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The size-dependent elastic properties of

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 JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 98, 074306 共2005兲

The size-dependent elastic properties of nanofilms with surface effects

Jian-Gang Guo and Ya-Pu Zhaoa兲
State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics (LNM), Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100080, People’s Republic of China
共Received 2 February 2005; accepted 24 August 2005; published online 5 October 2005兲
Size-dependent elastic constants are investigated theoretically with reference to a nanoscale
single-crystal thin film. A three-dimensional 共3D兲 model is presented with the relaxation on the
surface of the nanofilm taken into consideration. The constitutive relation of the 3D model is derived
by using the energy approach, and analytical expressions for the four nonzero elastic constants of
the nanofilm are obtained. The size effects of the four elastic constants are then discussed, and the
dependence of these elastic constants on the surface relaxation and the ambiguity in the definition
of the thickness of the nanofilm are also analyzed. In addition, the elastic moduli of the nanofilm in
two kinds of plane problem are obtained and discussed in the case of a special boundary
condition. © 2005 American Institute of Physics. 关DOI: 10.1063/1.2071453兴

I. INTRODUCTION smaller? It has been proved in many experiments that the

elastic constants are size dependent at the nanoscale. Some
With the rapid development of nanoelectromechanical- experiments show that Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratios
system 共NEMS兲 technologies,1 ultrathin films 共with the increase with the decrease of the characteristic dimension of
thickness of the film in the nanoscale兲 have been extensively materials,4,7,8,11 while others show that the reverse is
used as structural as well as electrical components of NEMS true.2,9,10,12,13,15,16 Theoretical investigations also reach the
devices, especially ultrasensitive sensors for ultrafine resolu- two opposite conclusions. Krivtsov and Morozov18 studied
tion applications. For long-term reliability of various NEMS theoretically the size-dependent elastic moduli of a nanocrys-
devices, it is necessary to understand the mechanical proper- tal with reference to a two-dimensional 共2D兲 strip of a single
ties of ultrathin films including hardness, Young’s modulus, crystal with hexagonal-closely-packed structure, and it was
Poisson’s ratio, etc. Like many other properties, the mechani- concluded that Poisson’s ratio decreases and Young’s modu-
cal properties of ultrathin films deviate from macroscopic lus increases with the decreasing thickness of a single-crystal
ones as the characteristic dimensions become very small, strip. For a very thin crystal film 共of two atomic layers thick兲,
which means that we cannot apply the macroscopic proper- these elastic moduli can differ from their macroscopic values
ties anymore to the nanoscale systems such as nanofilm, by a factor of 2. Liang et al.19 established a model for the
NEMS, etc. Thus, the size effects of the mechanical proper- size-dependent elastic moduli of Cu and Au thin films and
ties at the nanoscale are important, and an analytical model is predicted the enhancement of the elastic moduli of Cu and
desirable. Au thin films. Yang25 and Streitz et al.27 analyzed, respec-
A great deal of research has been done on the elastic tively, the effects of surface energy and surface stress on the
characteristics of micro- and nanoscale materials including elastic properties of nanomaterials and reached similar con-
experiments, theoretical analysis, and atomistic or molecular- clusions as those of Krivtsov and Morozov.18 On the other
dynamics simulation. Many experimental methods have been hand, Sun and Zhang21,22 presented a semicontinuum model
developed to evaluate Young’s modulus of thin films, includ- for nanostructured materials and concluded that the Young’s
ing nanoindenter techniques,2–5 atomic force microscopy modulus of nanoplates is only two-thirds of the correspond-
共AFM兲 techniques,6–10 x-ray diffraction with in situ tensile ing bulk value. Van Workum and de Pablo23 arrived at the
testing,11,12 the measurement of resonant frequencies of ul- same conclusion in a similar study based on the Lennard-
trathin cantilever resonators,13,14 laser-ultrasonic surface Jones potential. Nan et al.17 and Sharma and Ganti24 evalu-
acoustic wave 共SAW兲 spectrometry,15 as well as so-called ated the dependence of the elastic properties of nanocrystal-
free overhang method.16 Besides the classical continuum line materials on the grain size and obtained a lower elastic
theory,17–25 the ab initio calculation was used to study the modulus of nanocrystalline materials. Villain et al.30 and
elastic constants of nanostructures.26 In addition, atomistic or Broughton and Meli29 also obtained lower elastic moduli of
molecular simulation27–31 was also extensively applied to nanoscale materials than those of large-scale materials with
analyze the mechanical properties of nanocrystals. It has direct atomistic simulation. Moreover, Villain et al.30 consid-
been found that the hardness is size dependent on the micro- ered the effect of surface on the elastic properties. Miller and
scale, but Young’s modulus is size independent when the Shenoy26 constructed a simple model taking account of sur-
characteristic scale is greater than 500 nm 共Refs. 5, 11, and face tension to predict the size-dependent elastic properties
14兲 or 200 nm.6 What happens to Young’s modulus when the of nanoscale plates and beams and reached a conclusion
characteristic scale is smaller than 200 nm or even far that the effective stiffness is closely related to the values of
surface elastic constants. Using a combination of molecular
a兲
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; FAX: 86 10 6256 statics and ab initio calculations, Zhou and Huang31 showed
1284; electronic mail: [email protected] that elastic moduli can either increase or decrease at the

0021-8979/2005/98共7兲/074306/11/$22.50 98, 074306-1 © 2005 American Institute of Physics

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074306-2 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

FIG. 1. The schematic of 3D model of a nanofilm.

nanoscale, depending on the competition between atomic co-

ordination and electron redistribution on the surface of nano-
crystals.
As a matter of fact, the most elementary and the greatest
difference between micro- and nanoscale materials and mac-
roscopic materials is the increase of the surface-to-volume
ratio. As a result, the surface effects become more important
at the nanoscale, which greatly alter the mechanical proper-
ties of nanomaterials 共strength, fracture toughness, elastic
moduli, etc.兲. The effects of surface energy and surface ten-
sion on elastic properties were extensively discussed in the
literature.8,19,25–27,30 Besides surface tension, the relaxation of
surface plays an important role in the mechanical properties
of nanomaterials. It is proposed that the coordination number
imperfection of an atom at the surface of crystal causes
the atom to relax spontaneously, and the bond of the atom
will contract or expand.32,33 The relaxation can cause the
variation of elastic properties of the surface of crystal, which
may be insignificant at the macroscale, but will affect the
elastic properties of the whole crystal when the dimension of
crystal is at the nanoscale. In the present paper, a lattice
model will be proposed to investigate the size-dependent
properties of nanofilm, which takes the surface relaxation FIG. 2. The schematics of three kinds of 3D typical lattice cells: 共a兲 the
element in the jth layer 共−N ⬍ j ⬍ N − 1兲, 共b兲 the element in the 共N − 1兲th and
into consideration. the −Nth layer, and 共c兲 the element in the most top 共i.e., Nth兲 layer.

II. 3D MODEL OF THE NANOFILM THAT TAKES THE

SURFACE RELAXATION INTO CONSIDERATION of the relaxation decays greatly along the inner-normal direc-
tion of the free surface, and no CN reduction is expected for
A. The elastic constants of the 3D nanofilm model
i ⬎ 3. Since our concern is only whether the surface relax-
We first consider a three-dimensional simple cubic lat- ation has an influence on the elastic constants of the nanofilm
tice model 共shown in Fig. 1兲 of a nanofilm with uniform or not, thus the relaxations of atoms at the sub and third
thickness h and infinite length and width. Along the thick- outmost layers can be neglected for simplification and with-
ness, the model is assumed to have 2N + 1 共N = 1, 2, 3,…,兲 out loss of generality. Consequently, in the three-dimensional
layers of atoms, and a rectangular coordinate system is used 共3D兲 lattice model, the atomic layers between the −共N
with x and y axes in the middle surface and z axis perpen- − 1兲th and the 共N − 1兲th layers are uniform with a constant
dicular to the surface 共Fig. 1兲. The discrete solid dots denote lattice distance a, while for atoms at the top and the bottom
atoms, and the short solid lines connecting these dots denote layers, their distance with the nearest atomic layer will be
atomic bonds. specified as ka, where k ⬍ 1 if the relaxation is in contraction
The surface relaxation is considered in the model. It is and k ⬎ 1 if the relaxation is in expansion.
known that the termination of the lattice periodicity in the Each atom interacts with its nearest- and next-nearest
surface normal direction will lead to the imperfection of the neighbors and the interactions are, respectively, represented
coordination numbers 共CNs兲 of a surface atom, which can by springs with spring constants ␣1, ␣2, ␣3, and ␣4 共as shown
make the remaining bonds of this lower-coordinated surface in Fig. 2兲. If we calculate the deformation energy of the
atom relax. The CN-imperfection-induced bond relaxation nanostructure from the left-bottom atom and atom by atom,
can be defined as ai = kia,33 where a denotes the bulk value of layer by layer, then there are three kinds of typical represen-
bond length, the subscript i is the ith atomic layer, and ki is tative cells 共as shown in Fig. 2兲. Type A represents the cell in
the relaxation coefficient. The relaxation may be in contrac- the layers from the −共N − 1兲th to the 共N − 2兲th layers, type B
tion 共ki ⬍ 1兲 or in expansion 共ki ⬎ 1兲. In addition, the degree represents the cell at the 共−N兲th layer and the 共N − 1兲th layer,

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074306-3 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

and type C is the cell at the top layer. In the cells of types A 共m = A, B, and C兲 is due to the stretching of the nearest-
and C, the spring constants of the nearest neighbors is ␣1, neighbor spring between atoms 1 and 2. The displacement of
and the spring constants of the next-nearest neighbors is ␣2. atom 2 can be expanded21 in a Taylor series with two terms
In the cells of type B, the spring constants of the nearest as
neighbors are ␣1 and ␣3, respectively, and the spring con-
stants of the next-nearest neighbors are ␣2 and ␣4, respec-
tively. The deformation energies of the three types of cells
A B C
uk共xi+1,y j兲 = uk共xi,y j兲 + 冏 ⳵ uk共x,y兲
⳵x
冏 共xi,y j兲
共xi+1 − xi兲. 共4兲
are, respectively, expressed as U共ijk兲 , U共ijk兲 , and U共ijN兲 , where
the subscript 共ijk兲 denotes the left-bottom atom of the cell. m
Since xi+1 − xi = a, the deformation energy U1−2 共m = A, B, and
Then the total deformation energy of the nanofilm can be 21
C兲 can be expressed in the following form:
obtained by the sum of all cells
−共N−1兲艋k艋共N−2兲 2 1
Utot = 兺 兺 兺k + 兺 兺 兺 U共ijk兲 = ␣1关uk共xi+1,y j兲 − uk共xi,y j兲兴2
m
A
U共ijk兲 B U1−2
2

冋冏 冏 册
i j i j k
1 ⳵ uk共x,y兲 2
+ 兺 兺 U共ijN兲
C
. 共1兲 ⬇ ␣ 1a 2 . 共5兲
i j 2 ⳵x 共xi,y j兲

In the expression above, the contribution of energy from the m

In the same way, the deformation energies U1−3 共m = A,
A
rightmost and the backmost faces is neglected due to small B, and C兲 and U1−5 can be expressed in the following forms,
thickness. respectively:
In three types of cells, the number 1 atom occupies
the position of the ith, jth rows, and kth column. Then the 1
coordinates of the atoms in the cell are 共1兲 共xi , y j , zk兲, 共2兲
m
U1−3 = ␣1关vk共xi,y j+1兲 − vk共xi,y j兲兴2
2

冋冏 冏 册
共xi+1 , y j , zk兲, 共3兲 共xi , y j+1 , zk兲, 共4兲 共xi+1 , y j+1 , zk兲, 共5兲
共xi , y j , zk+1兲, 共6兲 共xi+1 , y j , zk+1兲, 共7兲 共xi , y j+1 , zk+1兲, and 共8兲 1 ⳵ vk共x,y兲 2
⬇ ␣ 1a 2 , 共6兲
共xi+1 , y j+1 , zk+1兲. 2 ⳵y 共xi,y j兲
For the nanofilm, the dimension in the thickness direc-
tion is in nanoscale and can finally be reduced to several
layers of atoms in our discussion, which are only a few na- 1
A
U1−5 = ␣1关wk+1共xi,y j兲 − wk共xi,y j兲兴2
nometers. So the physical quantities in the z direction are 2
discrete, where a discrete treatment is applied. However, the
dimensions of the nanofilm in the x and y directions are not
in nanoscale and are very large relative to its thickness di-
1
⬇ ␣ 1a 2
2 冋冏 wk+1 − wk
zk+1 − zk
冏 册
共xi,y j兲
2
. 共7兲

mension. Therefore, although the lattice model is also used

in the two directions, the physical quantities are continuous However, for the cells of type B , zk+1 − zk = ka, the deforma-
B
as a whole. So the classical continuum treatment can be em- tion energy U1−5 takes the following form:

冋冏 冏 册
ployed in the x and y directions. In other words, the physical
2
quantities are viewed as continuous in each layer but discrete 1 wk+1 − wk
B
U1−5 ⬇ ␣ 3k 2a 2 . 共8兲
among the layers. The displacements of the atom 共xi , y j , zk兲 2 zk+1 − zk 共xi,y j兲
in the kth layer are expressed as uk共xi , y j兲, vk共xi , y j兲, and
wk共xi , y j兲, respectively. The stretching of the next-nearest spring between atoms
The deformation energy of three types of representative 1 and 4 in each cell is21
cells can be, respectively, written as
m m m m m m m m
冑关a + uk共xi+1,y j+1兲 − uk共xi,y j兲兴2 + 关a + vk共xi+1,y j+1兲 − vk共xi,y j兲兴2
U共ijk兲 = U1−2 + U1−3 + U1−4 + U2−3 + U1−5 + U1−6 + U1−7
− 冑2a. 共9兲
m
+ U2−5 m
+ U3−5 共m = A,B兲, 共2兲
By using the binomial expansion, the above expression can
C
U共ijN兲 C
= U1−2 C
+ U1−3 C
+ U1−4 C
+ U2−3 , 共3兲 be approximated by

where Um i−j denotes the deformation energy of the type m 冑2

共m = A, B, and C兲 cell due to the stretching of the spring 兵关uk共xi+1,y j+1兲 − uk共xi,y j兲兴 + 关vk共xi+1,y j+1兲 − vk共xi,y j兲兴其.
between atoms i and j. The atomic pairs, of which the inter- 2
actions are not included in Eqs. 共2兲 and 共3兲, are considered in 共10兲
the nearest cell.
In what follows, we will calculate the deformation en- The displacements uk共xi+1 , y j+1兲 and vk共xi+1 , y j+1兲 of atom 4
ergy of every pair of atoms, respectively. Since the elastic can be similarly expanded in a Taylor series with two terms
constants considered here are effective or average values of at the point 共xi , y j , zk兲. Therefore, the deformation energy
the elastic constants of the nanofilm, it is assumed that the m
U1−4 共m = A, B, and C兲 due to the stretching of the spring
m
strains in the nanofilm be uniform. Deformation energy U1−2 between atoms 1 and 4 in three types of cells is obtained as

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074306-4 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

m
U1−4
1
= ␣ 2a 2
4 再冏冋 ⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲
⳵x
+
⳵y
册冏 B
U1−6 =
1 ␣ 4a 2
2 1 + k2 再冏冋 ⳵ uk共x,y兲
⳵x
+ k2
wk+1 − wk
zk+1 − zk
册冏
冎 冎
共xi,y j兲 共xi,y j兲

+ 冏冋 ⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲
⳵y
+
⳵x
册冏 共xi,y j兲
2
. 共11兲 +k 冏冋 uk+1 − uk ⳵ w共x,y兲
zk+1 − zk
+
⳵x
册冏 共xi,y j兲
2
. 共18兲

B B B
The deformation energies U2−5 , U1−7 and U3−5 can be, re-
Similarly, the deformation energy Um 2−3 共m = A, B, and C兲 due
to the stretching of the spring between atoms 2 and 3 in three spectively, derived in the similar form. Thus, the following

再冏冋
types of cells is written as expressions can be obtained for the cell of type B:

m 1
= ␣ 2a 2 再冏冋 ⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲
册冏 B
U1−6 B
+ U2−5 =
␣ 4a 2
1 + k2
⳵ u共x,y兲
⳵x
+ k2
wk+1 − wk
zk+1 − zk
册冏 2

冎
U2−3 + 共xi,y j兲
⳵x ⳵y
冏冋 册冏
4

冎
共xi,y j兲

冏冋 册冏
uk+1 − uk ⳵ w共x,y兲 2
⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲 2 + k2 + , 共19兲
− + . 共12兲 zk+1 − zk ⳵x 共xi,y j兲
⳵y ⳵x

再冏冋
共xi,y j兲

Thus, B
U1−7 B
+ U3−5 =
␣ 4a 2 ⳵ v共x,y兲
⳵y
+ k2
wk+1 − wk
册冏 2

再冏冋
1 + k2 zk+1 − zk

冎
共xi,y j兲

m
U1−4 m
+ U2−3
1
= ␣ 2a 2
2
⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲
⳵x
+
⳵y
册冏 2

+ k2 冏冋 vk+1 − vk ⳵ w共x,y兲
+
⳵y
册冏 2
. 共20兲

冎
共xi,y j兲 zk+1 − zk 共xi,y j兲

+ 冏冋 ⳵ uk共x,y兲 ⳵ vk共x,y兲
⳵y
+
⳵x
册冏 2

共xi,y j兲
. 共13兲 Assuming that the deformation is small, we can define
the elastic strains in the nanofilm as
⳵u ⳵v wk+1 − wk
In a similar way, for a cell of type A, we have ␧x = , ␧y = , ␧z = , 共21a兲

再冏冋
⳵x ⳵y zk+1 − zk
m
U1−6 m
+ U2−5
1
= ␣ 2a 2
2
⳵ uk共x,y兲 wk+1 − wk
⳵x
+
zk+1 − zk
册冏 2

␧xy = 冉
1 ⳵u ⳵v
冊 ␧yz = 冉
1 vk+1 − vk ⳵ w
冊
冎
共xi,y j兲 + , + ,

冏冋 册冏
2 ⳵y ⳵x 2 zk+1 − zk ⳵ y
uk+1 − uk ⳵ wk共x,y兲 2
+ + , 共14兲
zk+1 − zk ⳵x 共xi,y j兲 共21b兲

m
U1−7 + m
U3−5
1
= ␣ 2a 2 再冏冋 ⳵ vk共x,y兲 wk+1 − wk
+ 册冏 2 ␧xz = 冉
1 uk+1 − uk ⳵ w
+
2 zk+1 − zk ⳵ x
. 冊
2 ⳵y zk+1 − zk

冎
共xi,y j兲

冏冋 册冏
Substituting Eqs. 共21兲 into Eqs. 共5兲–共8兲, 共13兲–共15兲, 共19兲, and
vk+1 − vk ⳵ wk共x,y兲 2
共20兲, respectively, the deformation energy of every pair of
+ + . 共15兲
zk+1 − zk ⳵y 共xi,y j兲 atoms in the nanofilm can be expressed as the functions of
strain. Furthermore, substituting these equations into Eqs. 共2兲
On the other hand, for a cell of type B , y j+1 − y j = ka, the and 共3兲, the deformation energy of three kinds of representa-
stretching of the next-nearest neighbor spring between atoms tive cells can be written as
1 and 6 becomes
a2
UA共ijk兲 = 兵␣1共␧2x + ␧2y + ␧2z 兲 + ␣2关共␧x + ␧y兲2 + 共␧x + ␧z兲2
冑关a + uk+1共xi+1,y j兲 − uk共xi,y j兲兴2 + 关ka + wk+1共xi+1,y j兲 − wk共xi,y j兲兴2 2
− 冑a2 + 共ka兲2 . 共16兲 + 共␧y + ␧z兲2兴 + 4␣2共␧2xy + ␧2yz + ␧2xz兲其, 共22兲
After the binomial expansion, the expression above can be
a2
approximated by UB共ijk兲 = 兵␣1共␧2x + ␧2y 兲 + k2␣3␧2z + ␣2关共␧x + ␧y兲2 + 4␧2xy兴其
2
1 ␣ 4a 2
兵关uk+1共xi+1,y j兲 − uk共xi,y j兲兴 + k关wk+1共xi+1,y j兲 兵关共␧x + k2␧z兲2 + 4k2␧2xz兴 + 关共␧y + k2␧z兲2
冑1 + k 2 +
1 + k2
− wk共xi,y j兲兴其. 共17兲 + 4k2␧2yz兴其, 共23兲

In the same way, the displacements uk+1共xi+1 , y j兲 and a2

vk+1共xi+1 , y j兲 of atom 6 can be, respectively, expanded in a UC共ijN兲 = 兵␣1共␧2x + ␧2y 兲 + ␣2关共␧x + ␧y兲2 + 4␧2xy兴其. 共24兲
2
Taylor series with two terms at the point 共xi , y j , zk兲. Then the
deformation energy UB1−6 due to the stretching of the spring Obviously, the total strain energy of the nanofilm can be
between atoms 1 and 6 in the cell of type B is obtained as obtained by substituting Eqs. 共22兲–共24兲 into Eq. 共1兲. The av-

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074306-5 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

erage strain energy density is calculated via the ratio between 2共N − 1兲共␣1 + 2␣2兲 + 2k2␣3 + 共8k4␣4/1 + k2兲
the total strain energy Utot and the volume V0 of the nano- C33 = , 共29d兲
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a
film, i.e.,
Utot C44 = 4C12, C55 = C66 = 4C13 . 共29e兲
f= . 共25兲
V0 It is obvious that there are four independent elastic constants,
Because the cells are uniform in the x − y plane, we may i.e., C11, C12, C13, and C33. The nanofilm is not isotropic due
choose a crystal lattice width in either direction for the cell, to surface relaxation. It can be shown from the descriptions
i.e., V0 = a ⫻ a ⫻ h. Here, h is the thickness of the nanofilm. above that the elastic constants are dependent on the layer
The value of h cannot be determined unambiguously.18 The number N and the relaxation coefficient k. The dependence
spacing between the outermost layer and the next layer is ka, will be analyzed in Sec. II B.
and that between other two neighboring layers is a 共as shown We introduce another four elastic moduli as
in Fig. 1兲. The thickness of a single-atom layer is defined to 共C11 − C12兲共C11C33 + C12C33 − 2C13
2
兲
be equal to the spacing between the layer and its neighbor E1 = 2 ,
C11C33 − C13
layer. If the thickness h is defined as the sum of the spacing
共30a兲
between the atomic layers of the crystal, then h = 2共N + k
− 1兲a since the nanofilm has 2N + 1 layers. On the other hand, ␯1 = C12C33 − C13
2
Ⲑ 2
C11C33 − C13 ,
it is reasonable to define the crystal thickness as the sum of 2
C11C33 + C12C33 − 2C13 C13
the thickness of atomic layers in the nanofilm, i.e., h = 关2共N E2 = , ␯2 = . 共30b兲
+ k兲 − 1兴a. For this reason, an ambiguous definition of the C11 + C12 C11 + C12
thickness h can be introduced as Then the constitutive relation of the nanofilm can also be
h = 关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a 共0 艋 ␤ 艋 1兲, 共26兲 written as
1 ␯2
where ␤ is the parameter of ambiguity. Obviously, h = 2共N ␧x = 共 ␴ x − ␯ 1␴ y 兲 − ␴ z , 共31a兲
+ k − 1兲a if ␤ = 1, and h = 关2共N + k兲 − 1兴a if ␤ = 0. E1 E2
The strain energy density function f of the volume V0
can be obtained as 1 ␯2
␧y = 共 ␴ y − ␯ 1␴ x兲 − ␴ z , 共31b兲

f=
1
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a
再
共N − 1兲␣1共␧2x + ␧2y + ␧z2兲
␧z =
E1

1 ␯2
␴z − 共␴x + ␴y兲,
E2

共31c兲
3␣1 2 3␣2 E2 E2
+ 共␧ + ␧2y 兲 + k2␣3␧z2 + 共␧x + ␧y兲2
2 x 2
␴xy ␴yz ␴xz
+ 共N − 1兲␣2关共␧x + ␧y兲2 + 共␧y + ␧z兲2 + 共␧x + ␧z兲2兴 ␧xy = , ␧yz = , ␧xz = , 共31d兲
2G1 2G2 2G2
2␣4 where shear moduli G1 and G2 are not independent and can
+ 关共␧x + k2␧z兲2 + 共␧y + k2␧z兲2兴 + 2共2N + 1兲␣2␧2xy
1 + k2 be expressed by the four elastic constants given above, i.e.,

冋
+ 4共N − 1兲␣2 +
8k2␣4 2
␧册
1 + k2 xz
G1 =
C44
=
2E1共E1␯22 − E2␯1兲
共1 + ␯1兲关2E1␯22 − E2共1 − ␯1兲兴
, 共32a兲

册冎
2

冋
+ 4共N − 1兲␣2 +
8k2␣4 2
␧ .
1 + k2 yz
共27兲
G2 =
C55
2
=
2E1E2␯2
2E1␯2 − E2共1 − ␯1兲
2 . 共32b兲
Since ␴ij = ⳵ f / ⳵␧ij, the constitutive relation of the nano-
film can be expressed as
␴i = Cij␧ j 共i, j = 1,2,…,6兲, 共28兲 B. A discussion about the 3D elastic constants
where subscript i = 1,2,…,6 corresponds to x, y, z, xy, yz, and It can be found from the above expressions that the elas-
xz, respectively. Cij gives 36 elastic constants, in which non- tic constants C11, C12, C13, and C33 are dependent on the
zero constants are thickness of the nanofilm and the relaxation on its surface.
共2N + 1兲␣1 + 共4N − 1兲␣2 + 共4␣4/1 + k2兲 The thickness of the nanofilm contains an ambiguity param-
C11 = C22 = , 共29a兲 eter ␤. The relaxation coefficient also varies with different
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a
crystals and different crystal orientations. It is smaller than 1
when the relaxation is in contraction and greater than 1 when
共2N + 1兲␣2
C12 = C21 = , 共29b兲 the relaxation is in expansion. For example, the expansion
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a coefficients of Be, Mg, Hg, and Zn at the hcp共0001兲 surface
are 1.11, 1.22, 1.21, and 1.50,32 respectively, and the contrac-
2共N − 1兲␣2 + 共4k2␣4/1 + k2兲 tion coefficients of Zr, Fe, and Ag at the hcp共0001兲 surface
C13 = C31 = C23 = C32 = , 共29c兲
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a are 0.71, 0.81, and 0.88,32 respectively.

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074306-6 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

FIG. 3. The variations of elastic constant C11 with the number of atomic FIG. 5. The variations of elastic constant C13 with the number of atomic
layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the
thickness parameter ␤ = ␤1. thickness parameter ␤ = ␤3.

When the parameter ␤ and the relaxation coefficient k ␣3 = k−n␣1, ␣4 = k−n␣2 共n = 1,2,3,…,兲. 共34兲
are specified, it can be determined whether the four elastic As a matter of fact, the effect of the value n is negligible, so
constants will increase or decrease with the decrease of we can choose n = 1 for the simplification of calculation, i.e.,
atomic layer numbers. For a certain value of ␤, the critical ␣3 = ␣1 / k and ␣4 = ␣2 / k. The values of parameters used in the
value kc of k can be defined as the one when one of the calculation are a = 1.74⫻ 10−10 m, ␣1 = 2.02 N / m, and ␣2
elastic constants keeps constant to the variations of atomic = 1.10 N / m,21 respectively.
layer numbers. The elastic constant increases or decreases Figures 3–6 show the variations of elastic constants with
with the decrease of atomic layer numbers when k ⬍ kc or the numbers of atomic layers for different relaxation coeffi-
k ⬎ kc. In the same way, if the kc is specified, the character- cients k and characteristic parameters ␤. It is found that the
istic value of ␤ can also be similarly defined. It is reasonable elastic constants C11, C12, C13, and C33 are all size dependent
to let kc = 1, and then the three characteristic values of ␤, when the relaxation coefficient k ⫽ kc. When the atomic layer
which make elastic constants C11, C12, C13, and C33 size numbers are less than about 50, the elastic constants vary
independent, respectively, can be calculated as with the decrease of the atomic layer number. They vary
sharply as the atomic layer numbers are less than 20. On the
␣1
␤1 = , ␤2 = 0, ␤3 = 1, 共33兲 other hand, the elastic constants approach constant values as
␣1 + 2␣2 the number of atom layers tends to infinity. In addition, the
elastic constants are related with the surface relaxation. Fig-
where ␤2 ⬍ ␤1 ⬍ ␤3, and the thickness h of the nanofilm ure 3 shows the variations of elastic constant C11 with the
reaches minimum as ␤ = ␤3, which is adopted by Krivtsov decrease of atomic layer numbers when the parameter ␤
and Morozov,18 and h reaches maximum as ␤ = ␤2, which is = ␤1. It can be found that the elastic constant C11 decreases
adopted by Sun and Zhang.21 When the relaxation coefficient with the decrease of the atomic layer numbers when the re-
k = kc = 1, the elastic constant C11 is size independent for ␤ laxation coefficient is greater than the critical value kc, which
= ␤1 , C12 is size independent for ␤ = ␤2, and C13 and C33 are corresponds to the case of surface expanding. On the other
size independent for ␤ = ␤3. When the relaxation coefficient hand, the elastic constant increases when the relaxation co-
k ⫽ kc, elastic constants are size dependent, as will be dis- efficient is smaller than the critical value, which corresponds
cussed in detail. to the case of surface contraction. The smaller the relaxation
The spring constants ␣1 and ␣2 in the calculation can be coefficient k is, the greater the value of elastic constant C11
obtained by the lattice dynamics method. We define, respec- is. When the atomic layer number is 5, the value of C11
tively, spring constants ␣3 and ␣4 as increases by 47.8% of the macroscopic value for k = 0.55,

FIG. 4. The variations of elastic constant C12 with the number of atomic FIG. 6. The variations of elastic constant C33 with the number of atomic
layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the
thickness parameter ␤ = ␤2. thickness parameter ␤ = ␤3.

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074306-7 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

and decrease if ␤ is equal to ␤1 or ␤2. These results are

summarized in Table I, where the sign “—” denotes the size
independence of the elastic constants, “↑” denotes the in-
crease of the elastic constants, “↓” denotes the decrease of
the elastic constants, and “/” denotes uncertain values.
As the number of atomic layer tends to infinity, it can be
seen from Figs. 7 and 8 that the elastic constants C11, C33,
C12, and C13, respectively, tend to certain values, i.e., their
macroscopic counterparts, which are C11 = C33 = 24.3 GPa
and C12 = C13 = 6.3 GPa for the present case. Therefore, the
anisotropic nanofilm goes back to an isotropic material when
FIG. 7. The variations of elastic constants C11 and C33 with the number of
the scale of material is macroscopic, and the elastic constants
the atomic layers with respect to different values of ␤ when the relaxation are no longer dependent on size and surface relaxation.
coefficient k = 1.

and it decreases by 21.1% of the macroscopic value for k III. PLANE PROBLEM OF THE NANOFILM
= 1.45. Figure 4 shows the variations of elastic constant C12
with the decrease of atomic layer numbers when the param- In Sec. II B, four elastic constants of the 3D nanofilm
eter ␤ = ␤2, and similar results are obtained. When the atomic model are obtained. In some cases, simplifications can be
layer number is 5, the value of C12 increases by 22.0% of the introduced, and the 3D problem can be reduced into a 2D
macroscopic value for k = 0.55, and it decreases by 15.3% of plane problem. There are two kinds of plane problems in
the macroscopic value for k = 1.45. Figures 5 and 6 show the elasticity, plane stress and plane strain. If the length 共in y
variations of elastic constants C13 and C33 with the decrease direction兲 and width 共in x direction兲 of the nanofilm are of
of atomic layer numbers when the parameter ␤ = ␤3. It can be the same quantitative order, the problem can be treated as in
seen that elastic constant C13 decreases but C33 increases the plane-stress state when the uniform tension or pressure is
with the decrease of the atomic layer numbers when the re- exerted in the length or width direction. Here, ␴z = ␴yz = ␴xz
laxation coefficient is greater than the critical value kc. On = 0. However, if the quantitative order of the length is far
the other hand, the elastic constant C13 increases but C33 greater than that of the width, the problem can be treated as
decreases when the relaxation coefficient is smaller than the in the plane-strain state when the uniform tension or pressure
critical value. When the atomic layer number is 5, the value is exerted in the width direction 共x direction兲. Then, ␧y = ␧yz
of C13 increases by 19.0% of the macroscopic value and the = ␧xy = 0. We will discuss the two kinds of plane problems,
value of C33 decreases by 10.0% for k = 0.55, and the value respectively.
of C13 decreases by 21.0% of the macroscopic value and the
value of C33 increases by 11.0% for k = 1.45.
The definition of the thickness of the nanofilm h also has A. Plane-stress state
an important influence on the size effect of elastic constants,
which is expressed via the parameter ␤. Figures 7 and 8 If the scales in y direction and x direction of the nano-
show the variations of elastic constants with respect to dif- film are of the same quantitative order, and a uniform tension
ferent characteristic values of ␤ when the surface relaxation is exerted in the x direction, we can perform a simple tension
is neglected, i.e., k = 1. When ␤ is, respectively, equal to ␤1, analysis based on the 3D model to derive the values of elas-
␤2, and ␤3, the elastic constant C11 keeps constant, de- tic moduli.
creases, and increases with the decrease of atomic layer num- According to the constitutive relation of the nanofilm,
bers accordingly. C12 keeps constant if ␤ = ␤2 and increases if Eq. 共28兲, we obtain
␤ is equal to ␤1 or ␤3. C13 and C33 keep constant if ␤ = ␤3 C11␧x + C12␧y + C13␧z = ␴x , 共35a兲

C12␧x + C11␧y + C13␧z = 0, 共35b兲

C13␧x + C13␧y + C33␧z = 0. 共35c兲

Solving the simultaneous equations 共35b兲 and 共35c兲, we ob-
tain Poisson’s ratios as follows:
2
␧y C12C33 − C13
␯xy = − = 2 , 共36a兲
␧x C11C33 − C13

␧z 共C11 − C12兲C13
␯xz = − = 2 . 共36b兲
␧x C11C33 − C13
FIG. 8. The variations of elastic constants C12 and C13 with the number of
the atomic layers with respect to different values of ␤ when the relaxation Substituting Eqs. 共36兲 into Eq. 共35a兲, Young’s modulus of the
coefficient k = 1. nanofilm in the plane-stress state can be obtained as

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074306-8 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

TABLE I. The effect of thickness parameter ␤ and relaxation coefficient k

the size effect of elastic constants in the 3D model.

␤ = ␣ 2 / 共 ␣ 1 + 2 ␣ 2兲 ␤=0 ␤=1

k⬎1 k=1 k⬍1 k⬎1 k=1 k⬍1 k⬎1 k=1 k⬍1

C11 ↓ — ↑ ↓ ↑
C12 ↑ ↓ — ↑ ↑
C13 ↓ ↓ ↓ — ↑
C33 ↓ ↓ ↑ — ↓

where the sign “—” denotes the size independence of elastic constant, “↑”
denotes the increase of elastic constant, “↓” denotes the decrease of elastic
constant, and “/” denotes the uncertain values. FIG. 10. The variations of Poisson’s ratios with the number of atomic layers
when the relaxation coefficient k = 1.

␴x 共C11 − C12兲共C11C33 + C12C33 − 2C13

2
兲
E=− = . 共37兲 neighbors, but the interactions with in-plane atoms are ne-
␧x 2
C11C33 − C13
glected. The interactions are, respectively, represented by
It is evident that both Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ra- springs with spring constants ␣1, ␣2, ␣3, and ␣4 共as shown in
tios ␯xy and ␯xz depend on the number of atomic layers and Fig. 12兲. There are three kinds of typical representative ele-
relaxation coefficient k. In addition, Young’s modulus also ments in the nanostructure 共Fig. 12兲. Type A represents the
depends on the thickness parameter ␤. The variations of element in the layers from the −共N − 1兲th and the 共N − 2兲th
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratios with the number of layers, type B represents the element at the 共−N兲th and the
atomic layers are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. It can be seen that 共N − 1兲th layers, and type C is the cell at the topmost layer.
the results are the same as those of Sun and Zhang21 when The deformation energies of three types of elements are, re-
A B C
the relaxation coefficient k = 1 and the parameter ␤ = 0. spectively, expressed as U共ij兲 , U共ij兲 , and U共iN兲 . Similar to the
calculation in Sec. II, the deformation energies of three types
B. Plane-strain state of elements are
A A A A A
To a long striplike nanofilm, when the length is far U共ij兲 = U1−2 + U1−3 + U1−4 + U2−3
longer than the width and the uniform tension is exerted in
= 21 ␣1a2共␧2x + ␧z2兲 + 21 ␣2a2关共␧x + ␧z兲2 + ␥xz
2
兴, 共38兲
the width direction 共x direction兲, the nanofilm can be treated
as in the plane-strain state. We have ␧y = ␧yz = ␧xy = 0. The
interactions of atoms in the x − y surface are neglected. Thus, 1
B
U共ij兲 B
= U1−2 B
+ U1−3 B
+ U1−4 B
+ U2−3 = a2共␣1␧2x + k2␣3␧z2兲
the problem can be greatly simplified and a 2D model can be 2
used to derive the elastic moduli of the nanofilm. In fact, a
␣ 4a 2
similar simplification was also made in Ref. 18. + 关共␧x + k2␧z兲2 + k2␥xz
2
兴, 共39兲
A 2D model of the nanofilm is shown in Fig. 11, which 1 + k2
is similar to the above 3D model but neglecting the interac-
tion of in-plane atoms. The coordinate axis x is in the middle 1
C
U共iN兲 C
= U1−2 = ␣1a2␧2x . 共40兲
surface and z perpendicular to the surface 共Fig. 11兲. There 2
are 2共N + 1兲 layers of atoms along the thickness. The atomic
layers between the −共N − 1兲th and the 共N − 1兲th layers are Then the total deformation energy of the nanofilm can be
uniform with a constant lattice distance a. The distance of obtained as the sum of all elements
atoms at the topmost and bottommost layers is ka. Each atom −共N−1兲艋j艋共N−2兲 2
is assumed to interact with its nearest- and next-nearest Utot = 兺
i
兺j A
U共ij兲 + 兺 兺 U共ij兲
i
B

j
+ 兺 U共iN兲
C

i
, 共41兲

where the contribution energy from the rightmost layer is

neglected due to small thickness.

FIG. 9. The variations of Young’s modulus E with the number of atomic

layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the
thickness parameter ␤ = 0. FIG. 11. The schematic of 2D model of the nanofilm in plane-strain state.

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074306-9 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

FIG. 13. The variations of Young’s modulus E with the number of atomic
layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the
FIG. 12. The schematics of three kinds of 2D typical lattice elements: 共a兲
thickness parameter ␤ = ␤1.
the element in the jth layer 共−N ⬍ j ⬍ N − 1兲, 共b兲 the element in the 共N
− 1兲th and the −Nth layer, and 共c兲 the element in the most top 共i.e., Nth兲
layer.
When the parameter ␤ is equal to ␤1, Young’s modulus
is size independent if the relaxation coefficient k = 1 and in-
The average strain energy density can be calculated by creases with the decrease of atomic layer number if k ⬍ 1 and
Eq. 共25兲. If we choose a crystal lattice as a volume element, decreases with the decrease of atomic layer number if k ⬎ 1.
i.e., V0 = a ⫻ a ⫻ h, and the definition of thickness h is the The results are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. When the number
same as that in Sec. II, then the strain energy density func- of atomic layers is less than about 50, Young’s modulus and
tion f of this volume is Poisson’s ratio vary with the atomic layer number. Espe-

冋
cially, they vary sharply as the atomic layer numbers are
1 much less than 20. On the other hand, it is shown from the
f= 共N − 1兲␣1共␧2x + ␧z2兲 + 共N − 1兲
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a figures that Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio approach
3
⫻␣2共␧x + ␧z兲2 + ␣1␧2x + k2␣3␧z2 +
2
2␣4
1 + k2
共␧x + k2␧z兲2 . 册 constant values as the number of atomic layers tends to in-
finity. In fact, when N → ⬁, the Poisson’s ratio and Young’s
modulus can be easily obtained from Eqs. 共43兲 and 共44兲
共42兲
␣2 1 ␣21 + 2␣1␣2
␯= , E= , 共46兲
When the uniform tension is exerted in the x direction of the ␣1 + ␣2 a ␣1 + ␣2
nanofilm, we have ␴z = ␴xz = 0. As ␴z = ⳵ f / ⳵␧z = 0, the Pois-
son’s ratio ␯ of the nanofilm in the plane-strain state can be which only depend on the elastic stiffness ␣1 and ␣2. In
written in the following form: addition, since ␣1 and ␣2 denotes the elastic stiffness of the
nearest neighbors and the next-nearest neighbors, respec-
2共N − 1兲␣2 + 共4k2␣4/1 + k2兲 tively, it is evident that the value of ␣1 is always greater than
␯= . 共43兲
2共N − 1兲共␣1 + ␣2兲 + 2k2␣3 + 共4k4␣4/1 + k2兲 that of ␣2. Thus the value of the Poisson’s ratio is always less
than 0.5 due to the relation ␣1 + ␣2 ⬎ 2␣2.
Furthermore, substituting Eq. 共43兲 into ␴x = ⳵ f / ⳵␧x, Young’s It can be found from Figs. 13 and 14 that the smaller the
modulus E of the nanofilm can be obtained as relaxation coefficient k is, the greater Young’s modulus and

E=
1
关2共N + k兲 − 1 − ␤兴a
再冋 共2N + 1兲␣1 + 2共N − 1兲␣2
Poisson’s ratio become when the number of atomic layers is
less than about 50. When the number of atomic layers
reaches 5, Young’s modulus E increases by 58.6% of its mac-

+
4␣4
1 + k2
册 roscopic value for k = 0.55 and decreases by 21.0% for k

−
关2共N − 1兲␣2 + 共4k2␣4/1 + k2兲兴2
2共N − 1兲共␣1 + ␣2兲 + 2k2␣3 + 共4k4␣4/1 + k2兲
. 冎 共44兲

It is evident that both Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio

are dependent on the variable N and the parameters k. In
addition, Young’s modulus also depends on the parameter ␤.
When the parameter k is equal to 1, Poisson’s ratio ␯ is size
independent. Similar to the discussion in Sec. II, the charac-
teristic value of the parameter ␤, which makes Young’s
modulus E size independent when k = 1, can be calculated as
FIG. 14. The variations of Poisson’s ratio ␯ with the number of atomic
␣1
␤1 = . 共45兲 layers with respect to different values of relaxation coefficient when the
␣1 + 2␣2 thickness parameter ␤ = ␤1.

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074306-10 J.-G. Guo and Y.-P. Zhao J. Appl. Phys. 98, 074306 共2005兲

tive relation of the 3D nanofilm model is obtained. Due to

the effect of the surface relaxation, the nanofilm is aniso-
tropic and has four independent elastic constants. These elas-
tic constants are not only size dependent but also dependent
on the relaxation coefficient k and the thickness parameter ␤.
When the value of k is specified as to be equal to 1, three
characteristic values of ␤ are derived to make the four elastic
constants size independent, respectively. With respect to each
characteristic value of ␤, certain elastic constant increases or
decreases with the decrease of atomic layer number if k ⬎ 1
or k ⬍ 1.
The elastic moduli of the nanofilm in two kinds of plane
FIG. 15. The variations of Young’s modulus E with the number of the
problems are derived and discussed for the sake of simplifi-
atomic layers with respect to different values of ␤ when the relaxation
coefficient k = 1. cation. The elastic moduli of the nanofilm in the plane-stress
state are obtained based on the 3D model in the case of
= 1.45. Similarly, the value of Poisson’s ratio ␯ increases by simple tension. A simplified 2D model is also presented to
28.6% of its macroscopic value for k = 0.55, and decreases by study the elastic moduli of the nanofilm in the plane-strain
25.7% for k = 1.45. state, and the analytical expressions of Young’s moduli and
The definition of the thickness of the nanofilm h does Poisson’s ratio are derived. Young’s modulus depends on the
not have an influence on Poisson’s ratio, but it bears a close surface relaxation and the thickness parameter ␤, but Pois-
relation with Young’s modulus, which is expressed via the son’s ratio is independent of the parameter ␤. When the
variation of the parameter ␤. Figure 15 shows the variations thickness parameter ␤ reaches its characteristic value ␤1, the
of Young’s modulus with the decrease of atomic layer num- values of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio decrease with
ber with respect to different values of ␤ when the surface the decrease of the number of atomic layers if the relaxation
relaxation is neglected, i.e., k = 1. When ␤ is equal to ␤1, coefficient k ⬎ 1, while they increase with the decrease of the
Young’s modulus E keeps constant. When ␤ reaches its mini- number of atom layers if the relaxation coefficient k ⬍ 1. In
mum value, i.e., ␤ = ␤2 = 0, Young’s modulus decreases with addition, when k = 1, Young’s modulus increases as ␤ ⬎ ␤1
the decrease of atomic layer numbers. On the other hand, and decreases as ␤ ⬍ ␤1.
Young’s modulus increases with the decrease of atomic layer
numbers when ␤ is equal to its maximum value, i.e., ␤ = ␤3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
= 1, which is similar to the results of Krivtsov and
Morozov.18 But the influence is negligible as the number of This research was supported by the National Natural Sci-
atomic layers is large enough. These results are summarized ence Foundation of China 共NSFC兲 共Grant Nos. 10225209
in Table I, where the meaning of the signs is the same as and 90305020兲, key project from the Chinese Academy of
those in Table II. Sciences 共Grant No. KJCX2-SW-L2兲, and NSFC-RGC Joint
Project 共Grant No. 50131160739兲.
IV. CONCLUSION 1
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