual instruments is to let the PC and its spe-
(Courtesy Agilent Technologies.) cial software create the instrument front panel, displays, and

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 controls. VIs also use the power of the PC and the software
to analyze and measure the signal captured by the ADC. You
operate the VI with mouse and keyboard and see the results
on the PC screen.
Virtual instruments have not replaced standard benchtop
instruments, but they have become popular because they
are smaller and less expensive than traditional instruments.
Many laboratories already have computers, so it is a low-cost
option to add a VI, creating a complete working laboratory
for electronic testing and experimentation. The cost of some
units has dropped so low that it allows students, professors,
engineers, or technicians to afford a testing lab if they al-
ready own a PC, as most do. Two good examples of low-cost Figure 26-23 The Digilent Discovery is a complete set
of virtual instruments that works with a host computer.
VIs are National Instruments (NI) myDAQ and the Digilent
(Courtesy Digilent Inc.)
Discovery.
Figure 26-22 shows the myDAQ made NI. It contains all
the circuitry for implementing a digital multimeter (DMM), The specifications for the myDAQ are as follows:
an oscilloscope, a function generator, and multiple dc power DMM: Standard dc and ac voltage measurements up
supplies. The whole unit is housed in a 3.5- by 5.8-in. pack- to 60 Vdc and 20-V rms maximum, dc and ac current
age. It attaches to the PC or laptop with a standard USB 2.0 to 1 A, and resistance. A diode test mode is provided.
cable. The software implements the instruments. As you can
Power Supplies: 15 Vdc, 100 mA max, 615 V, 32 mA
see in the figure, the DMM inputs are on the front of the unit
max.
and use standard banana jacks and test leads. Other connec-
tions to the power supplies, scope, function generator, and Analog Inputs (oscilloscope): 400-kHz bandwidth,
multiple digital inputs and outputs are made with screw ter- 610 V max, sample rate 200 kHz max.
minals on the right side of the unit. The PC uses NI’s popular Analog Outputs (function generator): 200-kHz sample
LabVIEW software for taking measurements and displaying rate maximum, 610 V max.
the controls on screen. The unit is designed to be used with a Digital I/O: 8 lines of either input or output, 15-V or
standard breadboarding socket where you can build circuits 3.3-V logic levels.
for testing and experimenting. Analog I/O: 3.5-mm stereo audio jack, 62 V max.
A similar VI unit is the Digilent Discovery, shown in
Fig. 26-23. It houses essentially the same components as the
myDAQ except the DMM. It uses software called Waveforms
to implement the virtual instruments on a PC. Its specifica-
tions are as follows:
Power Supplies: 64.5–5 V with 50 mA max.
Oscilloscope: 2 channels with 5-MHz bandwidth and
50 megasamples/s, 620 V max.
Function Generator: 2-outputs, up to 5 MHz,
64 V max; AM, FM, and sweep.
Digital I/O: Up to 16 input or output channels to be
user configurable.
External wires from the unit connect to plug-in pins on
the accompanying breadboarding socket.
There are numerous other similar virtual instrument
products on the market. Their specifications do not match
Figure 26-22 The National Instruments myDAQ is a standard benchtop instruments, but they are very capable and
complete DMM, scope, function generator, and power supply affordable. They can easily replace college and university
designed to be used with a personal computer. lab equipment for basic courses and are great for students,
(Courtesy National Instruments.) hobbyists, experimenters, and do-it-yourselfers (DIYs).

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 R1 5 30 V R3 5 30 V
26.8 AC Testing and Troubleshooting Input
Output
Examples
Here are two examples of how to test and troubleshoot typical
50 V
passive electronic circuits. One is an attenuator circuit, and R2 5 RL 5
27 V 50 V
the other is a low-pass filter. Standard test equipment is used.

T-Pad Attenuator
An attenuator is a circuit designed to introduce a specific Generator
amount of loss in a circuit. These are used in audio, video,
and RF wireless testing. There are two common attenuator Figure 26-25 A 12-dB, T-pad attenuator.
types, the T-pad and the π, both shown in Fig. 26-24. These
devices are designed for a specific amount of attenuation in
decibels for a defined load impedance. The attenuation is between the input and ground should produce a reading of
power attenuation, rather than voltage attenuation, so the ap- 57 V (30 1 27). That should be the same value between the
propriate formula is output and ground. If you get these readings, the attenuator
P is good.
dB 5 10 log ___o (26-4) If you do not get these readings, then either a resistor is
Pi
defective or the connections are open or shorted. For exam-
where Po and Pi are the power output and power input,
ple if R1 is open, you will read an open (infinite R) between
respectively.
input and output and between input and ground. Similar
Figure 26-25 shows a T-pad for a 50-V load impedance
readings will occur if R3 is open. If R2 is open, you will read
and a 12-dB attenuation. The attenuator and its load look
60 V from input to output but have an open reading from
like a 50-V resistance to the generator with its 50-V output
input or output to ground. Verify all these possibilities for
impedance. This means that the load and source are matched
yourself by tracing through the schematic diagram.
for maximum power transfer. Assume that the attenuator
As a final test of the attenuator, apply a signal of a
was used and found to be defective. Your job is to test it and
known value, measure the output, and compute the actual
find the problem. Following are two possible approaches you
attenuation.
can try.
Assume that you connect a function generator to the at-
The quickest method is simply to test the attenuator with
tenuator. Its output impedance is 50 V. You set the sine-wave
an ohmmeter. If you measure between the input and output
voltage at the attenuator input to 2 V (rms). Measure this
connections (with the load disconnected), you should mea-
with an oscilloscope. Be sure to use a frequency that is near
sure the sum of R1 and R3, or 60 V. A resistance measurement
the standard operating conditions of the attenuator.
The power input to the attenuator is
R1 R3
V 2 5 ___
P 5 ___ 22 5 ___
4 5 0.08 W or 80 mW
R 50 50
With 12 dB of attenuation you can calculate the expected
R2 RL
output power from Formula (26-4),
P
dB 5 10 log ___o
Pi
(a)
Be sure to use a negative sign on the attenuation value. Then
rearranging the formula to solve for the output power:

R2 ___ Po
dB 5 log21 ___
10 Pi
Po
212 5 21.2 5 log21 ___
____
10 80
R1 R3 RL
P
1021.2 5 ___o
80
P
0.063 5 ___o
(b) 80

Figure 26-24 Attenuator types. (a) T-pad. (b) ␲. po 5 0.063 3 80 5 5 mW

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 Since we are measuring output with an oscilloscope, we metal can, and generally the internal components cannot
need to find the voltage across 50 V that produces 5 mW. be accessed or repaired.
V2 The transformer typically steps the line voltage down
P 5 ___ to some lower level, such as 16 V. In this circuit assume a
R
___ __________ ____
V 5 Ï PR 5 Ï 0.005 3 50 5 Ï 0.25 5 0.5 V total secondary voltage of 16 V rms. The center tap splits
that into two 8-V windings, one for each of the rectifier
This should be the rms value of voltage, not the peak-to-peak diodes.
value. The diodes perform rectification, which is the conversion
If you get near this value, the attenuator is working properly. of ac into pulsating dc. Figure 26-27 shows the process. The
top waveform shows the ac voltage across one half of T1. It is
Power Supply 8 V rms, or 8 3 1.414 5 11.3 V peak.
One of the most common electronic circuits is a power The waveform at Fig. 26-27b shows the output of the rec-
supply. Practically all electronic devices have one, and it is tifiers but without filter C3. The diodes produce half-sine
often the point of failure. Power supplies convert the stan- pulses for each half of the input sine wave. The peak voltage
dard 120-Vac, 60-Hz power-line voltage to one or more fixed is 110.5 V because the voltage drop across each diode sub-
dc voltages that power the electronic circuits. A power sup- tracts about 0.7 V.
ply is an excellent example to use in troubleshooting. While The purpose of C3 is to filter or smooth the pulses into
power supplies will be covered in detail in a later chapter, a constant dc average voltage. Thus C3 charges to the peak
there is no reason you cannot learn how they work and how value of the dc pulses, or 10.5 volts. When the pulses go to
to troubleshoot one in this chapter to illustrate troubleshoot- zero, the capacitor discharges into the load and so loses some
ing procedures. of its charge. If C3 is large enough, the discharge is small.
A basic ac to dc power supply is shown in Fig. 26-26. Still, what you see across C3 is a small ac voltage called
The input is the 120 Vac from the wall outlet. It then en- ripple. It occurs at twice the line frequency, or 120 Hz. The
counters an on-off switch SW1 and a protective fuse F1. ripple is actually riding on top of the average dc output. It
If the switch is on and the fuse is good, 120 V is applied should only be several millivolts peak to peak. Making C3
through the line filter to the primary of the power trans- larger will make the ripple smaller.
former T1. The line filter is a low-pass filter that keeps The filtered dc with ripple is applied to the integrated
high-frequency noise out of the power supply and keeps circuit (IC) regulator. This is a complex electronic circuit
the pulses and ripple voltage from the rectifiers out of the in a three-lead package that maintains the output voltage
power line. This filter is usually a single unit sealed in a at a desired level. Any variation in load or input voltage is

C (120 V)

Line filter E (8 Vac) D

A SW1 B D Rectifier
1
F1
(120 V) (120 V) (120 V) T1

C1 C2 F
(+10.5 V with ripple ) G (+5 V)

IC
E regulator
D
(8 Vac) 2
Filter
C3 Load
R1

LED
D3

Figure 26-26 Troubleshooting a power supply.

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 111.3 V

(a) 0

211.3 V

110.5 V

(b)
0

120-Hz
ripple

Average dc
110.5 V
output
(c)

Figure 26-27 The rectification and filtering process showing the ripple voltage.
(a) Voltage across half of T1 secondary. (b) Rectifier output without filter C3. (c) DC
output with ripple.

automatically compensated for. It also reduces the size of the If all is well up to this point, T1 will be getting the 120 V.
ripple. The desired output is 15 V. The voltage at points E should be 8 V rms. Be sure to check
Now assume that the power supply fails. This is usually both sides of the secondary winding at points E with re-
noted by the absence of the 15 V at the output. Trouble- spect to ground. You can verify this with the oscilloscope
shooting will quickly find the problem. Both a DMM and as well.
oscilloscope are useful in finding the problem. The basic If secondary voltage is present, look at point F. You
process is signal tracing from input to output or vice versa. should measure about 10.5 Vdc. If you are using an oscil-
Refer back to Fig. 26-26. To begin, turn the power supply loscope, you will see some 120-Hz ripple, which should
on. If the LED does not light, then there is no dc at point F. only be a few millivolts. LED D3 should be on at this time.
Start by making sure you have ac at the input. Is the power If you see the full rectified pulses, then C3 is defective. It
supply plugged in, and is the ac output getting power? Did a is open. Replace C3. Also, C3 is almost always an electro-
breaker blow? Check the voltage at point A with respect to lytic, so be sure to observe the polarity connections if you
ground with a DMM or the oscilloscope. If voltage is pres- replace it.
ent, go to point B. (Voltages at the lettered points are made Other problems may be open or shorted diodes. An open
with respect to ground.) If the switch is good, you will get diode will not produce the dc pulses. A shorted diode will
120 Vac at point B. If not, check the switch for continuity put ac on C3. Since it is usually an electrolytic and polarity-
with an ohmmeter (with the power off). If the switch is good, sensitive, it will be destroyed.
measure the voltage at point C. You will get 120 V here if Next, look at the output. It should be 15 V. If not, the IC
the fuse is okay. If not, check the fuse. Take it out if you is bad. It cannot be repaired. Replace it.
can, and check it for continuity with an ohmmeter. Replace The opposite approach is to start at the output and work
if necessary. backward. You should see 15 V at the output. If not check
Next, check for voltage at point D. Again you should mea- for the output at point F. It should be 110.5 V. If not, keep
sure 120 V. If not, the filter is bad. Perhaps one of the induc- working your way back toward the input looking for the
tors is open or a capacitor shorted. Take it out, and check place where you do not see a desired voltage. That is the
with an ohmmeter to see if the inductors are good. Replace point of failure.
the filter if bad.

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 CHAPTER 26 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. An oscilloscope displays signals in the c. one signal at a time.

a. time domain. d. analog and digital signals simultaneously.
b. frequency domain. 10. An oscilloscope can measure a dc voltage.
2. The horizontal display in a scope is a. True.
a. frequency. b. False.
b. voltage. 11. Which of the following is not a common function
c. time. generator output wave?
d. current. a. Sine.
3. Most scopes in use today are b. Triangle.
a. analog. c. Trapezoid.
b. digital. d. Square.
c. equally analog and digital. 12. The waveforms produced by a function generator
d. mixed signal. come from a(n)
4. The display on an analog scope is a(n) a. DAC fed by a digital memory.
a. LCD panel. b. oscillator.
b. LED. c. phase-locked loop.
c. fluorescent. d. amplifier.
d. cathode-ray tube. 13. Which of the following in not usually adjustable on a
5. The display on a digital scope is a(n) function generator?
a. LCD panel. a. Amplitude.
b. LED. b. Phase.
c. fluorescent. c. Frequency.
d. cathode-ray tube. d. Sweep frequency.
6. The vertical controls on a scope control the signal 14. A virtual instrument
a. frequency. a. is an imaginary piece of equipment.
b. amplitude. b. a common benchtop instrument.
c. timing. c. has not front panel.
d. triggering. d. uses an ADC and software on a PC.
7. The horizontal controls on a scope control the 15. Which of the following is typically not part of a
a. amplitude. virtual instrument?
b. frequency. a. Oscilloscope.
c. sweep rate. b. Digital multimeter.
d. triggering. c. Spectrum analyzer.
8. The main purpose of the scope trigger is to d. Function generator.
a. measure amplitude accurately. 16. The most common approach to troubleshooting
b. create a stable display. involves
c. measure period accurately. a. signal tracing.
d. selectively display parts of a signal. b. dc measurement only.
9. A MSO displays c. ac measurement only.
a. only analog signals. d. scientific and logical guessing.
b. only digital signals.

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 CHAPTER 26 PROBLEMS

SECTION 26.5 Voltage and Time Measurements 26.3 In Fig. 26-30, what is the width of the positive pulse
width and the period? Calculate the duty cycle.
26.1 In Fig. 26-28, what is the peak-to-peak voltage of
the waveform and its period and frequency?
y axis

tp

0V

prt
x axis

Figure 26-30 Vertical: 1 V/div; horizontal: 10 ns/div.

26.4 Determine the rise time of the pulse in Fig. 26-31.

Figure 26-28 Vertical: 0.5 V/div; horizontal: 5 ␮s/div.
y axis

26.2 What is the rms value of the sine wave shown in

Fig. 26-29? Its frequency?
x axis

Figure 26-31 Vertical: 2 V/div; horizontal: 5 ns/div.

Figure 26-29 Vertical: 2 mV/div; horizontal: 2 ms/div.

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 26.5 What is the amount of phase shift between the two One of the speakers is not working. See Fig. 26-33.
sine waves in Fig. 26-32? Explain how you would troubleshoot this problem
and what test instruments you would use.
Stereo
amplifier
Speakers
20 ft

CD
player
Cable

Figure 26-33 Circuit for Prob. 26-9.

26.10 A music PA system consists of a microphone, mixer

preamplifier, a power amplifier, and several speak-
Figure 26-32 Vertical: 200 mV/div; horizontal: 2 ␮s/div. ers. Refer to Fig. 26-34. The system is not working.
26.6 An oscilloscope has a vertical bandwidth of Explain how you would troubleshoot it and what
50 MHz. What is minimum pulse rise time that test instruments you would use.
can be displayed? Microphone Amplifier Speaker
26.7 If you wish to display a pulse rise time of 3 ns, what Preamp
is the minimum bandwidth of the vertical amplifier? mixer

26.8 If you wish to display at least the fifth harmonic

of an 12-MHz square wave, what is the minimum Cables & connectors
bandwidth required?
Figure 26-34 Circuit for Prob. 26-10.
SECTION 26.8 AC Testing and Troubleshooting
Examples
26.9 A stereo system consists of a CD player and ampli-
fier. The amplifier drives two speakers connected to
the amplifier with speaker cables of about 20 ft long.

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 Ch a pt er 27
A Systems Overview
of Electronics

Learning Outcomes Before you begin your study of the electronic compo-
nents and circuits in the coming chapters, it is helpful
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: for you to know something about the circuits them-
Define electronic systems. selves first and how they are put together to form
State the hierarchy of electronic systems. a piece of equipment or a system. With this context,
Name the most common types of linear circuits you will better understand the circuit applications. Since
and state their key specifications. most circuits are in integrated circuit form, this overview
Name the most common types of digital circuits will have more meaning when it comes to understand-
and state their key specifications. ing how circuits are used.
Identify linear and digital circuits in a system
block diagram and follow signal flow.

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 Video
27.1 Introduction to Systems camera
A system is any collection of components or devices that Microphone

work together to form a complete entity that performs some Motherboard

useful function. Systems can be large or small. A large elec- Keyboard

tronic system example is the Federal Aviation Agency’s air CPU

traffic control system with all its many radars, navigational Mouse
I/O
aids, control towers, computers, radio communications, Core Core LCD
and networks. A small system example is an Apple iPod. It 1 2 video monitor

stores digitized music from Apple’s iTunes website in flash Interfaces

Printer
memory. The music can then be heard by converting it into
Memory LAN
analog signals for amplification and then played through
* OS
headphones. A small internal computer called an embedded * Programs Modem
* Data Internet
controller controls the selection of the songs and manages
Speakers
the memory and display. Most electronic products are in the
form of systems. There are small systems or equipment and
large systems that are combined to make a larger system. DC
voltages Hard
to all disk
A Typical System Power circuits drive
supply
This concept is illustrated in Fig. 27-1. Electronic compo-
CD/DVD
nents are combined to make circuits; then circuits are com- drive
bined to make modules, usually on printed circuit boards
(PCBs). In the past, most circuits were made with individual
or discrete components. Today, integrated circuits (ICs) are
more common. Many modules are a combination of ICs and AC line

discrete components. The PCBs are then packaged to make Figure 27-2 A personal computer as a system.
subassemblies that may consist of two or more PCBs. These
are then interconnected to make a piece of electronic equip-
ment. That piece of equipment forms a small system that has A good example of a small system is a personal computer
some useful function. In some cases, the equipment is con- (PC). See Fig. 27-2. A microprocessor known as a central
sidered as a subsystem that may be interconnected to other processing unit (CPU) like an Intel Pentium or AMD Athlon
equipment to form a larger system. For instance, a personal is combined with memory ICs and input/output (I/O) cir-
computer may be part of a larger automated test system. cuits on a printed circuit board called the motherboard. Note
that PCs usually have a dual-core processor, meaning two
CPUs inside one microprocessor chip. The motherboard is
then surrounded by other modules or subsystems. The power
supply contains a printed circuit board with components
that converts the ac line voltage into multiple dc voltages to
Components
power all the other circuits. The disk drives are made up of
the mechanical subassemblies with their motors and other
Circuits
made of circuitry. All these are combined into a single package that
components
may be a desktop or a laptop computer. The computer is
Printed circuit
then connected to an external LCD video display, keyboard,
board (PCB) or module mouse, speakers, printer, modem, and/or local area network
made of multiple circuits
(LAN). The result is a computer system.
Equipment The hierarchy of electronics is the same today as it has
made of one or more always been; however, significant changes have occurred
PCBs, modules, or other
subassemblies over the years to modify it. For example, circuits were
initially made up of individual discrete electronic compo-
System nents like resistors, capacitors, transistors, and transform-
Multiple pieces of equipment,
subassemblies, or ICs ers. Today, most electronic circuits are integrated circuits
where all components are formed on a tiny chip of silicon or
Figure 27-1 Hierarchy of electronic systems. other semiconductor material. These ICs are interconnected

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 to form larger circuits and subassemblies. In some cases, testing until a workable circuit was obtained. Today, the de-
external discrete components like capacitors, inductors, or sign process is largely on the computer with multiple simula-
transistors are used but to a far lesser extent than previously. tions fine-tuning the design instead of multiple iterations of
In fact, the trend is to put more components and circuits prototype builds. While prototypes are still built and tested,
together on a single silicon chip forming a system on a chip these are more typically done by an engineer. As a result,
(SoC). Today, SoCs can have upward of hundreds of millions there is significantly less need for engineering technicians.
and even billions of components on a single chip. While they have not disappeared from industry, this is no
longer a good job objective for most technicians.
How Integrated Circuits Have Changed Today the main work of technicians is to troubleshoot,
Electronics test, measure, and repair, but even that work has changed
The impact of semiconductor technology has been to make drastically. In the past, most faulty electronic equipment was
electronic circuits and equipment ever smaller and lighter repaired by troubleshooting down to the component level.
than before. More usefulness and functionality can be in- That bad resistor or other part was identified and replaced.
corporated at virtually no extra cost. Electronic equipment Today, that is less possible, as defects inside ICs cannot be
is also easier to manufacturer and is lower in cost overall. identified and replacements may not be possible. Of course,
By using modern ICs, electronic equipment is more reliable it is possible to find the bad IC and replace it, and that is
and so does not fail as often or rarely needs repair. One key sometimes done.
factor in making electronic equipment with ICs is that the The main problem is finding the trouble. That usually
equipment cannot easily be tested or repaired. Most circuitry takes time and often very expensive test equipment. The
within an IC is inaccessible, so it cannot be analyzed, tested, cost of that time and equipment is frequently way beyond
or otherwise inspected to determine its functionality. So what it costs to simply discard the defective unit and replace
most electronic equipment is frequently not repaired. It is it completely with a new unit. A new unit is commonly less
simply discarded and replaced. expensive than the time to troubleshoot and repair the old
Integrated circuits have in fact made a major change in unit. This has made electronic products almost throwaway
how electronic circuits and equipment are designed and built. devices in many cases. Only very large and expensive equip-
Electronic circuits are designed by engineers who use com- ment like large-screen HDTV sets, medical equipment (MRI
plex computer software that simulates the circuits and then machines), and military gear is actually repaired. And that
provides the physical layout for the semiconductor manufac- repair is often simply the replacement of a printed circuit
turers. This is called computer-aided design, and the process board, module, or other subassembly, rather than repairing
is referred to as electronic design automation (EDA). the defective one. The economics of repair has drastically
Engineers who design the equipment often do not need to changed how technicians work. Luckily, the high reliabil-
design the circuits they need as these are commonly avail- ity of electronic equipment means fewer repairs and more
able in integrated circuit form. The design process is largely replacements.
one of assembling the various ICs, interconnecting them, and Today, technicians work at the systems level. Technicians
making sure that they perform as required. In a few cases, work with the end equipment and its subassemblies. They
discrete component circuit design is required. High-voltage install, test, troubleshoot, service and maintain, and operate
and high-power circuits typically use discrete components the equipment. They do not design or analyze it or other-
because ICs do not withstand high voltages or power levels wise engage in the work generally done by an engineer. As
and the heat they generate. a result, a technician commonly works at a higher level than
A major part of all design is programming the small before. Rather than dealing with individual components of a
single-chip microcomputer called an embedded control- circuit, the tech more often works with the integrated circuits
ler or microcontroller. This device controls, monitors, and or with PC boards and modules. A good example is servic-
manages virtually every electronic product built today. Pro- ing personal computers. Motherboards are not repaired, but
gramming the device and interfacing to all the other chips memory modules are replaced. A defective power supply is
constitute well over 50% of most electronic design today. replaced and not repaired. That is also true of disk drives.
The tech disconnects and interconnects these subassemblies,
How the Work of Technicians Has Changed
tests them, and replaces them if they fail.
The impact on technicians and their work has been major. The modern tech does not often get involved with compo-
For example, a great deal of electronic design in the past nent level repairs unless it is with equipment that uses them.
has been for an engineer to design the circuit on paper and Some examples where considerable discrete component
give it to a tech to build a breadboard prototype to test. That circuitry is still used are power supplies, power amplifiers,
process typically went through multiple stages of design and and special high-voltage, high-power equipment that is not

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 implemented with ICs. Otherwise, techs do not commonly Satellite “dish”
antenna
need to know circuit details, analysis procedures, or the
design process.
Technicians essentially work at the block diagram and Coaxial Video
cable TV
signal flow level. While schematic diagrams are still used, Amplify down Satellite
receiver,
and convert receiver
these are often only drawings of how integrated circuits and HD screen
Audio
other devices are interconnected. The work at this level in-
volves the inputs and outputs of the ICs and the PC boards
or modules. For this reason, knowledge of circuit details is Remote
less valuable than it once was. With ICs, circuit details are control Speakers

typically just not available. The circuitry inside most inte- Figure 27-4 A satellite TV receiver system.
grated circuits today is designated as intellectual property
(IP) that is protected by patents, copyrights, or simply com-
pany confidential methods. The important information is the Remember that there are two basic types of signals, analog
operation of the IC and its specifications. And how to test and digital. Analog signals like a sine wave vary smoothly
and measure the circuits. and continuously over time. Voice, music, video, and radio
This chapter introduces you to the more common classes signals are examples. Digital signals are pulses or off-on
and types of electronic circuits at the block diagram level. signals. Digital voltages are usually binary in that they have
You will learn about amplifiers, oscillators, filters, digi- two discrete values. These signals represent numbers and
tal circuits, and others that are commonly used in modern codes in the binary system.
equipment. Later chapters will deal with the individual com- The two types of signals require two different types of
ponents and circuits. electronic circuits, linear and digital. Linear circuits process
27.2 How Circuits and Systems Work analog signals. They are called linear because their input-
output response is a straight line or proportional variation.
All electronic circuits and systems work essentially as por- Digital circuits process binary signals. Digital circuits can
trayed in Fig. 27-3. Electronic signals are applied as inputs also be called pulse circuits as they work with off-on pulses
to a circuit or system where they are processed in some way. rather than analog signals. Some circuits actually combine
The signals are converted or transformed in some way or analog and digital functions and can be referred to as hybrid
used to generate new signals. In a circuit or system, some circuits. The various types of circuits in each category are
output is sent back to the processing circuits to enhance or summarized and defined in the sections to follow.
change the process based on the inputs. This signal is called
feedback. The new output signals become the desired end 27.3 Linear, or Analog, Circuits
result. Alternatively, the outputs may become the inputs Linear circuits process analog signals. The most common
to other circuits or equipment. The model in Fig. 27-3 can types are amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, modulators and de-
be used for a single simple circuit or for a more complex modulators, and phase-locked loops (PLLs). Then there are
subassembly of multiple circuits or for a complete piece of categories within each type. Here is how each circuit type
equipment. breaks down.
A systems example is shown in Fig. 27-4. A satellite TV
signal from an antenna is amplified at the antenna and con- Amplifiers
verted to a lower frequency and transmitted on coaxial cable Amplifiers are circuits that have gain. They take a small sig-
to the satellite receiver box. The received video and audio nal at the input and produce a larger signal at the output.
signals are sent to the TV set where multiple circuits process Gain (A) is ratio of the output to the input.
the audio and video signals into the outputs that drive the
large high-definition video display and the speakers. A ⫽ output/input (27-1)
The inputs and outputs may be voltage, current, or power,
with voltage and power being the most common. The re-
Input Process Output
sponse is linear, as shown in Fig. 27-5. This is the plot of an
amplifier with a gain of 20. If the input is 100 mV the output
will be 2000 mV, or 2 V.
Amplifiers are usually categorized as being small-signal
Feedback
or large-signal amplifiers. Small-signal amplifiers typically
Figure 27-3 How electronic circuits and systems work. work with small signals less than about 1 V. Large-signal

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 4 gain. Some amplifiers have a narrow range; others have a
wide range. Most IC amplifiers are generally optimized for

pon r
res plifie
se
3 a particular frequency range. Typical categorizations are the

Output voltage (V)

Am
following:
2
• DC amplifiers: Amplify direct current. They usually
1
have a restricted upper-frequency response.
• Audio amplifiers: Designed for audio signals usually
in the 20-Hz to 20-kHz range. They boost signals lev-
100 200 300 400 els of voice and music.
Input voltage (mV)
• RF amplifiers: Amplify radio-frequency signals,
Output 2V
Gain 5 5 5 20 which could range from a few kHz to many GHz.
Input 0.1 V
Most are optimized for specific ranges.
Figure 27-5 Amplifiers have a linear relationship between
input and output. • Video amplifiers: Optimized for video signals in the
dc to several hundred MHz range.
Vi Vo Pi Po • Microwave amplifiers: Amplify only signals typically
above 1 GHz.
Vo Po
Av 5 Ap 5
Vi Pi Each type could also be a voltage amplifier or a power
(a) (b) amplifier.
Figure 27-6 Schematic symbols for an amplifier. Another categorization for amplifiers has to do with their
(a) Voltage amplifier. (b) Power amplifier. input and output configurations. The two main types are
singled-ended and differential. Single-ended amplifiers have
amplifiers are usually power amplifiers. There are current their input and outputs referenced to a common ground, as
amplifiers, although they are not widely used. shown in Fig. 27-7a. These are often referred to as unbal-
The symbol used to represent an amplifier is a triangle, anced amplifiers.
as shown in Fig. 27-6. The inputs and output are labeled. A differential amplifier has two inputs, as shown in
Note the difference between the voltage and power amplifier Fig. 27-7b. The output is a function of the difference between
expressions for gain (A). the two input signals and the gain (A). For example the out-
put of a differential voltage amplifier is expressed as
Av ⫽ Vo兾Vi (27-2)
Vo ⫽ A(VB ⫺ VA) (27-6)
Ap ⫽ Po兾Pi (27-3)
Each input is referenced to ground, but a single input
Because most amplifiers are in IC form these days, this could be applied between inputs A and B with no ground
triangle is usually all that you will see on a schematic dia- reference. The output is single-ended; however, a differential
gram. Your primary concerns are the levels of input and out- output is also possible. Differential amplifiers have what we
put signals. call balanced inputs and/or outputs.
While gain is often given as the ratio of output to input,
A
it is also common to express gain in decibels (dB). Deci-
bel expression uses logarithms to compress large and small Vi Vo 5 AVi
Input Output
numbers, which makes gain calculations simpler. To calcu-
late the gain in dB, you use the formulas below:
V
Voltage gain in DB ⫽ 20 log __
V
o
(27-4)
i
(a)
Po
Power gain in DB ⫽ 20 log __
Pi
(27-5) A
VA –
Use the standard common (base 10) log functions on your Vo 5 A(VB 2 VA)
calculator. More details will be given on dB calculations in VB +
a later chapter.
(b)
Another way to categorize amplifiers is by frequency
response. Frequency response is, of course, the measure of Figure 27-7 Amplifier configurations. (a) Single-ended
the frequency range over which the amplifier provides its (unbalanced). (b) Differential (balanced).

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 Ri Rf
Vi Vi
1k 10 k
Ci Zo Vo
– Zi

Vo 5 2AVi
+ AVi RL

Rf
A5
Ri
(a) (a)

Vi
Vi Vo

DC gain control input

(b) Vo
AVi
Figure 27-8 Amplifier examples. (a) Op-amp inverter.
(b) Programmable gain amplifier (PGA).
AVi RL

There are many other classifications. For example, a popu-

lar type of amplifier is the op amp, or operational amplifier. It (b)

is a general-purpose dc differential amplifier with a very high Figure 27-9 (a) Input and output impedances of an
gain and wide frequency response. The op amp was origi- amplifier. (b) How one amplifier “loads” another.
nally developed as the main computing element in analog
computers. It can be configured to perform almost any basic the input impedance (Zi). This impedance is mostly resis-
math operation, thus the name. Connecting different resis- tive and can range from a few hundred ohms to many meg-
tors, capacitors, diodes, or other components to the inputs ohms. Generally, the higher the better. Some amplifiers also
and in the feedback path configures the amplifier to perform specify an input shunt capacitance (Ci)
a specific function. Figure 27-8a shows an op amp connected Amplifiers generate an output signal that is an enlarged
as an amplifier with a gain of 10. The resistor values set the version of the smaller input. That signal appears to an external
gain. It also inverts the input 180º, or reverses the polarity, as load as coming from a generator. The generator is illustrated
indicated by the negative sign in the gain expression. as a diamond shape. It generates an output voltage of AVi that
Another category is programmable gain amplifier (PGA). is in series with the output impedance, Z o. The output imped-
See Fig. 27-8b. This amplifier has a special input that can be ance appears in series with the load, RL. You can think of the
used to adjust the gain of the amplifier in increments or, in amplifier as a signal generator with a series internal resistance
some cases, continuously over a given range. Typically the gain called the output impedance. When amplifiers are connected
of the amplifier is adjusted by varying a dc input voltage. to one another or cascaded, the input impedance of one be-
The main amplifier specifications are gain, frequency re- comes the load for the driving amplifier, as Fig. 27-9b shows.
sponse, dc operating voltage range, voltage or power input and The key fact to recognize here is that the input and output im-
output ranges, input impedance, and output impedance. Most pedances form a voltage divider that, in turn, actually reduces
amplifiers are designed to operate with a specific dc power sup- the amount of voltage gain that can be obtained.
ply. Some supply levels are as low as 1.5 V but most are greater, When using power amplifiers, the input and output imped-
usually from 3 to 15 V. Power amplifiers often operate with ances must be matched to provide maximum power transfer
higher voltages, from about 12 V up to about 48 V. It is this dc from one stage to another. For example, for maximum out-
operating voltage that sets the output voltage swing or range. put to a 50-Ω antenna, the output impedance of transmitter
The output generally cannot exceed the dc operating voltage, as power amplifier should be 50 Ω.
you will see later. Input voltage range is also usually specified.
Input and output impedances refer to the fact that all Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers
practical amplifiers have a specific input resistance (Ri) An oscillator is a signal-generating circuit. Oscillators can
to a driving signal and an internal output resistance (Ro). generate either sine waves or rectangular waves like pulses
See  Fig.  27-9. Input resistance is more commonly called or binary square waves. A pulse output oscillator is often

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 Another type of oscillator is the voltage-controlled oscilla-
Sine Pulse
tor (VCO). This type of oscillator can have its frequency var-
ied by a dc input voltage, as Fig. 27-10c shows. For example,
increasing the dc input voltage may increase output frequency.
In many applications, a simple oscillator is replaced by
(a)
a signal source called a frequency synthesizer. A frequency
synthesizer is an oscillator, usually a VCO, that is controlled
Frequency selective by other circuits to provide a precise output frequency in
circuit
Feedback increments. The synthesizer typically receives a digital input
A Output code that causes the synthesizer to be set to a specific fre-
quency. The stability of the synthesizer is determined by a
(b) fixed-frequency crystal oscillator.
Output
One common type of frequency synthesizer is based on
DC a circuit called a phase-locked loop (PLL). This circuit is
frequency VCO shown in Fig. 27-11. The output comes from the VCO whose
control
frequency is controlled by a dc voltage derived from the
phase detector and low-pass filter. The phase detector com-
(c)
pares the VCO output to that of a precise quartz crystal ref-
erence oscillator. If the two are the same, the circuit is said
Figure 27-10 (a) Oscillator schematic symbols. (b) An to be locked to the desired frequency. If there is a frequency
amplifier with positive feedback creates an oscillator. (c) VCO
difference, a phase shift will be detected and the dc output
output frequency is controlled by a dc input.
from the phase detector and low-pass filter will change, forc-
called a clock, since its pulses occur at accurate intervals of ing the VCO back to the desired frequency.
time. Some oscillators can also produce triangular or saw- The frequency divider is a digital circuit that divides an input
tooth output signals. The basic symbols for an oscillator in a frequency by some integer n. Note that n can be changed by
schematic diagram are shown in Fig. 27-10a. an external digital input. By changing the division ratio of the
Many oscillators are actually amplifiers that have positive frequency divider circuit in the feedback path from the VCO to
feedback. If some of the output signal from an amplifier is phase detector, the output frequency can be varied in steps. In
fed back to its input with the correct phase and amplitude, Fig. 27-11, as n is varied in integer steps, the output frequency
the amplifier becomes a self-sustaining signal generator. varies in 1-MHz steps. The PLL is useful not only as a signal
See  Fig. 27-10b. A circuit in the feedback path is used to source but also as a filter, frequency multiplier, or demodulator.
select the frequency of oscillation. That frequency selective Other types of frequency synthesizers are also available.
circuit can be an RC phase shifter, an LC series or parallel
resonant circuit, or a quartz crystal. Power Supply Circuits
Oscillators can have a fixed frequency or can be made vari- A power supply is a set of electronic circuits that supply
able. A variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) lets you tune the power to other circuits or equipment. In portable equipment
oscillator to a desired value for the application. The frequency like a laptop, cell phone, digital camera, or MP3 player, the
variation may be achieved by varying a resistance, a capaci- supply is a battery. However, the most common power sup-
tance, or an inductance. Quartz crystal oscillators are fixed to ply is one that converts standard ac line voltage of 120 V,
a single stable frequency as determined by the crystal. 60 Hz into one or more dc voltages. Some of the circuits
Phase
detector VCO
Low-pass
filter
1 MHz
500
1 MHz
MHz
Frequency
divider
n 5 500 4n
Quartz
crystal

Divide control
input

Figure 27-11 A phase-locked loop (PLL) frequency synthesizer.

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 Regulator Vdc1
120-Vac,
Transformer Rectifier Filter
60-Hz
Power
Regulator Vdc2
line

DC-DC
Vdc3
converter

Figure 27-12 A common ac-to-dc power supply.

that make up a power supply are rectifiers, filters, regulators, Binary numbers make up the base 2 numbering system
dc-dc converters, inverters, and power management circuits. that represents quantities with just two digits or bits, 0 and
Figure 27-12 is a block diagram of a power supply. It is 1. For instance the decimal number 98 in binary is 1100010.
really a subsystem of any piece of equipment. A transformer Binary data represent any decimal quantity, as well as spe-
at the input steps up or steps down the ac input voltage to the cial codes that designate letters and symbols or other infor-
desired level. The rectifier is a circuit made up of diodes that mation. Digital circuits process the binary data. You will
converts ac into pulses of dc. A filter is used to smooth those learn about digital technology in another course if you have
pulses into a more constant, continuous dc voltage. The filter not already done so. But since so much of electronic equip-
is a low-pass filter, usually made up of a single large capaci- ment is digital, the basic digital circuits are described here
tor or an inductor and capacitor. briefly. This basic introduction is necessary since all systems
A regulator is a circuit that takes a varying dc input and use digital methods in some way.
converts it into a steady, constant voltage of a specific value.
Gates
Most ICs require a precise dc operation voltage that does not
vary. Changes in the ac input voltage or load resistance are The most basic circuits for processing digital data are gates
automatically compensated for by the regulator to maintain and flip-flops. Gates are circuits that make decisions based
its design voltage output. on their binary inputs, and their unique operational charac-
A dc-dc converter is a circuit that takes in one value of teristics then generate an appropriate binary output condition.
dc voltage and outputs another dc value. A good analogy of The basic gate functions are the AND, OR, and NOT. The
a dc-dc converter is a transformer. By using different turns symbols for circuits that perform these functions are given in
ratios, a transformer can step up or step down an ac voltage Fig. 27-13. Note beside each gate symbol is a simple “truth”
as desired. The dc-dc converter provides this for dc. table that explains what each gate produces at its output given
An inverter is a dc-to-ac converter. It takes a dc input and the input conditions. The AND gate produces a binary 1 out-
generates an ac output, usually a sine wave. For example, com- put when all its inputs are 1. The OR gate simply produces a 1
mon inverters convert 12 Vdc from a car battery into 120-V, output anytime either or both inputs are 1s. The NOT circuit
60-Hz ac. Inverters are used to provide battery backup for has only one input and is called an inverter, as it takes any
equipment that needs continuous power even in a power fail- input and produces the opposite value. These circuits are the
ure. These devices are called uninterruptible power supplies. basic building blocks of all other digital circuits.
Power management circuits that do just that manage Other variations are the NAND and NOR gates in
power. Some typical functions are battery charging, over- Fig. 27-13. The NAND means NOT AND and is equivalent to
voltage detection and protection, undervoltage detection and inverting the output of an AND gate. The circle or bubble on
protection, temperature measurement, and power sequenc- the gate symbol output means inversion. The NOR is similar,
ing of multiple dc voltages. meaning a NOT OR and is an inverted OR gate. A special gate
called the exclusive OR, or XOR, is also shown. It produces a
1 output only when the inputs are different. The XOR gate is
27.4 Digital Circuits
useful for many functions, such as comparison and addition.
Digital circuits are circuits that operate on binary voltages.
Binary signals are pulses that switch rapidly from one volt- Flip-Flops
age level to another. As an example, some digital circuits A flip-flop (FF) is a binary storage element. A common FF is
switch between 0 V or near ground and ⫹3.3 V. Switch- the latch shown in Fig. 27-14a. It has two inputs—set (S) and
ing speeds are in the nanosecond and picosecond range at reset (R)—and two outputs—Q and Q*, where Q* is Q NOT,
speeds exceeding 1 Gb/s. The binary pulses represent the 0s or the opposite or complement of Q. The FF has two stable
and 1s of the binary number system. states, which we label 0 and 1. If the flip-flop is put into the

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 A B C binary 1 state, it is said to be set and storing a binary 1. If the
0 0 0 FF is put into the 0 state, it is said to be reset and storing a
A
C 0 1 0 binary 0. The FF stores one bit of data as long as the circuit re-
B
1 0 0 ceives power. Multiple FFs can be used to store a multibit bi-
1 1 1 nary number or code. This circuit is called a storage register.
(a)
FFs also have the ability to toggle between the two states.
One such FF is the J-K FF shown in Fig. 27-14b. Each time
D E F
the toggle input, T, switches from 0 to 1 with the input from a
0 0 0
D clock signal, the output, Q, changes state. This characteristic
F 0 1 1
E makes the FF able to count and to perform frequency divi-
1 0 1
sion. Multiple FFs can also be combined to produce a shift
1 1 1
register that can shift bits to the right or to the left.
(b) Gates and FFs are the key building blocks of digital cir-
X Y cuits and can be used to produce any digital function, includ-
X X or X* 5 Y 0 1
ing computing.
1 0
Functional Circuits
(c) Functional circuits are digital circuits made from gates and/
A B C
or FFs. The most common ones are listed below:
0 0 1 • Encoder: Converts one binary input code into another.
A
C 0 1 1
B • Decoder: Made up of AND gates, a decoder recog-
1 0 1
nizes the presence of specific codes at the input.
1 1 0
• Multiplexer: Selects one of multiple inputs to appear
(d) as the single output.
D E F • Demultiplexer: Selects one of multiple outputs to
0 0 1 which the single input is connected.
D
0 1 0 • Adder: Adds and subtracts binary numbers.
E
1 0 0
• Counter: Multiple FFs make up a circuit that counts
1 1 0
up (or down) in the binary number format.
(e) • Storage register: Multiple FFs store a binary number.
X Y Z Multiple FFs can be put together to form storage reg-
0 0 0 isters that can store a multibit number. Eight FFs are
X
Z 0 1 1 used as an 8-bit register.
Y
1 0 1 • Shift register: Multiple FFs store a binary number and
1 1 0 can shift the bits right or left to move the data into or
(f) out of the register.

Figure 27-13 Digital logic gates. (a) AND. (b) OR. (c) NOT. Memory Circuits
(d) NAND. (e) NOR. (f ) XOR. Memory circuits are extremely important to all digital
applications, especially computers. Memory circuits store
Set S Q
multiple binary numbers or words. The simplest memory is
a storage register or multiple storage registers put together
Reset R Qx to store multiple words. The basic storage element is the FF.
(a)
Another common storage element is a capacitor. A capacitor
can be discharged, which represents a binary 0. When it is
J Q charged, the capacitor is storing a binary 1. A type of tran-
Clock T sistor known as a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect
K Qx transistor (MOSFET) can also be made to store a 0 or 1 by
keeping the transistor conducting or nonconducting.
(b)
There are many different types of memory, static, dynamic,
Figure 27-14 Flip-flops. (a) Latch flip-flop. (b) J-K flip-flop. RAM, ROM, and flash. Static memory is made up of many FF

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 Storage cell Microcontroller
for one bit

D Memory
E Stores
C Storage CPU RAM data
O location
for one Performes Stores
Address D the ROM
4-bit the
E number processing instructions
R (math, logic, of the
etc) I/O program
circuits

Provides
interface to external
circuits and equipment Input & Outputs

Interface Figure 27-16 The major components of a microcontroller.

almost any digital function, including even the functions of

Binary words in
or out gates, FFs, or any functional circuit. Microcontrollers are
beyond the scope of this book, but a little background is
Figure 27-15 Basic concept of a RAM.
helpful.
The microcontroller is made up of three main parts:
storage elements organized in such a way to store thousands the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and the input/
or even millions of bits or words. A dynamic memory stores output (I/O) circuits. Refer to Fig. 27-16. The CPU does the
data in capacitors organized again to store millions of bits. actual data processing. The CPU is programmable with a
A RAM is random access memory. This can be either a set of commands or instructions that tell the CPU what to
static or dynamic type that can access any one of millions do. A program is formed when multiple instructions are put
of locations for data by just giving it an address. RAMs together in sequence to do a desired operation. The instruc-
can be used to read or write data. Writing data means stor- tions are represented by codes that are stored in a RAM or
ing data into the memory. Reading data means accessing ROM, more usually a ROM. The instructions make up the
it for use elsewhere. RAM is a volatile memory, meaning program that the CPU executes to perform the desired op-
that if you remove the power from the circuits, all data are eration. The I/O circuits get data into and out of the CPU
lost. Figure 27-15 shows the concept of a RAM. A decoder and memory.
is used to accept a binary input number called the address. You will also hear about microcontrollers called embed-
The address is a unique code that defines one storage lo- ded controllers. And there are other variations, such as a mi-
cation that will be written into or have data accessed and crocontroller unit (MCU) and microcomputer (␮P). A CPU
read out. by itself is called a microprocessor. Some computers are
A ROM is read-only memory. As the name implies, a ROM made up of a microprocessor and separate memory and I/O
has data permanently or semipermanently stored in it. The circuits. Microcontrollers have CPU, memory, and I/O plus
only operation is to read data or access it. Data are retained other circuits on a single silicon wafer.
even if the power is turned off, so ROMs are nonvolatile. The
organization of a ROM is similar to that in Fig. 27-15. Field-Programmable Gate Array
A special type of ROM is the electrically programmable A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is a SoC made up
ROM which we now call flash memory. You can store data of hundreds or thousands of gates, flip-flops, and memory
in it and update or change it like a RAM, but flash memory circuits. These can be interconnected to one another on the
also retains any data even if power is removed. chip by a programming process. As a result, you can use
the FPGA to create almost any digital function, including a
Microcontrollers complete computer. The programming dedicates the FPGA
A microcontroller is a complete computer on a chip. Every to a specific function. Most digital equipment today is im-
electronic product has at least one microcontroller inside. plemented with FPGAs or embedded controllers rather than
This miniature computer can be programmed to perform individual gates and flip-flops.

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 27.5 Interface or Mixed Signal Circuits Digital
DAC
analog
input output
Interface circuits are circuits that can be linear, digital, or
some hybrid or mixed signal combination. These connect one
(a)
circuit or piece of equipment to another. Most involve both
Memory storage
analog and digital functions. The most common interface cir-
cuit is the comparator illustrated in Fig. 27-17. It has two in- 1 0 0 1 1

puts, VA and VB, for analog signals and a single digital output. 2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 1 1
The comparator looks at the two input voltages and develops a
4 1 1 0 0
binary output that says that A is greater than B or B is greater
5 0 1 1 1
than A. The output is zero if the two voltages are equal.
6 0 1 0 1
Another widely used interface circuit is the analog-to- 7 0 1 1 0
digital converter (ADC), shown in Fig. 27-18a. This circuit
looks at an analog input signal and generates a binary output
proportional to the input voltage. Entire analog signals may (b)

be digitized by simply taking multiple sequential samples DAC output

of the varying analog signal and storing the binary words Original
analog signal
representing each sample in a memory, as illustrated in Reconstructed

Voltage
Fig. 27-18b and c, respectively. Each sample is a voltage that analog signal

A
VA – Vo 5 0 if VA . VB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time
VB + Vo 5 1 if VA , VB
(c)

Figure 27-17 A comparator. Figure 27-19 A digital-to-analog converter. (a) Interface

circuit. (b) Data in memory sent to DAC. (c) Reconstructing
the analog signal.
Analog Binary
ADC
input output is converted into a binary number. These samples can then
be used to reconstruct the analog signal.
(a)
The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) presented in
ADC input
Fig. 27-19a takes a binary input and generates a proportional
Analog signal dc or analog output voltage. Given a sequence of previously
stored binary numbers, the DAC reconstruct the analog signal
Voltage sample
Voltage

represented by the binary values. See Fig. 27-19b and c. The

DAC output is a stepped approximation of the original ana-
log signal. Using a large number of samples at high speeds,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a digitized and reconstructed analog signal is very close in
Time appearance to the original.
(b)
27.6 System Examples
Memory storage
Just to be sure you understand the system concept, here are
1 0 0 1 1
a few examples of both linear and digital systems. As you
2 0 1 0 1
will see, you can fully understand how a product or system
3 0 1 1 1
works by tracing the signals through a block diagram. Most
4 1 1 0 0
5 0 1 1 1
circuits are in IC form, so individual circuit operations do
6 0 1 0 1
not need to be known except by their function and, in some
7 0 1 1 0 cases, specifications.

Recording Studio
(c) Figure 27-20 shows a block diagram of an audio recording
Figure 27-18 An analog-to-digital converter. (a) Interface studio for making music CDs, voice podcasts, or other audio
circuit. (b) Voltage sampling. (c) ADC output stored in RAM. materials. The inputs come from multiple sources, including

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 Preamp Switches Mixer
Microphones
L
Equalizer
ADC

R PC

ADC

Hard
disk

Instrument
pickups

Other
instruments
or inputs

DAC

Speakers Power amps

DAC

Playback

Figure 27-20 A generic block diagram of a recording studio.

microphones and electrical pickups from guitars, piano key- stored in digital memory circuits and on a hard disk drive.
boards, and other instruments. Audio signals may also come From there, the digitized music may be manipulated by a
from electronic sources, such as previously recorded mate- computer to create the format for a compact disc (CD), or the
rial on CDs, tape, or computer memory. music may be compressed for use in an MP3 player or iPod.
The microphone and pickup signals are weak, so they must All recording studios also have playback equipment that
first be amplified. These preamplifiers are usually part of a consists of amplifiers and speakers so the recording artists
console containing level (volume) and tone controls called can hear what they record. The stored signals are passed
equalizers. The amplified and frequency-corrected signals are through digital-to-analog converters to re-create the analog
sent to a switching matrix that selects which signals are to be audio, which is then amplified in power amplifiers and sent
included in the final signal. The switch output goes to a mixer to one or more speakers.
where the multiple inputs are combined at the right levels to
create a composite of all voice and musical instrument inputs. Cell Phone
If stereo is being developed, then there are separate left (L) A cell phone is one of the smallest but most complex systems
and right (R) channels for audio that are mixed separately. we use. We take it for granted, but many different electronic
The final audio signals are amplified and sent to the re- circuits are combined to create what has become the most
corder. In the past, music was recorded on discs where a popular consumer electronic product available. It consists
needle cut a varying grove in the surface storing the audio. of a two-way radio, a microcontroller with memory, special
Later, magnetic tape was used to capture and store the music. LCD displays and input keyboards, and a battery power sup-
Today, most recording is digital, by which the analog audio ply. Figure 27-21 shows a simplified block diagram.
signals to be recorded are digitized in analog-to-digital con- The main radio is made up of a receiver (RX) and a trans-
verters and then sent to a personal computer where they are mitter (TX). The PA is the transmitter power amplifier. The

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 Antenna

TX/RX Microphone Speaker

switch

PA
PA

RX TX
ADC DAC

ADC DAC

LCD
Processor
display

Keyboard

GPS
RX

Blue
tooth
AC line

Wi-Fi
WLAN Battery
charger

Battery
NFC

Regulator
DC-DC
conv.

RAM ROM
Voltages
Memory
to all circuits

Figure 27-21 General block diagram of a cell phone.

TX/RX switch lets the transmitter and receiver share the signal is demodulated, then amplified, and applied to the
same antenna. headphone or speaker via a power amplifier.
For phone calls, the microphone accepts the input voice, The microcontroller takes care of dialing, storing num-
which is amplified, then digitized by an ADC, and translated bers, operating the display, operating the touch screen if one
into a binary code. The binary voice modulates the trans- is used, and other functions, including the management of all
mitter via a DAC to generate the radio signal that is then the other circuits in the phone.
transmitted to the nearest cell site or base station. The base The larger, more complex cell phones called smart-
station sends the voice signal to the desired destination via phones, like the Apple iPhone, have additional circuitry,
the cellular company’s network. The voice signal being re- including multiple radios such as Bluetooth for the wireless
ceived from the person being called is also in digital form, headset, an MP3 player, a global positioning system (GPS)
and it comes through the network to the base station, where navigation receiver, and a Wi-Fi wireless local area network
it is transmitted to the cell phone, picked up by the receiver, (LAN) transceiver for connecting to the Internet through
digitized in an ADC, and sent to the processor. The voice hot spots. The near field communication (NFC) section is

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 a small short-range transceiver that lets you use your cell learn about transistors, diodes, and all the basic linear cir-
phone as a credit card. The smartphone is a truly complex cuits and some digital circuits that make up these complex
system in a handheld format. Note the battery, its charger, ICs. Other system examples will be given throughout the
and the multiple regulators and dc-dc converters that power remaining chapters as examples of the different circuits
the circuits. being discussed.
Keep in mind one important thing about these systems.
They are all made up of integrated circuits that contain the DVD Player
individual amplifiers, microcontrollers, and other circuits. Figure 27-22 shows the system diagram of a DVD player.
You generally do not have access to any of these circuits. The DVD contains an invisible spiral of digital data repre-
Very few discrete components are used, and these are senting the video and audio of a movie or other entertain-
mostly capacitors for filtering, quartz crystals for frequency ment. That data are accessed by shining a tiny infrared (IR)
settings, and occasionally a resistor. High-power circuits laser beam on the underside of the spinning disc. The laser
like audio power amplifiers will typically use discrete tran- beam is reflected by the data and picked up by a photo sen-
sistors and related resistors and capacitors. Your personal sor or detector. The sensor output is a series of digital pulses
involvement with all circuits is with the inputs and outputs representing the video and audio. The photo detector signal
to the device itself and the ICs. While you will never have is amplified and applied to processing circuits that separate
to design or analyze any of the circuits you cannot see, it the data into video and audio streams. Then DACs are used
is useful to know how they operate to process the inputs to convert the digital data into the analog video and audio
and produce new outputs. In the coming chapters you will signals that can be presented on a TV set.

DVD disc Reflections contain

digital audio and video data

Amplifier

Motor M IR-laser

Photo
detector Processing
circuits

Motor drive
circuits

DAC

L
DAC
Stereo audio
outputs to
amps and speakers R
DAC

DC to all circuits
Video output
to TV

Power supply

AC power
line

Figure 27-22 A DVD player.

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 CHAPTER 27 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The most accurate description of a system is 10. Most amplifiers are classified by
a. any collection of multiple electronic components. a. power level.
b. a group of electronic components, circuits, or de- b. voltage level.
vices that collectively perform a useful function. c. frequency range.
c. a piece of electronic equipment. d. input impedance.
d. large complex interconnections of electronic 11. The name of a general-purpose dc differential ampli-
equipment. fier that can be easily configured is the
2. Most electronic circuits a. power amplifier.
a. are in integrated circuit form. b. operational amplifier.
b. are collections of discrete components wired c. microwave amplifier.
together. d. small signal amplifier.
c. contain at least one transistor. 12. A circuit that generates a sine-wave or rectangular-
d. are designed by a technician. wave signal is called a(n)
3. Which of the following is not involved in trouble- a. oscillator.
shooting and repair of modern electronic equipment? b. amplifier.
a. Finding and replacing the bad component. c. rectifier.
b. Replacing a bad IC. d. filter.
c. Replacing a defective board or module. 13. Which of the following is not a method of setting the
d. Discarding the bad device and replacing it with a frequency of an oscillator?
new one. a. Resistor-capacitor combination.
4. The primary work of a technician is b. Capacitor-inductor combination.
a. designing electronic circuits. c. Quartz crystal.
b. analyzing electronic circuits. d. Transformer
c. troubleshooting, testing, and repairing. 14. A circuit that generates a precise frequency that can
d. breadboarding prototypes. be changed in increments is called a(n)
5. Modern technicians work mostly with a. amplifier.
a. schematic diagrams. b. oscillator.
b. block diagrams. c. frequency synthesizer.
6. An MP3 music player can be considered as a system. d. VCO.
a. True. 15. The power supply circuit that converts ac into dc is
b. False. the
7. Which of the following is not a linear circuit? a. regulator.
a. Amplifier. b. transformer.
b. Oscillator. c. filter.
c. Power supply. d. rectifier.
d. Flash memory. 16. A power supply circuit that maintains a constant dc
8. The most common linear circuit is the output voltage is called a
a. amplifier. a. rectifier.
b. oscillator. b. regulator.
c. rectifier. c. filter.
d. regulator. d. dc-dc converter.
9. Another name for a large-signal amplifier is 17. A power supply circuit that converts dc into ac is
a. op amp. known as a(n)
b. RF amplifier. a. rectifier.
c. dc amplifier. b. dc-dc converter.
d. power amplifier. c. inverter.
d. filter.

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 18. Digital circuits process which type of signals? c. RAM.
a. Analog. d. Nonvolatile memory.
b. Binary. 28. A circuit that selects one digital input from memory
19. The basic building blocks of all digital circuits are and routes it to an output is a
a. resistors and capacitors. a. differential amplifier.
b. counters and registers. b. multiplexer.
c. gates and flip-flops. c. decoder.
d. diodes and transistors. d. demultiplexer.
20. A circuit that generates a binary 1 only when all in- 29. What electronic circuit is found in almost every elec-
puts are binary 1 is the tronic product?
a. AND gate. a. Microcontroller.
b. OR gate. b. FPGA.
c. inverter. c. PLL.
d. NAND gate. d. DAC.
21. A circuit that store one bit of information is called a(n) 30. An FPGA is a digital circuit that
a. AND gate. a. is the same as a microcontroller.
b. exclusive OR gate. b. incorporates a PLL frequency synthesizer.
c. inverter. c. contains multiple functional digital circuits.
d. flip-flop. d. can be programmed to implement any digital
22. A circuit that stores one complete binary number is function.
called a 31. The circuit used to digitize an analog signal is a(n)
a. NAND gate. a. analog-to-digital converter.
b. multiplexer. b. digital-to-analog converter.
c. decoder. c. comparator.
d. register. d. a hybrid circuit.
23. A circuit that digitizes an analog signal is called a(n) 32. The output is an ADC is
a. analog-to-digital converter. a. an analog signal.
b. digital-to-analog converter. b. a sequence of binary numbers.
c. comparator. c. either high or low.
d. counter. d. a single binary number.
24. A complete digital computer on a chip is called a(n) 33. The circuit that reconstructs an analog signal from
a. microcomputer. binary words stored in a memory is a(n)
b. microcontroller. a. analog-to-digital converter.
c. embedded controller. b. digital-to-analog converter.
d. all of the above. c. comparator.
25. Which of the following is not a part of a microcontroller? d. a hybrid circuit.
a. Memory. 34. The output of a comparator is
b. Power supply. a. an analog signal.
c. CPU. b. a sequence of binary numbers.
d. Input/output circuits. c. either high or low.
26. Which electronic component can be used as a mem- d. a single binary number.
ory circuit? 35. Which of the following would not be considered as an
a. Capacitor. electronic system?
b. Resistor. a. Garage door opener.
c. Inductor. b. TV set.
d. Transformer. c. Filter.
27. Which type of memory loses its stored data if power d. Traffic light controller.
is removed?
a. ROM.
b. Flash.

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 CHAPTER 27 PROBLEMS

SECTION 27.3 Linear, or Analog, Circuits 27.3 Express the voltage gain of 300 in dB.
27.1 An amplifier has an input of 40 mV and an output 27.4 Express the power gain of 75 in dB.
of 2 V. What is the gain?
SECTION 27.6 System Examples
27.2 An amplifier has an output power of 50 W and a
27.6 Draw a basic block diagram representing any
gain of 800. What is the input power?
system of your choice.

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 Ch a pt er 28
Semiconductors

To understand how diodes, transistors, and integrated Learning Outcomes

circuits work, you first have to study semiconductors:
materials that are neither conductors nor insulators. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Semiconductors contain some free electrons, but what Recognize, at the atomic level, the characteristics
makes them unusual is the presence of holes. In this of good conductors and semiconductors.
chapter, you will learn about semiconductors, holes, and Describe the structure of a silicon crystal.
related topics. List the two types of carriers and name the type of
impurity that causes each to be a majority carrier.
Explain the conditions that exist at the pn junction
of an unbiased diode, a forward-biased diode, and
a reverse-biased diode.
Describe the types of breakdown current caused
by excessive reverse voltage across a diode.

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 28.1 Conductors ⴚ

Copper is a good conductor. The reason is clear when we

look at its atomic structure (Fig. 28-1). The nucleus of the
atom contains 29 protons (positive charges). When a copper
atom has a neutral charge, 29 electrons (negative charges)
circle the nucleus like planets around the sun. The electrons
ⴙ1
travel in distinct orbits (also called shells). There are 2 elec-
trons in the first orbit, 8 electrons in the second, 18 in the
third, and 1 in the outer orbit.

Stable Orbits
The positive nucleus of Fig. 28-1 attracts the planetary elec-
trons. The reason why these electrons are not pulled into the
nucleus is the centrifugal (outward) force created by their cir- Figure 28-2 Core diagram of copper atom.
cular motion. This centrifugal force is exactly equal to the in-
ward pull of the nucleus, so that the orbit is stable. The idea is
similar to a satellite that orbits the earth. At the right speed and Free Electron
height, a satellite can remain in a stable orbit above the earth. Since the attraction between the core and the valence elec-
The larger the orbit of an electron, the smaller the at- tron is very weak, an outside force can easily dislodge this
traction of the nucleus. In a larger orbit, an electron travels electron from the copper atom. This is why we often call the
more slowly, producing less centrifugal force. The outermost valence electron a free electron. This is also why copper is
electron in Fig. 28-1 travels very slowly and feels almost no a good conductor. The slightest voltage causes the free elec-
attraction to the nucleus. trons to flow from one atom to the next. The best conductors
are silver, copper, and gold. All have a core diagram like
The Core
Fig. 28-2.
In electronics, all that matters is the outer orbit. It is called
the valence orbit. This orbit controls the electrical proper-
ties of the atom. To emphasize the importance of the valence
orbit, we define the core of an atom as the nucleus and all the EXAMPLE 28-1
inner orbits. For a copper atom, the core is the nucleus (⫹29)
Suppose an outside force removes the valence electron of
and the first three orbits (⫺28).
Fig. 28-2 from a copper atom. What is the net charge of the cop-
The core of a copper atom has a net charge of ⫹1 because per atom? What is the net charge if an outside electron moves
it contains 29  protons and 28 inner electrons. Figure 28-2 into the valence orbit of Fig. 28-2?
can help in visualizing the core and the valence orbit. The Answer:
valence electron is in a large orbit around a core and has a
When the valence electron leaves, the net charge of the atom
net charge of only ⫹1. Because of this, the inward pull felt by becomes ⫹1. Whenever an atom loses one of its electrons, it
the valence electron is very small. becomes positively charged. We call a positively charged atom
a positive ion.
ⴚ When an outside electron moves into the valence orbit of
Fig.  28-2, the net charge of the atom becomes ⫺1. Whenever
an atom has an extra electron in its valence orbit, we call the
ⴚ ⴚ
ⴚ ⴚ negatively charged atom a negative ion.
ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ
ⴚ ⴚ
ⴚ ⴚ

ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ29 ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ

ⴚ
28.2 Semiconductors
ⴚ
ⴚ ⴚ The best conductors (silver, copper, and gold) have one
ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ
ⴚ ⴚ
valence electron, whereas the best insulators have eight
ⴚ ⴚ valence electrons. A semiconductor is an element with elec-
trical properties between those of a conductor and those of
an insulator. As you might expect, the best semiconductors
Figure 28-1 Copper atom. have four valence electrons.

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 Germanium and the second orbit contains 8 electrons. The 4 remaining
Germanium is an example of a semiconductor. It has four electrons are in the valence orbit. In Fig. 28-3a, the core has
electrons in the valence orbit. Many years ago, germanium a net charge of ⫹4 because it contains 14 protons in the nu-
was the only material suitable for making semiconductor de- cleus and 10 electrons in the first two orbits.
vices. But these germanium devices had a fatal flaw (their Figure 28-3b shows the core diagram of a silicon atom.
excessive reverse current, discussed in a later section) that The 4 valence electrons tell us that silicon is a semiconductor.
engineers could not overcome. Eventually, another semicon-
ductor named silicon became practical and made germa-
nium obsolete in most electronic applications. EXAMPLE 28-2

Silicon What is the net charge of the silicon atom in Fig. 28-3b if it loses
one of its valence electrons? If it gains an extra electron in the
Next to oxygen, silicon is the most abundant element on the valence orbit?
earth. But there were certain refining problems that pre-
Answer:
vented the use of silicon in the early days of semiconductors.
If it loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion with a charge of ⫹1.
Once these problems were solved, the advantages of silicon
If it gains an extra electron, it becomes a negative ion with
(discussed later) immediately made it the semiconductor of a charge of ⫺1.
choice. Without it, modern electronics, communications,
and computers would be impossible.
An isolated silicon atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons.
As shown in Fig. 28-3a, the first orbit contains 2 electrons 28.3 Silicon Crystals
When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange
themselves into an orderly pattern called a crystal. Each sili-
ⴚ
con atom shares its electrons with four neighboring atoms
in such a way as to have eight electrons in its valence orbit.
For instance, Fig. 28-4a shows a central atom with four
ⴚ
neighbors. The shaded circles represent the silicon cores.
ⴚ ⴚ
Although the central atom originally had four electrons in
ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ14 ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ
its valence orbit, it now has eight.

Covalent Bonds
ⴚ ⴚ
ⴚ Each neighboring atom shares an electron with the central
atom. In this way, the central atom has four additional elec-
trons, giving it a total of eight electrons in the valence orbit.
ⴚ The electrons no longer belong to any single atom. Each cen-
tral atom and its neighbors share the electrons. The same
(a)
idea is true for all the other silicon atoms. In other words,
ⴚ every atom inside a silicon crystal has four neighbors. ⴝ

ⴚ ⴙ4 ⴚ
ⴝ ⴝ
ⴝ

ⴚ
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 28-4 (a) Atom in crystal has four neighbors.
Figure 28-3 (a) Silicon atom. (b) Core diagram. (b) Covalent bonds.

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 In Fig. 28-4a, each core has a charge of ⫹4. Look at the
central core and the one to its right. These two cores attract
the pair of electrons between them with equal and opposite
force. This pulling in opposite directions is what holds the
silicon atoms together. The idea is similar to tug-of-war
teams pulling on a rope. As long as both teams pull with
equal and opposite force, they remain bonded together.
Since each shared electron in Fig. 28-4a is being pulled
in opposite directions, the electron becomes a bond between
the opposite cores. We call this type of chemical bond a
(a) (b)
covalent bond. Figure 28-4b is a simpler way to show the
concept of the covalent bonds. In a silicon crystal, there are Figure 28-5 (a) Thermal energy produces electron and
billions of silicon atoms, each with eight valence electrons. hole. (b) Recombination of free electron and hole.
These valence electrons are the covalent bonds that hold the
crystal together—that give it solidity.
this happens, the released electron gains enough energy to
Valence Saturation go into a larger orbit, as shown in Fig. 28-5a. In this larger
orbit, the electron is a free electron.
Each atom in a silicon crystal has eight electrons in its va-
But that’s not all. The departure of the electron creates
lence orbit. These eight electrons produce a chemical stabil-
a vacancy in the valence orbit called a hole (see Fig. 28-5a).
ity that results in a solid piece of silicon material. No one is
This hole behaves like a positive charge because the loss
quite sure why the outer orbit of all elements has a predis-
of the electron produces a positive ion. The hole will at-
position toward having eight electrons. When eight electrons
tract and capture any electron in the immediate vicinity.
do not exist naturally in an element, there seems to be a ten-
The existence of holes is the critical difference between
dency for the element to combine and share electrons with
conductors and semiconductors. Holes enable semicon-
other atoms so as to have eight electrons in the outer orbit.
ductors to do all kinds of things that are impossible with
There are advanced equations in physics that partially
conductors.
explain why eight electrons produce chemical stability in
At room temperature, thermal energy produces only a
different materials, but no one knows the reason why the
few holes and free electrons. To increase the number of holes
number eight is so special. It is one of those laws like the law
and free electrons, it is necessary to dope the crystal. More is
of gravity, Coulomb’s law, and other laws that we observe but
said about this in a later section.
cannot fully explain.
When the valence orbit has eight electrons, it is saturated Recombination and Lifetime
because no more electrons can fit into this orbit. Stated as In a pure silicon crystal, thermal (heat) energy creates an
a law: equal number of free electrons and holes. The free electrons
Valence saturation: n ⫽ 8 (28-1) move randomly throughout the crystal. Occasionally, a free
electron will approach a hole, feel its attraction, and fall into
In words, the valence orbit can hold no more than eight elec- it. Recombination is the merging of a free electron and a
trons. Furthermore, the eight valence electrons are called hole (see Fig. 28-5b).
bound electrons because they are tightly held by the atoms. The amount of time between the creation and disappear-
Because of these bound electrons, a silicon crystal is almost ance of a free electron is called the lifetime. It varies from
a perfect insulator at room temperature, approximately 25°C. a few nanoseconds to several microseconds, depending on
The Hole how perfect the crystal is and other factors.
The ambient temperature is the temperature of the sur- Main Ideas
rounding air. When the ambient temperature is above ab- At any instant, the following is taking place inside a silicon
solute zero (⫺273°C), the heat energy in this air causes the crystal:
atoms in a silicon crystal to vibrate. The higher the ambient
temperature, the stronger the mechanical vibrations become. 1. Some free electrons and holes are being created by
When you pick up a warm object, the warmth you feel is the thermal energy.
effect of the vibrating atoms. 2. Other free electrons and holes are recombining.
In a silicon crystal, the vibrations of the atoms can oc- 3. Some free electrons and holes exist temporarily, await-
casionally dislodge an electron from the valence orbit. When ing recombination.

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 a three-dimensional way to form a crystal lattice structure
EX A M P L E 28 -3
as Fig. 28-6b shows. All semiconductor materials have a
If a pure silicon crystal has 1 million free electrons inside it, how similar crystal lattice arrangement.
many holes does it have? What happens to the number of free
electrons and holes if the ambient temperature increases? Compound Semiconductors
Answer: While any semiconductor material such as silicon, germa-
Look at Fig. 28-5a. When heat energy creates a free electron, nium or carbon will form covalent bonds among the atoms,
it automatically creates a hole at the same time. Therefore, a a semiconductor material can also be formed with two or
pure silicon crystal always has the same number of holes and more materials. Such semiconductor materials are known
free electrons. If there are 1 million free electrons, there are as compound semiconductors. An example of a compound
1 million holes. semiconductor with elements having four valence electrons
A higher temperature increases the vibrations at the atomic
level, which means that more free electrons and holes are cre-
is silicon germanium (SiGe). Another less common com-
ated. But no matter what the temperature is, a pure silicon crystal bination is silicon carbon (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN).
has the same number of free electrons and holes. The most common compound semiconductor materials are
formed between an element with three valence electrons and
another with five valence electrons. These are elements from
columns III (13) and V (15) of the periodic table and are
Crystal Lattice Structure
often referred to as III-V compounds. When such elements
The covalent bond shown in Fig. 28-4 is only two dimen- are combined, the result is a total of eight valence electrons
sional to simplify the discussion of bonding. Of course, the producing valence saturation. Some common elements
covalent bonds are actually three dimensional. The bonding with three valence electrons are boron (B), aluminum (Al),
process usually produces an arrangement such as that shown gallium (Ga), and indium (In). Elements with five valence
in Fig. 28-6a. This is called a unit cell. It represents five electrons are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As),
atoms that arrange themselves within an imaginary cubic antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi).
structure. Then this unit cell is repeated again and again in Some of the most common compound semiconductors
are silicon germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), and indium
phosphide (InP). These combinations produce a semiconduc-
Silicon
tor in which current flows faster, making them useful at very
atom high microwave and even light frequencies. Compounds of
three or four of these materials (e.g., AlGaSb or AlGaPAs)
Covalent are used to form light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers.
bonds

28.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor. A
silicon crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor if every atom in
(a)
the crystal is a silicon atom. At room temperature, a silicon
crystal acts like an insulator because it has only a few free
electrons and holes produced by thermal energy.

Flow of Free Electrons

Figure 28-7 shows part of a silicon crystal between charged
metallic plates. Assume that thermal energy has produced
Unit a free electron and a hole. The free electron is in a large
cells
orbit at the right end of the crystal. Because of the negatively
charged plate, the free electron is repelled to the left. This
free electron can move from one large orbit to the next until
it reaches the positive plate.

Flow of Holes
(b) Notice the hole at the left of Fig. 28-7. This hole attracts the
Figure 28-6 Bonding process. (a) Unit cell. (b) Unit cells valence electron at point A. This causes the valence electron
arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. to move into the hole.

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 ⫹ Free electron ⫺ 28.6 Doping a Semiconductor
⫹ ⫺
⫹ ⫺ One way to increase conductivity of a semiconductor is by
⫹ ⫺ doping. This means adding impurity atoms to an intrinsic
⫹ ⫺
⫹ ⫺
crystal to alter its electrical conductivity. A doped semicon-
A C D F
⫹ Hole ⫺ ductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
⫹ B E ⫺
⫹ ⫺ Increasing the Free Electrons
⫹ ⫺
⫹ ⫺ How does a manufacturer dope a silicon crystal? The first
⫹ ⫺ step is to melt a pure silicon crystal. This breaks the cova-
lent bonds and changes the silicon from a solid to a liquid.
Figure 28-7 Hole flow through a semiconductor.
To increase the number of free electrons, pentavalent atoms
are added to the molten silicon. Pentavalent atoms have
When the valence electron at point A moves to the left, it five electrons in the valence orbit. Examples of pentavalent
creates a new hole at point A. The effect is the same as mov- atoms include arsenic, antimony, and phosphorus. Because
ing the original hole to the right. The new hole at point A these materials will donate an extra electron to the silicon
can then attract and capture another valence electron. In crystal, they are often referred to as donor impurities.
this way, valence electrons can travel along the path shown Figure 28-9a shows how the doped silicon crystal appears
by the arrows. This means the hole can move the opposite after it cools down and re-forms its solid crystal structure. A
way, along path A-B-C-D-E-F, acting the same as a positive pentavalent atom is in the center, surrounded by four silicon
charge. atoms. As before, the neighboring atoms share an electron
with the central atom. But this time, there is an extra elec-
28.5 Two Types of Flow tron left over. Remember that each pentavalent atom has five
Figure 28-8 shows an intrinsic semiconductor. It has the valence electrons. Since only eight electrons can fit into the
same number of free electrons and holes. This is because valence orbit, the extra electron remains in a larger orbit. In
thermal energy produces free electrons and holes in pairs. other words, it is a free electron.
The applied voltage will force the free electrons to flow left Each pentavalent or donor atom in a silicon crystal pro-
and the holes to flow right. When the free electrons arrive at duces one free electron. This is how a manufacturer con-
the left end of the crystal, they enter the external wire and trols the conductivity of a doped semiconductor. The more
flow to the positive battery terminal. impurity that is added, the greater the conductivity. In this
On the other hand, the free electrons at the negative bat- way, a semiconductor may be lightly or heavily doped. A
tery terminal will flow to the right end of the crystal. At this lightly doped semiconductor has a high resistance, whereas
point, they enter the crystal and recombine with holes that a heavily doped semiconductor has a low resistance.
arrive at the right end of the crystal. In this way, a steady flow
of free electrons and holes occurs inside the semiconductor. Increasing the Number of Holes
Note that there is no hole flow outside the semiconductor. How can we dope a pure silicon crystal to get an excess of
In Fig. 28-8, the free electrons and holes move in oppo- holes? By using a trivalent impurity, one whose atoms have
site directions. From now on, we will visualize the current in
a semiconductor as the combined effect of the two types of Free electron
flow: the flow of free electrons in one direction and the flow
of holes in the other direction. Free electrons and holes are
often called carriers because they carry a charge from one
place to another.

⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺⫺
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹⫹

(a) (b)

Figure 28-8 Intrinsic semiconductor has equal number Figure 28-9 (a) Doping to get more free electrons.
of free electrons and holes. (b) Doping to get more holes.

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 only three valence electrons. Examples include aluminum, ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
boron, and gallium. ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
Figure 28-9b shows a trivalent atom in the center. It is ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
surrounded by four silicon atoms, each sharing one of its ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
valence electrons. Since the trivalent atom originally had ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
only three valence electrons and each neighbor shares one ⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹⫹
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
electron, only seven electrons are in the valence orbit. This
means that a hole exists in the valence orbit of each triva-
lent atom. A trivalent atom is also called an acceptor atom
because each hole it contributes can accept a free electron
during recombination. Figure 28-11 P-type semiconductor has many holes.

28.7 Two Types of Extrinsic the majority carriers and the free electrons are known as the
Semiconductors minority carriers.
A semiconductor can be doped to have an excess of free Because of the applied voltage, the free electrons move
electrons or an excess of holes. Because of this, there are to the left and the holes move to the right. In Fig. 28-11, the
two types of doped semiconductors. holes arriving at the right end of the crystal will recombine
with free electrons from the external circuit.
N-Type Semiconductor There is also a flow of minority carriers in Fig. 28-11. The
Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity is free electrons inside the semiconductor flow from right to
called an n-type semiconductor, where the n stands for neg- left. Because there are so few minority carriers, they have
ative. Figure 28-10 shows an n-type semiconductor. Since almost no effect in this circuit.
the free electrons outnumber the holes in an n-type semicon-
ductor, the free electrons are called the majority carriers 28.8 The Unbiased Diode
and the holes are called the minority carriers. By itself, a piece of n-type semiconductor is about as useful
Because of the applied voltage, the free electrons move to as a carbon resistor; the same can be said for a p-type semi-
the left and the holes move to the right. When a hole arrives conductor. But when a manufacturer dopes a crystal so that
at the right end of the crystal, one of the free electrons from one-half of it is p-type and the other half is n-type, some-
the external circuit enters the semiconductor and recombines thing new comes into existence.
with the hole. The border between p-type and n-type is called the pn
The free electrons shown in Fig. 28-10 flow to the left end junction. The pn junction has led to all kinds of inventions
of the crystal, where they enter the wire and flow on to the including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Under-
positive terminal of the battery. standing the pn junction enables you to understand all kinds
of semiconductor devices.
P-Type Semiconductor
Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent impurity is The Unbiased Diode
called a p-type semiconductor, where the p stands for As discussed in the preceding section, each trivalent atom
positive. Figure 28-11 shows a p-type semiconductor. Since in a doped silicon crystal produces one hole. For this rea-
holes outnumber free electrons, the holes are referred to as son, we can visualize a piece of p-type semiconductor as
shown on the left side of Fig. 28-12. Each circled minus
sign is the trivalent atom, and each plus sign is the hole in
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺ its valence orbit.
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺ p n
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺⫺
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹

Figure 28-10 N-type semiconductor has many free

electrons. Figure 28-12 Two types of semiconductor.

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 Ions
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹

Figure 28-13 The pn junction.

(a)

Depletion layer
Similarly, we can visualize the pentavalent atoms and ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
free electrons of an n-type semiconductor as shown on the ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
right side of Fig. 28-12. Each circled plus sign represents a ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
pentavalent atom, and each minus sign is the free electron it ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
contributes to the semiconductor. Notice that each piece of
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
semiconductor material is electrically neutral because the ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹

number of pluses and minuses is equal.

A manufacturer can produce a single crystal with p-type (b)

material on one side and n-type on the other side, as shown Figure 28-14 (a) Creation of ions at junction.
in Fig. 28-13. The junction is the border where the p-type (b) Depletion layer.
and the n-type regions meet, and junction diode is another
name for a pn crystal. The word diode is a contraction of two
Barrier Potential
electrodes, where di stands for “two.”
Each dipole has an electric field between the positive and neg-
The Depletion Layer ative ions. Therefore, if additional free electrons enter the de-
Because of their repulsion for each other, the free electrons pletion layer, the electric field tries to push these electrons back
on the n side of Fig. 28-13 tend to diffuse (spread) in all di- into the n region. The strength of the electric field increases
rections. Some of the free electrons diffuse across the junc- with each crossing electron until equilibrium is reached. To a
tion. When a free electron enters the p region, it becomes a first approximation, this means that the electric field eventu-
minority carrier. With so many holes around it, this minority ally stops the diffusion of electrons across the junction.
carrier has a short lifetime. Soon after entering the p region, In Fig. 28-14a, the electric field between the ions is equiv-
the free electron recombines with a hole. When this happens, alent to a difference of potential called the barrier poten-
the hole disappears and the free electron becomes a valence tial. At 25°C, the barrier potential equals approximately
electron. 0.3 V for germanium diodes and 0.7 V for silicon diodes.
Each time an electron diffuses across a junction, it
creates a pair of ions. When an electron leaves the n side,
28.9 Forward Bias
it leaves behind a pentavalent atom that is short one neg- Figure 28-15 shows a dc source across a diode. The negative
ative charge; this pentavalent atom becomes a positive source terminal is connected to the n-type material, and the
ion. After the migrating electron falls into a hole on the positive terminal is connected to the p-type material. This
p side, it makes a negative ion out of the trivalent atom connection produces what is called forward bias.
that captures it.
Figure 28-14a shows these ions on each side of the junc- p n
tion. The circled plus signs are the positive ions, and the cir- ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
cled minus signs are the negative ions. The ions are fixed in ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
the crystal structure because of covalent bonding, and they
⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺
cannot move around like free electrons and holes. ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
+
Each pair of positive and negative ions at the junction is
V
called a dipole. The creation of a dipole means that one free –
electron and one hole have been taken out of circulation. As
the number of dipoles builds up, the region near the junction R

is emptied of carriers. We call this charge-empty region the

depletion layer (see Fig. 28-14b). Figure 28-15 Forward bias.

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 Flow of Free Electrons p n
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
In Fig. 28-15, the battery pushes holes and free electrons ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
toward the junction. If the battery voltage is less than the ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
barrier potential, the free electrons do not have enough ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
energy to get through the depletion layer. When they enter ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹

the depletion layer, the ions will push them back into the
–
n region. Because of this, there is no current through the
V
diode. +
When the dc voltage source is greater than the barrier
potential, the battery again pushes holes and free electrons
R
toward the junction. This time, the free electrons have
enough energy to pass through the depletion layer and re-
combine with the holes. If you visualize all the holes in the Figure 28-16 Reverse bias.
p region moving to the right and all the free electrons mov-
ing to the left, you will have the basic idea. Somewhere Depletion Layer Widens
in the vicinity of the junction, these opposite charges re- The negative battery terminal attracts the holes, and the pos-
combine. Since free electrons continuously enter the right itive battery terminal attracts the free electrons. Because of
end of the diode and holes are being continuously created this, holes and free electrons flow away from the junction.
at the left end, there is a continuous current through the Therefore, the depletion layer gets wider.
diode. How wide does the depletion layer get in Fig. 28-17a?
The Flow of One Electron When the holes and electrons move away from the junction,
the newly created ions increase the difference of potential
Let us follow a single electron through the entire circuit.
across the depletion layer. The wider the depletion layer, the
After the free electron leaves the negative terminal of
greater the difference of potential. The depletion layer stops
the battery, it enters the right end of the diode. It travels
growing when its difference of potential equals the applied
through the n region until it reaches the junction. When
reverse voltage. When this happens, electrons and holes stop
the battery voltage is greater than 0.7 V, the free electron
moving away from the junction.
has enough energy to get across the depletion layer. Soon
Sometimes the depletion layer is shown as a shaded re-
after the free electron has entered the p region, it recom-
gion like that of Fig. 28-17b. The width of this shaded region
bines with a hole.
is proportional to the reverse voltage. As the reverse voltage
In other words, the free electron becomes a valence elec-
increases, the depletion layer gets wider.
tron. As a valence electron, it continues to travel to the left,
passing from one hole to the next until it reaches the left end
of the diode. When it leaves the left end of the diode, a new ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
hole appears and the process begins again. Since there are
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
billions of electrons taking the same journey, we get a con- ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
tinuous current through the diode. A series resistor is used to ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
limit the amount of forward current. ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
What to Remember
Current flows easily in a forward-biased diode. As long (a)

as the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential, p n

there will be a large continuous current in the circuit. In
other words, if the source voltage is greater than 0.7 V, a
silicon diode allows a continuous current in the forward
direction. –
V
28.10 Reverse Bias +

Turn the dc source around and you get Fig. 28-16. This time,
(b)
the negative battery terminal is connected to the p side, and
the positive battery terminal to the n side. This connection Figure 28-17 (a) Depletion layer. (b) Increasing reverse
produces what is called reverse bias. bias widens depletion layer.

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 p n What to Remember
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ The reverse current in a diode consists of a minority-carrier
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ current and a surface-leakage current. In most applications,
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ the reverse current in a silicon diode is so small that you don’t
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
even notice it. The main idea to remember is this: Current is
–
approximately zero in a reverse-biased silicon diode.
V
+
28.11 Breakdown
Diodes have maximum voltage ratings. There is a limit to
how much reverse voltage a diode can withstand before it
is destroyed. If you continue increasing the reverse voltage,
Figure 28-18 Thermal production of free electron and you will eventually reach the breakdown voltage of the
hole in depletion layer produces reverse minority saturation
current.
diode. For many diodes, breakdown voltage is at least 50 V.
The breakdown voltage is shown on the data sheet for the
diode. We discuss data sheets in Chap. 29.
Minority-Carrier Current Once the breakdown voltage is reached, a large number of
Is there any current after the depletion layer stabilizes? Yes. the minority carriers suddenly appears in the depletion layer
A small current exists with reverse bias. Recall that ther- and the diode conducts heavily.
mal energy continuously creates pairs of free electrons and Where do the carriers come from? They are produced by
holes. This means that a few minority carriers exist on both the avalanche effect (see Fig. 28-19), which occurs at higher
sides of the junction. Most of these recombine with the ma- reverse voltages. Here is what happens. As usual, there is
jority carriers. But those inside the depletion layer may exist a small reverse minority-carrier current. When the reverse
long enough to get across the junction. When this happens, a voltage increases, it forces the minority carriers to move
small current flows in the external circuit. more quickly. These minority carriers collide with the atoms
Figure 28-18 illustrates the idea. Assume that ther- of the crystal. When these minority carriers have enough en-
mal energy has created a free electron and hole near the ergy, they can knock valence electrons loose, producing free
junction. The depletion layer pushes the free electron to electrons. These new minority carriers then join the existing
the right, forcing one electron to leave the right end of the minority carriers to collide with other atoms. The process is
crystal. The hole in the depletion layer is pushed to the left. geometric, because one free electron liberates one valence
This extra hole on the p side lets one electron enter the electron to get two free electrons. These two free electrons
left end of the crystal and fall into a hole. Since thermal then free two more electrons to get four free electrons. The
energy is continuously producing electron-hole pairs inside process continues until the reverse current becomes huge.
the depletion layer, a small continuous current flows in the Figure 28-20 shows a magnified view of the depletion
external circuit. layer. The reverse bias forces the free electron to move to
The reverse current caused by the thermally produced the right. As it moves, the electron gains speed. The larger
minority carriers is called the saturation current. In the reverse bias, the faster the electron moves. If the high-
equations, the saturation current is symbolized by I S . The speed electron has enough energy, it can bump the valence
name saturation means that we cannot get more minor- electron of the first atom into a larger orbit. This results in
ity-carrier current than is produced by the thermal en-
ergy. In other words, increasing the reverse voltage will
not increase the number of thermally created minority
carriers.
⫹ ⫺
⫹ ⫺
⫹ ⫺
Surface-Leakage Current p ⫹ ⫺ n
⫹ ⫺
Besides the thermally produced minority-carrier current, ⫹ ⫺
– ⫹ ⫺
does any other current exist in a reverse-biased diode? ⫹ ⫺
V
Yes. A small current flows on the surface of the crys- +

tal. Known as the surface-leakage current, it is caused

by surface impurities and imperfections in the crystal Figure 28-19 Avalanche produces many free electrons
structure. and holes in depletion layer.

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 28.12 Advances in Semiconductors
Two major advances in semiconductors are further affecting
electronics, MEMS and nanotechnology. MEMS is an acronym
for microelectromechanical systems. MEMS are mechanical
devices made using semiconductor technology. The techniques
for making transistors and integrated circuits are now being
used to build tiny mechanical machines. Dimensions are in the
less than 1-mm range or in the 10- to 100-micron (10 –6 meter)
range. These devices are made up of gears, levers, ratchets,
and other moving structures. Today, such process techniques
can make switches, relays, mirrors, and vibrating components.
Miniature mirror structures are what make up the digital light-
processing (DLP) devices that implement some large HDTV
screens. Vibrating elements can also now be made precise
enough to replace quartz crystals as electronic frequency-
setting components. MEMS are being used more and more to
create sensors and actuators for medical and scientific applica-
Figure 28-20 The process of avalanche is a geometric tions. A key feature is that any related electronic circuitry can
progression: 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . also be created simultaneously on the same silicon wafer.
Nanotechnology is a new science based on the idea that
you can now build any device by manipulating molecules
two free electrons. Both of these then accelerate and go on and atoms individually. Techniques are now being developed
to dislodge two more electrons. In this way, the number of to literally assemble a structure an atom or molecule at a
minority carriers may become quite large and the diode can time. The devices could be transistors and other electronic
conduct heavily. components or mechanical devices. Nanotechnology is a
The breakdown voltage of a diode depends on how heav- developing technology still primarily in the research phase.
ily doped the diode is. With rectifier diodes (the most com- Few actual nanotechnology devices or structures exist, and
mon type), the breakdown voltage is usually greater than these are experimental items.
50 V. Table 28-1 illustrates the difference between a for- Both these technologies bear watching as they affect
ward- and reverse-biased diode. electronics.

Table 28-1 Diode Bias Summary

Forward bias Reverse bias
Depletion layer Depletion layer

p n p n

+ –
VS VS
– + Small
current
Large
R current R

VS polarity (⫹) to p material (⫺) to p materials

(⫺) to n material (⫹) to n material
Current flow Large forward current if Small reverse current (saturation current
VS > 0.7 V and surface leakage current) if
VS ⬍ breakdown voltage
Depletion layer Narrow Wide

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 CHAPTER 28 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The nucleus of a copper atom contains how many 9. An intrinsic semiconductor has some holes in it at
protons? room temperature. What causes these holes?
a. 1 a. Doping.
b. 4 b. Free electrons.
c. 18 c. Thermal energy.
d. 29 d. Valence electrons.
2. The net charge of a neutral copper atom is 10. When an electron is moved to a higher orbit level, its
a. 0. energy level with respect to the nucleus
b. ⫹1. a. increases
c. ⫺1. b. decreases
d. ⫹4. c. remains the same
3. Assume the valence electron is removed from a cop- d. depends on the type of atom
per atom. The net charge of the atom becomes 11. The merging of a free electron and a hole is
a. 0. called
b. ⫹1. a. covalent bonding.
c. ⫺1. b. lifetime.
d. ⫹4. c. recombination.
4. The valence electron of a copper atom experiences d. thermal energy.
what kind of attraction toward the nucleus? 12. At room temperature an intrinsic silicon crystal acts
a. None. approximately like
b. Weak. a. a battery.
c. Strong. b. a conductor.
d. Impossible to say. c. an insulator.
5. How many valence electrons does a silicon atom d. a piece of copper wire.
have? 13. The amount of time between the creation of a hole
a. 0 and its disappearance is called
b. 1 a. doping.
c. 2 b. lifetime.
d. 4 c. recombination.
6. Which is the most widely used semiconductor? d. valence.
a. Copper. 14. The valence electron of a conductor can also be
b. Germanium. called a
c. Silicon. a. bound electron.
d. None of the above. b. free electron.
7. How many protons does the nucleus of a silicon atom c. nucleus.
contain? d. proton.
a. 4 15. A conductor has how many types of flow?
b. 14 a. 1
c. 29 b. 2
d. 32 c. 3
8. Silicon atoms combine into an orderly pattern d. 4
called a 16. A semiconductor has how many types of flow?
a. covalent bond. a. 1
b. crystal. b. 2
c. semiconductor. c. 3
d. valence orbit. d. 4

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 17. When a voltage is applied to a semiconductor, holes c. negative charges.
will flow d. positive charges.
a. away from the negative potential. 26. Trivalent atoms have how many valence
b. toward the positive potential. electrons?
c. in the external circuit. a. 1
d. none of the above. b. 3
18. For semiconductor material, its valence orbit is satu- c. 4
rated when it contains d. 5
a. 1 electron. 27. An acceptor atom has how many valence
b. equal (⫹) and (⫺) ions. electrons?
c. 4 electrons. a. 1
d. 8 electrons. b. 3
19. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of c. 4
holes d. 5
a. equals the number of free electrons. 28. If you wanted to produce an n-type semiconductor,
b. is greater than the number of free electrons. which of these would you use?
c. is less than the number of free electrons. a. Acceptor atoms.
d. none of the above. b. Donor atoms.
20. Absolute zero temperature equals c. Pentavalent impurity.
a. ⫺273°C. d. Silicon.
b. 0°C. 29. Electrons are the minority carriers in which type of
c. 25°C. semiconductor?
d. 50°C. a. Extrinsic.
21. At absolute zero temperature an intrinsic b. Intrinsic.
semiconductor has c. N-type.
a. a few free electrons. d. P-type.
b. many holes. 30. How many free electrons does a p-type semiconduc-
c. many free electrons. tor contain?
d. no holes or free electrons. a. Many.
22. At room temperature an intrinsic semiconductor has b. None.
a. a few free electrons and holes. c. Only those produced by thermal energy.
b. many holes. d. Same number as holes.
c. many free electrons. 31. Silver is the best conductor. How many valence elec-
d. no holes. trons do you think it has?
23. The number of free electrons and holes in an a. 1
intrinsic semiconductor decreases when the b. 4
temperature c. 18
a. decreases. d. 29
b. increases. 32. Suppose an intrinsic semiconductor has 1 billion free
c. stays the same. electrons at room temperature. If the temperature
d. none of the above. drops to 0°C, how many holes are there?
24. The flow of valence electrons to the right means that a. Fewer than 1 billion.
holes are flowing to the b. 1 billion.
a. left. c. More than 1 billion.
b. right. d. Impossible to say.
c. either way. 33. An external voltage source is applied to a p-type
d. none of the above. semiconductor. If the left end of the crystal is posi-
25. Holes act like tive, which way do the majority carriers flow?
a. atoms. a. Left.
b. crystals. b. Right.

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 c. Neither. c. Barrier potential.
d. Impossible to say. d. Ions.
34. Which of the following doesn’t fit in the group? 43. What is the barrier potential of a silicon diode at room
a. Conductor. temperature?
b. Semiconductor. a. 0.3 V.
c. Four valence electrons. b. 0.7 V.
d. Crystal structure. c. 1 V.
35. Which of the following is approximately equal to d. 2 mV per degree Celsius.
room temperature? 44. Which of the following is not a common compound
a. 0°C. semiconductor?
b. 25°C. a. SiGe
c. 50°C. b. GaAs
d. 75°C. c. AlSb
36. How many electrons are there in the valence orbit of a d. InP
silicon atom within a crystal? 45. In a silicon diode the reverse current is usually
a. 1 a. very small.
b. 4 b. very large.
c. 8 c. zero.
d. 14 d. in the breakdown region.
37. Negative ions are atoms that have 46. While maintaining a constant temperature, a silicon
a. gained a proton. diode has its reverse-bias voltage increased. The di-
b. lost a proton. ode’s saturation current will
c. gained an electron. a. increase.
d. lost an electron. b. decrease.
38. Which of the following describes an n-type c. remain the same.
semiconductor? d. equal its surface-leakage current.
a. Neutral. 47. The voltage where avalanche occurs is called the
b. Positively charged. a. barrier potential.
c. Negatively charged. b. depletion layer.
d. Has many holes. c. knee voltage.
39. A p-type semiconductor contains holes and d. breakdown voltage.
a. positive ions. 48. Compound semiconductors have the following advan-
b. negative ions. tage over silicon.
c. pentavalent atoms. a. Smaller.
d. donor atoms. b. Electrons flow faster for high-frequency
40. Which of the following describes a p-type operation.
semiconductor? c. lower-power consumption.
a. Neutral. d. Lower leakage current.
b. Positively charged. 49. When the reverse voltage decreases from 10 to 5 V,
c. Negatively charged. the depletion layer
d. Has many free electrons. a. becomes smaller.
41. What is the correct name for a large three- b. becomes larger.
dimensional structure of semiconductor atoms? c. is unaffected.
a. Crystal lattice structure. d. breaks down.
b. Atomic matrix. 50. A reverse voltage of 10 V is across a diode. What is
c. Covalent bonds. the voltage across the depletion layer?
d. Interlinked atoms. a. 0 V.
42. What causes the depletion layer? b. 0.7 V.
a. Doping. c. 10 V.
b. Recombination. d. None of the above.

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 51. MEMS refers to the process of building which 52. Nanotechnology refers to process of building minia-
devices on a silicon chip? ture structures with
a. Mechanical devices. a. silicon.
b. Electric/electronic circuits. b. compound semiconductors.
c. Both a and b. c. MEMS.
d. Nano devices. d. atoms.

CHAPTER 28 PROBLEMS

28.1 What is the net charge of a copper atom if it gains 28.4 If a pure silicon crystal has 500,000 holes inside it,
two electrons? how many free electrons does it have?
28.2 What is the net charge of a silicon atom if it gains 28.5 A diode is forward-biased. If the current is 5 mA
three valence electrons? through the n side, what is the current through each
28.3 Classify each of the following as conductor or of the following?
semiconductor: a. P side.
a. Germanium b. External connecting wires.
b. Silver c. Junction.
c. Silicon
d. Gold

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 Ch a pt er 29
Diode Types and Operation

Learning Outcomes This chapter continues your study of diodes. After dis-
cussing the diode curve, we look at approximations of
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: a diode. We need approximations to simplify and speed
Draw a diode symbol and label the anode and up troubleshooting and circuit analysis.
cathode. Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode.
Describe the ideal diode. They are used in power supplies to convert ac voltage
List four basic characteristics of diodes shown on a to dc voltage. You will learn about rectifiers in Chap. 30.
data sheet. The chapter continues with zener diodes, which are
Show how the zener diode is used and calculate important because they are the key to voltage regu-
various values related to its operation. lation. The chapter also covers optoelectronic diodes,
List several optoelectronic devices and describe Schottky diodes, varactors, and PIN diodes.
how each works.
Recall two advantages Schottky diodes have over
common diodes.
Explain how a varactor works.
State a primary use of the varistor.

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 29.1 Basic Diode Characteristics current in the easy direction of flow? If the answer is yes, the
diode is forward-biased.
An ordinary resistor is a linear device because the graph
What is the easy direction of flow? If you use conven-
of its current versus voltage is a straight line. A diode is
tional current, the easy direction is the same direction as the
different. It is a nonlinear device because the graph of its
diode arrow. If you prefer electron flow, the easy direction is
current versus voltage is not a straight line. The reason is
the other way.
the barrier potential. When the diode voltage is less than
When the diode is part of a complicated circuit, we
the barrier potential, the diode current is small. When the
also can use Thevenin’s theorem to determine whether it
diode voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the diode cur-
is forward-biased. For instance, assume that we have re-
rent increases rapidly.
duced a complicated circuit with Thevenin’s theorem to get
The Schematic Symbol and Case Styles Fig. 29-1c. We would know that the diode is forward-biased.
Figure 29-1a shows the schematic symbol of a diode. The The Forward Region
p side is called the anode, and the n side the cathode. The
Figure 29-1c is a circuit that you can set up in the laboratory.
diode symbol looks like an arrow that points from the p side
After you connect this circuit, you can measure the diode
to the n side, from the anode to the cathode. Figure 29-1b
current and voltage. You can also reverse the polarity of the
shows some of the many typical diode case styles. Many,
dc source and measure diode current and voltage for reverse
but not all, diodes have the cathode lead (K) identified by a
bias. If you plot the diode current versus the diode voltage,
colored band.
you will get a graph that looks like Fig. 29-2.
Basic Diode Circuit This is a visual summary of the ideas discussed in the
Figure 29-1c shows a diode circuit. In this circuit, the diode preceding chapter. For instance, when the diode is forward-
is forward biased. How do we know? Because the positive biased, there is no significant current until the diode volt-
battery terminal drives the p side through a resistor, and the age is greater than the barrier potential. On the other hand,
negative battery terminal is connected to the n side. With when the diode is reverse-biased, there is almost no reverse
this connection, the circuit is trying to push holes and free current until the diode voltage reaches the breakdown volt-
electrons toward the junction. age. Then avalanche produces a large reverse current, de-
In more complicated circuits, it may be difficult to decide stroying the diode.
whether the diode is forward-biased. Here is a guideline. Knee Voltage
Ask yourself this question, Is the external circuit pushing
In the forward region, the voltage at which the current
starts to increase rapidly is called the knee voltage of the
Rectifiers
diode. The knee voltage equals the barrier potential. Anal-
A K
ysis of diode circuits usually comes down to determining
whether the diode voltage is more or less than the knee
D0-5
voltage. If it’s more, the diode conducts easily. If it’s less,
A K
the diode conducts poorly. We define the knee voltage of a
silicon diode as
D0-15/D0-27A/D0-41/
D0-201AD/D0-204AL VK < 0.7 V (29-1)

A K
(Note: The symbol  means “approximately equal to.”)
Anode T6L ID

A K
Breakdown Forward
p
R Reverse region
 S0D57
current
n + +
K VS VD VD
– –
A Knee ≈ 0.7 V
Cathode TO-220A Reverse
(a) (b) (c) region

Figure 29-1 Diode. (a) Schematic symbol. (b) Diode case

styles. (c) Forward bias. Figure 29-2 Diode curve.

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 Schottky diodes that you will learn about later in this
EXAMPLE 29-1
chapter have a knee voltage of about 0.4 V. The knee volt-
age of a germanium diode is approximately 0.3 V. This Is the diode of Fig. 29-3a forward-biased or reverse-biased?
lower knee voltage is an advantage and accounts for the
Answer:
use of a germanium and Schottky diodes in small-signal
The voltage across R 2 is positive; therefore, the circuit is trying to
applications. push current in the easy direction of flow. If this is not clear, visual-
ize the Thevenin circuit facing the diode as shown in Fig. 29-3b.
Bulk Resistance In this series circuit, you can see that the dc source is trying to
Above the knee voltage, the diode current increases rapidly. push current in the easy direction of flow. Therefore, the diode is
This means that small increases in the diode voltage cause forward-biased.
Whenever in doubt, reduce the circuit to a series circuit. Then
large increases in diode current. After the barrier poten- it will be clear whether the dc source is trying to push current in
tial is overcome, all that impedes the current is the ohmic the easy direction or not.
resistance of the p and n regions. In other words, if the p
R1
and n regions were two separate pieces of semiconductor, A

each would have a resistance that you could measure with an

ohmmeter, the same as an ordinary resistor.
The sum of the ohmic resistances is called the bulk resis- R2

tance of the diode. It is defined as

RB  RP  RN (29-2) B

The bulk resistance depends on the size of the p and n re-

(a)
gions, and how heavily doped they are. Often, the bulk resis-
tance is less than 1 . A

Maximum DC Forward Current

If the current in a diode is too large, the excessive heat
can destroy the diode. For this reason, a manufacturer’s
data sheet specifies the maximum current a diode can
B
safely handle without shortening its life or degrading its
characteristics.
(b)
The maximum forward current is one of the maximum
ratings given on a data sheet. This current may be listed as Figure 29-3
Imax, IF(max), IO, etc., depending on the manufacturer. For in-
stance, a 1N4001 has a maximum forward current rating of 1
A. This means that it can safely handle a continuous forward
current of 1 A. EXAMPLE 29-2

Power Dissipation A diode has a power rating of 5 W. If the diode voltage is 1.2 V
and the diode current is 1.75 A, what is the power dissipation? Will
You can calculate the power dissipation of a diode the same the diode be destroyed?
way as you do for a resistor. It equals the product of diode
Answer:
voltage and current. As a formula,
PD  (1.2 V)(1.75 A)  2.1 W
PD  VD ID (29-3)
This is less than the power rating, so the diode will not be
destroyed.
The power rating is the maximum power the diode can
safely dissipate without shortening its life or degrading its
properties. In symbols, the definition is

Pmax  Vmax Imax (29-4)

29.2 The Ideal Diode
Figure 29-4 shows a detailed graph of the forward region of a
where Vmax is the voltage corresponding to Imax. For instance, diode. Here you see the diode current ID versus diode voltage
if a diode has a maximum voltage and current of 1 V and VD. Notice how the current is approximately zero until the
2 A, its power rating is 2 W. diode voltage approaches the barrier potential. Somewhere

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 ID ID
Ideal

40 mA

VD Reverse bias
30 mA

Forward bias
(a) (b)

20 mA
Figure 29-5 (a) Ideal diode curve. (b) Ideal diode acts
like a switch.

10 mA EX A M P L E 2 9 -3

Use the ideal diode to calculate the load voltage and load current
in Fig. 29-6a.
VD Answer:
0 0.4 V 0.8 V 1.2 V 1.6 V 2.0 V
Since the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed
Figure 29-4 Graph of forward current. switch. Visualize the diode as a closed switch. Then you can see
that all the source voltage appears across the load resistor:
VL  10 V
in the vicinity of 0.6 to 0.7 V, the diode current increases. With Ohm’s law, the load current is
When the diode voltage is greater than 0.8 V, the diode cur- 10 V
IL  ____  10 mA
rent is significant and the graph is almost linear. 1 k
Depending on how a diode is doped and its physical size, Ideal 6 k Ideal
it may differ from other diodes in its maximum forward cur-
rent, power rating, and other characteristics. If we need an + +
RL 3 k 1 k
exact solution, we would have to use the graph of the particu- 10 V 1 k 36 V
– –
lar diode. Although the exact current and voltage points will
differ from one diode to the next, the graph of any diode is
similar to Fig. 29-4. All silicon diodes have a knee voltage (a) (b)
of approximately 0.7 V.
Most of the time, we do not need an exact solution. This is 2 k Ideal
why we can and should use approximations for a diode. We
will begin with the simplest approximation, called an ideal +
diode. In the most basic terms, what does a diode do? It con- 12 V
1 k

ducts well in the forward direction and poorly in the reverse –

direction. Ideally, a diode acts like a perfect conductor (zero

resistance) when forward-biased and like a perfect insulator (c)
(infinite resistance) when reverse biased.
Figure 29-5a shows the current-voltage graph of an ideal Figure 29-6
diode. It echoes what we just said: zero resistance when
forward-biased and infinite resistance when reverse-biased.
It is impossible to build such a device, but this is what manu-
EXAMPLE 29-4
facturers would produce if they could.
Is there any device that acts like an ideal diode? Yes. Calculate the load voltage and load current in Fig. 29-6b using
An ordinary switch has zero resistance when closed and an ideal diode.
infi nite resistance when open. Therefore, an ideal diode Answer:
acts like a switch that closes when forward-biased and One way to solve this problem is to thevenize the circuit to the left
opens when reverse-biased. Figure 29-5b summarizes the of the diode. Looking from the diode back toward the source, we
switch idea.

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 EXAMPLE 29-5
see a voltage divider with 6 k and 3 k. The Thevenin voltage
is 12 V, and the Thevenin resistance is 2 k. Figure 29-6c shows
Use the second approximation to calculate the load voltage, load
the Thevenin circuit driving the diode.
current, and diode power in Fig. 29-8.
Now that we have a series circuit, we can see that the diode is
forward-biased. Visualize the diode as a closed switch. Then the Answer:
remaining calculations are Since the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a battery of
12 V 0.7 V. This means that the load voltage equals the source voltage
IL  _____
3 k  4 mA minus the diode drop:
and
VL  10 V  0.7 V  9.3 V
VL  (4 mA)(1 k)  4 V
With Ohm’s law, the load current is
You don’t have to use Thevenin’s theorem. You can analyze
93 V
Fig. 29-6b by visualizing the diode as a closed switch. Then IL  ____
1 k
 9.3 mA
you have 3 k in parallel with 1 k, equivalent to 750 . Using
Ohm’s law, you can calculate a voltage drop of 32 V across the The diode power is
6 k. The rest of the analysis produces the same load voltage
and load current.
PD  (0.7 V)(9.3 mA)  6.51 mW

+
29.3 The Second and Third 10 V
RL
1 k
Approximations –

The ideal approximation is all right in most troubleshooting

situations. But we are not always troubleshooting. Sometimes,
we want a more accurate value for load current and load volt- Figure 29-8
age. This is where the second approximation comes in.
Figure 29-7a shows the graph of current versus voltage
for the second approximation. The graph says that no current The third approximation of a diode includes the bulk re-
exists until 0.7 V appears across the diode. At this point, the sistance, RB. Figure 29-9a shows the effect that RB has on the
diode turns on. Thereafter, only 0.7 V can appear across the diode curve. After the silicon diode turns on, the voltage in-
diode, no matter what the current. creases linearly with an increase in current. The greater the
Figure 29-7b shows the equivalent circuit for the second current, the larger the diode voltage because of the voltage
approximation of a silicon diode. We think of the diode as drop across the bulk resistance.
a switch in series with a barrier potential of 0.7 V. If the The equivalent circuit for the third approximation is a
Thevenin voltage facing the diode is greater than 0.7 V, the switch in series with a barrier potential of 0.7 V and a resis-
switch will close. When conducting, then the diode voltage tance of RB (see Fig. 29-9b). When the diode voltage is larger
is 0.7 V for any forward current. than 0.7 V, the diode conducts. During conduction, the total
On the other hand, if the Thevenin voltage is less than voltage across the diode is
0.7 V, the switch will open. In this case, there is no current
VD  0.7 V  ID RB (29-5)
through the diode.

3d approximation
ID 2d approximation ID

0.7 V
0.7 V RB

Reverse bias
Reverse bias
VD VD
0.7 V 0.7 V 0.7 V
0.7 V RB

Forward bias Forward bias

(a) (b) (a) (b)

Figure 29-7 (a) Diode curve for second approximation. Figure 29-9 (a) Diode curve for third approximation.
(b) Equivalent circuit for second approximation. (b) Equivalent circuit for third approximation.

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 Often, the bulk resistance is less than 1 , and we can safely
ignore it in our calculations.
Symbol Value

EXAMPLE 29-6 Average Rectified Forward Current IF(AV) 1A

@ TA  75°C
The 1N4001 of Fig. 29-10a has a bulk resistance of 0.23 . What
is the load voltage, load current, and diode power?
This tells us that the 1N4001 can handle up to 1 A in the for-
Answer:
ward direction when used as a rectifier. You will learn more
Replacing the diode by its third approximation, we get Fig. 29-10b.
The bulk resistance is small enough to ignore because it is less
about average rectified forward current in the next chapter.
than 1/100 of the load resistance. The load voltage, load current, For now, all you need to know is that 1 A is the level of
and diode power are 9.3 V, 9.3 mA, and 6.51 mW, respectively. forward current when the diode burns out because of ex-
cessive power dissipation. The average current may also be
1N4001 0.7 V
+ 0.23 Ω designated as Io.
–

+ +
Forward Voltage Drop
RL 1 kΩ
10 V 1 k 10 V Forward voltage drop is another key specification.
– –

(a) (b)

Figure 29-10 Maximum

Characteristic and Conditions Symbol Value

Forward Voltage Drop

(iF)  1.0 A, TA  25°C VF 1.1 V
29.4 Key Diode Specifications
Following are the most important specifications to consider
when replacing or selecting a diode. Such specifications are The typical 1N4001 has a forward voltage drop of 0.93 V
given in the manufacturer’s data sheet. when the current is 1 A and the junction temperature is 25°C.
If you test thousands of 1N4001s, you will find that a few will
Reverse Breakdown Voltage
have as much as 1.1 V across them when the current is 1 A.
The 1N4001 is a rectifier diode used in power supplies (cir-
cuits that convert ac voltage to dc voltage). The data sheet has Maximum Reverse Current
an entry under “Absolute Maximum Ratings”: Another specification worth discussing is maximum reverse
current.

Symbol 1N4001
Characteristic and Typical Maximum
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM 50 V Conditions Symbol Value Value

Reverse Current IR
The breakdown voltage for this diode is 50 V. This break- TA  25°C 0.05 ␮A 10 ␮A
down occurs because the diode goes into avalanche when TA  100°C 1.0 ␮A 50 ␮A
a huge number of carriers suddenly appear in the depletion
layer. With a rectifier diode like the 1N4001, breakdown is
usually destructive. This is the reverse current at the maximum reverse dc rated
Reverse breakdown voltage may also be designated PIV, voltage (50 V for a 1N4001). At 25°C, the typical 1N4001
PRV, or BV. has a maximum reverse current of 5.0 ␮A. But notice how it
increases to 500 ␮A at 100°C. Remember that this reverse
Maximum Forward Current current includes thermally produced saturation current and
Another specification of interest is average rectified forward surface-leakage current. You can see from these numbers
current, which looks like this on the data sheet: that temperature is important.

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 Side
29.5 DC Resistance of a Diode End
If you take the ratio of total diode voltage to total diode cur-
rent, you get the dc resistance of the diode. In the forward
direction, this dc resistance is symbolized by RF; in the re-
Mounting leads
verse direction, it is designated RR. Top

Forward Resistance
Because the diode is a nonlinear device, its dc resistance var-
ies with the current through it. For example, here are some 0.1 in.
pairs of forward current and voltage for a 1N914: 10 mA at Scale

0.65 V, 30 mA at 0.75 V, and 50 mA at 0.85 V. At the first

Cathode color band
point, the dc resistance is
0.65 V
RF  _____ Figure 29-11 The two-terminal SM-style package, used
10 mA  65  for SM diodes.
At the second point,
0.75 V
RF  _____  25  The SM package has two L-bend leads and a colored
30 mA band on one end of the body to indicate the cathode lead.
And at the third point, Figure 29-11 shows a typical set of dimensions. The length
0.85 mV
RF  _______  17  and width of the SM package are related to the current rating
50 mA of the device. The larger the surface area, the higher the cur-
Notice how the dc resistance decreases as the current in- rent rating. So an SM diode rated at 1 A might have a surface
creases. In any case, the forward resistance is low compared area given by 0.181 by 0.115 in. The 3 A version, on the other
to the reverse resistance. hand, might measure 0.260 by 0.236 in. The thickness tends
Reverse Resistance to remain at about 0.103 in for all current ratings.
Increasing the surface area of an SM-style diode increases
Similarly, here are two sets of reverse current and voltage for its ability to dissipate heat. Also, the corresponding increase
a 1N914: 25 nA at 20 V; 5 ␮A at 75 V. At the first point, the in the width of the mounting terminals increases the ther-
dc resistance is mal conductance to a virtual heat sink made up of the solder
20 V
RR  _____
25 nA
 800 M joints, mounting lands, and the circuit board itself.
At the second point, 29.7 The Zener Diode
75 V
RR  ____
5 ␮A
 15 M Small-signal and rectifier diodes are never intentionally op-
erated in the breakdown region because this may damage
Notice how the dc resistance decreases as we approach the
them. A zener diode is different; it is a silicon diode that
breakdown voltage (75 V).
the manufacturer has optimized for operation in the break-
down region. The zener diode is the backbone of voltage
DC Resistance versus Bulk Resistance
regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage almost constant
The dc resistance of a diode is different from the bulk resis- despite large changes in line voltage and load resistance.
tance. The dc resistance of a diode equals the bulk resistance
plus the effect of the barrier potential. In other words, the dc I-V Graph
resistance of a diode is its total resistance, whereas the bulk Figure 29-12a shows the schematic symbol of a zener diode;
resistance is the resistance of only the p and n regions. For Fig. 29-12b is an alternative symbol. In either symbol, the
this reason, the dc resistance of a diode is always greater lines resemble a z, which stands for “zener.” By varying the
than bulk resistance. doping level of silicon diodes, a manufacturer can produce
zener diodes with breakdown voltages from about 2 to over
29.6 Surface-Mount Diodes 1000 V. These diodes can operate in any of three regions:
Surface-mount (SM) diodes can be found anywhere there is forward, leakage, and breakdown.
a need for diode applications. SM diodes are small, efficient, Figure 29-12c shows the I-V graph of a zener diode. In the
and relatively easy to test, remove, and replace on the circuit forward region, it starts conducting around 0.7 V, just like
board. Although there are a number of SM package styles, an ordinary silicon diode. In the leakage region (between
two basic styles dominate the industry: SM (surface mount) zero and breakdown), it has only a small reverse current. In a
and SOT (small outline transistor). zener diode, the breakdown has a very sharp knee, followed

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 I RS VS RS VZ

+ + + +
VS VZ
– – – –
–VZ
V
(a)
–IZ T (b)

Bridge RS
rectifier
+
–IZ M with +
VS
capacitor-input VZ
(a) (b) (c) –
filter –
Figure 29-12 Zener diode. (a) Schematic symbol.
(b) Alternative symbol. (c) Graph of current versus voltage.
(c)

by an almost vertical increase in current. Note that the volt- Figure 29-13 Zener regulator. (a) Basic circuit. (b) Same
age is almost constant, approximately equal to VZ over most circuit with grounds. (c) Power supply drives regulator.
of the breakdown region. Data sheets usually specify the
For instance, suppose you want to know the voltage across
value of VZ at a particular test current IZT.
the series resistor of Fig. 29-13b. Here is the one way to find
Figure 29-12c also shows the maximum reverse current
it when you have a built-up circuit. First, measure the voltage
IZM. As long as the reverse current is less than IZM, the diode
from the left end of RS to ground. Second, measure the voltage
is operating within its safe range. If the current is greater
from the right end of RS to ground. Third, subtract the two volt-
than IZM, the diode will be destroyed. To prevent excessive
ages to get the voltage across RS. If you have a floating VOM
reverse current, a current-limiting resistor must be used (dis-
or DMM, you can connect directly across the series resistor.
cussed later).
Figure 29-13c shows the output of a power supply con-
Zener Resistance nected to a series resistor and a zener diode. This circuit is
In the third approximation of a silicon diode, the forward used when you want a dc output voltage that is less than the
voltage across a diode equals the knee voltage plus the ad- output of the power supply. A circuit like this is called a
ditional voltage across the bulk resistance. zener voltage regulator, or simply a zener regulator.
Similarly, in the breakdown region, the reverse voltage Ohm’s Law Applies
across a diode equals the breakdown voltage plus the addi-
In Fig. 29-13, the voltage across the series or current-limiting
tional voltage across the bulk resistance. In the reverse region,
resistor equals the difference between the source voltage and
the bulk resistance is referred to as the zener resistance.
the zener voltage. Therefore, the current through the resistor is
In Fig. 29-12c, the zener resistance means that an increase
V V
in reverse current produces a slight increase in reverse volt- IS  ______
S
R
Z
(29-6)
S
age. The increase in voltage is very small, typically only a
Once you have the value of series current, you also have the
few tenths of a volt.
value of zener current. This is because Fig. 29-13 is a series
Zener Regulator circuit. Note that IS must be less than IZM.
A zener diode is sometimes called a voltage-regulator diode
because it maintains a constant output voltage even though the EXAMPLE 29-6
current through it changes. For normal operation, you have to
Suppose the zener diode of Fig. 29-14 has a breakdown voltage
reverse-bias the zener diode, as shown in Fig. 29-13a. Further- of 10 V. What are the minimum and maximum zener currents?
more, to get breakdown operation, the source voltage VS must
820 ⍀
be greater than the zener breakdown voltage, VZ. A series re-
+
sistor RS is always used to limit the zener current to less than +
20 to
its maximum current rating. Otherwise, the zener diode will 40 V
Vin Vout

burn out like any device with too much power dissipation. –
–
Figure 29-13b shows an alternative way to draw the cir-
cuit with grounds. Whenever a circuit has grounds, you can Figure 29-14 Example.
measure voltages with respect to ground.

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 RS
Answer: +
+ +
The applied voltage may vary from 20 to 40 V. The zener voltage
VS VZ RL VL
is 10 V; therefore, the output voltage is 40 V for any source voltage
– –
between 20 and 40 V. –
The minimum current occurs when the source voltage is mini-
mum. Visualize 20 V on the left end of the resistor and 10 V on the (a)
right end. Then you can see that the voltage across the resistor
is 20 V  10 V, or 10 V. The rest is Ohm’s law: RS

+
10 V
IS  _____  12.2 mA Power +
820  VS
supply VZ
RL
The maximum current occurs when the source voltage is 40 V. –
–
In this case, the voltage across the resistor is 30 V, which gives
a current of
(b)
30 V
IS  _____  36.6 mA
820  Figure 29-15 Loaded zener regulator. (a) Basic circuit.
In a voltage regulator like Fig. 29-14, the output voltage is held (b) Practical circuit.
constant at 10 V, despite the change in source voltage from 20 to
40 V. The larger source voltage produces more zener current, but
the output voltage holds rock-solid at 10 V. (If the zener resistance other words, if you disconnect the load resistor, the current
is included, the output voltage increases slightly when the source through the series resistor still equals the voltage across the
voltage increases.) resistor divided by the resistance.

Load Current
29.8 The Loaded Zener Regulator Ideally, the load voltage equals the zener voltage because
Figure 29-15a shows a loaded zener regulator, and the load resistor is in parallel with the zener diode. As an
Fig. 29-15b shows the same circuit with grounds. The zener equation,
diode operates in the breakdown region and holds the load
voltage constant. Even if the source voltage changes or the VL  VZ (29-9)
load resistance varies, the load voltage will remain fixed and
This allows us to use Ohm’s law to calculate the load
equal to the zener voltage.
current:
Breakdown Operation V
IL  __
R
L
(29-10)
How can you tell whether the zener diode of Fig. 29-15 is L

operating in the breakdown region? Because of the voltage

divider, the Thevenin voltage facing the diode is Zener Current
RL With Kirchhoff’s current law,
VTH  ______
R  R VS (29-7)
S L
IS  IZ  IL
This is the voltage that exists when the zener diode is dis-
connected from the circuit. This Thevenin voltage has to be The zener diode and the load resistor are in parallel.
greater than the zener voltage; otherwise, breakdown cannot The sum of their currents has  to equal the total cur-
occur. rent, which is the same as the current through the series
Series Current resistor.
We can rearrange the foregoing equation to get this im-
Unless otherwise indicated, in all subsequent discussions we
portant formula:
assume that the zener diode is operating in the breakdown
region. In Fig. 29-15, the current through the series resistor
IZ  IS  IL (29-11)
is given by
VS  VZ This tells you that the zener current no longer equals the
IS  ______
R (29-8)
S
series current, as it does in an unloaded zener regulator.
This is Ohm’s law applied to the current-limiting resis- Because of the load resistor, the zener current now equals
tor. It is the same whether or not there is a load resistor. In the series current minus the load current.

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 E X A M P L E 2 9 -7
R
+VP
Is the zener diode of Fig. 29-16a operating in the breakdown VZ + 0.7
region?
0 RL 0
270 ⍀
–VZ – 0.7
–VP

+ +
10 V
Figure 29-17 Zener diodes used for waveshaping.
18 V 1 k⍀
– –
exceptions. Sometimes zener diodes are used in waveshaping
circuits like Fig. 29-17.
(a)
Notice the back-to-back connection of two zener diodes. On
the positive half-cycle, the upper diode conducts and the lower
270 ⍀ diode breaks down. Therefore, the output is clipped as shown. The
+
clipping level equals the zener voltage (broken-down diode) plus
Power + 0.7 V (forward-biased diode).
supply 18 V On the negative half-cycle, the action is reversed. The lower
10 V 1 k⍀
– – diode conducts, and the upper diode breaks down. In this way, the
output is almost a square wave. The larger the input sine wave,
the better looking the output square wave.
(b)

Figure 29-16 Example.

EXAMPLE 29-10
Answer:
1 k Briefly describe the circuit action for each of the circuits in
VTH  ___________ (18 V)  14.2 V Fig. 29-18.
270   1 k
Since this Thevenin voltage is greater than the zener voltage, the
zener diode is operating in the breakdown region. +
Power 5.6 V
12 V
supply
–
EXAMPLE 29-8 6-V
6.4 V
relay
What does the zener current equal in Fig. 29-16b?
Answer:
You are given the voltage on both ends of the series resistor. (a)
Subtract the voltages, and you can see that 8  V is across the
series resistor. Then Ohm’s law gives
8V +
IS  _____  29.6 mA
270  Power 6.8 V
12 V
supply
Since the load voltage is 10 V, the load current is
– +
10 V 1000 mF
IL  ____
1 k  10 mA 6-V rating
5.2 V
–

The zener current is the difference between the two currents:

(b)
IZ  29.6 mA  10 mA  19.6 mA
Figure 29-18 Zener applications. (a) Using a 6-V relay
in a 12-V system. (b) Using a 6-V capacitor in a 12-V system.
EXAMPLE 29-9 Answer:
If you try to connect a 6-V relay to a 12-V system, you will probably
What does the circuit of Fig. 29-17 do?
damage the relay. It is necessary to drop some of the voltage. Fig-
Answer: ure 29-18a shows one way to do this. By connecting a 5.6-V zener
In most applications, zener diodes are used in voltage regula- diode in series with the relay, only 6.4 V appears across the relay,
tors where they remain in the breakdown region. But there are which is usually within the tolerance of the relay’s voltage rating.

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 Tolerance
Large electrolytic capacitors often have small voltage ratings.
Most zener diodes will have a suffix A, B, C, or D to identify
For instance, an electrolytic capacitor of 1000 ␮F may have a
voltage rating of only 6 V. This means that the maximum volt- the zener voltage tolerance. Because these suffix markings
age across the capacitor should be less than 6 V. Figure 29-18b are not always consistent, be sure to identify any spe-
shows a workaround solution in which a 6-V electrolytic capacitor cial notes included on the zener’s data sheet that indicate
is used with a 12-V power supply. Again, the idea is to use a zener that specific tolerance. For instance, the data sheet for the
diode to drop some of the voltage. In this case, the zener diode
1N4728A series shows its tolerance to equal 5%. A suffix
drops 6.8 V, leaving only 5.2 V across the capacitor. This way, the
electrolytic capacitor can filter the power supply and still remain of C generally indicates 2%, D 1%, and no suffix 20%.
with its voltage rating.
Zener Resistance
The zener resistance (also called zener impedance) may be
designated RZT or Z ZT. For instance, the 1N4740A has a zener
29.9 Zener Specifications resistance of 7  measured at a test current of 25 mA. As
Following are the main zener specifications you should con- long as the zener current is beyond the knee of the curve, you
sider in replacing or selecting a zener diode. can use 7  as the approximate value of the zener resistance.
Maximum Power But note how the zener resistance increases at the knee of
the curve (700 ). The point is this: Operation should be at
The power dissipation of a zener diode equals the product of
or near the test current, if at all possible. Then you know that
its voltage and current:
the zener resistance is relatively small.
PZ  VZ IZ (29-12) The data sheet contains a lot of additional information,
For instance, if VZ  12 V and IZ  10 mA, then but it is primarily aimed at designers. If you do get in-
PZ  (12 V)(10 mA)  120 mW volved in design work, then you have to read the data sheet
carefully, including the notes that specify how quantities
As long as PZ is less than the power rating, the zener diode were measured.
can operate in the breakdown region without being de-
stroyed. Commercially available zener diodes have power 29.10 Optoelectronic Devices
ratings from 1⁄4 to more than 50 W. Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics
For example, the data sheet for the 1N4728A series lists and electronics. This field includes many devices based
a maximum power rating of 1 W. A safe design includes a on the action of a pn junction. Examples of optoelectronic
safety factor to keep the power dissipation well below this devices are light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes,
1-W maximum. optocouplers, and laser diodes. Our discussion begins
Maximum Current with the LED.
Data sheets often include the maximum current a zener diode Light-Emitting Diode
can handle without exceeding its power rating. If this value Figure 29-19a shows a source connected to a resistor and
is not listed, the maximum current can be found as follows: an LED. The outward arrows symbolize the radiated light.
P
IZM  ___
V
ZM
(29-13) In a forward-biased LED, free electrons cross the junction
Z
and fall into holes. As these electrons fall from a higher to a
where IZM  maximum-rated zener current lower energy level, they radiate energy. In ordinary diodes,
PZM  power rating this energy is radiated in the form of heat. But in an LED, the
energy is radiated as light. LEDs made from different ele-
VZ  zener voltage ments have the ability to radiate energy across a wide wave-
length spectrum. LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps
For example, the 1N4742A has a zener voltage of 12 V and in many applications because of their low voltage, long life,
a 1-W power rating. Therefore, it has a maximum current and fast on-off switching.
rating of By using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phospho-
1W
IZM  ____  83.3 mA rus, a manufacturer can produce LEDs that radiate red,
12 V green, yellow, blue, orange, or infrared (invisible). LEDs
If you satisfy the current rating, you automatically satisfy that produce visible radiation are useful with instruments,
the power rating. For instance, if you keep the maximum calculators, and so on. The infrared LED finds applications
zener current less than 83.3 mA, you are also keeping the in burglar alarm systems, remote controls, CD players, and
maximum power dissipation less than 1 W. other devices requiring invisible radiation.

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 RS RS +
A
+
+ + Power + F B
VS G
VS VD supply VD
– – – –
E C

(a) D
A B C D E F G
(b)
(a) (b)
Red Green
Figure 29-20 Seven-segment indicator. (a) Physical
layout of segments. (b) Schematic diagram.

Breakdown Voltage
LEDs have very low breakdown voltages, typically between
3 and 5 V. Because of this, they are easily destroyed if
reverse-biased with too much voltage. When troubleshoot-
ing an LED circuit in which the LED will not light, check
the polarity of the LED connection to make sure that it is
forward-biased.
An LED is often used to indicate the presence of power-
(c)
line voltage into equipment. In this case, a rectifier diode
Figure 29-19 LED indicator. (a) Basic circuit. (b) Practical may be used in parallel with the LED to prevent reverse-bias
circuit. (c) Typical LEDs. destruction of the LED.

Seven-Segment Display
LED Voltage and Current Figure 29-20a shows a seven-segment display. It contains
The resistor of Fig. 29-19b is the usual current-limiting resis- seven rectangular LEDs (A through G). Each LED is called
tor that prevents the current from exceeding the maximum a segment because it forms part of the character being dis-
current rating of the diode. Since the resistor has a node volt- played. Figure 29-20b is a schematic diagram of the seven-
age of VS on the left and a node voltage of VD on the right, the segment display. External series resistors are included to
voltage across the resistor is the difference between the two limit the currents to safe levels. By grounding one or more
voltages. With Ohm’s law, the series current is resistors, we can form any digit from 0 through 9. For in-
V V stance, by grounding A, B, and C, we get a 7. Grounding A,
IS  ______
S
R
D
(29-14)
S B, C, D, and G produces a 3.
For most commercially available LEDs, the typical volt- A seven-segment display can also display capital letters
age drop is from 1.5 to 2.5 V for currents between 10 and A, C, E, and F, plus lowercase letters b and d. Microproces-
50 mA. The exact voltage drop depends on the LED current, sor trainers often use seven-segment displays that show all
color, tolerance, and so on. Unless otherwise specified, we digits from 0 through 9, plus A, b, C, d, E, and F.
will use a nominal drop of 2 V when troubleshooting or ana- The seven-segment indicator of Fig. 29-20b is referred
lyzing the LED circuits in this book. Figure 29-19c shows to as the common-anode type because all anodes are con-
typical LEDs. nected together. Also available is the common-cathode
type, in which all cathodes are connected together.
LED Brightness
The brightness of an LED depends on the current. When Photodiode
VS is much greater than VD in Formula (29-14), the bright- As previously discussed, one component of reverse current in
ness of the LED is approximately constant. For instance, a a diode is the flow of minority carriers. These carriers exist
TIL222 is a green LED with a forward voltage of between because thermal energy keeps dislodging valence electrons
1.8 (minimum) and 3 V (maximum), for a current of 25 from their orbits, producing free electrons and holes in the
mA. If a circuit like Fig. 29-19b is mass-produced using a process. The lifetime of the minority carriers is short, but
TIL222, the brightness of the LED will be almost constant while they exist, they can contribute to the reverse current.
if VS is much greater than VD. If VS is only slightly more When light energy bombards a pn junction, it can dis-
than VD, the LED brightness will vary noticeably from one lodge valence electrons. The more light striking the junction,
circuit to the next. the larger the reverse current in a diode. A photodiode has

512 Chapter 29

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 R applications in which the potentials of the two circuits may
+ differ by several thousand volts.
V
– Laser Diode
In an LED, free electrons radiate light when falling from
Figure 29-21 Incoming light increases reverse current in higher-energy levels to lower ones. The free electrons fall
photodiode.
randomly and continuously, resulting in light waves that
been optimized for its sensitivity to light. In this diode, a have every phase between 0 and 360°. Light that has many
window lets light pass through the package to the junction. different phases is called noncoherent light. An LED pro-
The incoming light produces free electrons and holes. The duces noncoherent light.
stronger the light, the greater the number of minority carri- A laser diode is different. It produces a coherent light.
ers and the larger the reverse current. This means that all the light waves are in phase with each
Figure 29-21 shows the schematic symbol of a photodi- other. The basic idea of a laser diode is to use a mirrored
ode. The arrows represent the incoming light. Especially resonant chamber that reinforces the emission of light waves
important, the source and the series resistor reverse-bias the at a single frequency of the same phase. Because of the reso-
photodiode. As the light becomes brighter, the reverse cur- nance, a laser diode produces a narrow beam of light that is
rent increases. With typical photodiodes, the reverse current very intense, focused, and pure.
is in the tens of microamperes. Laser diodes are also known as semiconductor lasers.
These diodes can produce visible light (red, green, or blue)
Optocoupler and invisible light (infrared). Laser diodes are used in a large
An optocoupler (also called an optoisolator) combines an variety of applications. They are used in telecommunica-
LED and a photodiode in a single package. Figure 29-22 tions, data communications, broadband access, industrial,
shows an optocoupler. It has an LED on the input side and aerospace, test and measurement, and medical and defense
a photodiode on the output side. The left source voltage and industries. They are also used in laser printers and consumer
the series resistor set up a current through the LED. Then products requiring large-capacity optical disc systems, such
the light from the LED hits the photodiode, and this sets as compact disc (CD) and digital video disc (DVD) players.
up a reverse current in the output circuit. This reverse cur- In broadband communication, they are used with fiber-optic
rent produces a voltage across the output resistor. The output cables to increase the speed of the Internet.
voltage then equals the output supply voltage minus the volt- A fiber-optic cable is analogous to a stranded wire cable,
age across the resistor. except that the strands are thin flexible fibers of glass or
When the input voltage is varying, the amount of light plastic that transmit light beams instead of free electrons.
is fluctuating. This means that the output voltage is varying The advantage is that much more information can be sent
in step with the input voltage. This is why the combination through a fiber-optic cable than through a copper cable.
of an LED and a photodiode is called an optocoupler. The New applications are being found as the lasing wave-
device can couple an input signal to the output circuit. Other length is pushed lower into the visible spectrum with
types of optocouplers use phototransistors, photothyristors, visible laser diodes (VLDs). Also, near-infrared diodes
and other photo devices in their output circuit side. are being used in machine vision systems, sensors, and
The key advantage of an optocoupler is the electrical iso- security systems.
lation between the input and output circuits. With an opto-
coupler, the only contact between the input and the output is
EXAMPLE 29-11
a beam of light. Because of this, it is possible to have an in-
sulation resistance between the two circuits in the thousands Figure 29-23a shows a voltage-polarity tester. It can be used
of megohms. Isolation like this is useful in high-voltage to test a dc voltage of unknown polarity. When the dc voltage
is positive, the green LED lights up. When the dc voltage is
R1 R2 negative, the red LED lights up. What is the approximate LED
– +
current if the dc input voltage is 50 V and the series resistance
+ + + + is 2.2 k?
V1 Vin Vout V2
– – Answer:
– –
We will use a forward voltage of approximately 2 V for either LED.
With Formula (29-14),
V2V
Figure 29-22 Optocoupler combines an LED and a IS  50
_________  21.8 mA
2.2 k
photodiode.

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 Reverse Recovery Time
RS The time it takes to turn off a forward-biased diode is called
the reverse recovery time, trr. The conditions for measuring
DC voltage trr vary from one manufacturer to the next. As a guide, trr is
Red Green the time it takes for the reverse current to drop to 10% of the
forward current.
For instance, the 1N4148 has a t rr of 4 ns. If this diode
(a)
has a forward current of 10 mA and it is suddenly re-
verse-biased, it will take approximately 4 ns for the re-
RS verse current to decrease to 1 mA. Reverse recovery time
is so short in small-signal diodes that you don’t even no-
Continuity tice its effect at frequencies below 10 MHz or so. It’s only
test when you get well above 10 MHz that you have to take trr
into account.
+ –
9V
Poor Rectification at High Frequencies
(b)
What effect does reverse recovery time have on rectifica-
Figure 29-23 (a) Polarity indicator. (b) Continuity tester. tion? Take a look at the half-wave rectifier shown in Fig.
29-24a. At low frequencies the output is a half-wave rec-
tified signal. As the frequency increases well into mega-
hertz, however, the output signal begins to deviate from
EXAMPLE 29-12 the half-wave shape, as shown in Fig. 29-24b. Some re-
Figure 29-23b is a continuity tester. After you turn off all the verse conduction (called tails) is noticeable near the begin-
power in a circuit under test, you can use this circuit to check for ning of the reverse half-cycle.
the continuity of cables, connectors, and switches. How much LED The problem is that the reverse recovery time has become
current is there if the series resistance is 470 ? a significant part of the period, allowing conduction during
Answer: the early part of the negative half-cycle. For instance,
When the input terminals are shorted (continuity), the internal 9-V if trr  4 ns and the period is 50 ns, the early part of the
battery produces an LED current of reverse half-cycle will have tails similar to those shown in
V2V Fig. 29-24b. As the frequency continues to increase, the
IS  9________  14.9 mA
470  rectifier becomes useless.

Eliminating Charge Storage

29.11 The Schottky Diode The solution to the problem of tails is a special-purpose
As frequency increases, the action of small-signal recti- device called a Schottky diode. This kind of diode uses
fier diodes begins to deteriorate. They are no longer able to a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum on one side of the
switch off fast enough to produce a well-defined half-wave junction and doped silicon (typically n-type) on the other
signal. The solution to this problem is the Schottky diode. side. See Fig. 29-25. Because of the metal on one side of the
Before describing this special-purpose diode, let us look at junction, the Schottky diode has no depletion layer. The lack
the problem that arises with ordinary small-signal diodes.

Charge Storage Ordinary

+
When a pn junction diode is forward-biased, electrons and V

holes freely flow across the junction. If the junction is sud- V

denly reverse-biased, it takes a finite period of time for the –

t
electrons and holes to clear out of the depletion region. The
charges are temporarily stored there. (a) (b)
When you try to switch a diode from on to off, the stored
Figure 29-24 Stored charges degrade rectifier behavior
charges will flow in the reverse direction for a while. This at high frequencies. (a) Rectifier circuit with ordinary small-
limits the effectiveness of the diode as a rectifier at high signal diode. (b) Tails appear on negative half-cycles at higher
frequencies. frequencies.

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 digital integrated circuits to achieve operating speeds up to
200 MHz.
Cathode (K) N-type Anode (A)
(a) semi.
Metal A final point: Since a Schottky diode has a barrier poten-
tial of only 0.25 V, you may occasionally see it used in low-
voltage bridge rectifiers because you subtract only 0.25 V
instead of the usual 0.7 V for each diode when using the
Electron flow
second approximation. In a low-voltage supply, this lower
(b)
diode voltage drop is an advantage.
K A
29.12 The Varactor
Figure 29-25 The Schottky diode is a metal- The varactor (also called the voltage-variable capacitance,
semiconductor junction. Note (a) direction of electron flow varicap, epicap, and tuning diode) is widely used in tele-
and (b) schematic symbol.
vision receivers, FM receivers, and other communications
equipment because it can be used for electronic tuning.
of a depletion layer means that there are no stored charges
Basic Idea
at the junction. The Schottky diode is sometimes called a
hot-carrier diode. In Fig. 29-27a, the depletion layer is between the p region
and the n region. The p and n regions are like the plates
High-Speed Turnoff of a capacitor, and the depletion layer is like the dielectric.
The lack of charge storage means that the Schottky diode When a diode is reverse-biased, the width of the depletion
can switch off faster than an ordinary diode can. In fact, layer increases with the reverse voltage. Since the depletion
a Schottky diode can easily rectify frequencies above layer gets wider with more reverse voltage, the capacitance
500 MHz. When it is used in a circuit like Fig. 29-26a, the becomes smaller. It’s as though you moved apart the plates
Schottky diode produces a perfect half-wave signal like of a capacitor. The key idea is that capacitance is controlled
Fig. 29-26b even at frequencies above 300 MHz. by reverse voltage.
Figure 29-26a shows the schematic symbol of a Schottky
Equivalent Circuit and Symbol
diode. Notice the cathode side. The lines look like a rectan-
gular S, which stands for Schottky. Figure 29-27b shows the ac equivalent circuit for a reverse-
biased diode. In other words, as far as an ac signal is con-
Low-Junction Voltage cerned, the varactor acts the same as a variable capacitance.
Another major advantage of the Schottky diode is its low Figure 29-27c shows the schematic symbol for a varactor.
conduction voltage drop. It is usually in the 0.2- to 0.4-V The inclusion of a capacitor in series with the diode is a re-
range. This low barrier potential makes the Schottky diode minder that a varactor is a device that has been optimized for
ideal for small-signal applications. It also results in less its variable-capacitance properties.
power consumption in power supplies.
p n
Applications
+ + + – – –
The most important application of Schottky diodes is in + + + – – –
+ + + – – –
high-speed switching power supplies. Because it has no
charge storage, the Schottky diode is also widely used in CT
Depletion layer
(a)
Schottky
CT
+
V
V (b)
V
–

t
(c) (d)
(a) (b)
Figure 29-27 Varactor. (a) Doped regions are like
Figure 29-26 Schottky diodes eliminate tails at high capacitor plates separated by a dielectric. (b) AC equivalent
frequencies. (a) Circuit with Schottky diode. (b) Half-wave circuit. (c) Schematic symbol. (d) Graph of capacitance versus
signal at 300 MHz. reverse voltage.

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 Ct, Diode Capacitance Q, Figure of Merit CR , Capacitance Ratio
VR 5 3.0 Vdc, f 5 1.0 MHz VR 5 3.0 Vdc C3 /C25
pF f 5 50 MHz f 5 1.0 MHz1
Device Min Nom Max Min Min Max
MMBV109LT1, MV209 26 29 32 200 5.0 6.5

1. CR is the ratio of Ct measured at 3 Vdc divided by Ct measured at 25 Vdc.

40
36
32
CT, capacitance (pF)

28
24
20
16
12 f = 1.0 MHz
8 TA = 258C

4
0
1 3 10 30 100
VR, reverse voltage (volts)
Diode Capacitance

Figure 29-28 MV209 partial data sheet. (Copyright of Semiconductor Components Industries, LLC. Used by Permission.)

Capacitance Decreases at Higher to 4 V. Figure 29-28 shows a partial data sheet for a
Reverse Voltages MV209 varactor diode. It lists a reference capacitance Ct of
29 pF at 3 V.
Figure 29-27d shows how the capacitance varies with re-
In addition to providing the reference value of capaci-
verse voltage. This graph shows that the capacitance gets
tance, data sheets normally list a capacitance ratio, CR, or
smaller when the reverse voltage gets larger. The really
tuning range associated with a voltage range. For example,
important idea here is that reverse dc voltage controls
along with the reference value of 29 pF, the data sheet of
capacitance.
a MV209 shows a minimum capacitance ratio of 5:1 for a
How is a varactor used? It is connected in parallel with
voltage range of 3 V to 25 V. This means that the capaci-
an inductor to form a parallel resonant circuit. This cir-
tance, or tuning range, decreases from 29 to 6 pF when the
cuit has only one frequency at which maximum impedance
voltage varies from 3 V to 25 V.
occurs. This frequency is called the resonant frequency.
If the dc reverse voltage to the varactor is changed, the
resonant frequency is also changed. This is the principle EXAMPLE 29-13
behind electronic tuning of a radio station, a TV channel,
What does the circuit of Fig. 29-29a do?
and so on.
Varactor Characteristics Answer:
Because the capacitance is voltage-controlled, varactors In Fig. 29-29a, the transistor circuit feeds a fixed number of
milliamperes into the resonant LC tank circuit. A negative
have replaced mechanically tuned capacitors in many appli- dc voltage reverse-biases the varactor. By varying this dc
cations such as television receivers and automobile radios. control voltage, we can vary the resonant frequency of the
Data sheets for varactors list a reference value of capaci- LC circuit.
tance measured at a specific reverse voltage, typically 3 V

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 –Vcontrol
V130LA2

120 Vac
R
Coupling
C RL
Output
Transistor
circuit C
L (a)

(a)
RS
Vin
15 mV peak

Sensitive
I Variable circuit
capacitance
L

(b)
(b)
Figure 29-30 (a) A varistor protects the primary
Figure 29-29 Varactors can tune resonant circuits. winding of a transformer in a basic power supply. (b) Diode
(a) Transistor (current source) drives tuned LC tank. (b) AC clamp protecting a sensitive circuit.
equivalent circuit.

As far as the ac signal is concerned, we can use the

equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 29-29b. The coupling capaci-
tor acts like a short circuit. An ac current source drives a suppressor). This semiconductor device is like two back-
resonant LC tank circuit. The varactor acts like variable ca- to-back zener diodes with a high breakdown voltage in
pacitance, which means that we can change the resonant fre- both directions. Varistors are commercially available with
quency by changing the dc control voltage. This is the basic
breakdown voltages from 10 to 1000 V. They can handle
idea behind the tuning of radio and television receivers and
other wireless devices. peak transient currents in the hundreds or thousands of
amperes.
For instance, a V130LA2 is a varistor with a breakdown
voltage of 184 V (equivalent to 130 V rms) and a peak cur-
rent rating of 400 A. Connect one of these across the pri-
mary winding as shown in Fig. 29-30a, and you don’t have
29.13 Other Diodes to worry about spikes. The varistor will clip all spikes at the
Besides the special-purpose diodes discussed so far, there 184-V level and protect your power supply.
are others you should know about. Because they are so spe- The same concept can be used to protect other sensitive
cialized, only a brief description follows. circuits. For example, two standard silicon diodes can
be connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 29-30b, to
form what is sometimes called a clamp or clipper. Any
Varistors and Clippers ac signal that exceeds the forward voltage of the diode,
Lightning, power-line faults, and transients can pollute approximately 0.7 V, will cause the diodes to conduct, one
the ac line voltage by superimposing dips and spikes on for each polarity. This clamps the input voltage at 0.7 V
the normal 120 V rms. Dips are severe voltage drops last- and clips off any spikes over that value. Such an
ing microseconds or less. Spikes are very brief overvol- arrangement is widely used to protect the input circuits
tages up to 2000 V or more. In some equipment, filters of integrated circuit amplifiers. Most ac signals to be
are used between the power line and the primary of the amplified are less than 0.7 V and so never cause the
transformer to eliminate the problems caused by ac line diodes to conduct. Any noise or undesired high-voltage
transients. spike is suppressed by the diodes. Other diodes can also
One of the devices used for line filtering is the varistor be used in a similar way. Back-to-back zener diodes work
(also called a metal-oxide varistor, or MOV, or transient well, as do Schottky diodes.

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 PIN Diodes P I N or
A PIN diode is a semiconductor device that operates as (a) (b)
a variable resistor at RF and microwave frequencies. Fig-
ure 29-31a shows its construction. It consists of an intrinsic
(pure) semiconductor material sandwiched between p-type

Series resistance, RS
and n-type materials. Figure 29-31b shows the schematic
symbol for the PIN diode.
When the diode is forward biased, it acts like a current-
controlled resistance. Figure 29-31c shows how the PIN di-
ode’s series resistance, RS, decreases as its forward current
increases. When reverse-biased, the PIN diode acts like a
fixed capacitor. The PIN diode is widely used in RF and
microwave modulator circuits. When properly biased the Forward current, IF
PIN diode can be used as a switch for microwave frequen- (c)
cies (1 GHz).
Figure 29-31 PIN diode. (a) Construction. (b) Schematic
symbol. (c) Series resistance.

CHAPTER 29 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. When the graph of current versus voltage is a straight 6. The knee voltage of a diode is approximately equal
line, the device is referred to as to the
a. active. a. applied voltage.
b. linear. b. barrier potential.
c. nonlinear. c. breakdown voltage.
d. passive. d. forward voltage.
2. What kind of device is a resistor? 7. The reverse current consists of minority-carrier
a. Unilateral. current and
b. Linear. a. avalanche current.
c. Nonlinear. b. forward current.
d. Bipolar. c. surface-leakage current.
3. What kind of a device is a diode? d. zener current.
a. Bilateral. 8. How much voltage is there across the second
b. Linear. approximation of a silicon diode when it is
c. Nonlinear. forward-biased?
d. Unipolar. a. 0 V.
4. How is a nonconducting diode biased? b. 0.3 V.
a. Forward. c. 0.7 V.
b. Inverse. d. 1 V.
c. Poorly. 9. How much current is there through the sec-
d. Reverse. ond approximation of a silicon diode when it is
5. When the diode current is large, the bias is reverse-biased?
a. forward. a. 0 mA.
b. inverse. b. 1 mA.
c. poor. c. 300 mA.
d. reverse. d. None of the above.

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 10. How much forward diode voltage is there with the 19. If the load resistance decreases in a zener regulator,
ideal-diode approximation? the series current
a. 0 V. a. decreases.
b. 0.7 V. b. stays the same.
c. More than 0.7 V. c. increases.
d. 1 V. d. equals the source voltage divided by the series
11. What is true about the breakdown voltage in a zener resistance.
diode? 20. When the source voltage increases in a zener regulator,
a. It decreases when current increases. which of these currents remains approximately constant?
b. It destroys the diode. a. Series current.
c. It equals the current times the resistance.
b. Zener current.
d. It is approximately constant.
12. Which of these is the best description of a zener diode? c. Load current.
a. It is a rectifier diode. d. Total current.
b. It is a constant-voltage device. 21. If the zener diode in a zener regulator is connected with
c. It is a constant-current device. the wrong polarity, the load voltage will be closest to
d. It works in the forward region. a. 0.7 V.
13. A zener diode
b. 10 V.
a. is a battery.
b. has a constant voltage in the breakdown region. c. 14 V.
c. has a barrier potential of 1 V. d. 18 V.
d. is forward-biased. 22. At high frequencies, ordinary diodes don’t work prop-
14. The voltage across the zener resistance is usually erly because of
a. small. a. forward bias.
b. large.
b. reverse bias.
c. measured in volts.
d. subtracted from the breakdown voltage. c. breakdown.
15. If the series resistance increases in an unloaded zener d. charge storage.
regulator, the zener current 23. The capacitance of a varactor diode increases when
a. decreases. the reverse voltage across it
b. stays the same. a. decreases.
c. increases.
d. equals the voltage divided by the resistance. b. increases.
16. The load voltage is approximately constant when a c. breaks down.
zener diode is d. stores charges.
a. forward-biased. 24. Breakdown does not destroy a zener diode, provided
b. reverse-biased. the zener current is less than the
c. operating in the breakdown region. a. breakdown voltage.
d. unbiased.
b. zener test current.
17. In a loaded zener regulator, which is the largest current?
a. Series current. c. maximum zener current rating.
b. Zener current. d. barrier potential.
c. Load current. 25. As compared to a silicon rectifier diode, an LED has a
d. None of these.
a. lower forward voltage and lower breakdown
18. If the load resistance increases in a zener regulator, voltage.
the zener current
b. lower forward voltage and higher breakdown voltage.
a. decreases.
b. stays the same. c. higher forward voltage and lower breakdown
c. increases. voltage.
d. equals the source voltage divided by the series d. higher forward voltage and higher breakdown
resistance. voltage.

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 26. To display the digit 0 in a seven-segment indicator, 32. The varactor is usually
a. C must be off. a. forward-biased.
b. reverse-biased.
b. G must be off.
c. unbiased.
c. F must be on. d. operated in the breakdown region.
d. all segments must be lighted. 33. The device to use for rectifying a weak ac signal is a
27. A photodiode is normally a. zener diode.
a. forward-biased. b. light-emitting diode.
b. reverse-biased. c. varistor.
c. neither forward- nor reverse-biased. d. Schottky diode.
d. emitting light. 34. To isolate an output circuit from an input circuit,
28. When the light decreases, the reverse minority-carrier which is the device to use?
current in a photodiode a. Varactor.
a. decreases. b. Optocoupler.
b. increases. c. Seven-segment indicator.
c. is unaffected. d. PIN diode.
d. reverses direction. 35. The diode with a forward voltage drop of approxi-
29. The device associated with voltage-controlled capaci- mately 0.25 V is the
tance is a a. zener diode.
a. light-emitting diode. b. Schottky diode.
b. photodiode. c. silicon diode.
c. varactor diode. d. varactor.
d. zener diode. 36. For typical operation, you need to use reverse bias
30. If the depletion layer width decreases, the capacitance with
a. decreases. a. a zener diode.
b. stays the same. b. a photodiode.
c. increases. c. a varactor.
d. is variable. d. all of the above.
31. When the reverse voltage decreases, the capacitance 37. As the forward current through a PIN diode de-
a. decreases. creases, its resistance
b. stays the same. a. increases.
c. increases. b. decreases.
d. has more bandwidth. c. remains constant.
d. cannot be determined.

CHAPTER 29 PROBLEMS

SECTION 29.1 Basic Diode Characteristics SECTION 29.2 The Ideal Diode
29.1 A diode is in series with 220 . If the voltage across the 29.4 In Fig. 29-32a, calculate the load current, load
resistor is 6 V, what is the current through the diode? voltage, load power, diode power, and total power.
29.2 A diode has a voltage of 0.7 V and a current of 29.5 If the resistor is doubled in Fig. 29-32a, what is the
100 mA. What is the diode power? load current?
29.3 Two diodes are in series. The first diode has a voltage 29.6 In Fig. 29-32b, calculate the load current, load
of 0.75 V and the second has a voltage of 0.8 V. If voltage, load power, diode power, and total power.
the current through the first diode is 400 mA, 29.7 If the diode polarity is reversed in Fig. 29-32b, what
what is the current through the second diode? is the diode current? The diode voltage?

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 470 ⍀
+
+ +
Power
1 k⍀ 24 V
20 V supply 15 V 1.5 k⍀
– – –

(a)
Figure 29-33
470 ⍀
29.15 Calculate all three currents in Fig. 29-33.
+ 29.16 Suppose the supply voltage of Fig. 29-33 can vary
12 V from 24 to 40 V. What is the maximum zener current?
–

(b) SECTION 29.9 Zener Specifications

29.17 A zener diode has a voltage of 10 V and a current of
Figure 29-32 20 mA. What is the power dissipation?
29.18 What is the power dissipation in the resistors and
SECTION 29.3 The Second and Third zener diode of Fig. 29-33?
Approximations
29.8 In Fig. 29-32a, calculate the load current, load SECTION 29.10 Optoelectronic Devices
voltage, load power, diode power, and total power. 29.19 What is the current through the LED of
29.9 In Fig. 29-32b, calculate the load current, load Fig. 29-34?
voltage, load power, diode power, and total power. 29.20 If the supply voltage of Fig. 29-34 increases to
29.10 If the diode polarity is reversed in Fig. 29-32b, what 40 V, what is the LED current?
is the diode current? The diode voltage? 29.21 If the resistor is decreased to 1 k, what is the LED
current in Fig. 29-34?
SECTION 29.7 The Zener Diode
29.22 The resistor of Fig. 29-34 is decreased until the
29.11 An unloaded zener regulator has a source voltage
LED current equals 13 mA. What is the value of the
of 24 V, a series resistance of 470 , and a zener
resistance?
voltage of 15 V. What is the zener current?
29.12 If the source voltage in Prob. 29-11 varies from 24
to 40 V, what is the maximum zener current? 2.2 kV

29.13 If the series resistor of Prob. 29-11 has a tolerance +

Power
of 5%, what is the maximum zener current? supply
15 V
–
SECTION 29.8 The Loaded Zener Regulator
29.14 If the zener diode is disconnected in
Fig. 29-33, what is the load voltage? Figure 29-34

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 Ch a pt er 30
Power Supply Circuits

Most electronic systems, like HDTVs, DVD/CD players, Learning Outcomes

and computers, need a dc voltage to work properly.
Since the power-line voltage is alternating, the first thing After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
we need to do is to convert the ac line voltage to dc Draw a diagram of a half-wave rectifier and
voltage. The section of the electronic system that pro- explain how it works.
duces this dc voltage is called the power supply. Within Describe the role of the input transformer in power
the power supply are circuits that allow current to flow supplies.
in only one direction. These circuits are called rectifiers. Draw a diagram of a full-wave rectifier and
This chapter discusses rectifier circuits, filters, regula- explain how it works.
tors, and voltage multipliers. Draw a diagram of a bridge rectifier and explain
how it works.
Analyze a capacitor input filter and its surge current.
List three important specifications found on a
rectifier data sheet.
Describe the action of voltage multipliers.
Define regulation and show how it is achieved with
a zener diode.

522

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 30.1 The Power Supply Subsystem inductors, or inductors in combination with capacitors, are
used to create the constant dc output. The dc voltage is com-
All electronic products, equipment, and systems have a
monly placed on an easily accessed distribution bus that can
power supply. It is the main subsystem that makes the rest
be tapped into by various loads that need the power.
of the circuits and equipment work. A power supply is a col-
The output of the filter is a dc voltage that is suitable to
lection of components and circuits that supply one or more
be used for some applications. However, in most applications
dc voltages to the circuits. In modern portable and mobile
the dc voltage is further processed with a regulator circuit. A
equipment, the power supply is a battery that is accompanied
regulator is a circuit that generates a specific dc output volt-
by a battery charger and other circuits that condition the bat-
age and provides a way to maintain that voltage at a constant
tery voltage prior to use. Another common power supply is
level despite input ac voltage variations or dc load changes.
the ac operated power supply. It usually gets its input from
Regulators are necessary as most ICs and other circuit must
the common 60-Hz ac power line. In some modern power
have an operating voltage at a very specific level such as 1.8,
supplies, the ac is internally generated by an oscillator to
2.5, 3.3, or 5 V or other level, and the voltage must be main-
produce a high-frequency ac signal that is a superior and
tained with in <1% of that value. Most regulators sense any
more efficient source of power.
output variations from the set value and proceed to make
AC Power Supply internal adjustments to correct the change. A regulator may
Figure 30-1 shows a general block diagram of a common be as simple as a zener diode, but in most cases it is an inte-
ac operated power supply. The main power source is the ac grated circuit designed for the job.
power line with its 120-V, 60-Hz sine wave. That input volt- Finally, many power supplies today must generate mul-
age is first passed through a low-pass filter to prevent high- tiple dc voltages. These are created from the main filtered
frequency spikes and noise on the power line from entering dc supply with multiple regulators and, in some cases, dc-dc
the power supply and to prevent any high-frequency signals converters. A dc-dc converter is a circuit that converts one dc
generated by the power supply from getting onto the ac line. input level to another dc level. AC signals are easily stepped
Next the filtered ac is supplied to a transformer to step up up or down with a transformer, but you cannot do that with
or step down the voltage to a level appropriate to the equip- dc. The dc-dc converter provides a way to produce a needed
ment to be powered. In most cases, the 120 Vac is too high dc value when only another dc voltage is available. DC-DC
for modern integrated circuits, so a step-down transformer is converters are available in IC form or in modules that can be
used to lower the voltage. used like an IC.
Next, a rectifier circuit, converts the sine wave into dc pulses DC Power Supply
at a 60-Hz rate. Rectifiers are diodes, used individually or in
Another common power supply is the one used in portable
various combinations to produce the dc pulses. In some appli-
equipment, such as laptop computers, cell phones, and digi-
cations transistors are used as rectifiers. In this chapter you will
tal cameras. Figure 30-2 is a block diagram of such a power
learn about the most common diode rectifier circuits.
supply. The main power source is a battery. It can be a pair
Next, the dc pulses are passed to a filter. This is a low-
of alkaline AA cells, a lithium-ion battery, or a 12-V car
pass filter that is used to smooth the pulses into a constant
battery. No rectifiers are needed since the power is already
dc voltage. The most common filter is a large capacitor, but
in dc form. However, that dc voltage is then conditioned by
regulators and dc-dc converters as needed.

Regulator
Regulator
AC
power
line
DC Outputs

Low- Regulator
120 V,
60 H3 pass Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator 
filter Battery DC
Battery Filter
charger outputs
 DC-DC
converter

DC-DC
converter DC-DC
converter
AC line

Figure 30-1 Generic block diagram of an ac-to-dc power

supply. Figure 30-2 A typical battery power supply.

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 A key circuit in this power supply is the battery charger. vin

It is basically a simple ac-to-dc power supply with an output

voltage suitable for recharging the battery when necessary. VP(in)

Finally, most dc battery supplies have a power management

t
capability, usually on the basis of multiple circuits in an IC
that monitor voltage levels, battery condition, temperature,
and other conditions. It can do things like sense overvolt- (a)
age or overcurrent conditions or excessive temperature and Ideal
turn the power off. It can also turn the regulators or dc-dc
converters on or off in sequence as may be required by the
circuits to be powered. vin vout
This chapter focuses on the basic ac-to-dc power supply
and its circuits. You will learn more about regulators, dc-dc
converters, and power management in a later chapter.
(b)
30.2 The Half-Wave Rectifier vout
Figure 30-3a shows a half-wave rectifier circuit. The
ac source  produces a sinusoidal voltage. Assuming an VP(out)
ideal diode, the positive half-cycle of source voltage will
forward-bias the diode. Since the switch is closed, as shown t
in Fig. 30-3b, the positive half-cycle of source voltage will
(c)
appear across the load resistor. On the negative half-cycle,
the diode is reverse-biased. In this case, the ideal diode will Figure 30-4 (a) Input to half-wave rectifier. (b) Circuit.
appear as an open switch, as shown in Fig. 30-3c, and no (c) Output of half-wave rectifier.
voltage appears across the load resistor.
means that it flows in only one direction. If the diode were
Ideal Waveforms reversed, the output pulses would be negative.
Figure 30-4a shows a graphical representation of the input A half-wave signal like the one in Fig. 30-4c is a pulsating
voltage waveform. It is a sine wave with an instantaneous dc voltage that increases to a maximum, decreases to zero,
value of vin and a peak value of Vp(in). A pure sinusoid like and then remains at zero during the negative half-cycle. This
this has an average value of zero over one cycle because each is not the kind of dc voltage we need for electronics equip-
instantaneous voltage has an equal and opposite voltage half ment. What we need is a constant voltage, the same as you
a cycle later. If you measure this voltage with a dc voltmeter, get from a battery. To get this kind of voltage, we need to
you will get a reading of zero because a dc voltmeter indi- filter the half-wave signal (discussed later in this chapter).
cates the average value. When you are troubleshooting, you can use the ideal diode
In the half-wave rectifier of Fig. 30-4b, the diode is con- to analyze a half-wave rectifier. It’s useful to remember that
ducting during the positive half-cycle but is nonconducting the peak output voltage equals the peak input voltage:
during the negative half-cycle. Because of this, the circuit Ideal half-wave: Vp(out)  Vp(in) (30-1)
clips off the negative half-cycle, as shown in Fig. 30-4c.
We call a waveform like this a half-wave signal. This half- DC Value of Half-Wave Signal
wave voltage produces a unidirectional load current. This The dc value of a signal is the same as the average value.
If you measure a signal with a dc voltmeter, the reading will
Ideal Closed
Open equal the average value. The formula is
Vp
+ + –
Half-wave: Vdc  ____
 (30-2)
0V
Since 1/ ≈ 0.318, you may see Formula (30-2) written as
– – +
Vdc ≈ 0.318Vp
When the equation is written in this form, you can see that
(a) (b) (c)
the dc or average value equals 31.8% of the peak value. For
Figure 30-3 (a) Ideal half-wave rectifier. (b) On positive instance, if the peak voltage of the half-wave signal is 100 V,
half-cycle. (c) On negative half-cycle. the dc voltage or average value is 31.8 V.

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 Output Frequency Phasing Dots
The output frequency is the same as the input frequency. This Recall the meaning of the phasing dots shown at the upper
makes sense when you compare Fig. 30-4c with Fig. 30-4a. ends of the windings. Dotted ends have the same instantaneous
Each cycle of input voltage produces one cycle of output phase. In other words, when a positive half-cycle appears across
voltage. Therefore, we can write the primary, a positive half-cycle appears across the secondary.
If the secondary dot were on the ground end, the secondary
Half-wave: fout  fin (30-3)
voltage would be 180° out of phase with the primary voltage.
We will use this derivation later with filters. On the positive half-cycle of primary voltage, the second-
ary winding has a positive half sine wave across it and the
Second Approximation
diode is forward-biased. On the negative half-cycle of pri-
We don’t get a perfect half-wave voltage across the load mary voltage, the secondary winding has a negative half-
resistor. Because of the barrier potential, the diode does not cycle and the diode is reverse-biased. Assuming an ideal
turn on until the ac source voltage reaches approximately diode, we will get a half-wave load voltage.
0.7 V. When the peak source voltage is much greater than
0.7 V, the load voltage will resemble a half-wave signal. For Turns Ratio
instance, if the peak source voltage is 100 V, the load volt- Recall from your earlier course work the following
age will be very close to a perfect half-wave voltage. If the derivation:
peak source voltage is only 5 V, the load voltage will have
V1
a peak of only 4.3 V. When you need to get a better answer, V2  _____ (30-5)
N1/N2
use this derivation:
This says that the secondary voltage equals the primary volt-
2d half-wave: Vp(out)  Vp(in)  0.7 V (30-4)
age divided by the turns ratio. Sometimes you will see this
30.3 The Transformer equivalent form:
Power companies in the United States supply a nominal line N
V2  ___2 V1
voltage of 120 V rms and a frequency of 60 Hz. The actual N1
voltage coming out of a power outlet may vary from 105 to This says that the secondary voltage equals the inverse turns
125 V rms, depending on the time of day, the locality, and ratio times the primary voltage.
other factors. Line voltage is too high for most of the circuits You can use either formula for rms, peak values, and
used in electronics equipment. This is why a transformer is instantaneous voltages. Most of the time, we will use
commonly used in the power supply section of almost all Formula (30-5) with rms values because ac source voltages
electronics equipment. The transformer steps the line voltage are almost always specified as rms values.
down to safer and lower levels that are more suitable for use The terms step up and step down are also encountered when
with diodes, transistors, and other semiconductor devices. dealing with transformers. These terms always relate the sec-
Basic Idea ondary voltage to the primary voltage. This means that a step-
Earlier courses discussed the transformer in detail. All we up transformer will produce a secondary voltage that is larger
need in this chapter is a brief review. Figure 30-5 shows than the primary, and a step-down transformer will produce a
a  transformer. Here you see line voltage applied to the secondary voltage that is smaller than the primary.
primary winding of a transformer. Usually, the power plug
has a third prong to ground the equipment. Because of the EXAMPLE 30-1
turns ratio N1yN2, the secondary voltage is stepped down
when N1 is greater than N2. What are the peak load voltage and dc load voltage in Fig. 30-6?

5:1
N1:N2
120 V
120 V 60 Hz
60 Hz RL
V1 V2
1 kV
RL

Figure 30-6
Figure 30-5 Half-wave rectifier with transformer.

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 Answer:
The transformer has a turns ratio of 5 : 1. This means that the rms
secondary voltage is one-fifth of the primary voltage:
D1
N1:N2
120 V
V2  ______
5  24 V
and the peak secondary voltage is
RL
24 V
Vp  _____
0.707  34 V
With an ideal diode, the peak load voltage is
D2
Vp(out)  34 V
(a)
The dc load voltage is
Vp 34 V
_____
    10.8 V
Vdc  ____
With the second approximation, the peak load voltage is

Vp(out)  34 V  0.7 V  33.3 V

D1
and the dc load voltage is N1:N2
Vp ______
33.3 V + +
    10.6 V
Vdc  ____
+
–
RL
–
–
30.4 The Full-Wave Rectifier
Figure 30-7a shows a full-wave rectifier circuit. Notice the (b)
grounded center tap on  the secondary winding. The full-
wave rectifier is equivalent to two half-wave rectifiers. Be-
cause of the center tap, each of these rectifiers has an input
voltage equal to half the secondary voltage. Diode D1 con-
ducts on the positive half-cycle, and diode D2 conducts on
the negative half-cycle. As a result, the rectified load current N1:N2
flows during both half-cycle. The full-wave rectifier acts the
same as two back-to-back half-wave rectifiers. –
Figure 30-7b shows the equivalent circuit for the positive +
RL
half-cycle. As you see, D1 is forward-biased. This produces a –
–
positive load voltage as indicated by the plus-minus polarity + +
across the load resistor. Figure 30-7c shows the equivalent
circuit for the negative half-cycle. This time, D2 is forward- D2
biased. As you can see, this also produces a positive load
(c)
voltage.
During both half-cycle, the load voltage has the same
polarity and the load current is in the same direction. The
vout
circuit is called a full-wave rectifier because it has changed
the ac input voltage to the pulsating dc output voltage shown
VP(out) Ideal
in Fig. 30-7d.
t
DC or Average Value
Since the full-wave signal has twice as many positive cycles (d)
as the half-wave signal, the dc or average value is twice as
much, given by Figure 30-7 (a) Full-wave rectifier. (b) Equivalent circuit
2Vp for positive half-cycle. (c) Equivalent circuit for negative
Full wave: Vdc  ___
 (30-6) half-cycle. (d) Full-wave output.

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 Since 2/  0.636, you may see Formula (30-6) written as
The full-wave rectifier acts like two back-to-back half-wave
Vdc < 0.636Vp rectifiers. Because of the center tap, the input voltage to each
half-wave rectifier is only half the secondary voltage
In this form, you can see that the dc or average value equals
63.6% of the peak value. For instance, if the peak voltage Vp(in)  0.5(17 V)  8.5 V
of the full-wave signal is 100 V, the dc voltage or average Ideally, the output voltage is
value is 63.6 V.
Vp(out)  8.5 V
Output Frequency Using the second approximation,
With a half-wave rectifier, the output frequency equals the Vp(out)  8.5 V  0.7 V  7.8 V
input frequency. But with a full-wave rectifier, something
unusual happens to the output frequency. The ac line voltage
has a frequency of 60 Hz. Therefore, the input period equals
EX A M P L E 3 0 -3
1  ______
Tin  __ 1  16.7 ms
f 60 Hz
If one of the diodes in Fig. 30-7 were open, what would happen to
Because of the full-wave rectification, the period of the the different voltages?
full-wave signal is half the input period: Answer:
Tout  0.5(16.7 ms)  8.33 ms If one of the diodes is open, the circuit reverts to a half-wave
rectifier. In this case, half the secondary voltage is still 8.5 V, but
When we calculate the output frequency, we get the load voltage will be a half-wave signal rather than a full-wave
signal. This half-wave voltage will still have a peak of 8.5 V (ideally)
fout  ___ 1
1  _______  120 Hz or 7.8 V (second approximation).
Tout 8.33 ms
The frequency of the full-wave signal is double the input
frequency. This makes sense. A full-wave output has twice 30.5 The Bridge Rectifier
as many cycles as the sine-wave input has. The full-wave
Figure 30-8a shows a bridge rectifier circuit. The bridge
rectifier inverts each negative half-cycle, so that we get dou-
rectifier is similar to a full-wave rectifier because it produces
ble the number of positive half-cycle. The effect is to double
a full-wave output voltage. Diodes D1 and D2 conduct on the
the frequency. As a derivation,
positive half-cycle, and D3 and D4 conduct on the negative
Full wave: fout  2fin (30-7) half-cycle. As a result, the rectified load current flows during
both half-cycle.
Second Approximation
Figure 30-8b shows the equivalent circuit for the positive
Since the full-wave rectifier is like two back-to-back half- half-cycle. As you can see, D1 and D2 are forward-biased.
wave rectifiers, we can use the second approximation given This produces a positive load voltage as indicated by the
earlier. The idea is to subtract 0.7 V from the ideal peak out- plus-minus polarity across the load resistor. As a memory
put voltage. The following example will illustrate the idea. aid, visualize D2 shorted. Then the circuit that remains is a
half-wave rectifier, which we are already familiar with.
EXAMPLE 30-2 Figure 30-8c shows the equivalent circuit for the negative
half-cycle. This time, D3 and D4 are forward-biased. This also
Figure 30-7a shows a full-wave rectifier. Assume a 120-V, 60-Hz
input; a turns ratio, N 1 : N 2, of 10 : 1; 1N4001 diodes; and a 1-k load. produces a positive load voltage. If you visualize D3 shorted,
Calculate the peak input and output voltages. the circuit looks like a half-wave rectifier. So the bridge recti-
fier acts like two back-to-back half-wave rectifiers.
Answer:
During both half-cycle, the load voltage has the same
The peak primary voltage is
polarity and the load current is in the same direction. The
Vrms 120 V circuit has changed the ac input voltage to the pulsating dc
Vp(1)  _____ ______
0.707  0.707  170 V output voltage shown in Fig. 30-8d. Note the advantage of
Because of the 10 : 1 step-down transformer, the peak secondary this type of full-wave rectification over the center-tapped
voltage is version in the previous section: The entire secondary voltage
Vp(1) can be used.
170 V
Vp(2)  _____ ______
N /N  10  17 V
Fig. 30-8e shows bridge rectifier packages that contain all
1 2
four diodes.

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 N1:N2 N1:N2

D3 D1 D1
+ +

V1 V2
+
– –
RL RL
D2 D4 D2
–

(a) (b)

N1:N2

D3
– –
vout

+
+ + VP
RL
D4
–
t

(c) (d)

GBPC-W

© Brian Moeskau/Brian Moeskau Photography

GBPC

WOB

SOIC-4

KBPM

GBU

(e)

Figure 30-8 (a) Bridge rectifier. (b) Equivalent circuit for positive half-cycle. (c) Equivalent circuit for negative half-cycle.
(d) Full-wave output. (e) Bridge rectifier packages.

Average Value and Output Frequency and

Because a bridge rectifier produces a full-wave output, the fout  2fin
equations for average value and output frequency are the
The average value is 63.6% of the peak value, and the output
same as given for a full-wave rectifier:
frequency is 120 Hz, given a line frequency of 60 Hz.
2Vp One advantage of a bridge rectifier is that all the sec-
Vdc  ___
 ondary voltage is used as the input to the rectifier. Given

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 Table 30-1 Unfiltered Rectifiers* 30.6 Power Supply Filtering
The purpose of the filter in a power supply is to take the dc
Half-wave Full-wave Bridge
pulses produced by the rectifier and smooth them into a con-
Number of diodes 1 2 4 stant dc voltage. There are two ways to visualize the filtering
Rectifier input Vp(2) 0.5Vp(2) Vp(2) process, one in the frequency domain and the other in the
time domain.
Peak output (ideal) Vp(2) 0.5Vp(2) Vp(2) In frequency domain analysis you view the rectifier out-
Peak output (2d) Vp(2)  0.7 V 0.5Vp(2)  0.7 V Vp(2)  1.4 V put pulses as nonsinusoidal signals. You should immediately
recognize that these pulses are made up of a fundamental
DC output Vp(out) y 2Vp(out) y 2Vp(out) y
sine wave and an infinite number of harmonics, as described
Ripple frequency fin 2fin 2fin by Fourier theory. Half- and full-wave rectified sine waves
are made up of a fundamental sine wave and even harmonic
*Vp(2)  peak secondary voltage; Vp(out)  peak output voltage.
sine waves. With the 60-Hz pulses of the half-wave recti-
fier, this means a 60-Hz sine wave and harmonics of 120,
240, 360, and 480 Hz and other even-numbered sine waves.
the same transformer, we get twice as much peak voltage A full-wave rectifier produces 120-Hz pulses with its even
and twice as much dc voltage with a bridge rectifier as harmonics of 240, 480, and 600 Hz and others.
with a full-wave rectifier. Doubling the dc output voltage To get rid of these sine waves, a low-pass filter is the ob-
compensates for having to use two extra diodes. As a rule, vious choice. Selecting a cutoff frequency well below base
you will see the bridge rectifi er used a lot more than the pulse frequency of 60 Hz or 120 Hz, the attenuation will be
full-wave rectifi er. high enough to eliminate most of the harmonics.
Figure 30-9 has a frequency domain plot of the output of
Second Approximation and Other Losses a full-wave rectifier showing the fundamental and harmonic
Since the bridge rectifier has two diodes in the conducting components. Overlaid with that is a low-pass filter response
path, the peak output voltage is given by curve showing how the filter will attenuate the harmonics
and fundamental. The result is a near constant dc voltage.
2d bridge: Vp(out)  Vp(in)  1.4 V (30-8) Note that because of the gradual slope of the filter, not all
As you can see, we have to subtract two diode drops from the harmonics are completely filtered out. Therefore, some
the peak to get a more accurate value of peak load volt- residual signal, called ripple, will still be present. The ripple
age. Table 30-1 compares the three rectifiers and their is usually low enough not to be a problem.
properties. A typical low-pass filter can be made from RC and LC
circuits. A large shunt capacitor at the output of the recti-
fier is the most common filter. It forms a low-pass filter with
the series resistance of the transformer secondary winding
EXAMPLE 30-4 and the diode resistances. An LC low-pass filter can also be
formed with a series inductor (choke) and the shunt capacitor.
Calculate the peak input and output voltages in Fig. 30-8. Then,
compare the theoretical values to the measured values. Low-pass filter
Notice the circuit uses a bridge rectifier package. response curve
Ripple in the output
Answer: Rectifier not filtered out
Harmonic amplitude

The peak primary and secondary voltages are the same as in output
fundamental
Example 30-2: Harmonics

Vp(1)  170 V
Vp(2)  17 V
With a bridge rectifier, all of the secondary voltage is used as the
input to the rectifier. Ideally, the peak output voltage is

Vp(out)  17 V DC 60 120 240 480

Frequency
To a second approximation, (Hz)

Vp(out)  17 V  1.4 V  15.6 V Figure 30-9 Viewing the power supply filter in the
frequency domain: a full-wave rectifier with 60-Hz input.

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 By selecting the L and C values to produce a low cutoff fre- Ideal

quency, a near constant dc output will result.

A more common way to analyze the filter is with tra-
ditional time domain analysis. This makes use of RC and vin C RL

LR time constants. By considering the capacitor charge-

discharge curve, the time constant, and the pulse frequency,
values can be selected to remove the ripple. Time domain (a)
analysis is used in the following section about filters.
vout
The Capacitor-Input Filter VP
The most widely used filter is a large capacitor. It is called a
capacitor-input filter. The capacitor-input filter produces a dc
output voltage equal to the peak value of the rectified voltage. vin

Basic Idea (b)

Figure 30-10a shows an ac source, a diode, and a capacitor. VP

The key to understanding a capacitor-input filter is understand-
ing what this simple circuit does during the first quarter-cycle.
Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. During the first quarter- (c)
cycle of Fig. 30-10b, the diode is forward-biased. Since it ideally
acts like a closed switch, the capacitor charges, and its voltage
Figure 30-11 (a) Loaded capacitor-input filter. (b) Output is
direct current with small ripple. (c) Full-wave output has less ripple.
equals the source voltage at each instant of the first quarter-
cycle. The charging continues until the input reaches its maxi- for electronics equipment. There’s only one problem: There
mum value. At this point, the capacitor voltage equals Vp. is no load resistor.
After the input voltage reaches the peak, it starts to
Effect of Load Resistor
decrease. As soon as the input voltage is less than Vp, the
diode turns off. In this case, it acts like the open switch of For the capacitor-input filter to be useful, we need to connect
Fig. 30-10c. During the remaining cycles, the capacitor stays a load resistor across the capacitor, as shown in Fig. 30-11a.
fully charged and the diode remains open. This is why the As long as the RLC time constant is much greater than the
output voltage of Fig. 30-10b is constant and equal to Vp. period, the capacitor remains almost fully charged and the
Ideally, all that the capacitor-input filter does is charge the load voltage is approximately Vp. The only deviation from
capacitor to the peak voltage during the first quarter-cycle. a perfect dc voltage is the small ripple seen in Fig. 30-11b.
This peak voltage is constant, the perfect dc voltage we need The smaller the peak-to-peak value of this ripple, the more
closely the output approaches a perfect dc voltage.
Between peaks, the diode is off and the capacitor dis-
Ideal
vout charges through the load resistor. In other words, the capaci-
VP
tor supplies the load current. Since the capacitor discharges
vin vout
only slightly between peaks, the peak-to-peak ripple is small.
When the next peak arrives, the diode conducts briefly and
recharges the capacitor to the peak value. A key question is,
vin What size should the capacitor be for proper operation?
(a) (b)
Full-Wave Filtering
If we connect a full-wave or bridge rectifier to a capacitor-in-
put filter, the peak-to-peak ripple is cut in half. Figure 30-11c
+
vin < VP VP
shows why. When a full-wave voltage is applied to the RC
– circuit, the capacitor discharges for only half as long. There-
fore, the peak-to-peak ripple is half the size it would be with
a half-wave rectifier.
(c) Figure 30-12 shows the details for the capacitor charge and
Figure 30-10 (a) Unloaded capacitor-input filter. discharge process. The capacitor charges to the peak of the
(b) Output is pure dc voltage. (c) Capacitor remains charged sine-wave input less any diode drops. Then as the dc pulse
when diode is off. decreases, the diode turns off and the capacitor discharges

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 Capacitor discharge Exact DC Load Voltage
between pulses
Voltage across
capacitor Peak-to-peak It is difficult to calculate the exact dc load voltage in a bridge
Vpeak ripple voltage
rectifier with a capacitor-input filter. To begin with, we have
the two diode drops that are subtracted from the peak voltage.
DC
average Besides the diode drops, an additional voltage drop occurs, as
follows: The diodes conduct heavily when recharging the ca-
0V pacitor because they are on for only a short time during each
Half-sine
DC pulses
Capacitor cycle. This brief but large current has to flow through the
recharges
transformer windings and the bulk resistance of the diodes.
Figure 30-12 Capacitor charge and discharge process. In our examples, we will calculate either the ideal output or
the output with the second approximation of a diode, remem-
through the load. On the next dc pulse, the diode turns on, the bering that the actual dc voltage is slightly lower.
capacitor recharges to the peak, and the process is repeated.
Note that the charging and discharging produces a sawtooth- EXAMPLE 30-5
like waveform and appears to be riding on the average dc. What is the dc load voltage and ripple in Fig. 30-13?
This ac voltage component is called ripple and, of course, is
undesired. It can be minimized by using a lighter load (higher Answer:
load resistance) and/or a larger capacitor. This increases the The rms secondary voltage is
time constant and reduces the peak-to-peak ripple voltage. 120 V  24 V
V2  ______
5
The Ripple Formula
The peak secondary voltage is
Here is a derivation we will use to estimate the peak-to-peak
24 V  34 V
Vp  _____
ripple out of any capacitor-input filter: 0.707
I
VR  ___ (30-9) Assuming an ideal diode and small ripple, the dc load voltage is
fC
VL  34 V
where VR  peak-to-peak ripple voltage
To calculate the ripple, we first need to get the dc load current
I  dc load current
f  ripple frequency V 34 V  6.8 mA
IL  ___L  _____
C  capacitance RL 5 k
Now we can use Formula (30-9) to get
This is an approximation, not an exact derivation. We can
use this formula to estimate the peak-to-peak ripple. When 6.8 mA
VR  ______________  1.13 Vpp < 1.1 Vp-p
a more accurate answer is needed, one solution is to use a (60 Hz)(100 F)
computer with a circuit simulator like Multisim. We rounded the ripple to two significant digits because it is an
approximation and cannot be accurately measured with an oscil-
For instance, if the dc load current is 10 mA and the ca-
loscope with greater precision.
pacitance is 200 F, the ripple with a bridge rectifier and a Here is how to improve the answer slightly: There is about
capacitor-input filter is 0.7 V across a silicon diode when it is conducting. Therefore, the
peak voltage across the load will be closer to 33.3 V than to 34
10 mA
VR  _______________  0.417 V p-p V. The ripple also lowers the dc voltage slightly. So the actual dc
(120 Hz)(200 F) load voltage will be closer to 33 V than to 34 V. But these are
In using this derivation, remember two things. First, the minor deviations. Ideal answers are usually adequate for trouble-
shooting and preliminary analysis.
ripple is in peak-to-peak (p-p) voltage. This is useful because
you normally measure ripple voltage with an oscilloscope.
1N4001
Second, the formula works with half-wave or full-wave volt- 5:1

ages. Use 60 Hz for half-wave, and 120 Hz for full-wave. 120 V

60 Hz
You should use an oscilloscope for ripple measurements +
if one is available. If not, you can use an ac voltmeter, al- V1 V2 100 ␮F 5 k
–
though there will be a significant error in the measurement.
Most ac voltmeters are calibrated to read the rms value of a
sine wave. Since the ripple is not a sine wave, you may get
a measurement error of as much as 25%, depending on the Figure 30-13 Half-wave rectifier and capacitor-input filter.
design of the ac voltmeter.

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 5:1
Ideal EXAMPLE 30-6
120 V
60 Hz
What is the dc load voltage and ripple in Fig. 30-14?
+
100 ␮F 5 k Answer:
– Since the transformer is 5 : 1 step down like the preceding example,
the peak secondary voltage is still 34 V. Half this voltage is the
input to  each half-wave section. Assuming an ideal diode and
Ideal small ripple, the dc load voltage is

Figure 30-14 Full-wave rectifier and capacitor-input filter. VL 5 17 V

A final point about the circuit: The plus sign on the filter capacitor The dc load current is
indicates a polarized capacitor, one whose plus side must be con-
nected to the positive rectifier output. In Fig. 30-14, the plus sign on the 17 V
capacitor case is correctly connected to the positive output voltage. IL 5 _____ 5 3.4 mA
5kV
You must look carefully at the capacitor case when you are building or
troubleshooting a circuit to find out whether it is polarized or not. Now, Formula (30-9) gives
Power supplies often use polarized electrolytic capacitors be-
cause this type can provide high values of capacitance in small 3.4 mA
VR 5 _______________ 5 0.283 Vp-p < 0.28 Vp-p
packages. As discussed in earlier courses, electrolytic capaci- (120 Hz)(100 F)
tors must be connected with the correct polarity to produce
the oxide film. If an electrolytic capacitor is connected in opposite Because of the 0.7 V across the conducting diode, the actual dc
polarity, it becomes hot and may explode. load voltage will be closer to 16 V than to 17 V.

E X A M P L E 3 0 -7

What is the dc load voltage and ripple in Fig. 30-15? Compare the Because of the 1.4 V across two conducting diodes and the
answers with those in the two preceding examples. ripple, the actual dc load voltage will be closer to 32 V than
to 34 V.
Answer:
We have calculated the dc load voltage and ripple for the three
Since the transformer is 5 : 1 step down as in the preceding ex-
different rectifiers. Here are the results:
ample, the peak secondary voltage is still 34 V. Assuming an ideal
diode and small ripple, the dc load voltage is Half-wave: 34 V and 1.13 V

VL 5 34 V Full wave: 17 V and 0.288 V

Bridge: 34 V and 0.566 V
The dc load current is
For a given transformer, the bridge rectifier is better than the
34 V 5 6.8 mA
IL 5 _____ half-wave rectifier because it has less ripple, and it’s better than
5kV the full-wave rectifier because it produces twice as much output
Now, Formula (30-9) gives voltage. Of the three, the bridge rectifier has emerged as the
most popular.
6.8 mA
VR 5 _______________ 5 0.566 Vp-p < 0.57 Vp-p
(120 Hz)(100 F)
5:1

120 V Ideal
60 Hz

V1 V2
+
100 ␮F 5 k
–

Figure 30-15 Bridge rectifier and capacitor-input filter.

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 The Choke-Input Filter In Fig. 30-16b, the circuit acts like a reactive voltage di-
While the capacitor filter is the commonly used, a choke or vider. When XL is much greater than XC, almost all the ac
inductor is also sometimes used with a capacitor to improve voltage is dropped across the choke. In this case, the ac out-
filtering and lessen the ripple. put voltage equals
X
Basic Idea Vout < ___C Vin (30-10)
XL
Look at Fig. 30-16a. This type of fi lter is called a choke- For instance, if XL 5 10 kV, XC 5 100 V, and Vin 5 15 V, the
input fi lter. The ac source produces a current in the in- ac output voltage is
ductor, capacitor, and resistor. The ac current in each
100 V 15 V 5 0.15 V
Vout < ______
component depends on the inductive reactance, capacitive
10 kV
reactance, and the resistance. The inductor has a reac-
In this example, the choke-input filter reduces the ac voltage
tance given by
by a factor of 100.
XL 5 2fL
Filtering the Output of a Rectifier
The capacitor has a reactance given by
Figure 30-17a shows a choke-input filter between a rectifier
1
XC 5 _____ and a load. The rectifier can be a half-wave, full-wave, or
2fC bridge type. What effect does the choke-input filter have on
As you learned in previous courses, the choke (or induc- the load voltage?
tor) has the primary characteristic of opposing a change in
current. Because of this, a choke-input filter ideally reduces L

the ac current in the load resistor to zero. To a second ap-

proximation, it reduces the ac load current to a very small Rectifier RL
C
value. Let us find out why.
The first requirement of a well-designed choke-input filter
is to have XC at the input frequency be much smaller than
(a)
RL. When this condition is satisfied, we can ignore the load
resistance and use the equivalent circuit of Fig. 30-16b. The Rectified
second requirement of a well-designed choke-input filter is output
DC voltage
to have XL be much greater than XC at the input frequency.
When this condition is satisfied, the ac output voltage ap- VP

proaches zero. On the other hand, since the choke approxi-

t
mates a short circuit at 0 Hz and the capacitor approximates
an open at 0 Hz, the dc current can be passed to the load (b)
resistance with minimum loss.
RS
L Vout

Rectifier RL
Vin C RL

(c)
(a)
Filtered
XL output
Vout

Vin XC 0.636 VP
t

(d)
(b)
Figure 30-17 (a) Rectifier with choke-input filter.
Figure 30-16 (a) Choke-input filter. (b) AC equivalent (b) Rectifier output has dc and ac components. (c) DC equivalent
circuit. circuit. (d) Filter output is direct current with small ripple.

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 The rectifier output has two different components: a dc –
VP
+
2VP
voltage (the average value) and an ac voltage (the fluctuating – +
part), as shown in Fig. 30-17b. Each of these voltages acts –
–
like a separate source. As far as the ac voltage is concerned, VP
+
XL is much greater than XC, and this results in very little ac VP VP
voltage across the load resistor. Even though the ac compo- –
+
nent is not a pure sine wave, Formula (30-10) is still a close +

approximation for the ac load voltage. Short

The circuit acts like Fig. 30-17c as far as dc voltage is (a) (b)
concerned. At 0 Hz, the inductive reactance is zero and the
capacitive reactance is infinite. Only the series resistance + Short
of the inductor windings remains. Making RS much smaller
than RL causes most of the dc component to appear across VP
the load resistor. +
–
That’s how a choke-input filter works: Almost all the dc – VP
component is passed on to the load resistor, and almost all
(c)
the ac component is blocked. In this way, we get an almost
perfect dc voltage, one that is almost constant, like the volt- Figure 30-18 (a) Peak inverse voltage in half-wave
age out of a battery. Figure 30-17d shows the filtered output rectifier. (b) Peak inverse voltage in full-wave rectifier. (c) Peak
for a full-wave signal. The only deviation from a perfect dc inverse voltage in bridge rectifier.
voltage is the small ac load voltage shown in Fig. 30-17d.
This small ac load voltage is called ripple. With an oscillo-
scope, we can measure its peak-to-peak value. depends on  the type of rectifier and filter. The worst case
occurs with the capacitor-input filter.
Main Disadvantage Manufacturers use many different symbols to indicate the
A power supply is the circuit inside electronics equipment maximum reverse voltage rating of a diode. Sometimes, these
that converts the ac input voltage to an almost perfect dc symbols indicate different conditions of measurement. Some
output voltage. It includes a rectifier and a filter. With low- of the data sheet symbols for the maximum reverse voltage
voltage, high-current power supplies and a line frequency of rating are PIV, PRV, VB, VBR, VR, VRRM, VRWM, and VR(max).
60 Hz, large inductances have to be used to get enough re-
actance for adequate filtering. But large inductors have large Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor-Input Filter
winding resistances, which create a serious design problem Figure 30-18a shows the critical part of a half-wave recti-
with large load currents. In other words, too much dc voltage fier. This is the part of the circuit that determines how much
is dropped across the choke resistance. Furthermore, bulky reverse voltage is across the diode. The rest of the circuit has
inductors are not suitable for modern semiconductor circuits, no effect and is omitted for the sake of clarity. In the worse
where the emphasis is on lightweight designs. case, the peak secondary voltage is on the negative peak and
the capacitor is fully charged with a voltage of Vp. Apply
Switching Regulators Kirchhoff’s voltage law, and you can see right away that the
One important application does exist for the choke-input fil- peak inverse voltage across the nonconducting diode is
ter. A switching regulator is a newer form of power supply.
PIV 5 2Vp (30-11)
The frequency used in a switching regulator is much higher
than 60 Hz. Typically, the frequency being filtered is above For instance, if the peak secondary voltage is 15 V, the peak
100 kHz. At this much higher frequency, we can use much inverse voltage is 30 V. As long as the breakdown voltage of
smaller inductors to design efficient choke-input filters. We the diode is greater than this, the diode will not be damaged.
will discuss the details in a later chapter.
Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor-Input Filter
30.7 Peak Inverse Voltage Figure 30-18b shows the essential part of a full-wave recti-
and Surge Current fier needed to calculate the peak inverse voltage. Again, the
secondary voltage is at the negative peak. In this case, the
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage
lower diode acts like a short (closed switch) and the upper
across the nonconducting diode of a rectifier. This voltage
diode is open. Kirchhoff’s law implies
must be less than the breakdown voltage of the diode; other-
wise, the diode will be destroyed. The peak inverse voltage PIV 5 Vp (30-12)

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 Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor-Input Filter For instance, the F25X has V1 5 115 V and V2 5 12.6 V. The
Figure 30-18c shows part of a bridge rectifier. This is all you turns ratio at the rated load current of 1.5 A is
need to calculate the peak inverse voltage. Since the upper N1 ____
___ 5 115 5 9.13
diode is shorted and the lower one is open, the peak inverse N2 12.6
voltage across the lower diode is This is an approximation because the calculated turns
ratio decreases when the load current decreases. Other
PIV 5 Vp (30-13)
common transformer secondary voltages with a 115-Vac
Another advantage of the bridge rectifier is that it has the primary are 6.3, 8, 9, 16, 18, 24, 25.5, 28, and 36 V. Some
lowest peak inverse voltage for a given load voltage. To pro- windings are center-tapped. Transformers are also avail-
duce the same load voltage, the full-wave rectifier would able in the popular wall adapter format that plugs directly
need twice as much secondary voltage. into an ac outlet.
30.8 Other Power Supply Topics Calculating Fuse Current
You have a basic idea of how power supply circuits work. In When troubleshooting, you may need to calculate the pri-
the preceding sections, you have seen how an ac input volt- mary current to determine whether a fuse is adequate or
age is rectified and filtered to get a dc voltage. There are a not. The easiest way to do this with a real transformer
few additional ideas you need to know about. is to assume that the input power equals the output
power: Pin 5 Pout. For instance, Fig. 30-19b shows a fused
Commercial Transformers
transformer driving a filtered rectifier. Is the 0.1-A fuse
The use of turns ratios with transformers applies only to adequate?
ideal transformers. Iron-core transformers are different. In Here is how to estimate the primary current when trou-
other words, the transformers you buy from a parts supplier bleshooting. The output power equals the dc load power,
are not ideal because the windings have resistance, which
produces power losses. Furthermore, the laminated core has Pout 5 VI 5 (15 V)(1.2 A) 5 18 W
eddy currents, which produce additional power losses. Be- Ignore the power losses in the rectifier and the transformer.
cause of these unwanted power losses, the turns ratio is only Since the input power must equal the output power,
an approximation. In fact, the data sheets for transformers
Pin 5 18 W
rarely list the turns ratio. Usually, all you get is the second-
ary voltage at a rated current. Since Pin 5 V1I1, we can solve for the primary current:
For instance, Fig. 30-19a shows an F-25X, an indus- 18 W 5 0.156 A
trial transformer whose data sheet gives only the follow- I1 5 ______
115 V
ing specifications: For a primary voltage of 115 Vac, the
This is only an estimate because we ignored the power losses
secondary voltage is 12.6 Vac when the secondary current
in the transformer and rectifier. The actual primary current
is 1.5 A. If the secondary current is less than 1.5 A in
will be higher by about 5 to 20% because of these additional
Fig. 30-19a, the secondary voltage will be more than 12.6
losses. In any case, the fuse is inadequate. It should be at
Vac because of lower power losses in the windings and
least 0.25 A.
laminated core.
If it is necessary to know the primary current, you can Slow-Blow Fuses
estimate the turns ratio of a real transformer by using this Assume that a capacitor-input filter is used in Fig. 30-19b. If
definition: an ordinary 0.25-A fuse is used in Fig. 30-19b, it will blow
N1 ___
___ V out when you turn the power on. The reason is the surge cur-
5 1 (30-14)
N2 V2 rent, described earlier. Most power supplies use a slow-blow

1.5 A 1.2 A
115 V 115 V 0.1 A
60 Hz 60 Hz
Filtered
F-25X 12.6 V F-25X 15 V 10 
rectifier

(a) (b)

Figure 30-19 (a) Rating on real transformer. (b) Calculating fuse current.

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 fuse, one that can temporarily withstand overloads in cur- It should be approximately the same as the peak secondary
rent. For instance, a 0.25-A slow-blow fuse can withstand voltage. If not, there are two possible courses of action.
First, if there is no load voltage, you can use a floating
2 A for 0.1 s
VOM or DMM to measure the secondary voltage (ac range).
1.5 A for 1 s The reading is the rms voltage across the secondary wind-
1 A for 2 s ing. Convert this to peak value. You can estimate the peak
and so on. With a slow-blow fuse, the circuit has time to value by adding 40% to the rms value. If this is normal, the
charge the capacitor. Then the primary current drops down diodes may be defective. If there is no secondary voltage,
to its normal level with the fuse still intact. either the fuse is blown or the transformer is defective.
Second, if there is dc load voltage, but it is lower than it
Regulators should be, look at the dc load voltage with an oscilloscope and
As indicated earlier in the chapter, most power supplies measure the ripple. A peak-to-peak ripple around 10% of the
today use a regulator after the filter. The regulator keeps the ideal load voltage is reasonable. The ripple may be somewhat
output voltage constant at a desired level and provides the more or less than this, depending on the design. Furthermore,
added bonus of reducing the ripple. the ripple frequency should be 120 Hz for a full-wave or bridge
The simplest form of regulator is the zener diode dis- rectifier. If the ripple is 60 Hz, one of the diodes may be open.
cussed in Chap. 29. The regulator output voltage will be
equal to one of the standard zener diode voltage values. Common Troubles
Since the zener has a low internal resistance, it forms a volt- Here are the most common troubles that arise in bridge recti-
age divider with the series input resistor. For that reason, it fiers with capacitor-input filters:
reduces the ripple by the amount of the voltage divider ratio. 1. If the fuse is open, there will be no voltages anywhere
In most applications, the regulator is an integrated circuit in the circuit.
(IC) that automatically adjusts the output voltage if input ac
2. If the filter capacitor is open, the dc load voltage will
line voltage or load changes occur. Any variation is corrected,
be low because the output will be an unfiltered full-
keeping the output voltage constant and usually within a frac-
wave signal.
tion of a percent of the design value. Since ripple is a variation,
the regulator greatly diminishes the ripple at the output as well. 3. If one of the diodes is open, the dc load voltage will be
You will learn more about regulators in a later chapter. low because there will be only half-wave rectification.
Also, the ripple frequency will be 60 Hz instead of
30.9 Troubleshooting 120 Hz. If all diodes are open, there will be no output.
Almost every piece of electronics equipment has a power 4. If the load is shorted, the fuse will be blown. Possibly,
supply, typically a rectifier driving a capacitor-input filter one or more diodes may be ruined or the transformer
followed by a voltage regulator (discussed later). This power may be damaged.
supply produces the dc voltages needed by transistors and 5. Sometimes the filter capacitor becomes leaky with
other devices. If a piece of electronics equipment is not age, and this reduces the dc load voltage.
working properly, start your troubleshooting with the power 6. Occasionally, shorted windings in the transformer
supply. More often than not, equipment failure is caused by reduce the dc output voltage. In this case, the trans-
troubles in the power supply. former often feels very warm to the touch.
Procedure 7. Besides these troubles, you can have solder bridges,
cold-solder joints, bad connections, and so on.
Assume that you are troubleshooting the circuit of
Fig. 30-20. You can start by measuring the dc load voltage. Table 30-2 lists these troubles and their symptoms.

120 V
60 Hz

V1 V2
+
C RL
–

Figure 30-20 Troubleshooting.

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 Table 30-2 Typical Troubles for Capacitor-Input Filtered Bridge Rectifier
V1 V2 VL(dc) VR fripple Scope on Output
Fuse blown Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero No output
Capacitor open OK OK Low High 120 Hz Full-wave signal
One diode open OK OK Low High 60 Hz Half-wave ripple
All diodes open OK OK Zero Zero Zero No output
Load shorted Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero No output
Leaky capacitor OK OK Low High 120 Hz Low output
Shorted windings OK Low Low OK 120 Hz Low output

EXAMPLE 30-8

When the circuit of Fig. 30-21 is working normally, it has an rms Answer:
secondary voltage of 12.7 V, a load voltage of 18 V, and a peak-to- With an open filter capacitor, the circuit reverts to a bridge rectifier
peak ripple of 318 mV. If the filter capacitor is open, what happens with no filter capacitor. Because there is no filtering, an oscilloscope
to the dc load voltage? across the load will display a full-wave signal with a peak value of
18 V. The average value is 63.6% of 18 V, which is 11.4 V.
0.25 A

120 V
60 Hz

+
470 ␮F 1 k
–

Figure 30-21

EXAMPLE 30-9 30.10 Voltage Multipliers

A voltage multiplier is a type of rectifier or filter circuit that
Suppose the load resistor of Fig. 30-21 is shorted. Describe the is used to generate dc voltages greater than the peak ac input.
symptoms.
Answer:
A short across the load resistor will increase the current to a very Voltage Doubler
high value. This will blow out the fuse. Furthermore, it is possible Figure 30-22a is a voltage doubler. On the negative half-
that one or more diodes will be destroyed before the fuse blows. cycle of the secondary voltage, D1 conducts and charges C1
Often, when one diode shorts, it will cause the other rectifier
to the peak value with the polarity shown. On the positive
diodes to also short. Because of the blown fuse, all voltages will
measure zero. When you check the fuse visually or with an ohm- half-cycle of the secondary voltage, the peak secondary volt-
meter, you will see that it is open. age adds in series with the C1 capacitor voltage to turn on D2
With the power off, you should check the diodes with an ohm- and charge C2 to a value almost double the peak sine voltage
meter to see whether any of them have been destroyed. You less the diode drops. The capacitors are usually large electro-
should also measure the load resistance with an ohmmeter. If it lytic types, and the ripple is relatively high.
measures zero or very low, you have more troubles to locate.
The trouble could be a solder bridge across the load resistor, in-
Why bother using a voltage doubler when you can change
correct wiring, or any number of possibilities. Fuses do occasionally the turns ratio to get more output voltage? The answer is that
blow out without a permanent short across the load. But the point you don’t need to use a voltage doubler at lower voltages. The
is this: When you get a blown fuse, check the diodes for pos- only time you run into a problem is when you are trying to
sible damage and the load resistance for a possible short. produce very high dc output voltages.
A troubleshooting exercise at the end of the chapter has eight
For instance, line voltage is 120 V rms, or 170 V peak.
different troubles, including open diodes, filter capacitors, shorted
loads, blown fuses, and open grounds. If you are trying to produce 3400 Vdc, you will need to
use a 1⬊20 step-up transformer. Here is where the problem

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 C1
D2 +2VP
120 V
60 Hz
+
D1 C2 RL 2VP 0
–

(a)

Tripler output

VP 2VP
– + – +
120 V
60 Hz
C1 C3
D1 D2 D3
C2

– +
2VP

(b)

VP 2VP
120 V – + – +
60 Hz
C1 C3
D1 D2 D3 D4
C2 C4

– + – +
2VP 2 VP

Quadrupler output

(c)

Figure 30-22 Voltage multipliers with floating loads. (a) Doubler.

(b) Tripler. (c) Quadrupler.

comes in. Very high secondary voltages can be obtained Theoretically, we can add sections indefinitely, but the
only with bulky and expensive transformers. It is simpler to ripple gets much worse with each new section. Increased
use a voltage doubler and a smaller transformer. ripple is another reason why voltage multipliers (doublers,
triplers, and quadruplers) are not used in low-voltage power
Voltage Tripler supplies. As stated earlier, voltage multipliers are almost al-
By connecting another section, we get the voltage tripler of ways used to produce high voltages, well into the hundreds
Fig. 30-22b. The first two sections act like a doubler. At the or thousands of volts. Voltage multipliers are the natural
peak of the negative half-cycle, D3 is forward-biased. This choice for high-voltage and low-current devices.
charges C3 to 2Vp with the polarity shown in Fig. 30-22b. The
tripler output appears across C1 and C3. The load resistance Variations
can be connected across the tripler output. As long as the
All the voltage multipliers shown in Fig. 30-22 use load re-
time constant is long, the output equals approximately 3Vp.
sistances that are floating. This means that neither end of the
Voltage Quadrupler load is grounded. Figure 30-23a, b, and c shows variations of
Figure 30-22c is a voltage quadrupler with four sections in the voltage multipliers. Figure 30-23a merely adds grounds
cascade (one after another). The first three sections are a to Fig. 30-22a. On the other hand, Fig. 30-23b and c are rede-
tripler, and the fourth makes the overall circuit a quadrupler. signs of the tripler (Fig. 30-22b) and quadrupler (Fig. 30-22c).
The first capacitor charges to Vp. All others charge to 2Vp.
The quadrupler output is across the series connection of C2 Full-Wave Voltage Doubler
and C4. We can connect a load resistance across the quadru- Figure 30-23d shows a full-wave voltage doubler. On the
pler output to get an output of 4Vp. positive half-cycle of the source, the upper capacitor charges

538 Chapter 30

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 VP D2
– +

+
D1 2VP RL
–

(a)

2VP
– +

+
3VP RL
+ –
VP
–

(b)

3VP
– +
–
VP
+
+
4VP RL
–
+
2VP
–

(c)

D1

+
C1 VP
– +
RL 2VP
+ –
C2 VP
–

D2

(d)

Figure 30-23 Voltage multipliers with grounded loads, except full-

wave doubler. (a) Doubler. (b) Tripler. (c) Quadrupler. (d) Full-wave doubler.

to the peak voltage with the polarity shown. On the next hand, the circuit of Fig. 30-23d is called a full-wave voltage
half-cycle, the lower capacitor charges to the peak voltage doubler because one of the output capacitors is being charged
with the indicated polarity. For a light load, the final output during each half-cycle. Because of this, the output ripple is
voltage is approximately 2Vp. 120 Hz. This ripple frequency is an advantage because it is
The voltage multipliers discussed earlier are half-wave de- easier to filter. Another advantage of the full-wave doubler
signs; that is, the output ripple frequency is 60 Hz. On the other is that the PIV rating of the diodes need only be greater than Vp.

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 CHAPTER 30 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is not a major circuit in an ac step-down transformer, the minimum peak load volt-
power supply? age is closest to
a. Rectifier. a. 21 V.
b. Filter. b. 25 V.
c. Battery charger. c. 29.7 V.
d. Regulator. d. 35.4 V.
2. The output of most power supplies is 10. The voltage out of a bridge rectifier is a
a. ac. a. half-wave signal.
b. dc. b. full-wave signal.
3. The outputs of most power supplies are regulated. c. bridge-rectified signal.
a. True. d. sine wave.
b. False. 11. If the line voltage is 115 V rms, a turns ratio
4. In a battery-operated power supply, how are different of 5 : 1 means the rms secondary voltage is
dc voltages obtained? closest to
a. DC-DC converter. a. 15 V.
b. Regulators. b. 23 V.
c. Zener diodes. c. 30 V.
d. All of the above. d. 35 V.
5. If N1/N2 5 4, and the primary voltage is 120 V, what 12. What is the peak load voltage in a full-wave rectifier
is the secondary voltage? if the secondary voltage is 20 V rms?
a. 0 V. a. 0 V.
b. 30 V. b. 0.7 V.
c. 60 V. c. 14.1 V.
d. 480 V. d. 28.3 V.
6. In a step-down transformer, which is larger? 13. We want a peak load voltage of 40 V out of a bridge
a. Primary voltage. rectifier. What is the approximate rms value of sec-
b. Secondary voltage. ondary voltage?
c. Neither. a. 0 V.
d. No answer possible. b. 14.4 V.
c. 28.3 V.
7. A transformer has a turns ratio of 2 : 1. What is the
d. 56.6 V.
peak secondary voltage if 115 V rms is applied to the
primary winding? 14. With a full-wave rectified voltage across the
a. 57.5 V. load resistor, load current flows for what part of a
b. 81.3 V. cycle?
c. 230 V. a. 0°.
d. 325 V. b. 90°.
c. 180°.
8. With a half-wave rectified voltage across the
d. 360°.
load resistor, load current flows for what part of a
cycle? 15. What is the peak load voltage out of a bridge rectifier
a. 0°. for a secondary voltage of 12.6 V rms? (Use second
b. 90°. approximation.)
c. 180°. a. 7.5 V.
d. 360°. b. 16.4 V.
c. 17.8 V.
9. Suppose line voltage may be as low as 105 V rms or
d. 19.2 V.
as high as 125 rms in a half-wave rectifier. With a 5 : 1

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 16. If line frequency is 60 Hz, the output frequency of a 24. The most common power supply filter is a(n)
half-wave rectifier is a. Capacitor.
a. 30 Hz. b. Inductor.
b. 60 Hz. 25. If the filtered load current is 10 mA, which of the fol-
c. 120 Hz. lowing has a diode current of 10 mA?
d. 240 Hz. a. Half-wave rectifier.
17. If line frequency is 60 Hz, the output frequency of a b. Full-wave rectifier.
bridge rectifier is c. Bridge rectifier.
a. 30 Hz. d. Impossible to say.
b. 60 Hz. 26. If the load current is 5 mA and the filter capacitance
c. 120 Hz. is 1000 F, what is the peak-to-peak ripple out of a
d. 240 Hz. bridge rectifier?
18. With the same secondary voltage and filter, which has a. 21.3 pV.
the most ripple? b. 56.3 nV.
a. Half-wave rectifier. c. 21.3 mV.
b. Full-wave rectifier. d. 41.7 mV.
c. Bridge rectifier. 27. The diodes in a bridge rectifier each have a maximum
d. Impossible to say. dc current rating of 2 A. This means the dc load cur-
19. With the same secondary voltage and filter, which rent can have a maximum value of
produces the least load voltage? a. 1 A.
a. Half-wave rectifier. b. 2 A.
b. Full-wave rectifier. c. 4 A.
c. Bridge rectifier. d. 8 A.
d. Impossible to say. 28. What is the PIV across each diode of a bridge rectifier
20. The purpose of a filter on the 60-Hz input to the with a secondary voltage of 20 V rms?
power supply is to a. 14.1 V.
a. filter the rectifier output. b. 20 V.
b. keep noise and spikes from getting into the power c. 28.3 V.
supply. d. 34 V.
c. keep harmonics generated in the power supply 29. If the secondary voltage increases in a bridge
from getting on the ac line. rectifier with a capacitor-input filter, the load
d. both b and c. voltage will
21. The kind of filter on the rectifier output is a. decrease.
a. low pass. b. stay the same.
b. high pass. c. increase.
c. bandpass. d. none of these.
d. Bandstop. 30. If the filter capacitance is increased, the ripple
22. The output of a bridge rectifier connected to a will
600-kHz ac source will have frequency of a. decrease.
a. 120 Hz. b. stay the same.
b. 600 kHz. c. increase.
c. 1.2 MHz. d. none of these.
d. 2.4 MHz. 31. Voltage multipliers are circuits best used to
23. Most rectifiers produce which kind of harmonics? produce
a. None. a. low voltage and low current.
b. Even. b. low voltage and high current.
c. Odd. c. high voltage and low current.
d. Both odd and even. d. high voltage and high current.

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 CHAPTER 30 PROBLEMS

SECTION 30.2 The Half-Wave Rectifier 30.6 What is the peak output voltage in Fig. 30-26 if
30.1 What is the peak output voltage in Fig. 30-24a the diodes are the second approximation? The
using the second approximation of a diode? The average value? The dc value? Sketch the output
average value? The dc value? Sketch the output waveform.
waveform.
D1
7:1
50 V 15 V 120 V
4.7 k 1 k
60 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz
RL
3.3 k

(a) (b)

Figure 30-24 D2

Figure 30-26
30.2 Repeat the preceding problem for Fig. 30-24b.
SECTION 30.3 The Transformer
SECTION 30.5 The Bridge Rectifier
30.3 If a transformer has a turns ratio of 1:12, what is
30.7 In Fig. 30-27, what is the peak output voltage if the
the rms secondary voltage? The peak secondary
diodes are ideal? The average value? The dc value?
voltage? Assume a primary voltage 120 V rms.
Sketch the output waveform.
30.4 Calculate the peak output voltage and the dc output
voltage in Fig. 30-25 using the second approximation.
8:1
8:1 120 V
120 V 60 Hz
60 Hz
V1 V2
RL
V1 V2
680  470 

Figure 30-27
Figure 30-25
30.8 If the line voltage in Fig. 30-27 varies from 105 to
SECTION 30.4 The Full-Wave Rectifier 125 V rms, what is the minimum dc output voltage?
30.5 A center-tapped transformer with 120-V input has a The maximum?
turns ratio of 4:1. What is the rms voltage across the
upper half of the secondary winding? The peak volt- SECTION 30.6 Power Supply Filtering
age? What is the rms voltage across the lower half 30.9 In Fig. 30-28, calculate the dc output voltage and
of the secondary winding? ripple.
7:1

120 V
60 Hz
+
68 ␮F 2.2 k
–

Figure 30-28

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 30.10 What happens to the ripple in Fig. 30-28 if the ca- SECTION 30.8 Other Power Supply Topics
pacitance value is reduced to half? 30.16 An F-25X replaces the transformer of Fig. 30-29.
30.11 In Fig. 30-28, what happens to the ripple if the re- What is the approximate peak voltage across the
sistance is reduced to 500 V? secondary winding? The approximate dc output
30.12 What is the dc output voltage in Fig. 30-29? The voltage? Is the transformer being operated at its
ripple? Sketch the output waveform. rated output current? Will the dc output voltage be
higher or lower than normal?
30.17 What is the primary current in Fig. 30-29?
9:1 SECTION 30.9 Troubleshooting
30.18 If the filter capacitor in Fig. 30-29 is open, what is
120 V the dc output voltage?
60 Hz
30.19 If only one diode in Fig. 30-29 is open, what is the
V1 V2
dc output voltage?
+
470 ␮F 1 k 30.20 If somebody builds the circuit of Fig. 30-29 with
– the electrolytic capacitor reversed, what kind of
trouble is likely to happen?
30.21 If the load resistance of Fig. 30-29 opens, what
Figure 30-29
changes will occur in the output voltage?
SECTION 30.10 Voltage Multipliers
30.13 If the line voltage decreases to 105 V in Fig. 30-29, 30.22 Calculate the dc output voltage in Fig. 30-30.
what is the dc output voltage?
C1
D2
30.14 A full-wave signal with a peak of 14 V is the input 1:10

to a choke-input filter. If XL 5 2 kV and XC 5 50 V, 120 V

60 Hz
what is the approximate peak-to-peak ripple across +
the capacitor? D1 C2 RL 2VP
–
SECTION 30.7 Peak Inverse Voltage
and Surge Current
30.15 What is the peak inverse voltage in Fig. 30-29? Figure 30-30

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 Ch a pt er 31
Introduction to Transistors

Just as the vacuum tube brought forth the field of elec- Learning Outcomes
tronics and started a major technical revolution, so did
the transistor usher in a major revolutionary cycle in After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
electronics. This small solid-state device was orders of State the basic structure of a generic transistor.
magnitude smaller than a vacuum tube and consumed Explain the concept of a transistor.
orders of magnitude less power. Transistors changed Explain the operation of a transistor as a switch.
electronic equipment from large, heavy, and hot to Explain the operation of a transistor as an
small, light, and cooler. And it made portable battery- amplifier.
operated equipment practical. Today the transistor is at Name the two basic types of transistors in common
the heart of all integrated circuits, those complete cir- usage and identify their elements and schematic
cuits and systems made on a single chip of silicon. This symbols.
makes the transistor a key part of electronics worth
knowing about.
For decades the transistor was a very visible compo-
nent in electronic equipment. But today, transistors have
mostly disappeared into the integrated circuits where we

544

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 cannot see them, access them, or otherwise manipulate This chapter introduces you to the concept of a
them. While individual discrete transistors are still used transistor and shows how a transistor works to im-
in many designs, for the most part better than 99% of plement the two basic electronic functions, switch-
all transistors are inside ICs. Even though these devices ing and amplification, that form the basis of all other
cannot be accessed, it is important to know what they electronic circuits. The most common transistors like
are and how they work. Detailed discussions of how the metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
to design and analyze transistors circuits are no longer (MOSFET) and bipolar junction transistor (BJT) are
essential, but the concepts of the transistor and its ap- introduced. Each is covered in more detail in later
plications form the core of most electronics curricula. chapters.

31.1 The Concept of a Transistor or on, as with a switch, or to vary the current in such a way
that a small input variation on terminal 2 produces a larger
A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device in
variation in current between terminals 1 and 3.
which the current flowing between two of the terminals is
The ability of a transistor to perform these functions lies
controlled by an input signal on a third terminal. With this
with its inherent characteristic called gain. Gain refers to
basic device, the functions of switching and amplification
the ability of a device to have a larger output variation than
can be performed. All electronic circuits and applications
the corresponding input variation. A small variation in input
rely on one or both of these basic operations.
produces a much larger change in the output. It is this gain
Figure 31-1a shows a generic diagram of a transistor in a
characteristic that allows the transistor to perform its basic
basic electric circuit. The device is designed so that current
operations as an amplifier or a switch.
flows freely through the device from terminal 1 to terminal 3.
The amount of current flowing is determined by a voltage or
current input on terminal 2. An external dc voltage source 31.2 The Transistor as a Switch
(power supply) 1V and a current limiting resistor, Rx, set the Of the two basic functions performed by a transistor, am-
initial amount of current that can flow. plification and switching, switching is by far the common
In most schematic diagrams, the power supply voltage is application. Transistor switches are at the heart of all digital
not shown as a battery as it is here. Instead, it is removed, circuits, microcomputers, memory devices, and other pulse-
and we just assume that the power supply voltage is applied type electronics.
between 1V and ground, as Fig. 31-1b shows. Note that the
input to the transistor is between terminal 2 and ground, Transistor Switch Operation
while the output is between terminal 3 and ground. Figure 31-2 shows the transistor set up as a switch. Assume
Now, varying the voltage or current on terminal 2, causes that the transistor is a device in which the voltage on termi-
the current in the device to increase or decrease. With this nal 2 causes the current between terminals 1 and 3 to vary.
arrangement, the transistor can be used to turn current off With no input voltage or zero voltage applied to terminal 2,
no current will flow in the transistor (Fig. 31-2a). The output
then is just 13 V, as seen through the resistor. It is as if the
Current flow transistor was just an open or off switch (Fig. 31-2b). An-
V other way to look at this is as if the resistance between termi-
nals 1 and 3 was very high, many megohms to infinity. If a
RX RX load is connected to the output, it will form a voltage divider
V with the resistor. Assume no load at this time.
Transistor DC Now, assume that we apply a voltage of 1 V to terminal
3  power 3 2. This causes the transistor to conduct heavily (Fig. 31-2c).
2 2 In this conductive state, the resistance between terminals 1
Output
Input Input
and 3 is very low. It could be a few ohms down to a fraction
1 1
of an ohm approaching zero ohms, or what we could call a
dead short. The transistor is acting as a closed or on switch.
The output voltage is near zero volts (Fig. 31-2d).
(a) (b)
Actually, the transistor resistance between terminals 1 and
Figure 31-1 Basic circuit for most transistor applications. 3 will never be zero. Instead, it will be some small value that

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 3 V 3 V 5 V 12 V Relay 12 V
contacts

RX RX RX
No Current flows 200 
current flow
DC
D M
motor
3 3
LED
K
2 2
3 V 0V
0V 1 V 3 3 3
1 1
2 2 2

Input Input Input

1 1 1
(a) (c)

3 V 3 V
(a) (b) (c)
RX RX
Current Figure 31-3 Transistor switch applications. (a) LED driver.
flow
(b) Relay driver. (c) DC motor driver.

0V
This same principle applies to the relay driver circuit in Fig.
Open 3 V Closed
switch
31-3b. Recall that a relay is a magnetic switch. Applying a
switch
voltage to the relay coil produces a magnetic field that closes
a set of switch contacts. Removing the voltage causes the
magnetic field to disappear, so the contacts spring open.
(b) (d)
In most cases, you can apply the input voltage directly
Figure 31-2 Basic transistor switch operation. to the relay coil to produce the desired switching. But more
(a) Nonconducting transistor. (b) Equivalent to an open switch. often the case is that only a very small voltage is available.
(c) Conducting transistor. (d) Equivalent to a closed switch. What if only 1 V is available to operate a 12-V relay coil? In
this case, you can use the relay driver circuit in Fig. 31-3b.
forms a voltage divider with the resistor. Since the resistor With no or zero voltage on terminal 2, the transistor is off, so
value is usually much higher than the transistor on resistance, the relay is off. Applying 1 V to terminal 2 turns the transis-
the output will be just a fraction of the 3-V supply voltage. A tor on, making its resistance very low. Now the full 12 V is
few millivolts may be typical but the actual value depends on applied to the relay coil, turning it on.
the transistor characteristics. If we assume Rx is 1000 V and One important detail to note in Fig. 31-3b: The diode, D,
the transistor on resistance is 1 V, the output voltage will be is needed across the relay coil to prevent the transistor from
being destroyed when the relay is turned off. Remember that
1
Vo 5 3 3 ________ 5 0.002997 V or about 3 mV when current is flowing through a coil, a large magnetic field
1000 1 1
appears around the coil. The field is steady. But if you sud-
Transistor Switch Applications denly turn off the current by switching off the transistor, the
magnetic field collapses, and as it does, it induces a huge
The transistor switch makes a good driver switch for devices
voltage, hundreds or even thousands of volts, across the coil.
such as lightbulbs, LEDs, relays, and motors. Figure  31-3
This short duration induced pulse of voltage can destroy
shows some of these applications. In Fig. 31-3a, a small con-
almost any transistor. By putting the diode across the coil,
trol voltage on the transistor terminal 2 can turn the LED off
the diode will conduct when the high voltage is induced and
and on. With zero volts applied to terminal 2, the transistor
current will flow through it momentarily until the magnetic
does not conduct, so no current can flow through the LED
field disappears. This clamps the voltage on terminal 3 of the
and it is off. However, applying 1 V to terminal 2 causes the
transistor to 12 V plus about 0.7 V if a silicon diode is used.
transistor to turn on and become a low resistance, or closed
The transistor is protected.
switch. Current then flows in the LED, turning it on. A light-
The operation of the circuit in Fig. 31-3c is similar. Here the
bulb could be used in place of the LED. The resistor in series
device in series with the transistor is a dc motor. Turning the
with the LED sets the current level and the brightness of the
transistor on with a small input voltage causes the motor to turn
LED. If the transistor has zero on resistance, the current in
on. With zero input to the transistor, the transistor is off, so no
the LED with the values shown will be
current flows in the motor. Notice that a diode is used across
I 5 5y200 5 0.025 A or 25 mA the motor as well since the motor winding is an inductor.

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 3 V 3 V
3 V
3
RX 2
Input
0V Input A
1 Current

3 V 3
2
Output Output 2
Input
0V Input B

3 V  logic 1 Output C
1
0 V  logic 0
A B C
Inverter R 0 0 0
Figure 31-4 A transistor invertor. 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Digital Logic
(a) (b)
Another major use of the transistor is to perform basic digi-
tal logic operations. You will learn more about these in later Figure 31-5 An AND gate. (a) Circuit. (b) Truth table.
courses but for now just know that there are three basic logic
operations used in all digital equipment and computers. The logical OR function performed by an OR gate is that
These are inversion, AND, and OR. the output will be logic 1 of one or both inputs are logic 1.
The transistor switch makes a great inverter, as Fig. 31-4 The circuit in Fig. 31-6a implements this operation. With
shows. Here a digital signal that switches from 0 to 13 V and both inputs zero, both transistors are off, so there is no cur-
back periodically is applied to the input at terminal 2. When the rent in the resistor and the output is zero. Now, if a logic 1
input is zero, the transistor is off, so the output as seen through or 13 V is applied to either transistor’s terminal 2, it will
the resistor is 13 V. When the input switches to 13 V, the tran- conduct, connecting the 13-V supply to the output resistor,
sistor turns on and becomes a very low resistance. Therefore R, and producing a 13-V output. The same is true if either
the output is very low, near zero volts. As you can see from the or both transistors are turned on. The truth table (Fig. 31-6b)
input and output waveforms, when the input is zero, the output sums up the complete operation of the circuit.
is 13 V. When the input is 13 V, the output is zero. Therefore With inverters, AND gates, and OR gates, you can make
the transistor “inverts” the input or produces the opposite volt- virtually any other digital logic circuit. These occur most
age level. This circuit is therefore referred to as an inverter. commonly in integrated circuit form.
Digital circuits have two voltage states and are called bi-
nary. We usually call these states either a logic 0 or logic 1. It 3 V 3
is common for a zero-volt level to represent a logic 0, while a 1
1 voltage level represents a logic 1. We say that the inverter 2

changes a logic 0 to 1 and logic 1 to 0. The two states are said 3 1 Output C
to be complementary. Logic 0 is the complement to logic 1
and vice versa. 2
Another logic operation is called the AND function. It is
R
implemented with something called an AND gate. It has two
Input A Input B
or more inputs and one output. The output is a logic 1 only if
both inputs are logic 1. Otherwise, the output is logic 0 for all
other conditions. This logic operation can be implemented by
(a)
connecting two transistors in series as shown in Fig. 31-5a. If
one or both transistors is off, the series current path is broken, A B C
so no current can flow. With no current across the resistor, the 0 0 0
output is 0. Now if both inputs have 13 V applied to them, 0 1 1
both transistors turn on and the path is completed between the 1 0 1
13 volt input and the output. If the transistor on resistances 1 1 1
are low, 13 V appears across the resistor. Therefore, the logic
(b)
AND condition is fulfilled. The truth table in Fig. 31-5b shows
all possible combinations of inputs and output. Figure 31-6 An OR gate. (a) Circuit. (b) Truth table.

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 31.3 The Transistor as an Amplifier The bias sets the current in the transistor so that the
output voltage is centered in the middle of the transistor’s
Amplification is inherent to most electronic operations.
linear operating range. This is the point at which the dc
Small signals must be made larger to process them or to
output voltage is approximately half the dc supply voltage.
allow them to generate the proper level of output signal. For
In this example, with a 12-V supply, the output voltage
example, amplification is necessary to operate a speaker, an
with bias is 6 V.
electromagnetic device that converts mechanical vibrations
Now, the signal to be amplified is applied to terminal 2
of a speaker cone into sound waves. High power is needed.
as well. In this case, the input is applied through a capaci-
In a radio, the wireless signal is very small at the antenna,
tor, C1, so that the dc bias voltage does not affect or damage
and it must usually be amplified so that it can be processed
the source of the input signal. The input signal here is a
to reproduce the transmitted information. The key to am-
sine wave. When the sine wave goes positive, it causes the
plification is to accurately reproduce the input signal to be
current in the transistor to increase. This, in turn, causes a
amplified so that the amplification does not distort or change
larger current variation between terminals 1 and 3. Look
the signal shape or content.
closely at the circuit, and you will see that the transistor
Transistor Amplifier Operation and resistor R X form a voltage divider. If the current goes
The same basic circuit used for switching can be used for up, the voltage across the resistor goes up. This will force
amplification, as shown in Fig. 31-7. Here instead of just turn- the output voltage across the transistor to go down. Why?
ing the transistor off or on, it will be made to conduct con- Because the circuit obeys Kirchhoff’s voltage law, which,
tinuously, and then the input signal to be amplified will be as you recall, says that the voltage across the components
applied to terminal 2 to vary its current. The inherent gain of in a series circuit must always add up to the supply voltage
the transistor will cause a larger variation in output current value. So if the current goes up, the voltage across the re-
and voltage that is applied to the input. If the output response sistor must increase. That means that the voltage between
is a linear or straight line or proportional to the input varia- terminals 1 and 3 must go down. It is equivalent to saying
tion, no distortion will occur. We call this the linear operation that the resistance between terminals 1 and 3 goes down as
of a transistor. A linear response implies amplification. the current goes up.
A key part of making the transistor amplify is biasing it Now, if the input voltage goes down, the transistor current
properly. Bias refers to an external voltage usually applied will decrease. The voltage across the resistor Rx goes down,
to terminal 2 of the transistor along with the signal to be so the output voltage across the transistor goes up. That is
amplified. Bias can be a separate dc voltage source, but usu- equivalent to the transistor resistance going up.
ally it is derived from the main transistor dc supply voltage. One way for you to visualize what is going on in the tran-
This is the arrangement in Fig. 31-7, for which a voltage sistor is to assume its resistance between terminals 1 and 3
divider made of R1 and R2 supplies a bias voltage to termi- is being varied by the input signal. While that is not entirely
nal 2. What this does is to set the current flowing between correct for some types of transistors, the analogy is useful
terminals 1 and 3. The current flows continuously as long as for understanding how the circuit amplifies.
the bias is applied. In any case, remember that even a very small variation
in input voltage will cause a larger current variation and
even larger output voltage variation because the transistor
12 V has gain. If the characteristics of the transistor are linear,
the output will be a larger variation of the input voltage.
Figure 31-8 shows the input and output voltages. The input
RX
is ac, but the larger output voltage is a dc voltage with the
C2 same sine variations. It is as if the sine wave were riding on a
R1 6-Vdc level. We can get rid of that dc by just passing the out-
3 put to a load resistor through a capacitor, C2, which blocks
C1 the dc and lets the ac pass, as Fig. 31-8 shows. Another thing
Input 2 to note is that the output is 180º out of phase with the input.
to be Load
6 Vdc
amplified We call this phase inversion.
The main thing to point out here is that the transistor does
R2 1
not really take a small signal and make it larger. Instead,
it simply uses a small input signal to control the current
flow to produce a larger variation with the same shape in
Figure 31-7 A basic transistor amplifier. the output. It is the gain of the transistor that makes this

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V
Input 0

 R1
3

2
12 V
C
1

R2
Output
6 V
(terminal 3) RX

0
(a)

V


R1
Output 0 Speaker
(load) 3

 2

C
1
R2
Figure 31-8 The input and output of a transistor
amplifier.

(b)

happen. Millivolt- or microvolt-level inputs can produce Figure 31-9 Other common amplifier circuits. (a) Follower.
outputs of many output volts, depending on the transistor (b) Power amplifier.
characteristics.
31.4 Types of Transistors
Transistor Amplifier Applications The two basic types of transistors are bipolar junction tran-
The basic circuit shown in Fig. 31-7 is the most common sistors (BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs). They are
amplifier configuration. But there are other arrangements. made with different segments of both n- and p-type semicon-
The circuit in Fig. 31-9a is an example. Here the resistor ductor material. And there are two types of FETs: junction
is placed in series with terminal 1 rather than terminal 3. FETs and insulated gate FETs called metal-oxide semicon-
This creates a circuit called a follower. The transistor still ductor (MOS) FETs, or MOSFETs. Figure 31-10 illustrates
has gain, but the output voltage is essentially the same the various types. You will learn each of these in greater
as the input voltage for essentially no gain. We call that detail in the coming chapters. Here is a preview.
a gain of 1, or unity gain. However, the circuit amplifies
power rather than voltage. Field-Effect Transistors
Figure 31-9b shows one other variation. Here the cir- The earliest transistors developed were of the FET type. The
cuit is the same as that in Fig. 31-7, but a transformer first FET was invented by Julius Lilienfeld, a professor at
primary winding replaces the resistor. The secondary of the University of Leipzig in 1925. Later in 1928, Lilienfeld
the transformer connects to a speaker. The impedance patented the first MOSFET. In 1934, Oskar Heil, a physicist
levels between the transistor circuit and the speaker are at the University of Gottingen in Germany, patented another
so great that a transformer is needed to ensure maximum type of FET. Strangely, none of these devices ever got built
power transfer. So this too is a power amplifier. The op- simply because pure semiconductor material was just not
eration is the same as that described earlier but with a available or practical.
transformer stepping the output voltage down and the In the late 1940s, a team at the famous research company
power up. Bell Labs created a point contact transistor that was never

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 Transistors
Drain

Gate

BJT FET
Source

(a)

Drain
Junction MOS

Figure 31-10 Types of transistors. Gate Substrate

practical. But that work spurred on William Shockley to cre-

ate the first BJT in the early 1950s. The BJT was easier to Source

make and more forgiving of inferior semiconductor materi- (b)

als. For this reason, BJTs became the first commercial tran- Collector
sistors of practical value. The junction FET (JFET) came
about next, followed by the first practical MOSFETs in the Base
early 1960s.
Most early transistor equipment was made with BJTs. Emitter
Today, while BJTs are still widely used, most transistors
(c)
making up integrated circuits and even discrete component
circuits are MOSFETs. They can be made smaller than BJTs, Figure 31-11 Schematic symbols of transistors. (a) JFET.
so you can fit more on a chip of any given size. ICs with over (b) MOSFET. (c) BJT.
a billion MOSFETs are commonplace today.
The JFET schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 31-11a. No-
tice that it has three elements, the source, the drain, and the current from source to drain. The MOSFET is used mostly
gate. The source and drain are equivalent to terminals 1 and as a switch but can be biased as a linear amplifier as well.
3 on the generic transistor discussed earlier. Current flows Most ICs (over 90%) are made with MOSFETs.
from source to drain through the FET. A voltage applied to The schematic symbol for a BJT is shown in Fig. 31.11c.
the gate, which is equivalent to terminal 2, controls the cur- Like the FET it has three terminals. These are the emitter
rent from source to drain. The JFET is used mostly as an and collector, which correspond to terminals 1 and 3 in the
amplifier and rarely as a switch. generic transistor discussed earlier. The base is equivalent
The schematic of a MOSFET is shown in Fig. 31-11b. to terminal 2. Current flows from emitter to collector, while
There are several versions, but this one is the most common. the signal on the base controls the amount of current flowing.
It too has a source, drain, and gate. The fourth connection In the chapters to come you will learn more about how each
shown here is the substrate or semiconductor base on which transistor works, its characteristics, and the most common
the transistor is made. The voltage on the gate controls the switch and amplifier circuit configurations.

CHAPTER 31 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A transistor 2. In Fig. 31-1, the main path for current flow is between
a. controls current flow. terminals
b. creates current flow. a. 1 and 2.
c. allows current flow in two directions. b. 2 and 3.
d. measures current flow. c. 1 and 3.
d. All of the above.

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 3. The current in a transistor is larger than the input con- 12. The phase relationship between the inputs and outputs
trolling it. to an amplifier are
a. True. a. in phase.
b. False. b. 90º out of phase.
4. The main use of a transistor is c. 180º out of phase.
a. switching. d. all of the above.
b. amplification. 13. A transistor switching inverter has a 15-Vdc supply.
c. both a and b. When the input is 15 V and the transistor is fully
d. none of these. conducting, the output is
5. What characteristic of a transistor makes it useful? a. Zero.
a. Low voltage operation. b. 2.5 V.
b. Gain. c. 5 V.
c. Low power consumption. d. 7.5 V.
d. High-frequency operation. 14. A transistor AND gate has a logic 1 output when
6. When a transistor is cut off, a. both inputs are 0.
a. full current flows. b. both inputs are 1.
b. no current flows. c. when the inputs are 0 and 1.
d. when the inputs are 1 and 0.
7. The approximate resistance of a heavily conducting
transistor is 15. The only time the output of an OR gate is zero is
a. zero. when
b. near zero. a. both inputs are 0.
c. 100 V to 10 kV. b. both inputs are 1.
d. infinity. c. when the inputs are 0 and 1.
d. when the inputs are 1 and 0.
8. When used as an amplifier, a transistor
a. is cut off. 16. Which of the following is not a widely used transistor
b. fully conducting. type?
c. switches off and on. a. BJT.
d. conducts partially all the time. b. JFET.
c. MOSFET.
9. What is the name of the external voltage applied to
d. IGBT.
make an amplifier conduct?
a. Supply voltage. 17. Which is the most widely used transistor?
b. Input voltage. a. BJT.
c. Bias voltage. b. JFET.
d. Output voltage. c. MOSFET.
d. IGBT.
10. Which of the following is the most true about an
amplifier? 18. Most transistors are inside ICs.
a. The transistor generates the extra voltage so the a. True.
output is larger than the input. b. False.
b. The small input controls the larger dc supply volt-
age to produce an equivalent output.
11. If a transistor amplifier has a +15-Vdc supply, what is
the output voltage with no input signal applied?
a. Zero.
b. 6 V.
c. 7.5 V.
d. 15 V.

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 Ch a pt er 32
Field-Effect Transistors,
Amplifiers, and Switches

The very first transistor was a field-effect transistor Learning Outcomes

(FET) that was conceived by Julius Lilienfeld in 1925 and
later by Oskar Heil in 1934. No practical devices were After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
ever made to test the concept as suitable pure semi- Describe the basic construction of a JFET.
conductor material was not available. However, patents Show common JFET biasing circuits.
were filed. In 1947, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen at Calculate the proportional pinchoff voltage and
the Bell Labs invented the point contact transistor. Their determine which region a JFET in operation in.
Determine transconductance and use it to calculate
colleague William Shockley invented the bipolar junction
gain in JFET amplifiers.
transistor (BJT) in 1951. The BJT became the first prac- Explain the characteristics and operation of both
tical commercial transistor and went on to revolutionize depletion-mode and enhancement-mode MOSFETs.
electronics as it quickly replaced the vacuum tube in Describe how E-MOSFETs are used as switches.
virtually every application. Draw a diagram of a CMOS switching circuit and
Practical FETs called junction FETs (JFETs) came explain its operation.
along in 1952. The MOSFET was invented in 1960, and Name and describe several power FET applications.
the first practical devices became available in the early Explain the operation of several types of
1960s. Over the years the MOSFET has evolved into D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET amplifier circuits.

552

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 the most important device in electronics. Because it While instruction in transistors traditionally be-
can be easily manufactured in integrated circuit form, gins with BJTs, in this book that honor is given to
it has become the most widely used type of transis- the MOSFET, the transistor most likely to be en-
tor. It is, in fact, the dominant type of transistor in countered in everyday use. This chapter covers the
use today as it makes up over 90% of all electronic MOSFET as well as JFETs. BJTs are covered in a
circuits. later chapter.

32.1 Introduction to FETs 32.2 Junction FET Basics

As Chap. 31 points out, there are two major classes of tran- Figure 32-2a shows a piece of n-type semiconductor. The
sistors, field-effect transistors and bipolar junction transis- lower end is called the source, and the upper end is called
tors. In this chapter, we will concentrate on the field-effect the drain. The supply voltage VDD forces free electrons to
transistors. These are the most widely used types of transis- flow from the source to the drain. To produce a JFET, a man-
tor today both in integrated circuits and in discrete form. ufacturer diffuses two areas of p-type semiconductor into
The chapter will cover how they work and how they are the n-type semiconductor, as shown in Fig. 32-2b. These p
used. First, there are two basic types of field-effect transis- regions are connected internally to get a single external gate
tors, the junction FET and the metal-oxide semiconductor lead.
FET as shown in Fig. 32-1. The MOSFET is by far the most
widely used. Field Effect
Note in Fig. 32-1 that there are two types of MOSFETs. Figure 32-3 shows the normal biasing voltages for a JFET.
These are the enhancement-mode type, which is the most The drain supply voltage is positive, and the gate supply volt-
common, and the depletion-mode type. Note that there are age is negative. The term field effect is related to the deple-
two variations of each type of FET, n-type and p-type. These tion layers around each p region. These depletion layers exist
designations refer to dominant current carriers used, either because free electrons diffuse from the n regions into the p
holes for p-type or electrons for n-type. regions. The recombination of free electrons and holes cre-
All FETs have three basic elements: the source, the gate ates the depletion layers shown by the colored areas.
and the drain. The device is designed to permit current
Reverse Bias of Gate
flow from the source through the device to the drain. The
amount of current flowing is determined by the control ele- In Fig. 32-3, the p-type gate and the n-type source form the
ment known as the gate. Like all transistors, the FETs are gate-source diode. With a JFET, we always reverse-bias the
used in two basic ways, as amplifiers or linear devices or as gate-source diode. Because of reverse bias, the gate current
switches. While the application as a switch predominates, IG is approximately zero, which is equivalent to saying that
FETs also make good linear circuit devices. the JFET has an almost infinite input resistance.

Drain
Field-effect
transistors n

Gate
+
p p
Metal-oxide n VDD
Junction
semiconductor
FET –
FET
Most n
N-type widely used
P-type
Depletion Enhancement
mode mode
Source
N-channel N-channel
P-channel P-channel (a) (b)

Figure 32-1 Types of field-effect transistors (FETs). Figure 32-2 (a) Part of JFET. (b) Single-gate JFET.

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 Drain Drain Drain
Drain

Gate
n Gate Gate
+
Gate
p p VDD
–
Source Source Source
– n
VGG (a) (b) (c)
+
Figure 32-4 (a) Schematic symbol. (b) Offset-gate
Source
symbol. (c) P-channel symbol.

Figure 32-3 Normal biasing of JFET.

There is also a p-channel JFET. The schematic symbol
for a p-channel JFET, shown in Fig. 32-4c, is similar to that
Keep in mind that the reverse-biased, gate-source junc- for the n-channel JFET, except that the gate arrow points
tion also acts as a low-value capacitor. This capacitance has in the opposite direction. The action of a p-channel JFET
little or no effect at low frequencies but can greatly impact is complementary; that is, all voltages and currents are re-
high-frequency signals. versed. To reverse-bias a p-channel JFET, the gate is made
A typical JFET has an input resistance in the hundreds positive in respect to the source. Therefore, VGS is made
of megohms. This is the big advantage that a JFET has over positive.
a bipolar transistor. It is the reason that JFETs excel in ap-
plications in which a high input impedance is required. One 32.3 Drain Curves
of the most important applications of the JFET is the source Figure 32-5a shows a JFET with normal biasing voltages. In
follower, a circuit like the emitter follower, except that the this circuit, the gate-source voltage VGS equals the gate sup-
input impedance is in the hundreds of megohms for lower ply voltage VGG, and the drain-source voltage VDS equals the
frequencies. drain supply voltage VDD.

Gate Voltage Controls Drain Current Maximum Drain Current

In Fig. 32-3, electrons flowing from the source to the If we short the gate to the source, as shown in Fig. 32-5b,
drain must pass through the narrow channel between the we will get maximum drain current because VGS 5 0. Fig-
depletion layers. When the gate voltage becomes more ure 32-5c shows the graph of drain current ID versus drain-
negative, the depletion layers expand and the conducting source voltage VDS for this shorted-gate condition. Notice
channel becomes narrower. The more negative the gate how the drain current increases rapidly and then becomes
voltage, the smaller the current between the source and almost horizontal when VDS is greater than VP.
the drain. Why does the drain current become almost constant?
The JFET is a voltage-controlled device because an When VDS increases, the depletion layers expand. When
input voltage controls an output current. In a JFET, the gate- VDS  5 VP, the depletion layers are almost touching. The
to-source voltage VGS determines how much current flows narrow conducting channel therefore pinches off or prevents
between the source and the drain. When VGS is zero, maxi- a further increase in current. This is why the current has an
mum drain current flows through the JFET. This is why a upper limit of IDSS.
JFET is referred to as a normally on device. On the other The active region of a JFET is between VP and VDS(max).
hand, if VGS is negative enough, the depletion layers touch The minimum voltage VP is called the pinch-off voltage,
and the drain current is cut off. and the maximum voltage VDS(max) is the breakdown voltage.
Between pinch-off and breakdown, the JFET acts like a cur-
Schematic Symbol rent source of approximately IDSS when VGS 5 0.
The JFET of Fig. 32-3 is an n-channel JFET because the IDSS stands for the current drain to source with a shorted
channel between the source and the drain is an n-type semi- gate. This is the maximum drain current a JFET can pro-
conductor. Figure 32-4a shows the schematic symbol for an duce. The data sheet of any JFET lists the  value of IDSS.
n-channel JFET. This is one of the most important JFET quantities, and you
Figure 32-4b shows an alternative symbol for an n-channel should always look for it first because it is the upper limit
JFET. on the JFET current.

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 When operated in the ohmic region, a JFET is equivalent
+
to a resistor with a value of approximately
+
– VDS VP
– VDD RDS 5 ___ (32-1)
VGS
+ – –
IDSS
VGG
+ where RDS is called the ohmic resistance of the JFET. In
Fig. 32-6, VP 5 4 V and IDSS 5 10 mA. Therefore, the ohmic
resistance is
(a)
4 V 5 400 V
RDS 5 ______
+
10 mA
If the JFET is operating anywhere in the ohmic region, it has
VDS +
VDD
an ohmic resistance of 400 V.
– –
Gate Cutoff Voltage
Figure 32-6 shows the drain curves for a JFET with an IDSS
of 10 mA. The top curve is always for VGS 5 0, the shorted-
(b)
gate condition. In this example, the pinch-off voltage is 4
ID V and the breakdown voltage is 30 V. The next curve down
is for VGS 5 21 V, the next for VGS 5 22 V, and so on. As
you can see, the more negative the gate-source voltage, the
Shorted gate smaller the drain current.
IDSS The bottom curve is important. Notice that a VGS of 24
V reduces the drain current to almost zero. This voltage is
Active called the gate-source cutoff voltage and is symbolized by
region VGS(off ) on data sheets. At this cutoff voltage the depletion lay-
ers touch. In effect, the conducting channel disappears. This
VDS is why the drain current is approximately zero.
VP VDS(max)
In Fig. 32-6, notice that
(c)
VGS(off) 5 24 V and VP 5 4 V
Figure 32-5 (a) Normal bias. (b) Zero gate voltage.
(c) Shorted-gate drain current. This is not a coincidence. The two voltages always have
the same magnitude because they are the values where the
depletion layers touch or almost touch. Data sheets may list
The Ohmic Region either quantity, and you are expected to know that the other
has the same magnitude. As an equation:
In Fig. 32-6, the pinch-off voltage separates two major op-
erating regions of the JFET. The almost-horizontal region is VGS(off) 5 2VP (32-2)
the active region. The almost-vertical part of the drain curve
below pinch-off is called the ohmic region. 32.4 The Transconductance Curve
The transconductance curve of a JFET is a graph of ID ver-
sus VGS. By reading the values of ID and VGS of each drain
ID curve in Fig. 32-6, we can plot the curve of Fig. 32-7a. No-
tice that the curve is nonlinear because the current increases
VGS = 0
10 mA faster when VGS approaches zero.
VP = 4 V
Any JFET has a transconductance curve like Fig. 32-7b.
The endpoints on the curve are VGS(off ) and IDSS. The equation
VGS = –1
5.62 mA
for this graph is
2

2.5 mA
0.625 mA
VGS = –2

VGS = –3 VGS = –4 ( VGS

ID 5 IDSS 1 2 _____
VGS(off) ) (32-3)

VDS Because of the squared quantity in this equation, JFETs are

4 15 30
often called square-law devices. The squaring of the quantity
Figure 32-6 Drain curves. produces the nonlinear curve of Fig. 32-7b.

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 ID Small RS

ID
10 mA
+VDD
VDS = 15 V
5.62 mA
RD
2.5 mA Medium RS
0.625 mA
VGS
–4 –3 –2 –1 0
Q
(a)
RG
ID Large RS
RS
VGS
IDS S VGS(off) VGS(off)
2

(a) (b)

Figure 32-8 Self-bias.

VGS
voltage is half the cutoff voltage. An approximation for this
VGS(off) medium resistance is
(b)
RS ⬇ RDS (32-6)
Figure 32-7 Transconductance curve. This equation says that the source resistance should equal
the ohmic resistance of the JFET. When this condition is
satisfied, the VGS is roughly half the cutoff voltage and the
drain current is roughly one-quarter of IDSS. This is the de-
32.5 Biasing the JFET sired Q point.
Bias refers to the external dc voltages applied to a transis-
tor to establish an operating point in one of the operating Voltage Divider Bias
regions of the device. The JFET can be biased in the ohmic Figure 32-9a shows voltage divider bias. The voltage di-
or in the active region. When biased in the ohmic region, vider produces a gate voltage that is a fraction of the supply
the JFET is equivalent to a resistance. When biased in the voltage. By subtracting the gate-source voltage, we get the
active region, the JFET is equivalent to a current source. The voltage across the source resistor:
ohmic region is rarely used, so we will focus on biasing for VS 5 VG 2 VGS (32-7)
the active region.
JFET amplifiers need to have a fixed operating point Since VGS is a negative, the source voltage will be slightly
called the Q point in the active region. The most common larger than the gate voltage. When you divide this source
bias method is self-bias. voltage by the source resistance, you get the drain current:
Figure 32-8a shows self-bias. Since drain current flows V
VG 2 VGS ___
through the source resistor RS, a voltage exists between the ID 5 ________ ⬇ G (32-8)
RS RS
source and ground, given by
VS 5 IDRS (32-4) +VDD

Since VG is zero, R1 RD

VGS 5 2IDRS (32-5)

This says that the gate-source voltage equals the negative of
the voltage across the source resistor. Basically, the circuit
creates its own bias by using the voltage developed across RS R2 RS
to reverse-bias the gate.
Figure 32-8b shows the effect of different source resis-
tors. There is a medium value of RS at which the gate-source Figure 32-9 Voltage divider bias.

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 When the gate voltage is large, it can swamp out the vari- ID

ations in VGS from one JFET to the next. Ideally, the drain
current equals the gate voltage divided by the source resis-
tance. As a result, the drain current is almost constant for
Higher gm
any JFET. Voltage divider bias is no longer widely used in
JFET circuits. However, it is used in this chapter to illustrate D
Lower gm C
basic JFET amplifier circuits. B
A
VGS
32.6 Transconductance
To analyze JFET amplifiers, we need to discuss transcon-
ductance, designated gm and defined as (a)
id
gm 5 ___
vgs (32-9) gm

This says that transconductance equals the ac drain cur-

gm0
rent divided by the ac gate-source voltage. Transconduc-
tance tells us how effective the gate-source voltage is in
controlling the drain current. The higher the transconduc-
tance, the more control the gate voltage has over the drain VGS
current. VGS (off)

For instance, if id 5 0.2 mA p-p when vgs 5 0.1 V p-p,

then (b)

0.2 mA 5 2(1023) mho 5 2000 ␮mho

gm 5 _______
Figure 32-10 (a) Transconductance. (b) Variation of g m .
0.1 V
On the other hand, if id 5 1 mA p-p when vgs 5 0.1 V p-p,
then curve. The steeper the curve is at the Q point, the higher the
transconductance.
1 mA 5 10,000 ␮mho
gm 5 _____
0.1 V Transconductance and Gate-Source Cutoff
In the second case, the higher transconductance means that Voltage
the gate is more effective in controlling the drain current. The quantity VGS(off ) is difficult to measure accurately. On the
other hand, IDSS and gm0 are easy to measure with high ac-
Siemen
curacy. For this reason, VGS(off ) is often calculated with the
The unit mho is the ratio of current to voltage. An equivalent following equation:
and modern unit for the mho is the siemen (S), so the fore-
going answers can be written as 2000 ␮S and 10,000 ␮S. 22IDSS
VGS(off) 5 ______
g (32-10)
m0
On data sheets, either quantity (mho or siemen) may be
used. Data sheets may also use the symbol gfs instead of In this equation, gm0 is the value of transconductance when
gm. As an example, the data sheet of a 2N5451 lists a gfs of VGS 5 0. Typically, a manufacturer will use the foregoing
2000 ␮S for a drain current of 1 mA. This is identical to equation to calculate the value of VGS(off) for use on data
saying that the 2N5451 has a gm of 2000 ␮mho for a drain sheets.
current of 1 mA. The quantity gm0 is the maximum value of gm for a JFET
because it occurs when VGS 5 0. When VGS becomes nega-
Slope of Transconductance Curve
tive, gm decreases. Here is the equation for calculating gm for
Figure 32-10a brings out the meaning of gm in terms of the any value of VGS:
transconductance curve. Between points A and B, a change
in VGS produces a change in ID. The change in ID divided
by the change in VGS is the value of gm between A and B.
(
VGS
gm 5 gm0 1 2 _____
VGS(off) ) (32-11)

If we select another pair of points farther up the curve at C Notice that gm decreases linearly when VGS becomes more
and D, we get a bigger change in ID for the same change in negative, as shown in Fig. 32-10b. Changing the value of
VGS. Therefore, gm has a larger value higher up the curve. gm is useful in automatic gain control, which is discussed
Stated another way, gm is the slope of the transconductance later.

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 +VDD
EXAMPLE 32-1

A 2N5457 has I DSS 5 5 mA and g m0 5 5000 ␮S. What is the

R1
value of VGS(off)? What does g m equal when VGS 5 21 V?
Answer:
With Formula (32-10),

22(5 mA)
VGS(off) 5 _________ 5 22 V
5000 ␮S R2
Next, use Formula (32-11) to get RS RL Vout

(
1 V 5 2500 ␮S
gm 5 (5000 ␮S) 1 ⫺ ____
2V )
Figure 32-12 Source follower.

32.7 JFET Amplifiers

Figure 32-11 shows a common-source (CS) amplifier. The Source Follower
coupling and bypass capacitors are ac shorts. Because of Figure 32-12 shows a source follower. The input signal
this, the signal is coupled directly into the gate. Since the drives the gate, and the output signal is coupled from the
source is bypassed to ground, all the ac input voltage ap- source to the load resistor. The source follower has a voltage
pears between the gate and the source. This produces an gain less than 1. The main advantage of the source follower
ac drain current. Since the ac drain current flows through is its very high input resistance. Often, you will see a source
the drain resistor, we get an amplified and inverted ac out- follower used at the front end of a system, followed by ad-
put voltage. This output signal is then coupled to the load ditional stages of voltage gain.
resistor. In Fig. 32-12, the ac source resistance is defined as

Voltage Gain of CS Amplifier rs 5 RS i RL

The voltage gain is
It is possible to derive this equation for the voltage gain of a
vout source follower:
Av 5 ___
v 5 gmrd (32-12)
in
gmrs
This says that the voltage gain of a CS amplifier equals the Av 5 _______
1 1 gmrs (32-13)
transconductance times the ac drain resistance. The ac drain
resistance rd is defined as Because the denominator is always greater than the numera-
tor, the voltage gain is always less than 1.
rd 5 RD 储 RL

+VDD EXAMPLE 32-2

R1 RD If g m 5 5000 ␮S in Fig. 32-13, what is the output voltage?

Answer:
The ac drain resistance is

RL vout rd 5 3.6 kV i 10 kV 5 2.65 kV

The voltage gain is
vin R2
Av 5 (5000 ␮S)(2.65 kV) 5 13.3
RS
The output voltage is

vout 5 13.3(1 mV p-p) 5 13.3 mV p-p

Figure 32-11 CS amplifier.

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 This type of diode is called a hot carrier or Schottky diode. It
+20 V works like any other diode but has a lower barrier voltage in
the 0.2- to 0.4-V range, rather than the 0.7-V level of a silicon
3.6 k diode. This gate diode is reversed-biased as in other JFETs.
1 M
The operation is otherwise similar.

47 k HEMT and pHEMT

A high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) is similar to a
10 k
MESFET, but instead of the metal-semiconductor junction,
1 mV 1 M
10 k
the gate junction uses different semiconductor materials for
the gate and the channel. This is called a heterojunction. A
typical combination is GaAs for the channel and aluminum
gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) for the gate. A HEMT made of
Figure 32-13 Example of CS amplifier. gallium nitride (GaN) also makes a good power transistor,
providing several watts of power into the low GHz range.
A special form of HEMT is the pseudomorphic HEMT,
32.8 Special Types of JFETs or pHEMT, that uses additional layers of different semicon-
Several special types of JFETs are used for very high fre- ductor materials including compounds of indium (In). The
quency signal amplification. These include the MESFET, layers are optimized to further speed electron transit, push-
the HEMT, and the pHEMT. ing their ability to amplify well into the millimeter wave
range (30 to 100 GHz).
MESFET Today, the JFET is the least used type of FET. It will oc-
The metal-semiconductor junction field-effect transistor casionally be found in discrete form in older equipment or in
(MESFET) is different from a standard JFET. Instead of specialized high-frequency military equipment. Most JFETs
being made of silicon, the MESFET is normally made of are used as input stages to radio receivers, such as amplifiers
gallium arsenide (GaAs) or some other compound semicon- or mixers, and to certain types of integrated circuit ampli-
ductor that offers a shorter transit time for electrons through fiers because of their high input impedance and very low
the material than silicon does. As a result, GaAs transistors noise generation.
can operate as amplifiers at frequencies up to about 50 GHz.
The MESFET is sometimes called a GASFET.
Figure 32-14 shows the general cross section of a MESFET.
32.9 The Depletion-Mode MOSFET
The n-channel is made on a p substrate. The source and Figure 32-15a shows a depletion-mode MOSFET with
drain metal connections are on either end. Electrons flow n-type source (S), drain (D), and channel diffused into a
from source to drain as in any JFET. Instead of a p-type gate p-type substrate. Electrons flowing from source to drain
diffused into the channel, a metal gate is placed directly on must pass through the narrow channel between the gate and
top of the n-channel, forming a metal-semiconductor diode. the p substrate.
A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) is deposited on the
top of the channel. Silicon dioxide is the same as glass,
Gate (G) Schottky which is an insulator. In a MOSFET, the gate is metallic or
Metal junction highly conductive silicon. Because the metallic gate is in-
sulated from the channel, negligible gate current flows even
Source (S) Drain (D)
when the gate voltage is positive.
D
Figure 32-15a shows a depletion-mode MOSFET with a
negative gate voltage. The VDD supply forces free electrons
n-channel GaAs
G to flow from source to drain. These electrons flow through
the narrow channel on the top of the p substrate. As with
a JFET, the gate voltage controls the width of the chan-
Substrate S nel. The more negative the gate voltage, the smaller the
drain current. When the gate voltage is negative enough,
(a) (b)
the drain current is cut off. Therefore, the operation of a
Figure 32-14 (a) Cross section of a MESFET and (b) its depletion-mode MOSFET is similar to that of a JFET when
schematic symbol. VGS is negative.

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 VD ID
– +

+2
VDD
+ –
RD
+1
S G D

SiO2 (insulating) film IDSS 0

VGS(off)
–1
n channel n –2
VDS
VDD

p substrate (a)

(a)
ID

VD
Depletion Enhancement
– + mode mode
IDSS

– +
VGS
S G D VGS(off)

SiO2 (insulating) film (b)

n channel n Figure 32-16 An n-channel, depletion-mode MOSFETs.

(a) Drain curves. (b) Transconductance curve.

p substrate

becomes positive, ID will increase following the square-law

(b)
equation
Figure 32-15 (a) D-MOSFET with negative gate. 2
(b) D-MOSFET with positive gate.
( VGS
ID 5 IDSS 1 2 _____
VGS(off) ) (32-14)

When VGS is negative, the D-MOSFET is operating in

Since the gate is insulated, we can also use a positive the depletion mode. When VGS is positive, the D-MOSFET
input voltage, as shown in Fig. 32-15b. The positive gate volt- is operating in the enhancement mode. Like the JFET, the
age increases the number of free electrons flowing through D-MOSFET curves display an ohmic region, a current-
the channel. The more positive the gate voltage, the greater source region, and a cutoff region.
the conduction from source to drain. Figure 32-16b is the transconductance curve for a
D-MOSFET. Again, I DSS is the drain current with the
gate shorted to the source. Here I DSS is no longer the
32.10 D-MOSFET Curves maximum possible drain current. The parabolic trans-
Figure 32-16a shows the set of drain curves for a typical n- conductance curve follows the same square-law relation
channel, depletion-mode MOSFET. Notice that the curves that exists with a JFET. As a result, the analysis of a
above VGS 5 0 are positive and the curves below VGS 5 0 depletion-mode MOSFET is almost identical to that of a
are negative. As with a JFET, the bottom curve is for VGS JFET circuit. The major difference is enabling VGS to be
5 VGS(off) and the drain current will be approximately zero. either negative or positive.
As shown, when VGS 5 0 V, the drain current will equal There is also a p-channel D-MOSFET. It consists
IDSS. This demonstrates that the depletion-mode MOSFET, of a drain-to-source p-channel, along with a n-type
or D-MOSFET, is a normally on device. When VGS is made substrate. Once again, the gate is insulated from  the
negative, the drain current will be reduced. In contrast to channel. The action of a p-channel MOSFET is com-
an n-channel JFET, the n-channel D-MOSFET can have VGS plementary to the n-channel MOSFET. The schematic
made positive and still function properly. This is because symbols for both n-channel and p-channel D-MOSFETs
there is no pn junction to become forward-biased. When VGS are shown in Fig. 32-17.

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 Drain Drain
EX A M P L E 32-3

The D-MOSFET amplifier shown in Fig. 32-19 has VGS(off) 5 22 V,

I DSS 5 4 mA, and g mo 5 2000 ␮S. What is the circuit’s output
voltage?
Gate Gate
Answer:
With the source grounded, VGS 5 0 V and I D 5 4 mA.
Source Source
VDS 5 15 V – (4 mA)(2 kV) 5 7 V
(a) (b)
Since VGS 5 0 V, gm 5 g mo 5 2000 ␮S.
Figure 32-17 D-MOSFET schematic symbols. The amplifier’s voltage gain is found by
(a) N-channel. (b) P-channel.
AV 5 gmrd
The ac drain resistance is equal to

32.11 Depletion-Mode MOSFET rd 5 RD i RL 5 2 K i 10 K 5 1.76 kV

Amplifiers and A V is
A depletion-mode MOSFET is unique because it can operate AV 5 (2000 ␮S)(1.67 kV) 5 3.34
with a positive or a negative gate voltage. Because of this,
Therefore,
we can set its Q point at VGS 5 0 V, as shown in Fig. 32-18a.
When the input signal goes positive, it increases ID above Vout 5 (Vin)(AV) 5 (20 mV)(3.34) 5 66.8 mV
IDSS. When the input signal goes negative, it decreases ID
below IDSS. Because there is no pn junction to forward-bias,
the input resistance of the MOSFET remains very high. +VDD
Being able to use zero VGS allows us to build the very simple 15 V

bias circuit of Fig. 32-18b. Because IG is zero, VGS 5 0 V and

ID 5 IDSS. The drain voltage is 2 k
RD

VDS 5 VDD 2 IDSS RD (32-15)

Vout
Due to the fact that a D-MOSFET is a normally on de-
vice, it is also possible to use self-bias by adding a source
resistor. The operation becomes the same as a self-biased
JFET circuit.
RL
+ 10 k
Vin RG
20 mV 1 M
–
+VDD

RD
Figure 32-19 D-MOSFET amplifier.

ID

As shown by Example 32-3, the D-MOSFET has a rela-

Q tively low voltage gain. One of the major advantages of this
RG device is its extremely high input resistance. This allows us
VGS to use this device when circuit loading could be a problem.
Also, MOSFETs have excellent low-noise properties. This is
a definite advantage for any stage near the front end of a sys-
(a) (b)
tem where the signal is weak. This is very common in many
Figure 32-18 Zero bias. types of electronic communications circuits.

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 VDD
32.12 The Enhancement-Mode – +
MOSFET
VGS
The enhancement-mode MOSFET, or E-MOSFET is the S
– +
G D
most widely used type of FET and transistor. Virtually all ++++++ ++++++
digital circuits use E-MOSFETs, and there is a growing
number of linear circuits that use it too.
n Induced n
n-channel of
The Basic Idea electrons

Figure 32-20 shows an E-MOSFET. Two -type regions p substrate

are diffused into a p substrate. As you can see, there no

longer is an n channel between the source and the drain.
How does an E-MOSFET work? Figure 32-20 also shows
Figure 32-21 Conduction between source and drain in
an E-MOSFET.
normal biasing polarities. When the gate voltage is zero,
the current between source and drain is zero. For this
reason, an E-MOSFET is normally off when the gate
voltage is zero. enhancement-mode device because a gate voltage greater
The only way to get current is with a positive gate volt- than the threshold voltage enhances its conductivity. With
age. When the gate is positive, it attracts free electrons into zero gate voltage, a JFET is on, whereas an E-MOSFET is
the p region. The free electrons recombine with the holes off. Therefore, the E-MOSFET is considered to be a nor-
next to the silicon dioxide. When the gate voltage is posi- mally off device.
tive enough, all the holes touching the silicon dioxide are
filled and free electrons begin to flow from the source to Drain Curves
the drain. The effect is the same as creating a thin layer of A small-signal E-MOSFET has a power rating of 1 W or
n-type material next to the silicon dioxide. This thin con- less. Figure 32-22a shows a set of drain curves for a typi-
ducting layer is called the n-type inversion layer. When it cal small-signal E-MOSFET. The lowest curve is the VGS(th)
exists, free electrons can flow easily from the source to the curve. When VGS is less than VGS(th), the drain current is ap-
drain. See Fig. 32-21. proximately zero. When VGS is greater than VGS(th), the de-
The minimum VGS that creates the n-type inversion vice turns on and the drain current is controlled by the gate
layer is called the threshold voltage, symbolized VGS(th). voltage.
When VGS is less than VGS(th), the drain current is zero. The almost-vertical part of the graph is the ohmic re-
When VGS is greater than VGS(th), an n-type inversion layer gion, and the almost-horizontal parts are the active re-
connects the source to the drain and the drain current can gion. When biased in the ohmic region, the E-MOSFET is
flow. Typical values of VGS(th) for small-signal devices are equivalent to a resistor. When biased in the active region,
from 1 to 3 V. it is equivalent to a current source. Although the E-MOS-
The JFET is referred to as a depletion-mode de- FET can operate in the active region, the main use is the
vice because its conductivity depends on the action of ohmic region.
depletion layers. The E-MOSFET is classified as an Figure 32-22b shows a typical transconductance curve.
There is no drain current until VGS 5 VGS(th). The drain
VDD current then increases rapidly until it reaches the satura-
– +
tion current ID(sat). Beyond this point, the device is biased
– + in the ohmic region. Therefore, ID cannot increase, even
VGS
though VGS increases. To ensure hard saturation, a gate
S G D
voltage of VGS(on) well above VGS(th) is used, as shown in
SiO2 (insulating) film Fig. 32-22b.
n n
Schematic Symbol
p substrate When VGS 5 0, the E-MOSFET is off because there is no
conducting channel between source and drain. The sche-
matic symbol of Fig. 32-23a has a broken channel line to
Figure 32-20 Enhancement-mode MOSFET. indicate this normally off condition. As you know, a gate

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 ID D D

G G

VGS = +15 V
S S

VGS = +10 V p-channel n-channel

D D
VGS = +5 V
VGS (th)
VDS
G G

(a)

S S
ID
Figure 32-24 Simplified E-MOSFET schematic symbols
used in integrated circuit devices.

Maximum Gate-Source Voltage

Ohmic
ID (sat) MOSFETs have a thin layer of silicon dioxide, an insulator
that prevents gate current for positive as well as negative gate
Active
voltages. This insulating layer is kept as thin as possible to
give the gate more control over the drain current. Because
VGS
VGS (th) VGS (on) the insulating layer is so thin, it is easily destroyed by exces-
sive gate-source voltage.
(b)
For instance, a 2N7000 has a VGS(max) rating of 620 V. If
Figure 32-22 EMOS graphs. (a) Drain curves. the gate-source voltage becomes more positive than 120 V
(b) Transconductance curve. or more negative than 220 V, the thin insulating layer will
be destroyed.
Aside from directly applying an excessive VGS, you can
voltage greater than the threshold voltage creates an n-type destroy the thin insulating layer in more subtle ways. If you
inversion layer that connects the source to the drain. The remove or insert a MOSFET into a circuit while the power
arrow points to this inversion layer, which acts like an is on, transient voltages caused by inductive kickback may
n-channel when the device is conducting. exceed the VGS(max) rating. Even picking up a MOSFET may
There is also a p-channel E-MOSFET. The schematic deposit enough static charge to exceed the VGS(max) rating.
symbol is similar, except that the arrow points outward, as This is the reason why MOSFETs are often shipped with a
shown in Fig. 32-23b. wire ring around the leads, or wrapped in tin foil, or inserted
The circle around the MOSFET schematic symbols in into conductive foam.
Fig. 32-23 indicates a discrete component device. If the Some MOSFETs are protected by a built-in zener diode
circle is omitted, the device is part of an integrated circuit. in parallel with the gate and the source. The zener voltage is
Other simplified schematic symbols for E-MOSFETs, shown less than the VGS(max) rating. Therefore, the zener diode breaks
in Fig. 32-24, are more widely used. down before any damage to the thin insulating layer occurs.
The disadvantage of these internal zener diodes is that they
reduce the MOSFET’s high input resistance. The trade-off is
worth it in some applications because expensive MOSFETs
are easily destroyed without zener protection.
In conclusion, MOSFET devices are delicate and can
be easily destroyed. You have to handle them carefully.
Furthermore, you should never connect or disconnect
(a) (b)
them while the power is on. Finally, before you pick up a
Figure 32-23 EMOS schematic symbols. (a) N-channel MOSFET device, you should ground your body by touching
device. (b) P-channel device. the chassis of the equipment you are working on.

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 32.13 The Ohmic Region EXAMPLE 32-4
Although the E-MOSFET can be biased in the active re-
gion, it is more commonly used as a switching device. The What is the output voltage in Fig. 32-26a?
typical input voltage is either low or high. Low voltage is Answer:
0 V, and high voltage is VGS(on), a value specified on data For the 2N7000, the most important values are
sheets.
VGS(on) 5 4.5 V
ID(on) 5 75 mA
Drain Source on Resistance
RDS(on) 5 6 V
When an E-MOSFET is biased in the ohmic region, it is
equivalent to a resistance of RDS(on). Almost all data sheets Since the input voltage swings from 0 to 4.5 V, the 2N7000 is
being switched on and off.
will list the value of this resistance at a specific drain current
The drain saturation current in Fig. 32-26a is
and gate-source voltage.
Figure 32-25 illustrates the idea. There is a Qtest point in 20 V 5 20 mA
ID(sat) 5 _____
the ohmic region of the VGS 5 VGS(on) curve. The manufac- 1 kV
turer measures ID(on) and VDS(on) at this Qtest point. From this, Since 20 mA is less than 75 mA, the value of I D(on), the 2N7000 is
the manufacturer calculates the value of RDS(on) using this biased in the ohmic region when the gate voltage is high.
Figure 32-26b is the equivalent circuit for a high-input gate
definition:
voltage. Since the E-MOSFET has a resistance of 6 V, the output
VDS(on) voltage is
RDS(on) 5 _____ (32-16)
ID(on) 6V
Vout 5 __________ (20 V) 5 0.12 V
1 kV 1 6 V
For instance, at the test point on one device has VDS(on)  1 V
On the other hand, when VGS is low, the E-MOSFET is open
and ID(on)  100 mA. With Formula (32-15), (Fig. 32-26c), and the output voltage is pulled up to the supply
1V voltage,
RDS(on)  _______
100 mA  10  Vout 5 20 V
Typical on resistance values range from about 10 V to less +20 V
than 1 V for newer devices.
An E-MOSFET is biased in the ohmic region when this
condition is satisfied: 1 k

ID(sat) ID(on) when VGS 5 VGS(on) (32-17) Vout

Formula (32-17) is important. It tells us whether an

+4.5 V
E-MOSFET is operating in the active region or the ohmic 2N7000
region. Given an EMOS circuit, we can calculate the ID(sat). 0

If ID(sat) is less than ID(on) when VGS  VGS(on), we will know

that the device is biased in the ohmic region and is equiva-
lent to a small resistance. (a)

+20 V +20 V
ID

VGS = VGS (on)

1 k 1 k

ID (on) Qtest Vout Vout

6

VDS (b) (c)

VDS (on)
Figure 32-26 Switching between cutoff and saturation.
Figure 32-25 Measuring R DS(on).

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 +24 V
EXAMPLE 32-5
500  120 Vac
What is the LED current in Fig. 32-27? Relay
External
Answer: protection
diode
When VGS is low, the LED is off. When VGS is high, the action is
similar to that in the preceding example because the 2N7000
goes into hard saturation.
+2.5 V
If we allow 2 V for the LED drop and assume VDS is zero, 15 
0

ID 5 20 V 2 2 V 5 18 mA
__________ Protection
1 kV diode
internal
to MOSFET (a)
+20 V
+24 V 120 Vac

1 k

500 

+4.5 V
2N7000
0 10  15 

Figure 32-27 Turning an LED on and off. (b) (c)

Figure 32-28 Low-input current signal controls

large-output current.
Note: The diode across the relay coil is used to protect the tran-
sistor from the large voltage spike generated by the coil when
the drain current cuts off. The rapidly dropping current creates a
huge voltage spike that can damage the transistor. The polarity of
EXAMPLE 32- 6 this induced voltage is such that it causes the diode to conduct,
momentarily clamping the coil voltage to 0.7 V. Some E-MOSFETs
What does the circuit of Fig. 32-28a do if a coil current of 30 mA have an internal protection diode from source to drain.
or more closes the relay contacts?
Answer:
The E-MOSFET is being used to turn a relay on and off. Since the
relay coil has a resistance of 500 V, the saturation current is
32.14 Digital Switching
24 V 5 48 mA Why has the E-MOSFET revolutionized the computer in-
ID(sat) 5 ______
500 V dustry? Because of its threshold voltage, it is ideal for use as
a switching device. When the gate voltage is well above the
Assume this is less than the I D(on) of the MOSFET that has an ON
resistance of only 10 V.
threshold voltage, the device switches from cutoff to satura-
Figure 32-28b shows the equivalent circuit for high VGS. The tion. This off-on action is the key to building computers
current through the relay coil is approximately 48 mA, more than and other digital devices. A typical computer uses millions
enough to close the relay. When the relay is closed, the contact of E-MOSFETs as off-on switches to process data.
circuit looks like Fig. 32-28c. Therefore, the final load current is
8 A (120 V divided by 15 V). Analog, Digital, and Switching Circuits
In Figure 32-28a, an input voltage of only 12.5 V and almost The word analog means “continuous,” like a sine wave.
zero input current control a load voltage of 120 Vac and a load
When we speak of an analog signal, we are talking about
current of 8 A. A circuit like this is useful with remote control.
The input voltage could be a signal that has been transmitted signals that continuously change in voltage like the one in
a long distance through copper wire, fiber-optic cable, or outer Fig. 32-29a. The signal does not have to be sinusoidal. As
space. long as there are no sudden jumps between two distinct volt-
age levels, the signal is referred to as an analog signal.

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 v v Active-Load Switching
Integrated circuits (ICs) consist of thousands to hundreds of
millions of microscopically small transistors, mostly MOSFETs.
The earliest integrated circuits used passive-load resistors like
t t
the one of Fig. 32-30. But a passive-load resistance presents a
major problem. It is physically much larger than a MOSFET.
Because of this, integrated circuits with passive-load resistors
(a) (b) were too big until somebody invented active-load resistors.
This greatly reduced the size of integrated circuits and led to
Figure 32-29 (a) Analog signal. (b) Digital signal.
the personal computers that we have today.
The key idea was to get rid of passive-load resistors. Fig-
The word digital refers to a discontinuous signal. This
ure 32-31a shows the invention: active-load switching. The
means that the signal jumps between two distinct voltage levels
lower MOSFET acts like a switch, but the upper MOSFET
like the waveform of Fig. 32-29b. Digital signals like these are
acts like large resistance. Notice that the upper MOSFET
the kind of signals inside computers. These signals are com-
has its gate connected to its drain. Because of this, it be-
puter codes that represent numbers, letters, and other symbols.
comes a two-terminal device with an active resistance that is
The word switching is a broader word than digital.
a function of the VDS and ID values, as well as the doping and
Switching circuits include digital circuits as a subset. In other
physical geometry of the transistor.
words, switching circuits can also refer to circuits that turn
For the circuit to work properly, the RD of the upper
on motors, lamps, heaters, and other heavy-current devices.
MOSFET has to be large compared to the RDS(on) of the lower
Passive-Load Switching MOSFET. For instance, if the upper MOSFET acts like an
Figure 32-30 shows an E-MOSFET with a passive load. The RD of 5 kV and the lower one like an RDS(on) of 667 V, as
word passive refers to ordinary resistors like RD. In this cir- shown in Fig. 32-31b, then the output voltage will be low.
cuit, vin is either low or high. When vin is low, the MOSFET Exact values don’t matter with digital switching circuits
is cut off, and vout equals the supply voltage VDD. When vin is as long as the voltages can be easily distinguished as low or
high, the MOSFET saturates and vout drops to a low value. high. Therefore, the exact value of RD does not matter. It can
For the circuit to work properly, the drain saturation current be 5, 6.25, or 7.2 kV. Any of these values is large enough to
ID(sat) has to be less than ID(on) when the input voltage is equal produce a low output voltage in Fig. 32-31b.
to or greater than VGS(on). This is equivalent to saying that the Conclusion
resistance in the ohmic region has to be much smaller than
Active-load resistors are necessary with digital ICs because a
the passive drain resistance. In symbols,
small physical size is important with digital ICs. The designer
RDS(on) ,, RD makes sure that the RD of upper MOSFET is large compared
to the RD(on) of the lower MOSFET. When you see a circuit like
A circuit like Fig. 32-30 is the simplest computer circuit that
Fig. 32-31a, all you have to remember is the basic idea: The
can be built. It is called an inverter because the output voltage
circuit acts like a resistance of RD in series with a switch. As a
is the opposite of the input voltage. When the input voltage is
result, the output voltage is either high or low.
low, the output voltage is high. When the input voltage is high,
the output voltage is low. Great accuracy is not necessary when
analyzing switching circuits. All that matters is that the input +VDD
and output voltages can be easily recognized as low or high.

+VDD +15 V

Q1

RD 5 k

vout
vout
vout
Q2
vin 667 

vin

(a) (b)

Figure 32-30 Passive load. Figure 32-31 (a) Active load. (b) Equivalent circuit.

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 +VDD At the midway point in a transition from low to high, or vice
versa, both MOSFETs are on. This means that the drain current
temporarily increases. Since the transition is very rapid, only a
brief pulse of current occurs. The product of the drain supply
Q1 vout
voltage and the brief pulse of current means that the average dy-
namic power consumption is greater than the quiescent power
vin vout VDD
consumption. In other words, a CMOS device dissipates more
VDD average power when it has transitions than when it is quiescent.
Q2
2 Power consumption is proportional to switching frequency.
vin
VDD VDD
Since the pulses of current are very short, however, the
2 average power dissipation is very low even when CMOS
(a) (b) devices are switching states. In fact, the average power con-
sumption is so small that CMOS circuits are often used for
Figure 32-32 CMOS inverter. (a) Circuit. (b) Input-output battery-powered applications such as cell phones, MP3 play-
graph. ers, calculators, digital watches, and hearing aids.
32.15 CMOS 32.16 Power FETs
With active-load switching, the current drain with a low out-
In earlier discussions, we emphasized small-signal E-MOS-
put is approximately equal to ID(sat). This may create a prob-
FETs, that is, low-power MOSFETs. Although some discrete
lem with battery-operated equipment. One way to reduce
low-power E-MOSFETs are commercially available, the major
the current drain of a digital circuit is with complementary
use of low-power EMOS is with digital integrated circuits.
MOS (CMOS). In this approach, the IC designer combines
High-power EMOS is different. With high-power EMOS,
n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs.
the E-MOSFET is a discrete device widely used in applica-
Figure 32-32a shows the idea. Here Q1 is a p-channel
tions that control motors, lamps, disk drives, printers, power
MOSFET and Q2 is an n-channel MOSFET. These two de-
supplies, and so on. In these applications, the E-MOSFET is
vices are complementary; that is, they have equal and op-
called a power FET.
posite values of VGS(th), VGS(on), ID(on), and so on. The circuit is
similar to a class B amplifier because one MOSFET conducts Discrete Devices
while the other is off. Manufacturers are producing different devices such as
Basic Action VMOS, TMOS, hexFET, trench MOSFET, and waveFET.
When a CMOS circuit like Fig. 32-32a is used in a switch- All these power FETs use different channel geometries to
ing application, the input voltage is either high (1VDD) or low increase their maximum ratings. These devices have current
(0 V). When the input voltage is high, Q1 is off and Q2 is on. ratings from 1 A to more than 200 A, and power ratings from
In this case, the shorted Q2 pulls the output voltage down to 1 W to more than 500 W.
ground. On the other hand, when the input voltage is low, Figure 32-33 shows the structure of a vertical MOS
Q1 is on and Q2 is off. Now, the shorted Q1 pulls the output (VMOS) device. It has two sources at the top, which are
voltage up to 1VDD. Since the output voltage is inverted, the usually connected, and the substrate acts like the drain.
circuit is called a CMOS inverter. When VGS is greater than VGS(th), free electronics flow verti-
Figure 32-32b shows how the output voltage varies with the cally downward from the two sources to the drain. Because
input voltage. When the input voltage is zero, the output voltage the conducting channel is much wider along both sides of the
is high. When the input voltage is high, the output voltage is V groove, the current can be much larger. This enables the
low. Between the two extremes, there is a crossover point where VMOS device to act as a power FET.
the input voltage equals VDD /2. At this point, both MOSFETs Another type of power MOSFET is the laterally diffused
have equal resistances and the output voltage equals VDD /2. MOS (LDMOS) FET, shown in Fig. 32-33b. It is usually an n-
channel enhancement-mode type with large elements to handle
Power Consumption the high power and heat. The device is built on a highly doped
The main advantage of CMOS is its extremely low power p-type substrate. Above this is a lightly doped epitaxial layer to
consumption. Because both MOSFETs are in series in help accommodate the higher voltages these devices are nor-
Fig. 32-32a, the quiescent current drain is determined by the mally subjected to. The source is connected to the substrate.
nonconducting device. Since its resistance is in the megohms, The n-type areas are diffused or implanted into the substrate
the quiescent (idling) power consumption approaches zero. to form the source and drain. A drain extension (DEX) is used
The power consumption increases when the input signal to aid the high-voltage tolerance. The gate is a polysilicon con-
switches from low to high, and vice versa. The reason is this: ductor on top of the silicon dioxide insulating layer. A shield

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 Source Source +VDD
Gate

SiO2
High-power
n+ n+
p p load

n– epitaxial layer

Power
n+ substrate FET
Digital
IC
Drain
(a)

Shield Figure 32-34 Power FET is the interface between

low-power digital IC and high-power load.
Gate
Source Oxide Oxide Drain
n+ n+
several amperes. The GaN FETs handle heat better than
n– DEX silicon transistors, and GaN FETs can also operate at higher
Shield
p wall frequencies up to 10 GHz and above. They also switch
faster than silicon power FETs. The GaN FETs are of the
p+
depletion-mode pHEMT type. They are used in RF power
p– epilayer
amplifiers for radar, satellite, and cellular base stations, as
well as in very high speed switching power supplies.

Power FET as an Interface

Digital ICs are low-power devices because they can supply
only small load currents. If we want to use the output of a
p+ substrate digital IC to drive a high-current load, we can use a power
FET as an interface (a device B that allows device A to com-
municate with or control device C).
Source
Figure 32-34 shows how a digital IC can control a high-
(b) power load. The output of the digital IC drives the gate of
Figure 32-33 MOS structures. (a) VMOS structure. the power FET. When the digital output is high, the power
(b) LDMOS. FET is like a closed switch. When the digital output is low,
the power FET is like an open switch. Interfacing digital ICs
connected to the source is used to reduce the drain to gate feed-
(small-signal EMOS and CMOS) to high-power loads is one
back capacitance to extend the high-frequency operating range.
of the important applications of power FETs.
LDMOS FETs are used primarily as RF power amplifiers
A common motor control circuit is shown in Fig. 32-35,
in radio transmitters for cellular base stations. Other RF uses
which has simplified schematic symbols. MOSFETs M1 and
are in radar and other high-power transmitters for broadcast
and two-way radios. With drain voltages as high as 50 Vdc, +12 V
output power levels to 600 W are achievable to frequencies
up to about 5 GHz.
Discrete power MOSFETs can handle currents of a few M3 M5
amperes to several hundred amperes. Power ratings range
from less than 100 W to over 1 kW. Typical on resistances +12 V

are less than 1 Ω and as low as thousandths of an ohm. Power M

Vin M1
MOSFETs are widely used in switch-mode power supply cir- p
cuits like regulators and dc-dc converters, as you will see in M4 M6
a later chapter. Other applications include switching in light-
n
ing, heating, and motor control. Power MOSFETs can switch M2
many amperes of current in just tens of nanoseconds.
A newer form of discrete power FET is one made from
gallium nitride (GaN). Those semiconductor materials per-
mit the FET to operate at higher voltages up to 100 V and Figure 32-35 An H-bridge motor controller.

568 Chapter 32

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 +VGS (on)
Power Vac
FET
0

+Vbattery

Figure 32-36 A rudimentary dc-to-ac converter.

+
+VGS(on)
Power C R Vout
FET –
0

+Vin

Figure 32-37 A rudimentary dc-to-dc converter.

M2 form a CMOS inverter that is usually a part of an inte- is either higher or lower. The power FET switches on and
grated circuit. The remaining M3 to M6 are power MOSFETs off, producing a square wave across the secondary wind-
that act like switches and control the direction of rotation of ing. The half-wave rectifier diode and capacitor-input filter
a dc motor. The circuit is referred to as an H-bridge. then produce the dc output voltage Vout. By using different
When vin is low or zero, M3 and M6 are cut off. The output turns ratios, we can get a dc output voltage that is higher
of M1 and M2 is high, so M4 and M5 are switched on. Electrons or lower than the input voltage Vin. The dc-to-dc converter
flow through the motor from left to right, turning the motor in is one of the important sections of a switching or switch-
one direction. If vin is high, the reverse condition occurs: M3 mode power supply. This application will be examined in
and M6 turn on while M4 and M5 are off. Electrons flow from a later chapter.
right to left in the motor, reversing its direction of rotation.
Another Switching Example
DC-to-AC Converters During the day, the photodiode of Fig. 32-38 is conducting
When there is a sudden power failure, computers will stop heavily, and the gate voltage is below the MOSFET gate
operating and valuable data may be lost. One solution is to threshold. At night, the photodiode is off, and the gate volt-
use an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). A UPS con- age rises to 110 V. Therefore, the circuit turns the MOSFET
tains a battery and a dc-to-ac converter. The basic idea is and lamp on automatically at night.
this: When there is a power failure, the battery voltage is
converted to an ac voltage to drive the computer.
+30 V
Figure 32-36 shows a dc-to-ac converter, also known as
a power inverter. When the power fails, other circuits (op
amps, discussed later) are activated and generate a square Lamp
2R 10 
wave to drive the gate. The square-wave input switches the
power FET on and off. Since a square wave will appear
across the transformer windings, the secondary winding can
supply the ac voltage needed to keep the computer running.
A commercial UPS is more complicated than this, but the
basic idea of converting dc to ac is the same. R Photodiode

DC-to-DC Converters
Figure 32-37 is a dc-to-dc (or dc-dc) converter, a circuit
that converts an input dc voltage to an output dc voltage that Figure 32-38 Automatic light control.

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 +VDD
32.17 E-MOSFET Amplifiers +VDD

The E-MOSFET is used primarily as a switch. Applications M2

do exist for this device to be used as an amplifier, however.
M2
Discrete component MOSFETs are used as front-end, high-
frequency RF amplifiers in communications equipment, and
power E-MOSFETs are used in class AB power amplifiers.
Several types of integrated circuit E-MOSFET amplifiers Bias M1 Bias M1

are also available.

With E-MOSFETs, VGS has to be greater than VGS(th) for
drain current to flow. This eliminates self-bias, current-
source bias, and zero bias because all these favor depletion- (a) (b)

mode operation. This leaves gate bias and voltage divider Figure 32-41 Using a MOSFET as a drain resistor.
bias. Both these biasing arrangements will work with (a) N-type. (b) P-type.
E-MOSFETs because they can achieve enhancement-mode
operation. the MOSFET is conducting, it has a drain current of ID(on)
Discrete E-MOSFET amplifiers are rare, but when used, and a drain voltage of VDS(on). Because there is virtually no
they can be biased in two ways. Figure 32-39 shows a biasing gate current, VGS 5 VDS(on). As with collector-feedback, drain-
method for E-MOSFETs called drain-feedback bias. When feedback bias tends to compensate for changes in FET char-
+VDD = 25 V
acteristics. For example, if ID(on) tries to increase for some
reason, VDS(on) decreases. This reduces VGS and partially off-
sets the original increase in ID(on).
Voltage divider bias can also be used with an E-MOSFET.
RD
In Figure 32-40, the 1-MV and 350-kV resistors set the gate
RG voltage above VGS(th). Otherwise, the circuit works like a
Vout JFET or D-MOSFET amplifier.
1 M
+ When biasing E-MOSFETs for amplifiers in integrated
VDS(on)
circuits, resistors are not used because they take up too
Vin much space. Instead, active-drain resistors are created with
–
another MOSFET, as shown in Fig. 32-41a, in which simpli-
fied schematic symbols are used. Transistor M2 is the drain
resistor. An E-MOSFET acts like a resistor when its gate is
Figure 32-39 Drain-feedback biasing method.
connected to its drain. In Fig. 32-41b, a p-type MOSFET is
+VDD used as a drain resistor by turning it upside-down so that it
12 V conducts. Both these circuits are common-source, inverting
linear amplifiers.
One way to obtain the gate bias voltage without resistors
is to use a MOSFET voltage divider as shown in Fig. 32-42.
1 M 68 
+VDD

Vout
Q1

Vo
2N7000
1 k
+
Vin
350 k
100 mV
–

Figure 32-42 Using biased MOSFETs as a resistive

Figure 32-40 E-MOSFET amplifier. voltage divider.

570 Chapter 32

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 It uses two MOSFETs connected in series. Both are biased to VDD

act as resistors. The drain currents are equal, but the charac-
teristics of each transistor are controlled during manufactur-
ing to get the desired voltage division ratio.
RD RD
1 2

32.18 Differential Amplifiers

vO vO
1 2
A differential amplifier is one with two inputs and two
v1 v2
outputs. Refer to Fig. 32-43a. The output is the difference
between the two inputs multiplied by the gain, A. Inputs v1
Rg Rg
and v2 produce outputs vo1 and vo2. All signals are referenced 1 2

to ground. The output Vout is taken between the two output

RS
lines, meaning that it is not referenced to ground. It is the
difference between the two voltages:
–VSS
Vout 5 vo1 2 vo2 (32-18)
A more common arrangement is shown in Fig. 32-43b. Here Figure 32-44 A JFET differential amplifier.
only one output is referenced to ground. In this case the
output is Discrete JFETs are not widely used in differential ampli-
fiers. However, they are widely used as the input stages of
Vout 5 A(v2 2 v1) (32-19)
IC operational amplifiers. JFETs appear only in the input
Figure 32-44 shows a simplified JFET differential amplifier. It stages, while the remainder of the op amp is usually bipolar
is essentially two JFET amplifiers sharing a common-source transistors. The primary appeal of a JFET op amp is its ex-
resistor for bias. When only one output is used, a drain resistor tremely high input impedance, which can reach 1012 Ω.
can be eliminated and the output taken from the other. MOSFETs are also used to create differential amplifi-
The amplifier can also be used with one input while the ers. The primary application is in op amps where the en-
other is grounded or set to zero. By selecting which input tire amplifier is made of enhancement-mode MOSFETs.
and output to be used, the output may be in phase with the Figure 32-45 shows a typical MOSFET differential am-
input or inverted (1808 out of phase). plifier as it appears in most IC amplifiers. Note the use of
There are several important reasons for using a dif- the M designation for each E-MOSFET. Also, Q is used to
ferential amplifier. Using two inputs and the differential designate bipolar transistors in a schematic diagram. The
characteristic of the circuit, common noise on both inputs
is cancelled out. Second, differential amplifiers can be VDD
more easily used in direct or dc-coupled circuits, thereby
eliminating the need for coupling and other types of ca-
pacitors. This is beneficial in integrated circuits where ca-
pacitors are not used because they take up too much area
on the chip. M1 M2

VO VO
1 2
v1 – vo
1
Vout 5 (Vo1 2 Vo2)
v2 + vo
2 V1 M3 M4 V2

(a)

v1 –
vout 5 A(v2 2 v1)
v2 + Vbias
M5

(b)

Figure 32-43 Differential amplifier configurations. VSS

(a) Dual or differential output. (b) Single-ended or ground-
referenced output. Figure 32-45 E-MOSFET differential amplifier.

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 VDD VDD V

Vbias
Load
M2 M3
X

Load
Vbias ID ID

Vbias M1 RL
(current
source)

(a) (b)
Figure 32-47 A MOSFET current mirror.

VDD

The voltage, a point X in the circuit, is used to bias M3. If M3

has the same characteristics as M2, then the current in M3 is
the same as that in M1. The current in M3 is called the “mir-
rored” current. By connecting other MOSFET gates at point
X in the circuit, additional mirrored currents can be supplied
to other circuits.
Constant
current load
The current mirror is commonly used in place of drain
Vbias resistors in MOSFET differential amplifiers, as Fig. 32-45
has shown earlier.

(c)
Cascode Amplifier
Another popular integrated MOSFET amplifier circuit is the
Figure 32-46 (a) Current source. (b) P-type current
source. (c) Current sink. cascode amplifier, shown in Fig. 32-48. Here M3 is the main
amplifying transistor, while M1 is a current source used as a
resistive load. Note that M2 isolates M1 from M3. Bias comes
differential pair is made up of M3 and M4, whereas M1 and from MOSFET voltage dividers.
M2 are active loads made from a current mirror. A current The benefit of the cascode circuit is that the gain can be
source, M5, supplies a constant current to the differential very large because the current source M3 has a very high
transistors. The inputs V1 and V2 see an input impedance of
over 1012 Ω.
+VDD

Current Sources and Sinks

A current source is a transistor that supplies a constant cur-
Vbias1 M1
rent to a load. Figure 32-46a shows a MOSFET current
source. Its gate bias is set by an n-type MOSFET voltage
Vout
divider like that described earlier in this chapter. A p-type
current source is shown in Fig. 32-46b.
A current sink, shown in Fig. 32-46c, is the reverse of a cur- Vbias2 M2

rent source. It acts as a load that always draws a constant cur-

rent. The bias voltage comes from a MOSFET voltage divider.

Vin M3
Current Mirror
A current mirror is a circuit that is used to supply bias to
other MOSFETs. One type is shown in Fig. 32-47, in which
M1 is a current source with M2 as an active-load resistance. Figure 32-48 MOSFET cascode amplifier.

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 Interelectrode +VDD
capacitance (Cf) of
the MOSFET
Low-pass filter causes the
limits amplifier Miller capacitance
bandwidth Output Low-pass filter
resistance limits amplifier
bandwidth D1

Rg Input

Cm(out) D2
VG Cm(in)

Cm(out) (A + 1)
Driving signal A
source Cm(in) = Cf (A + 1)
(a)

Figure 32-49 How Miller capacitance limits the upper- +VDD = +5 V

frequency response of a MOSFET amplifier.

D1

effective resistance and a high drain resistance produces a Input

high gain.
A second benefit is that the cascode connection allows the D2
circuit to operate at higher frequencies. The presence of M2
helps reduce the Miller effect. Miller effect causes the gate-
drain capacitance that naturally exists in all FETs to reduce
the high-frequency response of the amplifier. This interelec-
(b)
trode, or feedback capacitance, Cf, is multiplied by the gain
of the amplifier. Figure 32-50 Protecting MOSFETs from static electricity.
Refer to Fig. 32-49. This Miller effect essentially intro- (a) Using zener diodes. (b) Using standard silicon diodes.
duces shunt Miller capacitances, Cm(in) and Cm(out), that ap-
pear across the input and output of an amplifier. Both Cm(in) In discrete MOSFETs, this breakdown voltage may be 10
and the generator resistance, Rg, form a low-pass filter at the to 30 V. In IC MOSFET-based circuits, the penetration volt-
input. Moreover, Cm(out) and output resistance of the amplifier age may be only a few volts. If the voltage rating is exceeded,
also form a low-pass filter. Both these filters cause the higher the device will be destroyed.
frequencies to be rolled off, thereby reducing the upper fre- To overcome this problem, most discrete MOSFETs and
quencies that the amplifier can pass. The cascode connec- the inputs to IC MOSFETs are protected by built-in surge
tion minimizes this problem, allowing MOSFET amplifiers protection diodes. See Fig. 32-50a. With two back-to-back
to operate well into the upper MHz range and lower GHz zener diodes, the input is protected for either positive or
frequencies. negative voltages between the source and gate. If the input
is higher than the zener breakdown voltage, one of the zener
diodes will conduct and clamp the input to the zener value,
32.19 MOSFET Circuits thereby saving the device.
and Static Electricity Another diode protection method is shown in Fig. 32-50b.
MOSFETs are very sensitive to external voltages, especially Two standard silicon diodes are connected as voltage clamps.
static electricity. You will hear this referred to as electro- If a negative input voltage occurs, D2 conducts and clamps
static discharge (ESD). The very thin silicon dioxide insula- the input to a maximum of 0.7 V. If the input is positive and
tor between the gate and substrate is very easily penetrated, more than the 15-V supply voltage, D1 conducts, clamping
causing the gate to short to the substrate if the voltage on the the input to 15 V and saving the transistor.
gate exceeds some small value. ESD is always a problem when handling MOSFETs.
Static electricity voltages can be as high as several hun- Remember to ground yourself to a metal object before touch-
dred or even thousands of volts. You have probably expe- ing or handling a MOSFET on an IC. Some MOSFETs are
rienced a mild shock yourself on a dry winter day after packaged in conductive material to keep the leads shorted
walking on a carpet and then touching a metal item. together to prevent accidental damage.

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 CHAPTER 32 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A JFET 10. The transconductance increases when the drain cur-

a. is a voltage-controlled device. rent approaches
b. is a current-controlled device. a. 0.
c. has a low input resistance. b. ID(sat).
d. has a very large voltage gain. c. IDSS.
2. A field-effect transistor uses d. IS.
a. both free electrons and holes. 11. A CS amplifier has a voltage gain of
b. only free electrons. a. gmrd.
c. only holes. b. gmrs.
d. either one or the other, but not both. c. gmrs/(1 1 gmrs).
3. The input impedance of a JFET d. gmrd /(1 1 gmrd).
a. approaches zero. 12. A source follower has a voltage gain of
b. approaches one. a. gmrd.
c. approaches infinity. b. gmrs.
d. is impossible to predict. c. gmrs/(1 1 gmrs).
4. The gate controls d. gmrd /(1 1 gmrd).
a. the width of the channel. 13. When the input signal is large, a source follower has
b. the drain current. a. a voltage gain of less than 1.
c. the gate voltage. b. some distortion.
d. all the above. c. a high input resistance.
5. The gate-source diode of a JFET should be d. all of these.
a. forward-biased. 14. When a JFET is cut off, the depletion layers are
b. reverse-biased. a. far apart.
c. either forward- or reverse-biased. b. close together.
d. none of the above. c. touching.
6. The pinch-off voltage has the same magnitude as the d. conducting.
a. gate voltage. 15. When the gate voltage becomes more negative in an
b. drain-source voltage. n-channel JFET, the channel between the depletion layers
c. gate-source voltage. a. shrinks.
d. gate-source cutoff voltage. b. expands.
7. When the drain saturation current is less than IDSS, a c. conducts.
JFET acts like a d. stops conducting.
a. bipolar junction transistor. 16. Self-bias produces
b. current source. a. positive feedback.
c. resistor. b. negative feedback.
d. battery. c. forward feedback.
8. RDS equals pinch-off voltage divided by d. reverse feedback.
a. drain current. 17. To get a negative gate-source voltage in a self-biased
b. gate current. JFET circuit, you must have a
c. ideal drain current. a. voltage divider.
d. drain current for zero gate voltage. b. source resistor.
9. The transconductance curve is c. ground.
a. linear. d. negative gate supply voltage.
b. similar to the graph of a resistor. 18. Transconductance is measured in
c. nonlinear. a. ohms.
d. like a single drain curve. b. amperes.

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 c. volts. c. a passive load.
d. mhos or siemens. d. a switching device.
19. Transconductance indicates how effectively the input 28. An E-MOSFET that operates at cutoff or in the ohmic
voltage controls the region is an example of
a. voltage gain. a. a current source.
b. input resistance. b. an active load.
c. supply voltage. c. a passive load.
d. output current. d. a switching device.
20. A type of JFET used as a microwave amplifier is the 29. VMOS devices generally
a. MOSFET. a. switch off faster than BJTs.
b. MESFET. b. carry low values of current.
c. BJT. c. have a negative temperature coefficient.
d. SCR. d. are used as CMOS inverters.
21. A D-MOSFET can operate in the 30. A D-MOSFET is considered to be a
a. depletion mode only. a. normally off device.
b. enhancement mode only. b. normally on device.
c. depletion mode or enhancement mode. c. current-controlled device.
d. low-impedance mode. d. high-power switch.
22. When an n-channel D-MOSFET has ID . IDSS, it 31. CMOS stands for
a. will be destroyed. a. common MOS.
b. is operating in the depletion mode. b. active-load switching.
c. is forward-biased. c. p-channel and n-channel devices.
d. is operating in the enhancement mode. d. complementary MOS.
23. The voltage gain of a D-MOSFET amplifier is depen- 32. With active-load switching, the upper E-MOSFET is a
dent on a. two-terminal device.
a. RD. b. three-terminal device.
b. RL. c. switch.
c. gm. d. small resistance.
d. All of the above. 33. CMOS devices use
24. Which of the following devices revolutionized the a. bipolar transistors.
computer industry? b. complementary E-MOSFETs.
a. JFET. c. class A operation.
b. D-MOSFET. d. DMOS devices.
c. E-MOSFET. 34. The main advantage of CMOS is its
d. Power FET. a. high power rating.
25. The voltage that turns on an EMOS device is the b. small-signal operation.
a. gate-source cutoff voltage. c. switching capability.
b. pinch-off voltage. d. low power consumption.
c. threshold voltage. 35. Power FETs are
d. knee voltage. a. integrated circuits.
26. An ordinary resistor is an example of b. small-signal devices.
a. a three-terminal device. c. used mostly with analog signals.
b. an active load. d. used to switch large currents.
c. a passive load. 36. When the internal temperature increases in a power
d. a switching device. FET, the
27. An E-MOSFET with its gate connected to its drain is a. threshold voltage increases.
an example of b. gate current decreases.
a. a three-terminal device. c. drain current decreases.
b. an active load. d. saturation current increases.

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 37. Most small-signal E-MOSFETs are found in c. VDS.
a. heavy-current applications. d. VDD.
b. discrete circuits. 41. A type of power FET that has superior high power,
c. disk drives. voltage, and frequency performance is made of
d. integrated circuits. a. silicon.
38. Most power FETS are b. GaAs.
a. used in high-current applications. c. SiGe.
b. digital computers. d. GaN.
c. RF stages. 42. One key advantage of a differential amplifier is
d. integrated circuits. that it
39. With CMOS, the upper MOSFET is a. has higher gain.
a. a passive load. b. cancels noise common to both inputs.
b. an active load. c. has higher input impedance.
c. nonconducting. d. uses less power.
d. complementary. 43. Transistors replace resistors in most biasing circuits in
40. The high output of a CMOS inverter is integrated circuits.
a. VDD/2. a. True.
b. VGS. b. False.

CHAPTER 32 PROBLEMS

SECTION 32.2 Junction FET Basics SECTION 32.5 Biasing the JFET
32.1 A 2N5458 has a gate current of 1 nA when 32.7 What is the ideal drain voltage in Fig. 32-51?
the reverse voltage is 215 V. What is the input
resistance of the gate? +25 V

SECTION 32.3 Drain Curves

1.5 M 10 k
32.2 A JFET has IDSS 5 20 mA and VP 5 4 V. What is
the maximum drain current? The gate-source cutoff
voltage? The value of RDS?
32.3 A 2JFET has IDSS 5 16 mA and VGS(off) 5 22 V.
What is the pinch-off voltage for this JFET? What is
the drain-source resistance RDS?

1 M 22 k
SECTION 32.4 The Transconductance Curve
32.4 A 2N5462 has IDSS 5 16 mA and VGS(off) 5 26 V.
What are the gate voltage and drain current at the
half cutoff point? Figure 32-51
32.5 A 2N5670 has IDSS 5 10 mA and VGS(off) 5 24 V.
What are the gate voltage and drain current at the 32.8 In Fig. 32-52a, the drain current is 1.5 mA. What
half cutoff point? does VGS equal? What does VDS equal?
32.6 If a 2N5486 has IDSS 5 14 mA and VGS(off) 5 24 V, 32.9 The voltage across the 1 kV of Fig. 32-52a is 1.5 V.
what is the drain current when VGS 5 21 V? When What is the voltage between the drain and ground?
VGS 5 23 V?
32.10 In Fig. 32-52a, find VGS and ID using the transcon-
ductance curve of Fig. 32-52b.

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 +25 V +30 V

1 k

20 M
8.2 k
100 k

2 mV 2 k
10 M 10 k

1.5 M 1 k
Figure 32-53

(a)

SECTION 32.7 JFET Amplifiers

ID 32.14 If gm 5 3000 ␮S in Fig. 32-53, what is the ac output
voltage?
4 mA
32.15 If the source follower of Fig. 32-54 has gm 5 2000
␮S, what is the ac output voltage?
3 mA

2 mA

+30 V

1 mA
20 M

VGS
–4 V –2 V 0 +2 V +4 V +6 V +8 V +10 V
100 k
(b)

Figure 32-52
5 mV 10 M
3.3 k 1 k

32.11 Change RS in Fig. 32-52a from 1 kV to 2 kV.

Use the curve of Fig. 32-52b to find V GS, ID, Figure 32-54
and VDS.
SECTION 32.6 Transconductance
32.12 A 2N4416 has IDSS 5 10 mA and gm0 5 4000 ␮S.
What is its gate-source cutoff voltage? What is the SECTION 32.10 D-MOSFET Curves
value of gm for VGS 5 21 V? 32.16 An n-channel D-MOSFET has the specifications
32.13 The JFET of Fig. 32-53 has gm0 5 6000 ␮S. If IDSS 5 VGS(off) 5 22 V and IDSS 5 4 mA. Given VGS values
12 mA, what is the approximate value of ID for VGS of 20.5 V, 21.0 V, 21.5 V, 10.5 V, 11.0 V, and 1
of 22 V? Find the gm for this ID. 1.5 V, determine ID in the depletion mode only.

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 32.17 Given the same values as in the previous problem, SECTION 32.12 The Ohmic Region
calculate ID for the enhancement mode only. 32.21 Calculate RDS(on) for each of these E-MOSFET
SECTION 32.11 Depletion-Mode MOSFET values:
Amplifiers a. VDS(on) 5 0.1 V and ID(on) 5 10 mA
b. VDS(on) 5 0.75 V and ID(on) 5 100 mA
32.18 The D-MOSFET in Fig. 32-55 has VGS(off) 5 23 V
and IDSS 5 12 mA. Determine the circuit’s drain 32.22 What is the approximate drain current in each of the
current and VDS values. circuits in Fig. 32-56?
32.19 In Fig. 32-55, what are the values of rd, Av, and Vout +25 V
using a gmo of 4000 ␮S?
32.20 What is the approximate input impedance of
Fig. 32-55? 150 

+5 V
+VDD
0
12 V

(a)
470 
+12 V

Vout
18 

2 k

+10 V
+
Vin 0
1 M
100 mV
–

(b)

Figure 32-55 Figure 32-56

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 Ch a pt er 33
Bipolar Junction Transistors

Learning Outcomes In 1951, William Schockley invented the first junction

transistor, a semiconductor device that can amplify
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: (enlarge) electronic signals, such as radio and televi-
Describe the relationships among the base, emitter, sion signals. The transistor has led to many other
and collector currents of a bipolar junction transistor. semiconductor inventions, including the integrated
Draw a diagram of the common emitter (CE) circuit circuit (IC).
and label each terminal, voltage, and resistance. This chapter introduces the bipolar junction tran-
Name the three regions of operation on a bipolar sistor (BJT). The word bipolar is an abbreviation for
junction transistor.
“two polarities.” This chapter explores how a BJT
Calculate the respective CE transistor current and
works and how it can be used as an amplifier and
voltage values in a typical circuit
as a switch.
Explain the operation of typical common emitter
circuits.
Calculate input and output impeqances and gain of
typical amplifier circuits.
Explain the operation and benefits of a differential
amplifier.
Explain the operation of the BJT as a switch.

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 33.1 The Unbiased Transistor –
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
A transistor has three doped regions, as shown in Fig. 33-1. – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
The bottom region is  called the emitter, the middle re- n – – – – – – –
gion is the base, and the top region is the collector. In an + + + + + + +
actual transistor, the base region is much thinner as com- + + + + + + +
Depletion
pared to the collector and emitter regions. The transistor layer
of Fig. 33-1 is an npn device because there is a p region – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
between two n regions. Recall that the majority carriers p – – – – – – –
are free electrons in n-type material and holes in p-type
– – – – – – – Depletion
material.
layer
Transistors are also manufactured as pnp devices. A pnp + + + + + + +
transistor has an n region between two p regions. Our discus- – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
sions will focus on the npn transistor. n – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – –
Emitter and Collector Diodes + + + + + + +

The transistor of Fig. 33-1 has two junctions: one between

the emitter and the base, and another between the collec-
Figure 33-2 Depletion layers.
tor and the base. Because of this, a transistor is like two
back-to-back diodes. The lower diode is called the emit-
33.2 The Biased Transistor
ter-base diode, or simply the emitter diode. The upper
diode is called the collector-base diode, or the collector An unbiased transistor is like two back-to-back diodes.
diode. Each diode has a barrier potential of approximately 0.7 V.
When you connect external voltage sources to the transis-
tor, you will get currents through the different parts of the
Before and After Diffusion
transistor.
Figure 33-1 shows the transistor regions before diffusion has
occurred. Free electrons in the n region diffuse across the
junction and recombine with the holes in the p region. Visu-
Emitter Electrons
alize the free electrons in each n region crossing the junction Figure 33-3 shows a biased transistor. The minus signs rep-
and recombining with holes. resent free electrons. The heavily doped emitter has the fol-
The result is two depletion layers, as shown in Fig. 33-2. lowing job: to emit or inject its free electrons into the base.
For each of these depletion layers, the barrier potential is ap- The lightly doped base also has a well-defined purpose: to
proximately 0.7 V at 25°C for a silicon transistor. pass emitter-injected electrons on to the collector. The col-
lector is so named because it collects or gathers most of the
electrons from the base.
– – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + Figure 33-3 is the usual way to bias a transistor. The left
– – – – – – – source VBB of Fig. 33-3 forward-biases the emitter diode, and
+ + + + + + +
n – – – – – – – Collector the right source VCC reverse-biases the collector diode.
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
RC
– – – – – – –
+ + + + + + +
p – – – – – – – Base
n
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – – RB +
– – – – – – – p VCE VCC
+ + + + + + + + – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + – – – – – – – n
n Emitter VBB VBE – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + – –

Figure 33-1 Structure of a bipolar transistor. Figure 33-3 Biased transistor.

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 + +
RC RC
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
n – – – – – – – n
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
+ – – – – – – – +
RB RB – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – p VCE VCC – – – – – – – p VCE VCC
+ – – – – – – – – + – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ – – – – – – – + – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – n – – – – – – – n
– – – – – – – VBE – – – – – – –
VBB VBE – – – – – – – VBB – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – –

Figure 33-4 Emitter injects free electrons into base. Figure 33-5 Free electrons from base flow into collector.

Base Electrons 33.3 Transistor Currents

At the instant that forward bias is applied to the emitter diode Figure 33-6a and b shows the schematic symbol for an npn
of Fig. 33-3, the electrons in the emitter have not yet entered transistor. If you prefer conventional flow, use Fig. 33-6a. If
the base region. If VBB is greater than the emitter-base bar- you prefer electron flow, use Fig. 33-6b. In Fig. 33-6, there
rier potential, emitter electrons will enter the base region, as are three different currents in a transistor: emitter current IE,
shown in Fig. 33-4. Theoretically, these free electrons can base current IB, and collector current IC .
flow in either of two directions. First, they can flow to the
left and out of the base, passing through RB on the way to the How the Currents Compare
positive source terminal. Second, the free electrons can flow Because the emitter is the source of the electrons, it has the
into the collector. largest current. Since most of the emitter electrons flow to
Which way will the free electrons go? Most will continue the collector, the collector current is almost as large as the
on to the collector. Why? Two reasons: The base is lightly emitter current. The base current is very small by compari-
doped and very thin. The light doping means that the free son, often less than 1% of the collector current.
electrons have a long lifetime in the base region. The very
thin base means that the free electrons have only a short dis- Relation of Currents
tance to go to reach the collector. For these two reasons, al-
Recall Kirchhoff’s current law. It says that the sum of
most all the emitter-injected electrons pass through the base
all currents into a point or junction equals the sum of all
to the collector.
currents out of the point or junction. When applied to a
Only a few free electrons will recombine with holes in the
transistor, Kirchhoff’s current law gives us this important
lightly doped base of Fig. 33-4. Then, as valence electrons,
relationship:
they will flow through the base resistor to the positive side
of the VBB supply. I E  I C  IB (33-1)
This says that the emitter current is the sum of the collector
Collector Electrons current and the base current. Since the base current is so
Almost all the free electrons go into the collector, as
shown in Fig. 33-5. Once they are in the collector, they feel
the attraction of the VCC source voltage. Because of this, IC IC IC
the free electrons flow through the collector and through
IB IB IB
RC until they reach the positive terminal of the collector
supply voltage.
Here’s a summary of what’s going on: In Fig. 33-5, VBB
forward-biases the emitter diode, forcing the free electrons IE IE IE
in the emitter to enter the base. The thin and lightly doped
base gives almost all these electrons enough time to diffuse
(a) (b) (c)
into the collector. These electrons flow through the collec-
tor, through RC , and into the positive terminal of the VCC Figure 33-6 Three transistor currents: (a) conventional
voltage source. flow, (b) electron flow, and (c) pnp currents.

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 small, the collector current approximately equals the emit-
EXAMPLE 33-2
ter current,
A transistor has a current gain of 175. If the base current is 0.1 mA,
IC  IE what is the collector current?

and the base current is much smaller than the collector Answer:
current, Multiply the current gain by the base current to get

IB  IC IC  175(0.1 mA)  17.5 mA

(Note:  means much smaller than.)

Figure 33-6c shows the schematic symbol for a pnp tran-
EX A M P L E 33 -3
sistor and its currents. Notice that the current directions are
opposite that of the npn. Again notice that Formula (33-1) A transistor has a collector current of 2 mA. If the current gain is
holds true for the pnp transistor currents. 135, what is the base current?
Answer:
Beta Divide the collector current by the current gain to get
The dc beta (symbolized dc) of a transistor is defined as the 2 mA
IB  _____
135  14.8 A
ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base current:
IC
dc  ___
I (33-2)
B 33.4 The CE Connection
The dc beta is also known as the current gain because There are three useful ways to connect a transistor: with a
a small base current controls a much larger collector common emitter (CE), a common collector (CC), or a com-
current. mon base (CB). In this chapter, we will focus on the CE con-
The current gain is a major advantage of a transistor and nection because it is the most widely used.
has led to all kinds of applications. For low-power transistors Common Emitter
(under 1 W), the current gain is typically 100 to 300. High-
In Fig. 33-7a, the common or ground side of each voltage
power transistors (over 1 W) usually have current gains of
source is connected to the emitter. Because of this, the
20 to 100.

RC
Two Derivations – +

Formula (33-2) may be rearranged into two equivalent forms. +

First, when you know the value of dc and IB, you can calcu- + RB
–
VCE
+
+
late the collector current with this derivation: +
VCC
VBE – –
–
VBB
IC  dcIB (33-3) –

Second, when you have the value of dc and IC, you can cal-
culate the base current with this derivation: (a)

IC +VC RC
IB  ___
 (33-4)
dc

RB +VB
+
EXAMPLE 33-1 VCC
+ –
+VE
A transistor has a collector current of 10 mA and a base current VBB
–
of 40 A. What is the current gain of the transistor?
Answer:
Divide the collector current by the base current to get (b)
10 mA
dc  ______
40 A  250 Figure 33-7 CE connection. (a) Basic circuit. (b) Circuit
with grounds.

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 circuit is called a common emitter (CE) connection. The This is how you could calculate the double-subscript volt-
circuit has two loops. The left loop is the base loop, and the ages for any transistor circuit: Since VE is zero in this CE
right loop is the collector loop. connection (Fig. 33-7b), the voltages simplify to
In the base loop, the VBB source forward-biases the emit- VCE  VC
ter diode with RB as a current-limiting resistance. By chang-
ing VBB or RB, we can change the base current. Changing VCB  VC  VB
the base current will change the collector current. In other VBE  VB
words, the base current controls the collector current. This
is important. It means that a small current (base) controls a
large current (collector). 33.5 The Base Curve
In the collector loop, a source voltage VCC reverse-biases What do you think the graph of IB versus VBE looks like?
the collector diode through RC . The supply voltage VCC must It looks like the graph of an ordinary diode as shown
reverse-bias the collector diode as shown, or else the transis- in Fig.  33-8a. And why not? This is a forward-biased
tor won’t work properly. Stated another way, the collector emitter diode, so we would expect to see the usual diode
must be positive in Fig. 33-7a to collect most of the free elec- graph of current versus voltage. What this means is that
trons injected into the base. we can use any of the diode approximations discussed
In Fig. 33-7a, the flow of base current in the left loop pro- earlier.
duces a voltage across the base resistor RB with the polarity Applying Ohm’s law to the base resistor of Fig. 33-7b
shown. Similarly, the flow of collector current in the right gives this derivation:
loop produces a voltage across the collector resistor RC with
VBB  VBE
the polarity shown. IB  _________
R (33-5)
B

If you use an ideal diode, VBE  0. A good approximation is

Double Subscripts
VBE  0.7 V.
Double-subscript notation is used with transistor circuits. Most of the time, you will find this approximation to be
When the subscripts are the same, the voltage represents a the best compromise between the speed of using the ideal
source (VBB and VCC). When the subscripts are different, the diode and accuracy of higher approximations. All you need
voltage is between the two points (VBE and VCE). to remember for the approximation is that VBE is 0.7 V, as
For instance, the subscripts of VBB are the same, which shown in Fig. 33-8a.
means that VBB is the base voltage source. Similarly, VCC
IB
is the collector voltage source. On the other hand, VBE
is the voltage between points B and E, between the base
and the emitter. Likewise, VCE is the voltage between
points C and E, between the collector and the emitter.

Single Subscripts
Single subscripts are used for node voltages, that is, voltages VBE
0.7
between the subscripted point and ground. For instance, if
we redraw Fig. 33-7a with grounds, we get Fig. 33-7b. Volt- (a)
age VB is the voltage between the base and ground, voltage
VC is the voltage between the collector and ground, and volt- 1 kV
age VE is the voltage between the emitter and ground. (In this
circuit, VE is zero.)
100 kV
You can calculate a double-subscript voltage of different +

subscripts by subtracting its single-subscript voltages. Here 10 V

+ –
are three examples: 2V
–
VCE  VC  VE
VCB  VC  VB (b)

VBE  VB  VE Figure 33-8 (a) Diode curve. (b) Example.

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 now vary VCC and measure IC and VCE. Plotting the data gives
EXAMPLE 33-4
the graph shown in Fig. 33-9b. (Note: This graph is for a
Use the approximation to calculate the base current in Fig. 33-8b. 2N3904, a widely used low-power transistor. With other
What is the voltage across the base resistor? The collector transistors, the numbers may vary but the shape of the curve
current if dc  200? will be similar.)
Answer: When VCE is zero, the collector diode is not reverse-
The base source voltage of 2 V forward-biases the emitter biased. This is why the graph shows a collector current of
diode through a current-limiting resistance of 100 k. Since the zero when VCE is zero. When VCE increases from zero, the
emitter diode has 0.7 V across it, the voltage across the base collector current rises sharply in Fig. 33-9b. When VCE is a
resistor is few tenths of a volt, the collector current becomes almost
VBB  VBE  2 V  0.7 V  1.3 V constant and equal to 1 mA.
The constant-current region in Fig. 33-9b is related to
The current through the base resistor is our earlier discussions of transistor action. After the col-
lector diode becomes reverse-biased, it is gathering all the
VBB  VBE _______
IB  _________  1.3 V 13 A electrons that reach its depletion layer. Further increases in
RB 100 k
VCE cannot increase the collector current. Why? Because
With a current gain of 200, the collector current is the collector can collect only those free electrons that the
emitter injects into the base. The number of these injected
IC  dcIB  (200)(13 A)  2.6 mA electrons depends only on the base circuit, not on the col-
lector circuit. This is why Fig. 33-9b shows a constant col-
lector current between a VCE of less than 1  V to a VCE of
33.6 Collector Curves more than 40 V.
If VCE is greater than 40 V, the collector diode breaks
Now let’s look at the collector loop. We can vary VBB and VCC down and normal transistor action is lost. The transistor
in Fig. 33-9a to produce different transistor voltages and cur- is not intended to operate in the breakdown region. For
rents. By measuring IC and VCE, we can get data for a graph this reason, one of the maximum ratings to look for on a
of IC versus VCE . transistor data sheet is the collector-emitter breakdown
For instance, suppose we change VBB as needed to get voltage VCE(max). If the transistor breaks down, it will be
IB  10 A. With this fixed value of base current, we can destroyed.

RC Collector Voltage and Power

– +
Kirchhoff’s voltage law says that the sum of voltages around
+
RB a loop or closed path is equal to zero. When applied to the
+ – +
+
VCE collector circuit of Fig. 33-9a, Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives
VCC
+
VBE – – us this derivation:
–
VBB
– VCE  VCC  ICRC (33-6)
This says that the collector-emitter voltage equals the col-
lector supply voltage minus the voltage across the collector
(a)
resistor.
In Fig. 33-9a, the transistor has a power dissipation of
IC
approximately

Saturation
PD  VCEIC (33-7)
region Active region
This says that the transistor power equals the collector-
Breakdown emitter voltage times the collector current. This power dissi-
IB = 10 ␮A
1 mA region
pation causes the junction temperature of the collector diode
VCE
to increase. The higher the power, the higher the junction
1V 40 V temperature.
Transistors will burn out when the junction tempera-
(b)
ture is between 150 and 200°C. One of the most important
Figure 33-9 (a) Basic transistor circuit. (b) Collector curve. pieces of information on a data sheet is the maximum power

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 rating PD(max). The power dissipation given by Formula (33-7) curve, except that the collector current is 2 mA in the ac-
must be less than PD(max). Otherwise, the transistor will be tive region. Again, the collector current is constant in the
destroyed. active region.
When we plot several curves for different base cur-
Regions of Operation rents, we get a set of collector curves like those in Fig. 33-10.
Another way to get this set of curves is with a curve
The curve of Fig. 33-9b has different regions where the
tracer (a test instrument that can display I C versus VCE for
action of a transistor changes. First, there is the region in
a transistor). In the active region of Fig. 33-10, each col-
the middle where VCE is between 1 and 40 V. This repre-
lector current is 100 times greater than the corresponding
sents the normal operation of a transistor. In this region,
base current. For instance, the top curve has a collector
the emitter diode is forward-biased, and the collector
current of 7 mA and a base current of 70 A. This gives
diode is reverse-biased. Furthermore, the collector is gath-
a current gain of
ering almost all the electrons that the emitter has sent into
the base. This is why changes in collector voltage have no l 7 mA  100
dc  __C  ______
effect on the collector current. This region is called the ac- lB 70 A
tive region. Graphically, the active region is the horizontal
part of the curve. In other words, the collector current is If you check any other curve, you get the same result: a cur-
constant in this region. This is the region where amplifica- rent gain of 100.
tion occur. With other transistors, the current gain may be different
Another region of operation is the breakdown region. from 100, but the shape of the curves will be similar. All
The transistor should never operate in this region because it transistors have an active region, a saturation region, and a
will be destroyed. breakdown region. The active region is the most important
Third, there is the early rising part of the curve, where VCE because amplification (enlargement) of signals is possible in
is between 0 V and a few tenths of a volt. This sloping part the active region.
of the curve is called the saturation region. In this region,
the collector diode has insufficient positive voltage to collect Cutoff Region
all the free electrons injected into the base. In this region, the Figure 33-10 has an unexpected curve, the one on the bot-
base current IB is larger than normal and the current gain dc tom. This represents a fourth possible region of opera-
is smaller than normal. In this region, the transistor is used tion. Notice that the base current is zero, but there still is
as a switch. a small collector current. On a curve tracer, this current
is usually so small that you cannot see it. We have exag-
More Curves gerated the bottom curve by drawing it larger than usual.
If we measure IB and VCE for IB  20 A, we can plot the This bottom curve is called the cutoff region of the tran-
second curve of Fig. 33-10. The curve is similar to the first sistor, and the small collector current is called the collec-
tor cutoff current.
Why does the collector cutoff current exist? Because the
IC
collector diode has reverse minority-carrier current and sur-
face-leakage current. In a well-designed circuit, the collec-
tor cutoff current is small enough to ignore. For instance, a
mA 70 ␮A
2N3904 has a collector cutoff current of 50 nA. If the actual
7 collector current is 1 mA, ignoring a collector cutoff current
60 ␮A
6 of 50 nA produces a calculation error of less than 5%.
50 ␮A
5
40 ␮A Recap
4
30 ␮A A transistor has four distinct operating regions: active,
3
20 ␮A cutoff, saturation, and breakdown. Transistors operate
2 in the active region when they are used to amplify weak
10 ␮A
1 signals. Sometimes, the active region is called the lin-
0
ear region because changes in the input signal produce
VCE
1V 40 V proportional changes in the output signal. The saturation
and cutoff regions are useful in circuits referred to as
Figure 33-10 Set of collector curves. switching circuits.

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 EXAMPLE 33-5 The collector power dissipation is

The transistor of Fig. 33-11a has dc  300. Calculate I B, I C, VCE, PD  VCE IC  (4.42 V)(2.79 mA)  12.3 mW
and P D. Incidentally, when both the base and the collector supply volt-
ages are equal, as in Fig. 33-11b, you usually see the circuit drawn
2 kV in the simpler form of Fig. 33-11c.

+
1 MV +
VCE 33.7 Reading Data Sheets
10 V
+ – – Although you rarely need to read a transistor data sheet, it
10 V
–
is good to know what to look for. Here are a few important
factors.
(a) Small-signal transistors can dissipate less than a watt;
power transistors can dissipate more than a watt. When you
2 kV look at a data sheet for either type of transistor, you should
start with the maximum ratings because these are the limits
+ on the transistor currents, voltages, and other quantities.
1 MV
+
VCE
+
10 V Breakdown Ratings
– –
10 V In the data sheet for a 2N3904 transistor, the following maxi-
– mum ratings are given:
VCEO 40 V
(b) VCBO 60 V
VEBO 6V
+10 V
These voltage ratings are reverse breakdown voltages, and
VCEO is the voltage between the collector and the emitter
1 MV 2 kV
with the base open. The second rating is VCBO, which stands
for the voltage from collector to base with the emitter open.
+ Likewise, VEBO is the maximum reverse voltage from emit-
VCE
ter to base with the collector open. As usual, a conservative
design never allows voltages to get even close to the forego-
–
ing maximum ratings. If you recall, even getting close to
maximum ratings can shorten the lifetime of some devices.

(c) Maximum Current and Power

Also on the data sheet are these values:
Figure 33-11 Transistor circuit. (a) Basic schematic diagram.
(b) Circuit with grounds. (c) Simplified schematic diagram. IC 200 mA
PD 625 mW
Answer:
Here IC is the maximum dc collector current rating. This means
Figure 33-11b shows the same circuit with grounds. The base
that a 2N3904 can handle up to 200 mA of direct current, pro-
current equals
vided the power rating is not exceeded. The next rating, PD, is
VBB  VBE ____________ the maximum power rating of the device. This power rating
IB  _________  10 V  0.7 V  9.3 A depends on whether any attempt is being made to keep the
RB 1 M
transistor cool. If the transistor is not being fan-cooled and
The collector current is
does not have a heat sink (discussed below), its case tempera-
IC  dcIB  (300)(9.3 A)  2.79 mA ture TC will be much higher than the ambient temperature TA.
In most applications, a small-signal transistor like the
and the collector-emitter voltage is
2N3904 is not fan-cooled and it does not have a heat sink. In
VCE  VCC  ICRC  10 V  (2.79 mA)(2 k)  4.42 V this case, the 2N3904 has a power rating of 625 mW when
the ambient temperature TA is 25ºC.

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 The case temperature TC is the temperature of the transis- case, heat radiates more quickly because of the increased
tor package or housing. In most applications, the case tem- surface area of the fins.
perature will be higher than 25ºC because the internal heat Figure 33-12b shows another approach. This is the outline
of the transistor increases the case temperature. of a power-tab transistor. A metal tab provides a path out of the
The only way to keep the case temperature at 25ºC when transistor for heat. This metal tab can be fastened to the chassis
the ambient temperature is 25ºC is by fan cooling or by using of electronic equipment. Because the chassis is a massive heat
a large heat sink. If fan cooling or a large heat sink is used, it sink, heat can easily escape from the transistor to the chassis.
is possible to reduce the temperature of the transistor case to Large power transistors like Fig. 33-12c have the collec-
25ºC. For this condition, the power rating can be increased tor connected to the case to let heat escape as easily as pos-
to 1.5 W. sible. The transistor case is then fastened to the chassis. To
prevent the collector from shorting to chassis ground, a thin
Heat Sinks insulating washer and heat-conducting compound is used
One way to increase the power rating of a transistor is to get between the transistor case and the chassis. The important
rid of the internal heat faster. This is the purpose of a heat idea here is that heat can leave the transistor more rapidly,
sink (a mass of metal). If we increase the surface area of which means that the transistor has a higher power rating
the transistor case, we allow the heat to escape more easily at the same ambient temperature. Sometimes, the transistor
into the surrounding air. For instance, Fig. 33-12a shows one is fastened to a large heat sink with fins; this is even more
type of heat sink. When this is pushed onto the transistor efficient in removing heat from the transistor.
No matter what kind of heat sink is used, the purpose is
Metal tab
to lower the case temperature because this will lower the
internal or junction temperature of the transistor. The data
sheet includes other quantities called thermal resistances.
These allow a designer to work out the case temperature for
different heat sinks.

Current Gain
In another system of analysis called h parameters, hFE
1 2 rather than dc is defined as the symbol for current gain. The
3
1. Base two quantities are equal:
TO-220
2. Collector
dc  hFE (33-8)
3. Emitter

(a) (b) Remember this relation because data sheets use the symbol
hFE for the current gain.
In the section labeled “On Characteristics,” the data sheet
of a 2N3904 lists the values of hFE as follows:

TO-204AA (TO-3)
Case 1-07 IC, mA Min. hFE Max. hFE
0.1 40 —
Emitter 1 70 —
10 100 300
50 60 —
100 30 —

The 2N3904 works best when the collector current is in the

vicinity of 10 mA. At this level of current, the minimum cur-
rent gain is 100 and the maximum current gain is 300. What
does this mean? It means that if you mass-produce a circuit
Base Collector/case
using 2N3904s and a collector current of 10 mA, some of the
(c)
transistors will have a current gain as low as 100, and some
Figure 33-12 (a) Push-on heat sink. (b) Power-tab will have a current gain as high as 300. Most of the transis-
transistor. (c) Power transistor with collector connected to case. tors will have a current gain in the middle of this range.

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 3
2
1
2

Collector 1
3
2
3

1 2
Top
Base Emitter 2 collector

1 2 3

Base Emitter
Collector

Bottom
0.1 in. Side
Scale

Figure 33-13 The SOT-23 package is suitable for SM

transistors with power ratings less than 1 W.

33.8 Surface-Mount Transistors 0.1 in.

Surface-mount transistors are usually found in a simple Scale
three-terminal, gull-wing package. The SOT-23 package is
the smaller of the two and is used for transistors rated in the Figure 33-14 The SOT-223 package is designed to
dissipate the heat generated by transistors operating in
milliwatt range. The SOT-223 is the larger package and is the 1-W range.
used when the power rating is about 1 W.
Figure 33-13 shows a typical SOT-23 package. Viewed
from the top, the terminals are numbered in a counterclock- (electrically identical to the large tab at the opposite edge),
wise direction, with terminal 3 the lone terminal on one side. and 3 is the emitter.
The terminal assignments are fairly well standardized for The SOT-23 packages are too small to have any standard
bipolar transistors: 1 is the base, 2 is the emitter, and 3 is the part identification codes printed on them. Usually the only
collector. (The usual terminal assignments for FETs: 1 is the way to determine the standard identifier is by noting the part
drain, 2 is the source, and 3 is the gate.) number printed on the circuit board and then consulting the
The SOT-223 package in Fig. 33-14 is designed to dis- parts list for the circuit. SOT-223 packages are large enough
sipate the heat generated by transistors operating in the to have identification codes printed on them, but these codes
1-W range. This package has a larger surface area than the are rarely standard transistor identification codes. The typical
SOT-23; this increases its ability to dissipate heat. Some procedure for learning more about a transistor in an SOT-223
of the heat is dissipated from the top surface, and much package is the same as for the smaller SOT-23 configurations.
is carried away by the contact between the device and the Occasionally a circuit uses SOIC packages that house mul-
circuit board below. The special feature of the SOT-223 tiple transistors. The SOIC package resembles the tiny dual in-
case, however, is the extra collector tab that extends from line package commonly used for ICs and the older feed-through
the side opposite the main terminals. The bottom view in circuit board technology. The terminals on the SOIC, however,
Fig. 33-14 shows that the two collector terminals are elec- have the gull-wing shape required for SM technology.
trically identical. 33.9 Basic Biasing
The standard terminal assignments are different for the
SOT-23 and SOT-223 packages. The three terminals located Biasing a transistor is done by applying one or more dc
on one edge are numbered in sequence, from left to right as voltages to the device to set the initial or quiescent operat-
viewed from the top. Terminal 1 is the base, 2 is the collector ing conditions. This is called the Q point. For a bipolar

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 +VCC transistor even if it is the same part number, you will get a
new operating point and potentially poor or unacceptable
performance.
In Fig. 33-15, we set the base current to 100 A. If we
RB RC
replace the transistor with one having an hFE of 50, the col-
lector will be
Output
IC  50(100 A)  5 mA

VCC The output voltage will be

Input VCE ≈
2
VCE  12  (5 mA)(600)  12  (3 A)  9 V
If hFE is 150, the collector current will be
IC  150(100 A)  15 mA
Figure 33-15 Basic base bias.
With this condition, the output voltage will be
transistor used as an amplifier, this means setting the base VCE  12  (15 mA)(600)  12  (9 A)  3 V
current to a value that puts the Q point into roughly the
This is an enormous range that will affect the amplifier per-
center of the active region of operation. Then as the small
formance. Obviously, another biasing method is needed.
signal input varies the base current, the collector current
will vary in direct proportion without going into cutoff or
saturation. 33.10 Emitter Bias
The simplest bias arrangement is shown in Fig. 33-15. Emitter bias solves the current gain sensitivity problem.
Note that both the base and collector receive their bias volt- Figure 33-16 shows emitter bias. As you can see, the bias
age from a single supply, VCC. The Q point is set from the resistor has been moved from the base circuit to the emitter
currents that make the collector output, VCE, about one-half circuit. The Q point of this new circuit is now rock solid.
of VCC. Both RC and RB are chosen accordingly. When the current gain changes from 50 to 150, the Q point
Assume that we want to establish a collector current of shows almost no movement.
10 mA in a 2N3904 with a 12-V supply. At this collector
current, the hFE or dc is approximately 100. This means that Basic Idea
we need a base current of The base supply voltage, VBB, is now applied directly to the
IB  ICyhFE  10y100  0.1 mA or 100 A base. The emitter is no longer grounded. Now the emitter is
above the ground and has a voltage given by
With a base supply of 12 V, we will need a base resistor of
VE  VBB  VBE (33-9)
RB  (12  0.7)y(100 A)  11.3y(100 A)  113 k
A standard resistor value of 110 or 120 k could be used. Finding the Q Point
Having 10 mA flowing in RC with VCE approximately one- Let us analyze the emitter-biased circuit of Fig. 33-17. The
half of VCC, or 6 V, leaves 6 V across RC. The value of RC is base supply voltage is only 5 V, so the voltage between
RC  6y(10 mA)  600  the base and ground is 5 V. From now on, we refer to this

Now when an input to be amplified is applied to the base, IC

RC
will vary above and below 10 mA, producing an output volt-
age variation at the collector. The collector output, VCE, can
vary roughly from VCC to zero.
This bias method is simple and effective, but it has a major +
disadvantage. If dc is anything other than 100, the Q point VCC
+
will change. This will affect the output voltage variation and VBB
–
could introduce clipping distortion. Note that dc variations – RE
are very common.
The dc varies with individual transistors of the same
type due to manufacturing differences. Also, dc increases
with temperature. Therefore, if you have to replace a Figure 33-16 Emitter bias.

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 1 kV The proof lies in the process used to analyze the circuit.
Here are the steps we used earlier:
␤dc = 100 1. Get the emitter voltage.
+ 2. Calculate the emitter current.
+ 15 V 3. Find the collector voltage.
–
5V 4. Subtract the emitter from the collector voltage to get VCE.
– 2.2 kV
At no time do we need to use the current gain in the forego-
ing process. Since we don’t use it to find the emitter current,
collector current, and so on, the exact value of current gain
Figure 33-17 Finding the Q point. no longer matters.
By moving the resistor from the base to the emitter cir-
cuit, we force the base-to-ground voltage to equal the base
base-to-ground voltage as the base voltage, or VB. The volt- supply voltage. Before, almost all this supply voltage was
age across the base-emitter terminals is 0.7 V. We refer to across the base resistor, setting up a fi xed base current. Now,
this voltage as the base-emitter voltage, or VBE. all this supply voltage minus 0.7 V is across the emitter resis-
The voltage between the emitter and ground is called the tor, setting up a fi xed emitter current.
emitter voltage. It equals
33.11 Voltage Divider Bias
VE  5 V  0.7 V  4.3 V
Figure 33-18a shows the most widely used biasing circuit. Notice
This voltage is across the emitter resistance, so we can use that the base circuit contains a voltage divider (R1 and R2). Be-
Ohm’s law to find the emitter current: cause of this, the circuit is called voltage divider bias (VDB).

4.3 V  1.95 mA
IE  ______ +VCC +VCC
2.2 k
This means that the collector current is 1.95 mA to a close +
+
approximation. When this collector current flows through RC
the collector resistor, it produces a voltage drop of 1.95 V. R1 R1
–
Subtracting this from the collector supply voltage gives the –
voltage between the collector and ground:
+VBB

VC  15 V  (1.95 mA)(1 k)  13.1 V +

+
R2 R2
From now on, we will refer to this collector-to-ground volt- RE
age as the collector voltage. –
–
This is the voltage a troubleshooter would measure when
testing a transistor circuit. One lead of the voltmeter would (a) (b)
be connected to the collector, and the other lead would be
+VCC
connected to ground. If you want the collector-emitter volt-
age, you have to subtract the emitter voltage from the collec-
tor voltage as follows: RC

VCE  13.1 V  4.3 V  8.8 V

So the emitter-biased circuit of Fig. 33-17 has a Q point with
these coordinates: IC  1.95 mA and VCE  8.8 V.
+
The collector-emitter voltage is the voltage used for draw-
VBB
ing load lines and for reading transistor data sheets. As a –
RE

formula,

VCE  VC  VE (33-10) (c)

Here is why emitter bias excels. The Q point of an Figure 33-18 Voltage divider bias. (a) Circuit.
emitter-biased circuit is immune to changes in current gain. (b) Voltage divider. (c) Simplified circuit.

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 Simplified Analysis 6. Calculate the collector-emitter voltage by subtracting
For troubleshooting and preliminary analysis, use the fol- the emitter voltage from the collector voltage.
lowing method. In any well-designed VDB circuit, the base Since these six steps are logical, they should be easy to re-
current is much smaller than the current through the voltage member. After you analyze a few VDB circuits, the process
divider. Since the base current has a negligible effect on the becomes automatic.
voltage divider, we can mentally open the connection be-
tween the voltage divider and the base to get the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 33-18b. In this circuit, the output of the volt- EXAMPLE 33-6
age divider is
What is the collector-emitter voltage in Fig. 33-19?
R2
_______
VBB  R  R VCC
1 2 +10 V

Ideally, this is the base supply voltage as shown in Fig. 33-18c.

As you can see, voltage divider bias is really emitter bias
in disguise. In other words, Fig. 33-18c is an equivalent cir-
cuit for Fig. 33-18a. This is why VDB sets up a fixed value of
RC
emitter current, resulting in a solid Q point that is indepen- R1
3.6 kV
10 kV
dent of the current gain.
There is an error in this simplified approach, but the cru-
cial point is this: In any well-designed circuit, the error in 2N3904

using Fig. 33-18c is very small. In other words, a designer

deliberately chooses circuit values so that Fig. 33-18a acts R2
RE
like Fig. 33-18c. 2.2 kV
1 kV

Conclusion
After you calculate VBB, the rest of the analysis is the same as
discussed earlier for emitter bias. Here is a summary of the
Figure 33-19 Example.
equations you can use to analyze VDB:
Answer:
R2
VBB  _______
R1  R2 VCC
The voltage divider produces an unloaded output voltage of

VE  VBB  VBE 2.2 k

VBB  ______________ 10 V  1.8 V
10 k  2.2 k
VE
IE  ___
R Subtract 0.7 V from this to get
E
IC  IE VE  1.8 V  0.7 V  1.1 V
VC  VCC  ICRC The emitter current is
VCE  VC  VE
1.1 V
These equations are based on Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws. IE  _____  1.1 mA
1 k
Here are the steps in the analysis:
Since the collector current almost equals the emitter current, we
1. Calculate the base voltage VBB out of the voltage can calculate the collector-to-ground voltage like this
divider.
VC  10 V  (1.1 mA)(3.6 k)  6.04 V
2. Subtract 0.7 V to get the emitter voltage (use 0.3 V for
germanium). The collector-emitter voltage is
3. Divide by the emitter resistance to get the emitter current. VCE  6.04  1.1 V  4.94 V
4. Assume that the collector current is approximately
equal to the emitter current. Here is an important point: The calculations in this preliminary
analysis do not depend on changes in the transistor, the collector
5. Calculate the collector-to-ground voltage by subtract- current, or the temperature. This is why the Q point of this circuit
ing the voltage across the collector resistor from the is stable, almost rock solid.
collector supply voltage.

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 +10 V

IC

RC IB
R1
3.6 kV
10 kV

2N3904 IE

R2
2.2 kV RE Figure 33-22 PNP currents.
1 kV

of the opposite type, we have to turn our thinking around.

Figure 33-20 Troubleshooting. Specifically, holes are the majority carriers in the emitter
instead of free electrons.
33.12 Troubleshooting Transistor
Circuits Basic Ideas
Let us discuss troubleshooting voltage divider bias because Briefly, here is what happens at the atomic level: The emitter
this biasing method is  the most widely used. Figure 33-20 injects holes into the base. The majority of these holes flow
shows the VDB circuit analyzed earlier. onto the collector. For this reason, the collector current is
The most common problems are no supply voltage, a almost equal to the emitter current.
damaged transistor (open or shorted), or an open resistor or Figure 33-22 shows the three transistor currents. Solid
connection. Shorted resistors are extremely rare as are other arrows represent conventional current, and dashed arrows
shorts. represent electron flow.
A quick test is to measure VCC. If correct, check VC which
should be about half of VCC. This indicates an operating Negative Supply
circuit. Figure 33-23a shows voltage divider bias with a pnp tran-
If VC is equal to VCC, the transistor is not conducting. This sistor and a negative supply voltage of 10 V. The 2N3906
may be an open transistor or RE or lack of bias. If VC equals is the complement of the 2N3904; that is, its characteristics
VE, the transistor is shorted or saturated. Another measure is have the same absolute values as those of the 2N3904, but all
VBE. If it is about 0.7 V, the transistor is conducting. currents and voltage polarities are reversed.
The point is this: Whenever you have a circuit with npn
33.13 PNP Transistors transistors, you can often use the same circuit with a nega-
To this point, we have concentrated on bias circuits using tive power supply and pnp transistors.
npn transistors. Many circuits also use pnp transistors. This
type of transistor is often used when the electronics equip-
ment has a negative power supply. Also, pnp transistors are –10 V

used as complements to npn transistors when dual (positive +10 V

and negative) power supplies are available.

Figure 33-21 shows the structure of a pnp transistor along RC
R1
3.6 kV RE
with its schematic symbol. Because the doped regions are 10 kV
R2 1 kV
2.2 kV

2N3906
C 2N3906

p R2
B 2.2 kV RE R1
RC
n 5 1 kV 10 kV
3.6 kV

p
(a) (b)
E
Figure 33-23 PNP circuit. (a) Negative supply.
Figure 33-21 PNP transistor. (b) Positive supply.

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 +10 V

3.6 kV
+6.04 V
10 kV 0

0 +1.8 V

+1.1 V

100 ␮V 2.2 kV 2.2 k

1 kV

Figure 33-24 VDB amplifier with waveforms.

Positive Power Supply frequency, so it effectively shorts the 1-k resistor for ac
Positive power supplies are used more often in transistor connecting the emitter to ground.
circuits than negative power supplies. Because of this, you Without this bypass capacitor, the ac variation across the
often see pnp transistors drawn upside-down, as shown in 1-k emitter resistor becomes negative feedback that sub-
Fig. 33-23b. Here is how the circuit works: The voltage across tracts from the input signal, thereby effectively lowering the
R2 is applied to the emitter diode in series with the emitter amplifier gain. The emitter bypass capacitor shorts this feed-
resistor. This sets up the emitter current. The collector current back to ground, increasing the amplifier gain.
flows through RC, producing a collector-to-ground voltage. Notice the voltage waveforms in Fig. 33-24. The ac source
voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage with an average value
33.14 Typical Bipolar Amplifiers of zero. The base voltage is an ac voltage superimposed on
While most modern amplifiers are integrated circuits, you a dc voltage of 1.8 V. The collector voltage is an ampli-
will still occasionally see discrete component transistor am- fied and inverted ac voltage superimposed on the dc collec-
plifiers. The two most common forms are the common emit- tor voltage of 6.04 V. The load voltage is the same as the
ter amplifier and the emitter follower. In this section, these collector voltage, except that it has an average value of zero.
two basic circuits are analyzed. Notice also the voltage on the emitter. It is a pure dc voltage
of 1.1 V. There is no ac emitter voltage because emitter is at
Common Emitter Amplifier ac ground, a direct result of using a bypass capacitor.
A complete amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 33-24. This is
the same amplifier discussed in a previous section. The dc AC Beta
bias conditions are The current gain in all discussions up to this point has been
dc current gain. This was defined as
VB  1.8 V
VE  1.1 V IC
dc  __ (33-11)
VC  6.04 V IB
IC  1.1 mA
The currents in this formula are the currents at the Q point in
Note the signal source delivers 100 V. This signal could Fig. 33-25. Because of the curvature in the graph of IC versus
come from another amplifier, an oscillator, a microphone, IB, the dc current gain depends on the location of the Q point.
or some other voltage source. The coupling capacitor has a
very low reactance at this signal frequency, so it acts as a Definition
near short circuit. Therefore, all the 100 V is applied to the The ac current gain is different. It is defined as
base. The coupling capacitor blocks the dc from the voltage ic
divider from getting back to the signal source. Another cou-   __
ib (33-12)
pling capacitor is used to connect the collector output to the
load while blocking VC from the load. In words, the ac current gain equals the ac collector current
The capacitor across the emitter resistor is called a by- divided by the ac base current. In Fig. 33-25, the ac signal
pass capacitor. It has a very low reactance at the operating uses only a small part of the graph on both sides of the

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 IC AC Emitter Resistance
The ac emitter resistance is the resistance that an ac input
signal sees between the base and emitter. This value is im-
Q portant as it determines the gain of the amplifier.
The following formula is used to calculate the ac emitter
resistance:
25 mV
re  ______
I (33-13)
E

This says that the ac resistance of the emitter diode equals 25

mV divided by the dc emitter current.
IB
This formula is remarkable because of its simplicity and
the fact that it applies to all transistor types. It is widely used
in industry to calculate a preliminary value for the ac resis-
tance of the emitter diode.

Figure 33-25 AC current gain equals ratio of changes. E X A M P L E 3 3 -7

In Fig. 33-24, what does re equal?

Q point. Because of this, the value of the ac current gain is Answer:
different from the dc current gain, which uses almost all the We analyzed this VDB amplifier earlier and calculated a dc emitter
graph. current of 1.1 mA. The ac resistance of the emitter diode is
Graphically, b equals the slope of the curve at the Q point 25 mV
in Fig. 33-25. If we were to bias the transistor to a different re  _______
1.1 mA  22.7 
Q point, the slope of the curve would change, which means
that b would change. In other words, the value of b depends
on the amount of dc collector current.
On data sheets, bdc is listed as hFE and b is shown as hfe. Voltage Gain
Notice that capital subscripts are used with dc current gain, The voltage gain (A) of a common emitter amplifier is the
and lowercase subscripts with ac current gain. The two cur- ratio of the ac output voltage to the ac input voltage, or
rent gains are comparable in value, not differing by a large
vout
amount. For this reason, if you have the value of one, you AV  ___
v in
can use the same value for the other in preliminary analysis.
This gain can be calculated from the circuit values:
Notation
(RC  RL)
To keep dc quantities distinct from ac quantities, it is stan- AV  ________ (33-14)
re
dard practice to use capital letters and subscripts for dc
quantities. For instance, we have been using: In Fig. 33-24, the total ac load resistance seen by the col-
IE, IC, and IB for the dc currents lector is the parallel combination of RC and RL. This total
VE, VC, and VB for the dc voltages resistance is called the ac collector resistance, symbolized
VBE, VCE, and VCB for the dc voltages between terminals rc. As a definition,

For ac quantities, we will use lowercase letters and sub- rc  RC  RL (33-15)

scripts as follows:
Now, we can rewrite Formula (33-14) as
ie, ic, and ib for the ac currents
rc
ve, vc, and vb for the ac voltages AV  __ (33-16)
vbe, vce, and vcb for the ac voltages between terminals re

Also worth mentioning is the use of capital R for dc resis- The voltage gain equals the ac collector resistance divided
tances and lowercase r for ac resistances. by the ac resistance of the emitter diode.

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 where RE is the emitter resistor value, or 1 kΩ. Recall that re
EXAMPLE 33-8
is 22.7 . Since re is much less than RE, you can ignore it in
What is the voltage gain in Fig. 33-24? The output voltage across some cases and just write the gain as
the load resistor? rc
AV  ___
Answer: RE
The ac collector resistance is
rc  RC i RL  (3.6 k i 2.2 k)  1.37 k
The dc emitter current is approximately EXAMPLE 33-9
1.8 V  0.7 V
IE  ____________  1.1 mA What is the voltage gain of the amplifier in Fig. 33-24 if the emit-
1 k
ter bypass capacitor is removed?
The ac resistance of the emitter diode is
Answer:
25 mV
_______ With rc = 1.37 k and R E  1 k, the gain is
re  1.1 mA  22.7 
r
The voltage gain is
AV  ___c  1.37 ky1 k  1.37
RE
rc 1.37 k
AV  ___  _______  60.35
re 22.7 
The output voltage is
The Loading Effect of Input Impedance
vout  AVvin  (60.35)(100) V  6.035 mV Input impedance is the resistance seen by a driving source
or generator. In Fig. 33-26a, an ac voltage source vg has an
If we remove the emitter bypass capacitor, the resulting ac internal resistance of RG. (The subscript g stands for “gen-
feedback greatly reduces the gain. It becomes erator,” a synonym for source.) When the ac generator is not
stiff, some of the ac source voltage is dropped across its in-
rc
AV  ________ ternal resistance. As a result, the ac voltage between the base
(re  RE) and ground is less than ideal.

+VCC

RC

R1

RG

RL
zin(stage) zin(base)

vg R2

RE

(a)

RG RG

zin(stage)

vg R1 R2 ␤re9 vg zin(stage) vin

(b) (c)

Figure 33-26 CE amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) AC equivalent circuit. (c) Effect of input impedance.

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 The ac generator has to drive the input impedance of the Fig. 33-26c is less than vg. With the voltage divider theo-
stage zin(stage). This input impedance includes the effects of rem, we can write
the biasing resistors R1 and R2, in parallel with the input im- zin(stage)
pedance of the base zin(base). Figure 33-26b illustrates the idea. vin  __________
RG  zin(stage) vg (33-17)
The input impedance of the stage equals
This equation is valid for any amplifier. After you calculate
zin(stage)  R1 i R2 i re
or estimate the input impedance of the stage, you can deter-
When the generator is not stiff meaning that RG, is mine what the input voltage is. Note: The generator is stiff
not much less than z in(stage), the ac input voltage, vin, of when RG is less than 0.01zin(stage).

EXAMPLE 33-10

In Fig. 33-27, the ac generator has an internal resistance of 600 V. With Formula (33-17), we can calculate the input voltage:
What is the output voltage in Fig. 33-27 if   300?
1.42 k
vin  _______________ 2mV  1.41 mV
Answer: 600   1.42 k
Here are two quantities calculated in earlier examples: re  22.7 
and AV  60.35. We use these values in solving the problem. This is the ac voltage that appears at the base of the transistor,
When   300, the input impedance of the base is equivalent to the ac voltage across the emitter diode. The amplified
output voltage equals
zin(base)  (300)(22.7 )  6.8 k
vout  AVvin  (60.35)(1.41 mV)  85 mV
The input impedance of the stage is

zin(stage)  10 k i 2.2 k i 6.8 k  1.42 k

+10 V

3.6 kV

10 kV

600 V

2.2 kV vout

2 mV 2.2 kV

1 kV

Figure 33-27 Example.

33.15 Emitter Follower Figure 33-28b shows the total voltage between the base
and ground. It has a dc component and an ac component. As
The emitter follower is also called a common collector
you can see, the ac input voltage rides on the quiescent base
(CC) amplifier. The input signal is coupled to the base, and
voltage, VBQ. Similarly, Fig. 33-28c shows the total voltage
the output signal is taken from the emitter.
between the emitter and ground. This time, the ac input volt-
age is centered on a quiescent emitter voltage, VEQ.
Basic Idea The ac emitter voltage is coupled to the load resistor.
Figure 33-28a shows an emitter follower. Because the col- This output voltage is shown in Fig. 33-28d, a pure ac volt-
lector is at ac ground, the circuit is a CC amplifier. The input age. This output voltage is in phase and is approximately
voltage is coupled to the base. This sets up an ac emitter cur- equal to the input voltage. The reason the circuit is called
rent and produces an ac voltage across the emitter resistor. an emitter follower is because the output voltage follows the
This ac voltage is then coupled to the load resistor. input voltage.

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 +VCC The trade-off is the voltage gain, which has a maximum
value of 1.
R1
AC Emitter Resistance
In Fig. 33-28a, the ac signal coming out of the emitter sees
RE in parallel with RL. Let us define the ac emitter resistance
as follows:

re  RE i RL (33-18)
vin R2 RE RL
This is the external ac emitter resistance, which is different
from the internal ac emitter resistance re.

(a ) Voltage Gain
The voltage gain of the emitter follower is
VB VE
re
AV  ______ (33-19)
re  re

VBQ
Usually, a designer makes re much greater than re, so that the
VEQ voltage gain equals 1 (approximately).
Why is an emitter follower called an amplifier if its
t t
voltage gain is only 1? Because it has a current gain of b.
(b ) (c )
The stages near the end of a system need to produce more
current because the final load is usually a low impedance.
The emitter follower can produce the large output currents
vout VC needed by low-impedance loads. In short, although it is
not a voltage amplifier, the emitter follower is a current or
VCC
power amplifier.
t
Input Impedance of the Base
t
The input impedance of the base is
(d ) (e )

zin(base)  (re  re) (33-20)

Figure 33-28 Emitter follower and waveforms.
Since re is usually much greater than re, the input impedance
is approximately re.
Since there is no collector resistor, the total voltage The step up in impedance is the major advantage of an
between the collector and ground equals the supply volt- emitter follower. Small load resistances that would overload
age. If you look at the collector voltage with an oscillo- a CE amplifier can be used with an emitter follower because
scope, you will see a constant dc voltage like Fig. 33-28e. it steps up the impedance and prevents overloading.
There is no ac signal on the collector because it is an ac
ground point. Input Impedance of the Stage
When the ac source is not stiff, some of the ac signal will be
Negative Feedback lost across the internal resistance. If you want to calculate
The emitter follower uses negative feedback. The ac signal the effect of the internal resistance, you will need to use the
developed across R E effectively appears in series with the input impedance of the stage, given by
input voltage and is out of phase with it, making the ef- zin(stage)  R1 i R2 i (re  re) (33-21)
fective input voltage lower. But with the emitter follower,
the negative feedback is massive because the feedback re- With the input impedance and the source resistance, you can
sistance equals all the emitter resistance. As a result, the use the voltage divider to calculate the input voltage reach-
voltage gain is ultrastable, the distortion is almost nonex- ing the base. The calculations are the same as shown in ear-
istent, and the input impedance of the base is very high. lier examples.

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 EXAMPLE 33-11
Output Impedance
The output impedance of an amplifier is the same as its
What is the voltage gain of the emitter follower in Fig. 33-29? If Thevenin impedance. One of the advantages of an emitter
  150, what is the ac load voltage? follower is its low output impedance.
Maximum power transfer occurs when the load imped-
+15 V ance is matched (made equal) to the source (Thevenin) im-
R1
pedance. Sometimes, when maximum load power is wanted,
RG 4.7 kV a designer can match the load impedance to the output im-
600 V pedance of an emitter follower. For instance, the low imped-
ance of a speaker can be matched to the output impedance
of an emitter follower to deliver maximum power to the
speaker.
R2 Figure 33-30a shows an ac generator driving an amplifier.
4.7 kV
VG RE RL If the source is not stiff, some of the ac voltage is dropped
1V 2.2 kV 6.8 kV across the internal resistance RG. In this case, we need to
analyze the voltage divider shown in Fig. 33-30b to get the
input voltage vin.
Figure 33-29 Example. A similar idea can be used with the output side of the
amplifier. In Fig. 33-30c, we can apply the Thevenin theo-
rem at the load terminals. Looking back into the ampli-
Answer: fier, we see an output impedance zout. In the Thevenin
The dc base voltage is half the supply voltage:

VB  7.5 V RG

The dc emitter current is

vg Amplifier RL
6.8 V
IE  ______  3.09 mA
2.2 k
zin
and the ac resistance of the emitter diode is
(a)

25 mV
re  ________
3.09 mA  8.09 
RG

The external ac emitter resistance is

vg zin vin
re  2.2 k i 6.8 k  1.66 k
The voltage gain equals
(b)
1.66 k
_______________
AV   0.995
1.66 k  8.09  RG

The input impedance of the base is

vg Amplifier RL
zin(base)  150(1.66 k  8.09 )  250 k
This is much larger than the biasing resistors. Therefore, to a close zout
approximation, the input impedance of the emitter follower is
(c)

zin(stage)  4.7 k i 4.7 k  2.35 k zout

The ac input voltage is

2.35 k vth RL vout

vin  _______________ 1 V  0.797 V
600   2.35 k
The ac output voltage is
(d)
vout  0.995(0.797 V)  0.793 V
Figure 33-30 Input and output impedances.

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 the designer will select values to get

RC RL zout  RL (maximum power transfer)

In this way, the emitter follower can deliver maximum power
to a low-impedance load such as a stereo speaker. By basi-
cally removing the effect of RL on the output voltage, the
circuit is acting as a buffer between the input and output.
(a)
Formula (33-23) is an ideal formula. You can use it to get
RC an approximate value for the output impedance of an emitter
follower. With discrete circuits, the equation usually gives
only an estimate of the output impedance. Nevertheless, it
vth RL vout
is adequate for troubleshooting and preliminary analysis.
When necessary, you can use Formula (33-22) to get an ac-
curate value for the output impedance.
(b)

Figure 33-31 Output impedance of CE stage. EXAMPLE 33-12

Estimate the output impedance of the emitter follower of Fig.

equivalent circuit, this output impedance forms a voltage 33-29a.
divider with the load resistance, as shown in Fig. 33-30d.
Answer:
If zout is much smaller than R L, the output source is stiff Ideally, the output impedance equals the generator resistance
and vout equals vth. divided by the current gain of the transistor:
Figure 33-31a shows the ac equivalent circuit for the
600 
output side of the common emitter (CE) discussed earlier. zout  ______
150  4 
When we apply Thevenin’s theorem, we get Fig. 33-31b. In
other words, the output impedance facing the load resis-
Cascading CE and CC
tance is RC, and RC is effectively the output impedance zout
of the CE amplifier. Since the voltage gain of a CE ampli- To illustrate the buffering action of a CC amplifier, suppose
fier depends on RC, a designer cannot make RC too small we have a load resistance of 270 . If we try to couple the
without losing voltage gain. Stated another way, it is very output of a CE amplifier directly into this load resistance, we
difficult to get a small output impedance with a CE ampli- may overload the amplifier. One way to avoid this overload
fier. Because of this, CE amplifiers are not suited to driving is by using an emitter follower between the CE amplifier
small load resistances. and the load resistance. The signal can be coupled capaci-
The output impedance zout of an emitter follower is much tively (this means through coupling capacitors), or it may be
smaller than you can get with a CE amplifier. It equals direct-coupled as shown in Fig. 33-32.
As you can see, the base of the second transistor is con-

( RG i R1 i R2
zout  RE i re  __________
 ) (33-22)
nected directly to the collector of the first transistor. Because
of this, the dc collector voltage of the first transistor is used
to bias the second transistor. If the dc current gain of the
In some designs the biasing resistances and the ac resis- second transistor is 100, the dc resistance looking into the
tance of the emitter diode become negligible. In this case, base of the second transistor is Rin  100(270 )  27 k.
the output impedance of an emitter follower can be ap- Because 27 k is large compared to the 3.6 k, the dc
proximated by collector voltage of the first stage is only slightly disturbed.
RG In Fig. 33-32, the amplified voltage out of the first stage
zout  ___
 (33-23) drives the emitter follower and appears across the final load
resistance of 270 . Without the emitter follower, the 270 
This brings out the key idea of an emitter follower: It steps
would overload the first stage. But with the emitter follower,
the impedance of the ac source down by a factor of b. As a
its impedance effect is increased by a factor of b. Instead of
result, the emitter follower allows us to build stiff ac sources.
appearing like 270 , it now looks like 27 k in both the dc
Instead of using a stiff ac source that maximizes the load
and the ac equivalent circuits.
voltage, a designer may prefer to maximize the load power.
This demonstrates how an emitter follower can act
In this case, instead of designing for
as a buffer between a high-output impedance and a low-
zout  RL (stiff voltage source) resistance load.

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 VCC = 10 V

3.6 kV
10 kV

Load
600 V
+ 270 V

VG 2.2 kV
–
680 V

Figure 33-32 Direct-coupled output stage.

Darlington Connections with a very high current gain. For instance, the 2N6725 is
A Darlington connection is a connection of two transistors a Darlington transistor with a current gain of 25,000 at 200
whose overall current gain equals the product of the indi- mA. As another example, the TIP102 is a power Darlington
vidual current gains. Since its current gain is much higher, with a current gain of 1000 at 3 A.
a Darlington connection can have a very high input imped- The analysis of a circuit using a Darlington transistor is
ance and can produce very large output currents. Darlington almost identical to the emitter follower analysis. With the
connections are often used with voltage regulators, power Darlington transistor, since there are two transistors, there
amplifiers, and high-current switching applications. are two VBE drops. The base current of Q2 is the same as the
emitter current of Q1. Also, the input impedance at the base
Darlington Pair of Q1 can be found by zin(base) > 12re or stated as
Figure 33-33a shows a Darlington pair. Since the emitter zin(base) > re (33-25)
current of Q1 is the base current for Q2, the Darlington pair
has an overall current gain of 33.16 The Differential Amplifier
  12 (33-24) Transistors, diodes, and resistors are the only practical com-
ponents in typical ICs. Capacitors may also be used, but they
For instance, if each transistor has a current gain of 200, the are small, usually less than 50 pF. For this reason, IC de-
overall current gain is signers cannot use coupling and bypass capacitors the way a
  (200)(200)  40,000 discrete circuit designer can. Instead, the IC designer has to
use direct coupling between stages and also needs to elimi-
Semiconductor manufacturers can put a Darlington pair
nate the emitter bypass capacitor without losing too much
inside a single case like Fig. 33-33b. This device, known
voltage gain.
as  a Darlington transistor, acts like a single transistor
The differential amplifier (diff amp) has two inputs
and either one or two outputs. The output is the difference
between the two input voltages multiplied by the amplifier
gain (A). They are widely used in integrated circuits because
Q1
they permit dc or direct coupling of stages and eliminate
the need for an emitter bypass capacitor. For this and other
reasons, the diff amp is used as the input stage of almost
Q2 every IC op amp.
Differential Input and Output
Figure 33-34 shows a diff amp. It is two CE stages in par-
(a) (b)
allel with a common emitter resistor. Although it has two
Figure 33-33 (a) Darlington pair. (b) Darlington transistor. input voltages (v1 and v2) and two collector voltages (vc1 and

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 +VCC Single-Ended Output
A differential output like that of Fig. 33-34 requires a float-
ing load because neither end of the load can be grounded.
RC RC
This is inconvenient in many applications since loads are
often single-ended; that is, one end is grounded.
– +
vc1 vout vc2 Figure 33-35a shows a widely used form of the diff amp.
This has many applications because it can drive single-ended
Q1 Q2
loads like CE stages, emitter followers, and other circuits. As
you can see, the ac output signal is taken from the collector
on the right side. The collector resistor on the left has been
v1 v2 removed because it serves no useful purpose.
RE Because the input is differential, the ac output voltage is
still given by Av(v1  v2). With a single-ended output, how-
ever, the voltage gain is half as much as with a differential
–VEE output. We get half as much voltage gain with a single-ended
output because the output is coming from only one of the
Figure 33-34 Differential input and differential output.
collectors.
Incidentally, Fig. 33-35b shows the block-diagram symbol
vc2), the overall circuit is considered to be one stage. Because for a diff amp with a differential input and a single-ended
there are no coupling or bypass capacitors, there is no lower output. The same symbol is used for an op amp. The plus
cutoff frequency. sign () represents the noninverting input, and the minus
The ac output voltage vout is defined as the voltage be- sign () is the inverting input.
tween the collectors with the polarity shown in Fig. 33-34: Input Configurations
vout  vc2  vc1 (33-26) Often, only one of the inputs is active and the other is
This voltage is called a differential output because it com- grounded. In Fig. 33-35, if the base input to Q1 is grounded,
bines the two ac collector voltages into one voltage that
+VCC
equals the difference of the collector voltages. Note: We will
use lowercase letters for vout, vc1, and vc2 because they are ac
voltages that include zero hertz (0 Hz) as a special case.
Ideally, the circuit has identical transistors and equal col- RC
lector resistors. With perfect symmetry, vout is zero when the
two input voltages are equal. When v1 is greater than v2, the vout
output voltage has the polarity shown in Fig. 33-34. When v2
is greater than v1, the output voltage is inverted and has the Q1 Q2

opposite polarity.
The diff amp of Fig. 33-34 has two separate inputs. Input
v1 is called the noninverting input because vout is in phase v1 v2
with v1. On the other hand, v2 is called the inverting input RE
because vout is 180° out of phase with v2. In some applica-
tions, only the noninverting input is used and the inverting
input is grounded. In other applications, only the inverting –VEE

input is active and the noninverting input is grounded. (a)

When both the noninverting and inverting input voltages
are present, the total input is called a differential input be-
v1 +
cause the output voltage equals the  voltage gain times the
Av vout
difference of the two input voltages. The equation for the
v2 –
output voltage is
(b)
vout  Av(v1  v2) (33-27)
where Av is the voltage gain. We will show the equation for Figure 33-35 (a) Differential input and single-ended
voltage gain in the subsection ‘‘AC Analysis of a Diff App.” output. (b) Block diagram symbol.

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 the output is an inverted version of v2. If the input to Q2 is +VCC

grounded, the output is a non-inverted version of v1.

Biasing a Diff Amp

Figure 33-36 shows the dc equivalent circuit for a diff amp. RC

Throughout this discussion, we will assume identical tran- vout

sistors and equal collector resistors. Also, both bases are
grounded in this preliminary analysis.
The base bias comes from a second emitter power supply Q1 Q2

VEE. Ignoring VBE, most of VEE appears across the emitter

v1
resistor which sets the emitter current.
A diff amp is sometimes called a long-tail pair because
the two transistors share a common resistor RE. The current RE

through this common resistor is called the tail current. If we

ignore the VBE drops across the emitter diodes of Fig. 33-36,
–VEE
then the top of the emitter resistor is ideally a dc ground point.
In this case, all of VEE appears across RE and the tail current is Figure 33-37 Noninverting input and single-ended output.
VEE
IT  ___
RE (33-28)
AC Anlysis of a Diff Amp
This equation is fine for troubleshooting and preliminary Figure 33-37 shows a noninverting input and single-ended
analysis because it quickly gets to the point, which is that al- output. With a large R E, the tail current is almost constant
most all the emitter supply voltage appears across the emit- when a small ac signal is present. Because of this, the two
ter resistor. halves of a diff amp respond in a complementary manner
When the two halves of Fig. 33-36 are perfectly matched, to the noninverting input. In other words, an increase in
the tail current will split equally. Therefore, each transistor the emitter current of Q1 produces a decrease in the emitter
has an emitter current of current of Q2. Conversely, a decrease in the emitter current
of Q1 produces an increase in the emitter current of Q 2.
I
IE  __T (33-29) In Fig. 33-37, the left transistor Q1 acts like an emitter fol-
2 lower that produces an ac voltage across the emitter resistor.
The dc voltage on either collector is given by this familiar This ac voltage is half of the input voltage v1. On the positive
equation: half-cycle of input voltage, the Q1 emitter current increases,
the Q2 emitter current decreases, and the Q2 collector volt-
VC  VCC  ICRC (33-30)
age increases. Similarly, on the negative half-cycle of input
voltage, the Q1 emitter current decreases, the Q2 emitter cur-
rent increases, and the Q2 collector voltage decreases. This
+VCC
is why the amplified output sine wave is in phase with the
noninverting input.

Single-Ended Output Gain

RC RC Without showing the derivation, the gain of a differential
amplifier with a single-ended output is
RC
Av  ____ (33-31)
2re
≈0 V Remember that re is
0.025 .
re  _____
IE
RE
In Fig. 33-37, a quiescent dc voltage VC exists at the output
terminal. This voltage is not part of the ac signal. The ac
–VEE
voltage vout is any change from the quiescent voltage. In an
op amp, the quiescent dc voltage is removed in a later stage
Figure 33-36 Ideal dc analysis. because it is unimportant.

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 Differential-Output Gain +VCC

The differential output voltage is twice the single-ended ver-

sion since there are two collector resistors:
RC
R
Av  ___C (33-32)
re vout
This is easy to remember because it is the same as the volt-
vin(CM) vin(CM)
age gain for a CE stage.
Inverting-Input Configurations
For an inverting input and single-ended output, the ac analy-
sis is almost identical to the noninverting analysis. In this RE

circuit, the inverting input v2 produces an amplified and in-

verted ac voltage at the final output. The re of each transistor
–VEE
is still part of a voltage divider in the ac equivalent circuit.
This is why the ac voltage across RE is half of the inverting (a)

input voltage. If a differential output is used, the voltage gain +VCC

is twice as much, as previously discussed.

Differential-Input Configurations
The differential-input configurations have both inputs active RC

at the same time.

vout
The output voltage for a noninverting input is Av(v1), and
the output voltage for an inverting input is vin(CM) vin(CM)

vout  Av(v2)
By combining the two results, we get the equation for a dif-
ferential input: 2RE 2RE

vout  Av(v1  v2)

Input Impedance
–VEE
In a CE stage, the input impedance of the base is
(b)
zin  re
Figure 33-38 (a) Common-mode input signal.
In a diff amp, the input impedance of either base is twice as (b) Equivalent circuit.
high:
zin  2re (33-33) In Fig. 33-38a, equal voltages are applied to the nonin-
The input impedance of a diff amp is twice as high because verting and inverting inputs. Nobody would deliberately use
there are two ac emitter resistances re in the ac equivalent a diff amp this way because the output voltage is ideally zero.
circuit instead of one. Formula (33-33) is valid for all con- The reason for discussing this type of input is because most
figurations because any ac input signal sees two ac emitter static, interference, and other kinds of undesirable pickup
resistances in the path between the base and ground. are common-mode signals.
If the diff amp is operating in an environment with a
Common-Mode Gain lot of electromagnetic interference, each base acts like a
Figure 33-38a shows a differential input and single-ended small antenna that picks up an unwanted signal voltage.
output. The same input voltage, vin(CM) is being applied to One of the reasons the diff amp is so popular is because
each base. This voltage is called a common-mode signal. If it discriminates against these common-mode signals. In
the diff amp is perfectly symmetrical, there is no ac output other words, a diff amp does not amplify common-mode
voltage with a common-mode input signal because v1  v2. signals.
When a diff amp is not perfectly symmetrical, there will be Here is an easy way to find the voltage gain for a com-
a small ac output voltage. mon-mode signal: We can redraw the circuit, as shown in

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 Fig. 33-38b. Since equal voltages vin(CM) drive both inputs si- +VCC

multaneously, there is almost no current through the wire

between the emitters. Therefore, we can remove the connect-
R
ing wire.
The voltage gain is approximately
RC
Av(CM)  ____ (33-34)
2RE
With typical values of RC and RE, the common-mode voltage
gain is usually less than 1. Figure 33-39 The current mirror.

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio The Current Mirror

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined as With ICs, there is a way to increase the voltage gain and
the voltage gain divided by common-mode voltage gain. CMRR of a diff amp. Figure 33-39 shows a compensating
Av diode in parallel with the emitter diode of a transistor. The
CMRR  _____ (33-35) current through the resistor is given by
Av(CM)

For instance, if Av  200 and Av(CM)  0.5, CMRR 5 400. VCC  VBE
IR  _________ (33-37)
The higher the CMRR, the better. A high CMRR means R
that the diff amp is amplifying the wanted signal and dis-
If the compensating diode and the emitter diode have identi-
criminating against the common-mode signal.
cal current-voltage curves, the collector current will equal
Data sheets usually specify CMRR in decibels, using the
the current through the resistor:
following formula for the decibel conversion:
IC   R (33-38)
CMRRdB  20 log CMRR (33-36)
A circuit like Fig. 33-39 is called a current mirror be-
As an example, if CMRR  400,
cause the collector current is a mirror image of the resistor
CMRRdB  20 log 400  52 dB current. With ICs, it is relatively easy to match the charac-
teristics of the compensating diode and the emitter diode
because both components are on the same chip. Current
EXAMPLE 33-13 mirrors are used as current sources and active loads in IC
A differential amplifier has, A v  150, A v(CM)  0.5, and v in  1 mV. op amps.
If the base leads are picking up a common-mode signal of 1 mV,
what is the output voltage?
Current Mirror Sources the Tail Current
With a single-ended output, the voltage gain of a diff amp is
Answer:
The input has two components, the desired signal and a common-
RC y2re and the common-mode voltage gain is RC y2RE. The
mode signal. Both are equal in amplitude. The desired component ratio of the two gains gives
is amplified to get an output of
RE
vout1 5 150(1 mV) 5 150 mV CMRR 5 ___
re
The common-mode signal is attenuated to get an output of
The larger we can make RE, the greater the CMRR.
vout2 5 0.5(1 mV) 5 0.5 mV One way to get a high equivalent RE is to use a current
The total output is the sum of these two components: mirror to produce the tail current, as shown in Fig. 32-40.
The current through the compensating diode is
vout 5 vout1 1 vout2
VCC  VEE  VBE
The output contains both components, but the desired compo- IR  ______________ (33-39)
nent is 300 times greater than the unwanted component. R
This example shows why the diff amp is useful as the input Because of the current mirror, the tail current has the same
stage of an op amp. It attenuates the common-mode signal.
This is a distinct advantage over the ordinary CE amplifier,
value. Since Q4 acts like a current source, it has a very high
which amplifies a stray pickup signal the same way it amplifies output impedance. As a result, the equivalent RE of the diff
the desired signal. amp is in hundreds of megohms and the CMRR is dramati-
cally improved.

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 +VCC +10 V

RC 1 kV

vout Vout

10 kV
R v1 Q1 Q2 v2 ␤dc = 50
+
10 V
–

Q4
Q3 Figure 33-42 Hard saturation.
–VEE

output voltage. In other words, none of the Q points between

Figure 33-40 Current mirror sources the tail current.
saturation and cutoff are used. For this reason, variations in
the Q point don’t matter, because the transistor remains in
+VCC saturation or cutoff when the current gain changes.
Q5 Here is an example of using a base-biased circuit to
Q6 switch between saturation and cutoff. Figure 33-42 shows
an example of a transistor in hard saturation. Therefore, the
vout
output voltage is approximately 0 V.
When the switch opens, the base current drops to zero.
R v1 Q1 Q2 v2
Because of this, the collector current drops to zero. With no
current through the 1 k, all the collector supply voltage
will appear across the collector-emitter terminals. There-
fore, the output voltage rises to 10 V.
Q4
The circuit can have only two output voltages: 0 or 10 V.
Q3
This is how you can recognize a digital circuit. It has only
–VEE
two output levels: low or high. The exact values of the two
Figure 33-41 Current mirror is an active load. output voltages are not important. All that matters is that you
can distinguish the voltages as low or high.
Another name often used is two-state circuits or binary
Active Load circuits, referring to the low and high outputs.
The voltage gain of a single-ended diff amp is RCy2re. The The key to understanding switching circuits is to be able to
larger we can make RC, the greater the voltage gain. Fig- recognize when saturation occurs. There are several methods.
ure 33-41 shows a current mirror used as an active load re- Keep in mind that in saturation the VCE is only a few tenths
sistor. Since Q6 is a pnp current source, Q2 sees an equivalent of a volt or, for all practical purposes, zero. This puts the full
RC that is hundreds of megohms. As a result, the voltage gain VCE across RC defining the maximum possible IC value.
is much higher with an active load than with an ordinary Saturation-Current Method
resistor. Active loading like this is used in most IC op amps.
Figure 33-42 shows a base-biased circuit. Start by calculat-
33.17 The Transistor Switch ing the saturation current:
There are two basic kinds of transistor circuits: amplifying 10 V  10 mA
IC(sat)  _____
and switching. With amplifying circuits, the Q point must 1 k
remain in the active region under all operating conditions. The base current is about 1 mA. Assuming a current gain of
If it does not, the output signal will be distorted on the peak 50 as shown, the collector current is
where saturation or cutoff occurs. With switching circuits,
the Q point usually switches between saturation and cutoff. IC  50(1 mA)  50 mA
Switching circuits are usually called digital or pulse circuits. The answer is impossible because the collector current can-
Base bias is useful in digital circuits because these cir- not be greater than the saturation current. Therefore, the
cuits are usually designed to operate at saturation and cutoff. transistor cannot be operating in the active region; it must be
Because of this, they have either low output voltage or high operating in the saturation region.

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 Hard Saturation Base-Biased LED Driver
A designer who wants a transistor to operate in the satu- A good example of a driver is an LED driver. The base
ration region under all conditions often selects a base re- current is zero in Fig. 33-44a, which means that the tran-
sistance that produces a current gain of 10. This is called sistor is at cutoff. When the switch of Fig. 33-44a closes,
hard saturation, because there is more than enough base the transistor goes into hard saturation. Visualize a short
current to saturate the transistor. For example, a base re- between the collector-emitter terminals. Then the collec-
sistance of 10 k in Fig. 33-42 will produce a current tor supply voltage (15 V) appears across the series connec-
gain of tion of the 1.5 k and the LED. If we ignore the voltage
drop across the LED, the collector current is ideally 10
10 mA  10
dc  ______ mA. But if we allow 2 V across the LED, then there is 13 V
1 mA across the 1.5 k, and the collector current is 13 V divided
For the transistor of Fig. 33-42, it takes only by 1.5 k, or 8.67 mA.
This LED driver is designed for hard saturation, where
10 mA  0.2 mA
IB  ______ the current gain doesn’t matter. If you want to change the
50
LED current in this circuit, you can change either the col-
to saturate the transistor. Therefore, a base current of 1 mA lector resistance or the collector supply voltage. The base
will drive the transistor deep into saturation. resistance is made 10  times larger than the collector re-
sistance because we want hard saturation when the switch
Recognizing Hard Saturation at a Glance is closed.
Here is how you can quickly tell whether a transistor is in Emitter-Biased LED Driver
hard saturation. Often, the base supply voltage and the col-
The emitter current is zero in Fig. 33-44b, which means
lector supply voltage are equal: VBB  VCC. When this is the
that the transistor is at cutoff. When the switch of Fig.
case, a designer will use the 10 : 1 rule, which says to make
33-44b closes, the transistor goes into the active region.
the base resistance approximately 10 times as large as the
Ideally, the emitter voltage is 15 V. This means that we
collector resistance.
get an emitter current of 10 mA. The transistor acts as a
Figure 33-42 was designed by using the 10 : 1 rule. There-
fore, whenever you see a circuit with a 10 : 1 ratio (RB to RC),
you can expect it to be saturated. 1.5 kV
Another way to recognize saturation is to measure the
transistor junction voltages to determine their value and po-
larity. In saturation, both the emitter and collector junctions
are forward-biased. Figure 33-43 shows typical values. With 15 kV +
VCE = 0.1 V and VBE = 0.7 V, VCB can only be 0.6 V with the 15 V
polarity shown. + –
15 V
–
33.18 Driver Circuits
A driver circuit is one used to operate some other device,
like a light, relay, solenoid, or motor. Usually the driver is a (a)
transistor switch that is used to turn the device off or on. The
key point of a driver is that a very small input current can
control a much larger output current. While most drivers are
switches, linear circuit drivers are also used.
+
VCB ≅ 0.6 V 20 V
2 1 –
+
1 15 V
VCE ≅ 0.1 V 1.5 kV
1 –
2 2
VBE 5 0.7 V
(b)
Figure 33-43 In a saturated bipolar transistor, both
junctions are biased. Figure 33-44 (a) Base-biased. (b) Emitter-biased.

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 +12 V Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
Most bipolar transistors are made with silicon. Different
areas of the silicon are doped from the p- and n-type emit-
Magnetic coil ter, base, and collector. One primary limitation of the sili-
D1 (relay, solenoid, etc.) con BJT is that its upper-operating frequency range is just
beyond 1 GHz. This limits the BJT to amplifying signals
below this range. To amplify microwave signals beyond 1
GHz, special bipolar transistors are used. These are made
with compound semiconductors like silicon germanium
(SiGe), gallium arsenide (GaAs), or indium phosphide
(InP). These transistors amplify well into the lower micro-
12 V
wave frequencies to about 20 GHz.
An even better BJT is the heterojunction bipolar tran-
sistor (HBT). It uses different semiconductor materials for
Figure 33-45 A driver for inductive devices with the emitter and base. The most common combination is gal-
protective diode. lium arsenide (GaAs) for the emitter and aluminum gallium
arsenide (AlGaAs) for the base. Such a device can amplify
current source where the base voltage and emitter resistor signals up to roughly 200 GHz. The frequency range from
set the emitter and the collector currents. Here the LED 30 to 300 GHz is known as millimeter waveband. It is now
voltage drop has no effect. It doesn’t matter whether the regularly used by radar, satellites, and data/cellular backhaul
exact LED voltage is 1.8, 2, or 2.5 V. This is an advantage applications.
of the emitter-biased design over the base-biased design. Phototransistors and Other Optoelectronic
The LED current is independent of the LED voltage. An- Devices
other advantage is that the circuit doesn’t require a col-
A transistor with an open base has a small collector current
lector resistor.
consisting of thermally produced minority carriers and sur-
The emitter-biased circuit of Fig. 33-44b operates in the
face leakage. By exposing the collector junction to light, a
active region when the switch is closed. To change the LED
manufacturer can produce a phototransistor, a device that
current, you can change the base supply voltage or the emit-
has more sensitivity to light than a photodiode.
ter resistance. For instance, if you vary the base supply volt-
age, the LED current varies in direct proportion. Basic Idea of Phototransistors
Another common driver is one for a magnetic relay or
Figure 33-46a shows a transistor with an open base. As
solenoid. Figure 33-45 shows an example. The coil in the
mentioned earlier, a small collector current exists in this cir-
collector is usually rated for a specific voltage, such as
cuit. Ignore the surface-leakage component, and concentrate
12 V. When the transistor turns on, the transistor connects
on the thermally produced carriers in the collector diode.
the coil to ground. The coil resistance sets the collector
Visualize the reverse current produced by these carriers as
current, which produces a magnetic field in the coil. The
an ideal current source in parallel with the collector-base
magnetic field activates mechanical relay switching con-
junction of an ideal transistor (Fig. 33-46b).
tacts or a magnetic rod on a solenoid that creates linear
motion.
An important part of this circuit is diode D1 across the +VCC +VCC
relay coil. When the transistor turns off, the magnetic field
RC
in the coil drops suddenly. This causes a voltage spike of sev- RC
eral hundred volts to be induced across the coil. This pulse IR
can damage the transistor. When the spike occurs, the diode
becomes forward-biased, eliminating the spike and clamp- Open Ideal
ing the collector voltage to a safe 0.7-V level.

33.19 Special Bipolar Transistors

(a) (b)
Two examples of special bipolar transistors are cov-
ered in this section: heterojunction bipolar transistors and Figure 33-46 (a) Transistor with open base.
phototransistors. (b) Equivalent circuit.

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 Because the base lead is open, all the reverse current is The price paid for increased sensitivity is reduced
forced into the base of the transistor. The resulting collector speed. A phototransistor is more sensitive than a photo-
current is diode, but it cannot turn on and off as fast. A photodiode
has typical output currents in microamperes and can
ICEO  dcIR
switch on and off in nanoseconds. The phototransistor
where IR is the reverse minority-carrier current. This says has typical output currents in milliamperes but switches
that the collector current is higher than the original reverse on and off in microseconds. A typical phototransistor is
current by a factor of dc. shown in Fig. 33-47c.
The collector diode is sensitive to light as well as heat.
In a phototransistor, light passes through a window and Optocoupler
strikes the collector-base junction. As the light increases, IR
increases, and so does ICEO. Figure 33-48a shows an LED driving a phototransistor.
This is a much more sensitive optocoupler than an LED-
Phototransistor versus Photodiode photodiode combination. The idea is straightforward. Any
The main difference between a phototransistor and a photodi- changes in VS produce changes in the LED current, which
ode is the current gain bdc. The same amount of light striking changes the current through the phototransistor. In turn, this
both devices produces bdc times more current in a phototrans- produces a changing voltage across the collector-emitter ter-
istor than in a photodiode. The increased sensitivity of a pho- minals. Therefore, a signal voltage is coupled from the input
totransistor is a big advantage over that of a photodiode. circuit to the output circuit.
Figure 33-47a shows the schematic symbol of a photo- Again, the big advantage of an optocoupler is the electri-
transistor. Notice the open base. This is the usual way to op- cal isolation between the input and output circuits. Stated
erate a phototransistor. You can control the sensitivity with another way, the common for the input circuit is different
a variable base return resistor (Fig. 33-47b), but the base is from the common for the output circuit. Because of this,
usually left open to get maximum sensitivity to light. no conductive path exists between the two circuits. This
means that you can ground one of the circuits and float
the other. For instance, the input circuit can be grounded
+VCC
to the chassis of the equipment, while the common of the
+VCC output side is ungrounded. Figure 33-48b shows a typical
RC
optocoupler IC.
RC

RS RC
RB
+ +
VS VCC
(a) (b) – –

(a)

(c)
(b)
Figure 33-47 Phototransistor. (a) Open base gives
maximum sensitivity. (b) Variable base resistor changes Figure 33-48 (a) Optocoupler with LED and
sensitivity. (c) Typical phototransistor. phototransistor. (b) Optocoupler IC.

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 CHAPTER 33 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A bipolar transistor has how many pn junctions? c. recombine with base holes.
a. 1 d. recombine with collector holes.
b. 2 10. The beta of a transistor is the ratio of the
c. 3 a. collector current to emitter current.
d. 4 b. collector current to base current.
2. What is one important thing transistors do? c. base current to collector current.
a. Amplify weak signals. d. emitter current to collector current.
b. Rectify line voltage. 11. Increasing the collector supply voltage will increase
c. Step down voltage. a. base current.
d. Emit light. b. collector current.
3. Who invented the first junction transistor? c. emitter current.
a. Bell. d. none of the above.
b. Faraday. 12. The fact that there are many free electrons in a tran-
c. Marconi. sistor emitter region means the emitter is
d. Schockley. a. lightly doped.
4. In an npn transistor, the majority carriers in the b. heavily doped.
emitter are c. undoped.
a. free electrons. d. none of the above.
b. holes. 13. In a normally biased npn transistor, the electrons in the
c. neither a nor b. emitter have enough energy to overcome the barrier
d. both a and b. potential of the
5. The barrier potential across each silicon depletion a. base-emitter junction.
layer is b. base-collector junction.
a. 0 V. c. collector-base junction.
b. 0.3 V. d. recombination path.
c. 0.7 V. 14. In a pnp transistor, the major carriers in the emitter are
d. 1 V. a. free electrons.
6. The emitter diode is usually b. holes.
a. forward-biased. c. neither.
b. reverse-biased. d. both.
c. nonconducting. 15. What is the most important fact about the collector
d. operating in the breakdown region. current?
7. For normal linear operation of the transistor, the col- a. It is measured in milliamperes.
lector diode has to be b. It equals the base current divided by the
a. forward-biased. current gain.
b. reverse-biased. c. It is small.
c. nonconducting. d. It approximately equals the emitter current.
d. operating in the breakdown region. 16. If the current gain is 100 and the collector current is
8. Most of the electrons in the base of an npn transistor flow 10 mA, the base current is
a. out of the base lead. a. 10 A.
b. into the collector. b. 100 A.
c. into the emitter. c. 1 A.
d. into the base supply. d. 10 A.
9. Most of the electrons that flow through the base will 17. The collector-emitter voltage is usually.
a. flow into the collector. a. less than the collector supply voltage.
b. flow out of the base lead. b. equal to the collector supply voltage.

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 c. more than the collector supply voltage. 26. When the collector current increases, what does the
d. cannot answer. current gain do?
18. The power dissipated by a transistor approximately a. Decreases.
equals the collector current times b. Stays the same.
a. base-emitter voltage. c. Increases.
b. collector-emitter voltage. d. Any of the above.
c. base supply voltage. 27. When the base resistor increases, the collector voltage
d. 0.7 V. will probably
19. A transistor acts like a diode and a a. decrease.
a. voltage source. b. stay the same.
b. current source. c. increase.
c. resistance. d. do all of the above.
d. power supply. 28. If the base resistor is very small, the transistor will
20. If the base current is 100 mA and the current gain is operate in the
30, the emitter current is a. cutoff region.
a. 3.33 mA. b. active region.
b. 3 A. c. saturation region.
c. 3.1 A. d. breakdown region.
d. 10 A. 29. Ignoring the bulk resistance of the collector diode, the
21. The base-emitter voltage of an ideal transistor is collector-emitter saturation voltage is
a. 0 V. a. 0 V.
b. 0.3 V. b. A few tenths of a volt.
c. 0.7 V. c. 1 V.
d. 1 V. d. supply voltage.
22. In the active region, the collector current is not 30. If the base supply voltage is disconnected, the
changed significantly by collector-emitter voltage will equal
a. base supply voltage. a. 0 V.
b. base current. b. 6 V.
c. current gain. c. 10.5 V.
d. collector resistance. d. collector supply voltage.
23. If the base resistor is open, what is the collector 31. If the base resistor has zero resistance, the transistor
current? will probably be
a. 0 mA. a. saturated.
b. 1 mA. b. in cutoff.
c. 2 mA. c. destroyed.
d. 10 mA. d. none of the above.
24. When comparing the power dissipation of a 2N3904 32. The collector current is 1.5 mA. If the current gain is
transistor to the PZT3904 surface-mount version, the 50, the base current is
2N3904 a. 3 A.
a. can handle less power. b. 30 A.
b. can handle more power. c. 150 A.
c. can handle the same power. d. 3 mA.
d. is not rated. 33. The base current is 50 mA. If the current gain is 100,
25. The current gain of a transistor is defined as the ratio the collector current is closest in value to
of the collector current to the a. 50 A.
a. base current. b. 500 A.
b. emitter current. c. 2 mA.
c. supply current. d. 5 mA.
d. collector current.

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 34. When there is no base current in a transistor switch, c. emitter.
the output voltage from the transistor is d. ground.
a. low. 43. For emitter bias, the voltage at the emitter is 0.7 V
b. high. less than the
c. unchanged. a. base voltage.
d. unknown. b. emitter voltage.
35. If the current gain is unknown in an emitter-biased c. collector voltage.
circuit, you cannot calculate the d. ground voltage.
a. emitter voltage. 44. VDB is noted for its
b. emitter current. a. unstable collector voltage.
c. collector current. b. varying emitter current.
d. base current. c. large base current.
36. If the emitter resistor is open, the collector voltage is d. stable Q point.
a. low. 45. VDB normally operates in the
b. high. a. active region.
c. unchanged. b. cutoff region.
d. unknown. c. saturation region.
37. If the collector resistor is open, the collector voltage is d. breakdown region.
a. low. 46. The collector voltage of a VDB circuit is not sensitive
b. high. to changes in the
c. unchanged. a. supply voltage.
d. unknown. b. emitter resistance.
38. When the current gain increases from 50 to 300 in an c. current gain.
emitter-biased circuit, the collector current d. collector resistance.
a. remains almost the same. 47. If the emitter resistance decreases in a VDB circuit,
b. decreases by a factor of 6. the collector voltage
c. increases by a factor of 6. a. decreases.
d. is zero. b. stays the same.
39. If the emitter resistance increases, the collector voltage c. increases.
a. decreases. d. doubles.
b. stays the same. 48. The Q point of a VDB circuit is
c. increases. a. hypersensitive to changes in current gain.
d. breaks down the transistor. b. somewhat sensitive to changes in current gain.
40. What DMM polarity connection is needed on an npn c. almost totally insensitive to changes in current gain.
transistor’s base to get a 0.7-V reading? d. greatly affected by temperature changes.
a. Positive. 49. The current gain of a pnp transistor is
b. Negative. a. the negative of the npn current gain.
c. Either positive or negative. b. the collector current divided by the emitter current.
d. Unknown. c. near zero.
41. The major advantage of a phototransistor as compared d. the ratio of collector current to base current.
to a photodiode is its 50. Which is the largest current in a pnp transistor?
a. response to higher frequencies. a. Base current.
b. ac operation. b. Emitter current.
c. increased sensitivity. c. Collector current.
d. durability. d. None of these.
42. For the emitter bias, the voltage across the emitter 51. In a well-designed VDB circuit, the base current is
resistor is the same as the voltage between the emitter a. much larger than the voltage divider current.
and the b. equal to the emitter current.
a. base. c. much smaller than the voltage divider current.
b. collector. d. equal to the collector current.

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 52. In a VDB circuit, the base input resistance Rin is 61. Voltage gain is directly proportional to
a. equal to dc RE. a. .
b. normally smaller than RTH. b. re.
c. equal to dc RC. c. dc collector voltage.
d. independent of dc. d. ac collector resistance.
53. A coupling capacitor is 62. If the emitter-bypass capacitor opens, the ac output
a. a dc short. voltage will
b. an ac open. a. decrease.
c. a dc open and an ac short. b. increase.
d. a dc short and an ac open. c. remain the same.
54. The capacitor that produces an ac ground is called d. equal zero.
a(n) 63. An emitter follower has a voltage gain that is
a. bypass capacitor. a. much less than one.
b. coupling capacitor. b. approximately equal to one.
c. dc open. c. greater than one.
d. ac open. d. zero.
55. AC emitter resistance equals 25 mV divided 64. The input impedance of the base of an emitter
by the follower is usually
a. quiescent base current. a. low.
b. dc emitter current. b. high.
c. ac emitter current. c. shorted to ground.
d. change in collector current. d. open.
56. The output voltage of a CE amplifier is 65. The output voltage of an emitter follower is across
a. amplified. the
b. inverted. a. emitter diode.
c. 180° out of phase with the input. b. dc collector resistor.
d. all of the above. c. load resistor.
57. The emitter of a CE amplifier has no ac voltage d. emitter diode and external ac emitter resistance.
because of the 66. If   200 and re  150 , the input impedance of
a. dc voltage on it. the base is
b. bypass capacitor. a. 30 k.
c. coupling capacitor. b. 600 .
d. load resistor. c. 3 k.
58. The voltage across the load resistor of a d. 5 k.
capacitor-coupled CE amplifier is 67. The input voltage to an emitter follower is usually
a. dc and ac. a. less than the generator voltage.
b. dc only. b. equal to the generator voltage.
c. ac only. c. greater than the generator voltage.
d. Neither dc nor ac. d. equal to the supply voltage.
59. The voltage gain equals the output voltage divided 68. The output voltage of an emitter follower is
by the approximately
a. input voltage. a. 0 V.
b. ac emitter resistance. b. VG.
c. ac collector resistance. c. vin.
d. generator voltage. d. VCC.
60. The input impedance of the base decreases when 69. The output voltage of an emitter follower is
a.  increases. a. in phase with vin.
b. supply voltage increases. b. much greater than vin.
c.  decreases. c. 180° out of phase.
d. ac collector resistance increases. d. generally much less than vin.

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 70. For maximum power transfer, a CC amplifier is 79. The voltage gain of a diff amp with an unloaded
designed so differential output is equal to RC divided by
a. RG  zin. a. re.
b. zout RL. b. re/2.
c. zout  RL. c. 2re.
d. zout  RL. d. RE.
71. If a CE stage is directly coupled to an emitter follower, 80. The input impedance of a diff amp equals re times
a. low and high frequencies will be passed. a. 0.
b. only high frequencies will be passed. b. RC.
c. high-frequency signals will be blocked. c. RE.
d. low-frequency signals will be blocked. d. 2.
72. A Darlington transistor has 81. A dc signal has a frequency of
a. a very low input impedance. a. 0 Hz.
b. three transistors. b. 60 Hz.
c. a very high current gain. c. 0 to more than 1 MHz.
d. one VBE drop. d. 1 MHz.
73. The amplifier configuration that produces a 180° 82. When the two input terminals of a diff amp are grounded,
phase shift is the a. the base currents are equal.
a. CB. b. the collector currents are equal.
b. CC. c. an output error voltage usually exists.
c. CE. d. the ac output voltage is zero.
d. All of the above. 83. A common-mode signal is applied to
74. If the generator voltage is 5 mV in an emitter follower, a. the noninverting input.
the output voltage across the load is closest to b. the inverting input.
a. 5 mV. c. both inputs.
b. 150 mV. d. the top of the tail resistor.
c. 0.25 V. 84. The common-mode voltage gain is
d. 0.5 V. a. smaller than the voltage gain.
75. Usually, the distortion in an emitter follower is b. equal to the voltage gain.
a. very low. c. greater than the voltage gain.
b. very high. d. none of the above.
c. large. 85. The input stage of an op amp is usually a
d. not acceptable. a. diff amp.
76. If a CE stage is direct coupled to an emitter follower, b. class B push-pull amplifier.
how many coupling capacitors are there between the c. CE amplifier.
two stages? d. swamped amplifier.
a. 0 86. The common-mode rejection ratio is
b. 1 a. very low.
c. 2 b. often expressed in decibels.
d. 3 c. equal to the voltage gain.
77. A Darlington transistor has a b of 8000. If RE  1 k and d. equal to the common-mode voltage gain.
RL  100 , the input impedance of the base is closest to 87. The typical input stage of an op amp has a
a. 8 k. a. single-ended input and single-ended output.
b. 80 k. b. single-ended input and differential output.
c. 800 k. c. differential input and single-ended output.
d. 8 M. d. differential input and differential output.
78. The tail current of a diff amp is 88. Active loads, current source, and current mirrors are
a. half of either collector current. used to eliminate what components in an IC?
b. equal to either collector current. a. Capacitors.
c. two times either collector current. b. Resistors.
d. equal to the difference in base currents.

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 c. Diodes. 93. The collector-emitter voltage in a saturated transistor
d. Inductors. driver when on is
89. What is the common practice for getting higher gain a. VCC.
in an IC differential amplifier? b. ground.
a. Use larger collector or drain resistors. c. 0.5 V.
b. Use a current source. d. IV to VCC.
c. Use a current mirror. 94. A diode is needed in a magnetic device driver to
d. Use higher-gain transistors. a. bias the transistor.
90. What replaces the emitter resistor in an IC differential b. control current in the inductive load.
amplifier? c. speed up switching.
a. Current source. d. protect against voltage spikes.
b. Current mirror. 95. A transistor has a base current of 0.5 mA, a current
c. MOSFET. gain of 150. The collector resistance is 2 k and the
d. Zener diode. collector supply is +12 V. The transistor
91. Cascode amplifiers are popular for which frequency a. is open.
range? b. is operating in the linear region.
a. DC. c. is saturated.
b. Audio. d. has insufficient information to tell.
c. Medium. 96. Which is true about a saturated transistor?
d. Very high. a. EB forward-biased; CB reverse-biased.
92. A driver circuit can operate in the linear region. b. Both EB and CB forward-biased.
a. True. c. EB reverse-biased; CB forward-biased.
b. False. d. Both EB and CB reverse-biased.

CHAPTER 33 PROBLEMS

SECTION 33.3 Transistor Currents SECTION 33.6 Collector Curves

33.1 A transistor has an emitter current of 10 mA and 33.6 If a transistor has a collector current of 100 mA
a collector current of 9.95 mA. What is the base and a collector-emitter voltage of 3.5 V, what is its
current? power dissipation?
33.2 The collector current is 10 mA, and the base current SECTION 33.7 Reading Data Sheets
is 0.1 mA. What is the current gain?
33.7 A transistor has a power rating of 1 W. If the
33.3 A transistor has a current gain of 150 and a base collector-emitter voltage is 10 V and the collector
current of 30 mA. What is the collector current? current is 120 mA, what happens to the transistor?
33.4 If the collector current is 100 mA and the current
gain is 65, what is the emitter current? SECTION 33.9 Basic Biasing
33.8 In Fig. 33-50, what is VCE? Is this correct biasing for
SECTION 33.5 The Base Curve this circuit?
33.5 What is the base current in Fig. 33-49? +12 V

820 V

470 kV 1.5 kV
␤dc = 200 + 680 kV
+ 10 V
–
10 V
– ␤dc = 175

Figure 33-49
Figure 33-50

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 SECTION 33.10 Emitter Bias +12 V

33.9 What is the collector voltage in Fig. 33-51a? The

emitter voltage? RC
R1 39 V
33.10 What is the collector voltage in Fig. 33-51b if 150 V
VBB  2 V?
33.11 If the base supply voltage is 2 V in Fig. 33-51c,
what is the current through the LED?
+20 V
R2
+10 V +5 V RE
33 V
10 V

10 kV 910 V

+2.5 V +VBB +VBB Figure 33-53

1.8 kV 180 V 100 V SECTION 33.13 PNP Transistors

33.14 What is the collector voltage in Fig. 33-54?
(a) (b) (c) 33.15 What is the collector-emitter voltage in Fig. 33-54?

Figure 33-51 +10 V

SECTION 33.11 Voltage Divider Bias RE

R2
1 kV
33.12 What is the emitter voltage in Fig. 33-52? The 2.2 kV

collector voltage?
2N3906

+25 V R1
10 kV RC
3.6 kV

RC
R1 3.6 kV
10 kV
Figure 33-54
SECTION 33.14 Typical Bipolar Amplifiers
33.16 What is the ac resistance of the emitter diode in
R2
2.2 kV RE Fig. 33-55?
1 kV

+10 V

3.6 kV
Figure 33-52 10 kV

600 V

␤ = 100 10 kV
SECTION 33.12 Troubleshooting Transistor Circuits
33.13 What is the approximate value of the collector
voltage in Fig. 33-53 for each of these troubles? 1 mV
2.2 kV
a. R1 open
1 kV
b. R2 open
c. RE open
d. RC open
e. Collector-emitter open Figure 33-55

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 33.17 What is the output voltage of Fig. 33-55? +15 V

33.18 What is the gain of the amplifier in Fig. 33-55 if the

emitter bypass capacitor is removed?
180 kV 180 kV
SECTION 33.15 Emitter Follower
33.19 In Fig. 33-56, what is the input impedance of the
base if   200? The input impedance of the stage?

+15 V

R1
2.2 kV 270 kV
RG
50 V

–15 V

Figure 33-58
VG R2
1V 2.2 kV 33.24 What are the ideal currents and voltages in Fig. 33-59?
RE RL
1 kV 3.3 kV +12 V

Figure 33-56 200 kV

vout

33.20 If   150 in Fig. 33-56, what is the ac input

voltage to the emitter follower?
33.21 What is the voltage gain in Fig. 33-56? If   175,
what is the ac load voltage?
200 kV
33.22 If the Darlington pair of Fig. 33-57 has an overall
current gain of 5000, what is the input impedance of
the Q1 base? What is the output voltage? –12 V
Figure 33-59
33.25 In Fig. 33-60, what is the ac output voltage? If
+15 V
  275, what is the input impedance of the diff amp?
150 kV
5.1 kV +15 V

47 kV 47 kV
10 mV
– +
vout
150 kV 470 V 1 kV vout

Figure 33-57
2.5 mV

68 kV

SECTION 33.16 The Differential Amplifier

33.23 What are the ideal currents and voltages in –15 V
Fig. 33-58? Figure 33-60

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 33.26 What is the common-mode voltage gain 33.30 The 680 k in Fig. 33-62 is replaced by 4.7 k and
of Fig. 33-61? If a common-mode voltage of 20 V a series switch. Assuming an ideal transistor, what
exists on both bases, what is the common-mode is the collector voltage if the switch is open? What
output voltage? is the collector voltage if the switch is closed?
SECTION 33.18 Driver Circuits
+15 V 33.31 If the base supply voltage is 2 V in Fig. 33-63, what
is the current through the LED?

500 kV
+5 V

vout

+
+ V BB

v in 100 V
500 kV

–
–15 V Figure 33-63

Figure 33-61
33.32 What is the maximum possible value of current
through the 2 k of Fig. 33-64?
33.27 In Fig. 33-61, vin  2 mV and vin(CM)  5 mV. What
is the ac output voltage?
33.28 A 741C is an op amp with Av  100,000 and a +10 V

minimum CMRRdB  70 dB. What is the common-

mode voltage gain? If a desired and common-mode 4N33
2 kV

signal each has a value of 5 V, what is the output

+
voltage? 10 V
–
SECTION 33.17 The Transistor Switch
33.29 In Fig. 33-62, use the circuit values shown unless
otherwise indicated. Determine whether the transis- +1000 V
tor is saturated for each of these changes: +VBB 2N3904
a. RB  51 k and hFE  100
b. VBB  10  and hFE  500
430 V
c. RC  10 k and hFE  100
d. VCC  10  and hFE  100
Figure 33-64
+5 V

470 V

+5 V

680 kV

Figure 33-62

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 Ch a pt er 34
Amplifier Fundamentals

Most amplifiers are defined by the range of frequen- Learning Outcomes

cies they cover. There are amplifiers that amplify signals
from dc to well into the gigahertz region. The typical After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
amplifier today is in integrated circuit form. All of them List five common amplifier types.
use similar ways to define gain and bandwidth. This Calculate decibel power gain and decibel voltage
chapter explains the gain versus the frequency re- gain and state the implications of the impedance-
sponse fundamentals. matched condition.
Explain how input and output impedances affect
overall gain.
Sketch Bode plots for both magnitude and phase.
Describe the rise time–bandwidth relationship.

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 34.1 Types of Amplifiers with a range of up to 50 MHz, from 30 to 300 MHz, and am-
plifiers that cover the lower-gigahertz range. The frequency
There are two basic ways to categorize amplifiers: by the
range is often deliberately limited by external tuned circuits
amplitudes of the signals they handle and by the frequen-
or filters.
cies they amplify. Signal levels are designated small sig-
There are also special RF amplifier categories. For ex-
nals and large signals. Small signals are generally less than
ample, the low-noise amplifier (LNA) is used at the front
1 or 2 V. These signals are more often in the millivolt and
end of most radio receivers to amplify the small wireless
microvolt range. Amplifiers for such signals are voltage
signals from an antenna. Intermediate-frequency (IF) ampli-
amplifiers.
fiers amplify signals at common receiver circuit frequencies
Large signals are those several volts and higher. These
like 455 kHz, 9 MHz, 45 MHz, and 140 MHz. Most of these
amplifiers usually provide power amplification to heavy
amplifiers are manufactured in IC form.
loads.
Frequency coverage defines a wide range of different am- Microwave Amplifiers
plifiers optimized for various frequency ranges. The most
Microwave amplifiers amplify signals at frequencies above
common frequency ranges are discussed below.
1 GHz. The upper range can extend to well over 100 GHz.
DC Amplifiers
Op Amps
DC amplifiers boost the signal levels of small dc voltages,
usually from sensors or transducers that convert physical Operational amplifiers (op amps) are a class of general-
characteristics like temperature or pressure into electrical purpose amplifiers that can be used to implement many
variables. Slowly varying signals are the norm, so dc ampli- specific types of amplifiers mentioned in this section. These
fiers have a restricted upper-frequency limit, typically less high-gain dc IC amplifiers can be customized to many dif-
than several kilohertz. ferent applications by using external resistors, capacitors,
diodes, and transistors. Two entire chapters are devoted to
Audio Amplifiers these popular amplifiers later in this book.
Audio amplifiers are optimized for audio signals like voice
34.2 Frequency Response of an
or music in the 20-Hz to 20-kHz range. Some amplifiers
restrict the upper range to 4 kHz, limiting the application Amplifier
to voice frequencies like phones. Others extend the upper- The frequency response of an amplifier is the graph of
frequency range beyond 20 kHz to 30 kHz to ensure passage its gain versus the frequency. In this section, we discuss
of music harmonics. Small-signal amplifiers, often called the frequency response of ac and dc amplifiers. Earlier, we
preamplifiers (preamps), are usually of the low-noise type. discussed a transistor amplifiers with coupling and bypass
Such amplifiers contribute very low noise, so they can am- capacitors. These are examples of ac amplifiers, ones de-
plify small signals from microphones, magnetic tape heads, signed to amplify ac signals. It is also possible to design a
CD optical pickups, MP3 players, and other audio devices. dc amplifier, one that can amplify dc signals as well as ac
Audio power amplifiers boost signal levels to drive speakers signals.
and headphones. Power levels range from several hundred
Response of an AC Amplifier
milliwatts to about 100 W. Both small-signal and power am-
plifiers are available in IC form. Figure 34-1a shows the frequency response of an ac ampli-
fier. In the middle range of frequencies, the voltage gain is
Video Amplifiers maximum. This middle range of frequencies is where the
Video amplifiers are small-signal amplifiers designed for amplifier is normally operated. At low frequencies, the volt-
amplifying video signals, including TV. Their range extends age gain decreases because the coupling and bypass capaci-
from dc up to about several hundred megahertz, and they are tors no longer act like short circuits. Instead, their capacitive
found in digital HDTV sets, LCD monitors, camcorders, and reactances are large enough to drop some of the ac signal
other video gear. They are available in IC form. voltage. The result is a loss of voltage gain as we approach
zero hertz.
RF Amplifiers At high frequencies, the voltage gain decreases for other
RF amplifiers are mostly small-signal amplifiers for radio reasons. To begin with, a transistor has internal capaci-
signals, but RF power amplifiers are also available. Fre- tances across its junctions, as shown in Fig. 34-1b. These
quency coverage is typically above 1 MHz up to well over capacitances provide bypass paths for the ac signal. As the
10 GHz. The IC RF amplifiers typically only cover a limited frequency increases, the capacitive reactances become low
range in a desired band. For example, there are amplifiers enough to prevent normal transistor action. The result is a

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 Av Av

A v(mid)
A v(mid)

0.707Av(mid) 0.707 Av(mid)

f
f f2
f1 10f1 0.1f2 f2
(a) Figure 33-2 Frequency response of dc amplifier.

Wire Midband
Cć We define the midband of an amplifier as the band of fre-
Stray-wiring quencies between 10f1 and 0.1f2. In the midband, the voltage
capacitance gain of the amplifier is approximately maximum, designated
Cé by Av(mid). Three important characteristics of any ac amplifier
are its Av(mid), f1, and f2. Given these values, we know how
Chassis ground
much voltage gain there is in the midband and where the
voltage gain is down to 0.707Av(mid).
(b) (c)

Figure 34-1 (a) Frequency response of ac amplifier.

Response of a DC Amplifier
(b) Internal capacitance of transistor. (c) Connecting wire It is possibles to use direct coupling between ampli-
forms capacitance with chassis. fier stages. This allows the circuit to amplify all the way
down to zero hertz. This type of amplifier is called a dc
loss of voltage gain. The upper frequency response is caused amplifier.
by low-pass filter effects. Figure 34-2 shows the frequency response of a dc am-
Stray-wiring capacitance is another reason for a loss plifier. Since there is no lower cutoff frequency, the two
of voltage gain at high frequencies. Figure 34-1c illustrates important characteristics of a dc amplifier are Av(mid) and
the idea. Any connecting wire in a transistor circuit acts f 2. Given these two values on a data sheet, we have the
like one plate of a capacitor, and the chassis ground acts voltage gain of the amplifier in the midband and its upper
like the other plate. The closely spaced copper patterns on cutoff frequency.
a printed circuit board (PCB) form distributed low-pass The dc amplifier is more widely used than the ac ampli-
filters. The stray-wiring capacitance that exists between fier because most amplifiers are now being designed with op
this wire and ground is unwanted. At higher frequencies, amps instead of with discrete transistors. An op amp is a dc
its low capacitive reactance prevents the ac current from amplifier that has high voltage gain, high input impedance,
reaching the load resistor. This is equivalent to saying that and low output impedance. A wide variety of op amps is
the voltage gain drops off. commercially available as integrated circuits (ICs). Most dc
amplifiers are designed with one dominant capacitance that
Cutoff Frequencies produces the cutoff frequency f2.
The frequencies at which the voltage gain equals 0.707 of
its maximum value are called the cutoff frequencies. In
Fig. 34-1a, f1 is the lower cutoff frequency and f2 is the upper EXAMPLE 34-1
cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequencies are also referred to Figure 34-3a shows an ac amplifier with a midband voltage gain
as the half-power frequencies because the load power is of 200. If the cutoff frequencies are f 1  20 Hz and f2  20 kHz,
half of its maximum value at these frequencies. what does the frequency response look like?
Why is the output power half of maximum at the cutoff Answer:
frequencies? When the voltage gain is 0.707 of the maxi- In the midband, the voltage gain is 200. At either cutoff frequency,
mum value, the output voltage is 0.707 of the maximum it equals
value. Recall that power equals the square of voltage di-
vided by resistance. When you square 0.707, you get 0.5. Av  0.707(200)  141
This is why the load power is half of its maximum value at Figure 34-3b shows the frequency response.
the cutoff frequencies.

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 Bandwidth
Another name for frequency response is bandwidth (BW).
vin AC amplifier vout
Av(mid) = 200
Bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over which a
circuit or component operates. It is calculated as the differ-
ence between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
(a)
BW  f2 2 f1 (34-1)
Av An amplifier with f2  2.7 GHz and f1 = 400 MHz has a
bandwidth of
BW  2700  400  2300 MHz
200 A dc amplifier with f2  3 MHz has a bandwidth of
141
BW  3  0  3 MHz
f
20 Hz 20 kHz
34.3 Decibel Power Gain
(b)
We are about to discuss decibels, a useful method for de-
Figure 34-3 AC amplifier and its frequency response. scribing frequency response. But before we do, we need to
review some ideas from basic mathematics.
Review of Logarithms
EXAMPLE 34-2 Suppose we are given this equation:
x  10y (34-2)
Figure 34-4a shows a 741C, an op amp with a midband voltage
gain of 100,000. If f2  10 Hz, what does the frequency response This equation can be solved for y in terms of x to get
look like?
y  log10 x
Answer:
At the cutoff frequency of 10 Hz, the voltage gain is 0.707 of its This says that y is the logarithm (or exponent) of 10 that gives
midband value: x. Usually, the 10 is omitted, and the equation is written as
Av  0.707(100,000)  70,700 y  log x (34-3)
Figure 34-4b shows the frequency response. Notice that the volt- With a calculator that has the common log function, you
age gain is 100,000 at a frequency of zero hertz. As the input can quickly fi nd the y value for any x value. For instance,
frequency approaches 10 Hz, the voltage gain decreases until it here is how to calculate the value of y for x  10, 100,
equals approximately 70% of maximum.
and 1000:
y  log 10  1
741C
y  log 100  2
vin
A v(mid) = 100,000
vout y  log 1000  3
As you can see, each time x increases by a factor of 10, y
increases by 1.
(a) You can also calculate y values, given decimal values of x.
For instance, here are the values of y for x  0.1, 0.01, and 0.001:
Av
y  log 0.1  1
100,000 y  log 0.01  2
70,700 y  log 0.001  3
Each time x decreases by a factor of 10, y decreases by 1.
f Definition of Ap(dB)
10 Hz
Power gain Ap is defined as the output power divided by the
(b)
input power:
Figure 34-4 The 741C and its frequency response. pout
Ap  _ pin

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 Decibel power gain is defined as
EX A M P L E 3 4 -3
Ap(dB)  10 log Ap (34-4)
Calculate the decibel power gain for the following values: A p 5 1,
Since Ap is the ratio of output power to input power, Ap has no 2, 4, and 8.
units or dimensions. When you take the logarithm of Ap, you Answer:
get a quantity that has no units or dimensions. But to make
With a calculator, we get the following answers:
sure that Ap(dB) is never confused with Ap, we attach the unit
decibel (abbreviated dB) to all answers for Ap(dB). Ap(dB) 5 10 log 1 5 0 dB
For instance, if an amplifier has a power gain of 100, it Ap(dB) 5 10 log 2 5 3 dB
has a decibel power gain of Ap(dB) 5 10 log 4 5 6 dB
Ap(dB)  10 log 100  20 dB Ap(dB) 5 10 log 8 5 9 dB
As another example, if Ap  100,000,000, then Each time A p increases by a factor of 2, the decibel power gain
increases by 3 dB. This property is always true. Whenever you
Ap(dB)  10 log 100,000,000  80 dB double the power gain, the decibel power gain increases by 3 dB.
In both these examples, the log equals the number of
zeros: 100 has two zeros, and 100,000,000 has eight zeros.
You can use the zero count to find the logarithm whenever
the number is a multiple of 10. Then, you can multiply by
EXAMPLE 34-4
10 to get the decibel answer. For instance, a power gain of
1000 has three zeros; multiply by 10 to get 30 dB. A power Calculate the decibel power gain for each of these values: A p 5 1,
gain of 100,000 has five zeros; multiply by 10 to get 50 dB. 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125.
This shortcut is useful for finding decibel equivalents and Answer:
checking answers.
Decibel power gain is often used on data sheets to spec- Ap(dB) 5 10 log 1 5 0 dB
ify the power gain of devices. One reason for using decibel Ap(dB) 5 10 log 0.5 5 3 dB
power gain is that logarithms compress numbers. For in-
Ap(dB) 5 10 log 0.25 5 26 dB
stance, if an amplifier has a power gain that varies from 100
to 100,000,000, the decibel power gain varies from 20 to Ap(dB) 5 10 log 0.125 5 29 dB
80 dB. As you can see, decibel power gain is a more compact Each time A p decreases by a factor of 2, the decibel power gain
notation than ordinary power gain. decreases by 3 dB.

Two Useful Properties

Decibel power gain has two useful properties:
When the output power is less than the input power, we no
1. Each time the ordinary power gain increases longer have gain. Instead we have attenuation or loss. This is
(decreases) by a factor of 2, the decibel power gain in- indicated by a negative logarithm and dB value. Many cir-
creases (decreases) by 3 dB. cuits have losses instead of gains. RC and LC filters are the
2. Each time the ordinary power gain increases best example. Voltage dividers offer attenuation. There are
(decreases) by a factor of 10, the decibel power gain also special attenuator circuits for adding a desired amount
increases (decreases) by 10 dB. loss to a circuit.
Table 34-1 shows these properties in compact form. The fol-
lowing examples will demonstrate these properties. 34.4 Decibel Voltage Gain
Voltage measurements are more common than power mea-
surements. For this reason, decibels are even more useful
Table 34-1 Properties of Power Gain
with voltage gain.
Factor Decibel, dB
32 13 Definition
30.5 23 As defined in earlier chapters, voltage gain is the output
310 110 voltage divided by the input voltage:
30.1 210 vout
Av 5 _ vin

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 Decibel voltage gain is defined as Table 34-2 Properties of Voltage Gain
Av(dB) 5 20 log Av (34-5) Factor Decibel, dB
The reason for using 20 instead of 10 in this definition is be- 2 6
cause power is proportional to the square of voltage. As will 0.5 6
be discussed in the next section, this definition produces an 10 20
important derivation for impedance-matched systems.
0.1 20
If an amplifier has a voltage gain of 100,000, it has a deci-
bel voltage gain of
Av(dB) 5 20 log 100,000 5 100 dB
We can use a shortcut whenever the number is a multiple of 10.
vin Av Av vout
Count the number of zeros and multiply by 20 to get the deci- 1 2

bel equivalent. In the foregoing calculation, count five zeros

and multiply by 20 to get the decibel voltage gain of 100 dB.
As another example, if an amplifier has a voltage gain that Figure 34-5 Two stages of voltage gain.
varies from 100 to 100,000,000, then its decibel voltage gain
varies from 40 to 160 dB.
For instance, if the first stage has a voltage gain of 100 and the
second stage has a voltage gain of 50, the total voltage gain is
Basic Rules for Voltage Gain
Here are the useful properties for decibel voltage gain: Av 5 (100)(50) 5 5000

1. Each time the voltage gain increases (decreases) Something unusual happens in Formula (34-6) when we
by a factor of 2, the decibel voltage gain increases use the decibel voltage gain instead of the ordinary voltage
(decreases) by 6 dB. gain:
2. Each time the voltage gain increases (decreases) Av(dB) 5 20 log Av 5 20 log (Av )(Av ) 1 2
by a factor of 10, the decibel voltage gain increases 5 20 log Av 1 20 log Av
1 2
(decreases) by 20 dB.
This can be written as
Table 34-2 summarizes these properties.
Av(dB) 5 Av (dB) 1 Av (dB)
1 2
(34-7)
Cascaded Stages This equation says that the total decibel voltage gain of
In Fig. 34-5, the total voltage gain of the two-stage amplifier two cascaded stages equals the sum of the individual deci-
is the product of the individual voltage gains: bel voltage gains. The same idea applies to any number of
stages. This additive property of decibel gain is one reason
Av 5 (Av )(Av )
1 2
(34-6) for its popularity.

EXAMPLE 34-5

What is the total voltage gain in Fig. 34-6a? Express this in deci- equivalent is 80 dB. Because of the factor of 2, the final answer is
bels. Next, calculate the decibel voltage gain of each stage and the 6 dB higher, or 86 dB.
total decibel voltage gain using Formula (34-7). Next, we can calculate the decibel voltage gain of each stage as
follows:
Answer:
With Formula. (34-6), the total voltage gain is Av1(dB) 5 20 log 100 5 40 dB
Av 5 (100)(200) 5 20,000 Av2(dB) 5 20 log 200 5 46 dB
In decibels, this is Figure 34-6b shows these decibel voltage gains. With Formula (34-7),
the total decibel voltage gain is
Av(dB) 5 20 log 20,000 5 86 dB
You can use a calculator to get 86 dB, or you can use the fol-
Av(dB) 5 40 dB 1 46 dB 5 86 dB
lowing shortcut: The number 20,000 is the same as 2 times 10,000. As you can see, adding the decibel voltage gain of each stage gives
The number 10,000 has four zeros, which means that the decibel us the same answer calculated earlier.

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 RG

Av = 100 Av = 200 RL
1 2

(a)

RG

Av = 40 dB Av = 46 dB RL
1(dB) 2(dB)

(b)

Figure 34-6 Voltage gains and decibel equivalents.

34.5 Impedance Matching Impedance matching is used in these systems because it

produces maximum power transfer.
Figure 34-7a shows an amplifier stage with a generator resis-
In an impedance-matched system, the power gain equals
tance of RG, an input resistance of Rin, an output resistance
the square of the voltage gain.
of Rout, and a load resistance of RL. Up to now, most of our
discussions have used different impedances. Ap 5 Av2 (34-8)
In many communication systems (microwave, television,
In terms of decibels,
and telephone), all impedances are matched; that is, RG 5
Rin 5 Rout 5 RL. Figure 34-7b illustrates the idea. As indi- Ap(dB) 5 10 log Ap 5 10 log Av2 5 20 log Av
cated, all impedances equal R. The impedance R is 50 V in
or
microwave systems, 75 V (coaxial cable) or 300 V (twin-
lead) in television systems, and 600 V in telephone systems. Ap(dB) 5 Av(dB) (34-9)

RG

Amplifier
VG Vin RL Vout
stage

Rin (a) Rout

Vin Amplifier R Vout

VG
stage

R (b) R

Figure 34-7 Impedance matching.

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 Vin

Zout
Cin Zin Vout

AVin

(a)

RG
Vin
1
AMP1 AMP2

Zout Vout Zout Vout

1 1 2 2
VG Zin
1

Zin
2
RL

AVin AVin
1 2

(b)

Figure 34-8 (a) Input and output impedances of an amplifier. (b) How one amplifier “loads” another.

This says that the decibel power gain equals the decibel volt- voltage amplification rather than maximum power transfer
age gain. Formula (34-9) is true for any impedance-matched to a load. The output impedance, Z out, of one amplifier drives
system. If a data sheet states that the gain of a system is 40 dB, the input impedance, Zin, of the next amplifier as shown in
then both decibel power gain and voltage gain equal 40 dB. Fig. 34-8. These two impedances, which are primarily resis-
In cascaded voltage amplifiers, there is no matching tive, form a voltage divider that offsets the voltage gain in
of input and output impedances as the goal is maximum the amplifiers.

EXAMPLE 34-6

The gain, A N, and impedance, Z, values for amplifiers AMP1 and The actual input voltage, v in , to AMP1 is 1

AMP2 in Fig. 34-8 are

VG 5 50 mV vin 5 VG __
1
Zin
Zin 1 RG ( 1
)
RG 5 600 Ω
Zin 5 1200 Ω
5 50 mV __ 1200
(
1200 1 600
5 33.33 mV )
Amplifier AMP1 amplifies this by 15 to produce a Vout of
1

A1 5 15 1

Vout 5 A1(vin ) 5 15(33.33 mV) 5 500 mV

Zout 5 4 kΩ
1
1 1

The input voltage to AMP2 is

Zin 5 20 kΩ
2

A2 5 4 Vin 5 Vout __
2
Zin
(
Zin 1 Z out
1
2
2

1
)
Zout 5 100 Ω
2

RL 5 200 Ω
5 500 mV ___ 20 kV
20 kV 1 4 kV (
5 416.7 mV )

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 Using AMP2 amplifies this to Note: Without the voltage divider effect, the total gain would be

Vout 5 A2(Vin )
2 2
AT 5 A1A2 5 15(4) = 60
5 4(416.7 mV) 5 1666.7 mV or 1.67 V With 50 mV in, the voltage on the load would be
The voltage across the load is
VRL 5 ATVG 5 60(50 mV) 5 3 V
VRL 5 Vout 2 ( __ RL
RL 1 Zout 2
) As you can see, this load effect of one amplifier by another has a
significant effect. That is why most voltage amplifiers are designed
with high input impedance and low output impedance to minimize
5 1.67 V __ 200
200 1 100 (
5 1.11 V ) this effect.

Converting Decibel to Ordinary Gain and

When a data sheet specifies the decibel power gain or volt- Av(dB)
Av 5 antilog _ (34-11)
age gain, you can convert the decibel gain to ordinary gain 20
with the following equations:
The antilog is the inverse logarithm. These conversions are
Ap(dB) easily done on a scientific calculator that has a log function
Ap 5 antilog _ (34-10)
10 and an inverse key.

E X A M P L E 3 4 -7

Figure 34-9 shows impedance-matched stages with R 5 50 V. With Formula (34-10), the total power gain is
What is the total decibel gain? What is the total power gain? The
total voltage gain? 90 dB 5 1,000,000,000
Ap 5 antilog __
Answer: 10
The total decibel voltage gain is and the total voltage gain is

Av(dB) 5 23 dB 1 36 dB 1 31 dB 5 90 dB
90 dB 5 31,623
Av 5 antilog __
The total decibel power gain also equals 90 dB because the stages 20
are impedance-matched.

50 Ω

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

VG 50 Ω
23 dB 36 dB 31 dB

50 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω

Figure 34-9 Impedance matching in a 50-V system.

EXAMPLE 34-8

In the preceding example, what is the ordinary voltage gain of each The second stage has a voltage gain of
stage?
36 dB 5 63.1
Av2 5 antilog __
Answer: 20
The first stage has a voltage gain of The third stage has a voltage gain of

23 dB 5 14.1
Av1 5 antilog __ 31 dB 5 35.5
Av3 5 antilog __
20 20

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 34.6 Decibels above a Reference Table 34-4 Voltage in dBV
In this section, we will discuss two more ways to use deci- Voltage VdBV
bels. Besides applying decibels to power and voltage gains,
we can use decibels above a reference. The reference levels 10 V 2100
100 V 280
used in this section are the milliwatt and the volt.
1 mV 260
10 mV 240
The Milliwatt Reference 100 mV 220
Decibels are sometimes used to indicate the power level 1V 0
above 1 mW. In this case, the label dBm is used instead of 10 V 120
dB. The m at the end of dBm reminds us of the milliwatt 100 V 140
reference. The dBm equation is

PdBm 5 10 log __P (34-12)

1 mW where V is dimensionless. For instance, if the voltage is
where PdBm is the power expressed in dBm. For instance, if 25 V, then
the power is 2 W, then VdBV 5 20 log 25 5 28 dBV
2W 5 10 log 2000 5 33 dBm
PdBm 5 10 log __ Using dBV is a way of comparing the voltage to 1 V. If
1 mW a data sheet says that the output of a voltage amplifier is
Using dBm is a way of comparing the power to 1 mW. If 28 dBV, it is saying that the output voltage is 25 V. If the
a data sheet says that the output of a power amplifier is output level or sensitivity of a microphone is specified as
33 dBm, it is saying that the output power is 2 W. Table 34-3 240 dBV, its output voltage is 10 mV. Table 34-4 shows
shows some dBm values. some dBV values.
You can convert any dBm value to its equivalent power by You can convert any dBV value to its equivalent voltage
using this equation: using this equation:
PdBm VdBV
P 5 antilog _ (34-13) V 5 antilog _ (34-15)
10 20
where P is the power in milliwatts. where V is the voltage in volts.

The Volt Reference

Decibels can also be used to indicate the voltage level EXAMPLE 34-9
above 1 V. In this case, the label dBV is used. The dBV
A data sheet says that the output of an amplifier is 24 dBm. What
equation is
is the output power?
VdBV 5 20 log _V
1V Answer:
With a calculator and Formula (34-13),
Since the denominator equals 1, we can simplify the
equation to 24 dBm 5 251 mW
P 5 antilog __
10
VdBV 5 20 log V (34-14)

Table 34-3 Power in dBm

EXAMPLE 34-10
Power PdBm
1 W 230 If a data sheet says that the output of an amplifier is 234 dBV,
10 W 220 what is the output voltage?
100 W 210
Answer:
1 mW 0
With Formula (34-14),
10 mW 10
100 mW 20 234 dBV 5 20 mV
V 5 antilog __
1W 30 20

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 34.7 Bode Plots Linear and Logarithmic Scales
Figure 34-10 shows the frequency response of an ac am- Ordinary graph paper has a linear scale on both axes. This
plifier. Although it contains some information such as the means that the spaces between the numbers are the same for
midband voltage gain and the cutoff frequencies, it is an in- all numbers, as shown in Fig. 34-11a. With a linear scale,
complete picture of the amplifier’s behavior. This is where you start at 0 and proceed in uniform steps toward higher
the Bode plot comes in. Because this type of graph uses numbers. All the graphs discussed up to now have used lin-
decibels, it can give us more information about the ampli- ear scales.
fier’s response outside the midband. Sometimes we may prefer to use a logarithmic scale
because it compresses very large values and allows us to
Octaves see over many decades. Figure 34-11b shows a logarithmic
The middle C on a piano has a frequency of 256 Hz. The scale. Notice that the numbering begins with 1. The space
next-higher C is an octave higher, and it has a frequency of between 1 and 2 is much larger than the space between 9 and
512 Hz. The next-higher C has a frequency of 1024 Hz, and 10. By compressing the scale logarithmically as shown here,
so on. In music, the word octave refers to a doubling of the we can take advantage of certain properties of logarithms
frequency. Every time you go up one octave, you have dou- and decibels.
bled the frequency. Both ordinary graph paper and semilogarithmic paper
In electronics, an octave has a similar meaning for ratios are available. Semilogarithmic graph paper has a linear
like f1yf and fyf2. For instance, if f1 5 100 Hz and f 5 50 Hz, scale on the vertical axis and a logarithmic scale on the
the f1yf ratio is horizontal axis. People use semilogarithmic paper when
f1 __ they want to graph a quantity like voltage gain over many
_ 5 100 Hz 5 2
f 50 Hz decades of frequency. The main advantage of using loga-
We can describe this by saying that f is one octave below rithmic spacing is that a larger range of values can be
f1. As another example, suppose f 5 400 kHz and f2 5 200 shown in one plot without losing resolution in the smaller
kHz. Then values.
f1 400
_ kHz 5 2
5 __
f2 200 kHz Graph of Decibel Voltage Gain
This means that f is one octave above f2. Figure 34-12a shows the frequency response of a typi-
cal ac amplifier. The graph is similar to Fig. 34-10, but
Decades this time we are looking at the decibel voltage gain versus
A decade has a similar meaning for ratios like f1yf and fyf2, frequency as it would appear on semilogarithmic paper.
except that a factor of 10 is used instead of a factor of 2. For A graph like this is called a Bode plot. The vertical axis
instance, if f1 5 500 Hz and f 5 50 Hz, the f1yf ratio is uses a linear scale, and the horizontal axis uses a loga-
f1 __ rithmic scale.
_ 5 500 Hz 5 10
f 50 Hz As shown, the decibel voltage gain is maximum in the
We can describe this by saying that f is one decade below f1. midband. At each cutoff frequency, the decibel voltage
As another example, suppose f 5 2 MHz and f2 5 200 kHz. gain is down slightly from the maximum value. Below
Then f 1, the decibel voltage gain decreases 20 dB per decade.
f Above f 2 , the decibel voltage gain decreases 20 dB per
_ 2 MHz 5 10
5 __
f2 200 kHz decade. Decreases of 20 dB per decade occur in an ampli-
fier where there is one dominant capacitor producing the
This means that f is one decade above f2.

Av

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a)
Av(mid)
0.707Av(mid)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
f
f1 f2 (b)

Figure 34-10 Frequency response of an ac amplifier. Figure 34-11 Linear and logarithmic scales.

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 A v(dB) gain gradually decreases until it is down 3 dB at the cutoff
frequency. Then, the voltage gain rolls off (decreases) at a
–20 dB per decade –20 dB per decade
A v(dB)mid
rate of 20 dB per decade.
Note: The 20 dB per decade rolloff rate is the same as the
6 dB per octave rate.
f
f1 f2
Ideal Bode Plot
(a)
Figure 34-12b shows the frequency response in ideal form.
A v(dB) Many people prefer using the ideal Bode plot because it is
easy to draw and gives approximately the same information.
Anyone looking at this ideal graph knows that the decibel
–20 dB per decade –20 dB per decade voltage gain is down 3 dB at the cutoff frequencies. The
ideal Bode plot contains all the original information when
A v(dB)mid
this correction of 3 dB is mentally included.
Ideal Bode plots are approximations that allow us to draw
f the frequency response of an amplifier quickly and easily.
f1 f2
They let us concentrate on the main issues rather than being
(b) caught in the details of exact calculations. For instance, an
Figure 34-12 (a) Bode plot. (b) Ideal Bode plot. ideal Bode plot like Fig. 34-13 gives us a quick visual sum-
mary of an amplifier’s frequency response. We can see the
midband voltage gain (40 dB), the cutoff frequencies (1 kHz
and 100 kHz), and rolloff rate (20 dB per decade). Also no-
lower cutoff frequency and one dominant bypass capaci- tice that the voltage gain equals 0 dB (unity or 1) at f 5 10
tor producing the upper cutoff frequency, as discussed in Hz and f 5 10 MHz. Ideal graphs like these are very popular
Sec. 34-2. in industry.
At the cutoff frequencies, f1 and f2, the voltage gain is Incidentally, many technicians and engineers use the
0.707 of the midband value. In terms of decibels, term corner frequency instead of cutoff frequency. This
is because the ideal Bode plot has a sharp corner at each
Av(dB) 5 20 log 0.707 5 23 dB
cutoff frequency. Another term often used is break fre-
We can describe the frequency response of Fig. 34-12a in quency. This is because the graph breaks at each cut-
this way: In the midband, the voltage gain is maximum. Be- off frequency and then decreases at a rate of 20 dB per
tween the midband and each cutoff frequency, the voltage decade.

50 dB

40 dB
Av(dB)

30 dB

20 dB

10 dB

0 dB
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz
f

Figure 34-13 Ideal Bode plot of an ac amplifier.

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 EXAMPLE 34-11

The data sheet for a 741C op amp gives a midband voltage gain of The ideal Bode plot has a midband voltage gain of 100 dB up to
100,000, a cutoff frequency of 10 Hz, and rolloff rate of 20 dB per 10 Hz. Then it decreases 20 dB per decade.
decade. Draw the ideal Bode plot. What is the ordinary voltage gain Figure 34-14 shows the ideal Bode plot. After breaking at
at 1 MHz? 10 Hz, the response rolls off 20 dB per decade until it equals 0
dB at 1 MHz. The ordinary voltage is unity (1) at this frequency.
Answer: Data sheets often list the unity-gain frequency (symbolized f unity)
As mentioned in Sec. 34-2, op amps are dc amplifiers, so they have because it immediately tells you the frequency limitation of the
only an upper cutoff frequency. For a 741C, f2  10 Hz. The midband op amp. The device can provide voltage gain up to unity-gain
voltage gain in decibels is frequency but not beyond it.
Av(dB) 5 20 log 100,000 5 100 dB

100 dB

80 dB
Av(dB)

60 dB

40 dB

20 dB

0 dB
1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
f

Figure 34-14 Ideal Bode plot of a dc amplifier.

34.8 More Bode Plots R

Ideal Bode plots are useful approximations for preliminary

analysis. But sometimes, we need more accurate answers. Vin C Vout
For instance, amplifiers also have a phase response that be-
comes a factor in their performance.

Lag Circuit Figure 34-15 An RC bypass circuit.

Most op amps include an RC lag circuit that rolls off the voltage
gain at a rate of 20 dB per decade. This prevents oscillations, the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases,
unwanted signals that can appear under certain conditions. which decreases the output voltage. Recall from basic courses
Later chapters will explain oscillations and how the internal in electricity that the output voltage for this circuit is
lag circuit of an op amp prevents these unwanted signals. XC
Vout  __ ________ Vin
Figure 34-15 shows a circuit with bypass capacitor.
Ï R  XC
2 2

The resistor, R, represents the Thevenized resistance facing the If we rearrange the foregoing equation, the voltage gain of
capacitor. This circuit is often called a lag circuit because the Fig. 34-15 is
output voltage lags the input voltage at higher frequencies.
XC
Stated another way: If the input voltage has a phase angle of Av  __ ________
2 2
(34-16)
0°, the output voltage has a phase angle between 0° and 90°. Ï R 1 XC
At low frequencies, the capacitive reactance approaches Because the circuit has only passive devices, the voltage gain
infinity, and the output voltage equals the input voltage. As is always less than or equal to 1.

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 A v(dB)
Table 34-5 Response of Lag Circuit
f2 10f2 100f2 1000f2
0 f f/f2 ␾
–20 dB per decade
–20 dB 0.1 25.71°
–40 dB 1 245°
10 284.3°
–60 dB
100 289.4°
1000 289.9°
Figure 34-16 Ideal Bode plot of a lag circuit.

The cutoff frequency of a lag circuit is where the voltage

gain is 0.707. The equation for cutoff frequency is With a calculator that has the tangent function and an inverse
1 key, we can easily calculate the phase angle for any value of
f2 5 __ (34-17) fyf2. Table 34-5 shows a few values for . For example, when
2RC
fyf2  0.1, 1, and 10, the phase angles are
At this frequency, XC  R and the voltage gain is 0.707.
Figure 34-16 shows the ideal Bode plot of a lag circuit. In   arctan 0.1  5.71°
the midband, the decibel voltage gain is 0 dB. The response   arctan 1  45°
breaks at f2 and then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB per decade.   arctan 10  84.3°
6 dB per Octave
Bode Plot of Phase Angle
Above the cutoff frequency, the decibel voltage gain of a
lag circuit decreases 20 dB per decade. This is equivalent to Figure 34-18 shows how the phase angle of a lag circuit var-
6 dB per octave. ies with the frequency. At very low frequencies, the phase
In other words, you can describe the frequency response angle is zero. When f  0.1f2, the phase angle is approxi-
of a lag circuit above the cutoff frequency in either of two mately 6°. When f  f2, the phase angle equals 45°. When
ways: You can say that the decibel voltage gain decreases at f  10f2, the phase angle is approximately 84°. Further in-
a rate of 20 dB per decade, or you can say that it decreases creases in frequency produce little change because the limit-
at a rate of 6 dB per octave. ing value is 90°. As you can see, the phase angle of a lag
circuit is between 0 and 90°.
Phase Angle A graph like Fig. 34-18a is a Bode plot of the phase angle.
The charging and discharging of a capacitor produce a lag Knowing that the phase angle is 6° at 0.1f2 and 84° at 10f2
in the output voltage of an RC bypass circuit. In other words, is of little value except to indicate how close the phase angle
the output voltage will lag the input voltage by a phase angle is to its limiting value. The ideal Bode plot of Fig. 34-18b
. Figure 34-17 shows how  varies with frequency. At zero
hertz, the phase angle is 0°. As the frequency increases, the
phase angle of the output voltage changes gradually from 0 ϕ
to 90°. At very high frequencies,   90°.
0.1f2 f2 10f2
When necessary, we can calculate the phase angle with f
–68
this equation from basic courses:
–458
R
  2arctan _ (34-18) –848
XC –908
By substituting XC  1y2fC into Formula (34-18) and rear- (a)
ranging, we can derive this equation:
f ϕ
  arctan _ (34-19)
f2 0.1f2 f2 10f2
08 f
Vin
ϕ –458
f Increases
–908

Vout (b)

Figure 34-17 Phasor diagram of lag circuit. Figure 34-18 Bode plots of phase angle.

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 is more useful for preliminary analysis. This is the one to Another way to summarize the Bode plot of the phase
remember because it emphasizes these ideas: angle is this: At the cutoff frequency, the phase angle equals
45°. A decade below the cutoff frequency, the phase angle
1. When f  0.1f2, the phase angle is approximately zero.
is approximately 0°. A decade above the cutoff frequency,
2. When f  f2, the phase angle is 45°. the phase angle is approximately 90°.
3. When f  10f2, the phase angle is approximately 90°.

EXAMPLE 34-12

Draw the ideal Bode plot for the lag circuit of Fig. 34-19a. Figure 34-19b shows the ideal Bode plot. The voltage gain is 0 dB
at low frequencies. The frequency response breaks at 318 kHz and
Answer: then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB/decade.
With Formula (34-17), we can calculate the cutoff frequency:

f2  ___ 1  318 kHz

2(5 k)(100 pF) A v(dB)
5 kΩ
318 kHz
0 dB f

Vin 100 pF Vout

20 dB
Decade

(a) (b)

Figure 34-19 A lag circuit and its Bode plot.

EXAMPLE 34-13

In Fig. 34-20a, the dc amplifier stage has a midband voltage gain The amplifier has a midband voltage gain of 100, which is equivalent
of 100. If the Thevenin resistance facing the bypass capacitor is to 40 dB.
2 k, what is the ideal Bode plot? Ignore all capacitances inside Figure 34-20b shows the ideal Bode plot. The decibel voltage
the amplifier stage. gain is 40 dB from zero to the cutoff frequency of 159 kHz. The
response then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB per decade until it reaches
Answer: an f unity of 15.9 MHz.
The Thevenin resistance and the bypass capacitor are a lag circuit
with a cutoff frequency of

f2  ___ 1  159 kHz

2(2 k)(500 pF)
A v(dB)

40 dB 20 dB
Decade

DC amplifier
20 dB
vin stage 500 pF vout
Av(mid) = 100

0 dB f
RTH = 2 kΩ 159 kHz 1.59 MHz 15.9 MHz
(a) (b)

Figure 34-20 (a) DC amplifier and bypass capacitor. (b) Ideal Bode plot.

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 34.9 Rise Time–Bandwidth Figure 34-21c shows how several cycles will look. Al-
Relationship though the input voltage changes almost instantly from one
voltage level to another, the output voltage takes much longer
Sine-wave testing of an amplifier means that we use a sinu- to make its transitions because of the bypass capacitor. The
soidal input voltage and measure the sinusoidal output volt- output voltage cannot suddenly step, because the capacitor
age. To find the upper cutoff frequency, we have to vary the has to charge and discharge through the resistance.
input frequency until the voltage gain drops 3 dB from the
midband value. Sine-wave testing is one approach. But there Relationship between TR and RC
is a faster and simpler way to test an amplifier by using a By analyzing the exponential charge of a capacitor, it is pos-
square wave instead of a sine wave. sible to derive this equation for the rise time:
Rise Time TR  2.2RC (34-20)
The capacitor is initially uncharged in Fig. 34-21a. If we This says that the rise time is slightly more than two RC
close the switch, the capacitor voltage will rise exponentially time constants. For instance, if R equals 10 k and C is
toward the supply voltage, V. The rise time TR is the time it 50 pF, then
takes the capacitor voltage to go from 0.1V (called the 10% RC  (10 k)(50 pF)  0.5 s
point) to 0.9V (called the 90% point). If it takes 10 s for the
exponential waveform to go from the 10% point to the 90% The rise time of the output waveform equals
point, the waveform has a rise time of TR  2.2RC  2.2(0.5 s)  1.1 s
TR  10 s Data sheets often specify the rise time because it is useful to
Instead of using a switch to apply the sudden step in know the response to a voltage step when analyzing switch-
voltage, we can use a square-wave generator. For instance, ing circuits.
Fig. 34-21b shows the leading edge of a square wave driv- An Important Relationship
ing the same RC circuit as before. The rise time is still the As mentioned earlier, a dc amplifier typically has one domi-
time it takes for the voltage to go from the 10% point to the nant lag circuit that rolls off the voltage gain at a rate of
90% point. 20 dB per decade until funity is reached. The cutoff frequency
of this lag circuit is given by
R
f2  __1
+V 2RC
+ 0.9V
C 0.1V which can be solved for RC to get
V
– 0
TR RC  _1
2f2
(a)
When we substitute this into Formula (34-20) and simplify,
we get this widely used equation:
R
+V 0.35
+V 90% f2  _ (34-21)
TR
C 10%
0 0 This is an important result because it converts rise time to
TR
cutoff frequency. It means that we can test an amplifier with
(b) a square wave to find the cutoff frequency. Since square-
wave testing is much faster than sine-wave testing, many
R
engineers and technicians use Formula (34-21) to find the
upper cutoff frequency of an amplifier.
+V +V Formula (34-21) is called the rise time–bandwidth
C relationship. In a dc amplifier, the word bandwidth re-
0 0 fers to all the frequencies from zero up to the cutoff fre-
quency. Often, bandwidth is used as a synonym for cutoff
(c)
frequency. If the data sheet for a dc amplifier gives a
Figure 34-21 (a) Risetime. (b) Voltage step produces bandwidth of 100 kHz, it means that the upper cutoff fre-
output exponential. (c) Square-wave testing. quency equals 100 kHz.

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 EXAMPLE 34-14

What is the upper cutoff frequency for the circuit shown in Figure 34-22b illustrates the meaning of sine-wave testing.
Fig. 34-22a? If  we change the input voltage from a square wave to a sine
wave, we will get a sine-wave output. By increasing the input
Answer: frequency, we can eventually find the cutoff frequency of 350 kHz.
In Fig. 34-22a, the rise time is 1 s. With Formula (34-21), In other words, we would get the same result with sine-wave
testing, except that it is slower than square-wave testing.
0.35  350 kHz
f2  _
1 s
Therefore, the circuit of Fig. 34-22a has an upper cutoff frequency
of 350 kHz. An equivalent statement is that the circuit has a band-
width of 350 kHz.
+V
+V 0.9 V
DC
vin RL 0.1 V
amplifier
0
1␮s

(a)

Down 3 dB
DC at 350 kHz
vin RL
amplifier

(b)

Figure 34-22 Risetime and cutoff frequency are related.

34.10 Frequency Effects of 2. The printed circuit layout, including the orientation of
Surface-Mount Circuits the devices and the conductive tracks.
3. The external leads on the device.
Stray capacitance and inductance become serious consider-
ations for discrete and IC devices that are operating above Using SM components virtually eliminates item 3 from the
100 kHz. With conventional feed-through components, there list, thus increasing the amount of control design engineers
are three sources of stray effects: have over stray effects among components on a circuit board.
The result is that surface-mount devices typically have much
1. The geometry and internal structure of the device. higher frequency cutoffs.

CHAPTER 34 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Frequency response is a graph of voltage gain versus 3. The stray-wiring capacitance has an effect on the
a. frequency. a. lower cutoff frequency.
b. power gain. b. midband voltage gain.
c. input voltage. c. upper cutoff frequency.
d. output voltage. d. input resistance.
2. At low frequencies, the coupling capacitors produce 4. At the lower or upper cutoff frequency, the voltage
a decrease in gain is
a. input resistance. a. 0.35Av(mid).
b. voltage gain. b. 0.5Av(mid).
c. generator resistance. c. 0.707Av(mid).
d. generator voltage. d. 0.995Av(mid).

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 5. If the power gain doubles, the decibel power gain 13. If f  1 MHz, and f2  10 Hz, the ratio fyf2 represents
increases by how many decades?
a. a factor of 2. a. 2.
b. 3 dB. b. 3.
c. 6 dB. c. 4.
d. 10 dB. d. 5.
6. If the voltage gain doubles, the decibel voltage 14. Semilogarithmic paper means that
gain increases by a. one axis is linear, and the other is logarithmic.
a. a factor of 2. b. one axis is linear, and the other is
b. 3 dB. semilogarithmic.
c. 6 dB. c. both axes are semilogarithmic.
d. 10 dB. d. neither axis is linear.
7. If the voltage gain is 10, the decibel voltage 15. If you want to improve the high-frequency response
gain is of an amplifier, which of these approaches would
a. 6 dB. you try?
b. 20 dB. a. Decrease the coupling capacitances.
c. 40 dB. b. Increase the emitter bypass capacitance.
d. 60 dB. c. Shorten leads as much as possible.
d. Increase the generator resistance.
8. If the voltage gain is 100, the decibel voltage
gain is 16. The rollout rate for a single RC section or op
a. 6 dB. amp is
b. 20 dB. a. 6 dB per octave.
c. 40 dB. b. 6 dB per decade.
d. 60 dB. c. 20 dB per octave.
d. 20 dB per decade.
9. If the voltage gain is 2000, the decibel voltage
e. a and c.
gain is
f. b and d.
a. 40 dB.
b. 46 dB. 17. An amplifier with an upper cutoff frequency of
c. 66 dB. 20 kHz is typically what kind of amplifier?
d. 86 dB. a. DC.
b. Audio.
10. Two stages have decibel voltage gains of 20 and
c. Video.
40 dB. The total ordinary voltage gain is
d. RF.
a. 1.
b. 10. 18. A negative dB value indicates a(n)
c. 100. a. gain of 0.
d. 1000. b. gain of 1.
c. infinite gain.
11. Two stages have voltage gains of 100 and 200. The d. attenuation.
total decibel voltage gain is
19. Stray-wiring capacitance produces effects similar
a. 46 dB.
to a
b. 66 dB.
a. low-pass filter.
c. 86 dB.
b. high-pass filter.
d. 106 dB.
c. bandpass filter.
12. One frequency is 8 times another frequency. How d. leading phase shifter.
many octaves apart are the two frequencies?
20. A circuit with a loss has a gain of
a. 1.
a. 0.
b. 2. b. 1.
c. 3. c. <1.
d. 4. d. infinity.

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 CHAPTER 34 PROBLEMS

SECTION 34.2 Frequency Response of an 34.9 Convert each stage gain in Fig. 34-23a to decibels.
Amplifier 34.10 What is the total decibel voltage gain in Fig. 34-23b?
34.1 An amplifier has a midband voltage gain of 1000. Convert this to ordinary voltage gain.
If cutoff frequencies are f1  100 Hz and f2  100 34.11 What is the ordinary voltage gain of each stage in
kHz, what does the frequency response look like? Fig. 34-24b?
34.2 Suppose an op amp has a midband voltage gain 34.12 What is the decibel voltage gain of an amplifier if it
of 500,000. If the upper cutoff frequency is 15 Hz, has an ordinary voltage gain of 100,000?
what does the frequency response look like? 34.13 The data sheet of an LM380, an audio power ampli-
34.3 A dc amplifier has a midband voltage gain of 300. fier, gives a decibel voltage gain of 34 dB. Convert
If the upper cutoff frequency is 10 kHz, what is the this to ordinary voltage gain.
voltage gain at the cutoff frequency? 34.14 A two-stage amplifier has these stage gains: Av1 
SECTION 34.3 Decibel Power Gain 25.8 and Av2  117. What is the decibel voltage
gain of each stage? The total decibel voltage gain?
34.4 Calculate the decibel power gain for Ap  5, 10, 20,
and 40.
SECTION 34.5 Impedance Matching
34.5 Calculate the decibel power gain for Ap  0.4, 0.2,
34.15 If Fig. 34-24 is an impedance-matched system, what
0.1, and 0.05.
is the total decibel voltage gain? The decibel volt-
34.6 Calculate the decibel power gain for Ap  2, 20, age gain of each stage?
200, and 2000.
34.16 If the stages of Fig. 34-24 are impedance-matched,
34.7 Calculate the decibel power gain for Ap  0.4, 0.04, what is the load voltage? The load power?
and 0.004.
34.17 A generator with an output voltage of 2 mV has
SECTION 34.4 Decibel Voltage Gain a generator output resistance of 75 Ω. It drives an
34.8 What is the total voltage gain in Fig. 34-23a? amplifier with an input impedance of 200 Ω. The
Convert the answer to decibels. amplifier gain is 30, the output impedance is 300 Ω,
and the amplifier load is 600 Ω. What is the output
voltage?

vin Av1= 200 Av2= 100 vout SECTION 34.6 Decibels above a Reference
34.18 If the output power of a preamplifier is 20 dBm, how
much power is this in milliwatts?
(a)
34.19 How much output voltage does a microphone have
when its output is 245 dBV?
34.20 Convert the following powers to dBm: 25 mW,
vin Av = 30 dB Av2(dB) = 52 dB vout 93.5 mW, and 4.87 W.
1(dB)
34.21 Convert the following voltages to dBV: 1 V,
34.8 mV, 12.9 V, and 345 V.
(b)

Figure 34-23
300 Ω

10 V 23 dB 18 dB 300 Ω

Figure 34-24

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 SECTION 34.7 Bode Plots SECTION 34.9 Rise Time–Bandwidth
34.22 The LF351 is an op amp with a voltage gain of Relationship
316,000, a cutoff frequency of 40 Hz, and a roll-off 34.26 An amplifier has the step response shown in
rate of 20 dB per decade. Draw the ideal Bode plot. Fig. 34-27a. What is its upper cutoff frequency?
34.27 What is the bandwidth of an amplifier if the rise
SECTION 34.8 More Bode Plots time is 0.25 s?
34.23 Draw the ideal Bode plot for the lag circuit of
Fig. 34-25a.
Av(mid)vin
34.24 Draw the ideal Bode plot for the lag circuit of 90%
Fig. 34-25b. vin Amplifier
with one lag
10%
10 kΩ 0 network
10 s

Figure 34-27
1000 pF

34.28 The upper cutoff frequency of an amplifier is 100

(a) kHz. If it is square-wave-tested, what would the rise
time of the amplifier output be?
1 kΩ
34.29 In Fig. 34-28, what is the decibel voltage gain when
f  100 kHz?

50 pF
Av(dB)
–20 dB
80 dB Decade
(b)

Figure 34-25
0 dB f
100 Hz 1 MHz

34.25 What is the ideal Bode plot for the stage of Figure 34-28
Fig. 34-26?

34.30 The amplifier of Fig. 34-27 has a midband voltage

gain of 100. If the input voltage is a step of 20 mV,
DC amplifier what is the output voltage at the 10% point? The
vin 100 pF vout
Av (mid) = 400
90% point?
34.31 You have two data sheets for amplifiers. The first
RTH = 15 kΩ shows a cutoff frequency of 1 MHz. The second
gives a rise time of 1 s. Which amplifier has the
Figure 34-26 greater bandwidth?

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 Ch a pt er 35
Operational Amplifiers

Op amps are the most widely used linear IC. Their ver- Learning Outcomes
satility makes them usable in a wide range of applica-
tions. Some op amps are optimized for their bandwidth, After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
others for low input offsets, others for low noise, and so List the characteristics of ideal op amps and 741 op
on. This is why the variety of commercially available op amps.
amps is so large. You can find an op amp for almost Define slew rate and use it to find the power
any analog application. bandwidth of an op amp.
Op amps are some of the most basic active com- Analyze an op-amp inverting amplifier.
ponents in analog systems. For instance, by connecting Analyze an op-amp noninverting amplifier.
two external resistors, we can adjust the voltage gain Explain how summing amplifiers and voltage
and bandwidth of an op amp to our exact require- followers work.
ments. Furthermore, with other external components, Explain the operation and characteristics of
we can build waveform converters, oscillators, active differential amplifiers and instrumentation
filters, and other interesting circuits. amplifiers.
Explain circuit showing how an op amp can be
operated from a single power supply.

638

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 +VCC
35.1 Introduction to Op Amps
Figure 35-1 shows a block diagram of an op amp. The Noninverting
+
input stage is a diff amp, followed by more stages of gain, input
and a class B push-pull emitter follower. Because a diff Output
amp is the fi rst stage, it determines the input characteris-
Inverting
tics of the op amp. In most op amps the output is single- –
input
ended, as shown. With positive and negative supplies, the
single-ended output is designed to have a quiescent value –VEE
of zero. This way, zero input voltage ideally results in zero (a)
output voltage.
Not all op amps are designed like Fig. 35-1. For in-
stance, some do not use a class B push-pull output, and Rout
vout
others may have a double-ended output. Also, op amps are v1
not as simple as Fig. 35-1 suggests. The internal design of
a monolithic op amp is very complicated, using dozens of Rin AVOL(v1 – v2)

transistors as current mirrors, active loads, and other in-

v2
novations that are not possible in discrete designs. For our
needs, Fig. 35-1 captures two important features that apply
to typical op amps: the differential input and the single- (b)
ended output.
Figure 35-2 (a) Schematic symbol for op amp.
Figure 35-2a is the schematic symbol of an op amp. It has (b) Equivalent circuit of op amp.
noninverting and inverting inputs and a single-ended out-
put. Ideally, this symbol means that the amplifier has infinite
voltage gain, infinite input impedance, and zero output im- Table 35-1 summarizes the characteristics of an ideal op
pedance. The ideal op amp represents a perfect voltage am- amp. The ideal op amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite
plifier that we can visualize, as shown in Fig. 35-2b, where unity-gain frequency, infinite input impedance, and infinite
Rin is infinite and Rout is zero. common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It also has zero out-
put resistance, zero bias current, and zero offsets. This is
Op Amp
what manufacturers would build if they could. What they
actually can build approaches these ideal values.
For instance, the LM741C of Table 35-1 is a standard op
More Class B
Diff stages push-pull amp, a classic that has been available since the 1960s. Its
vin amp of vout
emitter characteristics are the minimum of what to expect from a
gain follower
monolithic op amp. The LM741C has a voltage gain of
100,000, a unity-gain frequency of 1 MHz, an input imped-
ance of 2 M, and so on. Because the voltage gain is so
Figure 35-1 Block diagram of an op amp. high, the input offsets can easily saturate the op amp. This

Table 35-1 Typical Op-Amp Characteristics

Quantity Symbol Ideal LM741C TL081A

Open-loop voltage gain A VOL Infinite 100,000 200,000
Unity-gain frequency funity Infinite 1 MHz 3 MHz
Input resistance Rin Infinite 2 M 1012 
Output resistance Rout Zero 75  100 
Input bias current Iin(bias) Zero 80 nA 30 pA
Input offset current Iin(off) Zero 20 nA 5 pA
Input offset voltage Vin(off) Zero 2 mV 3 mV
Common-mode rejection ratio CMRR Infinite 90 dB 86 dB

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 is why practical circuits need external components between led to an improved op amp known as the ␮A741. Because it
the input and output of an op amp to stabilize the voltage is inexpensive and easy to use, the ␮A741 has been an enor-
gain. For instance, in many applications negative feedback is mous success. Other 741 designs have appeared from various
used to adjust the overall voltage gain to a much lower value manufacturers. All these monolithic op amps are equivalent
in exchange for stable linear operation. to the ␮A741 because they have the same specifications on
When no feedback path (or loop) is used, the voltage their data sheets. For convenience, most people drop the pre-
gain is maximum and is called the open-loop voltage gain, fixes and refer to this widely used op amp simply as the 741.
designated AVOL. In Table 35-1, notice that the AVOL of the
LM741C is 100,000. Although not infinite, this open-loop An Industry Standard
voltage gain is very high. For instance, an input as small The 741 has become an industry standard. Despite its age, it
as 10 ␮V produces an output of 1 V. Because the open-loop is an inexpensive op amp for learning and is used here as an
voltage gain is very high, we can use heavy negative feed- example. Once you understand the 741, you can branch out
back to improve the overall performance of a circuit. to other op amps.
The 741C has a unity-gain frequency of 1 MHz. This Incidentally, the 741 has different versions with two and
means that we can get usable voltage gain almost as high as four similar op amps in one IC. All have an open-loop volt-
1 MHz. The 741C has an input resistance of 2 M, an output age gain of 100,000, an input impedance of 2 M, and an
resistance of 75 , an input bias current of 80 nA, an input output impedance of  75 . Figure 35-3a shows the most
offset current of 20 nA, an input offset voltage of 2 mV, and popular, dual in-line package (DIP) and its pin-outs. The
a CMRR of 90 dB. schematic symbol is shown in Fig. 35-3b.
When higher input resistance is needed, a BIFET op amp
Power Connections
can be used. This type of op amp incorporates JFETs and
bipolar transistors on the same chip. The JFETs are used in Most op amps are designed to be operated with two power
the input stage to get smaller input bias and offset currents; supplies, one positive (VCC) and the other negative (VEE),
the bipolar transistors are used in the later stages to get more with respect to ground. These supplies connect to pins 7
voltage gain. and 4, respectively, as shown in Fig. 35-4. The dual supplies
The TL081A is an example of a BIFET op amp. As shown allow the output to swing both positive and negative above
in Table 35-1, the input bias current is only 30 pA, and the and below ground. Note that there is no ground pin on the
input resistance if 1012 . The TL081A has a voltage gain IC. The ground is formed at the junction of the two power
of 200,000 and a unity-gain frequency of 3 MHz. With this
device, we can get voltage gain up to 13 MHz. Dual in-line or SM package
While bipolar op amps are still used, they have been Offset null 1 8 NC
mostly replaced by the newer BIFET bipolar and CMOS op
amps. Both offer the super high input impedances of FETs Inverting input 2 7 V+
that are ideal for op amps. The newer FET op amps also tend Noninverting
3 6 Output
to have lower bias currents and offset voltages and currents input
leading to fewer errors and simpler circuits. Over the years, V– 4 5 Offset null
transistor sizes have decreased, providing higher operating
frequencies and wider gain bandwidth (GBW). Op amps (a)

with unity GBW of hundreds of MHz are readily available.

Furthermore, CMOS op amps consume far less power. V+
There are literally tens of thousands of different types of
IC op amps available for just about any application. New op 7
2
amps are categorized and optimized for one or two major –

features, such as precision, wide bandwidth, low power, 6

low noise, minimum error sources, slew rate, output voltage

3 5
levels, or power output. Otherwise, all op amps operate the + 1
4
same, so knowing one lets you understand all of them.

35.2 The 741 Op Amp V–

(b)
In 1965 Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the ␮A709, the
first widely used monolithic op amp. Although successful, Figure 35-3 The 741 (a) dual in-line package and
this first-generation op amp had many disadvantages. These (b) schematic symbol.

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 +VCC
+VCC

7 RB
2 7
Inverting 2
– –
input
Output v2 6
741C vout
5
Noninverting 3 5 3
+ 1 + 1
input 4 RL
4

RB
–VEE
10 kΩ

Figure 35-4 Power supply connections.

–VEE

supplies. All inputs and the output are referenced to this

ground. Note the load RL connected to the output. You will
Figure 35-5 Compensation and nulling used with 741C.
learn later in the chapter how to connect the inputs and the
offset null connections on pins 1 and 5. input has a Thevenin resistance of RB. To neutralize the ef-
What follows next is a brief discussion of some of the key fect of input bias current (80 nA) flowing through this source
specifications of the 741 op amp. resistance, a discrete resistor of equal value is added to the
Bias and Offsets noninverting input, as shown.
To eliminate the effect of an input offset current of 20 nA
The differential input amplifier of an op amp is not perfect.
and an input offset voltage of 2 mV, the data sheet of a 741C
This means that the transistors and related circuitry are not
recommends using a 10-k potentiometer between pins 1
ideally balanced, matched, and equal. As a result, there are
and 5. By adjusting this potentiometer with no input signal,
bias currents and voltages that are slightly different. These
we can null or zero the output voltage.
bias and offset currents and voltages represent errors that
Bias and offset errors are less of a problem in the newer
will produce an output from the op amp even with both in-
op amps. Most newer op amps feature JFET or MOSFET
puts at zero. The very high gain of the amplifier multiplies
differential input amplifiers that are less susceptible to
these small errors into outputs that add to or subtract from
these errors. In many applications, the errors are small
the actual desired output, making the output incorrect for
enough to ignore. In those cases where they do matter, just
the given input.
remember there are ways to correct the problem with ex-
Such errors arise mainly from transistor differences.
ternal resistances and/or voltages. Always use the recom-
Slightly different gains, bias currents, and emitter-base volt-
mended error-correcting procedures suggested by the IC
age drop differences are the most troublesome.
manufacturer.
As discussed in Chap. 34, a diff amp has input bias and
offsets that produce an output error when there is no input
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
signal. In many applications, the output error is small enough
to ignore. But when the output error cannot be ignored, a For a 741C, CMRR is 90 dB at low frequencies. Given equal
designer can reduce it by using equal base resistors. This signals, one a desired signal and the other a common-mode
eliminates the problem of bias current, but not the offset cur- signal, the desired signal will be 90 dB larger at the output
rent or offset voltage. than the common-mode signal. In ordinary numbers, this
This is why it is best to eliminate output error by using the means that the desired signal will be approximately 30,000
nulling circuit given on the data sheet. This recommended times larger than the common-mode signal. At higher fre-
nulling circuit works with the internal circuitry to eliminate quencies, reactive effects degrade CMRR, as shown in
the output error and also to minimize thermal drift, a slow Fig. 35-6a. Notice that CMRR is approximately 75 dB at
change in output voltage caused by the effect of changing 1 kHz, 56 dB at 10 kHz, and so on.
temperature on op-amp parameters. Sometimes, the data
sheet of an op amp does not include a nulling circuit. In this Maximum Peak-to-Peak Output
case, we have to apply a small input voltage to null the out- The MPP value of an amplifier is the maximum peak-to-
put. We will discuss this method later. peak output that the amplifier can produce. Since the quies-
Figure 35-5 shows the nulling method suggested on the cent output of an op amp is ideally zero, the ac output voltage
data sheet of a 741C. The ac source driving the inverting can swing positively or negatively. For load resistances that

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 100 With a nonideal op amp, the output cannot swing all
90 the way to the value of the supply voltages because there
80 are small voltage drops in the final stage of the op amp.
70 Furthermore, when the load resistance is not large com-
60 pared to Rout, some of the amplified voltage is dropped
CMRR, dB

50 across Rout, which means that the final output voltage is

40 smaller.
30 Figure 36-6b shows MPP versus load resistance for
20 a 741C with supply voltages of 15 V and 15 V. Notice
10 that MPP is approximately 27 V for an R L of 10 k. This
0 means that the output saturates positively at 13.5 V and
1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10 100
negatively at 13.5 V. When the load resistance decreases,
Hz kHz MHz MPP decreases as shown. For instance, if the load resis-
Frequency tance is only 275 , MPP decreases to 16 V, which means
(a) that the output saturates positively at 8 V and negatively
at 8 V.
30
28
Short-Circuit Current
26
24 In some applications, an op amp may drive a load resis-
22 tance of approximately zero. In this case, you need to
20 know the value of the short-circuit output current. The
MPP, V

18
data sheet of a 741C lists a short-circuit output current of
16
14
25 mA. This is the maximum output current the op amp
12 can produce. If you are using small load resistors (less
10 than 75 ), don’t expect to get a large output voltage be-
8 cause the voltage cannot be greater than the 25 mA times
6 the load resistance.
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10
Load resistance, kΩ
Frequency Response
(b)
Figure 35-6c shows the small-signal frequency response of a
741C. In the midband, the voltage gain is 100,000. The 741C
fc has a cutoff frequency fc of 10 Hz. As indicated, the volt-
100,000 100 dB
70,700 age gain is 70,700 (down 3 dB) at 10 Hz. Above the cutoff
10,000
frequency, the voltage gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB per
Voltage gain

decade (first-order response).

1000 The unity-gain frequency is the frequency at which the
voltage gain equals 1. In Fig. 35-6c, funity is 1 MHz. Data
100 sheets usually specify the value of funity because it represents
the upper limit on the useful gain of an op amp. For in-
10
funity stance, the data sheet of a 741C lists an funity of 1 MHz. This
1 0 dB means that the 741C can amplify signals up to 1 MHz. Be-
1 10 100 1 10 100 1 yond 1 MHz, the voltage gain is less than 1 and the 741C is
Hz kHz MHz useless. If a designer needs a higher funity, better op amps are
Frequency available. For instance, the LM318 has an funity of 15 MHz,
(c) which means that it can produce usable voltage gain all the
way to 15 MHz.
Figure 35-6 Typical 741C graphs for CMRR, MPP, and AVOL.
Slew Rate
are much larger than Rout, the output voltage can swing al- The compensating capacitor inside a 741C performs a very
most to the supply voltages. For instance, if VCC  15 V important function: It prevents oscillations that would inter-
and VEE  15 V, the MPP value with a load resistance of fere with the desired signal. But there is a disadvantage. The
10 k is ideally 30 V. compensating capacitor needs to be charged and discharged.

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 Ideal response Slope +7.5 V
SR

Slew rate 0

(a)

–7.5 V

(a)

Slope +7.5 V
>SR
0.5 V Δvout

1 ␮s Δt
–7.5 V
(c) (b)
(b)
Figure 35-7 (a) Ideal and actual responses to an input
step voltage. (b) Illustrating definition of slew rate. (c) Slew Figure 35-8 (a) Initial slope of a sine wave. (b) Distortion
rate equals 0.5 V/␮s. occurs if initial slope exceeds slew rate.

faster than 0.5 V in a microsecond. In other words, if a 741C

This creates a speed limit on how fast the output of the op
is driven by a large step in input voltage, we do not get a
amp can change.
sudden step in output voltage. Instead, we get an exponential
Here is the basic idea: Suppose the input voltage to an op
output wave. The initial part of this output waveform will
amp is a positive voltage step, a sudden transition in voltage
look like Fig. 35-7c.
from one dc level to a higher dc level. If the op amp were
We can also get slew-rate limiting with a sinusoidal sig-
perfect, we would get the ideal response shown in Fig. 35-7a.
nal. Here is how it occurs: In Fig. 35-8a, the op amp can
Instead, the output is the positive exponential waveform
produce the output sine wave shown only if the initial slope
shown. This occurs because the compensating capacitor
of the sine wave is less than the slew rate. For instance, if
must be charged before the output voltage can change to the
the output sine wave has an initial slope of 0.1 Vy␮s, a 741C
higher level.
can produce this sine wave with no trouble at all because
In Fig. 35-7a, the initial slope of the exponential wave-
its slew rate is 0.5 V/␮s. On the other hand, if the sine wave
form is called the slew rate, symbolized SR. The definition
has an initial slope of 1 Vy␮s, the output is smaller than it
of slew rate is
should be and it looks triangular instead of sinusoidal, as
vout shown in Fig. 35-8b.
SR  _ (35-1)
t The data sheet of an op amp always specifies the slew
rate because this quantity limits the large-signal response
where the Greek letter  (delta) stands for “the change in.”
of an op amp. If the output sine wave is very small or the
In words, the equation says that slew rate equals the change
frequency is very low, slew rate is no problem. But when
in output voltage divided by the change in time.
the signal is large and the frequency is high, slew rate will
Figure 35-7b illustrates the meaning of slew rate. The
distort the output signal.
initial slope equals the vertical change divided by the hori-
With calculus, it is possible to derive this equation:
zontal change between two points on the early part of the
exponential wave. For instance, if the exponential wave SS  2␲fVp
increases 0.5 V during the first microsecond, as shown in
Fig. 35-7c, the slew rate is where SS is the initial slope of the sine wave, f is its fre-
quency, and Vp is its peak value. To avoid slew-rate distortion
0.5 V
SR  _
1 ␮s  0.5 Vy␮s of a sine wave, SS has to be less than or equal to SR. When the
two are equal, we are at the limit, on the verge of slew-rate
The slew rate represents the fastest response that an distortion. In this case:
op amp can have. For instance, the slew rate of a 741C is
0.5 Vy␮s. This means that the output of a 741C can change no SR  SS  2␲fVp

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 10 000
8 000
6 000
SR = 50 V/␮ s
4 000

2 000
SR = 5 V/␮ s
1 000

Power bandwidth, kHz

800
600
SR = 0.5 V/␮ s
400

200

100
80
60
40

20

10
0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
Peak voltage, V

Figure 35-9 Graph of power bandwidth versus peak voltage.

Solving for f gives:

EXAMPLE 35-1

SR How much inverting input voltage does it take to drive the 741C of
fmax  _ (35-2) Fig. 35-10a into negative saturation?
2␲VP
+15 V
where fmax is the highest frequency that can be amplified with-
out slew-rate distortion. Given the slew rate of an op amp and
the peak output voltage desired, we can use Formula (35-2) –
+
to calculate the maximum undistorted frequency. Above this v2 741C
frequency, we will see slew-rate distortion on an oscilloscope. –
The frequency fmax is sometimes called the power band- + vout
10 kΩ
width or large-signal bandwidth of the op amp. Figure 35-9 is
a graph of Formula (35-2) for three slew rates. Since the bottom
graph is for a slew rate of 0.5 Vy␮s, it is useful with a 741C. –15 V

Since the top graph is for a slew rate of 50 Vy␮s, it is useful (a)

with an LM318 (it has a minimum slew rate of 50 Vy␮s). +15 V

For instance, suppose we are using a 741C. To get an un-
distorted output peak voltage of 8 V, the frequency can be no
higher than 10 kHz (see Fig. 35-9). One way to increase the –
+
fmax is to accept less output voltage. By trading off peak value 135 ␮V 741C
for frequency, we can improve the power bandwidth. As an –
example, if our application can accept a peak output voltage +
10 kΩ –13.5 V
of 1 V, fmax increases to 80 kHz.
There are two bandwidths to consider when analyzing the
operation of an op-amp circuit: the small-signal bandwidth –15 V

determined by the first-order response of the op amp and (b)

the large-signal or power bandwidth determined by the slew

Figure 35-10 Example.
rate. More will be said about these two bandwidths later.

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 to be of any use without some form of feedback. For
Answer: instance, the 741C has a minimum AVOL of 20,000 and a
Figure 35-10b shows that MPP equals 27 V for a load resistance maximum AVOL of more than 200,000. An unpredictable
of  10 k, which translates into an output of 13.5 V for nega- voltage gain of this magnitude and variation is useless
tive saturation. Since the 741C has an open-loop voltage gain of
100,000, the required input voltage is:
without feedback.

13.5 V  135 ␮V Inverting Negative Feedback

v2  __
100,000 Figure 35-11 shows an inverting amplifier. To keep the
Figure 35-10b summarizes the answer. As you can see, an in- drawing simple, the power supply voltages are not shown.
verting input of 135 ␮V produces negative saturation, an output In other words, we are looking at the ac equivalent cir-
voltage of 13.5 V. cuit. An input voltage vin drives the inverting input through
resistor R1. This results in an inverting input voltage of
v2. The input voltage is amplified by the open-loop volt-
age gain to produce an inverted output voltage. The output
EXAMPLE 35-2 voltage is fed back to the input through feedback resistor
What is the open-loop voltage gain of a 741C when the input fre- Rf. This results in negative feedback because the output
quency is 1 kHz? 10 kHz? 100 kHz? is 180° out of phase with the input. In other words, any
changes in v2 produced by the input voltage are opposed
Answer:
In Fig. 35-6c, the voltage gain is 1000 for 1 kHz, 100 for 10 kHz, by the output signal.
and 10 for 100 kHz. As you can see, the voltage gain decreases Here is how the negative feedback stabilizes the overall
by a factor of 10 each time the frequency increases by a factor voltage gain: If the open-loop voltage gain AVOL increases for
of 10. any reason, the output voltage will increase and feed back
more voltage to the inverting input. This opposing feed-
back voltage reduces v2. Therefore, even though AVOL has
increased, v2 has decreased, and the final output increases
EX A M P L E 35 -3 much less than it would without the negative feedback. The
The input voltage to an op amp is a large voltage step. The output
overall result is a very slight increase in output voltage, so
is an exponential waveform that changes to 0.25 V in 0.1 ␮s. What small that it is hardly noticeable.
is the slew rate of the op amp?
Virtual Ground
Answer:
With Formula (35-1), When we connect a piece of wire between some point in a
circuit and ground, the voltage of the point becomes zero.
0.25 V  2.5 Vy␮s
SR  __ Furthermore, the wire provides a path for current to flow to
0.1 ␮s
ground. A mechanical ground (a wire between a point and
ground) is ground to both voltage and current.
A virtual ground is different. This type of ground is a
EXAMPLE 35-4 widely used shortcut for analyzing an inverting amplifier.
With a virtual ground, the analysis of an inverting amplifier
An op amp has a slew rate of 15 Vy␮s. What is the power band- and related circuits becomes incredibly easy.
width for a peak output voltage of 10 V?
The concept of a virtual ground is based on an ideal op
Answer: amp. When an op amp is ideal, it has infinite open-loop
With Formula (35-2),
SR 15 Vy␮s Rf
fmax  _  __  239 kHz
2␲VP 2␲ (10 V)
R1
–
+
vin vout
35.3 The Inverting Amplifier v2

The inverting amplifier is the most basic op-amp cir- –

+
cuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall
voltage gain. The reason we need to stabilize the overall
voltage gain is because AVOL is too high and unstable Figure 35-11 The inverting amplifier.

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 iin Similarly, the left end of Rf is a voltage ground, so the mag-
nitude of output voltage is
Rf
iin
vout  iin Rf
–
+ Divide vout by vin to get the voltage gain
R1 i2
vin v2 vout
Ideal
–
R
+
Av(CL)  _f (35-3)
Virtual R1
ground
where Av(CL) is the closed-loop voltage gain. This is called
Figure 35-12 The concept of virtual ground: shorted to the closed-loop voltage gain because it is the voltage
voltage and open to current. when there is a feedback path between the output and the
input. Because of the negative feedback, the closed-loop
voltage gain Av(CL) is always smaller than the open-loop
voltage gain and infinite input resistance. Because of this,
voltage gain AVOL.
we can deduce the following ideal properties for the invert-
Look at how simple and elegant Formula (35-3) is. The
ing amplifier of Fig. 35-12:
closed-loop voltage gain equals the ratio of the feedback
1. Since Rin is infinite, i2 is zero. resistance to the input resistance. For instance, if R1 
2. Since AVOL is infinite, v2 is zero. 1 k and R f  50 k, the closed-loop voltage gain is
50. Because of the heavy negative feedback, this closed-
Since i2 is zero in Fig. 35-12, the current through Rf must
loop voltage gain is very stable. If AVOL varies because
equal the input current through R1, as shown. Furthermore,
of temperature change, supply voltage variations, or op-
since v2 is zero, the virtual ground shown in Fig. 35-12 means
amp replacement, Av(CL) will still be very close to 50. The
that the inverting input acts like a ground for voltage but an
negative sign in the voltage gain equation indicates a 180
open for current!
phase shift.
Virtual ground is very unusual. It is like half of a ground
because it is a short for voltage but an open for current. To
Input Impedance
remind us of this half-ground quality, Fig. 35-12 uses a
dashed line between the inverting input and ground. The In some applications, a designer may want a specific input
dashed line means that no current can flow to ground. Al- impedance. This is one of the advantages of an inverting am-
though virtual ground is an ideal approximation, it gives plifier; it is easy to set up a desired input impedance. Here
very accurate answers when used with heavy negative is why: Since the right end of R1 is virtually grounded, the
feedback. closed-loop input impedance is
zin(CL)  R1 (35-4)
Voltage Gain
This is the impedance looking into the left end of R1, as
In Fig. 35-13, visualize a virtual ground on the inverting
shown in Fig. 35-13. For instance, if an input impedance of
input. Then, the right end of R1 is a voltage ground, so we
2 k and a closed-loop voltage gain of 50 is needed, a de-
can write
signer can use R1  2 k and Rf  100 k.
vin  iin R1
Bandwidth
The open-loop bandwidth or cutoff frequency of an op amp
iin
+ –
is very low because of the internal compensating capacitor.
For a 741C,
Rf
iin
+ – f2(OL)  10 Hz
–
+
R1 At this frequency, the open-loop voltage gain breaks and
vin vout
rolls off in a first-order response.
– zin(CL)
+
When negative feedback is used, the overall bandwidth
increases. Here is the reason: When the input frequency
is greater than f 2(OL), AVOL decreases 20 dB per decade.
Figure 35-13 Inverting amplifier has same current When vout tries to decrease, less opposing voltage is fed
through both resistors. back to the inverting input. Therefore, v2 increases and

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 AVOL

Av(CL) = 100,000 (100 dB)

Av(CL) = 10,000
80 dB

Av(CL) = 1,000
60 dB

Av(CL) = 100
40 dB

Av(CL) = 10
20 dB

0 dB
f
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Figure 35-14 Lower voltage gain produces more bandwidth.

compensates for the decrease in AVOL. Because of this, Notice that the unity-gain frequency equals the product of
Av(CL) breaks at a higher frequency than f 2(OL). The greater gain and bandwidth. For this reason, many data sheets refer
the negative feedback, the higher the closed-loop cutoff to the unity-gain frequency as the gain-bandwidth (GBW)
frequency. Stated another way: The smaller Av(CL) is, the product.
higher f 2(CL) is.
Figure 35-14 illustrates how the closed-loop bandwidth Bias and Offsets
increases with negative feedback. As you can see, the
Negative feedback reduces the output error caused by
heavier the negative feedback (smaller Av(CL)), the greater the
input bias current, input offset current, and input offset
closed-loop bandwidth. Here is the equation for closed-loop
voltage.
bandwidth:
When Av(CL) is small, the total output error may be small
funity enough to ignore. If not, resistor compensation and offset
f2(CL)  __ (inverting amplifier only)
Av(CL)  1 nulling will be necessary.
In an inverting amplifier, RB2 is the Thevenin resistance
In most applications, Av(CL) is greater than 10 and the equa- seen when looking back from the inverting input toward the
tion simplifies to source. This resistance is given by
funity
f2(CL)  _ (noninverting) (35-5) RB2  R1 i Rf (35-7)
Av(CL)
If it is necessary to compensate for input bias current, an
For instance, when Av(CL) is 10, equal resistance R B1 should be connected to the nonin-
verting input. This resistance has no effect on the virtual-
1 MHz  100 kHz
f2(CL)  __
10 ground approximation because no ac signal current flows
through it.
which agrees with Fig. 35-14. If Av(CL) is 100,

1 MHz EXAMPLE 35-5

f2(CL)  __100  10 kHz
Figure 35-15a is an ac equivalent circuit, so we can ignore the
which also agrees. output error caused by input bias and offsets. What are closed-
Formula (35-5) can be rearranged into loop voltage gain and bandwidth? What is the output voltage at
1 kHz? At 1 MHz?
funity  Av(CL) f2(CL) (35-6)

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 v1
75 kΩ +

vin vout
1.5 kΩ
–
– Rf
10 mV v2
741C vout
p-p

R1

(a)

Av(CL) Figure 35-16 The noninverting amplifier.

Basic Circuit
34 dB
Figure 35-16 shows the ac equivalent circuit of a nonin-
verting amplifier. An input voltage vin drives the nonin-
verting input. This input voltage is amplified to produce
the in-phase output voltage shown. Part of output voltage
f
20 kHz 1 MHz is fed back to the input through a voltage divider. The volt-
(b) age across R1 is the feedback voltage applied to the in-
verting input. This feedback voltage is almost equal to the
Figure 35-15 Example. input voltage. Because of the high open-loop voltage gain,
the difference between v1 and v2 is very small. Since the
Answer: feedback voltage opposes the input voltage, we have nega-
With Formula (35-3), the closed-loop voltage gain is
tive feedback.
75 k  50 Here is how the negative feedback stabilizes the overall
Av(CL)  __ voltage gain: If the open-loop voltage gain AVOL increases for
1.5 k
any reason, the output voltage will increase and feed back
With Formula (35-5), the closed-loop bandwidth is
more voltage to the inverting input. This opposing feedback
1 MHz  20 kHz voltage reduces the net input voltage v1  v2. Therefore, even
f2(CL)  __ though AVOL increases, v1  v2 decreases, and the final out-
50
put increases much less than it would without the negative
Figure 35-15b shows the ideal Bode plot of the closed-loop volt-
age gain. The decibel equivalent of 50 is 34 dB. (Shortcut: 50 is feedback. The overall result is only a very slight increase in
half of 100, or down 6 dB from 40 dB.) output voltage.
The output voltage at 1 kHz is

vout  (50)(10 mV p-p)  500 mV p-p Virtual Short

Since 1 MHz is the unity-gain frequency, the output voltage at When we connect a piece of wire between two points in a
1 MHz is circuit, the voltage of both points with respect to ground
is equal. Furthermore, the wire provides a path for cur-
vout  10 mV p-p rent to flow between the two points. A mechanical short
Again, the minus () output value indicates a 180° phase shift (a wire between two points) is a short for both voltage and
between the input and output. current.
A virtual short is different. This type of short can be
used for analyzing noninverting amplifiers. With a virtual
35.4 The Noninverting Amplifier short, we can quickly and easily analyze noninverting ampli-
fiers and related circuits.
The noninverting amplifier is another basic op-amp cir-
The virtual short uses these two properties of an ideal op
cuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall volt-
amp:
age gain. With this type of amplifier, the negative feedback
also increases the input impedance and decreases the output 1. Since Rin is infinite, both input currents are zero.
impedance. 2. Since AVOL is infinite, v1  v2 is zero.

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 + +
+
vin Virtual Ideal vout vin zin(CL) vout
short +
–
– Rf – i1 Rf
–

R1 vin i1 R1

Figure 35-17 A virtual short exists between the two Figure 35-18 Input voltage appears across R1 and same
op-amp inputs. current flows through resistors.
or
Figure 35-17 shows a virtual short between the input ter-
minals of the op amp. The virtual short is a short for volt- R
Av(CL)  _f  1 (35-8)
age but an open for current. As a reminder, the dashed line R1
means that no current can flow through it. Although the vir-
This is easy to remember because it is the same as the equa-
tual short is an ideal approximation, it gives very accurate
tion for an inverting amplifier, except that we add 1 to the
answers when used with heavy negative feedback.
ratio of resistances. Also note that the output is in phase with
Here is how we will use the virtual short: Whenever we
the input. Therefore, no () sign is used in the voltage gain
analyze a noninverting amplifier or a similar circuit, we can
equation.
visualize a virtual short between the input terminals of the
op amp. As long as the op amp is operating in the linear Other Quantities
region (not positively or negatively saturated), the open-loop The closed-loop input impedance approaches infinity. Later,
voltage gain approaches infinity and a virtual short exists we will mathematically analyze the effect of negative feed-
between the two input terminals. back and will show that negative feedback increases the
One more point: Because of the virtual short, the invert- input impedance. Since the open-loop input impedance is
ing input voltage follows the noninverting input voltage. already very high (2 M for a 741C), the closed-loop input
If the noninverting input voltage increases or decreases, impedance will be even higher.
the inverting input voltage immediately increases or de- The effect of negative feedback on bandwidth is the same
creases to the same value. This follow-the-leader action is as with an inverting amplifier:
called bootstrapping (as in “pulling yourself up by your
funity
bootstraps”). The noninverting input pulls the inverting f2(CL)  _
input up or down to an equal value. Described another Av(CL)
way, the inverting input is bootstrapped to the noninvert- Again, we can trade off voltage gain for bandwidth. The
ing input. smaller the closed-loop voltage gain, the greater the
bandwidth.
Voltage Gain
The input error voltages caused by input bias current,
In Fig. 35-18, visualize a virtual short between the input ter- input offset current, and input offset voltage are analyzed the
minals of the op amp. Then, the virtual short means that the same way as with an inverting amplifier. After calculating
input voltage appears across R1, as shown. So we can write each input error, we can multiply by the closed-loop voltage
vin  i1R1 gain to get the total output error.
RB2 is the Thevenin resistance seen when looking from
Since no current can flow through a virtual short, the same the inverting input toward the voltage divider. This resis-
i1 current must flow through Rf, which means that the output tance is the same as for an inverting amplifier:
voltage is given by
RB2  R1 i Rf
vout  i1(Rf  R1)
If it is necessary to compensate for input bias current, an
Divide vout by vin to get the voltage gain equal resistance RB1 should be connected to the noninvert-
Rf  R1 ing input. This resistance has no effect on the virtual-short
Av(CL)  __ R approximation because no ac signal current flows through it.
1

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 EXAMPLE 35-6 35.5 Common Op-Amp Applications
Op-amp applications are so broad and varied that it
In Fig. 35-19a, what is closed-loop voltage gain and bandwidth? is impossible to discuss them comprehensively in this
What is the output voltage at 250 kHz?
chapter. Besides, we need to understand negative feed-
back better before looking at some of the more advanced
+15 V
applications. For now, let us take a look at two practical
+ circuits.
50 mV vout
741C
p-p The Summing Amplifier
– 3.9 kΩ Whenever we need to combine two or more analog signals
into a single output, the summing amplifier of Fig. 35-20a
–15 V
is a natural choice a good example is an audio mixer for
microphones and musical instruments. For simplicity, the
100 Ω circuit shows only two inputs, but we can have as many

R1
v1
(a)

Rf
Av(CL) vout

R2 –
32 dB
v2
+

(a)
f
25 kHz 1 MHz
(b) R
v1
Figure 35-19 Example.
R
vout
Answer:
With Formula (35-8), –
R
v2
3.9 k  1  40
Av(CL)  __ +
100
Dividing the unity-gain frequency by the closed-loop voltage gain
gives (b)

1 MHz  25 kHz
f2(CL)  __ v1
40
Level 1

Figure 35-19b shows the ideal Bode plot of closed-loop Gain

vout
voltage gain. The decibel equivalent of 40 is 32 dB. (Shortcut:
40  10 2 2 or 20 dB  6 dB  6 dB  32 dB.) Since
–
the A v(CL) breaks at 25 kHz, it is down 20 dB at 250 kHz. This
v2
means that A v(CL)  12 dB at 250 kHz, which is equivalent to
Level 2 +
an ordinary voltage gain of 4. Therefore, the output voltage at
250 kHz is

vout  4 (50 mV p-p)  200 mV p-p (c)

Figure 35-20 Summing amplifier.

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 inputs as needed for the application. A circuit like this
+
amplifies each input signal. The gain for each channel or
input is given by the ratio of the feedback resistance to the vin vout
appropriate input resistance. For instance, the closed-loop
voltage gains of Fig. 35-20a are –

R –R
Av1(CL)  _f and Av2(CL)  _f
R1 R2
The summing circuit combines all the amplified input sig- Figure 35-21 Voltage follower has unity gain and
nals into a single output, given by maximum bandwidth.

vout  Av1(CL)v1  Av2(CL)v2 (35-9)

between the op-amp inputs, the output voltage equals the
It is easy to prove Formula (35-9). Since the inverting input voltage
input is a virtual ground, the total input current is
vout  vin
v v
iin  i1  i2  _1  _2 which means that the closed-loop voltage gain is
R1 R2

Because of the virtual ground, all this current flows through Av(CL)  1 (35-10)
the feedback resistor, producing an output voltage with a We can get the same result by calculating the closed-
magnitude of loop voltage gain with Formula (35-9). Since R f  0 and
R1 
,
(Rf
vout  (i1  i2)Rf   _
Rf
R1 v1  R2 v2
_
) Rf
Av(CL)  _
Rf   1  1
Here you see that each input voltage is multiplied by its chan-
Therefore, the voltage follower is a perfect follower circuit
nel gain and added to produce the total output. The same
because it produces an output voltage that is exactly equal
result applies to any number of inputs.
to the input voltage (or close enough to satisfy almost any
In some applications, all resistances are equal, as shown
application).
in Fig. 35-20b. In this case, each channel has a closed-loop
Furthermore, the maximum negative feedback pro-
voltage gain of unity (1) and the output is given by:
duces a closed-loop input impedance that is much higher
vout  (v1  v2  . . .  vn) than the open-loop input impedance (2 M for a 741C).
Also, a maximum negative feedback produces a closed-
This is a convenient way of combining input signals and
loop output impedance that is much lower than the open-
maintaining their relative sizes. The combined output signal
loop output impedance (75  for a 741C). Therefore, we
can then be processed by more circuits.
have an almost perfect method for converting a high-
Figure 35-20c is a mixer, a convenient way to combine
impedance source to a low-impedance source.
audio signals in a high-fidelity audio system. The adjust-
The crucial point to understand is this: The voltage fol-
able resistors allow us to set the level of each input, and
lower is the ideal interface to use between a high-impedance
the gain control allows us to adjust the combined output
source and a low-impedance load. Basically, it transforms
volume. By decreasing level 1, we can make the v1 signal
the high-impedance voltage source into a low-impedance
louder at the output. By decreasing level  2, we can make
voltage source. You will see the voltage follower used a
the v2 signal louder. By increasing gain, we can make both
great deal in practice.
signals louder.
Since Av(CL)  1 in a voltage follower, the closed-loop
bandwidth is maximum and equal to
Voltage Follower
The voltage follower is the equivalent of an emitter follower, f2(CL)  funity (35-11)
except that it works much better. Another advantage is the low output offset error because
Figure 35-21 shows the ac equivalent circuit for a volt- the input errors are not amplified. Since Av(CL)  1, the
age follower. Although it appears deceptively simple, total output error voltage equals the worst-case sum of the
the circuit is very close to ideal because the negative input errors.
feedback is maximum. As you can see, the feedback re- Finally, any amplifier that produces a voltage across a
sistance is zero. Therefore, all the output voltage is fed smaller load resistor that is the same as the equal input volt-
back to the inverting input. Because of the virtual short age across a higher impedance is really a power amplifier.

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 Table 35-2 shows the basic op-amp circuits we have dis-
E X A M P L E 3 5 -7
cussed to this point.
Three audio signals drive the summing amplifier of Fig. 35-22.
What is the ac output voltage? 35.6 Op Amps as Surface-Mount Devices
100 kΩ
Operational amplifiers and similar kinds of analog circuits
are more often available in surface-mount (SM) packages as
20 kΩ
well as in the more tradition dual in-line IC forms. Because
Channel 1: 100 mVp-p the pin-out for most op amp tends to be relatively simple, the
+15 V
10 kΩ small-outline package (SOP), also called the small-outline
Channel 2: 200 mVp-p – integrated circuit (SOIC), is the preferred SM style. Virtu-
50 kΩ ally all op amps, including the older 741 are available in the
741C vout
Channel 3: 300 mVp-p
SOIC package. See Fig. 35.23.
+
35.7 Differential Amplifiers
–15 V
This section discuss as how to build a differential amplifier
Figure 35-22 Example. using an op amp. One of the most important characteristics
Answer: of a differential amplifier is its CMRR because the typical
The channels have closed-loop voltage gains of input signal is a small differential voltage and a large
common-mode voltage.
100k  5
Av1(CL)  __
20k Basic Differential Amplifier
Figure 35-24 shows an op amp connected as a differential
100k  10
Av2(CL)  __ amplifier. The resistor R1 has the same nominal value as R1
10k
but differs slightly in value because of tolerances. For in-
100k  2 stance, if the resistors are 1 k 1%, R1 may be as high as
Av3(CL)  __ 1010  and R1 may be as low as 990 , and vice versa. Simi-
50k
larly, R2 and R2 are nominally equal but may differ slightly
The output voltage is
because of tolerances.
vout  (5)(100 mVp-p)  (10)(200 mVp-p) In Fig. 35-24, the desired input voltage vin is called
the differential input voltage to distinguish it from the
 (2)(300 mVp-p)  3.1 Vp-p 
common-mode input voltage, vin(CM). A circuit like Fig. 35-24
Again, the negative sign indicates a 180 phase shift. amplifies the differential input voltage vin to get an output
voltage of vout. It can be shown that
vout  Avvin

EXAMPLE 35-8 where

R
An ac voltage source of 10 mVp-p with an internal resistance of Av  _2 (35-12)
R1
100 k drives a voltage follower with a load resistance of 1 .
What is the output voltage? The bandwidth? This voltage gain is called the differential voltage gain to
Answer: distinguish it from the common-mode voltage gain, Av(CM).
The closed-loop voltage gain is unity. Therefore, By using precision resistors, we can build a differential am-
plifier with a precise voltage gain.
vout  10 mVp-p A differential amplifier is often used in applications in
and the bandwidth is which the differential input signal vin is a small dc voltage
(millivolts) and the common-mode input signal is a large dc
f2(CL)  1 MHz voltage (volts). As a result, the CMRR of the circuit becomes
a critical parameter. For instance, if the differential input sig-
This example echoes the idea discussed earlier. The voltage fol-
lower is an easy way to transform a high-impedance source into
nal is 7.5 mV and the common-mode signal is 7.5 V, the dif-
a low-impedance source. It does what the emitter follower does, ferential input signal is 60 dB less than the common-mode
only far better. input signal. Unless the circuit has a very high CMRR, the
common-mode output signal will be objectionably large.

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 +VCC
Table 35-2 Basic Op-Amp Configurations Offset
–Vin null
Inverting amp
741 Vout
Rf
+Vin Offset
null
–VEE
R1
Vin –
Offset
null 1 8 NC
Vout
–Vin +VCC
+
+Vin Vout

–VEE Offset
Rf null
Av  _
R1

Noninverting amp

Vin + PIN 8

Vout
PIN 1

–
Figure 35-23 The SM version of the LM741 op amp.
Rf
R1 R2
vin(CM)

R1
–
+
vin vout
– +
Rf
Av  _
R 1 vin(CM)
1
R1 R2
Summing amp
Rf
R1 Figure 35-24 Differential amplifier.
V1

R2 CMRR of the Differential Amp

V2 –

R3
In Fig. 35-24, two factors determine the overall CMRR of
Vout the circuit. First, there is the CMRR of the op amp itself.
V3
For best results, use a precision op amp with a very high
+
CMRR ( 100 dB). Second, the external resistors must be
closely matched for best CMRR. Use precision resistors with
Rf Rf Rf tolerances as small as possible ( 1%).
Vout  _ _
R1 V1  R2 V2  R3 V3
_

Buffered Inputs
Voltage follower The source resistances driving the differential amplifier
of Fig. 35-24 effectively become part of R1 and R1, which
Vin +
changes the voltage gain and may degrade the CMRR. This
Vout is a very serious disadvantage. The solution is to increase the
input impedance of the circuit.
– Figure 35-25 shows one way to do it. The first stage (the
preamp) consists of two voltage followers that buffer (iso-
late) the inputs. This can increase the input impedance to
Av  1 well over 100 M. The voltage gain of the first stage is unity
for both the differential and the common-mode input signal.

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 vin(CM) + R1
The output voltage of the bridge is approximately
R2

vout  v4  v2  7.537 V  7.5 V  37 mV

–

Transducers
+ –
vin vout
Resistance R4 may be an input transducer, a device that
–
+ converts a nonelectrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
For instance, a photoresistor converts a change in light in-
–
tensity into a change in resistance, a thermistor converts
+
a change in temperature into a change in resistance, and a
vin(CM) R1 R2
strain gauge converts pressure into a resistance change.
There is also the output transducer, a device that con-
Figure 35-25 Differential input with buffered inputs.
verts an electrical quantity into a nonelectrical quantity. For
instance, an LED converts current into light and a loud-
Therefore, the second stage (the differential amplifier) still
speaker converts ac voltage into sound waves.
has to provide all the CMRR for the circuit.
A wide variety of transducers are commercially avail-
Wheatstone Bridge able for quantities such as temperature, sound, light, hu-
The differential input signal is usually a small dc voltage. midity, velocity, acceleration, force, radioactivity, strain,
The reason it is small is because it is the output of a Wheat- and pressure, to mention a few. These transducers can be
stone bridge like that in Fig. 35-26a. A Wheatstone bridge is used with a Wheatstone bridge to measure nonelectrical
balanced when the ratio of resistances on the left side equals quantities. Because the output of a Wheatstone bridge is a
the ratio of resistances on the right side: small dc voltage with a large common-mode voltage, we
R1 _ R need to use dc amplifiers that have very high CMRRs.
_  3 (35-13)
R2 R4 A Typical Application
When this condition is satisfied, the voltage across R2 equals the Figure 35-27 shows a typical application. Three of the bridge
voltage across R4 and the output voltage of the bridge is zero. resistors have a value of
The Wheatstone bridge can detect small changes in one
R  1 k
of the resistors. For instance, suppose we have a bridge with
three resistors of 1 k and a fourth resistor of 1010 , as The transducer has a resistance of
shown in Fig. 35-26b. The voltage across R2 is
R  R  1010 
1 k (15 V)  7.5 V
v2  _
2 k The common-mode signal is
and the voltage across R4 is approximately vin(CM)  0.5 VCC  0.5(15 V)  7.5 V
1010  (15 V)  7.537 V
v4  __ This is the voltage across each of the lower bridge resistors
2010 
when R  0.
+VCC +15 V
When a bridge transducer is acted on by an outside quantity
such as light, temperature, or pressure, its resistance will change.
Figure 35-27 shows a transducer resistance of 1010 , which
implies that R  10 . Without showing the derivations, the
input voltage is 37.5 mV.
R1 R3 1 kΩ 1 kΩ
Since the differential amplifier has a voltage gain of
– + – + 100, the differential output voltage is
vout +7.5 V 37 mV +7.537 V
vout  100(37.5 mV)  3.75 V

R2 R4 1 kΩ 1010 Ω Again, without showing the math, using 0.1% tolerance re-
sistors, the magnitude of CMRR is 25,000, which is equiva-
lent to 88 dB.
That gives you the basic idea of how a differential am-
(a) (b)
plifier is used with a Wheatstone bridge. A circuit like
Figure 35-26 (a) Wheatstone bridge. (b) Slightly Fig. 35-27 is adequate for some applications but can be
unbalanced bridge. improved, as will be discussed in the following section.

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 R1 R2
vin(CM) 1 kΩ 100 kΩ
+15 V + 0.1% 0.1%

R R
1 kΩ 1 kΩ

+ –
vin vout
–
+
Transducer
R R + ΔR
1 kΩ 1010 Ω

+ R1 R2
vin(CM) 1 kΩ 100 kΩ
0.1% 0.1%

–R2
Av =
R1

ΔR
vin = VCC
4R

Figure 35-27 Bridge with transducer drives instrumentation amplifier.

35.8 Instrumentation Amplifiers vin(CM) + R R

An instrumentation amplifier is a differential amplifier
–
optimized for its dc performance. An instrumentation am- R2
plifier has a large voltage gain, a high CMRR, low input off-
sets, low temperature drift, and high input impedance.
R1
Basic Instrumentation Amplifier + –
vin RG A vout
–
Figure 35-28 shows the classic design used for most instrumen- +
tation amplifiers. The output op amp is a differential amplifier R1
with the voltage gain of unity. The resistors used in this out-
put stage are usually matched to within 0.1% or better. This
– R2
means that the CMRR of the output stage is at least 54 dB.
Precision resistors are commercially available from less
+
than 1  to more than 10 M, with tolerances of 0.01 to vin(CM) R R

1%. If we use matched resistors that are within 0.01% of

each other, the CMRR of the output stage can be as high as Figure 35-28 Standard three op-amp instrumentation
74 dB. Also, temperature drift of precision resistors can be amplifier.
as low as 1 ppm/°C.
The first stage consists of two input op amps that act like a To have high CMRR and low offsets, precision op amps
preamplifier. The design of the first stage is extremely clever. must be used when building the instrumentation amplifier of
What makes it so ingenious is the action of point A, the junction Fig. 35-28.
between the two R1 resistors. Point A acts like a virtual ground A final point about Fig. 35-28: Since point A is a virtual
for a differential input signal and like a floating point for the ground rather than a mechanical ground, the R1 resistors in
common-mode signal. Because of this action, the differential the first stage do not have to be separate resistors. We can
signal is amplified but the common-mode signal is not. use a single resistor RG that equals 2R1 without changing the

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 operation of the first stage. The only difference is that the
EXAMPLE 35-9
differential voltage gain is written as
2R In Fig. 35-28, R 1  1 k, R 2  100 k, and R  10 k. What is the
Av  _2  1 (35-14) differential voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier?
RG
The factor of 2 appears because RG  2R1. Answer:
The voltage gain of the preamp is
Integrated Instrumentation Amplifiers
100 k  1  101
Av  __
The classic design of Fig. 35-28 can be integrated on a chip 1 k
with all the components shown in Fig. 35-28, except RG.
Since the voltage gain of the second stage is 1, the voltage gain
This external resistance is used to control the voltage gain
of the instrumentation amplifier is 101.
of the instrumentation amplifier. For instance, the AD620 is
a monolithic instrumentation amplifier. The data sheet gives
this equation for its voltage gain:
35.9 Single-Supply Operation
49.4 k  1
Av  __ (35-15)
RG Using dual supplies is the typical way to power op amps. But
this is not necessary or even desirable in some applications.
The quantity 49.4 k is the sum of the two R2 resistors.
This section discusses the inverting and noninverting ampli-
The IC manufacturer uses laser trimming to get a precise
fiers running off a single positive supply.
value of 49.4 k. The word trim refers to a fine adjustment
rather than a coarse adjustment. Laser trimming means Inverting Amplifier
burning off resistor areas on a semiconductor chip with a Figure 35-30 shows a single-supply inverting voltage am-
laser to get an extremely precise value of resistance. plifier that can be used with ac signals. Capacitors C1 and
Figure 35-29 shows the AD620 with an RG of 499 . This C2 pass the ac but block any dc components of the sig-
is a precision resistor with a tolerance of 0.1%. The voltage nal. The usual negative VEE supply (pin  4) is grounded,
gain is and a voltage divider applies half the VCC supply to the
49.4 k  1  100
Av  __ noninverting input. Because the two inputs are virtually
499 shorted, the inverting input has a quiescent voltage of ap-
The pin-out (pin numbers) of the AD620 is similar to that of proximately 0.5VCC.
a 741C since pins 2 and 3 are for the input signals, pins 4 and In the dc equivalent circuit, all capacitors are open and
7 are for the supply voltages, and pin 6 is the output. Pin 5 the circuit is a voltage follower that produces a dc output
is shown grounded, the usual case for the AD620. But this voltage of 0.5VCC. Input offsets are minimized because the
pin does not have to be grounded. If necessary for interfac- voltage gain is unity.
ing with another circuit, we can offset the output signal by In the ac equivalent circuit, all capacitors are shorted
applying a dc voltage to pin 5. and the circuit is an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain
In summary, monolithic instrumentation amplifiers typi- of R 2/R1.
cally have a voltage gain between 1 and 1000 that can be set A bypass capacitor C3 is used on the noninverting input,
with one external resistor, a CMRR greater than 100 dB, an as shown in Fig. 35-30. This reduces the power supply ripple
input impedance greater than 100 M, an input offset volt-
age less than 0.1 mV, a drift of less than 0.5 ␮V/°C, and other R2
outstanding parameters.
+VCC
+15 V
C1
2 7
R1
– C2
vin –
1
vout
+ + 4
499 Ω RL
vin RG AD620 vout
– ± 0.1% 6
R
5 +VCC
8
+ 4 R C3
3

–15 V

Figure 35-29 A monolithic instrumentation amplifier. Figure 35-30 Single-supply inverting amplifier.

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 +VCC with an equal-resistor voltage divider. This produces a dc
C1 R
input of 0.5VCC at the noninverting input. Because of the
negative feedback, the inverting input is bootstrapped to the
vin
C2 same value.
+
In the dc equivalent circuit, all capacitors are open and
vout
R
–
the circuit has a voltage gain of unity, which minimizes the
RL
output offset voltage. The dc output voltage of the op amp is
0.5VCC, but this is blocked from the final load by the output
coupling capacitor.
In the ac equivalent circuit, all capacitors are shorted.
R2
R1 When an ac signal drives the circuit, an amplified output
signal appears across RL. If a rail-to-rail op amp is used, the
C3 maximum peak-to-peak unclipped output is VCC.

Single-Supply Op Amps
Figure 35-31 Single-supply noninverting amplifier.
Although we can use ordinary op amps with a single supply,
as shown in Figs. 35-30 and 35-31, there are some op amps
that are optimized for single-supply operation. For instance,
and noise appearing at the noninverting input. To be ef- the LM324 is a quad op amp that eliminates the need for
fective, the cutoff frequency of this bypass circuit should dual supplies. It contains four internally compensated op
be much lower than the ripple frequency out of the power amps in a single package, each with an open-loop voltage
supply. gain of 100 dB, input biasing current of 45 nA, input offset
current of 5 nA, and input offset voltage of 2 mV. It runs off
Noninverting Amplifier a single positive supply voltage that can have any value be-
In Fig. 35-31, only a positive supply is being used. To get tween 3 and 32 V. Because of this, the LM324 is convenient
maximum output swing, you need to bias the noninverting to use as an interface with digital circuits that run off a single
input at half the supply voltage, which is conveniently done positive supply of 5 V.

CHAPTER 35 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Balanced and Unbalanced Signal Wiring in Electronic Systems

Electronic systems are made up of multiple parts that Single-Ended Transmission
must be connected together. On a small scale, ICs must
Single-ended transmission lines use two wires, one of them
be connected together on a printed circuit board (PCB).
connected to ground and the other to carry the data volt-
Modules or subassemblies must be interconnected inside
age referenced to ground. This kind of line is also called an
an instrument or computer. Then on a larger scale, mul-
unbalanced line since one side is grounded. Figure S35-1
tiple pieces of equipment need to be connected to one an-
shows a simple data communications application with a data
other. Cables and connectors are used for many of these
source, the transmitter (TX), and the data destination, or the
connections. On a PCB, no connectors may be involved
receiver (RX). The two are connected to one another with
but thin copper lines on the board form the connections.
a pair of wires. One of the wires is connected to ground.
In all cases, there are two different ways that signal volt-
Recall that in any piece of electronic equipment there is a
age levels are carried over a cable or a pair of wires,
common reference point called ground. All voltages in the
single-ended and balanced or differential. Here is a brief
circuitry are referenced to ground; that is, voltages at any
introduction to these methods that apply to both binary
point in the circuit are measured with respect to ground. In
digital and analog signals.
most circuits, the ground is the negative side of the dc power

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 +5 V
2-wire cable
0V

TX RX

Ground Ground

Figure S35-1 Single-ended serial data transmission.

supply but, in some cases, may be the positive side of the potential difference between the grounds or neutral points
power supply, depending on the design. from one piece of equipment to another. If you could use an
If you wish to transmit more than one signal, analog or ac voltmeter to measure the voltage between the grounded
digital, over the same cable, all you have to do is add one ad- sides of the various outlets in a room, house, or building, you
ditional wire for each signal you want to send. The signal on will actually see a voltage difference between them. While
each wire is also referenced to the single ground wire. The both grounds should theoretically be at the same potential,
reason why this system is called single-ended is that only they are not. This problem becomes worse as the distance be-
one wire is required for each signal, which is referenced to tween the two pieces of equipment increases. There could be
the single ground wire or connection. For example, a five- several volts difference between the ground at the transmit-
wire cable would be needed to transmit four independent ter, which may be a computer, and the ground at the receiver,
signals. The fifth wire is the common ground wire. which may be a printer at the other end of a 50-ft cable. In bad
This method of transmission works fine, but it does some- cases, the voltage difference could be tens of volts or more.
times suffer from a problem that is caused by an undesired The problem with this ground potential difference, which
signal referred to as common-mode voltage. Common-mode we call the common-mode voltage, is that it adds to or sub-
voltage, Vcm, is the voltage difference that exists between the tracts from the transmitted logic signal so that the receiver
transmitter ground and the receiver ground. We normally sees a signal level that is different from the agreed-on stan-
think of ground as being at zero volts potential, and that is dard voltage levels established during the design. The trans-
why we used it as the reference for all other signals. And mitter sends the correct levels, but the receiver sees these
ground is indeed at zero potential inside any given piece of levels plus the common-mode voltage so it may or may not
equipment. The problem is that the ground in one piece of recognize them. Thus transmission errors occur. In fact, in
equipment may actually be at a different voltage level than some cases, the voltage differences may so great that they
the ground in another piece of equipment at a distance. could damage the receiver circuits.
To explain this problem, you must understand that the Figure S35-2 shows the common-mode voltage and how
ultimate ground or reference point is really the earth. All it appears in relationship to the transmitter and receiver.
electrical systems use the ground or earth as the common You would think that if any voltage existed between the two
reference point. This starts with the electrical utility that grounds that the ground wire itself would short out this volt-
distributes the ac power to you. One of the wires used to age, but such is not the case. What the receiver sees is the
distribute power to your home, office, factory, or other facil- signal voltage level transmitter, Vs, plus the common-mode
ity is connected to ground or earth. It is called the neutral. voltage, Vcm, or Vs  Vcm. This is with respect to the transmit-
One side of every ac power cord is connected to the neutral. ter ground, which we use as the main reference here since
In newer ac plugs, this is the prong or blade that is the wider the transmitter is the origin of the signal.
of the two. This ground is usually isolated from the electric The big question here is, What is the nature of the
circuits in the equipment by the power supply, which usually common-mode voltage? Is it dc, ac, or what? It is usually a
incorporates a power transformer that provides isolation of 60-Hz, sine-wave ac accompanied by various types of noise
the earth ground or neutral from the circuitry ground. But and “garbage.” It may be voltage spikes caused by transients
this may not be the case. In some equipment, the neutral is on the ac line or noise picked up by capacitive or magnetic
connected to the metal cabinet of the equipment, which may, induction on the ac power lines. It may be noise generated by
in turn, make connection with the circuitry ground at some digital signals that occur on the power supply power bus or
point in the equipment. ground. Such signals, when added to the binary signal to be
Because of long distribution lines and the differences transmitted, create a messy, noisy signal that can be easily
and inefficiencies of earth grounding, there can easily be a misinterpreted by the receiver.

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 Vs + Vcm

TX Vcm RX

Vcm

TX ground RX ground

Vs = signal voltage
Vcm = common-mode voltage

Figure S35-2 Single-ended transmission showing common-mode voltage,

VCM, problem.

Assume the transmitter outputs digital logic levels of 0 is usually a special unit with a wide bandwidth designed for
and 5 V. If the common-mode voltage is a 3-V spike with the type signals being transmitted.
respect to the TX ground, then the input to the receiver will For low-speed digital transmission, an optoisolator, as
be a pulse that will switch between 0  3  3 V and 5  shown in Fig. S35-3b, can be used. An optoisolator is a semi-
3  8 V. If the common-mode voltage is a 12-V peak-to- conductor device that contains an LED and a phototrans-
peak sine wave, the receiver input will vary between a peak istor. If the LED is turned on, the transistor conducts as a
positive voltage between 6 V and 6  5  11 V and a closed switch. If the LED is off, the transistor is off and an
negative peak that could be between 1 and 6 V. In this open circuit. The optoisolator is applied at the receiver end
case, the receiver is not likely to recognize the data signal at of the cable. As the binary pulses turn off and on, they turn
all, resulting in complete loss of information. the LED off and on, thereby operating the transistor that re-
Despite this problem, single-ended operation is common. produces the transmitted signal at the output. There is no
In practice, there will always be some common-mode volt- common-mode voltage transference with this arrangement.
age. In most cases it is a relatively low value compared to The optoisolator does not work for analog signals, and only
the signal levels commonly used. So while it does shift these low-speed digital signals (1 Mbps) can be transmitted.
levels a bit, the tolerance of the receiver input circuits is such
that the signals are still fully recognizable. In fact, the selec- Balanced Transmission
tion of the signal levels in single-ended systems fully takes The best solution to the common-mode voltage problem is to
into consideration the fact that some common-mode voltage use what are called balanced transmission lines, or differen-
will exist. Most systems handle the difference with mini- tial lines. This system uses two conductors for transmission,
mum difficulty. In extreme cases, special techniques must but neither of them is grounded. Both the lines have voltages
be used. on them that are referenced to a ground, but they are opposites
The solution to the common-mode voltage problem is to of one another. In digital terms, this means that the voltages
use some kind of isolation device that transfers the desired on each line are complementary logic levels. If one line is bi-
signals but ignores any common-mode voltage. Figure S35-3a nary 1, the other is binary 0, or vice versa. In analog signal
shows how a transformer is used for isolation. Only one trans- terms, it means that the two signals are 180° out of phase with
former at the receiver is used in this illustration, although, one another, or one signal is the inverted version of the other.
in many cases, a transformer is used at both the transmitter Figure S35-4 shows a balanced transmission line and the
and receiver ends. The signal from the transmitter is applied circuits normally used to process the signals. The inverters
to the primary winding of the transformer. The signal cre- are used to create complementary binary signals that are
ates a magnetic field that transfers the signal to the secondary placed on the transmission line. Remember: Each signal on
winding by induction. The voltage induced into the second- each wire comes from a circuit whose output is referenced
ary winding is the desired signal, which is connected to the to a ground. What is being transmitted is the difference be-
receiver input. The secondary winding, being a separate coil tween the voltages on the two lines. The received signal is
of wire, is electrically insulated from the primary winding. applied to a differential amplifier that converts the balanced
The signal is transferred from one winding to the other by or differential signal back into a single-ended signal like the
magnetic induction. This physical isolation allows the re- original data. Since no ground wire is used with the trans-
ceiver ground to be separate from the transmitter ground, mission line, there is no common-mode voltage. Thus one
thus eliminating the common-mode voltage problem. The sure way to eliminate the common-mode voltage problem is
key to the success of this solution is in the transformer, which to use a balanced transmission line.

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 Isolation
transformer

TX RX

TX ground RX ground
(a)

+VCC

TX RX

LED
TX ground

Optoisolator
RX ground
(b)

Figure S35-3 (a) How a transformer is used to separate and isolate the TX
and RX grounds. (b) Using an optoisolator to eliminate the common-mode voltage
problem in a single-ended system.

Serial TX RX
data
signal
A
Transmission line
– Data

+ (B–A)
B

Noise

Differential
Same on both lines amplifier
+5 V
A
0V
+5 V
B
0V

Figure S35-4 Balanced, or differential, signal transmission.

Besides eliminating the common-mode problem, balanced into both the transmissions lines since they are both above
transmission lines also help minimize noise pickup on the ground. Remember that a differential amplifier generates the
transmission line. If the transmission line is run near other difference between the two input signals, which means that
signal-carrying lines, the magnetic and electric fields produced the noise signal on one line is subtracted from the same noise
by the adjacent lines can induce undesired voltages into the on the other line. The result is that the noise is canceled out.
transmission line. This noise can cause transmission errors. The This advantage of the balanced method is just as important
noise pickup problem is especially bad for single-ended lines. as the elimination of the common-mode problem. That is
On the other hand, the balanced line eliminates the noise why most long-distance transmission lines are of the bal-
problem. What happens is that the same voltage is induced anced type.

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 CHAPTER 35 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of an c. voltage gain is maximum.

ideal op amp? d. the op amp works best.
a. Infinite gain. 9. The power bandwidth increases when
b. Infinite input impedance. a. frequency decreases.
c. Infinite output impedance. b. peak value decreases.
d. Zero output impedance. c. initial slope decreases.
2. The ground pin on a 741 op amp is d. voltage gain increases.
a. pin 3. 10. A 741C contains
b. pin 4. a. BJTs.
c. pin 5. b. FETs.
d. none of the above. c. MOSFETs.
3. At the unity-gain frequency, the open-loop voltage d. all of the above.
gain is 11. A 741C amplifier does not work with
a. 1. a. dc.
b. Av(mid). b. ac.
c. Zero. c. both a and b.
d. Very large. d. digital.
4. The cutoff frequency of an op amp equals the unity- 12. The input impedance of a BIFET op amp is
gain frequency divided by a. low.
a. the cutoff frequency. b. medium.
b. closed-loop voltage gain. c. high.
c. unity. d. extremely high.
d. common-mode voltage gain.
13. An TL081 is a
5. If the cutoff frequency is 20 Hz and the midband a. diff amp.
open-loop voltage gain is 1,000,000, the unity-gain b. source follower.
frequency is c. Bipolar op amp.
a. 20 Hz. d. BIFET op amp.
b. 1 MHz.
14. If the two supply voltages are 12 V, the MPP value
c. 2 MHz.
of an op amp is closest to
d. 20 MHz.
a. 0 V.
6. If the unity-gain frequency is 5 MHz and the b. 12 V.
midband open-loop voltage gain is 100,000, the c. 12 V.
cutoff frequency is d. 24 V.
a. 50 Hz.
15. The open-loop cutoff frequency of a 741C is controlled by
b. 1 MHz.
a. a coupling capacitor.
c. 1.5 MHz.
b. the output short circuit current.
d. 15 MHz.
c. the power bandwidth.
7. The initial slope of a sine wave is directly d. a compensating capacitor.
proportional to
16. The 741C has a unity-gain frequency of
a. slew rate.
a. 10 Hz.
b. frequency.
b. 20 kHz.
c. voltage gain.
c. 1 MHz.
d. capacitance.
d. 15 MHz.
8. When the initial slope of a sine wave is greater than
17. The unity-gain frequency equals the product of
the slew rate,
closed-loop voltage gain and the
a. distortion occurs.
a. compensating capacitance.
b. linear operation occurs.
b. tail current.

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 c. closed-loop cutoff frequency. 26. When slew-rate distortion of a sine wave occurs, the
d. load resistance. output
18. If funity is 10 MHz and midband open-loop voltage a. is larger.
gain is 200,000, then the open-loop cutoff frequency b. appears triangular.
of the op amp is c. is normal.
a. 10 Hz. d. has no offset.
b. 20 Hz. 27. A 741C has
c. 50 Hz. a. a voltage gain of 100,000.
d. 100 Hz. b. an input impedance of 2 M.
19. The initial slope of a sine wave increases when c. an output impedance of 75 .
a. frequency decreases. d. all of the above.
b. peak value increases. 28. The closed-loop voltage gain of an inverting amplifier
c. Cc increases. equals
d. slew rate decreases. a. the ratio of the input resistance to the feedback
20. If the frequency of the input signal is greater than the resistance.
power bandwidth, b. the open-loop voltage gain.
a. slew-rate distortion occurs. c. the feedback resistance divided by the input resistance.
b. a normal output signal occurs. d. the input resistance.
c. output offset voltage increases. 29. The noninverting amplifier has a
d. distortion may occur. a. large closed-loop voltage gain.
21. An op amp has an open input. The output voltage b. small open-loop voltage gain.
will be c. large closed-loop input impedance.
a. zero. d. large closed-loop output impedance.
b. slightly different from zero. 30. The voltage follower has a
c. maximum positive or negative. a. closed-loop voltage gain of unity.
d. an amplified sine wave. b. small open-loop voltage gain.
22. An op amp has a voltage gain of 200,000. If the c. closed-loop bandwidth of zero.
output voltage is 1 V, the input voltage is d. large closed-loop output impedance.
a. 2 ␮V. 31. A summing amplifier can have
b. 5 ␮V. a. no more than two input signals.
c. 10 mV. b. two or more input signals.
d. 1 V. c. a closed-loop input impedance of infinity.
23. A 741C has supply voltages of 15 V. If the d. a small open-loop voltage gain.
load resistance is large, the MPP value is 32. An instrumentation amplifier has a high
approximately a. output impedance.
a. 0 V. b. power gain.
b. 15 V. c. CMRR.
c. 27 V. d. supply voltage.
d. 30 V. 33. In a differential amplifier, the CMRR is limited
24. Above the cutoff frequency, the voltage gain of a 741C mostly by the
decreases approximately a. CMRR of the op amp.
a. 10 dB per decade. b. gain-bandwidth product.
b. 20 dB per octave. c. supply voltages.
c. 10 dB per octave. d. tolerance of the resistors.
d. 20 dB per decade. 34. The input signal for an instrumentation amplifier
25. The voltage gain of an op amp is unity at the usually comes from
a. cutoff frequency. a. an inverting amplifier.
b. unity-gain frequency. b. a resistor.
c. generator frequency. c. a differential amplifier.
d. power bandwidth. d. a Wheatstone bridge.

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 35. In the classic three op-amp instrumentation amplifier, 38. A thermistor converts
the differential voltage gain is usually produced by the a. light to resistance.
a. first stage. b. temperature to resistance.
b. second stage. c. voltage to sound.
c. mismatched resistors. d. current to voltage.
d. output op amp. 39. When we trim a resistor, we are
36. Another name for a summable amplifier is a. making a fine adjustment.
a. follower. b. reducing its value.
b. mixer. c. increasing its value.
c. instrumentation amp. d. making a coarse adjustment.
d. modulator. 40. If an op amp has only a positive supply voltage, its
37. An input transducer converts output cannot
a. voltage to current. a. be negative.
b. current to voltage. b. be zero.
c. an electrical quantity to a nonelectrical quantity. c. equal the supply voltage.
d. a nonelectrical quantity to an electrical quantity. d. be ac-coupled.

CHAPTER 35 PROBLEMS

SECTION 35.2 The 741 Op Amp 35.4 The input voltage to an op amp is a large voltage
35.1 Assume that negative saturation occurs at 1 V less step. The output is an exponential waveform that
than the supply voltage with an 741C. How much changes 2.0 V in 0.4 ␮s. What is the slew rate of the
inverting input voltage does it take to drive the op op amp?
amp of Fig. 35-32 into negative saturation? 35.5 An op amp has a slew rate of 70 Vy␮s. What is the
power bandwidth for a peak output voltage of 7 V?
SECTION 35.3 The Inverting Amplifier
+18 V
35.6 What are closed-loop voltage gain and bandwidth in
Fig. 35-33? What is the output voltage at 1 kHz? At
–
10 MHz? Draw the ideal Bode plot of closed-loop
+ voltage gain.
v2 741C vout
–
1.8 kΩ
+
10 kΩ

180 Ω
–18 V
–

Figure 35-32 25 mV
TL081A vout
p-p

35.2 What is the common-mode rejection ratio of an

TL081A at low frequencies? Convert this decibel
value to an ordinary number. (See Table 35-1.) Figure 35-33
35.3 What is the open-loop voltage gain of an 741A
when the input frequency is 1 kHz? 10 kHz? 100 SECTION 35.4 The Noninverting Amplifier
kHz? (Assume a first-order response, that is, 20 dB 35.7 In Fig. 35-34, what are the closed-loop voltage gain
per decade rolloff.) and bandwidth? The ac output voltage at 100 kHz?

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 +15 V SECTION 35.7 Differential Amplifiers
+ 35.10 The differential amplifier of Fig. 35-24 has R1 
25 mV
1.5 k and R2  30 k. What is the differential
vout
p-p voltage gain?
– 35.11 In Fig. 35-25, R1  1 k and R2  20 k. What is
3 kΩ
the differential voltage gain?
–15 V
35.12 In the Wheatstone bridge of Fig. 35-26, R1  10 k,
R2  20 k, R3  20 k, and R4  10 k. Is the
150 Ω bridge balanced?
35.13 In the typical application of Fig. 35-27, transducer
resistance changes to 985 . What is the final out-
Figure 35-34 put voltage?
SECTION 35.8 Instrumentation Amplifiers
SECTION 35.5 Common Op-Amp Applications 35.14 In the instrumentation amplifier of Fig. 35-28, R1 
35.8 In Fig. 35-35a, what is the ac output voltage? 1 k and R2  99 k. What is the output voltage if
vin  2 mV?
35.9 What is the output voltage in Fig. 35-35b? The
bandwidth? 35.15 The value of RG is changed to 1008  in Fig. 35-29.
What is the differential output voltage if the differ-
40 kΩ ential input voltage is 20 mV?

10 kΩ
50 mVp-p +18 V

20 kΩ
90 mVp-p –

40 kΩ
LF157A vout
160 mVp-p

–18 V

(a)

+12 V
1 MΩ
+

50 mV
741C vout
p-p

–
2Ω

–12 V

(b)

Figure 35-35

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 Ch a pt er 36
Op-Amp Applications

Learning Outcomes The previous chapter presented the basic op-amp cir-
cuits and their most common uses. This chapter con-
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: tinues with additional coverage of common op-amp
Explain how a comparator works and describe the applications. Because of the versatility of the op amp,
importance of a reference point. there are hundreds if not thousands of ways to use it.
Discuss comparators that have positive feedback The applications presented here represent some of the
and calculate the trip points and hysteresis for most popular, including comparators, integrators, wave-
these circuits. form generators, rectifiers, and active filters.
Identify and discuss waveform conversion circuits.
Identify and discuss waveform generation circuits.
Describe how several active diode circuits work.
Explain the operation of an integrator.
Recognize the different types of active filters.

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 36.1 Comparators with Inverting Comparator
Zero Reference Sometimes, we may prefer to use an inverting comparator
Often we want to compare one voltage with another to see like Fig. 36-2. The noninverting input is grounded. The input
which is larger. In this situation, a comparator may be the signal drives the inverting input of the comparator. In this
perfect solution. A comparator is similar to an op amp be- case, a slightly positive input voltage produces a maximum
cause it has two input voltages (noninverting and inverting) negative output. On the other hand, a slightly negative input
and one output voltage. It differs from a linear op-amp cir- voltage produces a maximum positive output.
cuit because it has a two-state output, either a low or a high Diode Clamps
voltage. Because of this, comparators are often used to inter-
Diodes are often used to protect sensitive circuits. Fig-
face with analog and digital circuits.
ure  36-2 is a practical example. Here we see two diode
Basic Idea clamps protecting the comparator against excessively large
The simplest way to build a comparator is to connect an op input voltages. For instance, one IC comparator has an ab-
amp without feedback resistors, as shown in Fig. 36-1a. Be- solute maximum input rating of 615 V. If the input voltage
cause of the high open-loop voltage gain, a positive input exceeds these limits, the device will be destroyed.
voltage produces positive saturation, and a negative input With some comparators, the maximum input voltage rat-
voltage produces negative saturation. ing may be as little as 65 V, whereas with others it may be
The comparator of Fig. 36-1a is called a zero-crossing more than 630 V. In any case, we can protect a comparator
detector because the output voltage ideally switches from against destructively large input voltages by using the diode
low to high or vice versa whenever the input voltage crosses clamps shown in Fig. 36-2. These diodes have no effect on
zero. Figure 36-1b shows the input-output response of a the operation of the circuit as long as the magnitude of the
zero-crossing detector. The minimum input voltage that pro- input voltage is less than 0.7 V. When the magnitude of the
duces saturation is input voltage is greater than 0.7 V, one of the diodes will turn
on and clamp the magnitude of the inverting input voltage to
6Vsat
vin(min) 5 _____ (36-1) approximately 0.7 V.
AVOL Some ICs are optimized for use as comparators. These
If Vsat 5 14 V, the output swing of the comparator is from IC comparators often have diode clamps built into their
approximately 214 to 114 V. If the open-loop voltage gain input stages. When using one of these comparators, we
is 100,000, the input voltage needed to produce saturation is have to add an external resistor in series with the input ter-
minal. This series resistor will limit the internal diode cur-
614 V 5 60.14 mV
vin(min) 5 _______ rents to a safe level.
100,000
This means that an input voltage more positive than 10.014 mV Converting Sine Waves to Square Waves
drives the comparator into positive saturation, and an input The trip point (also called the threshold or reference) of a
voltage more negative than 20.014 mV drives it into negative comparator is the input voltage that causes the output volt-
saturation. age to switch states (from low to high or from high to low).
Input voltages used with comparators are usually much In the noninverting and inverting comparators discussed
greater than 60.014 mV. This is why the output voltage is a earlier, the trip point is zero because this is the value of
two-state output, either 1Vsat or 2Vsat. By looking at the out- input voltage where the output switches states. Since a zero-
put voltage, we can instantly tell whether the input voltage is crossing detector has a two-state output, any periodic input
greater than or less than zero. signal that crosses zero threshold will produce a rectangular
output waveform.
vout
+VCC

+Vsat +VCC

vin +
R
vout vin vin –
0
– vout
–Vsat +

–VEE

(a) (b) –VEE

Figure 36-1 (a) Comparator. (b) Input-output response. Figure 36-2 Inverting comparator with clamping diodes.

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 +VCC

vin +

–
10 kΩ vout

–VEE

Figure 36-4 Narrow linear region of typical comparator.

signal usually passes through the linear region so quickly

that we see only a sudden jump between negative and posi-
tive saturation, or vice versa.
(a)
Interfacing Analog and Digital Circuits
Comparators usually interface at their outputs with digital
circuits such as CMOS, E-MOSFET, or TTL (stands for
transistor-transistor logic, a family of digital circuits).
Figure 36-5a shows how a zero-crossing detector can inter-
face with an E-MOSFET circuit. Whenever the input voltage
is greater than zero, the output of the comparator is high. This
turns on the power FET and produces a large load current.
Figure 36-5b shows a zero-crossing detector interfacing
with a CMOS inverter. The idea is basically the same. A
comparator input greater than zero produces a high input to
the CMOS inverter.

+VCC

(b)
Load

Figure 36-3 Comparator converts sine waves to square

waves. (a) Noninverting. (b) Inverting. vin +

–
For instance, if a sine wave is the input to a noninverting R
comparator with a threshold of 0 V, the output will be the
square wave shown in Fig. 36-3a. As we can see, the out- –VEE

put of a zero-crossing detector switches states each time the (a)

input voltage crosses the zero threshold.
+VCC
Figure 36-3b shows the input sine wave and the output
square wave for an inverting comparator with a threshold of
0 V. With this zero-crossing detector, the output square wave
is 180° out of phase with the input sine wave.
vin +
vout
Linear Region
–
Figure 36-4 shows a zero-crossing detector. If this compara-
tor had an infinite open-loop gain, the transition between R
–VEE
negative and positive saturation would be vertical.
In reality, the transition is not vertical. It takes approxi-
mately 6100 V to get positive or negative saturation. This
(b)
is typical for a comparator. The narrow input region between
approximately 2100 and 1100 V is called the linear region Figure 36-5 Comparator interfaces with (a) power FET
of the comparator. During a zero crossing, a changing input and (b) CMOS.

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 1N749 1N749 one of the diodes will be conducting in the forward direction
and the other will be operating in the breakdown region.
+15 V For instance, a 1N749 has a zener voltage of 4.3 V. There-
+5 V fore, the voltage across the two diodes will be approximately
25 mV
vin –
65 V. If the input voltage is a sine wave with a peak value
–25 mV vout of 25 mV, then the output voltage will be an inverted square
–5 V
+ wave with a peak voltage of 5 V.
Figure 36-6b shows another example of a bounded out-
–15 V
put. This time, the output diode will clip off the negative
(a)
half-cycles of the output voltage. Given an input sine wave
with a peak of 25 mV, the output is bounded between 20.7
+15 V and 115 V as shown.
+15 V
+25 mV A third approach to bounding the output is to connect
vin – zener diodes across the output. For instance, if we connect
–25 mV vout –0.7 V the back-to-back zener diodes of Fig. 36-6a across the out-
+
RL put, the output will be bounded at 65 V.

–15 V
(b)
EXAMPLE 36-1

Figure 36-6 Bounded outputs. (a) Zener diodes. What does the circuit of Fig. 36-7 do?
(b) Rectifier diode. 100 kΩ
+v1
+
Most E-MOSFET devices can handle input voltages –v2 vout
greater than 615 V, and most CMOS devices can handle –
100 kΩ
Green Red
input voltages up to 615 V. Therefore, we can interface the
output of a typical comparator without any level shifting or
clamping. TTL logic, on the other hand, operates with lower Figure 36-7 Comparing voltages of different polarities.
input voltages. Because of this, interfacing a comparator
with TTL requires a different approach (to be discussed in Answer:
the next section). This circuit compares two voltages of opposite polarity to deter-
mine which is greater. If the magnitude of v 1 is greater than the
Bounded Output magnitude of v 2, the noninverting input is positive, the comparator
output is positive, and the green LED is on. On the other hand, if
The output swing of a zero-crossing detector may be too large the magnitude of v 1 is less than the magnitude of v 2, the nonin-
in some applications. If so, we can bound the output by using verting input is negative, the comparator output is negative, and
back-to-back zener diodes, as shown in Fig. 36-6a. In this cir- the red LED is on.
cuit, the inverting comparator has a bounded output because

EXAMPLE 36-2

What does the circuit of Fig. 36-8 do?

10 : 1 10 kΩ +15 V

60-Hz clock
–
120 Vac
vout 0
60 Hz
+

–15 V

Figure 36-8 Generating a 60-Hz clock.

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 Answer: A digital circuit called a frequency divider can divide the 60 Hz
This is one way to create a 60-Hz clock, a square-wave signal by 60 to get a square wave with a period of 1 s. Another divide-
used as the basic timing mechanism for inexpensive digital clocks. by-60 circuit can divide this signal to get a square wave with a period
The transformer steps the line voltage down to 12 Vac. The diode of 1 min. A final divide-by-60 circuit produces a square wave with a
clamps then binds the input to 60.7 V. The inverting comparator period of 1 hr. Using the three square waves (1 s, 1 min, 1 hr) with other
produces an output square wave with a frequency of 60 Hz. The digital circuits and seven-segment LED indicators, we can display the
output signal is called a clock because its frequency can be used time of day numerically. The 60-Hz ac power line maintains a fre-
to get seconds, minutes, and hours. quency precision of better than 0.1% so timing accuracy is very good.

36.2 Comparators with Single-Supply Comparator

Nonzero References A typical op amp like the 741C can run on a single positive
In some applications a threshold voltage different from zero supply by grounding the 2VEE pin, as shown in Fig. 36-10a.
may be preferred. By biasing either input, we can change the The output voltage has only one polarity, either a low or a
threshold voltage as needed.

+VCC
Moving the Trip Point
In Fig. 36-9a, a voltage divider produces the following refer- vin +
ence voltage for the inverting input: vout R2
vref = VCC
R2 – R1 + R2
vref 5 _______ V (36-2) vref
R1 1 R2 CC 1
R1 –VEE fc =
When vin is greater than vref, the differential input voltage is +VCC 2(R1  R2)CBY

positive and the output voltage is high. When vin is less than R2 CBY
vref, the differential input voltage is negative and the output
voltage is low.
(a)
A bypass capacitor is typically used on the inverting
input, as shown in Fig. 36-9a. This reduces the amount
of power supply ripple and other noise appearing at the +VCC
inverting input. To be effective, the cutoff frequency of
this bypass circuit should be much lower than the ripple vin +
frequency of the power supply. The cutoff frequency is vout
vout –
given by
vref
+Vsat
1 R1 –VEE
fc 5 _____________ (36-3) –VEE
2(R1 储 R2)CBY vin
vref R2 CBY
Figure 36-9b shows the transfer characteristic (input-
–Vsat
output response). The trip point is now equal to vref. When
vin is greater than vref, the output of the comparator goes into (b) (c)

positive saturation. When vin is less than vref, the output goes
into negative saturation. vout
A comparator like this is sometimes called a limit detec-
+Vsat
tor because a positive output indicates that the input voltage
exceeds a specific limit. With different values of R1 and R2,
vin
we can set the limit anywhere between 0 and VCC. If a nega- vref
tive limit is preferred, connect 2VEE to the voltage divider,
–Vsat
as shown in Fig. 36-9c. Now a negative reference voltage is
applied to the inverting input. When vin is more positive than (d)

vref, the differential input voltage is positive and the output is Figure 36-9 (a) Positive threshold. (b) Positive input-
high, as shown in Fig. 36-9d. When vin is more negative than output response. (c) Negative threshold. (d) Negative input-
vref, the output is low. output response.

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 +VCC +V

vin + R
vout
vout
–

+
R1 Differential Q1
+VCC amplifier
–

R2 CBY

Figure 36-11 Using pullup resistor with open-collector

(a)
output stage of a comparator.

vout
High
supply voltage, as shown in Fig. 36-11. The resistor is
called a pullup resistor because it pulls the output voltage
Low up to the supply voltage when Q1 is cut off. When Q1 is
vin
vref
saturated, the output voltage is low. Since the output stage
is a transistor switch, the comparator produces a two-state
output.
(b)
The main limitation on the switching speed is the amount
Figure 36-10 (a) Single-supply comparator. (b) Input- of capacitance across Q1. This output capacitance is the sum
output response. of the internal collector capacitance and the external stray
wiring capacitance.
high positive voltage. For instance, with VCC equal to 115 V, The output time constant is the product of the pullup
the output swing is from approximately 11.5 V (low state) to resistance and the output capacitance. For this reason, the
around 113.5 V (high state). smaller the pullup resistance, the faster the output voltage
When vin is greater than vref, the output is high, as can change. Typically, R is from a couple of hundred to a
shown in Fig. 36-10b. When vin is less than vref, the output couple of thousand ohms.
is low. In either case, the output has a positive polarity. For Examples of IC comparators are the LM311, LM339, and
many digital applications, this kind of positive output is NE529. They all have an open-collector output stage, which
preferred. means that you have to connect the output pin to a pullup
resistor and a positive supply voltage. Because of their high
IC Comparators slew rates, these IC comparators can switch output states in
a microsecond or less.
An op amp like a 741C can be used as a comparator, but it The LM339 is a quad comparator—four comparators in
has speed limitations because of its slew rate. With a 741C, a single IC package. It can run off a single supply or off
the output can change no faster than 0.5 Vys. Because of dual supplies. Because it is inexpensive and easy to use,
this, a 741C takes more than 50 s to switch output states the LM339 is a popular comparator for general-purpose
with supplies of 615 V. One solution to the slew-rate prob- applications.
lem is to use a faster op amp. For example, with a slew rate Not all IC comparators have an open-collector output
of 70 V/s, the comparator can switch from 2Vsat to 1Vsat in stage. Some have an active-collector output stage. The ac-
approximately 0.3 s. tive pullup produces faster switching. These high-speed IC
comparators require dual supplies.
Open-Collector Devices
Most op amps have an output stage that can be described Driving TTL
as an active-pullup stage because it contains two devices in The LM339 is an open-collector device. Figure 36-12a shows
a class B push-pull connection. With the active pullup, the how an LM339 can be connected to interface with TTL de-
upper device turns on and pulls the output up to the high vices. A positive supply of 115 V is used for the comparator,
output state. On the other hand, an open-collector output but the open collector of the LM339 is connected to a supply
stage of Fig. 36-11 needs external components to be con- of 15 V through a pullup resistor of 1 k. Because of this, the
nected to it. output swings between 0 and 15 V, as shown in Fig. 36-12b.
For the output stage to work properly, the user has to This output signal is ideal for TTL devices because they are
connect the open collector to an external resistor and designed to work with supplies of 15 V.

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 +5 V
+15 V
+15 V
1 kΩ
5 3 +
vin +
2 To TTL vout
339 10 V
4 circuits –
+15 V – Peak
12
R1
R2 –15 V
+15 V
200 kΩ
(a) 100 kΩ 10 F

vout (a)

+5 V +10 V
Trip point

Input
+5 V
0V
vin 0V
vref

–10 V
(b)
+15 V

Output
Figure 36-12 (a) LM339 comparator. (b) Input-output
response. 0V

–15 V
(b)

EX A M P L E 3 6 -3
Figure 36-13 (a) Calculating duty cycle. (b) Output
waveform.
In Fig. 36-13a, the input voltage is a sine wave with a peak value
of 10 V. What is the trip point of the circuit? What is the cutoff
frequency of the bypass circuit? What does the output waveform
EXAMPLE 36-4
look like?
What is the duty cycle of the output waveform in Fig. 36-13b?
Answer:
Since 115 V is applied to a 3 : 1 voltage divider, the reference Answer:
voltage is Recall that the duty cycle is defined as the pulse width divided by
the period. Duty cycle equals the conduction angle divided by 360°.
vref 5 15 V In Fig. 36-13b, the sine wave has a peak value of 10 V. There-
fore, the input voltage is given by
This is the trip point of the comparator. When the sine wave vin 5 10 sin 
crosses through this level, the output voltage switches
The rectangular output switches states when the input voltage
states.
crosses 15 V. At this point, the foregoing equation becomes
With Formula (36-3), the cutoff frequency of the bypass
circuit is 5 5 10 sin 
Now, we can solve for the angle  where switching occurs:
1
fc 5 ________________________ sin  5 0.5
2(200 kV 储 100 kV)(10 F)
or
 0.239 Hz  5 arcsin 0.5 5 30° and 150°
The first solution,  5 30°, is where the output switches from
This low cutoff frequency means that any 60-Hz ripple on the low to high. The second solution,  5 150°, is where the output
reference supply voltage will be heavily attenuated. switches from high to low. The duty cycle is
Figure 36-13b shows the input sine wave. It has a peak value
conduction angle 150° 2 30°
of 10 V. The rectangular output has a peak value of approximately D 5 ______________ 5 __________ 5 0.333
15 V. Notice how the output voltage switches states when the 3608 360°
input sine wave crosses the trip point of 15 V. The duty cycle in Fig. 36-13b can be expressed as 33.3%.

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 +VCC
36.3 Comparators with Hysteresis
If the input to a comparator contains a large amount of noise, vin –
the output will be erratic when vin is near the trip point. One R1
vout B=
way to reduce the effect of noise is by using a comparator R1 + R2
+
with positive feedback. The positive feedback produces two UTP = BVsat
separate trip points that prevent a noisy input from produc- –VEE
LTP = –BVsat
ing false transitions.
H = 2BVsat
Noise R2
Noise is any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived from R1

or harmonically related to the input signal. Electric motors,

neon signs, power lines, car ignitions, lightning, and so on,
produce electromagnetic fields that can induce noise volt- (a)
ages into electronic circuits. Power supply ripple is also clas-
sified as noise since it is not related to the input signal. By
vout
using regulated power supplies and shielding, we usually can
reduce the ripple and induced noise to an acceptable level. +Vsat
Thermal noise, on the other hand, is caused by the
random motion of free electrons inside a resistor (see
Fig. 36-14a). The energy for this electron motion comes vin
–BVsat BVsat
from the thermal energy of the surrounding air. The higher
the ambient temperature, the more active the electrons.
The motion of billions of free electrons inside a resistor –Vsat

is pure chaos. At some instants, more electrons move up

than down, producing a small negative voltage across the (b)

resistor. At other instants, more electrons move down than Figure 36-15 (a) Inverting Schmitt trigger. (b) Input-
up, producing a positive voltage. If this type of noise were output response has hysteresis.
amplified and viewed on an oscilloscope, it would resemble
Fig. 36-14b. Like any voltage, noise has an rms or effective
value. As an approximation, the highest noise peaks are When the noise peaks are large enough, they produce un-
about four times the rms value. wanted changes in the comparator output. When an input
The randomness of the electron motion inside a resistor signal is present, the noise is superimposed on the input sig-
produces a distribution of noise at virtually all frequencies. nal and produces erratic triggering.
The rms value of this noise increases with temperature,
bandwidth, and resistance. For our purposes, we need to be Schmitt Trigger
aware of how noise may affect the output of a comparator. The standard solution for a noisy input is to use a compara-
Noise Triggering tor like the one shown in Fig. 36-15a. The input voltage is
applied to the inverting input. Because the feedback voltage
The high open-loop gain of a comparator means that an is aiding the input voltage, the feedback is positive. A com-
input of only 100 V may be enough to switch the output parator using positive feedback like this is usually called a
from one state to another. If the input contains noise with a Schmitt trigger.
peak of 100 V or more, the comparator will detect the zero When the comparator is positively saturated, a positive
crossings produced by the noise. voltage is fed back to the noninverting input. This positive
feedback voltage holds the output in the high state. Similarly,
when the output voltage is negatively saturated, a negative
4vn
R
voltage is fed back to the noninverting input, holding the
output in the low state. In either case, the positive feedback
reinforces the existing output state.
(a) (b)
The feedback fraction is
R1
Figure 36-14 Thermal noise. (a) Random electron motion B 5 _______ (36-4)
in resistor. (b) Noise on oscilloscope. R1 1 R2

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 When the output is positively saturated, the reference voltage With Formulas (36-6) and (36-7), this becomes
applied to the noninverting input is
H  BVsat 2 (2BVsat)
vref 5 1BVsat (36-5a)
which equals
When the output is negatively saturated, the reference volt-
H 5 2BVsat (36-9)
age is
Positive feedback causes the hysteresis of Fig. 36-15b. If
vref 5 2BVsat (36-5b)
there were no positive feedback, B would equal zero and the
The output voltage will remain in a given state until the hysteresis would disappear, because both trip points would
input voltage exceeds the reference voltage for that state. equal zero.
For instance, if the output is positively saturated, the refer- Hysteresis is desirable in a Schmitt trigger because it pre-
ence voltage is 1BVsat. The input voltage must be increased vents noise from causing false triggering. If the peak-to-peak
to slightly more than 1BVsat to switch the output voltage noise voltage is less than the hysteresis, the noise cannot
from positive to negative, as shown in Fig. 36-15b. Once produce false triggering. For instance, if UTP 5 11 V and
the output is in the negative state, it will remain there indef- LTP 5 21 V, then H 5 2 V. In this case, the Schmitt trigger
initely until the input voltage becomes more negative than is immune to false triggering as long as the peak-to-peak
2BVsat. Then, the output switches from negative to positive noise voltage is less than 2 V.
(Fig. 36-15b).

Hysteresis EXAMPLE 36-5

The unusual response of Fig. 36-15b has a useful property If Vsat 5 13.5 V, what are the trip points and hysteresis in
called hysteresis. To understand this concept, put your fin- Fig. 36-16?
ger on the upper end of the graph where it says 1Vsat. As-
+15 V
sume that this is the current value of output voltage. Move
your finger to the right along the horizontal line. Along this
2
horizontal line, the input voltage is changing but the output vin – 7
6
voltage is still equal to 1Vsat. When you reach the upper right 318 vout
3
+ 4
corner, vin equals 1BVsat. When vin increases to slightly more
than 1BVsat, the output voltage goes into the transition region
between the high and the low states. –15 V
If you move your finger down along the vertical line, you
will simulate the transition of the output voltage from high 47 kΩ
to low. When your finger is on the lower horizontal line, the 1 kΩ
output voltage is negatively saturated and equal to 2Vsat.
To switch back to the high output state, move your fin-
ger until it reaches the lower left corner. At this point, vin
equals 2BVsat. When vin becomes slightly more negative than Figure 36-16 Example.
2BVsat, the output voltage goes into the transition from low
Answer:
to high. If you move your finger up along the vertical line,
With Formula (36-4), the feedback fraction is
you will simulate the switching of the output voltage from
low to high. 1 kV 5 0.0208
B 5 ______
In Fig. 36-15b, the trip points are defined as the two input 48 kV
voltages where the output voltage changes states. The upper With Formulas (36-6) and (36-7), the trip points are
trip point (UTP) has the value
UTP  0.0208(13.5 V)  0.281 V
UTP 5 BVsat (36-6) LTP  0.0208(13.5 V)  0.281 V
and the lower trip point (LTP) has the value With Formula (36-9), the hysteresis is

LTP 5 2BVsat (36-7) H  2(0.0208 V)(13.5 V)  0.562 V

The difference between these trip points is defined as the This means that the Schmitt trigger of Fig. 36-16 can withstand
hysteresis (also called the deadband): a peak-to-peak noise voltage up to 0.562 V without false
triggering.
H 5 UTP 2 LTP (36-8)

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 36.4 The Integrator Since a constant current is flowing into the capacitor, the
charge Q increases linearly with time. This means that the
An integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical op-
capacitor voltage increases linearly, which is equivalent to a
eration called integration. The most popular application of
negative ramp of output voltage, as shown in Fig. 36-17c. At the
an integrator is in producing a ramp of output voltage, which
end of the pulse period in Fig. 36-17b, the input voltage returns
is a linearly increasing or decreasing voltage.
to zero and the capacitor charging stops. Because the capacitor
Basic Circuit retains its charge, the output voltage remains constant at a neg-
ative voltage of 2V. The magnitude of this voltage is given by
Figure 36-17a is an op-amp integrator. As you can see, the
feedback component is a capacitor instead of a resistor. The T V
V 5 ___ (36-10)
RC in
usual input to an integrator is a rectangular pulse like the one
Note: If the integrator is allowed to continuing charging
shown in Fig. 36-17b. The width of this pulse is equal to T.
beyond the input pulse time, the output will hit the negative
When the pulse is low, vin 5 0. When the pulse is high, vin 5
saturation level.
Vin. Visualize this pulse applied to the left end of R. Because
For the integrator to work properly, the closed-loop time
of the virtual ground on the inverting input, a high input
constant should be much greater than the width of the input
voltage produces an input current of
pulse (at least 10 times greater). As a formula,
Vin
Iin 5 ___  . 10T (36-11)
R
In the typical op-amp integrator, the closed-loop time con-
All this input current goes into the capacitor. As a result, the stant is extremely long, so this condition is easily satisfied.
capacitor charges and its voltage increases with the polarity
shown in Fig. 36-17a. The virtual ground implies that the Eliminating Output Offset
output voltage equals the voltage across the capacitor. For a The circuit of Fig. 36-17a needs a slight modification to make
positive input voltage, the output voltage will increase nega- it practical. Because a capacitor is open to dc signals, there
tively, as shown in Fig. 36-17c. is no negative feedback at zero frequency. Without negative
feedback, the circuit treats any input offset voltage as a valid
C input voltage. The result is that the capacitor charges and
+ –
the output goes into positive or negative saturation, where it
stays indefinitely.
+VCC One way to reduce the effect of input offset voltage is to
R T decrease the voltage gain at zero frequency by inserting a re-
vin – V= Vin
RC sistor in parallel with the capacitor, as shown in Fig. 36-18.
A VOL vout
+
This resistor should be at least 10 times larger than the input
t = RC(AVOL + 1)
resistor. If the added resistance equals 10R, the closed-loop
–VEE t > 10T voltage gain is 10 and the output offset voltage is reduced to
(a) an acceptable level. When a valid input voltage is present, the
additional resistor has almost no effect on the charging of a
Vin capacitor, so the output voltage is still almost a perfect ramp.
10R

0
C
T

(b)
+VCC
0
R
vin –
vout
–V +

T
(c) –VEE

Figure 36-17 (a) Integrator. (b) Typical input pulse. Figure 36-18 Resistor across capacitor reduces output
(c) Output ramp. offset voltage.

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 +VCC
36.5 Waveform Conversion
With op amps we can convert sine waves to rectangular
0 –
waves, rectangular waves to triangular waves, and so on. 0
This section is about some basic circuits that convert an +
input waveform to an output waveform of a different shape.
–VEE
Sine to Rectangular
Figure 36-19a shows a Schmitt trigger, and Fig. 36-19b is the R2
R1
graph of output voltage versus input voltage. When the input sig-
nal is periodic (repeating cycles), the Schmitt trigger produces a
rectangular output, as shown. This assumes that the input signal (a)

is large enough to pass through both trip points of Fig. 36-19c.

When the input voltage exceeds UTP on the upward swing of
the positive half-cycle, the output voltage switches to 2Vsat. One vout
half cycle later, the input voltage becomes more negative than
+Vsat
LTP, and the output switches back to 1Vsat.
A Schmitt trigger always produces a rectangular output,
regardless of the shape of the input signal. In other words,
the input voltage does not have to be sinusoidal. As long as v in
LTP UTP
the waveform is periodic and has an amplitude large enough
to pass through the trip points, we get a rectangular output
from the Schmitt trigger. This rectangular wave has the –Vsat
same frequency as the input signal.
As an example, Fig. 36-19d shows a Schmitt trigger with trip (b)
points of approximately UTP 5 10.1 V and LTP 5 20.1 V.
If the input voltage is repetitive and has a peak-to-peak value
greater than 0.2 V, the output voltage is a rectangular wave with
a peak-to-peak value of approximately 2Vsat. UTP
0
Rectangular to Triangular LTP
In Fig. 36-20a, a rectangular wave is the input to an integra-
+Vsat
tor. Since the input voltage has a dc or average value of zero,
the dc or average value of the output is also zero. As shown 0

in Fig. 36-20b, the ramp is decreasing during the positive –Vsat

half-cycle of input voltage and increasing during the negative
(c)
half-cycle. Therefore, the output is a triangular wave with the
same frequency as the input. It can be shown that the triangu-
lar output waveform has a peak-to-peak value of
+12 V
T V
Vout(p-p) 5 ____ (36-12)
2RC p
vin –
where T is the period of the signal. An equivalent expression vout

in terms of frequency is +

Vp –12 V
Vout(p-p) 5 _____ (36-13)
2fRC
where Vp is the peak input voltage and f is the input frequency. 100 kΩ
1 kΩ

Triangle to Pulse
(d)
Figure 36-21a shows a circuit that converts a triangu-
lar input to a rectangular output. By varying R 2, we can Figure 36-19 Schmitt trigger always produces
change the width of the output pulses, which is equivalent rectangular output.

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 10R

C
+VP

+VCC Vp
+VP Vout(p-p) =
2 fRC
R –VP
0 –

–VP 0
+ Vout(p-p)

–VEE

(a) (b)

Figure 36-20 (a) Square wave into integrator produces triangular output. (b) Input and output waveforms.

+VCC
EXAMPLE 36-6

0 + What is the output voltage in Fig. 36-22 if the input frequency is

1 kHz?
–
R1
+VCC 10 kΩ
–VEE W
R2 D=
T 10 F

+15 V
(a)
1 kΩ 2
– 7
+5 V 6
vref 318 vout
vin 3
+ 4
0
–5 V

–15 V
W

Figure 36-22 Example.

T

(b) (c) Answer:

With Formula (36-13), the output is a triangular wave with a peak-
Figure 36-21 Triangular input to limit detector produces to-peak voltage of
rectangular output.
5V
Vout(p-p)  ____________________  0.25 V p-p
2(1 kHz)(1 kV)(10 F)
to varying the duty cycle. In Fig. 36-21b, W represents the
width of the pulse and T is the period. As previously dis-
cussed, the duty cycle D is the width of the pulse divided E X A M P L E 3 6 -7
by the period.
In some applications, we want to vary the duty cycle. The A triangular input drives the circuit of Fig. 36-23a. The variable
adjustable limit detector of Fig. 36-21a is ideal for this pur- resistance has a maximum value of 10 kV. If the triangular input
has a frequency of 1 kHz, what is the duty cycle when the wiper
pose. With this circuit, we can move the trip point from zero is at the middle of its range?
to a positive level. When the triangular input voltage exceeds
the trip point, the output is high, as shown in Fig. 36-21c. Answer:
When the wiper is at the middle of its range, it has a resistance of
Since vref is adjustable, we can vary the width of the output 5 kV. This means that the reference voltage is
pulse, which is equivalent to changing the duty cycle. With
a circuit like this, we can vary the duty cycle from approxi- 5 kV 15 V 5 5 V
vref 5 ______
15 kV
mately 0 to 50%.

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 +15 V 36.6 Waveform Generation
With positive feedback, we can build oscillators, circuits
+ 7 that generate or create an output signal with no external
+7.5 V 6
318 input signal. This section discusses some op-amp circuits
0 vin vout
– 4 that can generate nonsinusoidal signals.

–15 V Relaxation Oscillator

+15 V In Fig. 36-24a, there is no input signal. Nevertheless, the cir-
10 kΩ
10 kΩ cuit produces a rectangular output signal. This output is a square
wave that swings between 2Vsat and 1Vsat. How is this possible?
Assume that the output of Fig. 36-24a is in positive saturation.
Because of feedback resistor R, the capacitor will charge expo-
nentially toward 1Vsat, as shown in Fig. 36-24b. But the capacitor
(a)
voltage never reaches 1Vsat because the voltage crosses the UTP.
When this happens, the output square wave switches to 2Vsat.
+7.5 V With the output now in negative saturation, the capaci-
tor discharges, as shown in Fig. 36-24b. When the capacitor
+5 V
voltage crosses through zero, the capacitor starts charging
0 negatively toward 2Vsat. When the capacitor voltage crosses
W
the LTP, the output square wave switches back to 1Vsat. The
–7.5 V cycle then repeats.
1000 s Because of the continuous charging and discharging of
(b)
the capacitor, the output is a rectangular wave with a duty

Figure 36-23 Example. R

The period of the signal is +VCC

+Vsat
1 5 1000 s
T 5 ______ –
1 kHz vout
C
+
Figure 36-23b shows this value. It takes 500 ms for the –Vsat
T
input voltage to increase from 27.5 to 17.5 V because this
–VEE
is half of the cycle. The trip point of the comparator is 15 V.
This means that the output pulse has a width of W, as shown
in Fig. 36-23b. R1
R2 1+B
T = 2RC ln
Because of the geometry of Fig. 36-23b, we can set up a 1–B
proportion between voltage and time as follows:
(a)
Wy2
______ 7.5 V 2 5 V
5 ___________
500 s 15 V
Toward +Vsat
Solving for W gives UTP
0
W 5 167 S Capacitor

LTP
The duty cycle is
+Vsat
167 s
D 5 _______ 5 0.167 0
1000 s Output

–Vsat
In Fig. 36-23a, moving the wiper down will increase the refer-
ence voltage and decrease the output duty cycle. Moving the T
wiper up will decrease the reference voltage and increase the (b)
output duty cycle. For all values given in Fig.  36-23a, the duty
cycle can vary from 0 to 50%. Figure 36-24 (a) Relaxation oscillator. (b) Capacitor
charging and output waveform.

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 R5
R3
C2

+VCC
R1
+VCC B=
R1 + R2
– R4
– 1+B
C1 T = 2R3C1 ln
+ 1–B
+
T
–VEE Vout(p-p) = Vsat
2R4C2
–VEE

R2
R1

Figure 36-25 Relaxation oscillator drives integrator to produce triangular output.

cycle of 50%. By analyzing the exponential charge and dis- depends on the charging of a capacitor. If we increase the
charge of the capacitor, we can derive this formula for the RC time constant, it takes longer for the capacitor voltage
period of the rectangular output, to reach the trip points. Therefore, the frequency is lower. By
11B making R adjustable, we can get a 50:1 tuning range.
T 5 2RC ln ______ (36-14)
12B
Generating Triangular Waves
where B is the feedback fraction given by
By cascading a relaxation oscillator and an integrator, we
R1 get a circuit that produces the triangular output shown in
B 5 _______
R1 1 R2 Fig. 36-25. The rectangular wave out of the relaxation oscil-
Formula (36-14), uses the natural logarithm, which is a loga- lator drives the integrator, which produces a triangular output
rithm to base e. A scientific calculator or table of natural waveform. The rectangular wave swings between 1Vsat and
logarithms must be used with this equation. 2Vsat. You can calculate its period with Formula (36-14). The
Figure 36-24a is called a relaxation oscillator, defined triangular wave has the same period and frequency. You can
as a circuit that generates an output signal whose frequency calculate its peak-to-peak value with Formula (36-12).

EXAMPLE 36-8

What is the frequency of the output signal in Fig. 36-26? Answer:

1 kΩ The feedback fraction is

18 kV 5 0.9
B 5 ______
+15 V 20 kV
2 With Formula (36-14),
– 7
6
318 vout 1 1 B 5 2(1 kV)(0.1 F)
0.1 F
3
+
T 5 2RC ln ______
4 12B
1 1 0.9 5 589 s
ln _______
–15 V
1 2 0.9
The frequency is
2 kΩ

18 kΩ
1 5 1.7 kHz
f 5 ______
589 s
The square-wave output voltage has a frequency of 1.7 kHz and a
peak-to-peak value of 2Vsat, approximately 27 V for the circuit of
Figure 36-26 Example. Fig. 36-26.

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 The high open-loop voltage gain of the op amp almost
EXAMPLE 36-9
eliminates the effect of the knee voltage. For instance, if the
The relaxation oscillator of Example 36-8 is used in Fig. 36-25 knee voltage is 0.7 V and AVOL is 100,000, the input voltage
to drive the integrator. Assume that the peak voltage out of the that just turns on the diode is 7 V.
relaxation oscillator is 13.5 V. If the integrator has R4 5 10 kV The closed-loop knee voltage is given by
and C2 5 10 F, what is the peak-to-peak value of the triangular
output wave? VK
VK(CL) 5 ____
Answer: AVOL
With the equations shown in Fig. 36-25, we can analyze the cir- where VK 5 0.7 V for a silicon diode. Because the closed-
cuit. In Example 36-8, we calculated a feedback fraction of 0.9
loop knee voltage is so small, the active half-wave rectifier
and a period of 589 s. Now, we can calculate the peak-to-peak
value of the triangular output: may be used with low-level signals in the microvolt region.

589 s 36.8 Active Filters

Vout(p-p) 5 ______________ (13.5 V) 5 39.8 mV p-p
2(10 kV)(10 F)
As you saw in an earlier chapter, filters are commonly
The circuit generates a square wave with a peak-to-peak value made from passive components, with RC and LC filters
of approximately 27 V and a triangular wave with a peak-to-peak
value of 39.8 mV.
being the most common. In some applications, active fil-
ters have replaced passive RC or LC filters. Active filters
commonly use op amps with RC feedback and input com-
ponents to produce common low-pass, high-pass, band-
36.7 Active Diode Circuits pass, and notch filters.
Op amps can enhance the performance of diode circuits. For There are several advantages to active filters. First, they
one thing, an op amp with negative feedback reduces the ef- can provide gain rather than the inherent attenuation of pas-
fect of the knee voltage, allowing us to rectify, peak-detect, sive filters. Second, active filters can eliminate bulky and
clip, and clamp low-level signals (those with amplitudes less costly inductors, especially in low-frequency designs. Fur-
than the knee voltage). And because of their buffering ac- thermore, by cascading active filters, exceptional selectivity
tion, op amps can eliminate the effects of the source and can be achieved without loss.
load on diode circuits. The disadvantages of active filters are that they require
Figure 36-27 is an active half-wave rectifier. When the dc power supplies to power the op amps. And the upper fre-
input signal goes positive, the output goes positive and turns quency is limited by the bandwidth of the op amp and the
on the diode. The circuit then acts like a voltage follower, practical values of resistors and capacitors. In general, active
and the positive half-cycle appears across the load resis- filters are used primarily in the audio frequency range and
tor. When the input goes negative, the op-amp output goes other applications with frequencies below 10 MHz.
negative and turns off the diode. Since the diode is open, no
voltage appears across the load resistor. The final output is 36.9 First-Order Stages
almost a perfect half-wave signal. First-order or 1-pole active-filter stages have only one ca-
There are two distinct modes or regions of operation. pacitor. Because of this, they can produce only a low-pass or
First, when the input voltage is positive, the diode is con- a high-pass response. Bandpass and bandstop filters can be
ducting and the operation is linear. In this case, the output implemented only when n is greater than 1.
voltage is fed back to the input, and we have negative feed-
back. Second, when the input voltage is negative, the diode Low-Pass Stage
is nonconducting and the feedback path is open. In this case, Figure 36-28a shows the simplest way to build a first-order
the op-amp output is isolated from the load resistor. low-pass active filter. It is nothing more than an RC lag cir-
cuit and a voltage follower. The voltage gain is
+VP +VCC
Av 5 1
+VP
0 +
The 3-dB cutoff frequency is given by
0
–VP
– 1
fc 5 _______ (36-15)
RL 2R1C1
–VEE VK
VK(CL) =
A VOL When the frequency increases above the cutoff frequency,
the capacitive reactance decreases and reduces the nonin-
Figure 36-27 Active half-wave rectifier. verting input voltage. Since the R1C1 lag circuit is outside the

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 R1 appears to be open and the circuit acts like an inverting am-
vin + Av = 1 plifier with a voltage gain of
vout
1 2R2
–
Av 5 ____
C1
fc = (36-18)
2R1C1 R1
As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases
(a)
and reduces the impedance of the feedback branch. This im-
R3
plies less voltage gain. As the frequency approaches infinity,
vin + the capacitor becomes a short and there is no voltage gain. As
vout shown in Fig. 36-28c, the cutoff frequency is given by
R2
C1 – Av = +1
R1 1
fc 5 _______ (36-19)
R2
2R2C1
1
fc = A final point about all first-order stages. They can imple-
2R3C1
R1
ment only a Butterworth response. The reason is that a first-
order stage has no resonant frequency. Therefore, it cannot
produce the peaking that produces a rippled passband. This
(b)
means that all first-order stages are maximally flat in the
C1 passband and monotonic in the stopband, and they roll off at
a rate of 20 dB per decade.
High-Pass Stage
–R2
Av = Figure 36-29a shows the simplest way to build a first-order
R2 R1
R1
vin – high-pass active filter. The voltage gain is
1
vout fc = Av 5 1
2R2C1
+
The 3-dB cutoff frequency is given by
1
fc 5 _______ (36-20)
(c) 2R1C1
Figure 36-28 First-order low-pass stages. When the frequency decreases below the cutoff frequency,
(a) Noninverting unity gain. (b) Noninverting with voltage the capacitive reactance increases and reduces the nonin-
gain. (c) Inverting with voltage gain. verting input voltage. Since the R1C1 circuit is outside the
feedback loop, the output voltage rolls off. As the frequency
approaches zero, the capacitor becomes an open and there is
feedback loop, the output voltage rolls off. As the frequency
zero input voltage.
approaches infinity, the capacitor becomes a short and there
Figure 36-29b shows another noninverting first-order
is zero input voltage.
high-pass filter. The voltage gain well above the cutoff fre-
Figure 36-28b shows another noninverting first-order
quency is given by
low-pass filter. Although it has two additional resistors, it has
R
the advantage of voltage gain. The voltage gain well below Av 5 __2 1 1 (36-21)
the cutoff frequency is given by R1

R The 3-dB cutoff frequency is given by

Av 5 __2 1 1 (36-16)
R1 1
fc  _______ (36-22)
2R3C1
The cutoff frequency is given by
Well below the cutoff frequency, the RC circuit reduces the
1
fc 5 _______ (36-17) noninverting input voltage. Since the R3C1 lag circuit is out-
2R3C1 side the feedback loop, the output voltage rolls off at a rate
Above the cutoff frequency, the lag circuit reduces the non- of 20 dB per decade.
inverting input voltage. Since the R3C1 lag circuit is outside Figure 36-29c shows another first-order high-pass filter
the feedback loop, the output voltage rolls off at a rate of and its equations. At high frequencies, the circuit acts like
20 dB per decade. an inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of
Figure 36-28c shows an inverting first-order low-pass 2XC2 ____2C1
Av  _____ 5 (36-23)
filter and its equations. At low frequencies, the capacitor XC1 C2

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 C1
Av =1 Figure 36-30b shows the frequency response. The voltage gain is
vin +
32 dB in the passband. The response breaks at 19.5 kHz and then
vout 1
fc = rolls off at a rate of 20 dB per decade.
R1 – 2R1C1
12 kΩ
vin +
680 pF vout
(a)
–
C1
39 kΩ
vin +
vout R2
Av = +1
R3 – R1 1 kΩ

R2 1
fc =
2R3C1
(a)
R1
40

30

(b) 20

R1 10

Gain, dB
0
–C1
Av = –10
C2
C1 C2 –20
1 –30
vin – fc =
vout 2R1C2
–40
+ 2E3 5E3 1E4 2E4 5E4 1E5 2E5 5E5 1E6 2E6 5E6 1E7

Frequency, Hz

(b)
(c)
100 pF
Figure 36-29 First-order high-pass stages.
(a) Noninverting unity gain. (b) Noninverting with voltage gain.
(c) Inverting with voltage gain.
43 kΩ
As the frequency decreases, the capacitive reactances in- 220 Ω
vin –
crease and eventually reduce the input signal and the feed-
vout
back. This implies less voltage gain. As the frequency
+
approaches zero, the capacitors become open and there is
no input signal. As shown in Fig. 36-29c, the 3-dB cutoff
frequency is given by (c)

1 50
fc  _______ (36-24)
2R1C2 40

30

20
EXAMPLE 36-10
Gain, dB

10
What is the voltage gain in Fig. 36-30a? What is the cutoff fre- 0
quency? What is the frequency response?
–10
Answer: –20
This is a noninverting first-order low-pass filter. With Formulas (36-16)
and (36-17), the voltage gain and cutoff frequencies are –30
1E3 2E3 5E3 1E4 2E4 5E4 1E5 2E5 5E5 1E6 2E6 5E6 1E7

39 kV  1 5 40
Av 5 ______ Frequency, Hz
1 kV
(d)
1
fc 5 ________________ 5 19.5 kHz
2(12 kV)(680 pF) Figure 36-30 Example.

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 C2
EXAMPLE 36-11

What is the voltage gain in Fig. 36-30c? What is the cutoff fre-
quency? What is the frequency response? R R
vin +
Answer: vout
This is an inverting first-order low-pass filter. With Formulas (36– C1
–
18) and (36-19), the voltage gain and cutoff frequencies are
R=R
243 kV 5 195
Av 5 _______
220 kV (a)

1
fc 5 ________________ 5 37 kHz
2(43 kV)(100 pF) C

Figure 36-30d shows the frequency response. The voltage gain

is 45.8 dB in the passband. The response breaks at 37 kHz and
then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB per decade. R R
vin +
vout
C
–
36.10 Second-Order Low-Pass Filters
Second-order or 2-pole stages are the most common be-
R2
cause they are easy to build and analyze. Higher-order filters
are usually made by cascading second-order stages. Each
second-order stage has a resonant frequency and a Q to de- R=R
R1
C=C
termine how much peaking occurs.
This section discusses the Sallen-Key low-pass filters
(named after the inventors). These filters can implement
(b)
three of the basic approximations: Butterworth, Chebyshev,
and Bessel. Figure 36-31 Second-order low-pass filter. (a) Unity gain.
(b) With gain.
Circuit Implementation
Figure 36-31a shows a Sallen-Key second-order low-pass
the pole frequency ( fp) and Q are calculated. Then using
filter. Notice that the two resistors have the same value, but
these values plus some special coefficients (K x), the ac-
the two capacitors are different. There is a lag circuit on the
tual Bode corner frequencies and 3-dB cutoff frequen-
noninverting input, but this time there is a feedback path
cies are calculated. Different values of K are used for
through a second capacitor C2. At low frequencies, both ca-
the different frequency responses, such as Butterworth
pacitors appear to be open and the circuit has a unity gain
or Bessel. The approximate rolloff rate is 40 dB per
because the op amp is connected as a voltage follower.
decade.
As the frequency increases, the impedance of C1 de-
creases and the noninverting input voltage decreases. At
the same time, capacitor C2 is feeding back a signal that 36.11 High-Pass Filters
is in phase with the input signal. Since the feedback sig- Figure 36-32a shows the Sallen-Key unity-gain high-pass
nal adds to the source signal, the feedback is positive. As filters. Notice that the positions of resistors and capacitors
a result, the decrease in the noninverting input voltage have been reversed from these in the low-pass filters.
caused by C1 is not as large as it would be without the
positive feedback.
36.12 Higher-Order Filters and
Figure 36-31b shows another variation of the second-
order low-pass filter. It uses equal values of R and C. It also
Filter Design
has gain as determined by the usual noninverting op-amp The standard approach in building higher-order filters is
formula: to cascade first- and second-order stages. When the order
is even, we need to cascade only second-order stages.
R
Av 5 ___2 1 1 (36-25) When the order is odd, we need to cascade second-order
R1
stages and a single first-order stage. For instance, if we
These second-order low-pass filters are more com- want to build a sixth-order filter, we can cascade three
plex to analyze and design. Using the component values, second-order stages. If we want to build a fifth-order

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 R2
36.13 Bandpass Filters
C C A bandpass filter has a center frequency and a bandwidth.
vin + Recall the basic equations for a bandpass response:
vout
R1 – BW 5 f2 2 f1
C=C ____
f 0 5 Ï f1 f 2
(a) f0
Q 5 ____
BW
R When Q is less than 1, the filter has a wideband response.
In this case, a bandpass filter is usually built by cascading
C C
a low-pass stage with a high-pass stage. When Q is greater
vin +
than 1, the filter has a narrowband response and a different
vout
R –
approach is used.
R2 Wideband Filters
Suppose we want to build a bandpass filter with a lower cut-
C=C
R=R
R1 off frequency of 300 Hz and an upper cutoff frequency of
3.3 kHz. The center frequency of the filter is
____ ________________
(b) f0 5 Ï f1 f2 5 Ï (300 Hz)(3.3 kHz) 5 995 Hz

Figure 36-32 Second-order high-pass stages. (a) Unity The bandwidth is

gain. (b) Voltage gain greater than unity. BW 5 f2 2 f1 5 3.3 kHz 2 300 Hz 5 3 kHz
The Q is
filter, we can cascade two second-order stages and one f0
first-order stage. Q 5 ____ 995 Hz 5 0.332
5 _______
BW 3 kHz
Filter design is beyond the scope of this book. But that
brings us to an important point: All serious filter design Since Q is less than 1, we can use cascaded low-pass and
is done on computers because the calculations are too high-pass stages, as shown in Fig. 36-33. The high-pass fil-
difficult and time-consuming to attempt by hand. An ter has a cutoff frequency of 300 Hz, and the low-pass filter
active-filter computer program stores all the equations, has a cutoff frequency of 3.3 kHz. When the two decibel
tables, and circuits needed to implement the five approxi- responses are added, we get a bandpass response with cutoff
mations (Butterworth, Chebyshev, inverse Chebyshev, el- frequencies of 300 Hz and 3.3 kHz.
liptic, and Bessel). The circuits used to build filters range When Q is greater than 1, the cutoff frequencies are much
from a simple one op-amp stage to complex five op-amp closer than shown in Fig. 36-33. Because of this, the sum of
stages. the passband attenuations is greater than 3 dB at the cutoff

High pass Low pass

vin fc = 300 Hz vout
fc = 3.3 kHz

0 dB + =
–3 dB

300 Hz 3.3 kHz 300 Hz 3.3 kHz

Figure 36-33 Wideband filter uses cascade of low-pass and high-pass

staqes.

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 –R2
Av =
2R1
C R2

R1 R2
vin Q = 0.5 R1
–
vout
C
+ 1
f0 =
2C R1R2

Figure 36-34 MuItiple-feedback bandpass stage.

frequencies. This is why we use another approach for nar-

EXAMPLE 36-12
rowband filters.
Calculate the gain, center frequency, Q, and bandwidth of the
Narrowband Filters bandpass filter in Fig. 36.35.
When Q is greater than 1, we can use the multiple-feedback
(MFB) filter shown in Fig. 36-34. First, notice that the input
signal goes to the inverting input rather than the noninverting R2
8.2 nF
input. Second, notice that the circuit has two feedback paths, R1 36 kΩ
18 kΩ
one through a capacitor and another through a resistor. vin +
At low frequencies the capacitors appear to be open. vout
8.2 nF
Therefore, the input signal cannot reach the op amp, and the –
output is zero. At high frequencies the capacitors appear to
be shorted. In this case, the voltage gain is zero because the
feedback capacitor has zero impedance. Between the low Figure 36-35 Example.
and high extremes in frequency, there is a band of frequen-
Answer
cies where the circuit acts like an inverting amplifier.
The voltage gain at the center frequency is given by 2R 236 kV 5 21
A 5 ____2 5 ________
2R1 2(18 kV)
2R
Av 5 ____2 (36-26)
2R1 1 _____ 5 _________________________
f0 5 __________ 1
______________
2CÏ R1R2 2(8.2 nF) Ï (18 kV)(36 kV)
This is almost identical to the voltage gain of an inverting
amplifier, except for the factor of 2 in the denominator. The 5 762.85 Hz
Q of the circuit is given by ___ _______
___ Rz 36 kV
Q 5 0.5
Ï
R2
___
R1
(36-27) Q 5 0.5
Ï __
R1
5 0.5
Ï ______
18 kV
5 0.707

f 762.85 5 1079 Hz
which is equivalent to BW 5 __0 5 ______
____ Q 0.707
Q 5 0.707 Ï 2Av (36-28)
For instance, if Av 5 2100,
____
Q 5 0.707 Ï 100 5 7.07 36.14 Bandstop Filters
There are many circuit implementations for bandstop fil-
Formula (36-28) tells us that the greater the voltage gain, the
ters. They use from one to four op amps in each second-
higher the Q.
order stage. In many applications, a bandstop filter needs
The center frequency is given by
to block only a single frequency. For instance, the ac
1
f0 5 _____________
________ (36-29) power lines may induce a hum of 60 Hz in sensitive cir-
2Ï R1R2C1C2 cuits; this may interfere with a desired signal. In this case,
Since C1 5 C2 in Fig. 36-34, the equation simplifies to we can use a bandstop filter to notch out the unwanted
hum signal.
1 _____
f0  __________ (36-30) Figure 36-36 shows a Sallen-Key second-order notch
2CÏ R1R2 filter and its analysis equations. At low frequencies all

684 Chapter 36

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 R/ 2

R2
C C Av = +1
R1

0.5
vin + Q=
2 – Av
R R vout
– 1
f0 =
R2 2RC

2C
R1

Figure 36-36 Sallen-Key second-order notch filter.

capacitors are open. As a result, all the input signal reaches 10

the noninverting input. The circuit has a passband voltage
0
gain of
–10
R2 –20
Av 5 __

Gain, dB
R 11 (36-31)
1 –30

–40
At very high frequencies, the capacitors are shorted. Again,
–50
all the input signal reaches the noninverting input.
–60
Between the low and high extremes in frequency, there is
–70
a center frequency given by 40 60 80 100 120
Frequency, Hz
1
f0 5 ______
2RC (36-32)
Figure 36-37 Second-order notch filter at 60 Hz.
At this frequency, the feedback signal returns with the cor-
Answer:
rect amplitude and phase to attenuate the signal on the non- With Formulas (36-32) and (36-33),
inverting input. Because of this, the output voltage drops to
a very low value. 10 kV 1 1 5 1.77
Av 5 ______
13 kV
The Q of the circuit is given by
1
f0 5 _________________ 5 60.3 Hz
0.5 2(22 kV) (120 nF)
f 5 ______ (36-33)
2 2 Av 0.5 5 2.17
0.5 5 ________
Q 5 ______
2 2 Av 2 2 1.77
The voltage gain of a Sallen-Key notch filter must be less
than 2 to avoid oscillations. Because of the tolerance of the Figure 36-37 shows the response. Notice how sharp the notch is
R1 and R2 resistors, the circuit Q should be much less than for a second-order filter.
10. At higher Qs, the tolerance of these resistors may pro-
duce a voltage gain greater than 2, which would produce
oscillations. 36.15 The All-Pass Filter
A more descriptive name for an all-pass filter is a phase filter
because the filter shifts the phase of the output signal without
changing the magnitude. Another descriptive title would be the
EXAMPLE 36-13 time-delay filter, since time delay is related to a phase shift.
What are the voltage gain, center frequency, and Q for the band-
The all-pass filter has a constant voltage gain for all fre-
stop filter shown in Fig. 36-36 if R 5 22 kV, C 5 120 nF, R 1 5 quencies. This type of filter is useful when we want to pro-
13 kV, and R 2 5 10 kV? duce a certain amount of phase shift for a signal without
changing the amplitude.

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 Figure 36-38a shows a first-order all-pass lag filter. It is R R

first order because it has only one capacitor. This is the phase Av = 1
shifter, which shifts the phase of the output signal between
– 1
0 and 2180°. The center frequency of an all-pass filter is vin vout f0 =
2RC
where the phase shift is half of maximum. For a first-order +
lag filter, the center frequency has a phase shift of 290°. ø = –2 arctan
f
Figure 36-38b shows a first-order all-pass lead filter. In f0

this case, the circuit shifts the phase of the output signal be- R
C
tween 180 and 0°. This means that the output signal can lead
the input signal by up to 1180°. For a first-order lead filter, (a)

the phase shift is 190° at the center frequency.

Second-order all-pass filters are possible and have a wider
phase-shift range and a faster phase response. A second-or- R R

der all-pass filter has at least one op amp, two capacitors, Av = –1

and several resistors that can shift the phase between 0 – 1
and 6360°. Furthermore, it is possible to adjust the Q of a vin vout f0 =
2RC
second-order all-pass filter to change the shape of the phase +
response between 0 and 6360°. The center frequency of a f0
ø = 2 arctan
second-order filter is where the phase shift equals 6180°. f
R
With a second-order all-pass filter, we can set the center C
frequency and Q of the circuit. By increasing the Q, we can
(b)
get a faster phase response. The higher Q does not change
the center frequency, but the phase change is steeper near Figure 36-38 First-order all-pass stages. (a) Lagging
the center frequency. output phase. (b) Leading output phase.

CHAPTER 36 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Video Surveillance
One of the most pervasive electronic systems in the United Camera

States and around the world is video surveillance. It is 75-Ω coaxial

Lens
CCD or cable
everywhere. Most of these systems are not hidden, but we Video
CMOS
generally do not notice or pay attention to them. Video processing
sensor
surveillance is used in stores to minimize shoplifting or to
capture other events that are unwanted. It is used in compa-
nies and factories primarily for security. A major use is in
Video monitor
gambling casinos. Additional surveillance is used in parking
lots and outdoor storage areas. Even some high-end homes
have video security. Considerable work goes into designing,
building, and installing these systems. You will most likely
Video monitor
encounter one in your future.

Analog Systems Inputs

from Video
Video surveillance systems have been around as long as other switch
there has been TV. Many older systems still exist, which use cameras
VCR or digital
analog cameras and technology. Many of the simpler sys- recorder
tems were black and white only, but today most analog sys-
tems use color. A typical system is shown in Fig. S36-1. It Figure S36-1 An analog video surveillance system.

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 consists of one or more analog color TV cameras mounted in Video creates so much binary data that it rapidly overwhelms
areas that are to be observed. most digital memory or storage systems. For that reason, the
The analog video outputs are connected back to a central digital video is subjected to a special process called compres-
monitoring office by way of 75-Ω coaxial cable such as RG- sion. Digital compression takes the video data and processes
6/U, RG-59/U, or the equivalent. Maximum cable length is them in a special circuit that uses algorithms to greatly reduce
about 300 feet. Each camera is usually connected to a video the number of bits and words needed to represent the picture
monitor. In some systems, multiple cameras are connected information. The reverse process, called decompression, is car-
to a video switch that selects which camera to display on the ried out before the video is displayed. Most compression uses
monitor. Many systems also have recording capability. Older a standard called H.264 or MPEG-4. The compression takes
systems used standard VHS VCRs. Newer systems use digi- place in a special video processing circuit, usually an FPGA.
tal recording to a computer hard drive. Next, the compressed data are formatted for transmission
Most analog systems use some form of the original U.S. over a local area network (LAN), usually the popular Ether-
analog TV standard called the National Television Standards net LAN. This is done in an embedded processer in the cam-
Committee (NTSC), established back in the 1950s and 1960s. era. Then the data are transmitted back to a monitoring site
It uses 525 scan lines (480 visible) interlaced and a 30-frame by way of a standard Ethernet cable. This is a four twisted-
per second (fps) raster update rate. The greater the number of pair cable, usually designated CATS. The data rate is usually
scan lines, the higher the resolution of the system, meaning 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps, although newer systems use 1-Gbps
the greater the amount of picture detail you can see. Ethernet. The absolute maximum range is 100 meters. DC
power for the camera is usually supplied over the Ethernet
Digital Systems cable by the Ethernet switch that receives the camera data.
Most new video surveillance systems are digital. See Many new systems eliminate the cable and use some form
Fig. S36-2. Digital surveillance systems use newer higher- of wireless commuications. The popular 2.4-GHz Wi-Fi
resolution digital cameras that have charge-coupled devices wireless method is used in some systems. Special wireless
(CCDs) or CMOS sensors to pick up the information from devices are also used in more secure systems or those cover-
the scene being observed. The pixels convert light to voltage, ing longer distances. Even cell phone systems can be used in
which is then read out as the pixels are rapidly scanned, cre- some installations.
ating an analog signal. That analog video signal is then digi- Many new digital cameras are actually Internet-enabled,
tized in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This creates meaning that they have an IP (Internet protocol) address.
millions of words of binary data that are stored in memory. With this you can actually access the camera over the Inter-
This SDRAM is inside the camera itself. net from anywhere to see what is going on at that location.

Camera

CAT 5
Video
CCD or Ethernet twisted-
processing Embedded
CMOS LAN pair
H.264 controller
sensor circuits cable
Compression

Antenna
Flash Optional
DRAM
memory wireless

Video
monitors
Video
server
Inputs Ethernet
from switch
cameras

Digital
recording

Wireless
receiver

Figure S36-2 Modern digital video surveillance system.

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 At the monitoring station, the digital data are recovered use the common intermediate format (CIF), which has a
usually in an Ethernet switch that determines which camera resolution of 352- by 288-pixel format at 30 fps. For higher
output will be selected for display or recording. It is then de- resolution, formats similar to standard digital TV with
compressed and connected to video monitors. The data are resolutions of 480 lines (standard) or 720 lines and even
also stored digitally in compressed form on hard disk drives. 1080 lines for high definition.
These may be in a dedicated video unit on in a special server The most advanced surveillance systems use special
computer designated for video storage. Some digital systems software called video analytics. The software uses artificial
can also accept inputs from analog cameras. The analog video intelligence and machine vision algorithms to process the
is digitized and compressed and either stored or displayed. video scenes. It can look for motion, recognize objects, and
Digital systems can have much higher resolution. There do facial identification. In these advanced systems, little or
are multiple video standards used. Lower-resolution systems no human monitoring is needed.

CHAPTER 36 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. To detect when the input is greater than a particular c. increases.

value, use a d. is zero.
a. comparator. 7. The output of a relaxation oscillator is a
b. clamper. a. sine wave.
c. limiter. b. square wave.
d. relaxation oscillator. c. ramp.
2. The voltage out of a Schmitt trigger is d. spike.
a. a low voltage. 8. If AVOL 5 100,000, the closed-loop knee voltage of a
b. a high voltage. silicon diode is
c. either a low or a high voltage. a. 1 V.
d. a sine wave. b. 3.5 V.
3. Hysteresis prevents false triggering associated with c. 7 V.
a. a sinusoidal input. d. 14 V.
b. noise voltages. 9. The input to a positive limiter is a triangular wave
c. stray capacitances. with a peak-to-peak value of 8 V and an average
d. trip points. value of 0. If the reference level is 2 V, the output has
4. If the input is a rectangular pulse, the output of an a peak-to-peak value of
integrator is a a. 0 V.
a. sine wave. b. 2 V.
b. square wave. c. 6 V.
c. ramp. d. 8 V.
d. rectangular pulse. 10. A comparator with a trip point of zero is sometimes
5. When a large sine wave drives a Schmitt trigger, the called a
output is a a. threshold detector.
a. rectangular wave. b. zero-crossing detector.
b. triangular wave. c. positive limit detector.
c. rectified sine wave. d. half-wave detector.
d. series of ramps. 11. To work properly, many IC comparators need an
6. If pulse width decreases and the period stays the external
same, the duty cycle a. compensating capacitor.
a. decreases. b. pullup resistor.
b. stays the same. c. bypass circuit.
d. output stage.

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 12. A Schmitt trigger uses 21. The Q of a narrowband filter is always
a. positive feedback. a. small.
b. negative feedback. b. equal to BW divided by f0.
c. compensating capacitors. c. less than 1.
d. pullup resistors. d. greater than 1.
13. A Schmitt trigger 22. A bandstop filter is sometimes called a
a. is a zero-crossing detector. a. snubber.
b. has two trip points. b. phase shifter.
c. produces triangular output waves. c. notch filter.
d. is designed to trigger on noise voltage. d. time-delay circuit.
14. A relaxation oscillator depends on the charging of a 23. The all-pass filter has
capacitor through a a. no passband.
a. resistor. b. one stopband.
b. inductor. c. the same gain at all frequencies.
c. capacitor. d. a fast rolloff above cutoff.
d. noninverting input. 24. A first-order active-filter stage has
15. A ramp of voltage a. one capacitor.
a. always increases. b. two op amps.
b. is a rectangular pulse. c. three resistors.
c. increases or decreases at a linear rate. d. a high Q.
d. is produced by hysteresis. 25. A first-order stage cannot have a
16. The op-amp integrator uses a. Butterworth response.
a. capacitors. b. Chebyshev response.
b. the Miller effect. c. maximally flat passband.
c. sinusoidal inputs. d. rolloff rate of 20 dB per decade.
d. hysteresis. 26. To build a tenth-order filter, we should cascade
17. The trip point of a comparator is the input voltage that a. 10 first-order stages.
causes b. 5 second-order stages.
a. the circuit to oscillate. c. 3 third-order stages.
b. peak detection of the input signal. d. 2 fourth-order stages.
c. the output to switch states. 27. If bandwidth increases,
d. clamping to occur. a. the center frequency decreases.
18. In an op-amp integrator, the current through the input b. Q decreases.
resistor flows into the c. the rolloff rate increases.
a. inverting input. d. ripples appear in the stopband.
b. noninverting input. 28. The all-pass filter is used when
c. bypass capacitor. a. high rolloff rates are needed.
d. feedback capacitor. b. phase shift is important.
19. An active half-wave rectifier has a knee voltage of c. a maximally flat passband is needed.
a. VK. d. a rippled stopband is important.
b. 0.7 V. 29. A second-order all-pass filter can vary the output
c. More than 0.7 V. phase from
d. Much less than 0.7 V. a. 90 to 290°.
20. The center frequency of a bandpass filter is always b. 0 to 2180°.
equal to the c. 0 to 2360°.
a. bandwidth. d. 0 to 2720°.
b. geometric average of the cutoff frequencies. 30. The all-pass filter is sometimes called a
c. bandwidth divided by Q. a. Tow-Thomas filter.
d. 3-dB frequency. b. delay equalizer.
c. KHN filter.
d. state-variable filter.

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 CHAPTER 36 PROBLEMS

SECTION. 36.1 Comparators with Zero +15 V

Reference
2 7
36.1 In Fig. 36-1a, the comparator has an open-loop vin –
6
318 vout
voltage gain of 106 dB. What is the input voltage 3
+
that produces positive saturation if the supply volt- 4

ages are 620 V?

–15 V
36.2 If the input voltage is 50 V in Fig. 36-2a, what is
the approximation current through the left clamping
68 kΩ
diode if R 5 10 k?
36.3 The dual supplies of Fig. 36-6b are reduced 1.5 kΩ

to 612 V, and the diode is reversed. What is the

output voltage?
SECTION 36.2 Comparators with Nonzero Figure 36-40
References
36.9 What are the trip points and hysteresis if, Vsat 5 14 V
36.4 In Fig. 36-9a, the dual supply voltages are 615 V. If
in Fig. 36-41?
R1 5 47 kV and R2 5 12 kV, what is the reference
voltage? If the bypass capacitance is 0.5 F, what is 68 kΩ
the cutoff frequency?
36.5 In Fig. 36-10, VCC 5 9 V, R1 5 22 kV, and R2 5 4.7 +15 V

kV. What is the output duty cycle if the input is a 2.2 k Ω

3 7
sine wave with a peak of 7.5 V? vin +
6
318 vout
36.6 In Fig. 36-39, what is the output duty cycle if the 2
–
input is a sine wave with a peak of 5 V? 4

–15 V

+15 V +5 V
Figure 36-41

SECTION 36.4 The Integrator

5 1 kΩ
vin + 3 36.10 What is the capacitor charging current in Fig. 36-42
2 To TTL
33 kΩ 4
339 circuits
when the input pulse is high?
+15 V – 12
Reset

3.3 kΩ

10 F

Figure 36-39
+15 V

1 kΩ 2
SECTION 36.3 Comparators with Hysteresis – 7
6
36.7 In Fig. 36-15a, R1 5 2.2 kV, and R2 5 18 kV. If 5V
3
318 vout
+
Vsat 5 14 V, what are the trip points? What is the vin 4
0
hysteresis?
1 ms –15 V
36.8 If Vsat 5 13.5 V in Fig. 36-40, what are the trip
points and hysteresis? Figure 36-42 Note: The JFET shorts out and
discharges the capacitor, resetting the integrator when a
positive voltage is applied to the gate.

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 36.11 In Fig. 36-42, the output voltage is reset just before 47 kΩ

the pulse begins. What is the output voltage at the

end of the pulse? 6.8 F

SECTION 36.5 Waveform Conversion

36.12 What is the output voltage in Fig. 36-43? +15 V

36.13 If the capacitance is changed to 0.068 F in 4.7 kΩ

2
– 7
Fig. 36-43, what is the output voltage? 6
5V 318 vout
3
vin +
4

–5 V
f = 10 kHz –15 V

Figure 36-43
36.14 What is the duty cycle in Fig. 36-44 when the wiper is one-half of the way from the top?

+15 V

3 7
+10 V +
6
318 vout
0 2
5 kΩ –
4
+15 V

–15 V
vin
10 kΩ

Figure 36-44

SECTION 36.6 Waveform Generation SECTION 36.7 Active Diode Circuits

36.15 What is the frequency of the output signal in 36.16 In Fig. 36-27, the input sine wave has a peak of
Fig. 36-45? 100 mV. What is the output voltage?
36.17 What is the output voltage in Fig. 36-46?
2 kΩ
+15 V
+15 V

3 7
+
2 7 6
– 318
6 2 +
318 vout
75 mV rms –
4
+ 20 kHz
3 4
0.1 F 6.8 F 33 kΩ vout
–15 V
–15 V –

4.7 kΩ Figure 36-46

33 kΩ
36.18 Suppose the diode of Fig. 36-46 is reversed. What is
the output voltage?
36.19 The input voltage of Fig. 36-46 is changed from 75 mV
Figure 36-45 rms to 150 mV p-p. What is the output voltage?

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 SECTION 36.9 First-Order Stages SECTION 36.13 Bandpass Filters
36.20 In Fig. 36-28a, R1 5 15 kV and C1 5 270 nF. What 36.23 In Fig. 36-34, R1 5 2 kV, R2 5 56 kV, and C 5
is the cutoff frequency? 270 pF. What are the voltage gain, Q, and center
36.21 In Fig. 36-28b, R1 5 7.5 kV, R2 5 33 kV, R3 5 20 frequency?
kV, and C1 5 680 pF. What is the cutoff frequency? SECTION 36.14 Bandstop Filters
What is the voltage gain in the passband?
36.24 What are the voltage gain, center frequency, and Q
36.22 In Fig. 36-28c, R1 5 2.2 kV, R2 5 47 kV, and C1 5 for the bandstop filter shown in Fig. 36-36 if R 5
330 pF. What is the cutoff frequency? What is the 56 kV, C 5 180 nF, R1 5 20 kV, and R2 5 10 kV?
voltage gain in the passband? What is the bandwidth?

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 Ch a pt er 37
Power Amplifiers

Learning Outcomes Power amplifiers are circuits that amplify power rather
than voltage. They are used where the load demands
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: power to perform its function. A good example is an
Describe the characteristics of amplifiers, audio amplifier that drives a speaker. A speaker is an
including classes of operation and frequency electromechanical device that converts audio signals into
ranges. the mechanical vibrations that result in sound. Speakers
Draw a schematic of class B/AB push-pull require a substantial amount of power. Amplifiers that
amplifier and explain its operation. drive motors also need high power. Radio-frequency
Explain the operation and application of class C, transmitters must deliver power to drive an antenna to
D, E, and F amplifiers. achieve wireless communications.
Determine the efficiency of transistor power This chapter covers common power amplifier cir-
amplifiers. cuits, how they work, the most common types, and
Discuss the factors that limit the power rating of their specifications.
a transistor and what can be done to improve the
power rating.

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 +VCC
37.1 Amplifier Terms
There are different ways to describe amplifiers. For instance,
we can describe them by their class of operation or by their L
C
frequency range. R1
To next
Classes of Operation stage
Input
Class A operation of an amplifier means that the transistor
operates in the active region at all times. This implies that
collector or drain current flows for 360° of the ac cycle, as R2
RE
shown in Fig. 37-1a. With a class A amplifier, the designer
usually tries to locate the Q point somewhere near the mid-
dle of the load line. This way, the signal can swing over the
maximum possible range without saturating or cutting off Figure 37-2 Tuned RF amplifiers.
the transistor, which would distort the signal.
Class B operation is different. It means that collector or one that amplifies frequencies above 20 kHz, usually much
drain current flows for only half the cycle (180°), as shown in higher. For instance, the RF amplifiers in AM radios am-
Fig. 37-1b. To have this kind of operation, a designer locates plify frequencies between 535 and 1605 kHz, and the RF
the Q point at cutoff. Then, only the positive half of ac base amplifiers in FM radios amplify frequencies between 88
voltage can produce collector or drain current. This reduces and 108 MHz. Microwave amplifiers amplify signals in the
the wasted heat in power transistors. 1-GHz to 50-GHz range.
Class C operation means that collector or drain current Amplifiers are also classified as narrowband or wide-
flows for less than 180° of the ac cycle, as shown in Fig. 37-1c. band. A narrowband amplifier works over a small frequency
With class C operation, only part of the positive half cycle of range like 450 to 460 kHz. A wideband amplifier operates
ac base voltage produces collector or drain current. As a re- over a large frequency range like 0 to 1 MHz or several GHz.
sult, we get brief pulses of collector or drain current like those Narrowband amplifiers are usually tuned RF amplifiers,
of Fig. 37-1c. which means that their ac load is a high-Q resonant tank
tuned to a radio signal. Wideband amplifiers are usually un-
Ranges of Frequency tuned; that is, their ac load is resistive.
Another way to describe amplifiers is by stating their fre- Figure 37-2a is an example of a tuned RF amplifier. The
quency range. For instance, an audio amplifier refers to LC tank is resonant at some frequency. If the tank has a high
an amplifier that operates in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Q, the bandwidth is narrow. The output is capacitively cou-
On the other hand, a radio-frequency (RF) amplifier is pled to the next stage.

IC IC
Signal Levels
We have already described small-signal operation, in which
the peak-to-peak swing in collector current is less than 10%
of quiescent collector current. In large-signal operation, a
ICQ peak-to-peak signal uses all or most of the load line. In a ste-
reo system, the small signal from a radio tuner, tape player,
t t or compact disc player is used as the input to a preamp, an
(a) (b) amplifier that produces a larger output suitable for driving
tone and volume controls. The signal is then used as the input
IC to a power amplifier, which produces output power ranging
from a few hundred milliwatts up to hundreds of watts.

37.2 Class A Operation

Almost any voltage amplifier is also a power amplifier. It is
just not optimized for power applications. The amplifier of
t Fig. 37-3a is a class A amplifier as long as the output signal
(c)
is not clipped. With this kind of amplifier, collector current
Figure 37-1 Collector current. (a) Class A. (b) Class B. flows throughout the cycle. Stated another way, no clipping
(c) Class C. of the output signal occurs at any time during the cycle. Now,

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 Idc Usually, we measure the output voltage in peak-to-peak
+VCC
volts with an oscilloscope. In this case, a more convenient
RC equation to use for output power is
R1
vout2
pout 5 ____ (37-3)
8RL
__ occurs because vp-p 5
The__factor of 8 in the denominator
RL vout 2Ï 2 vrms. When you square 2Ï 2 , you get 8.
The maximum output power occurs when the amplifier
is producing the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage, as
R2 shown in Fig. 37-3b. In this case, vp-p equals the maximum
RE peak-to-peak output voltage and the maximum output power
is
2
MPP
pout(max) 5 _____ (37-4)
(a) 8RL
IC
Transistor Power Dissipation
When no signal drives the amplifier of Fig. 37-3a, the quies-
cent power dissipation is
PDQ 5 VCEQICQ (37-5)
Q
This makes sense. It says that the quiescent power dissipa-
tion equals the dc voltage times the dc current.
VCE When a signal is present, the power dissipation of a
transistor decreases because the transistor converts some
of the quiescent power to signal power. For this reason,
the quiescent power dissipation is the worst case. There-
fore, the power rating of a transistor in a class A amplifier
must be greater than PDQ; otherwise, the transistor will be
(b) destroyed.

Figure 37-3 Class A amplifier. Current Drain

As shown in Fig. 37-3a, the dc voltage source has to sup-
we discuss a few equations that are useful in the analysis of ply a dc current Idc to the amplifier. This dc current has two
class A amplifiers. components: the biasing current through the voltage divider
Power Gain and the collector current through the transistor. The dc cur-
Besides voltage gain, any amplifier has a power gain, de- rent is called the current drain of the stage. If you have a
fined as multistage amplifier, you have to add the individual current
pout drains to get the total current drain.
Ap 5 ___
pin (37-1)
Efficiency
In words, the power gain equals the ac output power divided
The dc power supplied to an amplifier by the dc source is
by the ac input power.
For instance, if the amplifier of Fig. 37-3a has an output Pdc 5 VCCIdc (37-6)
power of 10 mW and an input power of 10 W, it has a power
gain of To compare the design of power amplifiers, we can use the
10 mW 5 1000
Ap 5 _______ efficiency, defined by
10 W pout
 5 ___ 3 100% (37-7)
Output Power Pdc
If we measure the output voltage of Fig. 37-3a in rms volts, This equation says that the efficiency equals the ac output
the output power is given by power divided by the dc input power.
vrms2 The efficiency of any amplifier is between 0 and 100%.
pout 5 ____ (37-2) Efficiency gives us a way to compare two different designs
RL

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 because it indicates how well an amplifier converts the
E X A M P L E 3 7- 2
dc input power to ac output power. The higher the effi-
ciency, the better the amplifier is at converting dc power What is the transistor power dissipation and efficiency of Fig. 37-4?
to ac power. This is important in battery-operated equip-
Answer:
ment because high efficiency means that the batteries last The dc emitter current is
longer.
3V
Since all resistors except the load resistor waste power, IE 5 _____ 5 150 mA
20 V
the efficiency is less than 100% in a class A amplifier. In
The dc collector voltage is
fact, it can be shown that the maximum efficiency of a class
A amplifier with a dc collector resistance and a separate load VC 5 30 V 2 (150 mA)(120 V) 5 12 V
resistance is 25%. and the dc collector-emitter voltage is
In some applications, the low efficiency of class A is ac-
ceptable. For instance, the small-signal stages near the front VCEQ 5 12 V 2 3 V 5 9 V
of a system usually work fine with low efficiency because The transistor power dissipation is
the dc input power is small. In fact, if the final stage of a
PDQ 5 VCEQ ICQ 5 (9 V)(150 mA) 5 1.35 W
system needs to deliver only a few hundred milliwatts, the
current drain on the power supply may still be low enough To find the stage efficiency,
to accept. But when the final stage needs to deliver watts 30 V
of power, the current drain usually becomes too large with Ibias 5 _____________ 5 53.8 mA
490 V 1 68 V
class A operation.
Idc 5 Ibias 1 ICQ 5 53.8 mA 1 150 mA 5 203.8 mA
The dc input power to the stage is
E X A M P L E 3 7- 1
Pdc 5 VCC Idc 5 (30 V)(203.8 mA) 5 6.11 W
If the peak-to-peak output voltage is 18 V and the input imped-
Since the output power (found in Example 37-1) is 225 mW, the
ance of the circuit is 37.4 V, what is the power gain in Fig. 37-4?
efficiency of the stage is
VCC = 30 V
225 mW
 5 ________
6.11 W 3 100% 5 3.68%
RC
120 Ω
R1
490 Ω
An Improved Power Amplifier
The basic common emitter amplifier as shown in Fig. 37-4
RL can be made much more efficient by placing an inductor in
180 Ω
+ series with the collector lead. The concept was illustrated in
Vin R2
200 mV p-p
Fig. 37-2. The inductor replaces the normal collector resis-
68 Ω
RE tor. This inductance has a higher reactance at the operating
–
20 Ω
frequency as well as a very low dc resistance. The inductor
is generally referred to as a radio-frequency choke (RFC),
but it may also be the primary winding of a transformer. The
Figure 37-4 Example.
inductor with its energy-storing capabilities provides an ac
Answer:
output voltage across the load that will be almost two times
The ac input power is the dc supply voltage.
As the ac input signal to the amplifier varies the base
(200 mV)2
Pin 5 _________
8 (37.4) 5 133.7 W current, the collector current will also vary in step. As the
collector current varies, a self-induced voltage will be de-
The ac output power is
veloped across the inductor. The self-induced voltage ap-
(18 V)2 pears in series with the dc supply voltage. This results in an
Pout 5 _________ 5 225 mW
8 (180 V) output voltage that will have a peak-to-peak value equal to
The power gain is two times the supply voltage. For example, if the dc supply
225 mW voltage is 12 V, the peak-to-peak voltage across the load can
Ap 5 _________
133.7 W 5 1683 be as much as 24 V. It produces a considerably greater out-
put power across the load than before, and the efficiency is

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 +VCC +VCC

R1 Speaker R1

vout

R2

RE vin R2 RE RL

Figure 37-5 Class A power amplifier.

Figure 37-6 An emitter-follower power amplifier.
considerably improved. The efficiency can approach a maxi-
fact that the amplifier has vastly different input and output
mum value of 50%.
impedances. With a high input impedance and a low output
Figure 37-5 shows an example of this in a class A power
impedance, power gain is achieved.
amplifier. The transistor is biased as usual with the volt-
Assume that the input impedance, Zin , to the emitter fol-
age divider and emitter resistor. The primary winding of a
lower is 500 V. Also assume an output impedance of 16 V.
transformer is connected in series with the collector. The
A 16-V load is connected to the emitter output capacitor to
secondary winding is connected to a speaker. The speaker
provide impedance matching and maximum power transfer.
has a very low impedance, typically in the 4- to 8-V range.
Computing the input and output power levels using a
The output impedance of the amplifier itself will be con-
2-V rms signal, you can see below that the emitter follower
siderably more, generally in the range of several hundred
delivers more power to the load than consumed by the input
ohms.
impedance.
The purpose of the transformer, of course, is to match the
impedance of the speaker to the higher impedance of the V 2in ____
___ 22 4 5 0.008 W or 8 mW
Pin 5 Z 5 500 5 ____
class A amplifier. Matching impedances provides maximum in 500
power transfer from the amplifier to the speaker. Remem-
V 2out ___
ber the basic impedance matching relationship for which the Pout 5 ____ 5 4 5 0.25 W or 250 mW
16 16
speaker load resistance appears (Np /Ns) 2 times larger at the
collector. In this case, the power gain is 250/8 5 31.25 or 15 dB.
A class A amplifier with the transformer impedance Keep in mind that the circuit in Fig. 37-6 can also be im-
matching will have an impedance that approaches the maxi- plemented with an E-MOSFET to provide the same result.
mum theoretical limit of 50%. Such a circuit is used when An emitter-follower or source-follower circuit such as this
the desired output power is no more than several watts. will generally be used in applications where power levels are
Such amplifiers are no longer widely used because there are no more than a few watts.
smaller, more efficient integrated circuit amplifiers. Circuits
with no inductance in series with the collector are still occa- High-Power Class A Amplifiers
sionally found in some radio transmitters as a driving circuit When very high power is needed and good linearity, special
for a higher-power amplifier. The configuration is similar to high-voltage, high-power transistors can be used. Rarely are
that shown in Fig. 37-2. high-power class A amplifiers used in audio amplifiers as
there are other better circuits available, as you will see later
Emitter-Follower Power Amplifier in this chapter. However, for some high-power RF applica-
An emitter follower also makes a good class A power ampli- tions, a single-transistor, high-power amplifier is suitable.
fier. Figure 37-6 shows the familiar emitter-follower circuit. It would be used for an application where good linearity is
It is generally biased so that approximately half the supply required to pass all the frequency components of a modu-
voltage is developed across the emitter resistor and the re- lated RF carrier.
maining across the emitter collector of the transistor. Re- A good example of such a high-power class A, RF
membering that the voltage gain of an emitter follower is amplifier is shown in Fig, 37-7. The circuit uses a single
approximately 1, you may wonder how such an amplifier can n-channel E-MOSFET. It is biased into conduction with the
produce a power gain. The answer to this question lies in the circuit components R1, R2, R3, and D1. A voltage of 12 V

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 +VDD = 28 V

R2

RFC
R3 D1

C6

C5

R1 L2 L3
RL =
C3 C4
C1 50 Ω

vin
L1
C2
n = channel
E = MOSFET

Figure 37-7 A high-power class A, E-MOSFET RF amplifier.

is developed across the zener diode D1. This voltage is ap- 37.3 Class B Operation
plied to a potentiometer, R3, and the resulting dc voltage is Class A is the common way to run a transistor in linear cir-
applied through R1 to the gate of the E-MOSFET. Adjust- cuits because it leads to the simplest and most stable biasing
ing R3 optimizes the bias for maximum linearity. Capacitor circuits. But class A is not the most efficient way to oper-
C6 provides bypassing to ensure a pure dc voltage at the ate a transistor. In some applications, like battery-powered
gate. Once the biased voltage has been adjusted so that the systems, current drain and stage efficiency become impor-
amplifier operates in the linear region, it is ready to accept tant considerations in the design. This section introduces the
signals. basic idea of class B operation.
Capacitors C1 and C2 and inductor L1 are used as an
impedance-matching network to accept the input signal and Push-Pull Circuit
transfer maximum power to the E-MOSFET gate. The re- Figure 37-8 shows a basic class B amplifier. When a transis-
maining components, L2, L3, and C3 through C5, also pro- tor operates as class B, it clips off half a cycle. To avoid the
vide impedance matching to the output load RL, usually an resulting distortion, we can use two transistors in a push-pull
antenna. These components match the relatively high out- arrangement like that of Fig. 37-8. Push-pull means that one
put impedance of the E-MOSFET amplifier to a 50-Ω load. transistor conducts for half a cycle while the other is off, and
The most widely used input and output impedance for high- vice versa.
frequency radio transmitters is 50 V. Note that an inductor is Here is how the circuit works: On the positive half-cycle
used in the drain circuit of the amplifier to double the output of input voltage, the secondary winding of T1 has voltages
voltage swing across the load. Using modern high-frequency, v1 and v2, as shown. Therefore, the upper transistor conducts
high-power E-MOSFETs, output powers of several hundred and the lower one cuts off. The collector current through Q1
watts are possible at frequencies well into the several hun- flows through the upper half of the output primary winding.
dred megahertz range. This produces an amplified and inverted voltage, which is
Keep one important thing in mind regarding such high- transformer-coupled to the loudspeaker.
power class A amplifiers: Even while operating at the maxi- On the next half-cycle of input voltage, the polari-
mum theoretical efficiency of 50%, the amplifying transistor ties reverse. Now, the lower transistor turns on and the
itself is dissipating approximately the same amount of power upper transistor turns off. The lower transistor amplifies
as that delivered to the load. An amplifier delivering 150 W the signal, and the alternate half-cycle appears across the
of power to the 50-V load will also be dissipating 150 W as loudspeaker.
heat. Therefore, good high-power transistors must be used, Since each transistor amplifies one-half of the input cycle,
and typically they will require large heat sink and good air the loudspeaker receives a complete cycle of the amplified
circulation to remove the excess heat. signal.

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 T2
Q1 –
+
+ T1
v1
– + –
vin +VCC Speaker
+ +
v2
–
–
Q2

Figure 37-8 Class B push-pull amplifier.

Advantages and Disadvantages +VCC

Since there is no bias in Fig. 37-8, each transistor is at cutoff R1

when there is no input signal, an advantage because there is

no current drain when the signal is zero. With zero current,
R2
the power dissipation is also zero.
Vin
Another advantage is improved efficiency where there is no
input signal. The maximum efficiency of a class B push-pull R3

amplifier is 78.5%, so a class B push-pull power amplifier is RL

more commonly used for an output stage than a class A power
R4
amplifier.
The main disadvantage of the amplifier shown in Fig. 37-8
is the use of transformers. Audio transformers are bulky and
Figure 37-9 Class B push-pull emitter follower.
expensive. Although widely used at one time, a transformer-
coupled amplifier like Fig. 37-8 is no longer used in audio Because the biasing resistors are equal, each emitter
applications. Newer audio designs have eliminated the need diode is biased with the same value of voltage. As a result,
for transformers in most applications. half the supply voltage is dropped across each transistor’s
However, the class B circuit is still a viable option at radio collector-emitter terminals. The dc output is one-half the
frequencies as smaller, more efficient transformers are com- supply voltage.
mon. Most class B push-pull RF amplifiers use MOSFETs
instead of BJTs. Overall Action
On the positive half-cycle of input voltage, the upper tran-
37.4 Class B Push-Pull Emitter sistor of Fig. 37-9 conducts and the lower one cuts off. The
Follower upper transistor acts like an ordinary emitter follower, so that
Class B operation means that the collector current flows for the output voltage approximately equals the input voltage.
only 180° of the ac cycle. For this to occur, there is no dc On the negative half-cycle of input voltage, the upper
bias. The advantage of class B amplifiers is lower current transistor cuts off and the lower transistor conducts. The
drain and higher stage efficiency. lower transistor acts like an ordinary emitter follower and
produces a load voltage approximately equal to the input
Push-Pull Circuit voltage. The upper transistor handles the positive half-cycle
Figure 37-9 shows one way to make a transformerless class of input voltage, and the lower transistor takes care of the
B push-pull amplifier using emitter followers. Here, we have negative half-cycle. During either half-cycle, the source sees
an npn emitter followers and a pnp emitter follower con- a relatively high input impedance looking into either base.
nected in a push-pull arrangement. Because of the npn and
pnp transistors, this circuit is usually referred to as a comple- Crossover Distortion
mentary symmetry amplifier. Figure 37-10a shows the ac equivalent circuit of a class B
The bias is so that the voltage to the emitter diode of each push-pull emitter follower. Suppose that no bias is applied
transistor between 0.6 and 0.7 V on the verge of conduction. to the emitter diodes. Then, the incoming ac voltage has to
The collecter current with no signal is about zero. rise to about 0.7 V to overcome the barrier potential of the

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 +20 V

Q1 3.9 kΩ
0.7 V

Q2
RL

vin 10 Ω

(a) (b)

3.9 kΩ
Figure 37-10 (a) AC equivalent circuit. (b) Crossover
distortion.
emitter diodes. Because of this, no current flows through Q1
when the signal is less than 0.7 V. Figure 37-11 Diode bias in a class AB amplifier.
The action is similar on the other half-cycle. No current
flows through Q2 until the ac input voltage is more negative the required VBE also decreases by 60 mV, the collector cur-
than 20.7 V. For this reason, if no bias is applied to the emit- rent remains fixed at 2 mA.
ter diodes, the output of a class B push-pull emitter follower For diode bias to be immune to changes in temperature,
looks like Fig. 37-10b. the diode curves must match the VBE curves over a wide tem-
Because of clipping between half-cycles, the output is perature range. This is not easily done with discrete circuits
distorted. Since the clipping occurs between the time one because of the tolerance of components. But diode bias is
transistor cuts off and the other one comes on, we call it easy to implement with integrated circuits because the di-
crossover distortion. This distortion produces unwanted odes and transistors are on the same chip, which means that
harmonics in the output. To eliminate crossover distortion, they have almost identical curves.
we need to apply a slight forward bias to each emitter diode.
CE Driver
Class AB A complementary symmetry power amplifier normally needs
If we apply a slight forward bias to the transistors, the con- a preamplifier called a driver for the output transistors to
duction angle will be slightly greater than 180° because the achieve full output.
transistor will conduct for a bit more than half a cycle. Strictly The stage that precedes the output stage is called a driver.
speaking, we no longer have class B operation. Because of Rather than capacitively couple into the output push-pull
this, the operation is sometimes referred to as class AB, de- stage, we can use the direct-coupled common emitter (CE)
fined as a conduction angle between 180° and 360°. But it driver shown in Fig. 37-12. Transistor Q1 is a current source
is barely class AB. For this reason, many people still refer
to the circuit as a class B push-pull amplifier because the +VCC
operation is class B to a close approximation.
R1 R3
Diode Bias
Q2
The most common way to ac have class AB bias is with di-
odes, as shown in Fig. 37-11. The idea is to use compensat-
Vin
ing diodes to produce the bias voltage for the emitter diodes.
This arrangement eliminates the problem of thermal run-
Q3
away that could occur at high temperatures. For this scheme RL +
to work, the diode characteristics must match the VBE char- Vout
Q1
acteristics of the transistors. Then, any increase in tempera- –

ture reduces the bias voltage developed by the compensating R2 R4

diodes by just the right amount.
For instance, assume that a bias voltage of 0.65 V sets up
2 mA of collector current. If the temperature rises 30°C, the Figure 37-12 Direct-coupled CE driver for the
voltage across each compensating diode drops 60 mV. Since complementary symmetry amplifier.

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 that sets up the dc biasing current through the diodes. By negative-going. When fed back through R2 to the Q1 base,
adjusting R2, we can control the dc emitter current through this returning signal opposes the original input signal. This
R4. This means that Q1 sources the biasing current through is negative feedback, which stabilizes the bias and the volt-
the compensating diodes. age gain of the overall amplifier.
The amplified and inverted ac signal at the Q1 collector Most modern complementary symmetry power amplifi-
drives the bases of Q2 and Q3. On the positive half-cycle, Q2 ers are in integrated circuits.
conducts and Q3 cuts off. On the negative half-cycle, Q2 cuts
off and Q3 conducts. Because the output coupling capacitor Integrated Circuit Amplifiers
is an ac short, the ac signal is coupled to the load resistance. Most power amplifiers whose power level is below 100 W
The driver stage is an amplifier whose amplified and in- or so are available as integrated circuits. Discrete compo-
verted output drives both bases of the output transistors with nent power amplifiers are used only when very high voltages
the same signal. Often, the input impedance of the output and very high powers are required. In audio applications, IC
transistors is very high, and we can approximate the voltage power amplifiers are used as drivers for external class AB
gain of the driver by complementary symmetry amplifiers made with discrete
R transistors. For most audio and RF products, IC power am-
AV 5 ___3 plifiers are the most common. This section shows several IC
R4
power amplifiers.
Two-Stage Negative Feedback
Low-Voltage, Low-Power IC Amplifier
Figure 37-13 is another example of using a CE stage to drive
a class  B/AB push-pull emitter follower. The input signal One of the most popular and widely used IC power ampli-
is amplified and inverted by the Q1 driver. The push-pull fiers is the LM386. It typically operates from dc supply volt-
stage then provides the current gain needed to drive the low- ages in the 4- to 18-V range. Power output depends on the dc
impedance loudspeaker. Notice that the driver has its emitter supply voltage and is generally in the 250-mW to 1-W range.
connected to ground. As a result, this driver has more volt- The amplifier is designed to drive an 8-V speaker.
age gain than the driver of Fig. 37-12. The schematic diagram of the amplifier is shown in
The resistance R2 does two useful things: First, since it Fig.  37-14, along with its block diagram equivalent. Obvi-
is connected to a dc voltage of 1VCC /2, this resistance pro- ously the circuit is not accessible, but the IC pins provide ac-
vides the dc bias for Q1. Second, R2 produces negative feed- cess to the power and ground and various inputs and outputs,
back for the ac signal. Here’s why: A positive-going signal as you can see. The transistors on the left side of the circuit
on the base of Q1 produces a negative-going signal on the make up a differential amplifier with inverting (2) and non-
Q1 collector. The output of the emitter follower is therefore inverting (1) inputs on pins 2 and 3. This amplifier drives
the output stage. This is actually an op-amp power amplifier.
The output stage is not the usual complementary sym-
+VCC
metry arrangement with npn and pnp transistors. Instead,
two npn transistors are connected in series to form an ar-
R1
rangement generally known as a totem pole amplifier. Its
operation is similar to that of the complementary symmetry
Q2
amplifier discussed earlier. When the upper output transistor
is conducting heavily, the lower npn transistor is conducting
less and vice versa. This results in a very low output imped-
ance for driving a speaker. Note the two diodes used for tem-
perature compensation biasing of the output stage.
Q3
Figure 37-15 shows the typical connection of the amplifier
circuit. The input is applied across a 10-kV potentiometer
Speaker
Q1
for volume control. The inputs at pins 2 and 3 are connected
to form a noninverting op amp. With no external connec-
tions, the gain of the amplifier is set to 20. However, by con-
vin
necting an external resistor capacitor combination between
pins 1 and 8, the gain can be increased to a value of 200.
R2
The output of the amplifier at pin 5 is capacitively coupled
to the 8-V speaker. The series resistor-capacitor combina-
Figure 37-13 Two-stage negative feedback to CE driver. tion at the output of the amplifier is used to shape the output

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 6
Vs

15 kΩ Current
source
7
Bypass 8-pin DIP
or SMD
Gain Gain package
15 kΩ
8 1

5 1 8
Vout Gain Gain
150 1.35 kΩ 15 kΩ

2 2 7
– Input 3 – Input Bypass
+ Input

3 6
50 kΩ + Input Vs
50 kΩ

4 5
GND Vout
4

GND
(a)
DS006976-1 (b)

Figure 37-14 The popular LM386 audio power amplifier IC. (a) Schematic. (b) IC pin-out.

+Vs One technique that is widely used is to boost amplifier

output power with low voltage is to use what is called a
6 bridged amplifier. An example of such a circuit is shown in
2
– Fig. 37-16. Here two power op amps operated from relatively
vin 5 +
LM386
3 low voltage are used to operate the speaker. Note the input
+
4 wiring connections to the op-amp power amplifiers.
8- Ω
10 KΩ speaker The input signal is connected to the noninverting input
Volume of the upper amplifier and the inverting input of the lower
control amplifier. This means that if the power amplifiers are the
same, the outputs of the two amplifiers will be equal and
1808 out of phase.
Figure 37-15 A simple audio power amplifier using the Assume that each amplifier has an output voltage swing
LM386 IC. of 65 V. When the upper amplifier is supplying 15 V, the

frequency response. With a gain of 20, the amplifier has an

ac frequency response of several hundred kilohertz, well be- +5 V
yond most audio applications.
–

Bridged Amplifier
+
The output power of an amplifier is directly related to the
supply voltage value. As more power is required, higher sup- Speaker
ply voltages are required. Nevertheless, power transistors do
have their limitations. Furthermore, a trend over time has
+
been to reduce the supply voltages on most ICs. Therefore, it
has become more difficult to obtain the power required. This –
is particularly true of portable and mobile devices, such as Vin

cell phones, MP3 audio players like iPods, and similar de- –5 V

vices. All these units operate from very low battery voltages
in the 3- to 6-V range. Figure 37-16 A bridged amplifier.

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 lower amplifier is providing 25 V to the other side of the 37.5 Class C Operation
speaker. Consequently, the speaker itself will have 10 V
With class B, we need to use a push-pull arrangement. That’s
peak to peak across it. Since power is directly proportional
why almost all class B amplifiers are push-pull amplifiers.
to the square of the voltage, this means that the bridged
With class C, we need to use a resonant circuit for the load.
amplifier can normally produce four times the output
This is why almost all class C amplifiers are tuned amplifiers.
power with the same dc supply voltage as a single amplifier.
This arrangement is widely used in portable battery-oper- Resonant Frequency
ated equipment. The LM4951 is an example of a single-IC With class C operation, the collector current flows for less
bridged amplifier. It contains two power amplifiers and the than half a cycle. A parallel resonant circuit can filter the
related circuit. The typical supply voltage range is 2.7 to pulses of collector current and produce a pure sine wave
9 V. With a 7.5-V supply, the typical power supplied to an of output voltage. The main application for class C is with
8-Ω speaker is 1.8 W. tuned RF amplifiers. The maximum efficiency of a tuned
Even higher IC amplifiers are available. For example, class C amplifier is 100%.
the LM1875 can deliver 20 W of power into a 4- or 8-V Figure 37-17a shows a tuned RF amplifier. The ac input
speaker load using 625-V supplies. Boosting the supply voltage drives the base, and an amplified output voltage ap-
voltages to 630 V will provide over 30 W of power. It can pears at the collector. The amplified and inverted signal is
deliver up to 68 W of continuous power using 628-V sup- then capacitively coupled to the load resistance. Because of
plies. And, of course, even higher powers can be obtained the parallel resonant circuit, the output voltage is maximum
by using these devices in a bridged arrangement as de- at the resonant frequency, given by
scribed earlier.
Again, remember that with high-power amplifiers, with a 1 ___
fr 5 ________ (37-8)
2Ï LC
maximum efficiency of about 50%, the amplifier itself will
be dissipating almost as much power as that delivered to the On either side of the resonant frequency fr, the voltage gain
load under maximum-power conditions. If 50 W is delivered drops off as shown in Fig. 37-17b. For this reason, a tuned
to the load, the amplifier itself must dissipate 50 W of power
in the form of heat. That’s why all these higher-power IC +VCC

amplifiers are designed to use large metal heat sinks to help

dissipate the heat.
C L

Audio Amplifier Specifications

Since it is not necessary to design a power amplifier or an-
alyze its circuits, the key to using the amplifier lies in its
specifications. Here are the main specifications to consider.
RL
• Output power: Maximum possible power into the load.
• Output impedance: Usually low, less than 50 V. RB
• Input impedance: Usually high, more than several
thousand V.
• Supply voltage range: As low as 3 V but can be as high (a)
as 36 V.
AV
• Gain: Usually very high in the 20- to 50-dB range.
Can be less with added feedback.
AV(max)
• Frequency response: Most amplifiers are direct-
coupled to handle signal frequencies down to dc.
Upper cutoff frequency is typically above 100 kHz to
several megahertz.
• Total harmonic distortion (THD): THD is a mea- f
fr
sure of the linearity of the amplifiers; it indicates the
(b)
amount of harmonic content in the output at a certain
power level compared to the output power. Expressed Figure 37-17 (a) Tuned class C amplifier. (b) Voltage gain
as a percentage, the lower the better. versus frequency.

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 class C amplifier is always intended to amplify a narrow junction is forward-biased so that the transistor conducts. The
band of frequencies. This makes it ideal for amplifying radio 0.01 F capacitor charges up to 5 V less the forward base-
signals because each station or channel is assigned a narrow emitter drop of 0.7 V, or 4.3 V. When the input signal goes in
band of frequencies on both sides of a center frequency. the negative direction, the 25-V peak of the input adds to the
In operation, the input signal drives the emitter diode, 4.3-V charge on the capacitor, putting the bias of 29.3 V on the
and the amplified current pulses drive the resonant tank base. As you can see then, the voltage at the base varies from
circuit. 10.7 to 29.3 V. We say that the signal is negatively clamped
Only the positive peaks of the input signal can turn on the at the base of the transistor. The average base voltage is 24.3
emitter diode. For this reason, the collector current flows in V. In any case, the transistor only conducts for a short period
brief pulses. of time when the base goes positive. The collector current is a
series of pulses that flow for less than 180° of the input signal.
Filtering the Harmonics The pulses of the collector current cause the parallel reso-
Previous chapters discussed the concept of harmonics. The nant circuit in the collector lead to oscillate at the resonant
basic idea is this: Nonsinusoidal waveforms like the collec- frequency, thereby providing a complete sine wave at the
tor current pulses are rich in harmonics, multiples of the collector and across the load.
input frequency. In other words, the pulses are equivalent to The collector signal is inverted because of the CE con-
a group of sine waves with frequencies of f, 2f, 3f, . . . , nf. nection. The dc or average voltage of the collector waveform
The resonant tank circuit of Fig. 37-17 has a high imped- is 15 V, the supply voltage. Therefore, the peak-to-peak
ance only at the fundamental frequency f. This produces collector voltage is 30 V. This voltage is capacitively coupled
a large voltage gain at the fundamental frequency. On the to the load resistance. The final output voltage has a positive
other hand, the tank circuit has a very low impedance to the peak of 15 V and a negative peak of 15 V.
higher harmonics, producing very little voltage gain. This is
Bandwidth
why the voltage across the resonant tank looks almost like a
pure sine wave. Since all higher harmonics are filtered, only A tuned class C amplifier is usually a narrowband amplifier.
the fundamental frequency appears across the tank circuit. The input signal in a class C circuit is amplified to get large
output power with an efficiency approaching 100 percent.
Class C Operation The bandwidth (BW) of a resonant circuit is defined as
Refer to Fig. 37-18. The circuit has a resonant frequency of BW 5 f2 2 f1 (37-9)
1 where f1 5 lower half-power frequency
fr 5 ___________________
______________ 5 5.19 MHz f2  upper half-power frequency
2 Ï (2 H) (470 pF)
If the input signal has this frequency, the tuned class C cir- The half-power frequencies are identical to the frequencies
cuit will amplify the input signal. at which the voltage gain equals 0.707 times the maximum
In Fig. 37-18, the input signal has a peak-to-peak value of gain, as shown in Fig. 37-19. The smaller BW is, the nar-
10 V. When the input signal goes to 15 V, the emitter-base rower the bandwidth of the amplifier.
With Formula (37-9), it is possible to derive this new rela-
+15 V tion for bandwidth,
fr
BW 5 __ Q (37-10)
470 pF 2 H where Q is the quality factor of the circuit. Formula (37-10)
says that the bandwidth is inversely proportional to Q. The
≈ +30 V higher the Q of the circuit, the smaller the bandwidth.
+0.7 V
+15 V
–4.3 V +15 V
≈0V AV
–9.3 V
0V
0.01 F
1000 pF –15 V

+5 V 1 kΩ AV(max)
0V BW
4.7 kΩ 0.707 AV(max)
–5 V
f
f1 f2

Figure 37-18 An example of a class C amplifier. Figure 37-19 Bandwidth.

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 Class C amplifiers almost always have a circuit Q that is transistor switches, mainly MOSFETs, to provide linear
greater than 10. This means that the bandwidth is less than amplification for audio amplifications. And switching am-
10% of the resonant frequency. For this reason, class C am- plifiers are also used for high-efficiency RF amplification.
plifiers are narrowband amplifiers. The output of a narrow- Switching amplifiers are designated class D for audio and
band amplifier is a large sinusoidal voltage at resonance with classes E and F for RF. In all cases, efficiencies of 70% or
a rapid drop-off above and below resonance. greater are commonplace. Some IC switching amplifiers
have efficiencies of up to 95%. These are ideal for battery-
Stage Efficiency powered devices as they not only reduce the heat produced
The dc collector current depends on the conduction angle. but also permit smaller circuits.
For a conduction angle of 180° (a half-wave signal), the aver-
age or dc collector current is IC(sat)/. For smaller conduction Class D Amplifier
angles, the dc collector current is less than this. The dc col- The class B or class AB amplifier has been the main choice
lector current is the only current drain in a class C amplifier of many designers for audio amplifiers. This linear amplifier
because it has no biasing resistors. configuration has been able to provide the necessary conven-
In a class C amplifier, most of the dc input power is con- tional performance and cost requirements. Now, products
verted into ac load power because the transistor and coil such as LCD TVs, auto sound systems, and laptop PCs are
losses are small. For this reason, a class C amplifier has high driving the necessity for greater power output while main-
stage efficiency. taining or reducing the form-factor, without increasing costs.
The optimum stage efficiency varies with conduction Portable powered devices, such as iPod music players, cell
angle. When the angle is 180°, the stage efficiency is 78.5%, phones, and notebook PCs, are demanding higher circuit ef-
the theoretical maximum for a class B amplifier. When the ficiencies. Due to very high efficiency and low heat dissipa-
conduction angle decreases, the stage efficiency increases. tion, the class D amplifier is now mostly replacing the class
As indicated, class C has a maximum efficiency of 100%, AB amplifiers in many applications.
approached at very small conduction angles. Instead of being biased for linear operation, a class D
Inhancement-mode MOSFETs are also widely used as amplifier uses output transistors operated as switches. This
class C amplifiers. Power levels of several hundred watts to enables each transistor to either be in a cutoff or saturated
over 1 kW can be achieved with bipolar and MOSFET class C mode. When in cutoff, its current is zero. When it is satu-
amplifiers. rated, the voltage across it is low. In each mode, its power
dissipation is very low. This concept increases the circuit ef-
37.6 Switching Amplifiers ficiency, therefore, requires less power from the power sup-
In the quest for more efficient amplifiers, the switching ply and enables the use of smaller heat sinks for the amplifier.
amplifier has emerged as the clear winner over more tradi- A basic class D amplifier is shown in Fig. 37-20. The ampli-
tional class A and AB amplifiers. Switching amplifiers use fier consists of a comparator op amp driving two MOSFETs

+V

Q1
VA +VCC

Audio input + VC VO L1
Output to speaker
Triangle input –
C1
Q2
VT –VEE

–V

Figure 37-20 Basic class D amplifier.

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 operating as switches. The comparator has two input signals:
one signal is the audio signal VA, and the other input is a
triangle wave VT with a much higher frequency. The voltage
value out of the comparator, VC, will be approximately at ei-
ther 1VCC or 2VEE. When VA . VT, VC 5 1VCC. When VA ,
VT, VC 5 2VEE.
The comparator’s positive or negative output voltage
drives two complementary common-source MOSFETs.
When VC is positive, Q1 is switched on and Q 2 is off. When
VC is negative, Q 2 is switched on and Q1 is off. The output
voltage of each transistor will be slightly less than their
1V and 2V supply values. Both L1 and C1 act as a low-pass
filter. When their values are properly chosen, this filter
passes the average value of the switching transistors’ out-
put to the speaker. If the audio input signal VA were zero, Figure 37-22 Output waveform following the input.
VO would be a symmetrical square wave with an average
value of zero volts.
To illustrate the operation of this circuit, examine and incorporate active low-pass filters. Resulting efficien-
Fig. 37-21. A 1-kHz sine wave is applied to the input at VA, cies can reach upwards from 85–90%, even at lower power
and a 20-kHz triangle wave is applied to input VT. In prac- levels. This exceeds the efficiency of the class AB ampli-
tice, the triangle-wave input frequency would be many times fier, whose efficiency reaches a theoretical maximum of
higher than in this illustration. A frequency of 300 kHz to 78% at high-output levels and is much less efficient at lower
3 MHz is used. The frequency should be as high as possible power levels.
compared to the cutoff frequency, fc, of L1C1 for minimum Class D amplifiers are widely available in IC form.
output distortion. Also, note that the maximum voltage of VA Power levels to several watts are common. Dual-amplifier
is at approximately 70% of VT. ICs are used in stereo amplifier products like MP3 play-
The resulting output VO of the switching transistors is a ers. Discrete power MOSFETs are used to achive higher
pulse-width-modulated (PWM) waveform. With PWM, power levels to several hundred watts for outs sound
the pulse frequency stays the same but the duty cycle is systems.
varied. The duty cycle of the waveform produces an output
whose average value follows the audio input signal. This is
shown in Fig. 37-22. Class E and F Amplifiers
More sophisticated class D amplifiers use a MOSFET Class E and F switching amplifiers are used in RF applica-
H-bridge circuit configuration for the switching devices tions. Either bipolar transistors or MOSFETs can be used,
with MOSFETs being the preferred type in most modern
applications. Class E and F amplifiers are similar in opera-
tion to a class C amplifier. Class C amplifiers work with trun-
cated half-sine pulses, but class E and F amplifiers work with
square-wave pulses. All these circuits use a tuned circuit in
the output to filter out harmonics and produce a sine wave
into the load.
Figure 37-23a shows a MOSFET class E amplifier. The
input is a square wave that turns the transistor off and on at
the operating frequency. The square-wave output is sent to a
series resonant circuit filter and the load. The resonant cir-
cuit is an effective filter for the many harmonics produced.
Capacitor C1 is used to assist the transistor in switching off
and on faster. It is during the switching period that most of
the heat is generated.
A class F RF power amplifier is shown in Fig. 37-23b.
Again, the basic circuit is a MOSFET switch. A parallel
Figure 37-21 Input waveforms. resonant circuit across the load filters out the harmonics to

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 +VDD

RFC Collector
Metal tab
connected
to case

RL 2
vin C1
1

Pin 1. Base
2. Emitter
Case collector
(a) (b) (c)
(a)
Figure 37-24 (a) Push-on heat sink. (b) Power-tab
transistor. (c) Power transistor with collector connected to
case.
+VDD

Ambient Temperature
RFC 2f or 3f
The heat produced at the junction passes through the
transistor case (metal or plastic housing) and radiates to
the surrounding air. The temperature of this air, known
as the ambient temperature, is around 258C, but it can
RL get much higher on hot days. Also, the ambient temper-
vin ature may be much higher inside a piece of electronic
equipment.

Heat Sinks
One way to increase the power rating of a transistor is to get
(b)
rid of the heat faster. This is why heat sinks are used. If we
Figure 37-23 Class E and F switching amplifiers. increase the surface area of the transistor case, we allow the
(a) Class E. (b) Class F. heat to escape more easily into the surrounding air. Look
at Fig. 37-24a. When this type of heat sink is pushed onto
the transistor case, heat radiates more quickly because of the
provide a sine-wave output. The other parallel resonant cir- increased surface area of the fins.
cuit, made up of C1 and L1, is set to resonate at two or three Figure 37-24b shows the power-tab transistor. The metal
times the operating frequency. This harmonic resonator tab provides a path out of the transistor for heat. This metal
helps improve switching times to boost efficiency. tab can be fastened to the chassis of electronics equipment.
Both class E and F amplifiers can achieve efficiencies Because the chassis is a massive heat sink, heat can easily
of 70 to 90% at frequencies to several hundred megahertz. escape from the transistor to the chassis.
Power levels can be as high as several hundred watts with the Large power transistors like Fig. 37-24c have the col-
appropriate transistors. lector connected directly to the case to let heat escape
as easily as possible. The transistor case is then fastened
to the chassis. To prevent the collector from shorting to
37.7 Transistor Power Rating the chassis ground, a thin insulating washer and a ther-
The temperature at the collector junction or drain places mal conductive paste are used between the transistor case
a limit on the allowable power dissipation, PD. Depending and the chassis. The important idea here is that heat can
on the transistor type, a temperature in the range of 150 to leave the transistor more rapidly, which means that the
200°C will destroy the transistor. Data sheets specify this transistor has a higher power rating at the same ambient
maximum temperature as TJ(max). temperature.

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 CHAPTER 37 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

Class G and Class H Amplifiers

Class G and H amplifiers are special versions of class AB +70 V

power amplifiers that are designed for greater efficiency. Ef-

ficiency () is the ratio of the output power of the amplifier to
Q3
the total dc power used to power the amplifier:
D1
 5 Po/Pdc +35 V

Recall that a class A power amplifier has a maximum ef-

ficiency of 25% with a resistive load. This occurs when the D3
Q1
amplifier is supplying its maximum power. At lower output
levels, the efficiency is considerably less. At the lower, less 
Class AB
than maximum, settings, little power is used, so efficiency bias
Input
is not a major consideration. However, the power used is a
function of the dc supply voltage.

A class B amplifier is more efficient with a maximum ef- Class AB Speaker
ficiency of 78.5% at full power. Adding minimal forward bias

bias makes the class B amplifier a class AB amplifier, so D4

Q2
that it is more linear. Most high-power audio and low-power, D2
battery-operated amplifiers operate class AB for best linear- –35 V
ity and minimal distortion. Their efficiency is less than the
Q4
78.5% but still above the 60% level at maximum power. At
lower power levels, the efficiency is significantly less, so that
the amplifier transistors dissipate and waste a considerable –70 V
amount of power. Furthermore, large heat sinks and ventila-
tion are required to get rid of the heat and provide reliable Figure S37-1 A class G amplifier.
operation. The solution to this problem is to use a class G or
class H amplifier.
The control of the MOSFETs is determined by the input
Class G Amplifier signal level. When a desired higher-level input is reached,
Figure S37-1 shows the concept of a class G amplifier. It uses zener diodes D3 and D4 conduct, causing the MOSFETs to
the familiar complementary symmetry push-pull design. It turn on. The MOSFET control can also come from the out-
is a class AB amplifier; however, the complex forward-bias- put rather than directly from the input or some separate con-
ing arrangement is not shown. Note that the bipolar transis- trol circuit driven by the input.
tors Q1 and Q2 form the class AB amplifier. The MOSFETs The improved efficiency means that smaller or no heat
Q3 and Q4 are switches. Also note that there are two sets of sinks are required on the output power transistors. Many
dc supply voltages, 670 V and 635 V. professional high-power audio power amplifiers use the
The basic idea is that at low signal levels, the amplifier class G method, making their size smaller because of
only operates from the lower supply voltages. The MOSFET the reduced need for larger heat sinks or other cooling
switches are off at this time. The lower supply voltages mini- methods.
mize the power dissipation while fully supplying the desired In battery-powered audio devices like MP3 players,
output power. However, at higher input levels, the MOSFETs class G headphone amplifiers are used to ensure the sound
switch on and connect the higher supply voltages to supply quality of a linear class AB amplifier while improving ef-
the higher output power demanded of the higher input. Di- ficiency to minimize heat dissipation in a portable device
odes D1 and D2 keep the two sets of supply voltages isolated and also greatly extending battery life. Class G amplifier
from one another. ICs are widely available.

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 Class H Amplifiers Modulation Positive dc
control supply
A class H amplifier extends the concept of class G by mak-
Class AB
ing the power supplies continuously variable. By making the amplifier
supply voltages tracking only a few volts above the peak out- +V

puts, efficiency is maximized at all signal levels. To do this,

the input signal needs to modulate the power supplies, mak- Input Speaker
ing them continuously variable. This arrangement is shown
in the block diagram of Fig. S37-2.
–V
Note: Class G and H amplifiers are more efficient that
standard class AB amplifiers but not as efficient as a class
Modulation Negative dc
D switching amplifier. However, the compromise is a good control supply
one, and the filtering needs and noise of the class D amplifier
are eliminated. Figure S37-2 A class H amplifier.

CHAPTER 37 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. For class B operation, the collector or drain current c. improve efficiency.

flows for d. reduce power consumption.
a. the whole cycle. 7. An emitter or source follower is a power amplifier
b. half the cycle. because it
c. less than half a cycle. a. has a high voltage gain.
d. less than a quarter of a cycle. b. can sustain higher dc supply voltages.
2. Power amplifiers not used in which of the following? c. has a high input impedance and low output
a. Small-signal amplification. impedance.
b. Speaker drivers. d. uses transistors with higher gains.
c. Motor drivers. 8. The most common name for a class AB amplifier
d. Transmitter amplifiers. with no transformers is
3. An audio amplifier operates in the frequency range of a. emitter-follower amplifier.
a. 0 to 20 Hz. b. class B amplifier.
b. 20 Hz to 2 kHz. c. diode-biased amplifier.
c. 20 to 20 kHz. d. complementary symmetry amplifier.
d. Above 20 kHz. 9. Push-pull is almost always used with
4. A tuned RF amplifier is a. class A.
a. narrowband. b. class B.
b. wideband. c. class C.
c. direct-coupled. d. all of the above.
d. a dc amplifier. 10. One advantage of a class B push-pull amplifier is
5. The first stage of a preamp is a. no quiescent current drain.
a. a tuned RF stage. b. maximum efficiency of 78.5%.
b. large signal. c. greater efficiency than class A.
c. small signal. d. all of the above.
d. a dc amplifier. 11. Class C amplifiers are almost always
6. An inductor in the collector or drain lead of a class A a. transformer-coupled between stages.
amplifier is used to b. operated at audio frequencies.
a. reduce distortion. c. tuned RF amplifiers.
b. double output power. d. wideband.

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 12. The input signal of a class C amplifier 22. In a class A amplifier, the collector current
a. is negatively clamped at the base. flows for
b. is amplified and inverted. a. less than half the cycle.
c. produces brief pulses of collector current. b. half the cycle.
d. all of the above. c. less than the whole cycle.
13. The collector current of a class C amplifier d. the entire cycle.
a. is an amplified version of the input voltage. 23. With class A, the output signal should be
b. has harmonics. a. unclipped.
c. is negatively clamped. b. clipped on positive voltage peak.
d. flows for half a cycle. c. clipped on negative voltage peak.
14. The bandwidth of a class C amplifier decreases when d. clipped on negative current peak.
the 24. Most audio power amplifiers are in IC form.
a. resonant frequency increases. a. True.
b. Q increases. b. False.
c. XL decreases. 25. The power gain of an amplifier is often expressed in
d. load resistance decreases. dB. What is the dB power gain of an amplifier with a
15. The transistor dissipation in a class C amplifier de- power gain of 400?
creases when the a. 10 dB.
a. resonant frequency increases. b. 26 dB.
b. coil Q increases. c. 52 dB.
c. load resistance decreases. d. 400 dB.
d. capacitance increases. 26. The power gain of an amplifier
16. The power rating of a transistor can be increased by a. is the same as the voltage gain.
a. raising the temperature. b. is smaller than the voltage gain.
b. using a heat sink. c. equals output power divided by input power.
c. using a derating curve. d. equals load power.
d. operating with no input signal. 27. Heat sinks reduce the
17. Which class of amplifier produces the least signal a. transistor power.
distortion? b. ambient temperature.
a. A. c. junction temperature.
b. B. d. collector current.
c. C. 28. When the ambient temperature increases, the maxi-
d. D. mum transistor power rating
18. The maximum efficiency of a class AB amplifier is a. decreases.
a. 25%. b. increases.
b. 50%. c. remains the same.
c. 78.5%. d. none of the above.
d. Over 90%. 29. If the load power is 300 mW and the dc power is
19. The quiescent collector current is the same as the 1.5 W, the efficiency is
a. dc collector current. a. 0%.
b. ac collector current. b. 2%.
c. total collector current. c. 3%.
d. voltage divider current. d. 20%.
20. The main advantage of a bridged amplifier is 30. Switching amplifiers are used for
a. greater efficiency. a. audio.
b. improved frequency response. b. RF.
c. higher output power with lower supply voltage. c. both a and b.
d. no heat sinks are needed. d. none of the above.
21. Most modern power amplifiers use 31. Class D amplifiers operated by
a. MOSFETs. a. clipping off all amplitude variations of the input.
b. bipolar transistors. b. converting the input signal to a PWM signal.

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 c. using a tuned circuit to restore the signal. 34. The maximum efficiency of a class B push-pull am-
d. filtering out the harmonics. plifier is
32. Class E and F amplifiers amplify a. 25%.
a. audio. b. 50%.
b. RF. c. 78.5%.
c. Both a and b. d. 100%.
d. none of the above 35. A small quiescent current is necessary with a class
33. Most IC power amplifiers must have AB push-pull amplifier to avoid
a. higher-operating voltages. a. crossover distortion.
b. higher gain. b. destroying the compensating diodes.
c. cooling fans. c. excessive current drain.
d. heat sinks. d. loading the driver stage.

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 Ch a pt er 38
Oscillators and Frequency
Synthesizers

Oscillators are signal sources. They are circuits that gen- Learning Outcomes
erate the sine waves, square waves, and other signals
processed by electronic equipment. Virtually all elec- After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
tronic equipment contains at least one oscillator, and Explain loop gain and phase and how they relate to
many devices have two or more. Oscillators produce sinusoidal oscillators.
signals from a fraction of a hertz to well over 100 GHz Describe the operation of a Wien-bridge RC
and everything in between. Low-frequency oscillators sinusoidal oscillator.
generate signals at frequencies less than 1 MHz using Describe the operation of several LC sinusoidal
resistor-capacitor (RC) networks to determine their op- oscillators.
erating frequency. Above about 1 MHz, oscillators use Explain how crystal-controlled oscillators work.
either inductor-capacitor (LC) circuits or quartz crystals Discuss the 555 timer IC, its modes of operation,
to set the frequency. In this chapter you will learn about and how it is used as an oscillator.
the basic RC and LC oscillator types. Also introduced Explain the operation of phase-locked loops.
in the chapter is the phase-locked loop (PLL), which Name two types of frequency synthesizers and
has an oscillator at its heart. The PLL is widely used to explain how they work.
create frequency synthesizers that produce precise fre-
quency signals for use in communications equipment.

712

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 38.1 Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation What happens to the output voltage? If AvB is less than
1, AvB(vin) is less than vin and the output signal will die out,
To build a sinusoidal oscillator, we use an amplifier with
as shown in Fig. 38-1c. However, if AvB is greater than 1,
positive feedback. The idea is to use the feedback signal
AvB(vin) is greater than vin and the output voltage builds up
in place of the input signal. If the feedback signal is large
(Fig. 38-1d). If AvB equals 1, then AvB(vin) equals vin and the
enough and has the correct phase, there will be an output
output voltage is a steady sine wave like the one in Fig. 38-1e.
signal even though there is no external input signal.
In this case, the circuit supplies its own input signal.
Loop Gain and Phase In any oscillator the loop gain AvB is greater than 1 when
Figure 38-la shows an ac voltage source driving the input the power is first turned on. A small starting voltage is ap-
terminals of an amplifier. The amplified output voltage is plied to the input terminals, and the output voltage builds up,
as shown in Fig. 38-1d. After the output voltage reaches a
vout 5 Av(vin) certain level, AvB automatically decreases to 1, and the peak-
to-peak output becomes constant (Fig. 38-1e).
This voltage drives a feedback circuit that is usually a reso-
nant circuit. Because of this, we get maximum feedback at Starting Voltage Is Thermal Noise
one frequency. In Fig. 38-1a, the feedback voltage returning Where does the starting voltage come from? Every resistor
to point x is given by contains some free electrons. Because of the ambient tem-
perature, these free electrons move randomly in different
vf 5 Av B(vin)
directions and generate a noise voltage across the resistor.
where B is the feedback fraction. The motion is so random that it contains frequencies to
If the phase shift through the amplifier and feedback cir- over 1000 GHz. You can think of each resistor as a small ac
cuit is equivalent to 0°, AvB(vin) is in phase with vin. voltage source producing all frequencies.
Suppose we connect point x to point y and simultaneously In Fig. 38-1b, here is what happens: When you first turn on
remove voltage source vin. Then the feedback voltage AvB(vin) the power, the only signals in the system are the noise voltages
drives the input of the amplifier, as shown in Fig. 38-1b. generated by the resistors. These noise voltages are amplified
and appear at the output terminals. The amplified noise, which
x y contains all frequencies, drives the resonant feedback circuit.
+ + By deliberate design, we can make the loop gain greater than 1
AvB(v in) vin Av vout
– –
and the loop phase shift equal to 0° at the resonant frequency.
Above and below the resonant frequency, the phase shift is
different from 0°. As a result, oscillations will build up only at
the resonant frequency of the feedback circuit.
B
AvB Decreases to Unity
(a) There are two ways in which AvB can decrease to 1. Either
Av can decrease or B can decrease. In some oscillators, the
signal is allowed to build up until clipping occurs because of
Av vout saturation and cutoff. This is equivalent to reducing voltage
gain Av. In other oscillators, the signal builds up and causes
B to decrease before clipping occurs. In either case, the prod-
uct AvB decreases until it equals 1.
B
Here are the key ideas behind any feedback oscillator:
1. Initially, loop gain AvB is greater than 1 at the fre-
(b) quency where the loop phase shift is 0°.
2. After the desired output level is reached, AvB must de-
crease to 1 by reducing either Av or B.

(c) (d ) (e) 38.2 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Figure 38-1 (a) Feedback voltage returns to point x. The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator cir-
(b) Connecting points x and y. (c) Oscillations die out. cuit for low to moderate frequencies, in the range of 5 Hz
(d) Oscillations increase. (e) Oscillations are fixed in amplitude. to about 1 MHz. It is almost always used in commercial

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 The lead-lag circuit of Fig. 38-2 acts like a resonant circuit.
R C
At the resonant frequency, fr, the feedback fraction B reaches
a maximum value of 1⁄3, and the phase angle equals 0°. Above
Vin R C Vout and below the resonant frequency, the feedback fraction is
less than 1⁄3, and the phase angle no longer equals 08.

Formula for Resonant Frequency

The resonant frequency of the circuit in Fig. 38-2 is
Figure 38-2 Lead-lag circuit.
1
fr 5 ______ (38-1)
2RC
audio generators and is usually preferred for other low- At this frequency the output of this circuit is 1⁄3 the input.
frequency applications. An RC network is used for the
feedback circuit. How It Works
Figure 38-4a shows a Wien-bridge oscillator. It uses posi-
Lead-Lag Circuit
tive and negative feedback because there are two paths
The Wien-bridge oscillator uses a resonant feedback circuit for feedback. There is a path for positive feedback from
called a lead-lag circuit (Fig. 38-2). At very low frequen- the output through the lead-lag circuit to the noninverting
cies, the series capacitor appears open to the input signal, and input. There is also a path for negative feedback from the
there is no output signal. At very high frequencies, the shunt output through the voltage divider to the inverting input.
capacitor looks shorted, and there is no output. In between Note in figure 38-4 that the RC network forms one side of
these extremes, the output voltage reaches a maximum value a bridge circuit, while the 2R9 5 R9 voltage divider makes
(see Fig. 38-3a). The frequency where the output is maxi- up the other side of the bridge. The bridge is balanced at
mum is the resonant frequency, fr. At this frequency, the the resonant frequency.
feedback fraction B reaches a maximum value of 1⁄3. When the circuit is initially turned on, there is more
Figure 38-3b shows the phase angle of the output volt- positive feedback than negative feedback. This allows the
age versus input voltage. At very low frequencies, the phase oscillations to build up, as previously described. After the
angle is positive (leading). At very high frequencies, the output signal reaches a desired level, the negative feedback
phase angle is negative (lagging). At the resonant frequency, becomes large enough to reduce loop gain AvB to 1.
the phase shift is 08. Figure 38-3c shows the phasor diagram Here is why AvB decreases to 1: At power-up, the tungsten
of the input and output voltages. The tip of the phasor can lamp has a low resistance, and the negative feedback is
lie anywhere on the dashed circle. Because of this, the phase small. For this reason, the loop gain is greater than 1, and the
angle may vary from 1908 to 2908. oscillations can build up at the resonant frequency. As the
oscillations build up, the tungsten lamp heats slightly and its
B
resistance increases. In most circuits, the current through the
lamp is not enough to make the lamp glow, but it is enough
1 to increase the resistance.
3

f
fr

(a) R 2R ′
1
␾ +VCC fr =
2 RC
C
+
+90° +
verror Av
–
–
0° f Vout R RL
fr C
␾ R′ –VEE
Vin
–90° Tungsten lamp

(b) (c)
Wien bridge
Figure 38-3 (a) Voltage gain. (b) Phase response.
(c) Phasor diagram. Figure 38-4 Wien-bridge oscillator.

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 At some high output level, the tungsten lamp has a 38.3 The Colpitts Oscillator
resistance of exactly R9. At this point, the closed-loop
Although it is superb at low frequencies, the Wien-bridge
voltage gain from the noninverting input to the output
oscillator is not suited to high frequencies (well above
decreases to
1 MHz). Above 1 MHz, most oscillators use LC circuits or
2R9 1 1 5 3 quartz crystals.
Av(CL) 5 ____
R9
LC Oscillators
Since the lead-lag circuit has a B of 1⁄3, the loop gain is
One way to produce high-frequency oscillations is with an
Av(CL)B 5 3(1⁄3) 5 1 LC oscillator, a circuit that can be used for frequencies be-
tween 1 MHz and over 1 GHz. This frequency range is be-
When the power is first turned on, the resistance of the
yond the funity of most op amps. This is why a bipolar junction
tungsten lamp is less than R9. As a result, the closed-loop
transistor or an FET is typically used for the amplifier. With
voltage gain from the noninverting input to the output is
an amplifier and LC tank circuit, we can feed back a signal
greater than 3 and Av(CL)B is greater than 1.
with the right amplitude and phase to sustain oscillations.
As the oscillations build up, the peak-to-peak output
becomes large enough to increase the resistance of the CE Connection
tungsten lamp. When its resistance equals R9, the loop gain The most popular LC oscillator is called a Colpitts oscillator.
Av(CL) B is exactly equal to 1. At this point, the oscillations Figure 38-6 shows a Colpitts oscillator. The voltage divider
become stable, and the output voltage has a constant peak- bias sets up a quiescent operating point. The RF choke has
to-peak value. a very high inductive reactance, so it appears open to the ac
signal. The circuit has a low-frequency voltage gain of rc /re9,
EXAMPLE 38-1 where rc is the ac collector resistance. Because the RF choke
appears open to the ac signal, the ac collector resistance is
Calculate the minimum and maximum frequencies in Fig. 38-5. primarily the ac resistance of the resonant tank circuit. This
The two variable resistors are ganged, which means that ac resistance has a maximum value at resonance.
they change together and have the same value for any wiper
You will encounter many variations of the Colpitts oscil-
position.
lator. One way to recognize a Colpitts oscillator is by the ca-
100 kΩ 1 kΩ pacitive voltage divider formed by C1 and C2. It produces the
feedback voltage necessary for oscillations. In other kinds of
+15 V oscillators, the feedback voltage is produced by transform-
ers, inductive voltage dividers, and so on.
3 0.01 F
+ 7
6
318
AC Equivalent Circuit
100 kΩ
– 4 Figure 38-7 is a simplified ac equivalent circuit for the Col-
0.01 F 2
pitts oscillator. The circulating or loop current in the tank
–15 V flows through C1 in series with C2. Notice that vout equals
1 kΩ 2 kΩ the ac voltage across C1. Also, the feedback voltage vf ap-
Rlamp 10 kΩ
pears across C2. This feedback voltage drives the base and

+VCC

Figure 38-5 Example. R1 RF

fr =
1
choke 2 LC
Answer: vout
C3 C1C2
With Formula (38-1), the minimum frequency of oscillation is C=
C1 + C2
C1
1
fr 5 __________________ 5 158 Hz C1
B=
2(101 kV)(0.01 F) L C2

R2 RE CE
The maximum frequency of oscillation is C2
Av(min) =
C2 C1
1
fr 5 ________________ 5 15.9 kHz
2(1 kV)(0.01 F)
Figure 38-6 Colpitts oscillator.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 715

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 vout
EXAMPLE 38-2
C1
vf
I loop L What is the frequency of oscillation in Fig. 38-6? C1 5 0.001 F,
C2 5 0.01 F, and L 5 15 H. What is the feedback fraction? How
C2
much voltage gain does the circuit need to start oscillating?
Answer:
Figure 38-7 Equivalent circuit of Colpitts oscillator. This is a Colpitts oscillator using the CE connection of a transistor.
With Formula (38-3), the equivalent capacitance is
sustains the oscillations developed across the tank circuit, (0.001 F)(0.01 F)
provided there is enough voltage gain at the oscillation fre- C 5 _________________
0.001 F 1 0.01 F 5 909 pF
quency. Since the emitter is at ac ground, the circuit is a CE
The inductance is 15 H. With Formula (38-2), the frequency of
connection. oscillation is
Resonant Frequency 1
fr 5 ___________________
_______________ 5 1.36 MHz
Most LC oscillators use tank circuits with a Q greater than 2Ï (15 H)(909 pF)
10. Because of this, we can calculate the approximate reso- With Formula (38-4), the feedback fraction is
nant frequency as
0.001 F
B 5 ________
0.01 F 5 0.1
1 ___
fr 5 ________ (38-2)
2Ï LC To start oscillating, the circuit needs a minimum voltage gain of
This is accurate to better than 1% when Q is greater than 10. 0.01 F
The capacitance to use in Formula (38-2) is the equivalent Av(min) 5 ________
0.001 F 5 10
capacitance through which the circulating current passes. In
the Colpitts tank circuit of Fig. 38-7, the circulating current
flows through C1 in series with C2. Therefore, the equivalent 38.4 Other LC Oscillators
capacitance is
The Colpitts oscillator is the most widely used LC oscilla-
C1C2 tor. The capacitive voltage divider in the resonant circuit is
C 5 _______ (38-3)
C1 1 C2 a convenient way to develop the feedback voltage. But other
For instance, if C1 and C2 are 100 pF each, you would use kinds of oscillators can also be used.
50 pF in Formula (38-2). Hartley Oscillator
Starting Condition Figure 38-8 is an example of the Hartley oscillator. When the
The required starting condition for any oscillator is AvB . 1 LC tank is resonant, the circulating current flows through L1
at the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. This is equiva- in series with L2. The equivalent L to use in Formula (38-2) is
lent to Av . 1/B. In Fig. 38-7, the output voltage appears L 5 L1 1 L 2 (38-6)
across C1 and the feedback voltage appears across C2. The
feedback fraction in this type of oscillator is given by In a Hartley oscillator, the feedback voltage is developed
by the inductive voltage divider, L1 and L2. Since the output
C
B 5 ___1 (38-4)
C2
+VCC
For the oscillator to start, the minimum voltage gain is 1
R1 RF fr =
C choke 2 LC
Av(min) 5 ___2 (38-5)
C1
L = L1 + L2
What does Av equal? This depends on the upper cutoff L1
frequencies of the amplifier. There are base and collector C L2
B=
bypass circuits in a bipolar amplifier. If the cutoff frequen- L1
cies of these bypass circuits are greater than the oscillation
R2 R3 L1
frequency, Av is approximately equal to rc /re9. If the cutoff L2 Av(min) =
L2
frequencies are lower than the oscillation frequency, the
voltage gain is less than rc /re9 and there is additional phase
shift through the amplifier. Figure 38-8 Hartley oscillator.

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 voltage appears across L1 and the feedback voltage appears Integrated LC Oscillators
across L2, the feedback fraction is While you will occasionally see discrete transistor oscilla-
L tors like that described in the previous sections, be aware
B 5 __2 (38-7) that most oscillators today are in integrated circuit form.
L1
They are integrated on a chip along with amplifiers and
As usual, this ignores the loading effects of the base. For os- other circuits making up a larger IC.
cillations to start, the voltage gain must be greater than 1/B. An example of an LC oscillator commonly used in radio-
Often a Hartley oscillator uses a single tapped inductor frequency ICs is shown in Fig. 38-10a. It uses cross-coupled
instead of two separate inductors. Another variation sends n-channel MOSFETs. While M1 conducts, M2 is cut off and
the feedback signal to the emitter instead of to the base. Also,
you may see an FET used instead of a bipolar junction tran-
+V
sistor. The output signal can be either capacitively coupled or
link-coupled.

Bias
Clapp Oscillator
The Clapp oscillator of Fig. 38-9 is a refinement of the
Colpitts oscillator. The capacitive voltage divider produces M3 M4
the feedback signal as before. An additional capacitor C3 is
in series with the inductor. Since the circulating tank current L

flows through C1, C2, and C3 in series, the equivalent capaci-

tance used to calculate the resonant frequency is
C1 C2

1
C 5 _________________ (38-8)
1/C1 1 1/C2 1 1/C3 M1 M2

In a Clapp oscillator, C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As

a result, C is approximately equal to C3, and the resonant
frequency is given by
(a)

1____
fr > _________ (38-9) +V
2Ï LC3
Why is this important? Because C1 and C2 are shunted by
transistor and stray capacitances. These extra capacitances Bias
alter the values of C1 and C2 slightly. In a Colpitts oscillator,
the resonant frequency therefore depends on the transistor
M3 M4
and stray capacitances. But in a Clapp oscillator, the transis-
tor and stray capacitances have no effect on C3, so the oscil- L
lation frequency is more stable and accurate. This is why you
occasionally see the Clapp oscillator used.

+VCC
D1 D2
1 M1 M2
R1 RF fr = (C1) (C2)
choke 2 LC

1
C=
1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
C1 L
C1 – DC
B=
C2 tuning voltage

C2 C3 (b)
R2 R3 C2
Av(min) =
C1 Figure 38-10 (a) A typical integrated circuit LC oscillator.
(b) An integrated LC voltage-controlled oscillator whose
frequency can be varied by changing the dc reverse bias on
Figure 38-9 Clapp oscillator. the varactor diodes.

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 vice versa. Both M3 and M4 are current sources. Inductor L i

and capacitors C1 and C2 set the frequency of oscillation, f.

Crystal
1____
f 5 ________ (38-10) slab
2Ï LCt AC
t source
C1C2
Ct 5 _______ (38-11) (a) (b) (c)
C1 1 C2
Figure 38-11 (a) Natural quartz crystal. (b) Slab. (c) Input
The inductor is a spiral pattern of aluminum or other con- current is maximum at resonance.
ductive material integrated with the transistors and capaci-
tors on a silicon chip.
There are numerous variations of this circuit with dif- Crystal Slab
ferent combinations of inductors and capacitors. One of the The natural shape of a quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism
most popular is that in Fig. 38-10b. Here the two capacitors with pyramids at the ends (see Fig. 38-11a). To get a us-
have been replaced with varactor diodes D1 and D2. These able crystal out of this, a manufacturer slices a rectangular
reverse-biased diodes act as capacitors whose values can be slab out of the natural crystal. Figure 38-11b shows this
changed by varying the amount of reverse dc bias voltage. slab with thickness t. The number of slabs we can get from
This allows the frequency to be adjusted with an external dc a natural crystal depends on the size of the slabs and the
voltage. This combination creates a voltage-controlled oscil- angle of the cut.
lator (VCO). VCOs are widely used for tuning and in phase- For use in electronic circuits, the slab must be mounted
locked loops, to be discussed later in this chapter. They are between two metal plates, as shown in Fig. 38-11c. In this
also used to produce frequency modulation (FM) where a circuit the amount of crystal vibration depends on the fre-
voice or data signal varies the frequency of a fixed radio car- quency of the applied voltage. By changing the frequency,
rier frequency. we can find resonant frequencies at which the crystal vibra-
tions reach a maximum. Since the energy for the vibrations
38.5 Quartz Crystals must be supplied by the ac source, the ac current is maxi-
When the frequency of oscillation needs to be accurate and mum at each resonant frequency.
stable, a crystal oscillator is the natural choice. Radio trans-
mitters and receivers require precise and stable frequen- Fundamental Frequency and Overtones
cies. Microcontrollers and communications and networking Most of the time, the crystal is cut and mounted to vibrate
equipment use crystal oscillators because they provide an best at one of its resonant frequencies, usually the funda-
accurate clock frequency. mental frequency, or lowest frequency. Higher resonant
frequencies, called overtones, are almost exact multiples of
Piezoelectric Effect the fundamental frequency. As an example, a crystal with a
Some crystals found in nature exhibit the piezoelectric ef- fundamental frequency of 1 MHz has a first overtone of ap-
fect. When you apply an ac voltage across them, they vibrate proximately 2 MHz, a second overtone of approximately 3
at the frequency of the applied voltage. Conversely, if you MHz, and so on.
mechanically force them to vibrate, they generate an ac volt- Since the fundamental frequency is inversely propor-
age of the same frequency. The main substances that pro- tional to the thickness, there is a limit to the highest funda-
duce the piezoelectric effect are quartz, Rochelle salts, and mental frequency. The thinner the crystal, the more fragile
tourmaline. it becomes and the more likely it is to break when vibrating.
Rochelle salts have the greatest piezoelectric activity. For a Quartz crystals work well up to 100 MHz on the funda-
given ac voltage, they vibrate more than quartz or tourmaline. mental frequency. To reach higher frequencies, we can use a
Mechanically, they are the weakest because they break easily. crystal that vibrates on overtones. In this way, we can reach
Rochelle salts have been used to make microphones, headsets, frequencies up to 500 MHz.
and loudspeakers. Tourmaline shows the least piezoelectric
activity but is the strongest of the three. It is also the most AC Equivalent Circuit
expensive. It is occasionally used at very high frequencies. What does the crystal look like to an ac source? When
Quartz is a compromise between the piezoelectric activ- the crystal of Fig. 38-12a is not vibrating, it is equivalent
ity of Rochelle salts and the strength of tourmaline. Because to a capacitance Cm because it has two metal plates sepa-
it is inexpensive and readily available in nature, quartz is rated by a dielectric. The capacitance Cm is known as the
widely used for RF oscillators and filters. mounting capacitance.

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 Crystal Stability
L The frequency of any oscillator tends to change slightly
with time. This drift is produced by temperature, aging, and
Loop Branch
Cm Cm Cs current
other causes. In a crystal oscillator, the frequency drift is
current
very small, typically less than 1 part in 106 per day. Stability
R like this is important in radio equipment because they use
quartz-crystal oscillators as the basic timing device.
By putting a crystal oscillator in a temperature-controlled
(a) (b)
oven, we can get a frequency drift of less than 1 part in 1010
Figure 38-12 (a) Mounting capacitance. (b) AC equivalent per day. A clock with this drift will take 300 years to gain or
circuit of vibrating crystal. lose 1 s. Stability like this is needed in frequency and time
standards.

When a crystal is vibrating, it acts like a tuned circuit.

Figure 38-12b shows the ac equivalent circuit of a crystal vi-
38.6 Crystal Oscillators
brating at its fundamental frequency. Typical values are L in Virtually all modern electronic products contain a crystal
henrys, Cs in fractions of a picofarad, R in hundreds of ohms, oscillator, and many like cell phones contain several. Fre-
and Cm in picofarads. For instance, a crystal can have values quency precision and stability are important for ensuring
such as L 5 3 H, Cs 5 0.05 pF, R 5 2 kV, and Cm 5 10 pF. that timing operations in computers and other products are
Crystals have an incredibly high Q. For the values just accurate and that frequency spectrum assignments in wire-
given, Q is almost 4000. The Q of a crystal can easily be less equipment are met. Only a crystal oscillator can provide
over 10,000. The extremely high Q of a crystal means that the kind of precision and stability that has been mandated
crystal oscillators have a very stable frequency. for most equipment.
By comparison, the L and C values of a Colpitts oscilla- While some discrete component crystal oscillators are
tor have large tolerances, which means that the frequency is still found in mainly older equipment, most new ones are
less precise. integrated circuits packaged with the crystal in separate
housing. The result is crystal oscillator modules that are
Series and Parallel Resonance treated as a separate component. You will hear such oscilla-
The series resonant frequency fs of a crystal is the reso- tors called clocks because they maintain a repetitive, precise
nant frequency of the LCR branch in Fig. 38-12b. At this timing signal.
frequency, the branch current reaches a maximum value
because L resonates with Cs. The formula for this resonant Crystal Oscillator Circuits
frequency is Figure 38-13 shows several popular discrete crystal oscil-
lator circuits. The circuit in Fig. 38-13a is a Colpitts with
1 ____
fs 5 _________ (38-12)
2 Ï LCs an emitter-follower design for which the feedback from the
emitter goes directly to the capacitor network. A key benefit
The parallel resonant frequency fp of the crystal is of this circuit is its low output impedance. The circuit works
the frequency at which the circulating or loop current of well up to about 30 MHz. Note that external capacitors may
Fig. 38-12b reaches a maximum value. Since this loop cur- be connected in parallel or series with the crystal to permit
rent must flow through the series combination of Cs and Cm, minor frequency adjustments. This process is called crystal
the equivalent parallel capacitance is or frequency “pulling.”
Cm C s Figure 38-13b shows another Colpitts circuit, but here
Cp 5 _______ (38-13)
Cm 1 Cs the crystal is connected in series with a varactor diode. The
and the parallel resonant frequency is diode’s capacitance increases the frequency of oscillation
by a small amount. By varying the diode reverse bias, the
1 ____
fp 5 _________ (38-14) frequency of oscillation can be change or pulled over a nar-
2 Ï LCp row range. The end result is a voltage-controlled oscillator
In any crystal, Cs is much smaller than Cm. Because of (VCO) or a frequency modulator.
this, fp is only slightly greater than fs. When we use a crys- Figure 38-13c is a FET Clapp oscillator. The intention is
tal in a circuit, the additional circuit capacitances appear in to improve the frequency stability by reducing the effect of
shunt with Cm. Because of this, the oscillation frequency will stray capacitances. Figure 38-13d is a circuit called a Pierce
lie between fs and fp. oscillator. Its main advantage is simplicity.

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 +VCC

+V

RFC

R1 Output
Crystal

Q1

C1
Crystal Output
Negative
R2 DC bias to
C2 vary frequency

D1

Crystal “pulling”
capacitors (b)
(a)

+VCC
+VCC

RF
choke RF
choke
C
vout
vout
C1 C3

R
R
C2

(c) (d)

Figure 38-13 Crystal oscillators. (a) Emitter-follower Colpitts. (b) VCO Colpitts with a varactor. (c) Clapp. (d) Pierce.

Crystal Oscillator Specifications by the application. It is often expressed as a percentage de-

Outlined in the section are the key specifications you need to viation from the specified frequency or in parts per million
understand in working with crystal oscillators. (ppm). For example, an accuracy of 6100 ppm of a 10-MHz
crystal oscillator means that the actual frequency could de-
Frequency of Operation Crystal oscillators generally viate from 10 MHz by 61000 Hz. To compute the frequency
operate in the frequency range of approximately 1 to 70 deviation from the ppm value, simply form a fraction of the
MHz. Special lower-frequency crystals like the popular ppm value with 1 million and multiply by the crystal fre-
32.768 kHz digital watch crystal are also available. The quency. An accuracy of 100 ppm translates to a frequency
upper-frequency range is limited by the physical thinness deviation of
of the crystal. That limit has gone from about 30 MHz in
past years to about 200 MHz as new manufacturing tech- 100
_________ 3 10,000,000 5 1000 Hz
niques have been developed. The operating frequency is 1,000,000
usually stated at a temperature of 258C. Higher-frequency
Frequency accuracy may also be expressed as a percent-
oscillators can be obtained by using overtone crystals that
age using the deviation value. For example, a deviation
take the output to over 200 MHz.
of 1000 Hz would be 1000/10,000,000 5 0.0001 5 1024
Frequency Accuracy You will also see frequency accuracy or 0.01%.
called frequency tolerance, which is a measure of how close Typical oscillator accuracies range from 1 to 1000 ppm.
the crystal frequency is to the desired value as determined These are stated at an initial temperature of 258C.

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 voltage is also given, and sometimes a linearity value in per-
EX A M P L E 3 8 -3
cent is provided. Typical dc control voltage values are in the
What is the maximum frequency deviation of a 26-MHz crystal 0- to 5-V range. The linearity of the frequency variation with
oscillator with an accuracy of 50 ppm? Express the accuracy as the control voltage may be an issue.
a percentage.
Packaging There are a large number of different types
Answer: of crystal oscillator packages. In the past, the metal can
Maximum deviation 5 (50y1,000,000) 26,000,000 5 1300 Hz packages were the most common, but today these have
% accuracy 5 50y26,000,000 5 1.923 3 1026 or 0.0001923% been overtaken by the newer surface-mount packages. The
metal packages commonly have standard DIP through-
hole pins. Common surface-mount package sizes are 2.5
by 3.2 mm and 5 by 7 mm. The trend has been to make
Frequency Stability Frequency stability is a measure of the packages thinner, as demanded by the cell phone
how much the frequency deviates from the desired value manufacturers.
over a specific temperature range. Common ranges are 0
to 708C and 240 to 1858C. The stability is also stated in Types of Crystal Oscillators
ppm and varies widely depending on the oscillator type from There are four basic types of prepackaged crystal oscilla-
10 to 1000 ppm. tors available: crystal oscillators (XO), voltage-controlled
Output Crystal oscillators are available with different crystal oscillators (VCXO), temperature-compensated
types of output signals. Most are pulse or logic levels, but crystal oscillators (TCXO), and oven-controlled crystal
sine wave and clipped sine outputs are also available. The oscillators (OCXO).
maximum load is also specified as a fan-out number or as a XO A crystal oscillator is a quartz crystal packaged with its
capacitance in pF. oscillator circuitry. The frequency is usually fixed. XOs are
Operating Voltage Most crystal oscillators operate from commonly have a digital output and are used as clock oscil-
5 Vdc. But newer designs are available to operate from 1.8, lators for microprocessors or other digital circuits. The term
2.5, and 3.3 V. clock oscillator is appropriate since the oscillator provides
accurate timing pulses to the processor and related digital
Phase Noise A critical specification at very high frequen-
circuits. Typical accuracies range from 10 to several hundred
cies and in applications requiring exceptional stability is
ppm with aging rates from 61 to 65 ppm per year.
phase noise. This is the rapid, short-term random variation
in output frequency. It produces a type of phase or frequency TCXO A temperature-compensated crystal oscillator is one
modulation and is also called jitter. Phase noise is measured that incorporates circuitry to compensate for the frequency
in the frequency domain with a spectrum analyzer and is variations that accompany temperature variations. This re-
usually stated in terms of decibels relative to the carrier per sults in a far more precise and stable output frequency that
hertz (dBc/Hz). A sine-wave output from an oscillator with is demanded by many applications. Cell phones and two-
no phase noise is called the carrier. The phase noise pro- way radios are common examples. The simplest form of
duces sidebands, signals above and below the carrier. The temperature compensation uses a thermistor temperature
amount of phase noise is expressed as the ratio of the side- sensor in a circuit that operates a varactor (voltage-variable
band power amplitude (Ps) to the carrier power amplitude capacitor) in a feedback circuit to keep the crystal frequency
(Pc) in decibel form. more constant. Oscillator frequencies are available from
about 1 to 60 MHz. Typical stability specifications range
Phase noise in dBc 5 10 log Ps/Pc
from 60.2 to 62.5 ppm with aging rates of 60.5 to 62 ppm
Phase noise is measured at increments from the carrier of per year. Figure 38-14 shows a packaged TCXO that is typi-
10  kHz or 100 kHz, although other frequency increments cal of those used today.
down to 10 or 100 Hz are also used. Typical phase noise
VCXO A voltage-controlled crystal oscillator is an XO
values are in the 280 dBc to 2160 dBc, depending on the
but optimized for external frequency control by way of a
frequency increment from the carrier.
dc input. The dc input varies an internal varactor pulling
Pullability Pullability is a measure of the amount of fre- capacitor to provide a narrow range of output frequency
quency variation that can be achieved by applying an exter- adjustment. VCXOs are designed primarily for use in a nar-
nal control voltage to a voltage-controlled crystal oscillator. rowband phase-locked loop (PLL). Commonly available
It represents the maximum deviation possible. The pulla- frequencies range from 1 to 60 MHz. A typical pullability
bility is usually expressed in ppm. The level of the control range is from 610 to 62000 ppm.

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 The 555 Timer
One of the oldest and most popular integrated circuits is
the 555. It is still made by multiple IC manufacturers and is
available in both bipolar and CMOS forms. Its main function
is to generate pulses and square waves, but because of its
versatility, it has found hundreds of other uses. The architec-
ture of the 555 is an excellent example of how basic circuits
can be applied to meet a variety of electronic needs.
The 555 can run in either of two modes: monostable (one
stable state) or astable (no stable states). In the monostable
mode, it can produce accurate time delays from microsec-
onds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangu-
lar waves with a variable duty cycle.
Monostable Operation Figure 38-15a illustrates mono-
stable operation. Initially, the 555 timer has a low output
voltage at which it can remain indefinitely. When the 555
timer receives a trigger at point A in time, the output voltage
switches from low to high, as shown. The output remains
high for a while and then returns to the low state after a time
delay of W. The output will remain in the low state until an-
other trigger arrives.
A multivibrator is a two-state circuit that has zero, one,
Figure 38-14 A TCXO in a 3.2- by 2.5-mm package. or two stable output states. When the 555 timer is used in the
Source: Courtesy Fox Electronics, Inc. monostable mode, it is sometimes called a monostable mul-
tivibrator because it has only one stable state. It is stable in
the low state until it receives a trigger, which causes the out-
OCXO An oven-compensated crystal oscillator puts the put to temporarily change to the high state. The high state,
crystal and sometimes the whole oscillator circuit in a small however, is not stable because the output returns to the low
oven. A dc heating element in a feedback loop keeps the tem- state when the pulse ends.
perature virtually constant, giving a very precise and stable
+VCC
output frequency. It is the best choice for critical applications,
+VCC
such as cellular base stations, telecom, communications net- Pin 8
works, and GPS. However, the trade-off is the higher power W
A Pin 2 555 Pin 3
(generally 1 to 3 W) it draws. The typical stability figure is
timer
61 3 1028. A typical aging rate is from about 60.2 ppm Trigger Output A
Pin 1
per year to 62.0 3 1028 per year. Even improved accuracy GND
and stability figures can be obtained with an OCXO that en-
closes one OCXO inside a second oven.
(a)

38.7 Square-Wave, Pulse, and +VCC

Function Generators
Pin 8
Over the years, hundreds of different discrete component +VCC
circuits have been developed to generate square waves and 555 Pin 3
timer 0
other rectangular pulse trains. The predominance of digi- Output
tal circuits in electronics today creates a need for circuits Pin 1
GND
that can serve not only as a clock for microcontroller-based
equipment but also for special needs in pulse generation and
timing operations. Today, most square waves are generated (b)

by integrated circuits, either special circuits or the previ- Figure 38-15 (a) The 555 timer used in monostable
ously described crystal clock oscillators. This section takes (one-shot) mode. (b) The 555 timer used in astable
a look at several very popular signal generation ICs. (free-running) mode.

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 When operating in the monostable mode, the 555 timer is As shown in Fig. 38-16, the 555 timer contains a voltage
often referred to as a one shot because it produces only one output divider, two comparators, an RS flip-flop, and an npn tran-
pulse for each input trigger. The duration of this output pulse can sistor. Since the voltage divider has equal resistors, the top
be precisely controlled with an external resistor and capacitor. comparator has a trip point of
The 555 timer is an 8-pin IC. Figure 38-15a shows four 2VCC
of the pins. Pin 1 is connected to ground, and pin 8 is con- UTP 5 _____ (38-15)
3
nected to the positive supply voltage. The 555 timer will
work with any supply voltage between 14.5 and 118 V. The The lower comparator has a trip point of
trigger goes into pin 2, and the output comes from pin 3. The VCC
other pins, which are not shown here, are connected to exter- LTP 5 ____ (38-16)
3
nal components that determine the pulse width of the output.
In Fig. 38-16, pin 6 is connected to the upper compara-
Astable Operation The 555 timer can also be connected to tor. The voltage on pin 6 is called the threshold. This volt-
run as an astable multivibrator. When used in this way, the age comes from external components not shown. When the
555 timer has no stable states, which means that it cannot threshold voltage is greater than the UTP, the upper com-
remain indefinitely in either state. Stated another way, it os- parator has a high output.
cillates when operated in the astable mode and it produces a Pin 2 is connected to the lower comparator. The voltage
rectangular output signal. on pin 2 is called the trigger. This is the trigger voltage that
Figure 38-15b shows the 555 timer used in the astable mode. is used for the monostable operation of the 555 timer. When
As you can see, the output is a series of rectangular pulses. Since the timer is inactive, the trigger voltage is high. When the
no input trigger is needed to get an output, the 555 timer oper- trigger voltage falls to less than the LTP, the lower compara-
ating in the astable mode is sometimes called a free-running tor produces a high output.
multivibrator, clock oscillator, or square-wave generator. Pin 4 may be used to reset the output voltage to zero.
Functional Block Diagram Figure 38-16 shows a functional Pin 5 may be used to control the output frequency when the
diagram of the 555 timer. This diagram captures all the key 555 timer is used in the astable mode. In many applications,
ideas we need for our discussion of the 555 timer. these two pins are made inactive as follows: Pin 4 is con-
nected to 1VCC, and pin 5 is bypassed to ground through
VCC
a capacitor. Later, we discuss how pins 4 and 5 are used in
some advanced circuits.
Pin 8
RS Flip-Flop Before we can understand how a 555 timer works
Pin 7
with external components, we need to discuss the action of the
Discharge
block that contains, S, R, Q, and w Q. This block is called an RS
flip-flop, a circuit that has two stable states, set and reset.
5 kΩ The RS flip-flop (FF) has two outputs, Q and w Q. These are
two-state outputs, either low or high voltages. Furthermore,
Pin 6 the two outputs are always in opposite states. When Q is
+
Threshold – low, wQ is high. When Q is high, w Q is low. For this reason, Qw
UTP
is called the complement of Q. The overbar on Q w is used to
indicate that it is the complement of Q.
Pin 5 S Q We can control the output states with the S and R inputs.
5 kΩ – Pin 3
Control R Q
Output
If we apply a positive voltage to the S input, the FF will be
set, Q will be high, and Q w will be low. The high S input can
LTP then be removed, because the saturated left transistor will
Pin 2 +
– keep the right transistor in cutoff.
Trigger
Similarly, we can apply a positive voltage to the R input.
5 kΩ This will reset the FF with Q low and w Q high. After this tran-
sition has occurred, the high R input can be removed because
it is no longer needed.
Pin 1 Pin 4
GND Reset Since the circuit is stable in either of two states, it is some-
times called a bistable multivibrator. A bistable multivibra-
Figure 38-16 Simplified functional block diagram of a tor latches in either of two states. A high S input forces Q
555 timer. into the high state, and a high R input forces Q to return to

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 723

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 723 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 VCC

Supply
Pin 8

555 timer

Pin 7
Discharge

5 kΩ

+2VCC 3
0 +VCC
Pin 6
+
Threshold – 0
C UTP
S Q W
– Pin 3
R Q
5 kΩ Output

+VCC LTP
Pin 2 +
–
Trigger

5 kΩ

Pin 1
GND

Figure 38-17 555 timer connected for monostable operation.

the low state. The output Q remains in a given state until it is voltage is slightly greater than 2VCC y3, the upper comparator
triggered into the opposite state. sets the flip-flop. The high Q turns on the transistor, which
Incidentally, the S input is sometimes called the set input discharges the capacitor almost instantly. At the same instant,
because it sets the Q output to high. The R input is called the Q returns to the low state and the output pulse ends. Note that
w
reset input because it resets the Q output to low. Q remains low until another input trigger arrives.
w
The complementary output w Q comes out of pin 3. The
Monostable Operation Figure 38-17 shows the 555 timer
width of the rectangular pulse depends on how long it takes
connected for monostable operation. The circuit has an ex-
to charge the capacitor through resistance R. The longer the
ternal resistor R and a capacitor C. The voltage across the
time constant, the longer it takes for the capacitor voltage to
capacitor is used for the threshold voltage to pin 6. When
reach 2VCC y3. In one time constant, the capacitor can charge
the trigger arrives at pin 2, the circuit produces a rectangular
to 63.2% of VCC. Since 2VCC y3 is equivalent to 66.7% of VCC,
output pulse from pin 3.
it takes slightly more than one time constant for the capacitor
Initially, the Q output of the RS flip-flop is high. This satu-
voltage to reach 2VCC y3. By solving the exponential charging
rates the transistor and clamps the capacitor voltage at ground.
equation, it is possible to derive this formula for the pulse width
The circuit will remain in this state until a trigger arrives. Be-
cause of the voltage divider, the trip points are the same as W 5 1.1RC (38-17)
previously discussed: UTP 5 2VCC y3 and LTP 5 VCC y3. Figure 38-18 shows the schematic diagram for the mo-
When the trigger input falls to slightly less than VCC y3, the nostable 555 circuit as it usually appears. Only the pins and
lower comparator resets the flip-flop. Since Q has changed external components are shown. Notice that pin 4 (reset) is
to low, the transistor goes into cutoff, allowing the capacitor connected to 1VCC. As discussed earlier, this prevents pin 4
to charge. At this time, w Q has changed to high. The capaci- from having any effect on the circuit. In some applications,
tor now charges exponentially as shown. When the capacitor pin 4 may be temporarily grounded to suspend the operation.

724 Chapter 38

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 724 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 +VCC
EXAMPLE 38-5

R 4 8 What is the pulse width in Fig. 38-18 if R 5 10 MV and C 5 470 F?
2VCC
7 3 UTP =
vout 3 Answer:

VCC W 5 1.1(10 MV)(470 F) 5 5170 s 5 86.2 min 5 1.44 hr

555 LTP =
3
Here we have a pulse width of more than an hour. The falling edge
6 5 of the pulse occurs after a time delay of 1.44 hr.
C W = 1.1RC

2 1 0.01 ␮F

Trigger Astable Operation Figure 38-19 shows the 555 timer con-
nected for astable operation. The trip points are the same as
Figure 38-18 Monostable timer circuit.
for monostable operation:

When pin 4 is taken high, the operation resumes. A later dis- 2VCC
UTP 5 _____
cussion describes this type of reset in more detail. 3
Pin 5 (control) is a special input that can be used to change VCC
the UTP, which changes the width of the pulse. Later, we will LTP 5 ____
3
discuss pulse-width modulation, in which an external volt-
age is applied to pin 5 to change the pulse width. For now, When Q is low, the transistor is cut off and the capacitor is
we will bypass pin 5 to ground as shown. By ac-grounding charging through a total resistance of
pin 5, we prevent stray electromagnetic noise from interfer-
R 5 R1 1 R2
ing with the operation of the 555 timer.
In summary, the monostable 555 timer produces a single Because of this, the charging time constant is (R1 1 R 2)C.
pulse whose width is determined by the external R and C As the capacitor charges, the threshold voltage (pin 6)
used in Fig. 38-18. The pulse begins with the leading edge of increases.
the input trigger. A one-shot operation like this has a number Eventually, the threshold voltage exceeds 12VCC /3.
of applications in digital and switching circuits. Then, the upper comparator sets the flip-flop. With Q high,
the transistor saturates and grounds pin 7. The capacitor
now discharges through R 2. Therefore, the discharging
EXAMPLE 38-4
time constant is R 2 C. When the capacitor voltage drops
In Fig. 38-18, VCC 5 12 V, R 5 33 kV, and C 5 0.47 F. What is the to slightly less than VCC /3, the lower comparator resets
minimum trigger voltage that produces an output pulse? What is the fl ip-flop.
the maximum capacitor voltage? What is the width of the output Figure 38-20 shows the waveforms. The timing capacitor
pulse?
has exponentially rising and falling voltages between UTP
Answer: and LTP. The output is a rectangular wave that swings be-
As shown in Fig. 38-17, the lower comparator has a trip point of tween 0 and VCC. Since the charging time constant is longer
LTP. Therefore, the input trigger on pin 2 has to fall from 1VCC to
than the discharging time constant, the output is nonsym-
slightly less than LTP. With the equations shown in Fig. 38-18,
metrical. Depending on resistances R1 and R2, the duty cycle
12 V 5 4 V
LTP 5 _____ is between 50 and 100%.
3 By analyzing the equations for charging and discharging,
After a trigger arrives, the capacitor charges from 0 V to a maxi- we can derive the following formulas. The pulse width is
mum of UTP, which is
given by
2(12 V)
UTP 5 _______ 5 8 V W 5 0.693(R1 1 R2)C (38-18)
3
The pulse width of the one-shot output is
The period of the output equals
W 5 1.1(33 kV)(0.47 F) 5 17.1 ms
T 5 0.693(R1 1 2R2)C (38-19)
This means that the falling edge of the output pulse occurs
17.1 ms after the trigger arrives. You can think of this 17.1 ms as a The reciprocal of the period is the frequency
time delay, because the falling edge of the output pulse can be
used to trigger some other circuit. 1.44
f 5 ___________ (38-20)
(R1 1 2R2)C

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 725

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 725 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 +VCC

Supply
Pin 8

555 timer

R1

Pin 7
Discharge

R2 5 kΩ

Pin 6
+
Threshold –
C UTP
W
S Q T
5 kΩ – Pin 3
R Q
Output
LTP
Pin 2 +
–
Trigger

5 kΩ

Pin 1
GND

Figure 38-19 555 timer connected for astable operation.

2 +VCC
+ V
3 CC
R1
4 8 W = 0.693(R1 + R2)C
+ 1 VCC
3 7 3
+VCC vout T = 0.693(R1 + 2R2)C

1.44
f=
555
0 R2 (R1 + 2R2)C
6
W 5
R1 + R2
T D=
R1 + 2R2
2 1
Figure 38-20 Capacitor and output waveforms for C 0.01 ␮F
astable operation.

Figure 38-21 Astable multivibrator.

Dividing the pulse width by the period gives the duty cycle
R1 1 R2 Figure 38-21 shows the astable 555 timer as it usually ap-
D 5 ________ (38-21) pears on a schematic diagram. Again notice how pin 4 (reset)
R1 1 2R2
is tied to the supply voltage and how pin 5 (control) is by-
When R1 is much smaller than R2, the duty cycle approaches passed to ground through a 0.01-F capacitor.
50%. Conversely, when R1 is much greater than R2, the duty The circuit of Fig. 38-21 can be modified to enable the
cycle approaches 100%. duty cycle to become less than 50%. By placing a diode

726 Chapter 38

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 726 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 +VCC

R1 4 8
7 3 VCC – Vcon
vout W = –(R1 + R2)C ln
VCC – 0.5Vcon

555 T = W + 0.693R2C
R2
6 5 1
R f=
W + 0.693R2C
2 1 +
Vcon
C –

(a)

+Vcon

1
+ V
2 con
(b)

Figure 38-22 (a) Voltage-controlled oscillator. (b) Capacitor voltage waveform.

in parallel with R 2 (anode connected to pin 7), the capaci-

EXAMPLE 38-6
tor will effectively charge through R1 and the diode. The
capacitor will discharge through R 2. Therefore, the duty The 555 timer of Fig. 38-21 has R 1 5 75 kV, R 2 5 30 kV, and
cycle becomes C 5 47 nF. What is frequency of the output signal? What is the
R1 duty cycle?
D 5 _______ (38-22) Answer:
R1 1 R2
With the equations shown in Fig. 38-21,
VCO Operation Figure 38-22a shows a voltage-controlled
1.44
oscillator (VCO), another application for a 555 timer. The f 5 _____________________ 5 227 Hz
(75 kV 1 60 kV)(47 nF)
circuit is sometimes called a voltage-to-frequency con-
verter because an input voltage can change the output 75 kV 1 30 kV 5 0.778
D 5 ______________
frequency. 75 kV 1 60 kV
Here is how the circuit works: Recall that pin 5 connects to This is equivalent to 77.8%.
the inverting input of the upper comparator (Fig. 38-16). Nor-
mally, pin 5 is bypassed to ground through a capacitor, so that
UTP equals 12VCC /3. In Fig. 38-22a, however, the voltage
from a stiff potentiometer overrides the internal voltage. In Other 555 Circuits The output stage of a 555 timer can
other words, UTP equals Vcon. By adjusting the potentiometer, source 200 mA. This means that a high output can produce
we can change UTP to a value between 0 and VCC. up to 200 mA of load current (sourcing). Because of this,
Figure 38-22b shows the voltage waveform across the the 555 timer can drive relatively heavy loads such as relays,
timing capacitor. Notice that the waveform has a minimum lamps, and loudspeakers. The output stage of a 555 timer can
value of 1Vcon /2 and a maximum value of 1Vcon. If we in- also sink 200 mA. This means that a low output can allow
crease Vcon, it takes the capacitor longer to charge and dis- up to 200 mA to flow to ground (sinking). In this section, we
charge. Therefore, the frequency decreases. As a result, we discuss some applications for a 555 timer.
can change the frequency of the circuit by varying the con- The 555 is also a good generator of audio tones. Figure 38-23
trol voltage. Incidentally, the control voltage may come from shows how to use an astable 555 timer as an audible alarm.
a potentiometer, as shown, or it may be the output of a tran- Normally, the alarm switch is closed, which pulls pin 4 down
sistor circuit, an op amp, or some other device. to ground. In this case, the 555 timer is inactive and there is
Figure 38-22 shows the equations for calculating the fre- no output. When the alarm switch is opened, however, the
quency of the VCO. circuit will generate a rectangular output whose frequency is

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 727

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 727 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 +VCC Another potential application is a two-tone siren. By in-
serting a telegraph key in series with the pin 1 ground lead,
R3 a Morse code practice oscillator is produced.
R1
Figure 38-24 shows a circuit used for pulse-width modu-
8 4 lation (PWM). PWM produces a constant-frequency pulse
7 train whose duty cycle is valued by some modulating signal.
3 PWM is widely used in data communications, motor speed
C3
555
control, and switch-mode power supplies.
R2 To generate PWM, the 555 timer is connected in the mo-
R4
6
nostable mode. The values of R, C, UTP, and VCC determine
5
the width of the output pulse as follows:
2 1

C1 C2 Speaker Alarm
switch
UTP
W 5 2RC ln 1 2 _____
VCC ( ) (38-23)

A low-frequency signal called a modulating signal is ca-

pacitively coupled into pin 5. This modulating signal is voice
or computer data. Since pin 5 controls the value of UTP, vmod
is being added to the quiescent UTP. Therefore, the instanta-
neous UTP is given by
Figure 38-23 Astable 555 circuit used for siren
or alarm. 2VCC
UTP 5 _____ 1 vmod (38-24)
3

determined by R1, R2, and C1. An example of an alarm switch For instance, if VCC 5 12 V and the modulating signal has
is a magnetically operated reed switch commonly used in a peak value of 1 V,
home alarms. UTPmax 5 8 V 1 1 V 5 9 V
The output from pin 3 drives a loudspeaker through a re-
UTPmin 5 8 V 2 1 V 5 7 V
sistance of R4. The size of this resistance depends on the
supply voltage and the impedance of the loudspeaker. The This means that the instantaneous UTP varies sinusoidally
impedance of the branch with R4 and the speaker should between 7 and 9 V.
limit the output current to 200 mA or less because this is the A train of triggers called the clock is the input to pin 2.
maximum current a 555 timer can source. This clock signal could be produced by another 555 timer in

+VCC

R T
4 8
7 Output

3 A B 1
T=
A fclock
555
2VCC
UTP = + vmod
6 5 3

冢 冣
B UTP
2 1 W = –RC ln 1 –
C Modulating VCC
Signal
W
D=
T

A B
Clock
T

Figure 38-24 555 timer connected as pulse-width modulator.

728 Chapter 38

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 728 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 astable mode. Each trigger produces an output pulse. Since Function Generator ICs
the period of the triggers is T, the output will be a series Special function generator ICs have been developed that
of rectangular pulses with a period of T. The modulating combine many of the individual circuit capabilities we have
signal has no effect on the period T, but it does change the been discussing. These ICs are able to provide waveform
width of each output pulse. At point A, the positive peak of generation including sine, square, triangle, ramp, and pulse
the modulating signal, the output pulse is wide as shown. signals. The output waveforms can be made to vary in am-
At point B, the negative peak of the modulating signal, the plitude and frequency by changing the values of external
output pulse is narrow. resistors and capacitors or by applying an external voltage.
PWM is used in communications. It allows a low- This external voltage enables the IC to perform useful ap-
frequency modulating signal (voice or data) to change the plications such  as voltage-to-frequency (V/F) conversion,
pulse width of a high-frequency signal called the carrier. AM and FM signal generation, voltage-controlled oscilla-
The modulated carrier can be transmitted over copper wire, tion (VCO), and frequency-shift keying (FSK).
over fiber-optic cable, or through space to a receiver. The
receiver recovers the modulating signal to drive a speaker The XR-2206 An example of a special function generator
(voice) or a computer (data). IC is the XR-2206. This monolithic IC can provide externally
controlled frequencies from 0.01 Hz to more than 1.00 MHz.
A circuit diagram of this IC is shown in Fig. 38-25. The dia-
gram shows four main functional blocks, which include a
E X A M P L E 3 8 -7
VCO, an analog multiplier and sine shaper, a unity gain buf-
A pulse-width modulator like Fig. 38-24 has VCC 5 12 V, R 5 fer amplifier, and a set of current switches.
9.1 kV, and C 5 0.01 F. The clock has a frequency of 2.5 kHz. If The output frequency of the VCO is proportional to an
a modulating signal has a peak value of 2 V, what is the period of input current, which is determined by a set of external tim-
the output pulses? What is the quiescent pulse width? What are
ing resistors. These resistors connect to pins 7 and 8, respec-
the minimum and maximum pulse widths? What are the minimum
and maximum duty cycles? tively, and ground. Because there are two timing pins, two
discrete output frequencies can be obtained. A high or low
Answer: input signal on pin 9 controls the current switches. The cur-
The period of the output pulses equals the period of the clock: rent switches then select which one of the timing resistors
will be used. If the input signal on pin 9 alternately changes
1
T 5 _______
2.5 kHz 5 400 s from high to low, the output frequency of the VCO will be
shifted from one frequency to another. This action is re-
The quiescent pulse width is ferred to as frequency-shift keying (FSK) and is used in
electronic communication applications.
W 5 1.1RC 5 1.1(9.1 kV)(0.01 F) 5 100 s The output of the VCO drives the multiplier and sine-
With Formula (38-24), calculate the minimum and maximum UTP: shaper block, along with an output switching transistor.
The output switching transistor is driven to cutoff and
UTPmin 5 8 V 2 2 V 5 6 V saturation, which provides a square-wave output signal at
UTPmax 5 8 V 1 2 V 5 10 V pin 11. The output of the multiplier and sine-shaper block
is connected to a unity gain buffer amplifier, which de-
Now, calculate the minimum and maximum pulse widths with termines the IC’s output current capability and its output
Formula (38-23), impedance. The output at pin 2 can be either a sine wave
or a triangle wave.
(
Wmin 5 2(9.1 kV)(0.01 F) ln 1 2 _____
12 V )
6 V 5 63.1 s Figure 38-25 shows the external circuit connections and
components for generating sine waves or triangle waves. The
5 2(9.1 kV)(0.01 F) ln ( 1 2 _____
12 V )
Wmax 10 V 5 163 s frequency of oscillation f0 is determined by the timing resis-
tor R, connected at either pin 7 or pin 8, and the external
The minimum and maximum duty cycles are capacitor C, connected across pins 5 and 6. The value of
oscillation is found by
63.1 s
Dmin 5 _______ 5 0.158 1
f0 5 ___ (38-25)
400 s RC
163 s Even though R can be up to 2 MV, maximum temperature
Dmax 5 ______
400 s 5 0.408 stability occurs when 4 kV , R , 200 kV. Also, the recom-
mended value of C should be from 1000 pF to 100 F.

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 729

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 729 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 VCC

1 ␮F

4
1 16 Symmetry adjust

5
25 kΩ RB
Mult. 15
S1 Closed for sine wave
C VCO and
sine 14
1
f0 = 6 shaper
RC S1
13 RA

500 Ω

9 2 Triangle- or
+1 sine-wave output
7 Current
8 switches
R1 1 kΩ 11
2 MΩ Square-wave
output
R 10 12 3 XR-2206
+
1 ␮F 10 kΩ
R3
50 kΩ

+ VCC
10 ␮F

VCC
5.1 kΩ 5.1 kΩ

Figure 38-25 Sine-wave generation circuit.

In Fig. 38-25, when the switch S1 is closed, the output and the circuit’s duty cycle is found by
at pin 2 will be a sine wave. The potentiometer R1 at pin R1
7 provides the desired frequency tuning. Adjustable resis- D 5 _______ (38-27)
R1 1 R2
tors R A and R B enable the output waveform to be modi-
fied for proper waveform symmetry and distortion levels. If operated with a single positive supply voltage, the sup-
When S1 is open, the output at pin 2 changes from a sine ply can range from 10 V to 26 V. If a split- or dual-supply
wave to a triangle wave. Resistor R 3, connected at pin 3, voltage is used, notice how the values range from 65 V to
controls the amplitude of the output waveform. The out- 613 V. The triangle- and sine-wave output has an output im-
put amplitude is directly proportional to the value of R 3. pedance value of 600 V. This makes the XR-2206 function
Notice that the value of the triangle waveform is approxi- generator IC well suited for many electronic communica-
mately double the output of a sine waveform for a given tions applications.
R 3 setting.
Microcontroller Clocks and Timers
Figure 38-26 shows the external connections of the
circuit used to create sawtooth (ramp) and pulse outputs. ICs like the 555 and 2206 rely on RC networks to set the
Notice that the square-wave output at pin 11 is shorted to frequency and duty cycle. For some applications this ar-
the FSK terminal at pin 9. This allows the circuit to au- rangement works fine. But because of the tolerances of the
tomatically frequency-shift between two separate frequen- capacitors and resistors and their temperature sensitivity,
cies. This frequency shift occurs when the output at pin 11 the precision of the frequency or time is not satisfactory for
changes from a high-level output to a low-level output or some critical applications. Standard resistors and capaci-
from a low-level output to a high-level output. The output tors have tolerances in the 5 to 10% range. For capacitors
frequency is found by some tolerances are even greater. While precision can be
improved by using components with 1 or 2% tolerances or
2 _______
f 5 __ 1
C R1 1 R2[ ] (38-26) better, the cost of doing so is much higher. For these applica-
tions crystal control is preferred. ICs like the 555 and 2206

730 Chapter 38

fre7380X_ch38_712-743.indd 730 1/11/13 11:39 AM

 VCC

1 ␮F
f= 2 1
C R1 + R2
4
1 R1
16 Duty cycle =
5 R1 + R2

Mult.
C VCO and 15
sine 14
6 shaper

13
9
R1 2
7 Current +1 Sawtooth output
switches
R2 8
11
Pulse output

10 12 3 XR-2206
+
1 ␮F
R3
24 kΩ 5.1 kΩ

+
10 ␮F
VCC

VCC
5.1 kΩ 5.1 kΩ

Figure 38-26 Pulse and ramp generation.

do not work with crystals so some other approach is needed. Single-chip

microcontroller
The most common solution is to use a very low cost single-
Program
chip microcontroller. RAM ROM stored
A microcontroller is a single-chip computer that can be here 1s
On 0.5 s On
programmed to perform almost any digital, on-off operation.
I/O Off Off
It consists of a processor that performs math and logic (AND, Processor
circuits
OR, etc.) operations, one or more memories to store programs
and data, and input/output (I/O) circuits that accept inputs and Chock
produce outputs. Most microcontrollers also have built-in tim-
ers or counters that make it easy to implement oscillators.
Figure 39-27 shows a simplified block diagram of a micro- Cs
LED
controller. Note the random access memory (RAM) for stor-
ing and retrieving data and the read-only memory (ROM) Crystal
C1 C2
for storing the program. This controller is programmed to
flash an external LED on for 1 s and off for 0.5 s.
Most microcontrollers also contain an internal clock Figure 38-27 A microcontroller used as a timer.
oscillator for operating all the digital circuits inside. The
frequency of this clock is usually set with an external RC
network for noncritical functions or with any external crystal the linear region by an internal resistor. The crystal and the
or ceramic resonator for more accurate outputs. When crys- capacitors C1 and C2 provide the feedback with the correct
tal control is desired, the crystal is connected to the OSC1 180º phase shift for oscillation. The frequency of oscillation
and OSC2 terminals along with two capacitors C1 and C2. is determined by the crystal as well as the series combina-
The oscillator is an internal amplifier-inverter biased into tion of C1 and C2 in parallel with any stray capacitance (Cs)

Oscillators and Frequency Synthesizers 731

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 on the PCB. With crystal precision, the microcontroller can
Phase
be programmed to generated square waves or on-off signals v1 vout
detector
with any frequency or duty cycle.
The program in the ROM to generate an on-off signal
looks something like the list below. Each step is imple- v2

mented by one or more of the microcontroller instructions. (a)

1. Set I/O output high. vout

2. Count clock pulses or instruction increments for the vin
desired duration (1 s).
3. Set I/O line low.
–90°
4. Count clock pulses or instruction increments for the v1 v2
Δ␾
desired duration (0.5 s). 90°
t
5. Repeat.
Δ␾
The resolution of the pulse on and off times is deter-
mined by the clock frequency and, in most cases, by the time (b) (c)

of execution of the instructions used in the program. Resolu- Figure 38-28 (a) Phase detector has two input signals
tions of microseconds are easy to obtain. Nanosecond reso- and one output signal. (b) Equal-frequency sine waves with
lutions are possible with faster processors and clocks. phase difference. (c) Output of phase detector is directly
Today, a simple single-chip microcontroller can be pur- proportional to phase difference.
chased for less than $1 in quantity, so it can compete favor-
ably with other low-cost RC timers. Its disadvantage is that it The VCO
has to be programmed. But that may be an advantage, as the In Fig. 38-29a, the input voltage vin to the VCO determines
program can usually be changed if necessary. Most industrial the output frequency fout. A typical VCO can be varied over a
timers, toys, and alarm systems are implemented this way. 10:1 range of frequency. Furthermore, the variation is linear
as shown in Fig. 38-29b. When the input voltage to the VCO
38.8 The Phase-Locked Loop is zero, the VCO is free-running at a quiescent frequency
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a closed-loop feedback elec- f0. When the input voltage is positive, the VCO frequency
tronic control circuit. It contains a phase detector, a dc am- is greater than f0. If the input voltage is negative, the VCO
plifier, a low-pass filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator frequency is less than f0.
(VCO). When a PLL has an input signal with a frequency of
Block Diagram of a PLL
fin, its VCO will produce an output frequency that equals fin.
Figure 38-30 is a block diagram of a PLL. The phase detec-
Phase Detector tor produces a dc voltage that is proportional to the phase
difference of its two input signals. The output voltage of the
Figure 38-28a shows a phase detector, the first stage in a
phase detector is usually small. This is why the second stage
PLL. This circuit produces an output voltage proportional to
is a dc amplifier. The amplified phase difference is filtered
the phase difference between two input signals. For instance,
in a low-pass filter before being applied to the VCO. Notice
Fig. 38-28b shows two input signals with a phase difference
that the VCO output is being fed back to the phase detector.
of D. The phase detector responds to this phase difference
by producing a dc output voltage, which is proportional to fout
D, as shown in Fig. 38-28c.
When v1 leads v2, as shown in Fig. 38-28b, D is posi-
f0
tive. If v1 were to lag v2, D would be negative. The typical
phase detector produces a linear response between 290° and
190°, as shown in Fig. 38-28c. As we can see, the output of vin VCO fout vin
the phase detector is zero when D 5 0°. When D is be-
tween 0° and 90°, the output is a positive voltage. When D
is between 0° and 290°, the output is a negative voltage. The (a) (b)

key idea here is that the phase detector produces an output Figure 38-29 (a) Input voltage controls output
voltage that is directly proportional to the phase difference frequency of VCO. (b) Output frequency is directly
between its two input signals. proportional to input voltage.

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 fin fout
Phase DC Low-pass
detector amplifier filter VCO

Figure 38-30 Block diagram of a phase-locked loop.

Input Frequency Equals If the input frequency increases further, the VCO fre-
Free-Running Frequency quency also increases as needed to maintain the lock. For
instance, if the input frequency increases to 12 kHz, the
To understand PLL action, let us start with the case of
VCO frequency increases to 12 kHz. The phase difference
input frequency equal to f 0, the free-running frequency of
between the two input signals will increase as needed to pro-
the VCO. In this case, the two input signals to the phase
duce the correct control voltage for the VCO.
detector have the same frequency and phase. Because of
this, the phase difference D is 0° and the output of the
phase detector is zero. As a result, the input voltage to the
Lock Range
VCO is zero, which means that the VCO is free-running The lock range of a PLL is the range of input frequencies
with a frequency of f 0. As long as the frequency and phase over which the VCO can remain locked onto and track the
of the input signal remain the same, the input voltage to input frequency. It is related to the maximum phase differ-
the VCO will be zero. ence that can be detected. In our discussion, we are assum-
ing that the phase detector can produce an output voltage
Input Frequency Differs from for D between 290° and 190°. At these limits, the phase
Free-Running Frequency detector produces a maximum output voltage, either nega-
Let us assume that the input and free-running VCO frequen- tive or positive.
cies are each 10 kHz. Now, suppose the input frequency in- If the input frequency is too low or too high, the phase
creases to 11 kHz. This increase will appear to be an increase difference is outside the range of 290° and 190°. There-
in phase because v1 leads v2 at the end of the first cycle, as fore, the phase detector cannot produce the additional
shown in Fig. 38-31a. Since input signal leads the VCO signal, voltage needed for the VCO to remain locked on. At
D is positive. In this case, the phase detector of Fig. 38-30 these limits, therefore, the PLL loses its lock on the input
produces a positive output voltage. After being amplified and signal.
filtered, this positive voltage increases the VCO frequency. The lock range is usually specified as a percentage of
The VCO frequency will increase until it equals 11 kHz, the VCO frequency. For instance, if the VCO frequency is
the frequency of the input signal. When the VCO frequency 10 kHz and the lock range is 620%, the PLL can remain
equals the input frequency, the VCO is locked on to the locked on any input frequency between 8 and 12 kHz.
input signal. Even though each of the two input signals to the
phase detector has a frequency of 11 kHz, the signals have a Capture Range
different phase, as shown in Fig. 38-31b. This positive phase The capture range is different. Assume that the input fre-
difference produces the voltage needed to keep the VCO fre- quency is outside the lock range. Then, the VCO is free-
quency slightly above its free-running frequency. running at 10 kHz. Now, assume that the input frequency
changes toward the VCO frequency. At some point, the PLL
vin will be able to lock onto the input frequency. The range of
v1 v2 input frequencies within which the PLL can reestablish the
vin lock is called the capture range.
Δ␾ is positive
t
The capture range is specified as a percentage of the free-
v1
v2 running frequency. If f0 5 10 kHz and the capture range is
65%, the PLL can lock on to an input frequency between 9.5
t
and 10.5 kHz. Typically, the capture range is less than the
lock range because the capture range depends on the cutoff
Δ␾ is positive
frequency of the low-pass filter. The lower the cutoff fre-
(a) (b) quency, the smaller the capture range.
Figure 38-31 (a) An increase in the frequency of v1 The cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter is kept low
produces a phase difference. (b) A phase difference exists to prevent high-frequency components like noise or other
after the VCO frequency increases. unwanted signals from reaching the VCO. The lower the

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 cutoff frequency of the filter, the cleaner the signal driv- 38.9 Frequency Synthesizers
ing the VCO. Therefore, a designer has to trade off capture
A frequency synthesizer is a signal-generating circuit whose
range against low-pass bandwidth to get a clean signal for
output frequency is varied in increments. The output may be
the VCO.
a sine wave or square wave, depending on how the synthe-
sizer is used. It has the frequency precision and stability of a
Applications
crystal oscillator, but its output frequency is changed in steps
A PLL can be used in two fundamentally different ways. rather than varied continuously.
First, it can be used to lock onto the input signal. The A frequency synthesizer is used in virtually all wire-
output frequency then equals the input frequency. This less equipment for tuning. Most transmitters and receivers
has the advantage of cleaning up a noisy input signal be- have their frequency of operation set by a synthesizer. This
cause the low-pass filter will remove high-frequency noise includes all radio and TV sets; two-way marine, aircraft,
and other components. The PLL acts as a bandpass fil- public service, and other radios; and all cell phones. Fre-
ter because of the narrow capture range and the noise- quency synthesizers are also at the heart of all electronic
reducing effects of the low-pass filter. Since the output test signal generators. These are often called function gen-
signal comes from the VCO, the fi nal output is stable and erators. Arbitrary waveform generators (AWG) with syn-
almost noise-free. thesis techniques can generate a signal of any shape with
Second, a PLL can be used as an FM demodulator. The or without modulation.
theory of frequency modulation (FM) is covered in com- There are two basic types of synthesizers, one based on
munication courses, so we discuss only the basic idea. The the phase-locked loop and the other based on digital tech-
LC oscillator of Fig. 38-32a has a variable capacitance. If niques. A brief introduction to each is given here.
a modulating signal controls this capacitance, the oscillator
output will be frequency-modulated, as shown in Fig. 38-32b. PLL Frequency Synthesizers
Notice how the frequency of this FM wave varies from a
Figure 38-33 shows a PLL synthesizer. Notice the alter-
minimum to a maximum, corresponding to the minimum
native symbols used to represent oscillators and the phase
and maximum peaks of the modulating signal.
detector. Oscillators are commonly represented by a circle
If the FM signal is the input to a PLL, the VCO frequency
with a sine or square wave inside to designate the type of
will lock onto the FM signal. Since the VCO frequency
oscillator.
varies, D follows the variations in the modulating signal.
The input to the PLL is a crystal oscillator whose fre-
Therefore, the output of the phase detector will be a low-
quency determines the step-frequency increment. Because
frequency signal that is a replica of the original modulating
the PLL will be locked to a crystal, the VCO output will
signal. When used in this way, the PLL is being used as an
have the precision and stability of this crystal oscillator.
FM demodulator, a circuit that recovers the modulating sig-
The key component added to the PLL to create a synthe-
nal from the FM wave.
sizer is a variable-frequency divider. A frequency divider,
PLLs are available as monolithic ICs. For instance, the
as the name implies, divides its input frequency by some in-
NE565 is a PLL that contains a phase detector, a VCO, and
teger value n. If n is 10, then a 30-kHz input will produce
a dc amplifier. The user connects external components like
a 3-kHz output. Frequency dividers are usually made with
a timing resistor and capacitor to set the free-running fre-
quency of the VCO. Another external capacitor sets the cut-
off frequency of the low-pass filter. The NE565 can be used
DC frequency
for FM demodulation, frequency synthesis, telemetry receiv- control
Crystal Phase voltage
ers, modems, tone decoding, and so forth. Most PLLs are oscillator detector VCO
fully integrated into other ICs. Low-pass Synthesizer
filter 400 output
MHz
Crystal
fx (min) fx (max) Variable-
1 MHz 1 MHz frequency
LC divider
oscillator
÷N
Feedback ÷ 400

(a) (b)
Divider control from a
microcontroller or other
Figure 38-32 (a) Variable capacitance changes digital source
resonant frequency of LC oscillator. (b) Sine wave has been
frequency-modulated. Figure 38-33 A PLL frequency synthesizer.

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 digital flip-flops and can be designed so that the frequency
EXAMPLE 38-8
division factor can be varied in increments. Some form of
digital input signal is given to change the division factor. A PLL synthesizer uses a 1-MHz crystal followed by a 440 divider.
Note in Fig. 38-33 that the frequency divider output is The feedback divider has division factor of 123. What are the VCO
connected to the second input of the phase detector. Since output frequency and the frequency step increment?
the two inputs to the phase detector must be equal to achieve
Answer:
a locked condition, the VCO output must be a factor of n The input to the phase detector is
higher than the crystal input frequency. For example, with
a 1-MHz crystal oscillator input and a frequency division 1,000,000 4 40 5 25,000 Hz or 25 kHz.
factor of 400, the VCO output frequency will be 400 MHz. This is the step increment.
The 400-MHz output is reduced by the divider to match the The VCO output is
1-MHz crystal oscillator input.
25 kHz 3 123 5 3075 kHz or 3.075 MHz
Now assume that the frequency division factor is changed
to 399. The 400-MHz signal from the VCO is divided by 399,
giving an output of 1.0025 MHz. The phase detector senses
the difference from the 1-MHz input and produces a dc volt- Direct Digital Synthesis
age that will rapidly change the VCO output to 399 MHz, While most frequency synthesizers still have some form of
bringing the PLL into lock. An important specification in the PLL circuit, just discussed, a newer synthesis technique
frequency synthesizers is how fast the VCO can change and is now widely used in communications equipment as well as
the PLL can achieve lock, the faster the better. In most PLL test instruments. Known as direct digital synthesis (DDS),
synthesizers this is several microseconds. The time span is it has been made feasible by large-scale ICs available from
determined by the low-pass filter characteristics. Analog Devices Inc. that contains all the necessary circuitry.
As you can see, by changing the frequency division fac- The basic concept is shown in Fig. 38-34. Assume that the
tor, the VCO output can be varied in 1-MHz steps. For some desired output is a sine wave. The digital version of a sine (or
applications, a 1-MHz step size may be too big. In that case, cosine) wave is stored in an IC read-only memory (ROM)
another crystal frequency can be used. Alternatively, another or a semiconductor random access memory (RAM). Each
frequency divider can be placed between the 1-MHz oscilla- memory location or address contains one amplitude incre-
tor and the phase detector. For example, if a 4100 divider is ment of the sine wave in binary format. A binary counter
used, the phase detector input will be 1 MHz/100 5 10 kHz. supplies sequential addresses to the memory to access the
The VCO output and the frequency divider output will then binary numbers. When the binary numbers are accessed and
be changed to 10-kHz increments as the main frequency di- sequentially sent to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a
vider factor is varied. The frequency divider factor must be proportional analog output amplitude is produced for each
increased to n 5 40,000 to maintain a 400-MHz output, but binary input. The output of the DAC is a stepped approxima-
the changes provide for the 10-kHz incremental frequency tion of the sine wave. A low-pass filter is used to smooth the
change. signal into a more continuous analog sine wave.
An important concept to take away from this PLL synthe- Figure 38-35 shows the process of converting binary
sizer discussion is that the VCO output has a frequency that is numbers in a memory into approximately half a sine wave.
n times the phase detector input. In the circuit of Fig. 38-33, In this example, it is assumed that there is a binary sine value
the input is 1 MHz from the crystal oscillator and the VCO for every 158 increment stored in memory. As each incre-
output is 400 MHz. The synthesizer is acting as a 3400 ment number is applied to the DAC, a proportional analog
frequency multiplier. This concept is widely used to create voltage is generated. The DAC output voltage stays constant
crystal oscillators at frequencies beyond their natural capa-
bilities. For example, a packaged crystal or a microelectro- Address
mechanical systems (MEMS) oscillator like those discussed counter/register
earlier can use a PLL multiplier to create a 915-MHz output
signal from a 18.3-MHz crystal by using a fixed division fac-
tor of 50. The 915-MHz output has the same frequency ac- Memory DAC LPF f0

curacy and stability as the 18.3-MHz crystal oscillator.

PLL synthesizers are available in integrated circuit form.
However, most are buried inside other ICs. Wireless receiv-
Clock
ers and transmitters typically have the PLL synthesizer inte-
grated into the other circuitry on a single chip. Figure 38-34 Concept of a direct digital synthesizer.

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 Ideal sine Input from
wave frequency-changing
1.0 Stepped circuits
approximation
Phase
increment Address
register counter/register
Sine value

0.5 Adder

Memory DAC LPF f0

0
0° 45° 90° 135° 180°
Crystal clock
Figure 38-35 A stepped approximation of a sine wave.

Figure 38-36 A complete DDS synthesizer.

until the next increment is received by the DAC. The result is
a stepped approximation of a sine wave, as shown.
The number of bits used to represent the binary sine values to get the next ROM address value. By changing the phase
determines the resolution of the sine wave and the DAC out- register value, which comes from a microcontroller or other
put voltage increment size. For example, if 8-bits are used for circuit, the phase increment of the output is changed. The
each number, there will be 28 5 256 voltage levels. That will address for the waveform memory is derived from an initial
give better resolution and a stepped output closer to a true value in the address register based on memory size plus a
sine wave. Some synthesizers can use 10-, 12-, or 14-bit num- phase increment value supplied by the external frequency
bers and DACs to produce a very fine-grained sine output. selection circuitry. The output frequency is changed by vary-
The method shown in Fig. 38-34 works fine, but the output ing the phase register value. This permits a constant clock
frequency, fo, depends on the clock frequency, fc, driving the frequency from a crystal-stabilized source clock to achieve
address counter and the number of sine samples, M, in mem- the desired crystal precision and stability.
ory, or fo 5 fc/M. With 120 sine samples and a clock frequency DDS ICs are available with clock input values to 1 GHz
of 80 MHz, the output sine wave would have a frequency of and with phase increments of 24, 32, or 48 bits. This gives
2n phase resolution for 3608. DAC update rates are also
fo 5 fc/M 5 80 MHz/120 5 666.67 kHz
available to 1 GHz with output bit resolutions of 10, 12, and
This means that the clock frequency must be very high to 14 bits. This allows DDS synthesizers to produce outputs in
produce even a low-frequency output. And you must change the hundreds of megahertz range with very high frequency
the clock frequency to change the output frequency, which and phase increment precision. And DDS ICs are available
does not make it easy to get crystal accuracy or stability. with AM, FM, and PM modulation as well as two channels
A DDS uses this same waveform generation method but for producing in-phase, I, and quadrature, Q, signals with
replaces the address counter with a sophisticated phase ac- precise, high 908 separation.
cumulator circuit, as shown in Fig. 38-36. A clock signal DDS synthesizers offer the benefits of high frequency
from a crystal-based oscillator clocks the adder and the ad- and phase resolution as well as their ability to change fre-
dress register that feeds the address to the DAC. The address quency in nanoseconds vs. microseconds or more typical of
register output is added to a phase increment register value PLL synthesizers.

CHAPTER 38 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

The Concept of Modulation

Modulation is the process of having one signal modify an- voice and music can be transmitted over speaker cables, sur-
other for the purpose of communicating information over a veillance video signals can be sent over coaxial cables, and
medium. In some instances, information such as audio sig- computer data can be applied to twisted-pair network cables.
nals, video, or digital data can be transmitted from one place However, such information cannot be transmitted directly
to another by just applying it to a cable. Audio voltages of by radio.

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 Wireless communication requires that the information
or data modulate another signal called the carrier. The car- Modulating signal
rier is at a higher radio frequency that can be transmitted
more easily over the air via antennas. The carrier signal
sets the frequency of operation. Modulation varies the car-
rier at the transmitter in a unique way such that the receiver
(a)
can recover it.
Carrier
There are many different forms of modulation, but all are
a variation of the three basic modulation types: amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase
modulation (PM). Following is a brief description of each.

Amplitude Modulation (b)

Figure S38-1 shows AM. A sine wave information signal is Figure S38-2 Amplitude modulation of a sine-wave
varying the amplitude of a higher-frequency, sine-wave car- carrier by a binary or rectangular wave is called amplitude-
rier. The information signal could be voice, music, or video. shift keying. (a) ASK. (b) OOK.
The carrier frequency remains constant. Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.
Figure S38-2 shows binary digital data being transmitted
by AM. This is called amplitude-shift keying (ASK). The
carrier is shifted between two different amplitude levels.
the carrier amplitude remains constant. The greater the
The binary data signal can also turn the carrier off and on,
amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the fre-
as the binary 0s and 1s occur, creating a form of ASK called
quency deviation.
on-off keying (OOK).
The binary digital data transmission with FM is called
frequency-shift keying (FSK). As shown in Fig. S38-4, the
Frequency Modulation digital data shifts the carrier frequency between two fixed
FM is illustrated in Fig. S38-3. A sine-wave informa- frequency values.
tion signal varies the frequency of the carrier while
Phase Modulation
Phase modulation produces a result similar to FM when the
modulating signal is analog like a sine wave, audio, or video.
Sinusoidal modulating wave
vm↑ V m The modulating signal shifts the instantaneous phase of the
carrier and that, in turn, produces frequency modulation.
0 Time Phase modulation using digital data results in what is
called binary phase-shift keying (BPSK). Figure S38-5
(a) shows BPSK. Note the 1808 phase shift that occurs when
there is a binary 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 transition.
Carrier peak is
zero reference
for modulating signal AM Sidebands
vc wave Envelope
When modulation occurs, the process produces new sig-
vc V c↑
nals called sidebands. The sidebands are located above and
↑

below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the mod-

Vc
0
ulating frequency value. Figure S38-6a shows the sidebands
Time produced by AM in a frequency domain plot. The carrier
frequency is fc and the modulating signal frequency is fm.
The upper sideband (USB) is fc 1 fm. The lower sideband
Unmodulated
carrier wave (LSB) is fc 2 fm. Note in Figure S38-6b that a nonsinusoidal
(b)
or distorted wave contains harmonics that produce sidebands
as well. The modulated carrier with its sidebands occupies a
Figure S38-1 Amplitude modulation. (a) The modulating finite amount of bandwidth in the radio-frequency spectrum.
or information signal. (b) The modulated carrier. FM and PM produce multiple sidebands, as shown in Fig.
Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, 3d ed. S38-7. The number and amplitude of the sidebands depend on

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 1
(a)

1
(b)

No
2 signal

Maximum Maximum
Zero
positive negative
deviation
deviation deviation

1
(c)

No
frequency
change

Figure S38-3 FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave

for simplicity but is usually a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal.
Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.

Binary 1 (3 V)

Binary 0 (0 V)

FSK signal

Carrier frequency (fc) 5 0 Higher frequency 5 1

Figure S38-4 Frequency modulating of a carrier with binary data

produces FSK.
Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.

the frequency of the modulating signal and other factors. Again, data. For example, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
the total FM signal takes up a large segment of the spectrum. is a combination amplitude and phase modulation. It allows
There are dozens of different forms of modulation, but higher data rates in the same or less bandwidth.
all are variations or combinations of the basic AM, FM, Spread spectrum is a method by which binary data are
and PM techniques illustrated. Most of these modulation combined with a special “chipping” code to spread the sig-
schemes are designed for the efficient transmission of digital nal over a wider bandwidth. Orthogonal frequency division

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 Binary 1 (3 V)

Binary 0 (0 V)

PSK signal

180° phase shifts

Figure S38-5 Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.

Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.

Carrier 5 1 MHz Carrier 5 1 MHz

Harmonic sidebands Harmonic sidebands

0.9995 MHz 1.0005 MHz
Second Second
Third Third
Fourth Fourth

BW 5 1 kHz BW 5 4 kHz
(a) (b)

Figure S38-6 AM signal bandwidth. (a) Sine wave of 500 Hz modulating a 1-MHz carrier.
(b) Distorted 500-Hz sine wave with significant second, third, and fourth harmonics.
Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.

Carrier

Lower sidebands Upper sidebands

fc

fc

fc 2 fm fc 1 fm
fc 2 2fm fc 1 2fm
fc 2 3fm fc 1 3fm

fc 2 4fm fc 1 4fm
fc 2 5fm fc 1 5fm

fc 2 6fm fc 1 6fm

Figure S38-7 Frequency spectrum of an FM signal. Note that the carrier and sideband
amplitudes shown are just examples. The amplitudes depend on the nature of the modulating signal.
Source: From Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communications Systems, 3d ed.

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 multiplexing (OFDM) is a method that divides a serial bi- Carriers

nary data stream into multiple slower streams. Each of the

slower streams modulates separate multiple adjacent carriers
using BPSK or QAM, as shown in Fig. S38-8. All these spe-
cials forms of modulation are designed to enable the highest
data speeds in limited bandwidth assignments and to allow
multiple users to share the same bandwidth concurrently.

Modulation Applications Frequency

Here is a summary of the modulation methods used for the Figure S38-8 Orthogonal frequency division
most popular wireless applications. multiplexing (OFDM).

Application Modulation Comments

AM broadcast radio AM 10-kHz bandwidth
FM broadcast radio FM 200-kHz bandwidth
TV broadcast 8VSB A combination of AM and PM with a partially
suppressed lower sideband
Marine radio FM VHF frequency band
Aircraft radio AM VHF frequency band
Public radio (police, fire) FM, FSK, PSK VHF frequency band
Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) BPSK, QAM, OFDM 2.4-GHz and 5-GHz bands
HD radio (broadcast) OFDM Simultaneous transmission with AM and FM.
Computer modems QAM and/or OFDM Cable TV and DSLmodems
Satellites BPSK, QAM Microwave bands
Cell phones GMSK, CDMA, OFDM, with QPSK, 2G-GMSK, 3G-DCMA, 4G-OFDM
16QAM, 64QAM

CHAPTER 38 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. An oscillator always needs an amplifier with c. with LC tank circuits.

a. positive feedback. d. at small input signals.
b. negative feedback. 4. A Wien-bridge oscillator uses
c. both types of feedback. a. positive feedback.
d. an LC tank circuit. b. negative feedback.
2. The voltage that starts an oscillator is caused by c. both types of feedback.
a. ripple from the power supply. d. an LC tank circuit.
b. noise voltage in resistors. 5. Initially, the loop gain of a Wien bridge is
c. the input signal from a generator. a. 0.
d. positive feedback. b. 1.
3. The Wien-bridge oscillator is useful c. low.
a. at low frequencies. d. high.
b. at high frequencies.

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 6. A Wien bridge is sometimes called a 15. Of the following oscillators, the one with the most
a. notch filter. stable frequency is the
b. twin-T oscillator. a. Armstrong.
c. phase shifter. b. Clapp.
d. Wheatstone bridge. c. Colpitts.
7. To vary the frequency of a Wien bridge, you can vary d. Hartley.
a. one resistor. 16. The material that has the piezoelectric effect is
b. two resistors. a. quartz.
c. three resistors. b. rochelle salts.
d. one capacitor. c. tourmaline.
8. For oscillations to start in a circuit, the loop gain d. all the above.
must be greater than 1 when the phase shift around 17. Crystals have a very
the loop is a. low Q.
a. 908. b. high Q.
b. 1808. c. small inductance.
c. 2708. d. large resistance.
d. 3608. 18. The series and parallel resonant frequencies of a
9. The most widely used LC oscillator is the crystal are
a. Armstrong. a. very close together.
b. Clapp. b. very far apart.
c. Colpitts. c. equal.
d. Hartley. d. low frequencies.
10. Heavy feedback in an LC oscillator 19. The kind of oscillator found in an electronic wrist-
a. prevents the circuit from starting. watch is the
b. causes saturation and cutoff. a. Armstrong.
c. produces maximum output voltage. b. Clapp.
d. means that B is small. c. Colpitts.
11. When Q decreases in a Colpitts oscillator, the fre- d. quartz crystal.
quency of oscillation 20. A monostable 555 timer has the following number of
a. decreases. stable states:
b. remains the same. a. 0.
c. increases. b. 1.
d. becomes erratic. c. 2.
12. Link coupling refers to d. 3.
a. capacitive coupling. 21. An astable 555 timer has the following number of
b. transformer coupling. stable states:
c. resistive coupling. a. 0.
d. power coupling. b. 1.
13. The Hartley oscillator uses c. 2.
a. negative feedback. d. 3.
b. two inductors. 22. The pulse width from a one-shot multivibrator in-
c. a tungsten lamp. creases when the
d. a tickler coil. a. supply voltage increases.
14. To vary the frequency of an LC oscillator, you can b. timing resistor decreases.
vary c. UTP decreases.
a. one resistor. d. timing capacitance increases.
b. two resistors. 23. The output waveform of a 555 timer is
c. three resistors. a. sinusoidal.
d. one capacitor. b. triangular.

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 c. rectangular. c. timer.
d. elliptical. d. synchronizer.
24. The quantity that remains constant in a pulse-width 33. A microcontroller can generate rectangular pulses of
modulator is any frequency and duty cycle.
a. pulse width. a. True.
b. period. b. False.
c. duty cycle. 34. A phase-locked loop can be used as a
d. space. a. frequency divider.
25. When a PPL is locked on the input frequency, the b. FM modulator.
VCO frequency c. bandpass filter.
a. is less than f0. d. phase shifter.
b. is greater than f0. 35. The main difference between a PLL and a PLL
c. equals f0. synthesizer is a
d. equals fin. a. different type of phase detector.
26. The bandwidth of the low-pass filter in a PPL deter- b. no VCO.
mines the c. sine-wave output.
a. capture range. d. a frequency divider in the feedback path.
b. lock range. 36. How is the frequency of a PLL synthesizer
c. free-running frequency. changed?
d. phase difference. a. Change the feedback division factor.
27. FSK is a method of controlling the output b. Vary the VCO frequency with a dc voltage.
a. functions. c. Change the input oscillator frequency.
b. amplitude. d. Vary the phase detector sensitivity.
c. frequency. 37. Most modern radios and other wireless gear are tuned
d. phase. with a
28. Most oscillators in use today are a. Colpitts oscillator.
a. discrete component types. b. crystal oscillator.
b. integrated circuit types. c. frequency synthesizer.
29. What component is used to create a VCO from an LC d. variable capacitor.
oscillator? 38. What circuit in a DDS actually produces the analog
a. Capacitor. output signal?
b. Inductor. a. Low-pass filter.
c. Resistor. b. DAC.
d. Varactor. c. ROM.
30. Crystal oscillators are known and used primarily d. Address register.
for their 39. A DDS can potentially generate any shape output
a. frequency stability. signal.
b. reliability. a. True.
c. small size. b. False.
d. low power consumption. 40. A PLL synthesizer makes a good
31. Which crystal oscillator delivers the most precise and a. adder.
constant frequency? b. accumulator register.
a. VCXO. c. frequency multiplier.
b. TCXO. d. frequency divider.
c. OCXO.
d. XO.
32. A crystal oscillator used to time digital circuits is
usually called a
a. microcontroller.
b. clock.

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 CHAPTER 38 PROBLEMS

SECTION 38.2 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator 38.6 A crystal has a thickness of t. If you reduce t by 1%,
38.1 What is the frequency of oscillation of a Wien- what happens to the frequency?
bridge oscillator if C 5 200 pF and R 5 22 kV? SECTION 38.6 Crystal Oscillators
SECTION 38.3 The Colpitts Oscillator 38.7 What is the maximum frequency deviation and
38.2 What is the approximate frequency of oscillation percent accuracy of a crystal oscillator with a fre-
in Fig. 38-37? The value of B? For the oscillator to quency of 40 MHz and a stability of 500 ppm?
start, what is the minimum value of Av? SECTION 38.7 Square-Wave, Pulse, and
38.3 What can you do to the inductance of Fig. 38-37 to Function Generators
double the frequency of oscillation? 38.8 A 555 timer is connected for monostable operation.
SECTION 38.4 Other LC Oscillators If R 5 10 kV and C 5 0.047 F, what is the width
of the output pulse?
38.4 If 47 pF is connected in series with the 10 H of
Fig. 38-37, the circuit becomes a Clapp oscillator. 38.9 An astable 555 timer has R1 5 10 kV, R2 5 2 kV,
What is the frequency of oscillation? and C 5 0.0022 F. What is the frequency?
38.10 The 555 timer of Fig. 38-21 has R1 5 20 kV, R2 5
+12 V 10 kV, and C 5 0.047 F. What is frequency of the
output signal? What is the duty cycle?
38.11 A pulse-width modulator like the one in Fig. 38-24
RF
choke has VCC 5 10 V, R 5 5.1 kV, and C 5 1 nF. The
0.1 ␮F
clock has a frequency of 10 kHz. If a modulating
10 kΩ
signal has a peak value of 1.5 V, what is the period
0.1 ␮F
of the output pulses? What is the quiescent pulse
0.001 ␮F 10 kΩ
width? What are the minimum and maximum pulse
widths? What are the minimum and maximum duty
cycles?
5 kΩ 1 kΩ 0.01 ␮F 10 ␮H 38.12 Select a value of L in Fig. 38-37 to get an oscilla-
0.1 ␮F tion frequency of 2.5 MHz.
SECTION 38.9 Frequency Synthesizers
38.13 A PLL synthesizer has a crystal oscillator input
Figure 38-37 from a 4-MHz crystal oscillator followed by
a 440 frequency divider. What is the frequency
SECTION 38.5 Quartz Crystals step increment?
38.5 A crystal has a fundamental frequency of 5 MHz. 38.14 A PLL frequency synthesizer has a crystal input of
What is the approximate value of the first overtone 10 MHz. The frequency divider is set to a division
frequency? The second overtone? The third? factor of 240. What is the VCO output frequency?

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 Ch a pt er 39
Regulated Power Supplies
and Power Conversion

All electronic circuits and equipment require one or Learning Outcomes

more dc voltages for proper operation. These voltages
may come from a battery in portable equipment or After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
from an ac-to-dc power supply like that previously dis- Define and calculate regulation.
cussed in Chap. 30. This chapter continues the power Describe how series regulators work.
supply discussion with additional circuits and tech- Explain the operation and characteristics of IC
niques, including voltage regulation and switch-mode voltage regulators.
power circuits like switching regulators, dc-dc convert- Describe the three basic topologies of switching
ers and dc-to-ac inverters. regulators.
Explain how dc-dc converters work.
State the benefits of switch-mode power suppliers.
Explain the operation and application of inverters.

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 39.1 Power Supply Review ICs cannot withstand higher voltages. While you will still
see the common 15, 12, and 5 V used, most newer ICs use
Modern electronic power supplies can be categorized in the
voltages of 3.3, 2.5, 1.8, 1.5, and 0.9 V.
following ways:
Second, these voltages must be very precise and stable.
Battery: The primary voltage source is a battery but That means that the voltages must be within a few percent
multiple regulator and dc-dc converter circuits convert of that specified for the various ICs and that the voltage re-
the main battery voltage into several different needed mains constant over a very narrow range. Third, the “green”
dc voltages. movement means that efficiency is more essential than ever.
Battery charger: A circuit designed to recharge a This has resulted in a major change in power supply circuits
secondary battery. It may be another battery or an ac to those using switching circuits rather than more tradi-
operated power supply with charge control circuits de- tional linear circuits. Today most power supplies are of the
signed for battery charging. “switch-mode” type for which regulators, dc-dc converters,
AC-to-dc power supply: A basic supply with a trans- and inverters use switching transistors and switching meth-
former, rectifier, and filter as discussed in Chap. 30. ods that produce efficiencies in the 70 to 95% range com-
It may also include one or more regulators and dc-dc pared to the 30 to 60% range for linear supplies. The result
converters to provide the needed voltages. is now not only lower power consumption and less heat but
Inverter: A dc-to-ac power supply. The dc voltage, also smaller, lighter power supplies.
generally from a battery, is converted into an ac volt- 39.2 Supply Characteristics
age, usually a 60-Hz sine wave or equivalent.
The quality of a power supply depends on its load regulation,
Power Supply Trends line regulation, and output resistance. In this section, we will
The older-style “linear” ac-to-dc power supplies intro- look at these characteristics because they are often used on
duced in Chap. 30 are still used, but several trends have data sheets to specify power supplies.
also necessitated major changes in power supplies. First,
the dc operating voltage values are lower. In older equip- Load Regulation
ment, dc voltages of 15, 12, and 5 V were the most com- Figure 39-1 shows a traditional ac-to-dc linear power sup-
mon. Today, as a way to cut power consumption and ply, a bridge rectifier with a capacitor-input filter. Changing
reduce heat, lower voltages are used. The lower voltages the load resistance will change the load voltage. If we reduce
are necessary since the smaller geometries of the newer the load resistance, we get more ripple and additional voltage

120 V
60 Hz

+
C RL
–

VNL – VFL
Load regulation = × 100%
VFL

VNL = load voltage with no load current

VFL = load voltage with full load current

VHL – VLL
Line regulation = × 100%
VLL

VLL = load voltage with low line voltage

VHL = load voltage with high line voltage

Figure 39-1 Power supply with capacitor-input filter.

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 drop across the transformer windings and diodes. Because As with load regulation, the smaller the line regulation,
of this, an increase in load current always decreases the load the better the power supply. For example, a well-regulated
voltage. power supply can have a line regulation of less than 0.1%.
Load regulation indicates how much the load voltage This means that the load voltage varies less than 0.1% when
changes when the load current changes. The definition for the line voltage varies from 105 to 125 V rms.
load regulation is
Output Resistance
VNL 2 VFL
Load regulation 5 _________ 3 100% (39-1) The Thevenin or output resistance of a power supply deter-
VFL
mines the load regulation. If a power supply has a low output
where VNL 5 load voltage with no load current resistance, its load regulation will also be low. Here is one
way to calculate the output resistance:
VFL 5 load voltage with full load current
VNL 2 VFL
With this definition, VNL occurs when the load current is RTH 5 _________ (39-3)
IFL
zero, and VFL occurs when the load current is the maximum
value for the design. For example, here are the values given earlier for Fig. 39-1:
For instance, suppose that the power supply of Fig. 39-1 VNL 5 10.6 V for IL 5 0
has these values: VFL 5 9.25 V for IL 5 1 A
VNL 5 10.6 V for IL 5 0 For this power supply, the output resistance is
VFL 5 9.25 V for IL 5 1 A 10.6 V 2 9.25 V 5 1.35 V
RTH 5 ______________
Then, Formula (39-1) gives 1A
Figure 39-2 shows a graph of load voltage versus load cur-
10.6 V 2 9.25 V 3 100% 5 14.6%
Load regulation 5 ______________ rent. As you can see, the load voltage decreases when the
9.25 V
load current increases. The change in load voltage (VNL 2
The smaller the load regulation, the better the power sup- VFL) divided by the change in current (IFL) equals the out-
ply. For instance, a well-regulated power supply can have a put resistance of the power supply. The output resistance is
load regulation of less than 1%. This means that the load volt- related to the slope of this graph. The more horizontal the
age varies less than 1% over the full range of load current. graph, the lower the output resistance.
In Fig. 39-2, the maximum load current IFL occurs when
Line Regulation the load resistance is minimum. Because of this, an equiva-
In Fig. 39-1, the input line voltage has a nominal value of lent expression for load regulation is
120 V. The actual voltage coming out of a power outlet may RTH
vary from 105 to 125 V rms, depending on the time of day, Load regulation 5 _____ 3 100% (39-4)
RL(min)
the locality, and other factors. Since the secondary voltage is
directly proportional to the line voltage, the load voltage in For example, if a power supply has an output resistance of
Fig. 39-1 will change when line voltage changes. 1.5 V and the minimum load resistance is 10 V, it has a load
Another way to specify the quality of a power supply is by regulation of
its line regulation, defined as 1.5 V 3 100% 5 15%
Load regulation 5 _____
VHL 2 VLL 10 V
Line regulation 5 _________ 3 100% (39-2)
VLL
39.3 Basic Regulators
where VHL 5 load voltage with high line The line regulation and load regulation of an unregulated
VLL 5 load voltage with low line power supply are too high for most applications. By using
For instance, suppose that the power supply of Fig. 39-1 has a voltage regulator between the power supply and the load,
these measured values: we can significantly improve the line and load regulation. A
linear voltage regulator uses a device operating in the linear
VLL 5 9.2 V for line voltage 5 105 V rms region to hold the load voltage constant. The simplest regula-
VHL 5 11.2 V for line voltage 5 125 V rms tors are based on the zener diode.
Then, Formula (39-2) gives Zener Regulator
11.2 V 2 9.2 V The simplest shunt regulator is the zener-diode circuit of
Line regulation 5 _____________
9.2 V 3 100% 5 21.7% Fig. 39-3. The zener diode operates in the breakdown region,

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 VL

VNL

VFL VNL – VFL

RTH =
I FL

VNL = load voltage with no load current

VFL = load voltage with full load current

I FL = full load current

IL
IFL

Figure 39-2 Graph of load voltage versus load current.

Vout = VZ
zener power ratings are 400, 500, and 1000 mW. This limits
the load power to roughly 5 to 10 times those values. For
Vin – Vout
RS IS = example, using a 12-V, 1-W zener diode, the maximum zener
Vin RS
current is 1/12 5 0.0833 A. Assuming a typical zener current
+ Vout of 20% of load current, the maximum load current would be
IL =
VZ RL Vout RL 0.0833/0.2 5 0.4166 or just over 400 mA. To overcome this
–
limitation, a common practice is to use an emitter follower
IZ = IS – IL
between the zener and the load, as shown in Fig. 39-4. The
load is the emitter resistance.
The zener diode operates in the breakdown region, pro-
Figure 39-3 Zener regulator is a shunt regulator.
ducing a base voltage equal to the zener voltage. The transis-
tor is connected as an emitter follower. Therefore, the load
producing an output voltage equal to the zener voltage. When
voltage equals
the load current changes, the zener current increases or de-
creases to keep the current through RS constant. With any Vout 5 VZ 2 VBE (39-5)
shunt regulator, a change in load current is complemented If the line voltage or load current changes, the zener voltage
by an opposing change in shunt current. If load current and base-emitter voltage will change only slightly. Because
increases by 1 mA, the shunt current decreases by 1 mA. of this, the output voltage shows only small changes for large
Conversely, if the load current decreases by 1 mA, the shunt changes in line voltage or load current.
current increases by 1 mA. The emitter follower is a series regulator because the load
As shown in Fig. 39-3, the equation for the current through current passes through the transistor. The load current ap-
the series resistor is proximately equals the input current because the current
Vin 2 Vout through RS is usually small enough to ignore. The transistor
IS 5 ________
RS of a series regulator is called a pass transistor because all
the load current passes through it.
This series current equals the input current to the regula-
By using a power transistor, loads of many amperes can
tor. When the input voltage is constant, the input current is
be regulated. The primary concern is that for the transistor
almost constant when the load current changes. A change in
load current has almost no effect on the input current.
A final point: In Fig. 39-3, the maximum load current Vin
with regulation occurs when the zener current is almost zero.
Therefore, the maximum load current in Fig. 39-3 equals the RS Vout = VZ – VBE
+
input current. The maximum load current with a regulated RL Vout Vout
IL =
output voltage is equal to the input current. – RL
VZ
The Zener Follower PD ⬵ (Vin – Vout)IL

The primary disadvantage of the basic zener regulator is

its limited current- and power-handling capability. Typical Figure 39-4 Zener follower is a series regulator.

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 to remain effective in controlling the output, it must continue transistor is approximately equal to the load current, the ef-
to operate in the linear region. For that reason, VCE must re- ficiency is given by
main above about 2 or 3 V. This means that the unregulated Vout
input voltage must be higher than the desired output by that Efficiency > ___ 3 100% (39-8)
Vin
amount. Some power will be dissipated in the transistor. With this approximation, the best efficiency occurs when the
While the emitter-follower regulator is occasionally used, output voltage is almost as large as the input voltage. It implies
its best regulation is still only a few percent. Newer designs that the smaller the headroom voltage, the better the efficiency.
call for improved regulation as well as better efficiency. To improve the operation of the series regulator, a Dar-
39.4 Series Regulators lington connection is often used for the pass transistor. This
allows us to use a low-power transistor to drive a power tran-
Improved series regulators use negative feedback in a closed-
sistor. The Darlington connection allows us to use larger
loop control circuit to greatly improve regulation. A basic
values of R1 to R4 to improve the efficiency.
series regulator is shown in Fig. 39-5.

Headroom, Power Dissipation, and Efficiency Current Limiting

In Fig. 39-5, the headroom voltage is defined as the differ- The series regulator of Fig. 39-5 has no short-circuit protec-
ence between the input and output voltage: tion. If we accidentally short the load terminals, the load
current will try to approach infinity, which destroys the pass
Headroom voltage 5 Vin 2 Vout (39-6) transistor. It may also destroy one or more diodes in the un-
The current through the pass transistor of Fig. 39-5 equals regulated power supply that is driving the series regulator.
I C 5 I L 1 I2 To protect against an accidental short across the load, series
regulators usually include some form of current limiting.
where I2 is the current through R2. To keep the efficiency Figure 39-6 shows one way to limit the load current to safe
high, a designer will make I2 much smaller than the full-load values. In the figure, R4 is a small resistor called a current-
value of IL. Therefore, we can ignore I2 at larger load cur- sensing resistor. For our discussion, we will use an R4 of
rents and write 1 V. Since the load current has to pass through R4, the current-
IC > IL sensing resistor produces the base-emitter voltage for Q1.
When the load current is less than 600 mA, the voltage
At high load currents, the power dissipation in the pass
across R4 is less than 0.6 V. In this case, Q1 is cut off and
transistor is given by the product of headroom voltage and
the regulator works as previously described. When the load
load current:
current is between 600 and 700 mA, the voltage across R4 is
PD > (Vin 2 Vout)IL (39-7) between 0.6 and 0.7 V. This turns on Q1. The collector cur-
The power dissipation in the pass transistor is very large in rent of Q1 flows through R5. This decreases the base voltage
some series regulators. In this case, a large heat sink is used. to Q2, which reduces the load voltage and the load current.
Sometimes, a fan is needed to remove the excess heat inside When the load is shorted, Q1 conducts heavily and brings
enclosed equipment. the base voltage of Q2 down to approximately 1.4 V (two
At full load current, most of the regulator power dissipa- base-emitter voltage drops above ground). The current
tion is in the pass transistor. Since the current in the pass through the pass transistor is typically limited to 700 mA.

Vin
R1 + R2
Vout = VZ
R1
R3
Vout
R2 IL =
RL
+ +
RL Vout
PD ⬵ (Vin – Vout)IL
–
–
VZ

R1

Figure 39-5 Series regulator with large negative feedback.

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 Q2 R4
Vin
1Ω R1 + R2
Vout = VZ
R1
R3
VBE
R2 ISL =
Q1 R4
+ R5 +
RL Vout
–
–

VZ

R1

Figure 39-6 Series regulator with current limiting.

It may be slightly more or less than this, depending on the a large power dissipation in the pass transistor when the load
characteristics of the two transistors. terminals are shorted. With a short across the load, almost all
Incidentally, resistor R5 is added to the circuit because the the input voltage appears across the pass transistor.
output impedance of the op amp is very low (75 V is typical). To avoid excessive power dissipation in the pass transistor
Without R5, the current-sensing transistor does not have enough under shorted-load conditions, some regulator designs incor-
voltage gain to produce sensitive current limiting. Typical val- porate foldback current limiting.
ues of R5 are from a few hundred to a few thousand ohms. When the load current is high enough, further decreases
Current limiting is a big improvement because it will pro- in load resistance cause the current to fold back (decrease).
tect the pass transistor and rectifier diodes in case the load ter- As a result, the shorted-load current is much smaller than it
minals are accidentally shorted. But it has the disadvantage of would be without the foldback limiting.

EXAMPLE 39-1

What is the approximate output voltage in Fig. 39-7? Why is a If an ordinary transistor with a current gain of 100 were used for the
Darlington transistor used? pass transistor, the required base current would be
Answer: 2.55 A
IB 5 ______
100 5 25.5 mA
With the equations of Fig. 39-6,
This is too much output current for a typical op amp. If a Darlington
2.7 kV 1 2.2 kV (5.6 V) 5 10.2 V
Vout 5 _______________ transistor is used, the base current of the pass transistor is re-
2.7 kV duced to a much lower value. For instance, a Darlington transistor
The load current is with a current gain of 1000 would require a base current of only
10.2 V 2.55 mA.
IL 5 ______ 5 2.55 A
4V
Vin

1 kΩ

2.2 kΩ
+
+ 4Ω Vout
–
–

5.6 V

2.7 kΩ

Figure 39-7 Series regulator with Darlington transistor.

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 is not available, low-dropout IC regulators can be used. These
EXAMPLE 39-2
regulators have typical dropout voltages of 0.15 V for a load
When the series regulator of Fig. 39-7 is built and tested, the fol- current of 100 mA and 0.7 V for a load current of 1 A.
lowing values are measured: VNL 5 10.16 V, VFL 5 10.15 V, VHL 5
On-Card Regulation vs. Single-Point Regulation
10.16 V, and VLL 5 10.07 V. What is the load regulation? What is
the line regulation? With single-point regulation, we need to build a power supply
with a large voltage regulator and then distribute the regulated
Answer:
voltage to all the different cards (printed-circuit boards) in the
10.16 V 2 10.15 V 3 100% 5 0.0985%
Load regulation 5 ________________ system. This creates problems. To begin with, the single regu-
10.15 V lator has to provide a large load current equal to the sum of
10.16 V 2 10.07 V 3 100% 5 0.894%
Line regulation 5 ________________ all the card currents. Second, noise or other electromagnetic
10.07 V interference (EMI) can be induced on the connecting wires
This example shows how effective negative feedback is in reduc- between the regulated power supply and the cards.
ing the effects of line and load changes. In both cases, the change Because IC regulators are inexpensive, electronic systems
in the regulated output voltage is less than 1%.
that have many cards often use on-card regulation. This
means that each card has its own three-terminal regulator
to supply the voltage used by the components on that card.
39.5 Linear IC Regulators By using on-card regulation, we can deliver an unregulated
voltage from a power supply to each card and have a local IC
Most power supply regulators are integrated circuits. Some
regulator take care of regulating the voltage for its card. This
IC regulators use external resistors can set the current limit-
eliminates the problems of the large load current and noise
ing, the output voltage, and so on. By far, the most widely
pickup associated with single-point regulation.
used IC regulators are those with only three pins: one for the
unregulated input voltage, one for the regulated output volt- Load and Line Regulation Redefined
age, and one for ground. Up to now, we have used the original definitions for load and
Available in plastic or metal packages, the three-terminal line regulation. Manufacturers of fixed IC regulators prefer
regulators have become extremely popular because they are to specify the change in load voltage for a range of load and
inexpensive and easy to use. Aside from two optional bypass line conditions. Here are definitions for load and line regula-
capacitors, three-terminal IC voltage regulators require no tion used on the data sheets of fixed regulators:
external components.
Load regulation 5 DVout for a range of load current
Basic Types of IC Regulators
Line regulation 5 DVout for a range of input voltage
Most IC voltage regulators have one of these types of output
voltage: fixed positive, fixed negative, or adjustable. IC regula- For instance, the LM7815 is an IC regulator that produces a
tors with fixed positive or negative outputs are factory-trimmed fixed positive output voltage of 15 V. The data sheet lists the
to get different fixed voltages with magnitudes from about typical load and line regulation as follows:
5 to 24 V. IC regulators with an adjustable output can vary the Load regulation 5 12 mV for IL 5 5 mA to 1.5 A
regulated output voltage from less than 2 to more than 40 V.
IC regulators are also classified as standard, low power, and Line regulation 5 4 mV for Vin 5 17.5 V to 30 V
low dropout. Standard IC regulators are designed for straight- The load regulation will depend on the conditions of mea-
forward and noncritical applications. With heat sinks, a stan- surement. The foregoing load regulation is for TJ 5 258C and
dard IC regulator can have a load current of more than 1 A. Vin 5 23 V. Similarly, the foregoing line regulation is for
If load currents up to 100 mA are adequate, low-power TJ 5 258C and IL 5 500 mA. In each case, the junction tem-
IC regulators are available in TO-92 packages, the same perature of the device is 258C.
size used for small-signal transistors like the 2N3904. Since
these regulators do not require heat sinking, they are conve- The LM7800 Series
nient and easy to use. The LM78XX series (where XX 5 05, 06, 08, 10, 12, 15, 18,
The dropout voltage of an IC regulator is defined as the or 24) is typical of the three-terminal voltage regulators. The
minimum headroom voltage needed for regulation. For in- 7805 produces an output of 15 V, the 7806 produces 16 V,
stance, standard IC regulators have a dropout voltage of 2 to the 7808 produces 18 V, and so on, up to the 7824, which
3 V. This means that the input voltage has to be at least 2 to 3 V produces an output of 124 V.
greater than the regulated output voltage for the chip to regulate Figure 39-8 shows the functional block diagram for the
to specifications. In applications in which 2 to 3 V of headroom 78XX series. A built-in reference voltage Vref drives the

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 +Vin +Vout
1 2 1 2
+Vin LM7805 +Vout LM7805
+Vin Pass transistor +Vout
3 3
C1 C2

Thermal shutdown R⬘2

(a) (b)
and current
limiting
Figure 39-9 (a) Using a 7805 for voltage regulation.
(b) Input capacitor prevents oscillations and output capacitor
–
improves frequency response.

+ Vref R⬘1 10,000. With an output resistance of approximately 0.01 V,

Amplifier the LM7805 is a very stiff voltage source to all loads within
its current rating.
Common
When an IC is more than 6 in. from the filter capacitor
Figure 39-8 Functional block diagram of three-terminal of the unregulated power supply, the inductance of the con-
IC regulator. necting wire may produce oscillations inside the IC. This
is why manufacturers recommend using a bypass capacitor
noninverting input of an amplifier. The voltage regulation is C1 on pin 1 (Fig. 39-9b). To improve the transient response
the similar to our earlier discussion. A voltage divider con- of the regulated output voltage, a bypass capacitor C2 is
sisting of R19 and R29 samples the output voltage and returns a sometimes used on pin 2. Typical values for either bypass
feedback voltage to the inverting input of a high-gain ampli- capacitor are from 0.1 to l ␮F. The data sheet of the 78XX
fier. The output voltage is given by series suggests 0.22 ␮F for the input capacitor and 0.1 ␮F
R19 1 R29 for the output capacitor.
Vout 5 _______ Vref Any regulator in the 78XX series has a dropout voltage
R19
of 2 to 3 V, depending on the output voltage. This means
In this equation, the reference voltage is equivalent to the that the input voltage must be at least 2 to 3 V greater than
zener voltage in our earlier discussions. The primes attached to the output voltage. Otherwise, the chip stops regulating.
R19 and R29 indicate that these resistors are inside the IC itself, Also, there is a maximum input voltage because of excessive
rather than being external resistors. These resistors are factory- power dissipation. For instance, the LM7805 will regulate
trimmed to get the different output voltages (5 to 24 V) in the over an input range of approximately 8 to 20 V. The data
78XX series. The tolerance of the output voltage is 64%. sheet for the 78XX series gives the minimum and maximum
The LM78XX includes a pass transistor that can handle input voltages for the other preset output voltages.
1 A of load current, provided that adequate heat sinking is
used. Also included are thermal shutdown and current limit- The LM79XX Series
ing. Thermal shutdown means that the chip will shut itself The LM79XX series is a group of negative voltage regulators
off when the internal temperature becomes too high, around with preset voltages of 25, 26, 28, 210, 212, 215, 218,
1758C. This is a precaution against excessive power dissi- or 224 V. For instance, an LM7905 produces a regulated
pation, which depends on the ambient temperature, type of output voltage of 25 V. At the other extreme, an LM7924
heat sinking, and other variables. Because of thermal shut- produces an output of 224 V. With the LM79XX series, the
down and current limiting, devices in the 78XX series are load-current capability is over 1 A with adequate heat sink-
almost indestructible. ing. The LM79XX series is similar to the 78XX series and
includes current limiting, thermal shutdown, and excellent
Fixed Regulator ripple rejection.
Figure 39-9a shows an LM7805 connected as a fixed volt-
age regulator. Pin 1 is the input, pin 2 is the output, and Regulated Dual Supplies
pin 3 is ground. The LM7805 has an output voltage of 15 V By combining an LM78XX and an LM79XX, as shown in
and a maximum load current over 1 A. The typical load Fig. 39-10, we can regulate the output of a dual supply. The
regulation is 10 mV for a load current between 5 mA and 1.5 LM78XX regulates the positive output, and the LM79XX
A. The typical line regulation is 3 mV for an input voltage handles the negative output. The input capacitors prevent
of 7 to 25 V. It also has a ripple rejection of 80 dB, which oscillations, and the output capacitors improve transient
means that it will reduce the input ripple by a factor of response. The manufacturer’s data sheet recommends the

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 1 2
+Vin LM78XX +Vout
LM317 +Vout
0.22 ␮F 3 0.1 ␮F

GND GND R1
C

0.22 ␮F 1 0.1 ␮F
3 2
–Vin LM79XX –Vout
R2

Figure 39-10 Using the LM78XX and LM79XX for dual

outputs.
Figure 39-11 Using an LM317 to regulate output voltage.
addition of two diodes to ensure that both regulators can turn
on under all operating conditions. Figure 39-11 shows an unregulated supply driving an
An alternative solution for dual supplies is to use a dual- LM317 circuit. The data sheet of an LM317 gives this for-
tracking regulator. This is an IC that contains a positive and mula for output voltage:
a negative regulator in a single IC package. When adjustable, R1 1 R2
this type of IC can vary the dual supplies with a single vari- Vout 5 _______ Vref 1 IADJR2 (39-9)
R1
able resistor.
In this equation, Vref has a value of 1.25 V and IADJ has a
Adjustable Regulators typical value of 50 ␮A. In Fig. 39-11, IADJ is the current flow-
A number of IC regulators (LM317, LM337, LM338, and ing through the middle pin (the one between the input and
LM350) are adjustable. These have maximum load currents the output pins). Because this current can change with tem-
from 1.5 to 5 A. For instance, the LM317 is a three-terminal perature, load current, and other factors, a designer usually
positive voltage regulator that can supply 1.5 A of load cur- makes the first term in Formula (39-9) much greater than the
rent over an adjustable output range of 1.25 to 37 V. The second. This is why we can use the following equation for all
ripple rejection is 80 dB. This means that the input ripple is preliminary analyses of an LM317:
10,000 smaller at the output of the IC regulator. R1 1 R2
Vout > _______ (1.25 V) (39-10)
Again, manufacturers redefine the load and line regula- R1
tion to suit the characteristics of the IC regulator. Here are
definitions for load and line regulation used on the data Ripple Rejection
sheets of adjustable regulators: The ripple rejection of an IC voltage regulator is high, from
Load regulation 5 percent change in Vout for a range in load about 65 to 80 dB. This is a tremendous advantage because it
current means that we do not have to use bulky LC filters in the power
supply to minimize the ripple. All we need is a capacitor-input
Line regulation 5 percent change in Vout per volt of input
filter that reduces the peak-to-peak ripple to about 10% of the
change
unregulated voltage out of the power supply.
For instance, the data sheet of an LM317 lists these typical For instance, the LM7805 has a typical ripple rejection of
load and line regulations: 80 dB. If a bridge rectifier and a capacitor-input filter produce
Load regulation 5 0.3% for IL 5 10 mA to 1.5 A an unregulated output voltage of 10 V with a peak-to-peak rip-
ple of 1 V, we can use an LM7805 to produce a regulated out-
Line regulation 5 0.02% per volt
put voltage of 5 V with a peak-to-peak ripple of only 0.1 mV.
Since the output voltage is adjustable between 1.25 and Eliminating bulky LC filters in an unregulated power supply
37 V, it makes sense to specify the load regulation as a per- is a bonus that comes with IC voltage regulators.
cent. For instance, if the regulated voltage is adjusted to 10
V, the foregoing load regulation means that the output volt- Low-Dropout Regulators
age will remain within 0.3% of 10 V (or 30 mV) when the Most (50–90%) of the lost power and heat generated in a lin-
load current changes from 10 mA to 1.5 A. ear regulator occurs in the series pass transistor. To minimize
The line regulation is 0.02% per volt. This means that this loss, the overhead voltage across the transistor should be
the output voltage changes only 0.02% for each volt of input reduced to as low a value as possible. This is a minimum of
change. If the regulated output is set at 10 V and the input about 3 V for most regulators. Yet even at such low voltages,
voltage increases by 3 V, the output voltage will increase by the power loss can be considerable. One way to overcome this
0.06%, equivalent to 60 mV. problem is to use a low-dropout (LDO) IC regulator.

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 An LDO regulator uses a pnp or p-channel MOSFET p-channel MOSFET
Vin Vout
pass transistor instead of the npn transistor connected
as an emitter follower. A simplified diagram of a LDO
regulator using a MOSFET is shown in Fig. 39-12. With RL
this arrangement, the overhead can be as low as sev-
eral hundred millivolts. A typical range is 0.1 to 1.0 V
over which regulation can be maintained. LDO regula- – +
tors are used where low power consumption is a key de-
sign criterion, as in battery-powered electronic products. Ref.
Vin – Vout < 100 mV
They have high efficiency and a fast response time to Zener
feedback.
Figure 39-12 A basic LDO regulator circuit.

EX A M P L E 39 -3

What is the load current in Fig. 39-13? What is the output ripple? The typical ripple rejection for the LM7812 is 72 dB. With a scientific
calculator, the exact ripple rejection is
Answer:
The LM7812 produces a regulated output voltage of 112 V. There- 72 dB 5 3981
fore, the load current is RR 5 antilog ______
20
12 V
IL 5 ______ 5 120 mA The peak-to-peak output ripple is approximately
100 V
1V
We can calculate the peak-to-peak input ripple with the equation VR 5 _____
4000 5 0.25 mV
given in Chap. 30:
IL
VR 5 ___ 120 mA
________________
fC 5 (120 Hz)(1000 ␮F) 5 1 V

+18 V 1 2
120 V LM7812

1000 ␮F 3 0.1 ␮F 100 Ω

Figure 39-13 Example.

EXAMPLE 39-4 EXAMPLE 39-5

If R 1 5 2 kV and R 2 5 22 kV in Fig. 39-11, what is the output The LM7805 can regulate to specifications with an input voltage
voltage? If R 2 is increased to 46 kV, what is the output voltage? between 7.5 and 20 V. What is the maximum efficiency? What is
the minimum efficiency?
Answer:
With Formula (39-10), Answer:
The LM7805 produces an output of 5 V. With Formula (39-8), the
2 kV 1 22 kV
Vout 5 _____________ (1.25 V) 5 15 V maximum efficiency is
2 kV
Vout 5V 3 100% 5 67%
When R 2 is increased to 46 kV, the output voltage increases to Efficiency > ___ 3 100% 5 _____
Vin 7.5 V
2 kV 1 46 kV (1.25 V) 5 30 V This high efficiency is possible only because the headroom volt-
Vout 5 _____________ age is approaching the dropout voltage.
2 kV

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 With a switch to control current flow, greater efficiency
On the other hand, the minimum efficiency occurs when the
input voltage is maximum. For this condition, the headroom volt-
is inherent. When a switch is open, zero current flows and
age is maximum and the power dissipation in the pass transistor zero power is dissipated. When the switch is on or closed, its
is maximum. The minimum efficiency is resistance is very low, usually only a fraction of an ohm. So
while current does flow, the switch voltage drop is also very
5V
Efficiency > _____   3 100% 5 25% low as is the power dissipated.
20 V
Both bipolar junction transistors and MOSFETs have
Since the unregulated input voltage is usually somewhere be-
tween the extremes in input voltage, the efficiency we can expect been created to meet the switching requirements in SMPS.
with an LM7805 is in the range of 40 to 50%. Their on resistance is very low, a few ohms for BJTs and less
than an ohm for most MOSFETs. Better still, both types of
transistors switch very fast. It is during the on-to-off and
off-to-on transitions that the transistor must pass through
39.6 Introduction to Switch-Mode the linear region. Some power is dissipated during these
Power Supplies transitions. If the switching time is very fast, power dissipa-
A switch-mode power supply (SMPS) ia a power supply tion is minimal. Today, most SMPS use power E-MOSFETs
that uses switching techniques, rather than linear methods, for power generation and control.
to provide regulation and other power supply functions.
Switches are much more efficient than linear amplifier tech- Pulse-Width Modulation
niques and offer a wide range of other benefits as well. As SMPS voltages are set and controlled by pulse-width modu-
a result, over the years, most power supply designs have lation (PWM). PWM is the technique of generating a rectan-
abandoned linear techniques in favor of switching methods. gular wave with a fixed frequency and a varying duty cycle.
High-speed, high-power transistors such as MOSFETs have By varying the duty cycle, the average output voltage may be
made this possible. Today over 90% of all power supplies use precisely controlled.
switch-mode techniques. Refer to Fig. 39-14a. The dc output of an unregulated
power supply is connected to a load through a series switch.
The Efficient Switch A clock oscillator operates the switch causing it to turn off
With a linear amplifier, the transistors must be biased so and on at a fast rate. The average dc voltage across the load
that some control can occur over a given range. This means is directly related to the duty cycle and the dc input voltage:
that emitter-collector or source-drain voltages must be in the Vavg 5 Vdc(DC) (39-11)
2- to 3-V range at a minimum. With such a voltage drop,
considerable power is still dissipated, especially at higher where Vavg is that dc voltage across the load measured with a
current levels. The result is lower efficiency and more heat to dc multimeter, Vdc is the dc input from the power supply, and
get rid of with heat sinks or fans. DC is the duty cycle expressed as a fraction.

+ MOSFET

Unregulated Vdc Load

power supply Ton
–
Vdc Average
Load output
Ton Clock and voltage voltage
DC = Vdc = 6 V
T PWM circuits
0V
T
Voltage control input 50% duty cycle, average voltage equals 0.5 (6) = 3 V

(a) (b)

Average
Vdc output Vdc
voltage Average
Load Load
output
voltage voltage
voltage
0V 0V
70% duty cycle, average voltage equals 0.7 (6) = 4.2 V 20% duty cycle, average voltage equals 0.2 (6) = 1.2 V

(c) (d)

Figure 39-14 How PWM varies the duty cycle.

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 If the power supply voltage is 6 V and the duty cycle is High-frequency
triangular wave
50%, as in Fig. 39-14b, the average load voltage will be
Vavg 5 6(0.5) 5 3 V DC error voltage
0V
Usually an RC low-pass filter is used between the switch and
the load to smooth out the pulses into the constant dc aver-
age voltage. This is similar to the removal or reduction of the
ripple in a conventional power supply filter.
Now note how the duty cycle has increased to 70% in
Fig. 39-14c, giving an average output of 6(0.7) 5 4.2 V. De-
creasing the duty cycle to 20% produces an average output
PWM comparator
of 6(0.2) 5 1.2 V, as shown in Fig. 39-14d. The output can output to series
MOSFET or BJT
literally be varied continuously from 0 to 6 V by changing
the duty cycle. Figure 39-16 Generating PWM by comparing an error
The key to this variation is the PWM circuit that gener- voltage to a reference and then using the error voltage to
ates the pulses and controls the duty cycle with an external control duty cycle.
input. A variety of methods are used in modern ICs. Such
PWM techniques are used in most SMPS circuits. Switching
frequencies are usually in the 50-kHz to 3-MHz range for Types of SMPS
modern SMPS ICs. Switching techniques are used in the three main types of
SMPS circuits: regulators, dc-dc converters, and inverters.
Generating PWM SMPS regulators use a series MOSFET, and the duty cycle
Figure 39-15 illustrates one common way that PWM is gen- is varied to maintain a constant output with line and load
erated. An error voltage is developed by comparing the dc variations. The output is sensed and compared to a zener
output of the power supply to a reference voltage like that reference to create a control signal that varies the duty cycle
from a zener diode in a differential amplifier. The differ- in the PWM circuit.
ence is a dc error voltage that is used to control the duty A dc-dc converter is a circuit that takes one dc input
cycle. The error voltage is sent to a switching comparator value and changes it to another dc value. The process is one
along with a triangular wave generated by an internal oscil- of switching a constant dc input into voltage pulses that can
lator. The frequency of the triangular wave is in the 50-kHz be stepped up or down with a transformer. The ac output
to 3-MHz range. The output of the comparator is a pulse pulses are then rectified and filtered back into the new value
train at the oscillator frequency but one whose duty cycle of dc. Again PWM is the main method of controlling the
varies depending on the amplitude of the error voltage. Fig- final dc output.
ure 39-16 shows the process. As the error voltage increases, An inverter is a dc-to-ac power supply. It takes a dc input
indicating an increased deviation of the power supply output from a battery or solar panel and converts it to an ac out-
from its assigned value, the duty cycle decreases. The pulses put, typically the 60-Hz, 120-V power-line voltage. Again,
are then applied to the gate of a power MOSFET or base of a switching methods are use to “chop” the input dc into
BJT connected as a series switch. This technique is used in pulses that can be stepped up or down in a transformer. The
both switching regulators and dc-dc converters. switched output may be used or filtered into a sine wave as
desired. PWM is use to control the output voltage in some
DC output of designs.
PWM drive to power supply
MOSFET gate Comparator
Keep in mind that this same PWM technique is the basis
or BJT base Error voltage – for class D switching amplifiers discussed in Chap. 37.
+
+
–
Differential Advantages and Disadvantages of SMPS
amp
+V The main advantage of SMPS is high efficiency. Standard
linear power supplies rarely have an efficiency greater than
Zener-diode 50%. SMPS can achieve efficiencies in the 70 to 95% range.
reference Triangular-wave
generator The result is lower overall power consumption, the conserva-
tion of energy, and much less heat.
Another major advantage of SMPS is lower cost and
Figure 39-15 A pulse-width modulator circuit. smaller size. SMPS usually operate at frequencies above

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 50 kHz and as high as 3 MHz. As a result, most compo- Switching the Pass Transistor On and Off
nents like transformers and filter capacitors are considerably The ultimate solution to the problem of low efficiency and
smaller and lighter. Less cooling is also required, usually high equipment temperature is the switching regulator. With
eliminating heat sinks. Overall cost is lower as a result. this type of regulator, the pass transistor is switched be-
The primary disadvantages of SMPS are the switching tween cutoff and saturation. When the transistor is cut off,
transients and noise generated. Fast switching produces cur- the power dissipation is virtually zero. When the transistor
rent spikes and the generation of harmonics that can interfere is fully conducting, the power dissipation is still very low
with other circuits. High-frequency transients can produce because VCE(sat) or VDS(on) is much less than the headroom volt-
electromagnetic interference (EMI) that will interfere with age in a series regulator. As mentioned earlier, switching
radio signals. However, this disadvantage has been over- regulators can have efficiencies from about 75 to more than
come by good filtering and shielding as well as by proper 95%. Because of the high efficiency and small size, switch-
grounding methods. ing regulators have become the primary regulator type.
39.7 Switching Regulators Topologies
A switching regulator provides voltage regulation, typically Topology is a term often used in switching-regulator litera-
by pulse-width modulation controlling the on-off time of ture. It is the design technique or fundamental layout of a cir-
the transistor. By changing the duty cycle, a switching regu- cuit. Many topologies have evolved for switching regulators
lator can hold the output voltage constant under varying line because some are better suited to an application than others.
and load conditions. Table 39-1 shows the topologies used for switching regu-
lators. The first three are the most basic. They use the few-
The Pass Transistor est number of parts and can deliver load power up to about
In a series regulator the power dissipation of the pass tran- 150 W. Because their complexity is low, they are widely
sistor approximately equals the headroom voltage times the used, especially with IC switching regulators.
load current: When transformer isolation is preferred, the flyback and
the half-forward topologies can be used for load power up
PD 5 (Vin 2 Vout)IL
to 150 W. When the load power is from 150 to 2000 W, the
If the headroom voltage equals the output voltage, the ef- push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge topologies are used.
ficiency is approximately 50%. For instance, if 10 V is the Since the last three topologies use more components, the cir-
input to a 7805, the load voltage is 5 V and the efficiency is cuit complexity is high.
around 50%.
Three-terminal series regulators are very popular because Buck Regulator
they are easy to use and fill most of our needs when the load Figure 39-17a shows a buck regulator, the most basic topol-
power is less than about 10 W. When the load power is 10 W ogy for switching regulators. A buck regulator always steps
and the efficiency is 50%, the power dissipation of the pass the voltage down. The switch is usually a power MOSFET,
transistor is also 10 W. This represents a lot of wasted power, but bipolar function transistors are still widely used. A rect-
as well as heat created inside the equipment. Around load angular signal out of the pulse-width modulator closes and
powers of 10 W, heat sinks get very bulky and the tempera- opens the switch. A comparator controls the duty cycle of
ture of enclosed equipment may rise to objectionable levels. the pulses.

Table 39-1 Switching-Regulator Topologies

Topology Step Choke Transformer Diodes Transistors Power, W Complexity
Buck Down Yes No 1 1 0–150 Low
Boost Up Yes No 1 1 0–150 Low
Buck-boost Both Yes No 1 1 0–150 Low
Flyback Both No Yes 1 1 0–150 Medium
Half-forward Both Yes Yes 1 1 0–150 Medium
Push-pull Both Yes Yes 2 2 100–1000 High
Half-bridge Both Yes Yes 4 2 100–500 High
Full-bridge Both Yes Yes 4 4 400–2000 Very high

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 Q
+Vin
L
+
D C +
RL Vout
–

R2
Pulse- + VREF
width
modulator
–
VFB

R1

(a)

+Vin
+Vdc
Vout
0

+ – – +

(b) (c) (d)

Figure 39-17 (a) Buck regulator. (b) Polarity with closed switch. (c) Polarity
with open switch. (d ) Choke-input filter passes dc value to output.

When the pulse is high, the switch is closed. This reverse- The switch is being continuously closed and opened. The
biases the diode, so that all the input current flows through frequency of this switching can be from 100 kHz to 3 MHz.
the inductor. This current creates a magnetic field around The current through the inductor is always in the same
the inductor. direction, passing through either the switch or the diode at
The current through the inductor also charges the ca- different times in the cycle.
pacitor and supplies current to the load. While the switch The diode is usually a Schottky type so that it can switch
is closed, the voltage across the inductor has the plus-minus fast enough. The average output value is related to the duty
polarity shown in Fig. 39-17b. As the current through the in- cycle and is given by
ductor increases, more energy is stored in the magnetic field.
When the pulse goes low, the switch opens. At this in- Vout 5 DVin (39-12)
stant, the magnetic field around the inductor starts col- The larger the duty cycle, the larger the dc output voltage.
lapsing and induces a reverse voltage across the inductor, When the power is first turned on, there is no output volt-
as shown in Fig. 39-17c. This reverse voltage is called the age and no feedback voltage from the R1-R2 voltage divider.
inductive kick. Because of the inductive kick, the diode is Therefore, the comparator output is very large and the duty
forward-biased, and the current through the inductor con- cycle approaches 100%. As the output voltage builds up,
tinues to flow in the same direction. At this time, the in- however, the feedback voltage VFB reduces the comparator
ductor is returning its stored energy to the circuit. In other output, which reduces the duty cycle. At some point, the
words, the inductor acts like a source and continues supply- output voltage reaches an equilibrium value at which the
ing current for the load. feedback voltage produces a duty cycle that gives the same
Current flows through the inductor until the induc- output voltage.
tor returns all its energy to the circuit or until the switch Because of the high gain of the comparator, the vir-
closes again, whichever comes fi rst. In either case, the ca- tual short between the input terminals of the comparator
pacitor will also supply load current during part of the means that
time that the switch is open. This way, the ripple across
the load is minimized. VFB > VREF

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 From this, we can derive this expression for the output and energy is stored in the magnetic field of L, as previously
voltage: described.
R1 1 R2 When the pulse goes low, the switch opens. Again, the
Vout 5 _______ VREF (39-13) magnetic field around the inductor collapses and induces a
R1
reverse voltage across the inductor, as shown in Fig. 39-18b.
After equilibrium sets in, any attempted change in the Notice that the input voltage now adds to the inductive kick.
output voltage, whether caused by line or load changes, will This means that the peak voltage on the right end of the in-
be almost entirely offset by the negative feedback. For in- ductor is
stance, if the output voltage tries to increase, the feedback
voltage reduces the comparator output. This reduces the Vp 5 Vin 1 Vkick (39-14)
duty cycle and the output voltage. The net effect is only a The inductive kick depends on how much energy is stored in
slight increase in output voltage, much less than without the the magnetic field. Stated another way, Vkick is proportional
negative feedback. to the duty cycle.
Similarly, if the output voltage tries to decrease because With a stiff input voltage, a rectangular voltage waveform
of a line or load change, the feedback voltage is smaller and appears at the input to the capacitor-input filter of Fig. 39-18c.
the comparator output is larger. This increases the duty cycle Therefore, the regulated output voltage approximately equals
and produces a larger output voltage that offsets almost all the peak voltage given by Formula (39-14). Because Vkick is
the attempted decrease in output voltage. always greater than zero, Vp is always greater than Vin. This is
why a boost regulator always steps the voltage up.
Boost Regulator Aside from using a capacitor-input filter rather than a
Figure 39-18a shows a boost regulator, another basic to- choke-input filter, the regulation with boost topology is
pology for switching regulators. The switch is usually a similar to that with buck topology. Because of the high gain
MOSFET but could be a BJT. A boost regulator always steps of the comparator, the feedback almost equals the reference
the voltage up. The theory of operation is similar to that for voltage. Therefore, the regulated output voltage is still given
a buck regulator in some ways but very different in others. by Formula (39-13). If the output voltage tries to increase,
For instance, when the pulse is high, the switch is closed there is less feedback voltage, less comparator output, a

D
+Vin
L
+
C +
RL Vout
Q –

R2
Pulse- + VREF
width
modulator
–

R1

(a)

+Vp
D
+Vout
0
C
Vkick
– +
+Vin +Vp

(b) (c)

Figure 39-18 (a) Boost regulator. (b) Kick voltage adds to input when switch
is open. (c) Capacitor-input filter produces output voltage equal to peak input.

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 smaller duty cycle, and less inductive kick. This reduces the capacitor-input filter then produce an output voltage equal to
peak voltage, which offsets the attempted increase in output 2Vp. Since the magnitude of this output voltage can be less
voltage. If the output voltage tries to decrease, the smaller than or greater than the input voltage, the topology is called
feedback voltage results in a larger peak voltage, which off- buck-boost.
sets the attempted decrease in output voltage. An inverting amplifier is used in Fig. 39-19a to invert the
feedback voltage before it reaches the inverting input of the
Buck-Boost Regulator comparator. The voltage regulation then works as previously
Figure 39-19a shows a buck-boost regulator, the third most described. Attempted increases in output voltage reduce
basic topology for switching regulators. A buck-boost regu- the duty cycle, which reduces the peak voltage. Attempted
lator always produces a negative output voltage when driven decreases in output voltage increase the duty cycle. Either
by a positive input voltage. When the PWM output is high, way, the negative feedback holds the output voltage almost
the switch is closed and energy is stored in the magnetic constant.
field. At this time, the voltage across the inductor equals Vin,
with the polarity shown in Fig. 39-19b. IC Switching Regulators
When the pulse goes low, the switch opens. Again, the There are hundreds of different IC regulators made by com-
magnetic field around the inductor collapses and induces a panies like Analog Devices, Linear Technology, Maxim
kick voltage across the inductor, as shown in Fig. 39-19c. Integrated Products, Texas Instruments, and others. Most
The kick voltage is proportional to the energy stored in the of the previously mentioned topologies are available in IC
magnetic field, which is controlled by the duty cycle. If the form. Each regulator IC contains the PWM circuits, error
duty cycle is low, the kick voltage approaches zero. If the duty amplifier, and related components. All these regulators are
cycle is high, the kick voltage can be greater than Vin, depend- supported by external discrete components that cannot be
ing on how much energy is stored in the magnetic field. easily integrated. They include the inductor, storage/filter
In Fig. 39-19d, the magnitude of the peak voltage may be capacitors, and the Schottky diode. In lower-voltage, lower-
less than or greater than the input voltage. The diode and the current (less than several amps) devices, the series MOSFET

Q D
+Vin

C –
+ RL Vout
+

Pulse- + VREF
width
modulator R2
–
R
R
–

+
R1

(a)

0 D
– –Vout
+

–Vp
Vin Vkick C

–
+

(b) (c) (d)

Figure 39-19 (a) Buck-boost regulator. (b) Polarity with closed switch. (c) Polarity with open switch. (d) Capacitor-
input filter produces output equal to negative peak.

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 5 4
+Vin IN OUT
+ L1 +
C2 D1 C1 +
LT1074 R2 RL Vout
–
1
FB
Comp GND
2 3 R1

R3

C3

Figure 39-20 Buck regulator IC.

or bipolar switch is inside the IC. For higher voltages and capacitor values. Frequencies as high as 6 MHz are used.
currents, an external MOSFET or BJT is used. Another variation is the integrating of two, three, or even
As an example, a generic buck regulator IC circuit is shown more switching regulators in the same package. These
in Fig. 39-20. It contains most of the components discussed ICs are designed for battery and portable products with
earlier, such as a reference voltage (2.21 V), a MOSFET or multiple power supplies that must be smaller and more
BJT switch, an internal oscillator, a pulse-width modulator, compact.
and a comparator. It runs at a switching frequency of 100 kHz,
can handle input voltages from 18 to 140 Vdc, and has effi- 39.8 DC-DC Converters
ciency of 75 to 90% for load currents from 1 to 5 A. A dc-dc converter is a circuit that changes one dc value to
Figure 39-20 shows the IC connected as a buck regulator. another. Many modern electronic products require multiple
Pin 1 (FB) is for the feedback voltage. Pin 2 (comp) is for dc supply voltages to operate the different ICs. Laptop com-
frequency compensation to prevent oscillations at higher fre- puters and cell phones are excellent examples. Rather than
quencies. Pin 3 (GND) is ground. Pin 4 (out) is the switched use one completely independent power supply for each volt-
output of the internal switching device. Pin 5 (in) is for the age, some electronic equipment today employs a single dc
unregulated dc input voltage. supply and then uses either regulators or dc-dc converters to
In Fig. 39-20, D1, L1, C1, R1, and R2 serve the same func- produce the other desired voltages.
tions as described in the earlier discussion of a buck regula- Figure 39-21 shows a common power supply architec-
tor. But notice the use of a Schottky diode to improve the ture found in modern equipment. A single ac-to-dc power
efficiency of the regulator. Because the Schottky diode has supply (or a battery) supplies a common power bus of un-
a lower knee voltage and faster switching speed, it wastes regulated dc voltage. This bus is distributed to the differ-
less power. The data sheet of the IC recommends adding a ent circuits, modules, or subsystems over a printed-circuit
capacitor C2 from 200 to 470 ␮F across the input for line board copper pattern or via connectors. Then regulators
filtering. Also recommended are a resistor R3 of 2.7 kV and or dc-dc converters convert the bus voltage to the desired
a capacitor C3 of 0.01 ␮F to stabilize the feedback loop (pre- end voltages.
vent oscillations) in the internal error amp. Another example is a complex IC whose internal circuits
The circuit is incredibly simple. The IC includes every- need multiple voltages. Rather than require the designer to
thing except the components that cannot be integrated (choke use multiple external supplies, the IC designer builds in the
and filter capacitors) and those left for the user to select (R1 needed dc-dc converters on chip to produce the extra volt-
and R2). By selecting values for R1 and R2, you can get regu- ages so that the IC can operate from a single supply.
lated output voltage from about 2.5 to 38 V. Since the refer- In reality, the switching regulators discussed in the pre-
ence voltage is 2.21 V, the output voltage is given by vious section are one common form of dc-dc converter, as
R1 1 R2 they do definitely transform one dc level into another but
Vout 5 _______ (2.21 V) (39-15) introduce regulation as well. There are also several other
R1
forms of dc-dc converters you may encounter in your
Most of the newer IC switching regulators operate at work, including the charge pump, forward converter, and
higher frequencies, and 1, 2, and 3 MHz are popular be- flyback converter. Following is an introduction to these
cause the inductor size can be much smaller as can the basic types.

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 AC input

DC power bus +

Main unregulated
12 V
dc power supply

Linear Switching DC-DC DC-DC

regulator regulator converter converter

+9 V +3.3 V +30 V ±15 V

Circuit boards, modules, or subassemblies

Figure 39-21 Bus architecture power supply.

Charge Pump the clock, so C3 charges to 3Vdc. Clock speeds vary from
A charge pump is a circuit that uses switches and capacitors 10 kHz to over 100 kHz.
to generate a higher dc voltage than the input or a voltage of For most applications the output needs to be only two or
a different polarity. Capacitors store charges that are trans- three times the input dc voltage. If only a two times multiplica-
ferred to other capacitors through the switches. The tech- tion is needed, D3 and C3 can be eliminated. If more than 3Vdc is
niques used are similar to the operation of voltage multiplier needed, extra diode and capacitor sections can be added. Note
circuits discussed back in Chap. 30. The basic charge pump that the output voltage is actually less than 3Vdc by an amount
circuit is illustrated in Fig. 39-22. Capacitors are used to store equal to the sum of the diode voltage drops. Each diode drop is
voltages and Schottky diodes are used for the switches. in the 0.2- to 0.4-V range of the typical Schottky diode.
The dc input voltage to be converted Vdc is applied to the In modern designs, the diodes are replaced by MOSFETs,
input along with rectangular clock pulses that switch be- connected as diodes or as conventional switches. The output
tween Vdc and ground. A CMOS inverter can to be used to is unregulated and may have to be followed by a regulator.
supply such voltages as shown. When the clock input is zero, Capacitor sizes are usually large, meaning that in most de-
C1 is grounded while Vdc is applied to C2, and C1 then charges signs the capacitors are too large to integrate, so external
to Vdc through D1 which is forward-biased. capacitors are needed. Electrolytic capacitors are common.
When the clock switches, the lower end of C1 is con- Most charge pump converters are used with light (low-
nected to Vdc from the clock* signal. The voltage across C1 current) loads. For high-current needs other forms of dc-dc
is then in series with Vdc from the clock, making a voltage converters should be used.
of 2Vdc. The lower end of C2 is grounded via the inverted Forward Converter
clock* input so C2 charges to 2Vdc. On the next clock rever- A typical forward converter is shown in Fig. 39-23. A MOS-
sal, the voltage on C2 is transferred in series with Vdc from FET, M1, “chops” the input dc voltage into a high-frequency
square wave that is applied to the primary of the transformer.
D1 D2 D3 Switching frequencies range from a few hundred kilohertz to
Vdc 2Vdc 3Vdc
+Vdc
over 1 MHz. The transformer can then step up or step down
C1 C2 C3 Load the voltage to the desired level. A standard full-wave recti-
fier with D1 and D2 converts the output to dc pulses that are
filtered into a constant dc by L1 and C1. DC feedback from
Clock
+Vdc the output via R1 and R2 operates the PWM circuit that varies
Clock
the duty cycle of the switching wave to the MOSFET. The dc
0V CMOS
+Vdc inverter output is regulated.
Clock* A wide range of variations of the forward converter are
0V
used. All feature the external transformer, Schottky diodes,
Time
inductor, and filter capacitor. For higher-current applica-
Figure 39-22 A charge pump dc-dc converter. tions a push-pull version of this circuit with two MOSFETs

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 T1 D1
DC input

L1
D2

M1
R1

C1 R3

R2
PWM out PWM Feedback
regulator
control

Figure 39-23 A dc-dc forward converter.

switching the input dc between the two sides of a center- voltages. Note the upper voltage, which is 35 kV. Flyback
tapped primary winding is used. power supplies have been used for years in the older TV sets
and video monitors that use cathode ray tubes (CRTs) that
Flyback Converter require a high-operating voltage. Only the lower-output volt-
A flyback converter is illustrated in Fig. 39-24. Its design age is regulated by the PWM circuit.
is similar to a forward converter; however, a special trans- While a dc-dc converter is commonly made with a PWM
former stores energy in its magnetic field to induce higher IC and external MOSFETs, inductors, capacitors, and diodes,
pulses of voltage into the secondary windings. In this design, they are also available as a complete component. These con-
three secondary windings provide three different output verters are available in a wide range of voltages and power
capabilities. Just apply input voltage and the desired output
+V1 (upper voltage = voltage is available. These packaged dc-dc converters are
Flyback 35 kV to CRT) standardized and are referred to as “bricks.” See Fig. 39-25
transformer
which shows the basic brick that can handle a power of up to
500 W. Smaller bricks of 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄8 and 1⁄16 size and power rat-
ings are also available. These dc-dc converters are fully iso-
lated, meaning they use an internal transformer to separate
+V2
and isolate the input and outputs so that separate grounds
may be used.
+
DC 2½ in.
input
–

5 in.
ER
RT
–V3

I CK VE
BR ON
M1

C
D C
-
DC
½ in.

PWM Feedback
regulator
control Mounting
pins

Figure 39-24 A flyback dc-dc converter. Figure 39-25 A “brick” dc-dc converter.

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 T1
60 Hz, 120 Vac
0V
M1
– +
Load
60-Hz 12 V
oscillator

M2 Low-pass filter
Sine-wave
out

Square-wave in Load

Figure 39-26 A basic inverter circuit.

39.9 Inverters MOSFET, M1,

An inverter is an electronic circuit that converts dc to ac. gate drive

It converts dc power into ac power. It is a special case of

a switch-mode power supply. Power MOSFETs, or special
semiconductors called thyristors, are used to perform the MOSFET, M2,
switching of high voltages and currents. The most common gate drive

example of an inverter is one that converts 12-V dc battery

power to standard 120-V, 60-Hz ac. Inverters are widely
used, and their use is increasing with the green movement
and the many alternative energy sources.
T1 output 340 Vp-p
Inverter Concepts
Figure 39-26 shows the basic idea of an inverter. A battery pow-
ers an oscillator and driving circuit that operates two power 16.67 ms
MOSFETs. The oscillator generates a 60-Hz square wave,
shapes it, and changes its level so that it can drive the gates of Figure 39-27 Alternative waveform for an inverter.
the MOSFETs. The MOSFETs are switches that alternately
connect one side of the primary winding of a transformer to the
12-V battery. When M1 conducts, M2 is off and current flows Some Alternative Inverter Circuits
in the upper part of the primary winding. The resulting square Early inverters used bipolar transistor in the circuit of
wave of voltage is stepped up by the transformer and appears as Fig. 39-28. A special transformer provided the voltage step
a larger square wave across the secondary winding. up, as well as positive feedback voltage windings (L2 and L3)
When Q2 conducts, Q1 cuts off. Current flows in the for the transistors. Note that L1 and L 4 are the primary and
lower part of the transformer. The voltage is stepped up by secondary windings, respectively, making the inverter self-
the transformer to produce the higher output voltage. In this oscillating. Both Q1 and Q2 alternately conduct, connecting
case, because of the reversal of the current flow in the pri- the battery to the transformer windings. Voltages induced in
mary, the secondary voltage has the opposite polarity. The the feedback windings turn the transistors off and on as the
result is a 60-Hz ac square wave of the desired voltage level. circuit oscillates.
The 60-Hz, square-wave output can be used as is for The frequency of oscillation is a function of the trans-
some applications, but others require a waveform that is a former characteristics, including core size and type and the
pure sine wave or at least closer to one. Figure 39-27 shows saturation flux density of the core. The core is designed to
a popular alternative pulse waveform that can substitute for be easily saturated and, as a result, has a large distinctive
a sine wave. The 60-Hz oscillator generates the two pulse hysteresis curve. The transformer switches from a saturated
trains to drive the MOSFET gates. In either case, the pulse state in one magnetic direction to saturation in the opposite
waveforms can be filtered with a low-pass filter, as shown in magnetic direction. This produces a square-wave output at
Fig. 39-26 to produce a near perfect 60-Hz sine wave. the design frequency, usually 60 Hz.

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 Saturable core transformer UPS

L2

+ 120-Vac, 60-Hz
AC power Battery Inverter
output to
line input charger – with filter
computers, etc.

Q1
Internal lead-acid
batteries (12 V)
L1

60-Hz Figure 39-30 An uninterruptible power supply.

R1 output

– +
L4
R2 12-V battery condition. Therefore the goal is to keep it from losing power
by plugging the computers into a UPS.
Figure 39-30 shows the block diagram of the typical UPS.
The UPS has a built-in 12-V battery with its own internal
Q2
charger that keeps the battery fully charged from the ac
line. The battery, in turn, operates an inverter that gener-
ates standard ac line voltage from which the computers and
L3
other equipment operate. If the ac power should fail, the bat-
tery keeps on supplying the inverters and power continues.
When the power returns, the battery is recharged. The size
Figure 39-28 A self-oscillating inverter. and capacity of the battery determine how long the output
can continue, which is typically several hours. UPSs with a
Another approach to inverter implementation is to use wide range of capacity and duration options are available.
PWM. A pulse-width modulator can replace the oscillator Generic Inverter You can also buy an all-purpose inverter
driving circuit of the inverter in Fig. 39-26 to produce PWM as a stand-alone unit. Typical models come with a plug that is
in the secondary. The switching oscillator will switch at sev- designed to plug into the 12-V outlet in most cars. The output
eral kilohertz or higher. The output would look something is two or more standard three-prong ac outlets, just like those
like that in Fig. 39-29. When the output pulses are averaged conventional wall outputs in any home. Units are available
in the load, the result is a near sine-wave response. with power output ranges from about 150 W to several kilo-
Inverter Applications watts. They can easily power electric lights, radios, TV sets,
audio equipment, or almost anything else that operates from
Inverters are more common than you may think. Here are a
the 120-V line. Larger kilowatt inverters are also available.
few of the more widely used examples.
Solar Inverter An inverter is the key component in solar
Uninterruptible Power Supply An uninterruptible power
power systems. It converts the dc voltage from solar panels
supply (UPS) is a common product that is widely used to
to the standard ac power line. Home solar systems use mul-
keep computers and other critical equipment working dur-
tiple inverters, which are available in several sizes to fit the
ing a power failure. A computer system can lose critical data
solar panel capacity and the power load of the house. Special
during an ac power outage. Network servers are particularly
inverters are also used to connect unused solar power back
vulnerable to a power failure and connections are lost. It can
to the grid.
take hours or days to return a network to fully operational
Motor Drives AC motors turn at a speed determined by the
Sine-wave average frequency of the ac voltage that powers them. To vary the
in the load speed, you need an ac variable-frequency drive. This is a
special circuit that takes standard 60-Hz input and rectifies
it into dc that is then used to operate a variable-frequency
inverter to power the motor, so its speed can be varied. AC
drives are a common piece of equipment in industrial equip-
PWM for M1
ment using motors. Most electric cars use ac motors for
PWM for M2
power. The battery packs in these cars power special invert-
Figure 39-29 A PWM inverter. ers or ac drives to control the car’s speed.

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 CHAPTER 39 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Voltage regulators normally use 9. Compared to the ripple into a voltage regulator, the
a. negative feedback. ripple out of a voltage regulator is
b. positive feedback. a. equal in value.
c. no feedback. b. much larger.
d. phase limiting. c. much smaller.
2. During regulation, the power dissipation of the pass d. impossible to determine.
transistor equals the collector-emitter voltage times the 10. A voltage regulator has a ripple rejection of 260 dB.
a. base current. If the input ripple is 1 V, the output ripple is
b. load current. a. 260 mV.
c. zener current. b. 1 mV.
d. foldback current. c. 10 mV.
3. Without current limiting, a shorted load will probably d. 1000 V.
a. produce zero load current. 11. Thermal shutdown occurs in an IC regulator if
b. destroy diodes and transistors. a. power dissipation is too low.
c. have a load voltage equal to the zener voltage. b. internal temperature is too high.
d. have too little load current. c. current through the device is too low.
4. A current-sensing resistor is usually d. any of the above occur.
a. zero. 12. If a linear three-terminal IC regulator is more than a
b. small. few inches from the filter capacitor, you may get os-
c. large. cillations inside the IC unless you use
d. open. a. current limiting.
b. a bypass capacitor on the input pin.
5. A capacitor may be needed in a discrete voltage
c. a coupling capacitor on the output pin.
regulator to prevent
d. a regulated input voltage.
a. negative feedback.
b. excessive load current. 13. The 78XX series of voltage regulators produces an
c. oscillations. output voltage that is
d. current sensing. a. positive.
b. negative.
6. If the output of a voltage regulator varies from 15 to
c. either positive or negative.
14.7 V between the minimum and maximum load
d. unregulated.
current, the load regulation is
a. 0%. 14. The LM7812 produces a regulated output voltage of
b. 1%. a. 3 V.
c. 2%. b. 4 V.
d. 5%. c. 12 V.
d. 78 V.
7. If the output of a voltage regulator varies from 20 to
19.8 V when the line voltage varies over its specified 15. A series regulator is an example of a
range, the source regulation is a. linear regulator.
a. 0%. b. switching regulator.
b. 1%. c. shunt regulator.
c. 2%. d. dc-dc converter.
d. 5%. 16. To get more output voltage from a buck switching
8. The output impedance of a voltage regulator is regulator, you have to
a. very small. a. decrease the duty cycle.
b. very large. b. decrease the input voltage.
c. equal to the load voltage divided by the load current. c. increase the duty cycle.
d. equal to the input voltage divided by the output d. increase the switching frequency.
current.

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 17. An increase of line voltage into a power supply c. switching regulator.
usually produces d. dc-dc converter.
a. a decrease in load resistance. 27. In a boost regulator, the output voltage is filtered with a
b. an increase in load voltage. a. choke-input filter.
c. a decrease in efficiency. b. capacitor-input filter.
d. less power dissipation in the rectifier diodes. c. diode.
18. A power supply with low output impedance has low d. voltage divider.
a. load regulation. 28. The buck-boost regulator is also
b. current limiting. a. a step-down regulator.
c. line regulation. b. a step-up regulator.
d. efficiency. c. an inverting regulator.
19. A zener-diode regulator is a d. all of the above.
a. shunt regulator. 29. A key disadvantage of switch-mode power
b. series regulator. supplies is its
c. switching regulator. a. lower efficiency.
d. zener follower. b. higher efficiency.
20. The efficiency of a voltage regulator is high when c. noise generation.
a. input power is low. d. complexity.
b. output power is high. 30. A low-dropout regulator
c. little power is wasted. a. is a switching regulator.
d. input power is high. b. has very low overhead.
21. A switching regulator is considered c. consumes more power than a standard linear
a. quiet. regulator.
b. noisy. d. is not available In IC form.
c. inefficient. 31. In pulse-width modulation, the following is correct.
d. linear. a. The pulse duty cycle is varied.
22. The zener follower is an example of a b. The pulse frequency is varied.
a. boost regulator. c. The pulse amplitude is varied.
b. shunt regulator. d. Both b and c.
c. buck regulator. 32. Switching power supplies operated up to which pulse
d. series regulator. frequencies?
23. The efficiency of a linear regulator is high when the a. Less than 50 kHz.
a. headroom voltage is low. b. 100 kHz to 300 kHz.
b. pass transistor has a high power dissipation. c. 500 kHz to 1 MHz.
c. zener voltage is low. d. Over 3 MHz.
d. output voltage is low. 33. A PWM signal has a pulse amplitude of 5 V and a
24. The dropout voltage of standard monolithic linear duty cycle of 35%. What is the average output voltage?
regulators is closest to a. 1.75 V.
a. 0.3 V. b. 2.5 V.
b. 0.7 V. c. 3.5 V.
c. 2 V. d. 4.25 V.
d. 3.1 V. 34. A charge pump is a type of
25. In a buck regulator, the output voltage is filtered with a a. regulator.
a. choke-input filter. b. dc-dc converter.
b. capacitor-input filter. c. linear regulator.
c. diode. d. inverter.
d. voltage divider. 35. The main purpose of the switching transistor in a
26. The regulator with the highest efficiency is the SMPS is to
a. shunt regulator. a. vary the series load current.
b. series regulator. b. convert ac into dc.

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 c. average the load current. c. sine wave.
d. switch dc into a square wave. d. any of the above.
36. A “brick” is a type of 39. In a self-oscillating inverter, the frequency of opera-
a. regulator. tion is set by the
b. dc-dc converter. a. transistors.
c. linear regulator. b. RC network.
d. inverter. c. transformer.
37. An inverter converts d. an external circuit.
a. dc to ac. 40. PWM can be used to create a sine-wave output.
b. ac to dc. a. True.
c. dc to dc. b. False.
d. ac to ac.
38. The output of an inverter may be a
a. square wave.
b. pulse wave.

CHAPTER 39 PROBLEMS

SECTION 39.2 Supply Characteristics 39.6 What is the approximate efficiency in Prob. 24-8?
39.1 A power supply has VNL 5 15 V and VFL 5 14.5 V. 39.7 In Fig. 39-7, the zener voltage is changed to 6.2 V.
What is the load regulation? What is the approximate output voltage?
39.2 A power supply has VHL 5 20 V and VLL 5 19 V. SECTION 39.5 Linear IC Regulators
What is the line regulation?
39.8 What is the load current in Fig. 39-31? The
39.3 If line voltage changes from 108 to 135 V and load headroom voltage? The power dissipation of the
voltage changes from 12 to 12.3 V, what is the line LM7815?
regulation?
39.9 What is the output ripple in Fig. 39-31?
39.4 A power supply has an output resistance of 2 V. If
39.10 If R1 5 2.7 kV and R2 5 20 kV in Fig. 39-11, what
the minimum load resistance is 50 V, what is the
is the output voltage?
load regulation?
39.11 The LM7815 is used with an input voltage that can
SECTION 39.4 Series Regulators vary from 18 to 25 V. What is the maximum effi-
39.5 In Fig. 39-5, Vin 5 20 V, VZ 5 4.7 V, R1 5 2.2 kV, ciency? The minimum efficiency?
R2 5 4.7 kV, R3 5 1.5 kV, R4 5 2.7 kV, and
SECTION 39.7 Switching Regulators
RL 5 50 V. What is the output voltage? What is the
power dissipation in the pass transistor? 39.12 A buck regulator has VREF 5 2.5 V, R1 5 1.5 kV,
and R2 5 10 kV. What is the output voltage?

+20 V 1 2
120 V LM7815

4700 ␮F 3 0.1 ␮F 20 Ω

Figure 39-31 Example.

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 39.13 If the duty cycle is 30% and the peak value of the 39.17 A dc-dc converter has an input voltage of 12 V and
pulses to the choke-input filter is 20 V, what is the an output voltage of 5 V. If the input current is 2 A
regulated output voltage? and the efficiency is 80%, what is the output current?
39.14 A boost regulator has VREF 5 1.25 V, R1 5 1.2 kV, 39.18 If the load regulation is 5% and the no-load voltage
and R2 5 15 kV. What is the output voltage? is 12.5 V, what is the full-load voltage?
39.15 A buck-boost regulator has VREF 5 2.1 V, R1 5 39.19 If the line regulation is 3% and the low-line voltage
2.1 kV, and R2 5 12 kV. What is the output is 16 V, what is the high-line voltage?
voltage? 39.20 A power supply has a load regulation of 1% and a
SECTION 39.8 DC-DC Converters minimum load resistance of 10 V. What is the out-
put resistance of the power supply?
39.16 A dc-dc converter has an input voltage of 5 V and
an output voltage of 12 V. If the input current is
1 A and the output current is 0.25 A, what is the
efficiency of the dc-dc converter?

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 Ch a pt er 40
Thyristors

Learning Outcomes The word thyristor comes from the Greek and means
“door,” as in opening a door and letting something pass
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: through it. A thyristor is a semiconductor device that
Describe the four-layer diode, how it is turned on, uses internal feedback to produce switching action. The
and how it is turned off. most important thyristors are the silicon-controlled rec-
Explain the characteristics of SCRs. tifier (SCR) and the triac. Like power FETs, the SCR and
Demonstrate how to test SCRs. the triac can switch large currents on and off. Because
Calculate the firing and conduction angles of RC of this, they can be used for overvoltage protection,
phase control circuits. motor controls, heaters, lighting systems, and other
Explain the characteristics of triacs and diacs. heavy-current loads. Insulated-gate bipolar transis-
tors (IGBTs) are not included in the thyristor family, but
Compare the switching control of IGBTs to power
MOSFETs. are covered in this chapter as an important power-
switching device.
Describe the major characteristics of the photo-
SCR and silicon-controlled switch.

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 +VCC +VCC +VCC
40.1 The Four-Layer Diode
Thyristor operation can be explained in terms of the equiva-
lent circuit shown in Fig. 40-1a. The upper transistor Q1 is a
RL RL RL
pnp device, and the lower transistor Q2 is an npn device. The
collector of Q1 drives the base of Q2. Similarly, the collector
of Q2 drives the base of Q1.
Q1
Positive Feedback
+ + +
The unusual connection of Fig. 40-1a uses positive feed- v VCC 0V
– – –
back. Any change in the base current of Q2 is amplified and
fed back through Q1 to magnify the original change. This Q2

positive feedback continues changing the base current of Q2

until both transistors go into either saturation or cutoff.
For instance, if the base current of Q2 increases, the col-
(a) (b) (c)
lector current of Q2 increases. This increases the base cur-
rent of Q1 and the collector current of Q1. More collector I
current in Q1 will further increase the base current of Q2.
This amplify-and-feedback action continues until both tran-
sistors are driven into saturation. In this case, the overall cir- Latch closed
IC(sat)
cuit acts like a closed switch (Fig. 40-1b).
On the other hand, if something causes the base current
of Q2 to decrease, the collector current of Q2 decreases, the Latch open
V
base current of Q1 decreases, the collector current of Q1 de- VCC
creases, and the base current of Q2 decreases further. This
(d)
action continues until both transistors are driven into cutoff.
Then, the circuit acts like an open switch (Fig. 40-1c). Figure 40-2 Latching circuit.
The circuit of Fig. 40-1a is stable in either of two states:
open or closed. It will remain in either state indefinitely until
acted on by an outside force. If the circuit is open, it stays voltage. So the operating point is at the lower end of the dc
open until something increases the base current of Q2. If the load line (Fig. 40-2d).
circuit is closed, it stays closed until something decreases the The only way to close the latch of Fig. 40-2b is by break-
base current of Q2. Because the circuit can remain in either over. This means using a large enough supply voltage VCC
state indefinitely, it is called a latch. to break down the Q1 collector diode. Since the collector
current of Q1 increases the base current of Q2, the positive
Closing a Latch feedback will start. This drives both transistors into satura-
Figure 40-2a shows a latch connected to a load resistor with tion, as previously described. When saturated, both transis-
a supply voltage of VCC. Assume that the latch is open, as tors ideally look like short circuits, and the latch is closed,
shown in Fig. 40-2b. Because there is no current through the (Fig. 40-2c). Ideally, the latch has zero voltage across it when
load resistor, the voltage across the latch equals the supply it is closed, and the operating point is at the upper end of the
load line (Fig. 40-2d).
In Fig. 40-2a, breakover can also occur if Q2 breaks down
first. Although breakover starts with the breakdown of ei-
Q1
ther collector diode, it ends with both transistors in the satu-
rated state. This is why the term breakover is used instead of
breakdown to describe this kind of latch closing.

Q2 Opening a Latch
How do we open the latch of Fig. 40-2a? By reducing the
VCC supply to zero. This forces the transistors to switch from
saturation to cutoff. We call this type of opening low-current
(a) (b) (c)
dropout because it depends on reducing the latch current to
Figure 40-1 Transistor latch. a value low enough to bring the transistors out of saturation.

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 The Schockley Diode I

Figure 40-3a was originally called a Schockley diode after

the inventor. Several other names are also used for this device:
four-layer diode, pnpn diode, and silicon unilateral switch
(SUS). The device lets current flow in only one direction.
The easiest way to understand how it works is to visualize
it separated into two halves, as shown in Fig. 40-3b. The left
half is a pnp transistor, and the right half is an npn transis-
tor. Therefore, the four-layer diode is equivalent to the latch IH
of Fig. 40-3c. V
Figure 40-3d shows the schematic symbol of a four-layer VK VB
diode. The only way to close a four-layer diode is by break-
over. The only way to open it is by low-current dropout, Figure 40-4 Breakover characteristic.
which means reducing the current to less than the holding
current (given on data sheets). The holding current is the path between cutoff and saturation. It is dashed to indi-
low value of current where the transistors switch from satu- cate that the device switches rapidly between the off and
ration to cutoff. on states.
After a four-layer diode breaks over, the voltage across it When the device is at cutoff, it has zero current. If the
ideally drops to zero. In reality, there is some voltage across voltage across diode tries to exceed VB, the device breaks
the latched diode. Figure 40-3e shows current versus voltage over and moves rapidly along the dashed line to the satura-
for a 1N5158 that is latched on. As you can see, the voltage tion region. When the diode is in saturation, it is operating
across the device increases when the current increases: 1 V on the upper line. As long as the current through it is greater
at 0.2 A, 1.5 V at 0.95 A, 2 V at 1.8 A, and so on. than the holding current IH, the diode remains latched in
Breakover Characteristic the on state. If the current becomes less than IH, the device
switches into cutoff.
Figure 40-4 shows the graph of current versus voltage of
The ideal approximation of a four-layer diode is an open
a four-layer diode. The device has two operating regions:
switch when cut off and a closed switch when saturated.
cutoff and saturation. The dashed line is the transition
40.2 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
The SCR is the most widely used thyristor. It can switch very
p p
large currents on and off. Because of this, it is used to control
n n n
motors, ovens, air conditioners, and induction heaters.
p p p
Triggering the Latch
n n
By adding an input terminal to the base of Q2, as shown in
Fig. 40-5a, we can create a second way to close the latch.
(a) (b) (c) (d) Here is the theory of operation: When the latch is open, as
shown in Fig. 40-5b, the operating point is at the lower end
10
of the dc load line (Fig. 40-5d). To close the latch, we can
7.0
5.0 couple a trigger (sharp pulse) into the base of Q2, as shown
3.0 in Fig. 40-5a. The trigger momentarily increases the base
2.0 current of Q2. This starts the positive feedback, which drives
Current, A

both transistors into saturation.

1.0
0.7
When saturated, both transistors ideally look like short
0.5 circuits, and the latch is closed (Fig. 40-5c). Ideally, the latch
0.3 TA = 25C [77F] has zero voltage across it when it is closed, and the operating
0.2
point is at the upper end of the load line (Fig. 40-5d).
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gate Triggering
Voltage, V
Figure 40-6a shows the structure of the SCR. The input
(e)
is called the gate, the top is the anode, and the bottom is
Figure 40-3 Four-layer diode. the cathode. The SCR is far more useful than a four-layer

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 +VCC +VCC +VCC

RL RL RL

Q1

+ + +
v VCC 0V
– – –
Figure 40-7 Typical SCRs.
Q2

diode because the gate triggering is easier than breakover

triggering.
(a) (b) (c)
Again, we can visualize the four doped regions separated
I into two transistors, as shown in Fig. 40-6b. Therefore, the
SCR is equivalent to a latch with a trigger input (Fig. 40-6c).
Schematic diagrams use the symbol of Fig. 40-6d. Whenever
you see this symbol, remember that it is equivalent to a latch
IC(sat) Latch closed
with a trigger input. Typical SCRs are shown in Fig. 40-7.
Since the gate of an SCR is connected to the base of an
Latch open internal transistor, it takes at least 0.7 V to trigger an SCR.
V
VCC Data sheets list this voltage as the gate trigger voltage, VGT.
Rather than specify the input resistance of the gate, a manu-
(d)
facturer gives the minimum input current needed to turn on
Figure 40-5 Transistor latch with trigger input. the SCR. Data sheets list this current as the gate trigger
current, IGT.
Some typical trigger voltage and current values are:
VGT 5 1.0 V
Anode Anode
IGT 5 9.0 mA
This means that the source driving the gate of a typical
p p
n n n
2N6504 series SCR has to supply 9.0 mA at 1.0 V to latch
p p p
the SCR.
Gate Gate
n n
Also, the breakover voltage or blocking voltage is speci-
fied as its peak repetitive off state forward voltage, VDRM,
and its peak repetitive off state reverse voltage, VRRM. De-
Cathode Cathode
pending on which SCR of the series is used, the breakover
voltage ranges from 50 V to 800 V.
(a) (b)

Anode Anode
Required Input Voltage
An SCR like the one shown in Fig. 40-8 has a gate volt-
age VG. When this voltage is more than VGT, the SCR will
turn on and the output voltage will drop from 1VCC to a low
value. Sometimes, a gate resistor is used as shown here. This
Gate
resistor limits the gate current to a safe value. The input volt-
Gate age needed to trigger an SCR has to be more than:

Cathode Vin  VGT  IGTRG (40-1)

Cathode
In this equation, VGT and IGT are the gate trigger voltage
(c) (d)
and current for the device. For instance, the data sheet of a
Figure 40-6 Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). 2N4441 gives VGT 5 0.75 V and IGT 5 10 mA. When you

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 +VCC +VCC +VCC

RL
RL RL

+
SW1
RG
+
Vout RG RG SW1
+
Vin VG
–
– – Vin Vin

Figure 40-8 Basic SCR circuit.

(a) (b)
have the value of RG, the calculation of Vin is straightforward.
+VCC
If a gate resistor is not used, RG is the Thevenin resistance of
the circuit driving the gate. Unless Formula (40-1) is satis-
fied, the SCR cannot turn on. RL

Resetting the SCR SW1

After the SCR has turned on, it stays on even though you
reduce the gate supply, Vin, to zero. In this case, the output
remains low indefinitely. To reset the SCR, you must reduce RG V
the anode to cathode current to a value less than its hold-
ing current, IH. This can be done by reducing VCC to a low
value. The data sheet for the 2N6504 lists a typical holding Vin
current value of 18 mA. SCRs with lower and higher power
ratings generally have lower and higher respective holding
current values. Since the holding current flows through the
(c)
load resistor in Fig. 40-8, the supply voltage for turnoff has
to be less than Figure 40-9 Resetting the SCR.
VCC  0.7 V  IH RL (40-2)
Besides reducing VCC, other methods can be used to is not the case with an SCR. The gate voltage can only turn
reset the SCR. Two common methods are current interrup- it on.
tion and forced commutation. By either opening the series Figure 40-10 illustrates the difference. In Fig. 40-10a,
switch, as shown in Fig. 40-9a, or closing the parallel switch when the input voltage to the power FET goes high, the out-
in Fig. 40-9b, the anode-to-cathode current will drop down put voltage goes low. When the input voltage goes low, the
below its holding current value and the SCR will switch to output voltage goes high. In other words, a rectangular input
its off state. pulse produces an inverted rectangular output pulse.
Another method used to reset the SCR is forced commu- In Fig. 40-10b, when the input voltage to the SCR goes
tation, as shown in Fig. 40-9c. When the switch is depressed, high, the output voltage goes low. But when the input voltage
a negative VAK voltage is momentarily applied. This reduces goes low, the output voltage stays low. With an SCR, a rect-
the forward anode-to-cathode current below IH and turns off angular input pulse produces a negative-going output step.
the SCR. In actual circuits, the switch can be replaced with The SCR does not reset.
a BJT or FET device. Because the two devices have to be reset in different
ways, their applications tend to be different. Power FETs re-
Power FET versus SCR spond like push-button switches, whereas SCRs respond like
Although both the power FET and the SCR can switch large single-pole, single-throw switches. Since it is easier to con-
currents on and off, the two devices are fundamentally dif- trol the power FET, you will see it used more often as an in-
ferent. The key difference is the way they turn off. The gate terface between digital ICs and heavy loads. In applications
voltage of a power FET can turn the device on and off. This in which latching is important, you will see the SCR used.

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 +VDD
40.3 The SCR Crowbar
If anything happens inside a power supply to cause its out-
Load put voltage to go excessively high, the results can be devas-
+VDD
tating. Why? Because some loads such as expensive digital
A B ICs cannot withstand too much supply voltage without being
destroyed. One of the most important applications of the
SCR is to protect delicate and expensive loads against over-
0
A B voltages from a power supply.
Prototype
(a) Figure 40-12 shows a power supply of VCC applied to a pro-
+VCC
tected load. Under normal conditions, VCC is less than the
breakdown voltage of the zener diode. In this case, there is
no voltage across R, and the SCR remains open. The load
receives a voltage of VCC, and all is well.
Load Now, assume that the supply voltage increases for any
+VCC
reason whatsoever. When VCC is too large, the zener diode
A
breaks down and a voltage appears across R. If this volt-
age is greater than the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the
0 SCR fi res and becomes a closed latch. The action is simi-
A B
lar to throwing a crowbar across the load terminals. Be-
cause the SCR turn-on is very fast (1 s for a 2N4441), the
(b) load is quickly protected against the damaging effects of
a large overvoltage. The overvoltage that fires the SCR is
Figure 40-10 Power FET versus SCR.
VCC  VZ  VGT (40-3)
Crowbarring, though a drastic form of protection, is nec-
EXAMPLE 40-1
essary with many digital ICs because they can’t take much
In Fig. 40-11, the SCR has a trigger voltage of 0.75 V and a trigger overvoltage. Rather than destroy expensive ICs, therefore,
current of  7 mA. What is the input voltage that turns the SCR we can use an SCR crowbar to short the load terminals at
on? If the holding current is 6 mA, what is the supply voltage that the first sign of overvoltage. With an SCR crowbar, a fuse or
turns it off?
current limiting (discussed later) is needed to prevent dam-
Answer: age to the power supply.
With Formula (40-1), the minimum input voltage needed to trigger is
Integrated Crowbar
Vin 5 0.75 V 1 (7 mA)(1 kV) 5 7.75 V
The simplest solution is to use an IC crowbar, as shown in
With Formula (40-2), the supply voltage that turns off the SCR is Fig. 40-13. This is an integrated circuit with a built-in zener
VCC 5 0.7 V 1 (6 mA)(100 V) 5 1.3 V diode, transistors, and an SCR. Different models are avail-
able to protect different voltage supply levels. In some cases
+15 V
the crowbar circuit is built into other power supply ICs.
The prototype crowbar is all right if the application is not
100 Ω too critical about the exact supply voltage at which the SCR

Vout +

1 kΩ Zener
VGT = 0.75 V SCR
IGT = 7 mA Power crowbar Protected
+ IH = 6 mA VCC
supply load
Vin
– R

Figure 40-11 Example.

Figure 40-12 SCR crowbar.

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 +V
CC 40.4 SCR Phase Control
SCRs are available in a wide range of current and volt-
age ratings. Typical current ranges are from 1.5 A to over
IC Protected
crowbar load
1.5 kA with voltage ratings exceeding 2 kV. Most of these
devices are used to control heavy industrial loads using
phase control.

Figure 40-13 IC crowbar. RC Circuit Controls Phase Angle

Figure 40-14a shows ac line voltage being applied to an SCR
circuit that controls the current through a heavy load. In this
turns on. For instance, the 1N752 has a tolerance of 10%, circuit, variable resistor R1 and capacitor C shift the phase
which means that the breakdown voltage may vary from angle of the gate signal. When R1 is zero, the gate voltage
5.04 to 6.16 V. Furthermore, the trigger voltage of a 2N4441 is in phase with the line voltage, and the SCR acts like a
has a worst-case maximum of 1.5 V. So, the overvoltage can half-wave rectifier. Resistor R2 limits the gate current to a
be as high as safe level.
VCC 5 6.16 V 1 1.5 V 5 7.66 V When R1 increases, however, the ac gate voltage lags
the line voltage by an angle between 0 and 90°, as shown
Since many digital ICs have a maximum rating of 7 V, a in Fig. 40-14b and c. Before the trigger point shown in
simple crowbar cannot be used to protect them. Fig. 40-14c, the SCR is off and the load current is zero.

vline

Load
R1
R2
120 Vac
fire condction
C
(b)
vc = vgate

(a)

Trigger
point
(c)
vSCR

(d)
vload

(e)

Figure 40-14 SCR phase control.

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 At the trigger point, the capacitor voltage is large enough
EXAMPLE 40-2
to trigger the SCR. When this happens, almost all the
line voltage appears across the load and the load current Using Fig. 40-14a, find the approximate firing angle and conduc-
becomes high. Ideally, the SCR remains latched until the tion angle when R 5 26 kV.
line voltage reverses polarity. This is shown in Fig. 40-14c Answer:
and d. The approximate firing angle can be found by solving for the
The angle at which the SCR fi res is called the firing voltage value and its phase shift across the capacitor. This is
angle, shown as fire in Fig. 40-14a. The angle between found by
the start and end of conduction is called the conduction
angle, shown as conduction. The RC phase controller of Fig. XC 5 _1 5 ____ 1 5 26.5 kV
2fc (2)(60 Hz)(0.1 F)
40-14a can change the fi ring angle between 0 and 90°,
which means that the conduction angle changes from 180 Because capacitive reactance is at an angle of 90°, XC 5 26.5
to 90°. kV/90°.
The shaded portions of Fig. 40-14b show when the Next, find the total RC impedance ZT and its angle by
________ ___________________
SCR is conducting. Because R1 is variable, the phase ZT  Ï R2  XC2  Ï (26 k)2  (26.5 k) 2  37.1 k
angle of the gate voltage can be changed. This allows us
to control the shaded portions of the line voltage. Stated X 26.5 k  45.5°
Z  /  arctan _C  /  arctan __
another way: We can control the average current through R 26 k
the load. This is useful for changing the speed of a motor, Therefore, ZT 5 37.1 kV/ 45.5°.
the brightness of a lamp, or the temperature of an induc- Using the ac input as our reference, the current through C is
tion furnace.
Vin / 0° ____
By using circuit analysis techniques studied in basic IC  __  120 Vac / 0°  3.23 mA / 45.5°
electricity courses, we can determine the approximate ZT /  37.1 k / 45.5°
phase-shifted voltage across the capacitor. This gives us the Now, the voltage across C can be found by
approximate firing angle and conduction angle of the circuit.
To determine the voltage across the capacitor, use the fol- VC 5 (IC / )(XC / 90°)
lowing steps: 5 (3.23 mA / 45.5°)(26.5 kV / 90°)
First, find the capacitive reactance of C by VC 5 85.7 Vac / 44.5°
With the voltage phase shift across the capacitor of 44.5°,
XC 5 _1 the firing angle of the circuit is approximately 45.5°. After the
2fc SCR fires, it will remain on until its current drops below I H. This will
occur approximately when the ac input is zero volts.
The impedance and phase angle of the RC phase-shift Therefore, the conduction angle is
circuit are
________ Conduction  5 180°  44.5° 5 135.5°
T  Ï R2  XC2 (40-4)
X
Z  / arctan _C (40-5) The RC phase controller of Fig. 40-14a is a basic way of
R
controlling the average current through the load. The con-
Using the input voltage as our reference point, the current trollable range of current is limited because the phase angle
through C is can change from only 0 to 90°. With op amps and more so-
phisticated RC circuits, we can change the phase angle from
Vin/0° 0 to 180°. This allows us to vary the average current all the
IC /  5 ___
X way from zero to maximum.
Z T /  arctan _C
R

Now, the voltage value and phase of the capacitor can be Critical Rate of Rise
found by When ac voltage is used to supply the anode of an SCR,
it is possible to get false triggering. Because of capaci-
VC 5 (IC / )(XC / 90°)
tances inside an SCR, rapidly changing supply voltages
The amount of delayed phase shift will be the approximate may trigger the SCR. To avoid false triggering of an SCR,
firing angle of the circuit. The conduction angle is found by the rate of voltage change must not exceed the critical rate
subtracting the firing angle from 180°. of voltage rise specified on the data sheet. For instance,

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 Load +
Vsupply

R
Gate
C –

(a) (b) (c) (d )

(a)
Figure 40-16 Diac.
Load
Vsupply

L The diac is nonconducting until the voltage across it exceeds

the breakover voltage in either direction.
For instance, if v has the polarity indicated in Fig. 40-16a,
R the left diode conducts when v exceeds the breakover
Gate
C
voltage. In this case, the left latch closes, as shown in
Fig. 40-16c. When v has the opposite polarity, the right
latch closes. Figure 40-16d shows the schematic symbol
(b) for a diac.
Figure 40-15 (a) RC snubber protects SCR against rapid
voltage rise. (b) Inductor protects SCR against rapid current rise. Triac
The triac acts like two SCRs in reverse parallel (Fig. 40-17a),
equivalent to the two latches of Fig. 40-17b. Because of this,
the 2N6504 has a critical rate of voltage rise of 50 V/s. the triac can control current in both directions. If v has the
To avoid false triggering, the anode voltage must not rise polarity shown in Fig. 40-17a, a positive trigger will close
faster than 50 V/s. the left latch. When v has opposite polarity, a negative trig-
Switching transients are the main cause of exceeding the ger will close the right latch. Figure 40-17c is the schematic
critical rate of voltage rise. One way to reduce the effects symbol for a triac.
of switching transients is with an RC snubber, shown in
Fig. 40-15a. If a high-speed switching transient does appear
on the supply voltage, its rate of rise is reduced at the anode
because of the RC time constant.
Large SCRs also have a critical rate of current rise.
For instance, the C701 has a critical rate of current rise of +
150 A /s. If the anode current tries to rise faster than this, v
–
the SCR will be destroyed. Including an inductor in series
with the load (Fig. 40-15b) reduces the rate of current rise
to a safe level.
(a)
40.5 Bidirectional Thyristors
The two devices discussed so far, the four-layer diode and
the SCR, are unidirectional because current can flow in only
one direction. The diac and triac are bidirectional thyris- + +
tors. These devices can conduct in either direction. The diac v Gate v
– –
is sometimes called a silicon bidirectional switch (SBS).

Diac
The diac can latch current in either direction. The equivalent
(b) (c)
circuit of a diac is 2 four-layer diodes in parallel, as shown
in Fig. 40-16a, ideally the same as the latches in Fig. 40-16b. Figure 40-17 Triac.

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 vline

Load

R1
MT2
115 Vac

G (b)
MT1
R2
vgate
C

(a)
Trigger
point

Trigger
point
(c)

vtriac vload

(d) (e)

Figure 40-18 Triac phase control.

There are a wide range of commercially available triacs. Triac Crowbar

Because of their internal structure, triacs have higher gate Figure 40-19 shows a triac crowbar that can be used to pro-
trigger voltages and currents than comparable SCRs. Gate tect equipment against excessive line voltage. If the line volt-
trigger voltages range from 2 to 2.5 V, and the gate trigger age becomes too high, the diac breaks over and triggers the
currents are from 10 to 50 mA. The maximum anode cur- triac. When the triac fires, it blows the fuse. A potentiometer
rents are commonly from 1 to 15 A. R2 allows us to set the trigger point.
Phase Control
Figure 40-18a shows an RC circuit that varies the phase
angle of the gate voltage to a triac. The circuit can con- Fuse

trol the current through a heavy load. Figure 40-18b and

c shows the line voltage and lagging gate voltage. When R1
the capacitor voltage is large enough to supply the trig-
MT 2
ger current, the triac conducts. Once on, the triac con-
tinues to conduct until the line voltage returns to zero.
Adjust G
Figure 40-18d and e show the respective voltages across 120 Vac R2 Triac vout
the triac and the load. MT1
Diac
Although triacs can handle large currents, they are not
in the same class as SCRs, which have much higher current
R3
ratings. Nevertheless, when conduction on both half-cycles
is important, triacs are useful devices especially in industrial
applications. They are also the main component in common
commercial light dimmers. Figure 40-19 Triac crowbar.

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 EX A M P L E 4 0 -3
IGBT Control
Figure 40-22a and b show two common schematic symbols
In Fig. 40-20, the switch is closed. If the triac has fired, what is the for an n-channel IGBT. Also, Fig. 40-22c shows a simplified
approximate current through the 22- resistor? equivalent circuit for this device. As you can see, the IGBT
22 Ω
is essentially a power MOSFET on the input side and a BJT
on the output side. The input control is a voltage between the
82 kΩ
gate and emitter leads. The output is a current between the
collector and emitter leads.
+
The IGBT is a normally off high-input impedance device.
75 V
– When the input voltage, VGE, is large enough, collector cur-
1 F rent will begin to flow. This minimum voltage value is the gate
threshold voltage, VGE(th). A typical VGE(th) for one type of IGBT
is 5.0 V when IC 5 60 mA. The maximum continuous collector
current is shown to be 60 A. Another important on characteris-
Figure 40-20 Example.
tic is its collector-to-emitter saturation voltage, VCE(sat). The typi-
Answer: cal VCE(sat) value, shown on the data sheet, is 1.5 V at a collector
Ideally, the triac has zero volts across it when conducting. There- current of 10 A and 2.5 V at a collector current of 60 A.
fore, the current through the 22- resistor is
IGBT Advantages
75 V  3.41 A
I_
22  Conduction losses of IGBTs are related to the forward voltage
If the triac has 1 or 2 V across it, the current is still close to 3.41 A because drop of the device, and the MOSFET conduction loss is based
the large supply voltage swamps the effect of the triac on voltage. on its RDS(on) values. For low-voltage applications, power MOS-
FETs can have extremely low RD(on) resistances. In high-voltage
applications, however, MOSFETs have increased RDS(on) val-
40.6 IBGTs ues resulting in increased conduction losses. The IGBT does
Basic Construction not have this characteristic. IGBTs also have a much higher
collector-emitter breakdown voltage as compared to the VDSS
Power MOSFETs and BJTs can both be used in high-power
maximum value of MOSFETs. This is important in applica-
switching applications. The MOSFET has the advantage of
tions using higher-voltage inductive loads. As compared to
greater switching speed, and the BJT has lower conduction
losses. By combining the low conduction loss of a BJT with Collector C
the switching speed of a power MOSFET, we can begin to
approach an ideal switch.
This hybrid device exists and is called an insulated-gate
Gate G
bipolar transistor (IGBT). The IGBT has essentially evolved
from power MOSFET technology. Its structure and operation
closely resemble a power MOSFET. Figure 40-21 shows the Emitter E
basic structure of an n-channel IGBT. Its structure resembles (a) (b)
an n-channel power MOSFET constructed on a p-type sub-
Collector
strate. As shown, it has gate, emitter, and collector leads.

Gate
Emitter

n+ n+
p Body region n-channel
MOSFET Gate
–
n Drift region structure
n+ Buffer layer
p+ Substrate (injecting layer)
Emitter

(c)
Collector
Figure 40-22 IGBTs. (a) and (b) Schematic symbols.
Figure 40-21 Basic IGBT structure. (c) Simplified equivalent circuit.

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 BJTs, IGBTs have a much higher input impedance and have IGBTs are, therefore, effective solutions for high-voltage and
much simpler gate drive requirements. Although the IGBT current applications at moderate frequencies. Some hybrid
cannot match the switching speed of the MOSFET, new IGBT and electric vehicles use IGBTs in the inverters that convert
families are being developed for high-frequency applications. the battery dc into ac to operate the synchronous motors.

CHAPTER 40 SYSTEM SIDEBAR

IGBT Switching Power Converters

You have seen how switching transistors can be used to form the frequency of the voltage applied to it. One such device is
regulators, dc-dc converters, and inverters. Insulated-gate an ac drive that develops variable three-phase ac voltages to
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are also used for this purpose, es- operate the motor. Another case is the use of a three-phase
pecially when very high power is required. A good example induction motor in an electric vehicle. Varying the speed of
is a dc-to-ac power inverter to drive an ac motor. It is often the motor requires a source of variable-frequency ac.
desirable to operate a three-phase induction motor from dc. Figure S40-1 shows the basic block diagram of ac power
The speed of an ac motor is determined by the applied ac drive. If the input is dc from a battery, as it would be in an elec-
frequency. To vary the speed of an ac motor, you need to vary tric vehicle, the dc power bus operates a group of IGBTs that

Speed control

Microcontroller
PWM signals

Low-pass
filter

DC source
(battery,
M
power
supply)

3-phase
induction
motor

(a)

3-phase
AC
source
DC

(b)

Figure S40-1 (a) I-GBT motor driver. (b) Optional ac source.

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 are switched off and on to form pulses. The pulses are varied in PWM pulses

width or time duration, and these are filtered in low-pass filters Sine wave after
filtering the pulses
to smooth them into a signal closely resembling a sine wave.
The digital controller is usually an embedded microcontroller +

programmed to produce pulse-width modulation (PWM). The 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
0
controller also knows which IGBTs to turn off or on at the cor- 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
180°
rect time to provide not only the correct pulse width but also –
whether the pulse is positive or negative.
If the original power source is also ac, for example, from
Horizontal axis is time but labeled in degrees.
the 60-Hz power line, a three-phase rectifier can be used to
convert the ac into dc that is then used as discussed above. Figure S40-2 Variable-width pulses, when filtered, form
Figure S40-2 shows the pulses developed by the IGBTs. a sine wave.
The pulses are fixed in amplitude. They are narrow at the
lower-amplitude points on the sine wave and maximum This method can also use power MOSFETs or even SCRs.
duration for the highest-amplitude points of the sine wave. The concept is the same. However, these devices are mostly
The pulse frequency is constant, but the time duration var- used at lower power levels. The main advantage of IGBTs is
ies. Pulse frequency is usually several kilohertz. Note in that higher voltages and greater power levels can be used.
Fig. S40-1 that low-pass filters made up of inductors and ca- IGBTs are used in systems delivering hundreds or even thou-
pacitors average the pulses into a continuous sine wave. sands of watts of power to an ac motor.

CHAPTER 40 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A thyristor can be used as c. breakover current.

a. a resistor. d. low-current dropout.
b. an amplifier. 6. The only way to stop a four-layer diode that is
c. a switch. conducting is by
d. a power source. a. a positive trigger.
2. Positive feedback means that the returning signal b. low-current dropout.
a. opposes the original change. c. breakover.
b. aids the original change. d. reverse-bias triggering.
c. is equivalent to negative feedback. 7. The minimum anode current that keeps a thyristor
d. is amplified. turned on is called the
3. A latch always uses a. holding current.
a. transistors. b. trigger current.
b. negative feedback. c. breakover current.
c. current. d. low-current dropout.
d. positive feedback. 8. A silicon controlled rectifier has
4. To turn on a four-layer diode, you need a. two external leads.
a. a positive trigger. b. three external leads.
b. low-current dropout. c. four external leads.
c. breakover. d. three doped regions.
d. reverse-bias triggering. 9. An SCR is usually turned on by
5. The minimum input current that can turn on a a. breakover.
thyristor is called the b. a gate trigger.
a. holding current. c. breakdown.
b. trigger current. d. holding current.

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 10. SCRs are 18. Any thyristor can be turned off with
a. low-power devices. a. breakover.
b. four-layer diodes. b. forward-bias triggering.
c. high-current devices. c. low-current dropout.
d. bidirectional. d. reverse-bias triggering.
11. The usual way to protect a load from excessive supply 19. Exceeding the critical rate of rise produces
voltage is with a a. excessive power dissipation.
a. crowbar. b. false triggering.
b. zener diode. c. low-current dropout.
c. four-layer diode. d. reverse-bias triggering.
d. thyristor. 20. A four-layer diode is sometimes called a
12. An RC snubber protects an SCR against a. unijunction transistor.
a. supply overvoltages. b. diac.
b. false triggering. c. pnpn diode.
c. breakover. d. switch.
d. crowbarring. 21. An SCR can switch to the on state if
13. When a crowbar is used with a power supply, the sup- a. its forward breakover voltage is exceeded.
ply needs to have a fuse or b. IGT is applied.
a. adequate trigger current. c. the critical rate of voltage rise is exceeded.
b. holding current. d. all of the above.
c. filtering. 22. The maximum firing angle with a single RC phase
d. current limiting. control circuit is
14. The diac is a a. 45°.
a. transistor. b. 90°.
b. unidirectional device. c. 180°.
c. three-layer device. d. 360°.
d. bidirectional device. 23. A triac is generally considered most sensitive in
15. The triac is equivalent to a. quadrant I.
a. a four-layer diode. b. quadrant II.
b. two diacs in parallel. c. quadrant III.
c. a thyristor with a gate lead. d. quadrant IV.
d. two SCRs in parallel. 24. An IGBT is essentially a
16. Any thyristor can be turned on with a. BJT on the input and MOSFET on the output.
a. breakover. b. MOSFET on the input and MOSFET on the output.
b. forward-bias triggering. c. MOSFET on the input and BJT on the output.
c. low-current dropout. d. BJT on the input and BJT on the output.
d. reverse-bias triggering. 25. The maximum on-state output voltage of an IGBT is
17. The trigger voltage of an SCR is closest to a. VGS(on).
a. 0 V. b. VCE(Sat).
b. 0.7 V. c. RDS(on).
c. 4 V. d. VCES.
d. Breakover voltage.

CHAPTER 40 PROBLEMS

SECTION 40.2 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier the SCR is off? What is the input voltage that trig-
40.1 The SCR of Fig. 40-23 has VGT 5 1.0 V, IGT 5 2 mA, gers the SCR? If VCC is decreased until the SCR
and IH 5 12 mA. What is the output voltage when opens, what is the value of VCC?

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 +12 V 40.6 Using Fig. 40-25, when adjusting R2, what are the
minimum and maximum firing angle values?
47 Ω
40.7 What are the minimum and maximum conduction
angles of the SCR in Fig. 40-25?
Vout
SECTION 40.3 The SCR Crowbar
2.2 kΩ
40.8 Calculate the supply voltage that triggers the crow-
+
bar of Fig. 40-26.
Vin
–
+9 V

VZ = 10 V
Figure 40-23
VGT = 0.8 V
40.2 What is the peak output voltage in Fig. 40-24 if R is
IGT = 200 A 10 Ω
adjusted to 500 V?
+90 V
100 Ω

6.8 kΩ

vout Figure 40-26

3.3 kΩ
VGT = 0.8 V 40.9 If the zener voltage in Fig. 40-26 is changed from
4.7 F IGT = 200 A
10 to 12 V, what is the voltage that triggers the
R SCR?
SECTION 40.5 Bidirectional Thyristors
40.10 The diac of Fig. 40-27 has a breakover voltage of
Figure 40-24 20 V, and the triac has a VGT of 2.5 V. What is the
40.3 If the SCR of Fig. 40-23 has a gate trigger voltage of capacitor voltage that turns on the triac?
1.5 V, a gate trigger current of 15 mA, and a holding
current of 10 mA, what is the input voltage that trig-
gers the SCR? The supply voltage that resets the SCR? 15 Ω

40.4 In Fig. 40-24, R is adjusted to 750 V. What is the

charging time constant for the capacitor? What is the 68 kΩ
Thevenin resistance facing the gate?
+ 2.7 kΩ
40.5 The resistor R2 in Fig. 40-25 is set to 4.6 kV. What 100 V
are the approximate firing and conduction angles –
for this circuit? How much ac voltage is across C? 2.2 F

R1
1 kΩ Figure 40-27
RL

R2
120 VAC 50 kΩ R3
1 kΩ 40.11 What is the load current in Fig. 40-27 when the triac
is conducting?
C
0.47 F

Figure 40-25

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 Ch a pt er 41
Electronic System
Troubleshooting

Looking at what most technicians (and engineers) do Learning Outcomes

as part of their jobs, one thing stands out: troubleshoot-
ing. That, of course, is the art and science of finding and After you complete this chapter, you should be able to:
correcting problems in electronic systems, equipment, Define virtual instrumentation.
and circuits. There is some scientific basis for trouble- List at least five key electronic instruments, other
shooting as logical reasoning, and essential principles than the multimeter and the oscilloscope, that are
can be applied to trace and identify troubles. But the critical to troubleshooting.
process is also an art since it relies to a great extent Describe a generic procedure that will aid in
on personal knowledge, knowledge of the specific sys- almost any electronic troubleshooting.
tem or equipment, and real experience. It is something Troubleshoot a common electronic power supply.
that can be taught up to a point, but it is also a skill Troubleshoot a typical linear circuit.
that grows with experience and practice. This chapter Troubleshoot a common digital circuit.
examines the troubleshooting process and some of the Describe an approach to finding the problem in a
equipment used to facilitate and expedite the process. complex electronic system.

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 41.1 Electronic Instrumentation than hardware and have as their base a personal computer.
Almost all basic instrument functions can be implemented
Electronic instrumentation refers to the test equipment used
in virtual instrument form. An introduction to the software
by engineers and technicians to test and measure electronic
called LabVIEW shows that special virtual instruments can
devices and systems. This equipment is used not only to
also be developed for dedicated or unique applications.
troubleshoot electronic products but to design them as well.
We focus on troubleshooting in this chapter, but the prin- The Digital Approach to Instrumentation
ciples are the same for design and development. Most modern test instruments come in three basic forms,
The most widely used electronic test instruments are the stand-alone bench instruments, rack-mount instruments, and
digital multimeter and the oscilloscope. Measuring voltage, virtual instruments. The bench instruments are as described,
current, and resistance is basic to any troubleshooting en- a box that occupies space on the bench of a design engi-
deavor. The multimeter is a low-cost instrument that gives neer or a service technician. The rack-mount instruments are
excellent accuracy and precision. The oscilloscope is also a usually the bench instruments that have been repackaged for
critical instrument that is essential to troubleshooting. It is mounting in cabinets or open racks, common to test facilities
the eyes of the technician in looking at signals to see if they used in manufacturing and final product test. Virtual instru-
are correct. It also allows viewing things such as noise and ments use a laptop or desktop PC as the core, along with a
interference that would otherwise be difficult to detect. The box or rack of modules that perform tests for specific appli-
multimeter and the oscilloscope were covered in previous cations. You will encounter all three in your work.
chapters but will be referred to here as appropriate. Another form of test system is the automated test system,
Other instruments can ease and speed up troubleshooting. a collection of different test instruments packaged together
As electronic equipment has become more complex due to along with a central control computer that is programmed to
the increased integration of circuits and systems, it becomes perform automatic test procedures for a specific product or
more difficult to ferret out the problems. Furthermore, the system. Automatic test equipment (ATE) systems are widely
use of higher frequencies for wireless communications and used in manufacturing to perform fast automatic tests on spe-
the higher data rates of digital systems has made other in- cific products. Testing millions of cell phones is an example.
struments more appropriate and necessary. The most im- Other test systems are used to troubleshoot and validate com-
portant of these we cover here are the logic analyzer, the plex systems such as the electronics on a fighter aircraft.
spectrum analyzer, and signal generators. The important thing to realize is that most modern
This chapter also introduces the concept of virtual in- instruments are implemented like digital oscilloscopes.
strumentation. Virtual instruments (VIs) are more software They have the form shown in Fig. 41-1. Input signals to be

Figure 41-1 A modern logic analyzer.

Source: Courtesy Tektronix.

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 measured or tested are fi rst applied to attenuators and or that is important. A logic analyzer lets you check the signals
amplifiers to scale the level of the input signal to the needs for proper synchronization and timing. It allows you to de-
of the scope circuitry. The appropriately sized signal is tect race conditions by which one circuit may be too fast or
then applied to a high-speed analog-to-digital converter too slow to produce the desired effect.
(ADC) and digitized into a stream of binary numbers that The logic analyzer is particularly valuable in testing com-
are then stored in a memory. This digital representation plex circuits implemented with field-programmable gate
of the signal is then analyzed by software on an internal array (FPGA) integrated circuits. These ICs have hundreds
computer, usually a special dedicated, high-speed proces- or thousands of digital circuits on them, and most of their
sor. The software defines the measurements and imple- interconnections are programmable. Their operations are
ments a visual display, usually on a color LCD. Controls extensive with many simultaneously occurring signals. A
are provided to adapt to different signal levels, speeds, fre- logic analyzer is the ideal instrument to detect and isolate
quencies, and other conditions. Essentially, all modern test problems. Logic analyzers can troubleshoot any digital cir-
instruments have this basic form. cuit, including those with an embedded microcontroller at
its heart.
Specialized Electronic Instruments The digital signals are connected to the logic analyzer
Most electronic tests and measurements are still conducted by way of special probes or connectors that are designed to
with multimeters and oscilloscopes. But depending on the minimize the capacitance, inductance, and resistance of the
type of equipment you are working on, other special instru- connection. This permits signals of many megabits or gigabits
ments will actually be more useful. Two of the most impor- per second to be analyzed. The input signals are then sampled
tant are the logic analyzer and the spectrum analyzer. Signal and digitized as if they were in an oscilloscope, and the result-
generators are also key to testing and measuring. These are ing binary data are stored in a high-speed memory. The data
described here along with a short list of other useful special in the memory can then be analyzed and displayed.
instruments. One common display is multiple, simultaneous time
The Logic Analyzer A logic analyzer is similar to an oscil- domain binary signals in multiple traces on the LCD
loscope in that it generally displays digital logic signals on screen. Alternatively, the binary data representing the
an LCD screen with respect to time. While an oscilloscope signals can be displayed as either binary or hexadecimal
permits display and measurement of amplitude, shape, fre- data. In some logic analyzers, the data can be analyzed
quency, time, and other characteristics of both analog and to determine its binary meaning and displayed as actual
digital signals, a logic analyzer is designed only for digital communication protocol words and frames, making them
signals. A typical unit is shown in Fig. 41-2. The logic ana- easier to analyze.
lyzer samples the signal but only looks at the threshold volt-
age between a binary 0 and binary 1 logic level. Spectrum Analyzer A spectrum analyzer is an
Instead of the usual dual- or four-trace display of most oscilloscope-like instrument that displays signals in the fre-
oscilloscopes, a logic analyzer allows you to look at 16, 32, quency domain rather than the time domain. One typical
or up to about 136 different signals simultaneously. In com- unit is shown in Fig. 41-3. Input signals are analyzed and
plex digital systems, it is the relationship between signals displayed as the individual frequency components that make
up a complex signal. The display shows frequency on the
horizontal axis and power on the vertical axis.
Signal The spectrum analyzer shows the Fourier theorem har-
conditioning monics of a signal and any sidebands generated by modu-
lation. Figure 41-4 gives several examples of how different
Amplifier
Input signals are presented. In Fig. 41-4a a sine wave is shown as
Attenuator ADC Memory just a single vertical line at its frequency with the length of
signals
the line representing the amount of signal power. The square
wave in Fig. 41-4b is presented as a fundamental frequency
(Algorithms define
ROM Processor
sine wave in addition to its many odd harmonic sine waves.
measurements)
An amplitude-modulated signal is presented as the carrier
sine wave along with its upper- and lower-sideband compo-
LCD
Controls
display
nents. Note the random variation at the bottom of the display.
This is the noise signal power in the system.
Figure 41-2 General block diagram for all modern test A spectrum analyzer is more widely used than an oscillo-
instruments. scope, especially in testing radio-frequency (RF) circuits and

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 Figure 41-3
A spectrum analyzer
shows the power
level of signals in the
frequency domain.
Source: Courtesy
Tektronix.

Carrier

Noise level
Power

Power

Sidebands Sidebands

Frequency Frequency

(a) (c)

Fundamental

Harmonics

3d
Power

5th

7th

Frequency
Figure 41-4 Common spectrum analyzer displays.
(b) (a) Sine wave. (b) Square wave. (c) Amplitude modulation.

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 communications equipment. This instrument gives a better Signal Generators You have already been exposed to the
view of what is going on with a signal in addition to showing function generator, a general-purpose signal generator that
noise and interfering signals on adjacent frequencies. generates sine, square, and triangular waves of different fre-
There are three basic ways of implementing a spectrum quencies. Typical units produce signals in the range from
analyzer. The first and older method is analog in nature. The less than 1 Hz to 20 MHz. The amplitude is variable. It is
spectrum analyzer is structured as a radio receiver with its a good instrument for testing circuits and equipment in the
input signal being applied to a mixer along with a local oscil- audio-frequency range and low radio frequencies. However,
lator signal. The mixer produces a difference frequency called there are many other special generators for different pur-
in intermediate frequency (IF). At the IF, a bandpass filter poses. Two of these are the RF signal generator and the arbi-
defines a channel in the spectrum to be displayed. The local trary waveform generator.
oscillator frequency is then varied linearly from a low to a An RF generator produces sine waves at radio and micro-
high frequency, so that input signals over the bandwidth of the wave frequencies. The range is from about 30 MHz up to and
channel are presented to a detector that recovers the signals over 20 GHz. The amplitude is variable, and the frequency
and determines their power level. The detector output is then is fully selectable. These generators use frequency synthesis
presented to a display, a CRT in older equipment. The CRT techniques that allow changing the frequency in steps or in-
electron beam is swept horizontally across the screen, and the crements. Exact frequencies may be entered on a front panel
detected signals are used to deflect the beam vertically. The keyboard or by way of a tuning knob. Output amplitude is
result is the classic frequency versus power spectrum display. varied with a resistive step attenuator that is often calibrated
The other two types of spectrum analyzer are digital instru- in decibal-milliwatts (dBm) rather than volts. A key feature
ments. The input signal is amplified and then digitized in an of an RF generator is that the sine-wave output may be mod-
analog-to-digital converter. The input signal is sampled at fast ulated to simulate wireless signals. Modulation can be AM,
rate, resulting in proportional binary numbers for each sample. FM, PM, or some other popular modulation.
The binary numbers are stored in a memory. The binary data An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) is a generator
are then accessed by a special processor that subjects the binary that you can program to produce any shape wave at any fre-
signal data to a special algorithm called the discrete Fourier quency. The desired waveform is a digital representation in
transform (DFT) or the fast Fourier transform (FFT). This binary form stored in a memory. See Fig. 41-5. The AWG
mathematical algorithm is a digital signal processing (DSP) does not digitize these signals. This is done by synthesiz-
technique for extracting frequency and amplitude data. It is a ing them in a computer and then loading them into memory.
Fourier analysis of the binary data. The processed data are sent The binary words representing the waveform are read out
to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) where an analog signal and applied to a digital-to-analog converter where they are
representing the various signal powers over a frequency range transformed into an analog signal unique to the equipment
is created. This signal is then sent to an LCD, where it is plot- being tested. A clock and frequency synthesizer determine
ted vertically as the display is swept horizontally. the rate at which the data are read out and that determines
This type of spectrum analyzer is generally known as a the frequency of the output signals. Most AWGs have pre-
vector signal analyzer (VSA). It provides a detailed and ac- stored waveforms like sine, square, triangular, sawtooth, and
curate frequency spectrum output. Its main limitation is that other common shapes that can be called up for output. The
the display is not in real time. That is, the signal is not dis- user can use one of several types of software to generate the
played at the time the signal is being input. It takes time to binary bit patterns representing special waveforms, includ-
capture, digitize, store, and analyze the signal before display. ing those of special modulated signals. Like standard signal
This delay may or may not be a disadvantage as determined generators, the AWG uses frequency synthesis to set the out-
by the measurement application. put frequency. An amplifier or an attenuator conditions the
To display the signal in real time requires a more ad- DAC output to the desired level at the output.
vanced spectrum analyzer called a real-time signal analyzer
(RSA). It digitizes the signal as a VSA but introduces the Virtual Instrumentation
DSP signal analysis before the data are stored. Thanks to The test instruments discussed so far are general-purpose
very fast sampling ADCs and high-speed digital processors, instruments designed to fit a wide range of measurement
the Fourier analysis takes place as the signal is occurring needs. Such instruments incorporate many functions and
and is digitized. The processed data are stored in a memory features so that a broad range of measurement applications
for further analysis and display. The RSA not only displays may be addressed in either design and development or in
the input in real time but also is fast enough to capture short- service and troubleshooting. This versatility makes standard
duration pulses, transients, and random signals or nonperi- bench instruments overly expensive for simpler, more spe-
odic events that elude the VSA. cialized tests. Often there are needs in manufacturing or in

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 Memory

Prestored
Input Special, standard
unique waveforms
New waveforms (sine, square,
waveforms triangle)
from computer

DAC

Frequency
synthesizer
Outputs

Clock Attenuator

Figure 41-5 An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG).

process control for chemicals where only a few dedicated and

special measurements are needed. Standard instruments are
overkill. As a result specialized instruments were developed
just for those specific cases. This then lead to the creation of
virtual instruments, instruments that are a combination of
hardware and software and that solve a very specific mea-
surement problem.
Virtual instrumentation is user-defined measurement solu-
tions based on customizable software and modular hardware
combined with a standard desktop or laptop computer. Such
virtual instruments perform three basic functions: Capture
input signals, process or analyze them with software, and
either display and/or store the result for human consump-
tion and analysis. Modern virtual instrumentation systems
are usually made up of hardware such as signal-conditioning
circuits, like amplifiers and filters, and high-speed analog-
to-digital converters that digitize the signals to be measured.
The captured signal data in digital form are stored on a
computer, and software processes the data to make measure-
ments on such signal characteristics as amplitude, frequency, Figure 41-6 The PXI-5154 digitizer, a virtual instrument.
timing, or shape. Computer software algorithms are applied The chassis houses a special personal computer in the
leftmost module along with standard PXI modules used for
to analyze the data. That may include a Fourier analysis signal conditioning and digitizing.
using the FFT, described earlier, to determine frequency Source: Courtesy National Instruments.
content. Statistical analysis is another example.
Once the data are analyzed, they are further processed
for display. Software again plays a role in providing a way computer on the left and multiple plug-in modules for
to present the data output on the computer LCD. It may be signal conditioning (amplification, filtering, etc.) and
a simulated oscilloscope display, spectrum analyzer display, analog-to-digital conversion. The LCD display shows the
or just digital numerical outputs presented as they might ap- program used for processing and the output results in the
pear on a standard digital multimeter. Even analog dial me- lower left.
ters can be simulated. The data can be stored on a hard disk The most difficult part of virtual instrumentation is cre-
drive, flash memory, or other storage device. ating the software. Early VI systems used custom programs
Figure 41-6 shows a common VI package. It consists of created in BASIC, C, Pascal, or assembly language. Only
a box or chassis containing a uniquely packaged personal experienced programmers were capable of creating the

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 to be repaired before it can be shipped to the customer. Trou-
bleshooting finds the defect.
Another example is a piece of equipment that fails after a
considerable period of normal use. While electronic equip-
ment is generally reliable, most equipment fails sooner or
later. When this occurs, an electronics technician must track
down the problem and replace the bad components or make
other repairs as needed.
Another example is the troubleshooting of problems in
a newly designed circuit. A design engineer, in creating
a new circuit, frequently makes a mistake in the design
process, or the prototype circuit has been wired incor-
rectly. This calls for troubleshooting to determine why the
circuit is not operating as designed. All these example
Figure 41-7 LabVIEW has a graphical user interface of situations make use of various common troubleshooting
blocks to program the desired instrument functions.
procedures that will help you track down and fi x almost
Source: Courtesy National Instruments.
any fault.
There are eight general steps to follow in electronic
troubleshooting:
desired test and measurement functions. Today, general-
purpose software has been developed to make it easy for 1. Verify the reported problem.
any engineer or technician to create custom measurement 2. Note specific symptoms.
programs. 3. Verify that power is applied.
The most famous and widely used VI software is called 4. Do a visual inspection.
LabVIEW, a complete development environment devel- 5. Isolate the problem to a specific stage, module, IC, or
oped by National Instruments. The LabVIEW development subassembly through signal tracing or signal injection.
platform is based on a graphical user interface that a pro- 6. Isolate the problem to a specific component or module.
grammer deploys to produce a virtual instrument. Icons
7. Repair the problem.
representing measurement and processing functions are
“wired” together on the screen to produce the desired VI, in- 8. Test the unit.
cluding the display format. Figure 41-7 shows one example. Assume the user of the equipment notes a malfunc-
The individual blocks may be hardware in the chassis or seg- tion and reports it. Your fi rst job is to be sure that the
ments of software code created by LabVIEW. The software equipment is indeed defective by verifying the complaint.
then organizes the simulation programs evoked into a com- Often when the equipment is operated incorrectly or used
plete instrument customized to the application. LabVIEW is other than intended, the impression may appear to be a
easy to learn and fast to use by not only nonprogrammers but hardware defect when in reality the equipment is oper-
also engineers who understand the instrumentation needed ating perfectly. These operator problems are typically
for their application. called “cockpit troubles” and do not really involve an
Virtual instrumentation is widely used in all sectors of equipment failure. Reeducation or training of the opera-
industry for manufacturing, development testing, and ge- tor is the solution.
neric measurements. VI leverages the fast powerful personal Another common factor today is that the problem is soft-
computers and high-speed data converters and software ware and not the hardware. Since everything in electronics
simulation techniques to quickly develop customized instru- is controlled by a computer or embedded controller, soft-
mentation at a reasonable price. ware is involved. In products with embedded controllers, the
software is in a ROM, so is called firmware. It rarely goes
41.2 An Introduction to Troubleshooting bad, but in other products and systems involving an attached
Troubleshooting is the general term applied to locating de- computer, software must be considered in troubleshooting.
fects in electronic equipment. As indicated earlier, a great The problem may actually be the user’s inability to use the
deal of the work performed by electronic technicians is the computer or software correctly.
repair of electronic equipment. For example, an instrument Once you have determined that the problem does exist,
may come off the production line in a manufacturing plant you should look for specific symptoms. Just what is the
and, when tested, found to be defective. This instrument has equipment doing or not doing? In some cases the equipment

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 may be totally dead. In other cases it may be operating but Process

not correctly. It may not be meeting stated specifications Input Output

Stage Stage Stage Stage
or performing some of its designated functions. List these 1 2 3 4
symptoms, as they will give you clues as to where to look for
the problem.
The third step in the troubleshooting procedure is to ver-
ify that the unit is receiving power. Obviously during the Measure at these points

first two steps if the unit is working, then it must be receiving Figure 41-8 Multiple stages of circuits or modules
power. However, some of the symptoms may reveal that the process one or more inputs into outputs.
unit may not be receiving one or more of its power supply
voltages. Remember that most electronic equipment receives see that the equipment is getting the proper inputs. To deter-
its main power from the ac power lines. A power supply in mine if the equipment is operating correctly, naturally you
the unit converts this into one or more dc voltages to operate will measure the outputs of each stage to see if they are as
the circuits. In portable or mobile equipment, the dc power is they are supposed to be. Again, this is done by measurement
from a battery. They battery may be bad and need replacing, with a meter, scope, or spectrum analyzer. If the inputs are
or it just may not have been recharged. Your job is to mea- correct but the output is incorrect, then obviously there is
sure all the dc voltages to be sure that they are all present and something wrong in between. The idea is to trace the input
of the correct values. signals through the various stages of processing in an at-
If the power supply voltages are not present, you can as- tempt to isolate the problem to one of them.
sume that the problem lies somewhere in the power supply. Signal tracing is a technique of using a multimeter, an os-
At this point, you can begin more detailed troubleshooting cilloscope, or possibly some other instrument to make mea-
procedures on the power supply. If all the power supply volt- surements inside the equipment as the signal is processed.
ages are good, then the problem lies elsewhere and you can Figure 41-8 shows a hypothetical piece of equipment with
go on with the next step. four stages. Assume that the input voltage is measured and
A visual inspection is the fourth troubleshooting step. found to be correct. The output voltage does not exist. The
Look at all the front panel controls and displays. Verify that multimeter or oscilloscope is then connected to the output of
all are either set correctly or reading out the proper values. each of the various stages in the equipment. As soon as you
Check all input and output cables and connectors. Wires have found the point where the signal no longer exists, you
frequently break, and connectors can fail to make a good can assume that the stage prior is defective. For example,
connection. Even the ac cord could be unplugged. And if a assume that you measure the correct output voltages at
computer and software are involved, be sure all the software stages 1 and 2. The output of stage 3 is zero. Obviously, stage
conditions have been fulfilled to make the hardware work. 3 is the defective stage. At this point you can begin more de-
Be sure the software settings are correct. tailed troubleshooting procedures on stage 3. The big issue
Next look inside. Check to see that printed-circuit boards with using this approach is to know just what level or type
are properly seated in their connectors. Look for burned of signal is expected at each input and output. Only knowl-
components such as resistors. Search for broken wires or edge of the equipment through documentation or training
other signs of trouble. A burned smell is a clue to a defective can provide this.
part. Touching the various components might reveal an un- Assume that the output of stage 1 in Fig. 41-8 is measured
usually hot IC or transistor that might signal trouble. Use all and found to be zero volts. Which of the following is the
your senses during troubleshooting. most likely cause of the trouble?
In this example, stage 1 could be defective if no output
Signal Tracing and Injection signal is measured. This assumes that the correct input sig-
The next step is to use the common troubleshooting tech- nal is present. However, stage 1 may be perfectly good and
niques of signal tracing and signal injection. Most electronic give no output if the input signal is zero. Or the output may
equipment can be viewed as shown in Fig. 41-8. It accepts be zero if the input to stage 2 is shorted to ground.
inputs which are electronic signals of some sort. The equip- In some cases signal injection can be used to determine
ment processes these signals in multiple stages and pro- the source of trouble. For example, a multimeter or oscillo-
vides some output. Each stage is some kind of electronic scope can be connected to the output of stage 4 in Fig. 41-8.
circuit, such as an amplifier, filter, mixer, oscillator, modu- Then connect an electronic signal similar to that typically
lator, processor, memory, or whatever. It could be a single processed by the equipment to the input of stage 4. A signal
IC or multiple discrete components or a complete module or function generator is a good source for such a signal. If
or printed-circuit board. The first thing you do is check to the output is present, then stage 4 is good. Next, the signal is

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 injected at stage 3. Again, if the correct output is measured, collector voltage is in the correct range, the transistor stage is
stage 3 is also good. The signal is injected to the input of probably operating correctly. If no signal is getting through,
stage 2. Assume at this point that no output signal occurs. you should look for broken connections or components in the
Obviously, since stages 3 and 4 are good, stage 2 must be signal path that may be defective. For example, capacitor C1
defective. Detailed troubleshooting procedures can then be or C2 may be open.
initiated on stage 2. As an example, assume the collector voltage of a class A
The question you might have regarding signal injection stage is found to be 6.7 V. The supply voltage is 112 V. This
and signal tracing is how do you know what the various stage is probably biased correctly.
stages of the equipment are and what their inputs and out- If you should measure the collector voltage in Fig. 41-9
puts should be? The answer is that this information is usu- and find that it is not equal to approximately one-half the
ally found in the equipment documentation. Documentation supply voltage, then you may get a clue to the problem.
consists of operating manuals and service manuals, which For example, if the collector voltage is equal to the supply
usually contain block diagrams, schematics, specifications, voltage, VCC, then no current is flowing through the transis-
parts lists, and other detailed information on the equipment. tor. All you are seeing is VCC through R1. This usually means
Today, documentation for complex equipment and systems that the transistor is defective (that is, open). Alternatively, it
may be so extensive it is available only on a CD or online at could mean that the bias network made up of R1, R2, and R4
a website. Most electronic equipment is extremely complex is defective. For example, R1 may be open, preventing base
and simply cannot be serviced without this documentation. current from turning Q1 on. Or R4 may be open. If the col-
It is foolish to even attempt to service equipment without the lector voltage is very low or near zero volts, the transistor
manufacturer’s service manuals. Only then will you know at may be shorted.
what points in the circuit to check and what the inputs and This same troubleshooting technique can also be used on
outputs should be. oscillators. Most oscillators are just class A amplifiers with
After the problem has been isolated to a particular stage, feedback. The same test should reveal the problem. Regard-
detailed measurements are made on that stage to determine less of the type of stage, you should measure the dc voltages
the exact problem. on any transistors and compare them to the voltages specified
in the service manual. If a transistor is conducting, its emitter-
41.3 Circuit Troubleshooting base voltage drop will be about 0.7 V. Any differences between
An example of detailed circuit troubleshooting is illustrated measured and specified values will give you a clue as to what
in Fig. 41-9, which shows a simple class A amplifier. If this the defective component might be. If the dc voltages are cor-
is the stage that has been identified as being defective, then rect, then look for signal components such as defective capaci-
you will need to use a multimeter and/or oscilloscope to tors or transformers that could be causing the problem.
make further tests. A quick initial test to check the circuit The basic technique for troubleshooting a single stage is
is to measure the dc voltage between collector and ground. to measure the dc voltages and compare them to those in
Most class A amplifiers are designed so that this voltage is the service literature. Then use signal tracing or injection
approximately one-half the dc supply voltage (VCC/2). If the to isolate the problem. If the circuit is an integrated circuit,
all you can do is measure to be sure it has the correct power
supply voltages applied. Then you can check to see that the
+Vcc
input and output signal voltages are as specified. If not, your
only choice is to replace the IC.
A common MOSFET circuit is shown in Fig. 41-10. This
R3
transistor is used to turn a solenoid or relay coil off or on.
R1
If the input is 112 V, the MOSFET conducts and connects
Ouput
the coil to 112 V, and the solenoid or relay is energized. If
the input is zero, the MOSFET will be off, and the solenoid
Input
or relay will not be turned on. A good first step is to check
C1 to see that 112 V is being supplied to the circuit. Then pro-
≈Vcc
2
vide an input of either 112 V or zero to see if the solenoid
R2 R4 or relay is working. If not, the most likely causes are a bad
(open) transistor or an open coil. If the latter is suspected,
disconnect the supply voltage and one side of the solenoid
coil, and measure its resistance. A good coil will have a low
Figure 41-9 A class A amplifier. resistance. An open coil will have an infinite resistance.

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 +12 V