Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic

compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid objects.

Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can deform irreversibly without breaking
but, in the class of moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree that their actual name derives
from this ability.

Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other
substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many
are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton
linters.[2]

Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water,
plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to
spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn
and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses.

In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and another third in
buildings such as piping used in plumbing or vinyl siding.[3] Other uses include automobiles (up
to 20% plastic[3]), furniture, and toys.[3] In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for
example, reportedly 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[3]

Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, to include polymer implants, however the
field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic materials, but rather the more generic
meaning of the word plasticity, with regard to the reshaping of flesh.

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo
Baekeland[4] who coined the term 'plastics'.[5] Many chemists have contributed to the materials
science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who has been called "the
father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics".[6]

The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century led to environmental
concerns regarding its slow decomposition rate after being discarded as trash due to its
composition of very large molecules. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this
problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling.

Structure
Most plastics contain organic polymers.] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from
chains of carbon atoms, 'pure' or with the addition of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains
comprise many repeat units, formed from monomers. Each polymer chain will have several
thousand repeating units.

The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path", linking together a large number
of repeat units.
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from this backbone.
In reality, however, the "pendant units" are usually "hung" as part of the monomers, before the
monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. It is the structure of these
side chains that influences the properties of the polymer.

The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine tuned to influence specific properties in
the polymer.

Properties and classifications

Plastics are usually classified by: the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side
chains; some important groups in these classifications are: the acrylics, polyesters, silicones,
polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.

Plastics can also be classified by: the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as:
condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.

Plastics can also be classified by: their various physical properties, such as: hardness, density,
tensile strength, resistance to heat and glass transition temperature, and by their chemical
properties, such as the organic chemistry of the polymer and its resistance and reaction to various
chemical products and processes, such as: organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In
particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius.

Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design.
Examples of such qualities and classes are: thermoplastics and thermosets, conductive polymers,
biodegradable plastics and engineering plastics and other plastics with particular structures, such
as elastomers.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

The plastic handle of a spatula that has been deformed by heat.

One important classification of plastics is by the permanence or impermanence of their form, or

whether they are: thermoplastics or thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics
that, when heated, do not undergo chemical change in their composition and so can be molded
again and again. Examples include: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while
thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight.

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have
solidified, they stay solid. In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is
irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of a thermosetting process: before heating
with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product
is rigid and non-tacky.

Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics

Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as: all thermosets; polystyrene and its
copolymers; and polymethyl methacrylate.

However, some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure,
giving them both a melting point, the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces
are overcome, and also one or more glass transitions, the temperatures above which the extent of
localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased. These so-called semi-crystalline plastics
include: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and
some polyurethanes.
Conductive polymers

Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While
plastics can be made electrically conductive, with a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-
oriented polyacetylene, they are still no match for most metals like copper which have a
conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Nevertheless, this is a developing field.

Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or
ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances,
rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental
degradation.

Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface (aerobic), whereas
other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems
(anaerobic).

Some companies produce biodegradable additives, to enhance biodegradation. Plastic can have
starch powder added as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but this still does not lead to
the complete breaking down of the plastic.

Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable

plastics, such as Biopol; however, these are expensive at present.

Bioplastics

Whilst most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from
renewable plant materials such: as cellulose and starch.[17] Due both to the finite limits of the
petrochemical reserves and to the threat of global warming, the development of bioplastics is a
growing field.

However, bioplastic development begins from a very low base and, as yet, does not compare
significantly with petrochemical production. Estimates of the global production capacity for bio-
derived materials is put at 327,000 tonnes/year, out of a global consumption, of all flexible
packaging, estimated at 12.3 million tonnes/year.[18][19]

Types
Common plastics
A chair with a polypropylene seat

iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate unibody shell

This category includes both commodity plastics, or standard plastics, and engineering plastics.

Polyamides (PA) or (nylons) fibers, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line and low-
strength machine parts such as engine parts or gun frames
Polycarbonate (PC) compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic
lights and lenses
Polyester (PES) fibers and textiles
Polyethylene (PE) a wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags and
plastic bottles
o High-density polyethylene (HDPE) detergent bottles, milk jugs and molded
plastic cases
o Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower
curtains and clamshell packaging
o Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter jars,
plastic film and microwavable packaging
 Polypropylene (PP) bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers, appliances, car
fenders (bumpers) and plastic pressure pipe systems
Polystyrene (PS) foam peanuts, food containers, plastic tableware, disposable cups,
plates, cutlery, compact-disc (CD) and cassette boxes
o High impact polystyrene (HIPS) refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending
cups
Polyurethanes (PU) cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings and
printing rollers: currently the sixth or seventh most commonly-used plastic, for instance
the most commonly used plastic in cars
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window
frames and flooring
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) food packaging, such as: Saran
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer
monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
o Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) a blend of PC and
ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and
mobile phone bodies
o Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) a slippery blend of PE
and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings

Specialist plastics

Polyepoxide (epoxy) used as an adhesive, potting agent for electrical components, and
matrix for composite materials with hardeners including amine, amide, and boron
trifluoride
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic) contact lenses (of the original "hard"
variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world;
e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, Oroglas), aglets, fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for
vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in
water with the use of other agents.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in
things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides
Phenolics or phenol formaldehyde (PF) high modulus, relatively heat resistant, and
excellent fire resistant polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper
laminated products (e.g. Formica), thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting
plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat and pressure
when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast
as foam (e.g. Oasis). Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark
colors (red, green, brown), and as thermoset it is difficult to recycle.
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable
alternative to phenolics, for instance in moldings (e.g. break-resistance alternatives to
ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the
paper laminates (e.g. Formica)
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable alternative
to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical
switch housings.
 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic,
biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings. One
of the most expensive commercial polymers.
Maleimide/bismaleimide used in high temperature composite materials
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) a high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does
not crystallize
Polyimide a high temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
Plastarch material biodegradable and heat-resistant thermoplastic composed of
modified corn starch
Polylactic acid (PLA) a biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of
aliphatic polyesters derived from lactic acid, which in turn can be made by fermentation
of various agricultural products such as cornstarch, once made from dairy products
Furan resin based on furfuryl alcohol used in foundry sands and biologically derived
composites
Silicone heat resistant resin used mainly as a sealant but also used for high temperature
cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
Polysulfone high temperature melt processable resin used in membranes, filtration
media, water heater dip tubes and other high temperature applications

Industry standards

Many of the properties of plastics are determined by standards specified by ISO, such as:

ISO 306 - Thermoplastics

Many of the properties of plastics are determined by the UL Standards, tests specified by
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), such as:

Flammability - UL94
High voltage arc tracking rate - UL746A
Comparative Tracking Index

Additives
Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds . The average content
of additives is a few percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to
the additives: organotin compounds are particularly toxic.[29]

Typical additives include:

Stabilizers

Stabilizers prolong the lifetime of the polymer by suppressing degradation that results from UV-
light, oxidation, and other phenomena. Typical stabilzers thus absorb UV light or function as
antioxidants.
Fillers

Many plastics contain fillers, to improve performance or reduce production costs.[30] Typically
fillers are mineral in origin, e.g., chalk. Other fillers include: starch, cellulose, wood flour, ivory
dust and zinc oxide.

Most fillers are relatively inert and inexpensive materials, make the product cheaper by
weight.
Stabilizing additives include fire retardants, to lower the flammability of the material.
some fillers are more chemically active and are called: reinforcing agents.[31]

Plasticizers

Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives.[29] These oily but nonvolatile
compounds are blended in to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are
otherwise too rigid for particular applications.

Dioctyl phthalate is the most common plasticizer.

Colorants

Colorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.

Representative polymers

Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

Plastic piping and firestops being installed in Ontario. Certain plastic pipes can be used in some
non-combustible buildings, provided they are firestopped properly and that the flame spread
ratings comply with the local building code.

Bakelite

The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the
first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a
Belgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating
shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol
(C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the material
could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create strong and fire resistant
"composite" materials. The new material tended to foam during synthesis, requiring that
Baekeland build pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform
product, as he announced in 1909, in a meeting of the American Chemical Society.[74] Bakelite
was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in consumer
goods and jewelry in the 1920s. Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living
matter. It was also an early thermosetting plastic.

Polystyrene

Main articles: Polystyrene and PVC

Styrene polymerization
Unplasticised polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic
model kits and similar knick-knacks. It also is the basis for some of the most popular "foamed"
plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Like most other foam plastics, foamed
polystyrene can be manufactured in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are
interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct,
like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high
impact styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance
of toy figurines and novelties.

Polyvinyl chloride

Vinylchloride polymerization

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl")[75] incorporates chlorine atoms. The C-Cl
bonds in the backbone are hydrophobic and resist oxidation (and burning). PVC is stiff, strong,
heat and weather resistant, properties that recommend its use in devices for plumbing, gutters,
house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with
chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain
gear.

All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen chloride is
released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.[76] Because hydrogen
chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to form hydrochloric acid, [77] polyvinyl
chloride is not recommended for long-term archival storage of silver, photographic film or paper
(mylar is preferable).

Nylon

The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement of polyamide (PA),
far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced
by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City.

In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction
of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton.
Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new
materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the
molecular design of the materials.

His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very
flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target
was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different
polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.
General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon

It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop
the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise
that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public
sensation, or "nylon mania".

Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II.
The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for
American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and
paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in
another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so-
called nylon riots.

Subsequently, polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are
ring compounds; e.g. caprolactam. Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation
polymerization.

Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very
wear resistant, particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, valve
seats, seals and because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in
cars, and other mechanical parts.

Poly(methyl methacrylate)

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by the
trade names Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among several others (see below), is a
transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative
to glass. The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many
other uses.

Rubber

Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that originally was derived from
latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in specialised vessels in some plants. It is useful
directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe was cloth waterproofed
with unvulcanized latex from Brazil). However, in 1839, Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized
rubber; a form of natural rubber heated with sulfur (and a few other chemicals), forming cross-
links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability.

In 1851, Nelson Goodyear added fillers to natural rubber materials to form ebonite.
Synthetic rubber

The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In World War II,
supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of
synthetic rubber, notably styrene-butadiene rubber. In 1941, annual production of synthetic
rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to 840,000 tonnes in 1945. In the space
race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for
solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic
rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.