Plastic

9/2/2019 Plastic - Wikipedia
Plastic
Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of
synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are
malleable and so can be molded into solid objects.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can

deform irreversibly without breaking but, in the class of
moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree that their
actual name derives from this specific ability.
Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass

and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic,
Household items made of various types of
most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an
plastic
array of variants are made from renewable materials such as
IUPAC definition of 'plastic':

Generic term used in the case of polymeric material that may contain other substances to improve
performance or reduce costs.
Note 1: The use of this term instead of polymer is a source of confusion and thus is not recommended.
Note 2: This term is used in polymer engineering for materials often compounded that can be processed
by flow.[1]
polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.[2]
Due to their low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness

to water, plastics are used in a multitude of products of different scale,
including paper clips and spacecraft. They have prevailed over traditional
materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, metal, glass, and
ceramic, in some products previously left to natural materials.
In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and

roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or
vinyl siding.[3] Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic[3]), A pleasure boat made of plastic in
the form of a swan
furniture, and toys.[3] In the developing world, the applications of plastic
may differ—42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[3]
Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, with the introduction of polymer implants and other medical
devices derived at least partially from plastic. The field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic materials, but
rather the meaning of the word plasticity, with regard to the reshaping of flesh.
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland[4] who coined the
term 'plastics'.[5] Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate
Hermann Staudinger who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the father
of polymer physics".[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic#SYNTHETIC 1/20
The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century led to environmental concerns regarding its
slow decomposition rate after being discarded as trash due to its composition of large molecules. Toward the end of the
century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling.
Contents
Etymology
Structure
Properties and classifications
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers
Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics
Conductive polymers
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics
Bioplastics
Types
Common plastics
Specialist plastics
History
Plastics industry
Industry standards
Additives
Stabilizers
Fillers
Plasticizers
Colorants
Toxicity
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Environmental effects
Climate change
Production of plastics
Incineration of plastics
Pyrolytic disposal
Decomposition of plastics
Recycling
Representative polymers
Bakelite
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride
Nylon
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Rubber
Synthetic rubber
See also
References
External links
Etymology
The word pla stic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded" and, in
turn, from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded".[7][8]
The plasticity, or malleability, of the material during manufacture allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a
variety of shapes, such as: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, amongst many others.
The common noun plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic. The adjective is applicable to
any material which undergoes a plastic deformation, or permanent change of shape, when strained beyond a certain
point. For example, aluminum which is stamped or forged exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the
common sense. By contrast, some plastics will, in their finished forms, break before deforming and therefore are not
plastic in the technical sense.
Structure
Most plastics contain organic polymers.[9] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon
atoms, 'pure' or with the addition of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains comprise many repeat units, formed from
monomers. Each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units.
The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path", linking together a large number of repeat units.
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from this backbone. These pendant units
are usually "hung" on the monomers, before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain.
It is the structure of these side chains that influences the properties of the polymer.
The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine tuned to influence specific properties of the polymer.
Properties and classifications

Plastics are usually classified by: the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains; some important
groups in these classifications are: the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.
Plastics can also be classified by: the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as: condensation, polyaddition, and
cross-linking.[10]
Plastics can also be classified by: their various physical properties, such as: hardness, density, tensile strength,
resistance to heat and glass transition temperature, and by their chemical properties, such as the organic chemistry of
the polymer and its resistance and reaction to various chemical products and processes, such as: organic solvents,
oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees
celsius.[11]
Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such
qualities and classes are: thermoplastics and thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics and engineering
plastics and other plastics with particular structures, such as elastomers.
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

One important classification of plastics is by the permanence or impermanence of their form, or whether they are:
thermoplastics or thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that, when heated, do not undergo
chemical change in their composition and so can be molded again and again. Examples include: polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[12] Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to
500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight.
Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape

only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid.[13] In the thermosetting
process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of
rubber is an example of a thermosetting process: before heating with sulfur,
the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the
product is rigid and non-tacky.
Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics

Many plastics are completely amorphous,[14] such as: all thermosets;
polystyrene and its copolymers; and polymethyl methacrylate.
However, some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in

molecular structure, giving them both a melting point, the temperature at
which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome, and also one or
more glass transitions, the temperatures above which the extent of localized
molecular flexibility is substantially increased. These so-called semi-
crystalline plastics include: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride,
polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.
The plastic handle of a spatula that
has been deformed by heat.
Conductive polymers
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While plastics can be made
electrically conductive, with a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[15] they are still no
match for most metals like copper which have a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Nevertheless, this is a
developing field.
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation,
water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be
considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.
Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface (aerobic), whereas other modes will only
be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems (anaerobic).
Some companies produce biodegradable additives, to enhance biodegradation. Plastic can have starch powder added
as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but this still does not lead to the complete breaking down of the plastic.
Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as Biopol;
however, these are expensive at present.[16]
Bioplastics
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant
materials such: as cellulose and starch.[17] Due both to the finite limits of the petrochemical reserves and to the threat
of global warming, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.
However, bioplastic development begins from a very low base and, as yet, does not compare significantly with
petrochemical production. Estimates of the global production capacity for bio-derived materials is put at 327,000
tonnes/year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world’s leading
petrochemical derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[18]
Types
Common plastics
This category includes both commodity plastics, or standard plastics, and
engineering plastics.
Polyamides (PA) or (nylons) – fibers, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line and
low-strength machine parts such as engine parts or gun frames
Polycarbonate (PC) – compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security
windows, traffic lights and lenses
Polyester (PES) – fibers and textiles
Polyethylene (PE) – a wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket
bags and plastic bottles
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – detergent bottles, milk jugs and

molded plastic cases
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles,
shower curtains and clamshell packaging
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter
jars, plastic film and microwavable packaging A chair with a
Polypropylene (PP) – bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers, polypropylene seat
appliances, car fenders (bumpers) and plastic pressure pipe systems
Polystyrene (PS) – foam peanuts, food containers, plastic tableware,
disposable cups, plates, cutlery, compact-disc (CD) and cassette boxes
High impact polystyrene (HIPS) – refrigerator liners, food packaging and

vending cups
Polyurethanes (PU) – cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface
coatings and printing rollers: currently the sixth or seventh most commonly-
used plastic, for instance the most commonly used plastic in cars
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – plumbing pipes and guttering, electrical wire/cable
insulation, shower curtains, window frames and flooring
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) – food packaging, such as: Saran
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – electronic equipment cases (e.g.
computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – a blend of PC

and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior
parts, and mobile phone bodies
Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) – a slippery blend of
PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings iPhone 5c, a smartphone
with a polycarbonate
unibody shell
Specialist plastics
Polyepoxide (epoxy) – used as an adhesive, potting agent for electrical components, and matrix for composite
materials with hardeners including amine, amide, and boron trifluoride
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic) – contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in
this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, Oroglas), aglets, fluorescent light
diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended
in water with the use of other agents.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon – heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick
surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides
Phenolics or phenol formaldehyde (PF) – high modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant
polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g. Formica), thermally
insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat
and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam (e.g.
Oasis). Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors (red, green, brown), and as
thermoset it is difficult to recycle.
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) – one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for
instance in moldings (e.g. break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the
decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e.g. Formica)
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) – one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a
wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) – strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for use
in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings. One of the most expensive commercial polymers.
Maleimide/bismaleimide – used in high temperature composite materials
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) – a high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
Polyimide – a high temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
Plastarch material – biodegradable and heat-resistant thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch
Polylactic acid (PLA) – a biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters
derived from lactic acid, which in turn can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as
cornstarch, once made from dairy products
Furan – resin based on furfuryl alcohol used in foundry sands and biologically derived composites
Silicone poly (diketoenamine heat resistant resin used mainly as a sealant but also used for high temperature
cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
Polysulfone – high temperature melt processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip
tubes and other high temperature applications
Polydiketoenamine (PDK) – a new type of plastic that can be dunked in acid and reshaped endlessly, currently
being lab tested.[19] (Wikipedia page under development, help is appreciated)
History
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of natural plastic
materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified,
natural materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and
finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl
chloride). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood
proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans
used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[3] Treated cattle horns
were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that
Plastic (LDPE) bowl, by GEECO,
mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins
Made in England, c. 1950
(casein) with lye.
In the nineteenth century, as industrial chemistry developed during the

Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics also accelerated with Charles
Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber.
Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man-made plastic. The

plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, in Birmingham,
England in 1856.[20] It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International
Exhibition in London.[21] Parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862
World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major
component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The
output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin)
could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic
material that could be molded when heated.[22] By incorporating pigments
into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
Blue plaque commemorating Parkes In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing press owner Wilhelm
on the Birmingham Science Krische was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.[23] The
Museum. resultant horn-like plastic made from the milk protein casein was
developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph
Spitteler (1846–1940). The final result was unsuitable for the original purpose.[24] In 1893, French chemist Auguste
Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as
galalith.[23]
In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset, was reported by Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland by
using phenol and formaldehyde.
After World War I, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics, with mass
production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s (around World War II).[25] Among the earliest examples in the wave of
new polymers were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in the 1930s,[3] and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), first created
in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s.[3] In 1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first manufacturer of
phenol-furfural resins.[26] In 1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers
Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.[3]
In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[3]
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[3]
The discovery of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the
UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a
replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.[3]
Plastics industry
Plastics manufacturing is a major part of the chemical industry, and some of the world's largest chemical companies
have been involved since the earliest days, such as the industry leaders BASF and Dow Chemical.
In 2014, sales of the top fifty companies amounted to US$961,300,000,000.[27] The firms came from some eighteen
countries in total, with more than half of the companies on the list being headquartered in the US. Many of the top fifty
plastics companies were concentrated in just three countries:
United States – 12
Japan – 8
Germany – 6
BASF was the world's largest chemical producer for the ninth year in a row.[27]
Trade associations which represent the industry in the US include the American Chemistry Council.
Industry standards
Many of the properties of plastics are determined by standards specified by ISO, such as:
ISO 306 – Thermoplastics

Many of the properties of plastics are determined by the UL Standards, tests specified by Underwriters Laboratories
(UL), such as:
Flammability – UL94
High voltage arc tracking rate – UL746A
Comparative Tracking Index
Additives
Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds. The average content of additives is a few
percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives:[28] organotin compounds
are particularly toxic.[29]
Typical additives include:
Stabilizers
Polymer stabilizers prolong the lifetime of the polymer by suppressing degradation that results from UV-light,
oxidation, and other phenomena. Typical stabilizers thus absorb UV light or function as antioxidants.
Fillers
Many plastics contain fillers, to improve performance or reduce production costs.[30] Typically fillers are mineral in
origin, e.g., chalk. Other fillers include: starch, cellulose, wood flour, ivory dust and zinc oxide.
most fillers are relatively inert and inexpensive materials, make the product cheaper by weight.
stabilizing additives include fire retardants, to lower the flammability of the material.
some fillers are more chemically active and are called: reinforcing agents.[31]
Plasticizers
Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives.[29] These oily but nonvolatile compounds are blended in
to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are otherwise too rigid for particular applications.
Colorants
Colorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.
Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they
Dioctyl phthalate is the
are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a
most common
variety of additives, some of which can be toxic.[32] For example, plasticizers like
plasticizer.
adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to
make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items.
Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the
European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications,
and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care
articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food
containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens.[33] Other
chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.[29]
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of the parent polymers may be
toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is
employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has
recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.[33]
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was
reported that "almost all plastic products" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the
researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.[34]
The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may
leach into food.[33] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans,
dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals' offspring.[35] A more recent animal
study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and
heart disease.[36]
As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate
indications of BPA being linked to cancer.[37]
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic
compounds present in new car smell.
The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the United States government
banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.[38]
Environmental effects
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly, as their chemical
structure renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation.
There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced
in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have
been discarded since the 1950s.[39] Others estimate a cumulative human
production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic of which 6.3 billion tons is waste,
with a recycling rate of only 9%.[40] Much of this material may persist for
centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally
similar natural materials such as amber.
The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines,

Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other
This infographic shows that there
countries combined.[41] The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Hai River,
will (predicted) be more plastic in
Nile, Ganges, Pearl River, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong "transport 88– the oceans than fish by 2050.
95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."[42][43]
The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were
observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.[44] The long-term effects
of plastic in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,[25]
although estimates vary according to region.[44] Meanwhile, 50–80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[44]
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were commonly used in the manufacture of polystyrene, and as such the
production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
Climate change
In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report plastic wiil contribute Greenhouse
gases in the equivalent of 850 million tons of Carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019. In current trend,
annual emissions will grow to 1.34 billion tons by 2030. By 2050 plastic could emit 56 billion tons of Greenhouse gas
emissions, as much as 14 percent of the earth’s remaining carbon budget.[45]
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum. If the plastic is
incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink[46] although
biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions. [47] Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic
may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is
estimated to save 52% in transportation energy.[3]
Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 62 to 108 MJ/Kg (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility
stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy
consuming: 230 to 235 MJ/Kg of silicon, and about 3,000 MJ/Kg of semiconductors.[48] This is much higher than the
energy needed to produce many other materials, e.g. iron (from iron ore) requires 20-25 MJ/Kg of energy, glass (from
sand, etc.) 18–35 MJ/Kg, steel (from iron) 20–50 MJ/Kg, paper (from timber) 25–50 MJ/Kg.[49]
Incineration of plastics
Controlled high-temperature incineration, above 850 °C for two seconds, performed with selective additional heating,
breaks down toxic dioxins and furans from burning plastic, and is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration.
Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally include flue gas treatments to reduce pollutants further. This is
needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, a carcinogen (cancer
causing chemical). The problem occurs because the heat content of the waste stream varies.[50] Open-air burning of
plastic occurs at lower temperatures, and normally releases such toxic fumes.
Pyrolytic disposal
Plastics can be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fuels, since plastics include hydrogen and carbon. One kilogram of waste
plastic produces roughly a liter of hydrocarbon.[51]
Decomposition of plastics
Plastics contribute to approximately 10% of discarded waste. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and
resins have varying properties related to contaminant absorption and adsorption. Polymer degradation takes much
longer as a result of saline environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of
plastic debris in certain environments.[44] Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than
was once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic
chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has
slowed down.[52] The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is
estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable nappy
will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.[53]
In 2018, a survey by the Global Oceanic Environmental Survey (GOES) Foundation found that the ecosystem in seas
and oceans may collapse in the next 25 years, potentially causing failure of terrestrial ecosystem and "very possibly the
end of life on Earth as we know it[54]"; the main agents of this prediction were hypothesized to be plastic, ocean
acidification, and ocean pollution. In order to prevent such a catastrophe, experts have proposed a total single use
plastic ban, wood burning bans while planting "as many trees as possible," "pollution-free recycling of electronics, and
by 2030 all industries to be zero toxic discharge." One British scientist advocates "special protection and perservation
of peat bogs, wetlands, marshlands and mangrove swamps to ensure carbon dioxide is absorbed from the
atmosphere.[54]"
Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, and some are potentially useful for the disposal of
certain classes of plastic waste.
In 1975 a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory, discovered a
strain of Flavobacterium that digested certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-
aminohexanoate.[55] Nylon 4 or polybutyrolactam can be degraded by the (ND-10 and ND-11) strands of
Pseudomonas sp. found in sludge. This produced γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as a byproduct.[56]
Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane.[57] This includes two species of the Ecuadorian fungus
Pestalotiopsis that can consume polyurethane aerobically and also in anaerobic conditions such as those at the
bottom of landfills.[58]
Methanogenic consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.[59] Pseudomonas putida can convert
styrene oil into various biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates.[60][61]
Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading
polypropylene.[62]
The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[63] Phanerochaete chrysosporium has
been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.[64] Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, Aspergillus niger,
and Aspergillus sydowii can also effectively degrade PVC.[65] Phanerochaete chrysosporium was grown on PVC
in a mineral salt agar.[64]
Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low molecular weight polyethylene oligomers.[56] When used in
combination, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags
in less than three months.[66] The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from
a soil sample and found capable of using low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50
degrees Celsius. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided
biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation.[67]
Less desirably, hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations, molds that degrade rubber into a
digestible form.[68]
Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in
museums and at archaeological sites.[69]
In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume various types of
plastic; however it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply
releasing them into the marine microbial ecosystem.
Plastic eating microbes also have been found in landfills.[70]
Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.[71]
The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in
CDs.[72][73]
Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus Phanerochaete
chrysosporium.[74]
The futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and
poly(methylmethacrylate.) One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and
Archaea.[75][76]
Recycling
Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, although the
purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken down
to a feedstock state.
The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting of plastic wastes, making it
labor-intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common
containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different
kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems for the sorting process. Other recyclable
materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being
developed to increase the capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling.
While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to sort, a
consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and
colors of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item
is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result in more
product components being reused or recycled. Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable as well. For
example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because the process is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are
typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy plants.
An early success in the recycling of plastics is Vinyloop, an industrial process to separate PVC from other materials
through dissolution, filtration and separation of contaminants. A solvent is used in a closed loop to elute PVC from the
waste. This makes it possible to recycle composite PVC waste, which is normally incinerated or put in a landfill.
Vinyloop-based recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventionally produced PVC. The
global warming potential is 39 percent lower. This is why the use of recycled material leads to a significantly better
ecological outcome.[77] This process was used after the Olympic Games in London 2012. Parts of temporary Buildings
like the Water Polo Arena and the Royal Artillery Barracks were recycled. In this way, the PVC Policy could be fulfilled,
which says that no PVC waste should be left after the games had ended.[78]
In 1988, to assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the U.S. Society of the Plastics Industry
devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. Under this scheme, a plastic container is marked
with a triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a number denoting the plastic type:
1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
4. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
5. Polypropylene (PP)
6. Polystyrene (PS) Plastics type marks: the resin identification code[79]
7. Other types of plastic (see list below)
Representative polymers
Bakelite
The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and
formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented
in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New
York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating shellac to coat wires in
electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol (C6H5OH)
Molded plastic food replicas on
and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the
display outside a restaurant in
material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create Japan
strong and fire resistant "composite" materials. The new material tended to
foam during synthesis, requiring that Baekeland build pressure vessels to
force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product, as he announced in 1909, in a meeting of the American
Chemical Society.[80] Bakelite was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in
consumer goods and jewelry in the 1920s. Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living matter. It
was also an early thermosetting plastic.
Polystyrene
Unplasticised polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and
similar knick-knacks. It also is the basis for some of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name styrene foam
or Styrofoam. Like most other foam plastics, foamed polystyrene can be manufactured in an "open cell" form, in which
the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct,
like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high impact styrene was
introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly
called "vinyl")[81] incorporates chlorine
atoms. The C-Cl bonds in the backbone
are hydrophobic and resist oxidation
Styrene polymerization
(and burning). PVC is stiff, strong, heat
and weather resistant, properties that
recommend its use in devices for
plumbing, gutters, house siding,
enclosures for computers and other
Vinylchloride polymerization electronics gear. PVC can also be
softened with chemical processing, and
in this form it is now used for shrink-
wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.
All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen
chloride is released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.[82] Plastic piping and firestops
Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to form being installed in Ontario.
hydrochloric acid,[83] polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long-term archival Certain plastic pipes can be
storage of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).[84] used in some non-
combustible buildings,
provided they are
firestopped properly and
Nylon
that the flame spread
The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement of ratings comply with the
polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first local building code.
purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair
in New York City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist
Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure
research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some
of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.
His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application
was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his
team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.[85]
General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon
It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes
for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote
nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania".
Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the US entered World War II. The production capacity
that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to manufacture
vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the
public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so-
called nylon riots.
Subsequently, polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g.
caprolactam. Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerization.
Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant,
particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, valve seats, seals and because of good
heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by the trade names
Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among several others (see below), is a transparent thermoplastic often
used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. The same material can be utilised as a
casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses.
Rubber
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that originally was derived from latex, a milky
colloidal suspension found in specialised vessels in some plants. It is useful directly in this form (indeed, the first
appearance of rubber in Europe was cloth waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil). However, in 1839,
Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; a form of natural rubber heated with sulfur (and a few other chemicals),
forming cross-links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability.
In 1851, Nelson Goodyear added fillers to natural rubber materials to form ebonite.[31]
Synthetic rubber
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of
natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably styrene-butadiene
rubber. In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to 840,000
tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic
rubbers for solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based
solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.
See also
Plastics engineering
Nurdle
Self-healing plastic
Plasticulture
Plastic recycling
Plastic film
Plastics extrusion
Molding (process)
Injection molding
Rotational molding
Corn construction
Films
Light activated resin
Organic light emitting diode
Progressive bag alliance
Roll-to-roll processing
Thermal cleaning
Thermoforming
Timeline of materials technology
References
1. Vert, Michel; Doi, Yoshiharu; Hellwich, Karl-Heinz; Hess, Michael; Hodge, Philip; Kubisa, Przemyslaw; Rinaudo,
Marguerite; Schué, François (2012). "Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC
Recommendations 2012)" (https://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2012/pdf/8402x0377.pdf) (PDF). Pure and
Applied Chemistry. 84 (2): 377–410. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-12-04 (https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPAC-REC-10-12
-04).
2. Life cycle of a plastic product (https://web.archive.org/web/20100317004747/http://www.americanchemistry.com/s
_plastics/doc.asp?CID=1571&DID=5972). Americanchemistry.com. Retrieved 2011-07-01.
3. Andrady AL, Neal MA (July 2009). "Applications and societal benefits of plastics" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC2873019). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364 (1526): 1977–84.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0304 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0304). PMC 2873019 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873019). PMID 19528050 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050).
4. American Chemical Society National Historic Chemical Landmarks. "Bakelite: The World's First Synthetic Plastic"
(http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/bakelite.html). Retrieved 23 February
2015.
5. Edgar, David; Edgar, Robin (2009). Fantastic Recycled Plastic: 30 Clever Creations to Spark Your Imagination (htt
ps://books.google.com/?id=_9WGar3yxsAC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=Baekeland%20coined#v=onepage&q=Baek
eland%20coined&f=false). Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60059-342-0 – via Google Books.
6. Teegarden, David M. (2004). Polymer Chemistry: Introduction to an Indispensable Science (https://books.google.c
om/?id=0qFQ5OuKoy8C&pg=PA58&dq=%22father%20of%20polymer%22#v=onepage&q=%22father%20of%20p
olymer%22&f=false). NSTA Press. ISBN 978-0-87355-221-9 – via Google Books.
7. Plastikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2383506). Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on
2011-07-01.
8. Plastic, Online Etymology Dictionary (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=plastic&searchmode=none).
Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-01.
9. Ebbing, Darrell; Gammon, Steven D. (2016). General Chemistry (https://books.google.com/?id=BnccCgAAQBAJ&
pg=PA52&dq=most+plastics+contain+organic+compounds#v=onepage&q=most%20plastics%20contain%20organ
ic%20compounds&f=false). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-88729-9.
10. Classification of Plastics (http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C06/C06Links/qlink.queensu.ca/~6jrt/chem210/Page3.h
tml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071215124919/http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C06/C06Links/qlink.
queensu.ca/~6jrt/chem210/Page3.html) 2007-12-15 at the Wayback Machine. Dwb.unl.edu. Retrieved on 2011-
07-01.
11. Periodic Table of Polymers (http://www.pcn.org/Technical%20Notes%20-%20Periodic%20Table%20of%20Polymer
s.htm) Dr Robin Kent – Tangram Technology Ltd.
12. Composition and Types of Plastic (http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0860420.html) Inforplease website
13. Gilleo, Ken (2004). Area Array Packaging Processes: For BGA, Flip Chip, and CSP (https://books.google.com/?id
=k_2qLoLA_tgC&q=%C2%A0Thermosets,+or+thermosetting+polymers,+can+melt+and+take+shape+only+once&
dq=%C2%A0Thermosets,+or+thermosetting+polymers,+can+melt+and+take+shape+only+once). McGraw Hill
Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-142829-3.
14. Kutz, Myer (2002). Handbook of Materials Selection (https://books.google.com/?id=gWg-rchM700C&pg=PA336&d
q=many+plastics+completely+amorphous#v=onepage&q=many%20plastics%20completely%20amorphous&f=fals
e). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-35924-1.
15. Heeger, A.J.; Schrieffer, J.R.; Su, W.-P.; Su, W. (1988). "Solitons in conducting polymers". Reviews of Modern
Physics. 60 (3): 781–850. Bibcode:1988RvMP...60..781H (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988RvMP...60..781H).
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.60.781 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.60.781).
16. Brandl, Helmut; Püchner, Petra (1992). "Biodegradation Biodegradation of plastic bottles made from 'Biopol' in an
aquatic ecosystem under in situ conditions". Biodegradation. 2 (4): 237–43. doi:10.1007/BF00114555 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1007%2FBF00114555).
17. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110720183608/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/biochemical-opportuni

ties-in-the-uk-nnfcc-08-008). Archived from the original (http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/biochemical-opportunities-in-t
he-uk-nnfcc-08-008) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2011-03-24.
18. Galie, Fabrizio (November 2016). "Global Market Trends and Investments in Polyethylene and Polyproplyene" (htt
ps://www.icis.com/globalassets/documents/forms/ppf-pdf/global_trends_whitepaper_pp_pe.pdf) (PDF). ICIS
Whitepaper. Reed business Information, Inc. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
19. "Scientists could have finally created the 'holy grail' of plastic" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scient
ists-berkeley-holy-grail-of-plastic-recycling-a8906296.html). The Independent. 2019-05-09. Retrieved 2019-05-10.
20. UK Patent office (1857). Patents for inventions (https://books.google.com/books?id=0nCoU-2tAx8C&pg=PA255).
UK Patent office. p. 255.
21. Fenichell, Stephen (1996). Plastic : the making of a synthetic century. New York: HarperBusiness. p. 17.
ISBN 978-0-88730-732-4.
22. "Dictionary – Definition of celluloid" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091211220823/http://www.websters-online-dicti
onary.org/ce/celluloid.html). Websters-online-dictionary.org. Archived from the original (http://www.websters-online
-dictionary.org/ce/celluloid.html) on 2009-12-11. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
23. Christel Trimborn (August 2004). "Jewelry Stone Make of Milk" (http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/milk-ston
e.htm). GZ Art+Design. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
24. Trimborn, Christel (August 2004). "Jewelry Stone Make of Milk". GZ Art+Design. Missing or empty |url= (help)
25. Thompson RC, Swan SH, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS (July 2009). "Our plastic age" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC2874019). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364 (1526): 1973–76.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0054 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2009.0054). PMC 2874019 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC2874019). PMID 19528049 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528049).
26. "Historical Overview and Industrial Development" (http://www.furan.com/furfural_historical_overview.html).
International Furan Chemicals, Inc. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
27. Tullo, Alexander H. (27 July 2015). "Global Top 50 Chemical Companies" (http://cen.acs.org/articles/93/i30/Global-
Top-50.html). Chemical & Engineering News. American Chemical Society. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
28. Hans-Georg Elias "Plastics, General Survey" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_543 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a20_543)
29. Teuten EL, Saquing JM, Knappe DR, et al. (July 2009). "Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the
environment and to wildlife" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873017). Philos. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364 (1526): 2027–45. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0284 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0284).
PMC 2873017 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873017). PMID 19528054 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/19528054).
30. Kulshreshtha, A. K.; Vasile, Cornelia (2002). Handbook of Polymer Blends and Composites (https://books.google.c
om/?id=k8lWp2Z33yQC&pg=PA39&dq=%C2%A0Many+plastics+contain+fillers,+to+improve+performance+or+re
duce+production+costs#v=onepage&q=%C2%A0Many%20plastics%20contain%20fillers,%20to%20improve%20p
erformance%20or%20reduce%20production%20costs&f=false). iSmithers Rapra Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85957-
249-8.
31. Seymour, Raymond Benedict; Deaning, Rudolph D. (1987). History of Polymeric Composites. VSP. p. 374.
32. Hahladakis, John N.; Velis, Costas A.; Weber, Roland; Iacovidou, Eleni; Purnell, Phil (February 2018). "An
overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their
use, disposal and recycling". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 344: 179–199. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhazmat.2017.10.014). PMID 29035713 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/290357
13).
33. McRandle, P.W. (March–April 2004). "Plastic Water Bottles" (http://www.thegreenguide.com/doc/101/plastic).
National Geographic. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
34. Yang, Chun Z.; Yaniger, Stuart I.; Jordan, V. Craig; Klein, Daniel J.; Bittner, George D. (2 March 2011). "Most
Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem That Can Be Solved" (https://www.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222987). Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (7): 989–96.
doi:10.1289/ehp.1003220 (https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1003220). PMC 3222987 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC3222987). PMID 21367689 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21367689).
35. Rubin, BS; Murray, MK; Damassa, DA; King, JC; Soto, AM (July 2001). "Perinatal exposure to low doses of
bisphenol A affects body weight, patterns of estrous cyclicity, and plasma LH levels" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1240370). Environmental Health Perspectives. 109 (7): 675–80. doi:10.2307/3454783 (https://do
i.org/10.2307%2F3454783). JSTOR 3454783 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3454783). PMC 1240370 (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1240370). PMID 11485865 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11485865).
36. Alonso-Magdalena, Paloma; Morimoto, Sumiko; Ripoll, Cristina; Fuentes, Esther; Nadal, Angel (January 2006).
"The Estrogenic Effect of Bisphenol A Disrupts Pancreatic β-Cell Function In Vivo and Induces Insulin Resistance"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090119022220/http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/8451/abstract.html).
Environmental Health Perspectives. 114 (1): 106–12. doi:10.1289/ehp.8451
(https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.8451). PMC 1332664 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1332664).
PMID 16393666 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16393666). Archived from the original (http://www.ehponlin
e.org/docs/2005/8451/abstract.html) on 2009-01-19.
37. Andrew Zajac FDA issues BPA guidelines (http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jan/16/nation/la-na-fda-bpa16-2010jan
16), Los Angeles Times, January 16, 2010
38. Lisa Wade McCormick More Kids' Products Found Containing Unsafe Chemicals (http://www.consumeraffairs.co
m/news04/2009/10/pirg_lead_tests.html), ConsumerAffairs.com, October 30, 2009
39. Weisman, Alan (2007). The world without us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-
4434-0008-4.
40. Geyer, Roland; et al. (19 July 2017). "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5517107). Science Advances. 3 (7): e1700782. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E0782G (http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/2017SciA....3E0782G). doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700782 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.17007
82). PMC 5517107 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5517107). PMID 28776036 (https://www.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/pubmed/28776036).
41. Hannah Leung (21 April 2018). "Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic Into Oceans Than Anyone Else
Combined: How You Can Help" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/hannahleung/2018/04/21/five-asian-countries-dump
-more-plastic-than-anyone-else-combined-how-you-can-help/#1d663de71234). Forbes. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
"China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the
world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy"
42. Christian Schmidt; Tobias Krauth; Stephan Wagner (11 October 2017). "Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the
Sea". Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (21): 12246–12253. Bibcode:2017EnST...5112246S (http://adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2017EnST...5112246S). doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.7b02
368). PMID 29019247 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29019247). "The 10 top-ranked rivers transport 88–
95% of the global load into the sea"
43. Harald Franzen (30 November 2017). "Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers" (https://p.dw.com/
p/2oTF6). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 18 December 2018. "It turns out that about 90 percent of all the plastic that
reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River,
the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order)."
44. Barnes DK, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (July 2009). "Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in
global environments" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873009). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B
Biol. Sci. 364 (1526): 1985–98. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0205).
45. "Sweeping New Report on Global Environmental Impact of Plastics Reveals Severe Damage to Climate" (https://w
ww.ciel.org/news/plasticandclimate/). Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). Retrieved 16 May 2019.
46. EPA. (2012). Landfilling (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/waste/downloads/Landfilling.pdf).
47. Levis, James W.; Barlaz, Morton A. (July 2011). "Is Biodegradability a Desirable Attribute for Discarded Solid
Waste? Perspectives from a National Landfill Greenhouse Gas Inventory Model". Environmental Science &
Technology. 45 (13): 5470–76. Bibcode:2011EnST...45.5470L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EnST...45.5470
L). doi:10.1021/es200721s (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes200721s). PMID 21615182 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pubmed/21615182).
48. "The monster footprint of digital technology" (http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2009/06/embodied-energy-of-digita
l-technology.html). Low-Tech Magazine. Retrieved 2017-04-18.
49. "How much energy does it take (on average) to produce 1 kilogram of the following materials?" (http://www.lowtec
hmagazine.com/what-is-the-embodied-energy-of-materials.html). Low-Tech Magazine. 2014-12-26. Retrieved
2017-04-18.
50. Halden, RU (2010). "Plastics and Health Risks". Annual Review of Public Health. 31: 179–94.
doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103714 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.012809.103714).
PMID 20070188 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20070188).
51. The Hindu Dec. 12, 2005 (http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/12/19/stories/2005121900140300.htm). Retrieved on
2011-07-01.
52. Chemical Society, American. "Plastics In Oceans Decompose, Release Hazardous Chemicals, Surprising New
Study Says" (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090819234651.htm). Science Daily. Science Daily.
Retrieved 15 March 2015.
53. Le Guern, Claire (March 2018). "When The Mermaids Cry: The Great Plastic Tide" (http://plastic-pollution.org/).
Coastal Care. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180405071834/http://plastic-pollution.org/) from the original
on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
54. MURRAY, PAULA (2018-12-23). " 'We've 10 years to save the seas or life on earth will become impossible' " (http
s://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1062990/environment-plastic-pollution-Sir-David-Attenborough-seas-earth).
Express. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
55. Kinoshita, S.; Kageyama, S., Iba, K., Yamada, Y. and Okada, H. (1975). "Utilization of a cyclic dimer and linear
oligomers of e-aminocaproic acid by Achromobacter guttatus". Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. 39 (6):
1219–23. doi:10.1271/bbb1961.39.1219 (https://doi.org/10.1271%2Fbbb1961.39.1219). ISSN 0002-1369 (https://
www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-1369).
56. Yutaka Tokiwa; Buenaventurada P. Calabia; Seiichi Aiba (September 2009). "Biodegradability of Plastics" (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2769161). International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 10 (9): 3722–44.
doi:10.3390/ijms10093722 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijms10093722). PMC 2769161 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC2769161). PMID 19865515 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19865515).
57. Jonathan R. Russell; Jeffrey Huang; Scott A. Strobel (September 2011). "Biodegradation of Polyester
Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165411). Applied and
Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 6076–84. doi:10.1128/aem.00521-11 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2Faem.00521
-11). PMC 3165411 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165411). PMID 21764951 (https://www.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/pubmed/21764951).
58. Russell, Jonathan R.; Huang, Jeffrey; Anand, Pria; Kucera, Kaury; Sandoval, Amanda G.; Dantzler, Kathleen W.;
Hickman, Dashawn; Jee, Justin; Kimovec, Farrah M.; Koppstein, David; Marks, Daniel H.; Mittermiller, Paul A.;
Núñez, Salvador Joel; Santiago, Marina; Townes, Maria A.; Vishnevetsky, Michael; Williams, Neely E.; Vargas,
Mario Percy Núñez; Boulanger, Lori-Ann; Bascom-Slack, Carol; Strobel, Scott A. (July 2011). "Biodegradation of
Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165411). Applied
and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 6076–84. doi:10.1128/AEM.00521-11 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.0
0521-11). PMC 3165411 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165411). PMID 21764951 (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21764951).
59. "Deep Geologic Repository Project" (http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/documents/56647/56647E.pdf) (PDF).
Ceaa-acee.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-04-18.
60. Roy, Robert (2006-03-07). "Immortal Polystyrene Foam Meets its Enemy" (http://www.livescience.com/technology/
060307_styrofoam_cup.html). Livescience.com. Retrieved 2017-04-18.
61. Ward, PG; Goff, M; Donner, M; Kaminsky, W; O'Connor, KE. (2006). "A two step chemo-biotechnological
conversion of polystyrene to a biodegradable thermoplastic". Environmental Science and Technology. 40 (7):
2433–37. Bibcode:2006EnST...40.2433W (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EnST...40.2433W).
doi:10.1021/es0517668 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes0517668). PMID 16649270 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/16649270).
62. Cacciari I; Quatrini P; Zirletta G; Mincione E; Vinciguerra V; Lupattelli P; Giovannozzi Sermanni G (1993).
"Isotactic polypropylene biodegradation by a microbial community: physicochemical characterization of
metabolites produced". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 59.
63. Ishtiaq Ali, Muhammad (2011). Microbial degradation of polyvinyl chloride plastics (http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Thesis/336
2H.pdf) (PDF) (Ph.D.). Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 45–46.
2H.pdf) (PDF) (Ph.D.). Quaid-i-Azam University. p. 76.
2H.pdf) (PDF) (Ph.D.). Quaid-i-Azam University. p. 122.
66. "CanadaWorld – WCI student isolates microbe that lunches on plastic bags" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011071
8081923/http://woohooreport.com/2009/09/wci-student-isolates-microbe-that-lunches-on-plastic-bags/). The
Record.com. Archived from the original (http://woohooreport.com/2009/09/wci-student-isolates-microbe-that-lunch
es-on-plastic-bags/) on 2011-07-18.
67. Hadad D; Geresh S; Sivan A (2005). "Biodegradation of polyethylene by the thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus
borstelensis". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 98 (5): 1093–100. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02553.x (https://do
i.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2672.2005.02553.x). PMID 15836478 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15836478).
68. Trudy E. Bell (2007). "Preventing "Sick" Spaceships" (https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/200
7/11may_locad3/).
69. Francesca Cappitelli; Claudia Sorlini (2008). "Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing
Our Cultural Heritage" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722). Applied and Environmental
Microbiology. 74 (3): 564–69. doi:10.1128/AEM.01768-07 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07).
70. Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab (March 2011). "Marine microbes digest plastic" (http://www.nature.com/news/2011/11032
8/full/news.2011.191.html). Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.191 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2011.191).
71. Chetna Sharon; Madhuri Sharon (2012). "Studies on Biodegradation of Polyethylene terephthalate: A synthetic
polymer" (http://scholarsresearchlibrary.com/JMB-vol2-iss2/JMB-2012-2-2-248-257.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
Microbiology and Biotechnology Research: 248–57.
72. "Fungus eats CD" (http://www.nature.com/news/1998/010628/full/news010628-11.html). Nature. 2001.
73. "Fungus 'eats' CDs" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1402533.stm). BBC. June 2001.
74. Gusse AC; Miller PD; Volk TJ (July 2006). "White-rot fungi demonstrate first biodegradation of phenolic resin".
Environmental Science and Technology. 40 (13): 4196–99. Bibcode:2006EnST...40.4196G (http://adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/2006EnST...40.4196G). doi:10.1021/es060408h (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes060408h).
PMID 16856735 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16856735).
75. Cappitelli F; Principi P; Sorlini C. (Aug 2006). "Biodeterioration of modern materials in contemporary collections:
can biotechnology help?". Trends in Biotechnology. 24 (8): 350–54. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.06.001 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2Fj.tibtech.2006.06.001). PMID 16782219 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16782219).
76. Andrea Rinaldi (November 7, 2006). "Saving a fragile legacy. Biotechnology and microbiology are increasingly
used to preserve and restore the worlds cultural heritage" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC167978
5). EMBO Reports. 7 (11): 1075–79. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400844 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.740084
4). PMC 1679785 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1679785). PMID 17077862 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pubmed/17077862).
77. "Solvay, asking more from chemistry" (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516130930/http://www.solvayplastics.com/s
ites/solvayplastics/SiteCollectionDocuments/VinyLoop/The%20VinyLoop%20Eco-Footprint%20Study.pdf) (PDF).
78. "Implementation of the PVC policy" (http://learninglegacy.london2012.com/publications/implementation-of-the-pvc-
policy.php). The London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Limited. Retrieved
October 24, 2012.
79. SPI Resin Identification Code – Guide to Correct Use (http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?It
emNumber=823&navItemNumber=2144) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120321142801/http://www.plasti
csindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=823&navItemNumber=2144) 2012-03-21 at the Wayback
Machine. plasticsindustry.org
80. Watson, Peter. A Terrible Beauty (also published as Modern Mind: An intellectual history of the 20th century).
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (imprint of Orion Books). 2001
81. Jezek, Geno. "What is Vinyl?" (http://www.whatisvinyl.com/). Retrieved 9 January 2011.
82. "Polyvinyl chloride" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110715092412/http://www.plasticsusa.com/pvc.html).
Plasticsusa.com. Archived from the original (http://www.plasticsusa.com/pvc.html) on 15 July 2011. Retrieved
9 January 2011.
83. Salocks, Charles & Kaley, Karlyn Black (2 February 2004). "Technical Support Document: Toxicology of Hydrogen
Chloride (Revised)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101104062546/http://www.oehha.ca.gov/public_info/pdf/TSDH
ydrogenChlorideMethLabs0204.pdf) (PDF). California EPA, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
p. 8. Archived from the original (http://oehha.ca.gov/public_info/pdf/TSDHydrogenChlorideMethLabs0204.pdf)
(PDF) on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
84. "How can I preserve my family photographs for my grandchildren?" (https://www.loc.gov/preserv/presfaq.html#5).
The Library of Congress Preservation FAQs. LoC. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
85. Kinnane, Adrian (2002). DuPont: From the banks of the Brandywine to miracles of science. Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press. pp. 116–125. ISBN 978-0-8018-7059-0.
Substantial parts of this text originated from An Introduction To Plastics v1.0 (https://web.archive.org/web/2007081
0225820/http://www.vectorsite.net/ttplast.html) / 1 March 2001 / greg goebel / public domain.
External links
J. Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics, ca. 1900–1975 (https://web.archive.org/web/2006021213015
0/http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8008.htm) Archives Center, National Museum of American History,
Smithsonian Institution.
Material Properties of Plastics – Mechanical, Thermal & Electrical Properties (http://www.plasticsintl.com/sortable_
materials.php?display=mechanical)
List of over 600 plastics (http://plastics.ulprospector.com/materials)
Plastics Historical Society (http://www.plastiquarian.com/)
History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry (https://web.archive.org/web/20090706054409/http://www.plasti
csindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117)
"A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic" (https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27442625), from BBC
Magazine
Timeline of important milestone of plastic injection moulding and plastics (http://www.tangram.co.uk/TI-Polymer-Ti
meline.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic&oldid=909513314#SYNTHETIC"
This page was last edited on 5 August 2019, at 22:24 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Plastic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plastic

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plastic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

9/2/2019 Plastic - Wikipedia

Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can

Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass

IUPAC definition of 'plastic':

polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.[2]

Due to their low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness

In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and

Properties and classifications

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape

Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics

However, some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in

Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – detergent bottles, milk jugs and

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) – refrigerator liners, food packaging and

Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – a blend of PC

In the nineteenth century, as industrial chemistry developed during the

Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man-made plastic. The

ISO 306 – Thermoplastics

Typical additives include:

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines,

1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon

17. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110720183608/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/biochemical-opportuni

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic&oldid=909513314#SYNTHETIC"

This page was last edited on 5 August 2019, at 22:24 (UTC).

You might also like