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Earth's magnetism
Sir William Gilbert, in 1600, suggested that the earth itself is a huge magnet. The
branch of physics that deals with the study of the earths magnetism is called
terrestrial magnetism or geomagnetism. Circulating currents of charged particles in a
medium that are electrically conducting dip within the earth generates the earths
magnetic fields. The earth, therefore, behaves as though there were a giant magnetic
dipole embedded in it. The strength of the earths magnetic field is approximate 104
T. The earths magnetic poles are some distance away from its geographic ones (i.e.
near the points defining the axis around which the earth rotates). On the earth, one
needs a sensitive needle to detect magnetic forces, and out in space they are usually
much-much weaker. But beyond the dense atmosphere, such forces have a much
bigger role, and a region exists around the earth where they dominate the
environment, a region known as the earth's magnetosphere. That region contains a
mixture of electrically charged particles, and electric and magnetic phenomena rather
than gravity determines its structure. Only a few of the phenomena observed on the
ground come from the magnetosphere: fluctuations of the magnetic field known as
magnetic storms and substorms, and the polar aurora or northern lights (a beautiful
display of colours seen in extreme northern latitudes, caused by the earths magnetic
field as streams of electrons rushing towards the earth are acted upon by the earths
magnetic field) appearing in the night skies of places like Alaska and Norway.
Satellites in space, however, sense much more like radiation belts, magnetic
structures, fast streaming particles and processes, which energize them. The field of
the earth is described in terms of the parameters called magnetic elements, but
before that let us define certain other terms.

South Pole: The magnetic pole of earths magnetism near geographic North
Pole of the earth is called South Pole.
North Pole: The magnetic pole of earths magnetism near geographic South
Pole of the earth is called North Pole.
Geographic Axis: The straight line passing through the (north-south)
geographic poles of the earth is called geographical axis.
Magnetic Axis: The straight line passing through the (north-south) magnetic
poles of the earth is called magnetic axis.
Geographic Equator: A circle on the surface of the earth, in a plane
perpendicular to the geographic axis is called geographic equator.
Magnetic Equator: A circle on the surface of the earth, in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
Geographic Meridian: The plane perpendicular to the surface of the earth
and passing through the geographic axis is called geographic meridian.
Magnetic Meridian: The plane perpendicular to the surface of the earth and
passing through the magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian.

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Earths Magnetism
Magnetic elements
i. Magnetic declination
The angle between the magnetic meridian at a place and geographic
meridian at that place is called magnetic declination. It varies from place
to place on the surface of the earth. Also the angle between the true
geographic north and the direction of the north pole of the compass
when settled down gives the magnetic declination at that place. It is
represented by .

ii. Angle of dip ( ) or magnetic inclination

The angle that the direction of earths magnetic field makes with the
horizontal at a place, is called dip at that place. It varies from place to
place on the surface of the earth. It is at magnetic poles and zero at
magnetic equator. At other places, its value lies between and .
Angle of dip is also known as angle of inclination.

Magnetic Elements

iii. Horizontal component of earths magnetic field (BH)

It is the component of total intensity of the earths magnetic field at a
point, taken in the horizontal direction. It varies from place to place on
the surface of the earth. It lies in magnetic meridian.
... (i)
At magnetic poles, BH = B cos =0
At magnetic equator, BH = B cos =B

iv. Vertical component of the earths magnetic field (BV)

It is the component of total intensity of the earths magnetic field at a
point, taken in the vertical direction. It varies from place to place on the
surface of the earth. It lies in the magnetic meridian.
... (ii)

v. Relation between vertical and horizontal components of the earths

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magnetic field
From equations (i) and (ii)

or

Also,

or

Neutral points
A neutral point is that point where the field due to a magnet is completely neutralized
by the horizontal component of the earths magnetic field. Mathematically,
B = BH
where, B is the magnetic field due to magnet and BH is the horizontal component of
the earths magnetic field.
Let us place a magnet on a table. The magnetic field around the magnet is a
combination of the magnetic field of the magnet and that of the earth. The resultant
field when a magnets field is combined with that of the earth depends on the direction
in which the magnet is lying. The two points marked T and Q in the folllowing two
diagrams are referred to as neutral points. Here the field of the magnet and that of the
earth are equal and opposite to each other. The magnetic field lines in both below two
cases in the vicinity of the magnet are mainly due to the field of the magnet which is
much stronger than the magnetic field of the earth. When the distance from the
magnet increases, the field due to it becomes weak until at very distant points, the
field of the magnet becomes much weaker than the earths field and the field lines
obtained are mainly due to the earths field, these points are referred to as neutral
points. The resultant field at neutral points is zero.
i. If the magnet is placed in the magnetic meridian with its north pole
pointing towards north, then the magnetic field lines will be:

Magnet placed with its N pole towards north of earth

ii.
The horizontal component of earths field and the magnetic field due to
bar magnet balance at the two neutral points T and Q on the equatorial
line of the magnet.
Let d be the distance of a neutral point from the centre of the earth.

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Magnetic field due to the magnet at the neutral point is

; where M is the magnetic dipole moment

of the magnet.
If magnet is small, can be ignored as compared to . The above
relation becomes

iii. If the magnet is placed in the magnetic meridian with its south pole
pointing north, then the magnetic field lines will be:

Magnet placed with its S pole towards north of earth

iv.
In this case, the neutral points T and Q lie on the axial line of the magnet.
In the same manner, magnetic field due to the magnet at the neutral
point is

If magnet is small, can be ignored as compared to . The above

relation becomes

Tangent law and Tangent galvanometer

i. Tangent law
Whenever a magnet is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a couple tending to set the magnet parallel to the field. Now,
let us suppose the case when the magnet is suspended in a region of
space where there are two uniform magnetic fields perpendicular to each
other. Here each field will exert a couple on the magnet tending to set it
parallel to itself due to which the magnet will come to rest or in
equilibrium. Let the two magnetic fields be BH and F, where BH is the
horizontal component of earths magnetic field and the field F is due to
some magnet. Consider the diagram below, where magnet makes angle

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with BH and m be its pole strength.

Tangent law

ii.
Moment of the couple acting on the magnet due to BH is .
Moment of the couple acting on the magnet due to Fis .
In equilibrium position,

... (i)
Equation (i) is the mathematical form of tangent law.
Now tangent law may be stated as:
When a magnet is suspended under the combined action of two uniform
magnetic fields of intensities F and BH perpendicular to each other, the
magnet comes to rest making an angle with the direction of H such
that

iii. Tangent galvanometer

A tangent galvanometer is an instrument used to measure very small
currents. Its working is based on the existence of the earths magnetic
field.

Tangent galvanometer

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iv.
o Principle: Tangent galvanometer is based on
tangent law in magnetism.
o Construction: Tangent galvanometer consists of a
circular coil of several turns of insulated copper wire wound on
a non-magnetic vertical brass frame or wood, capable of
rotation about a vertical axis. Usually, there are three separate
coils of 2, 50 and 500 turns. The ends of these coils are
connected to three terminals at the base of the instrument. The
frame is mounted on a horizontal platform provided with
levelling screws for rotation about a vertical axis. A compass
box is mounted at the centre of the vertical frame. The box has
a small magnetic needle pivoted at its centre, which is free to
rotate in a horizontal plane. An aluminium pointer is fixed to the
needle, which moves over a circular scale graduated from 0 to
90 degrees in four quadrants. First from 0 to 90 degrees,
second from 90 to 0 degrees, third from 0 to 90 degrees and
fourth from 90 to 0 degrees. To avoid the error due to parallax
while reading the scale, a plane mirror is fixed below the
pointer. All these arrangements are enclosed in a box with a
glass cover, which saves the needle from the effects of air
current.
o Adjustment: The instrument is fixed and levelled
with the help of three levelling screws, to make the coils vertical
so as to move the needle freely in a horizontal plane. The plane
of the coil is rotated till it becomes parallel to the magnetic
needle to set the plane of the coil in the magnetic meridian. The
compass box is now rotated till the pointer reads 0o - 0o at its
two ends.
o Working: The electric current to be measured is
passed in the coil. The current in the needle is deflected. Both
ends of the pointer are noted to get the value of the deflection
and their mean is taken to eliminate the error that might arise if
the magnetic needle is not pivoted at the centre of the scale.
The choice of the coils to be used in the instrument is based on
the strength of the current. For moderate current, 50 turn coil is
used while for weak current 500 turn coil is used. For strong
currents, 2 turn coil is used.
o Theory: When there is no current in the coil, the
compass needle is along the magnetic meridian and it is
influenced only by the horizontal component BH of the earth's
magnetic field. When a current is passed through the coil of n
turns, a magnetic field B is set up around it. The magnitude of
magnetic field at the centre of the coil of a tangent
galvanometer is given by

...(i)

where n is the number of turns in the coil, I is the current and R

is the mean radius of coil.
This field acts along the axis of the coil and hence
perpendicular to the horizontal component BH. Thus, two fields
are at right angles to each other. Moment of the couple acting
on the magnet due to BH is .
Again moment of the couple acting on the plane due to B is
.

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Now in equilibrium,

...(ii)

Substituting the value of B from equation (i) into equation (ii)

where is called the galvanometer constant.

Now, ...(iii)
Where is the deflection

and , is called the reduction factor of the

galvanometer whose value depends on BH.

Here, n is number of turns of the coil, BH is horizontal
component of the earth's field and
R is the radius of the coil.
Now following points should be noted:
, so the reduction factor decreases when the number of

turns of the coil increases.

, so reduction factor decreases when the radius of the
coil is decreased.

Vibration magnetometer
A vibration magnetometer (or oscillation magnetometer) is a device used to compare
the magnetic moments of magnet bars and earths horizontal magnetic fields
intensities at difference places.
However, in order to determine the absolute values of above said quantities, we need
to use deflection magnetometer.
i. Theory
A bar magnet, when freely suspended in a magnetic field with the help of
string, orients itself to the earths N-S direction and rests in this position
(equilibrium position) unless disturbed. When this magnet is slightly
rotated about is axis so that it makes an angle with N-S direction, the
magnet starts vibrating with simple harmonic motion about its equilibrium
position. The time period, T is given by

where, I is the moment of inertia of bar magnet, M is the magnetic

moment, H is the magnetic field intensity (usually the horizontal
component of magnetic field intensity), 2l is the length of the bar and b is
the breadth of the bar.

Further reference Derivation

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i. Construction
A vibration magnetometer consists of a plane mirror m, with line L on the
plane of the mirror marking the N-S line of bar-magnet, when at rest. It
has a bar magnet freely suspended with the help of an unspun thread.
The set-up is placed in a wooden box with glass windows in it. This
wooden box has two rectangular slits on the top.
On the top of the box a cylindrical glass tube T is fitted. The tube, T is
provided with torsion head to which a silk thread (or horse-hair) is
suspended. A non-magnetic stirrup is attached at its lower end in such a
way that the magnetic bar can be placed on the stirrup. The box has
three levelling screws at its base.

Construction of vibration magnetometer

ii. Arrangement
o We put a compass box near the NS line (L) and
orient the whole set up in such a way that needle becomes
parallel to the NS line with North head pointed towards N side
of NS line. Now, the box is in state of magnetic meridian. Once
aligned, mark the boundaries of the box.
o Adjust the screws with the help of spirit
level, so that the base becomes horizontal.
o Adjust the torsion head so that the stirrup is
aligned with NS line.
o Place the magnet on the stirrup and ensure the
proper alignment of the magnet with the NS line. Once the
magnet is brought at rest, the magnet is given a small angular
deflection to it. The time period of vibration is measured using
stopwatch.

iii. Application of vibration magnetometer

o Determination of magnetic moment of a magnet
The time period of vibration (T) in a vibration magnetometer is
given by

Therefore,

Now, the magnetic bar can be considered rectangular in shape

(we can safely ignore the shape of the stirrups as its mass is
negligible as compared to the mass of the bar-magnet).

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Then,

where, l is the length of the bar magnet, b is the breadth of the

bar magnet and m is the mass of the bar magnet.
Hence, if we know the value of earths horizontal component of
magnetic field (H) at the place, we can find the magnetic
moment associated with the bar magnet.

o Comparison of horizontal component of earth is

magnetic field
When time period of vibration is calculated at two different
places using the vibration magnetometer, they register different
values depending upon the value of horizontal component of
earths magnetic field. Let these values be for two
different places. Then,

o Comparison of magnetic moments of magnets of

same size and same mass
For two magnets of same size and mass, the moment of inertia
will be the same.

So ratio of time periods

Therefore,

Also,

Hence, pole strength of a magnet is inversely proportional to

the square of time period of vibration of the magnet in the
vibration magnetometer.

o Comparison of magnetic moments of two

magnets of different sizes and masses
The magnets with different sizes and masses will have different
moment of inertia associated with them.

Comparison of magnetic moments of two magnets of different sizes

and masses
o
Let be the magnetic moments and be the
moment of inertia of magnet X and Y, respectively. Then, with

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arrangement as shown in figure (a), the sum of magnetic

moment and moment of inertia will be,

This is known as sum position.

Let be the time period of vibration for this arrangement,
then,

Again, taking arrangement as shown in figure (b), the sum of

magnetic moment is given by,

This is called difference position.

Then, the time period of vibration for this arrangement,

Therefore,

Applying componendo and dividendo rule, we get

Points to remember
i. The branch of physics that deals with the study of the earths
magnetism is called terrestrial magnetism or geomagnetism.
ii. The earths magnetic poles are some distance away from its
geographic ones.
iii. The plane perpendicular to the surface of the earth and passing
through the geographic axis is called geographic meridian.
iv. The plane perpendicular to the surface of the earth and passing
through the magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian.
v. The angle between the magnetic meridian at a place and geographic
meridian at that place is called magnetic declination.
vi. The angle that the direction of earths magnetic field makes with the
horizontal at a place, is called dip at that place.
vii. Relation between vertical and horizontal components of the earths
magnetic field is

viii. At neutral point, the field due to a magnet is completely neutralized by

the horizontal component of the earths magnetic field.
ix. A tangent galvanometer is used to measure very small currents. Its
working is based on the existence of the earths magnetic field.
x. The reduction factor decreases when the number of turns of the coil
increases while it decreases when the radius of the coil is decreased.
xi. Vibration magnetometer is used to

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o Compare the magnetic moments of magnet bars.

o Compare earths horizontal magnetic fields
intensities at difference places.
o Determine the magnetic moment of a magnet.

xii. The time period of vibration in difference position is more than the time
period of vibration in the sum position.

Board Questions
1. What is the angle of dip at a place where the horizontal and vertical
components of earth's magnetic field are equal? (CBSE 2002, 1997- 2
marks)
2. If the ratio of the horizontal component of earths magnetic field to the
resultant magnetic field at a place is , what is the angle of dip at that

place? (CBSE 2000 - I mark)

3. Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field at a place is times the
vertical component. What is the value of angle of dip at this place?
(CBSE 1997- 1 mark)
4. Explain the principle of a tangent galvanometer. How does the reduction
factor of the galvanometer change, when (i) number of turns of the coil is
increased? (ii) radius of the coil is decreased? Give reasons for your
answer in each case. (CBSE 1997- 3 mark)
5. What is the value of angle of dip at any place situated on the magnetic
equator of the earth? (CBSE 1995 - 1 mark)
6. What is geo-magnetic equator? (CBSE 1992 - 1 mark)
7. What is angle of declination? (CBSE 1992- 1mark)
8. Name the elements of the earth's magnetic field. (CBSE 1994- 1 mark)
9. A small magnet is pivoted to move freely in the magnetic meridian. At
what place on earth's surface will the magnet be vertical? (CBSE 1995- 1
mark)
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