Introduction

The first magnetic phenomenon observed were those associated

with naturally occurring magnets, fragments of iron ore found
near the ancient city of Magnesia. These attracted unmagnetised
iron. The attraction was maximum at certain regions of the
magnet called the poles.
 
The Chinese have known to use Magnetic needles for navigation
on ships. Since then, the magnetic materials have been playing
an increasingly important role in our lives. It's therefore necessary
to understand the structure of such material.
 
Shapes of Magnet
The natural magnets i.e., iron ore were irregular in shape and
weak. Later it was found that iron or steel acquired magnetic
properties on rubbing with a magnet. Such magnets were called
artificial or man-made magnet. These magnets have a desired
shape and strength.
 
 

Properties of Magnet
)

 
 A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt
and nickel towards it. The attraction is maximum at the ends
called poles.
 

 
A freely suspended magnet aligns itself in the N-S direction. The
pole seeking the geographic north is the north pole (N) and the
other is the south pole (S).(directive property)
 
Like poles repel but unlike poles attract.
 
Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
 
Magnetic Dipole
 

The ordinary magnetic effects in materials are determined by

atomic magnetism. On continuing to cut a magnet into its smallest
bit, we reach the level of a single atom. This is a tiny current loop
in which the current corresponds to the circulation of the electrons
in the atom. To this atomic current we associate a magnetic
dipole moment. This tiny bit cannot be further divided and hence
the dipole is the smallest fundamental unit of magnetism.
 
 

A magnetic material can be regarded as a collection of magnetic

dipole moments, each with a north and a south pole.
Microscopically, each dipole is actually a current loop that cannot
be split into individual poles.
 
Earth’s magnetic field

The magnetosphere shields the surface of the Earth from the

charged particles of the solar wind and is generated by electric
currents located in many different parts of the Earth. It is
compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving
particles, and extended on the night side. (Image not to scale.)

The variation between magnetic north and "true" north.

Earth's magnetic field (and the surface magnetic field) is

approximately a magnetic dipole, with one pole near the north pole
(see Magnetic North Pole) and the other near the geographic south
pole (see Magnetic South Pole). An imaginary line joining the
magnetic poles would be inclined by approximately 11.3° from the
planet's axis of rotation. The cause of the field is probably
explained by dynamo theory.

Magnetic fields extend infinitely, though they are weaker further

from their source. The Earth's magnetic field, which effectively
extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space, is called
the magnetosphere.

Magnetic declination from true north in 2000.

Magnetic declination from true north in 1700

Two different types of magnetic poles must be distinguished.

There are the "magnetic poles" and the "geomagnetic poles". The
magnetic poles are the two positions on the Earth's surface where
the magnetic field is entirely vertical. Another way of saying this is
that the inclination of the Earth's field is 90° at the North Magnetic
Pole and -90° at the South Magnetic Pole. A typical compass that
is allowed to swing only in the horizontal plane will point in
random directions at either the South or North Magnetic Poles.

The Earth's field is closely approximated by the field of a dipole

positioned near the centre of the Earth. A dipole defines an axis.
The two positions where the axis of the dipole that best fits the
Earth's field intersect the Earth's surface are called the North and
South geomagnetic poles. If the Earth's field were perfectly
dipolar, the geomagnetic and magnetic poles would coincide.
However, there are significant non-dipolar terms which cause the
position of the two types of poles to be in different places.

The locations of the magnetic poles are not static but they wander
as much as 15 km every year (Dr. David P. Stern, emeritus
Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA[citation needed]). The pole position
is usually not that which is indicated on many charts. The
Geomagnetic Pole positions are usually not close to the position
that commercial cartographers place "Magnetic Poles."
"Geomagnetic Dipole Poles", "IGRF Model Dip Poles", and
"Magnetic Dip Poles" are variously used to denote the magnetic
poles.[1]
The Earth's field changes in strength and position. The two poles wander independently
of each other and are not at directly opposite positions on the globe. Currently the
magnetic south pole is farther from the geographic south pole than the magnetic north
pole is from the geographic north pole.

Magnetic pole positions

(2004 est) (2005 est)

North (2001) 81°18′N
82°18′N 82°42′N
Magnetic 110°48′W81.3, -
113°24′W82.3, - 114°24′W82.7, -
Pole[2] 110.8
113.4 114.4

(2004 est) (2005 est)

South (1998) 64°36′S
63°30′S 63°06′S
Magnetic 138°30′E-64.6,
138°00′E-63.5, 137°30′E-63.1,
Pole[3] 138.5
138 137.5

Magnetic Field characteristics

The strength of the field at the Earth's surface ranges from less than
30 microteslas (0.3 gauss) in an area including most of South
America and South Africa to over 60 microteslas (0.6 gauss)
around the magnetic poles in northern Canada and south of
Australia, and in part of Siberia.

The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, but this similarity is

superficial. The magnetic field of a bar magnet, or any other type
of permanent magnet, is created by the coordinated spins of
electrons and nuclei within the atoms. The Earth's core, however,
is hotter than 1043 K, the Curie point temperature at which the
orientations of spins within iron become randomized. Such
randomization causes the substance to lose its magnetic field.
Therefore the Earth's magnetic field is caused not by magnetized
iron deposits, but mostly by electric currents in the liquid outer
core.

Convection of molten iron within the outer liquid core, along with
a Coriolis effect caused by the overall planetary rotation, tends to
organize these "electric currents" in rolls aligned along the north-
south polar axis. When conducting fluid flows across an existing
magnetic field, electric currents are induced, which in turn creates
another magnetic field. When this magnetic field reinforces the
original magnetic field, a dynamo is created which sustains itself.
This is called the "Dynamo Theory" and it explains how the earth's
magnetic field is sustained.

Another feature that distinguishes the Earth magnetically from a

bar magnet is its magnetosphere. At large distances from the
planet, this dominates the surface magnetic field. Electric currents
induced in the ionosphere also generate magnetic fields. Such a
field is always generated near where the atmosphere is closest to
the Sun, causing daily alterations which can deflect surface
magnetic fields by as much as one degree..

Inverse Squared Law of Magnetic Fields at

close Distances
Close to one pole of a magnet, field strength diminishes as the
inverse square of the distance. This is because it behaves as a
"unipolar magnetic field" (that is, the close pole seems much
stronger than the far pole, so the far pole can be ignored). Gravity
is also a unipolar field, and it also diminishes as the inverse square
of distance; but, unlike magnetic fields, gravitational fields always
obey the inverse squared law.
Inverse Cubed Law of Magnetic Fields at far
Distances
Far from a magnet, both poles appear to be practically at the same
point. Mathematically, this "dipolar magnetic field" diminishes as
the inverse cube of distance. Hence, far from Earth, the
geomagnetic field diminishes as the inverse cube of distance.

Magnetic field variations

.

artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches

and middens in archMagnetometers detect minute deviations in the
Earth's magnetic field caused by iron aeological geophysics. Using
magnetic instruments adapted from airborne magnetic anomaly
detectors developed during World War II to detect submarines, the
magnetic variations across the ocean floor have been mapped. The
basalt — the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor —
contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally
distort compass readings. The distortion was recognized by
Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More
important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt
measurable magnetic properties, these magnetic variations have
provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When
newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials record the
Earth's magnetic field.

Frequently, the Earth's magnetosphere is hit by solar flares causing

geomagnetic storms, provoking displays of aurorae. The short-term
instability of the magnetic field is measured with the K-index.
[edit] Magnetic field reversals
Based upon the study of lava flows of basalt throughout the world,
it has been proposed that the Earth's magnetic field reverses at
intervals, ranging from tens of thousands to many millions of
years, with an average interval of approximately 250,000 years.
The last such event, called the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal, is
theorized to have occurred some 780,000 years ago.

There is no clear theory as to how the geomagnetic reversals might

have occurred. Some scientists have produced models for the core
of the Earth wherein the magnetic field is only quasi-stable and the
poles can spontaneously migrate from one orientation to the other
over the course of a few hundred to a few thousand years. Other
scientists propose that the geodynamo first turns itself off, either
spontaneously or through some external action like a comet
impact, and then restarts itself with the magnetic "North" pole
pointing either North or South. External events are not likely to be
routine causes of magnetic field reversals due to the lack of a
correlation between the age of impact craters and the timing of
reversals. Regardless of the cause, when magnetic "North"
reappears in the opposite direction this is a reversal, whereas
turning off and returning in the same direction is called a
geomagnetic excursion.

Studies of lava flows on Steens Mountain, Oregon, indicate that

the magnetic field could have shifted at a rate of up to 6 degrees
per day at some time in Earth's history, which significantly
challenges the popular understanding of how the Earth's magnetic
field works. [4]

This has been found to be consistent, by measuring magnetism

across ocean ridges. The molten lava (typically basalt or tholeiite)
is extruded from volcanoes at well over the Curie temperature and
then cools to adopt whatever magnetic field was present at the
time. As time goes on more lava flows and bands of opposite
magnetic fields are made present.
Using a magnetic detector (a variant of a compass), scientists have
measured the historical direction of the Earth's magnetic field, by
studying sequences of relatively iron-rich lava flows. Typically
such layers have been found to record the direction of Earth's
magnetic field when they cool (see paleomagnetism). They have
found that the poles have shifted a number of times throughout the
past.

Citing oceanic basalt 3He/4He ratios [5] and other evidence, J.

Marvin Herndon et al contend that the inner core of the Earth is not
iron but much denser atoms. [6] Nuclear reactions as replicated in a
fast breeder reactor are suggested to take place and this accounts
for the change in the Earth's magnetic field [7] (see Georeactor).

Magnetic field detection

Modeled Earth magnetic fields, data created by satellites with

sensitive magnetometers

The earth's magnetic field strength was measured by Carl Friedrich

Gauss in 1835 and has been repeatedly measured since then,
showing a relative decay of about 5% over the last 150 years [8]
The Magsat satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector
magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of the Earths magnetic
field. The later Ørsted satellite allowed a comparsion indicating a
dynamic geodynamo in action that appears to be giving rise to an
alternate pole under the Atlantic Ocean west of S. Africa.[9]
 Governments sometimes operate units which specialise in the
measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. These are Geomagnetic
Observatories, typically part of a national Geological Survey, for
example the British Geological Survey's Eskdalemuir Observatory.

The military can take a keen interest in determining the

characteristics of the local geomagnetic field, in order to detect
anomalies in the natural background, which might be caused by
the presence of a significant metallic object such as a submerged
submarine. Typically, these magnetic anomaly detectors are flown
in aircraft like the UK's Nimrod or towed as an instrument or an
array of instruments from surface ships.

Commercially, geophysical prospecting companies also use

magnetic detectors to identify naturally occurring anomalies from
ore bodies, such as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.

Animals including birds and turtles can detect the Earth's magnetic
field, and use the field to navigate during migration.[10].

The Bar Magnet

Magnetic Field Lines

The compass needle always lies along the direction of the field.
The figure below shows the lines or pattern of the field, when
the compass needle is placed at several places. These lines do
not really, tell us the effect that magnet has on the other.
 

These field lines are developed to visualize the effect of the

magnetic field. If we imagine a number of small compass
needles around a magnet, each compass needle experiences
a torque to the field of the magnet. The path along which this
compass needles are aligned is known as magnetic lines of
force.
 

The arrangement of iron fillings surrounding a bar magnet. The

pattern mimics magnetic field lines. They suggest that the bar
magnet is a magnet is a magnetic dipole.
 

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force form closed continuous curves.
 
Outside the body of the magnet, their direction is from north to
South pole.
 

.
 

No two lines can intersect each other.

 
The lines of force contract longitudinally and dilate laterally.
 

 
Crowding of magnetic lines of force represents stronger
magnetic field and vice-versa.
 
:
 
The following diagram depicts the magnetic lines of force
between two north pole, two south pole; North-South pole.
 

 
 

Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid

 
The field due to a current in a long coil resembles that due
to a bar magnet.
 

 
Inserting an iron core increases the strength of the field
 
On comparing the two-field pattern, the current carrying
solenoid from outside resembles a bar magnet. Inside the
solenoid there is a strong magnetic field, which can magnetise
a specimen. Solenoid is hollow from inside whereas the bar
magnet is solid.
 
Here we note the close similarity between the magnetic field
lines due to a solenoid.
 
A more efficient way to make a magnet is to place the steel rod
inside a solenoid and run a current. Then the magnetic field of
a solenoid magnetises the rod as well.
 
If we hold the compass needle in various directions at each
point and for each direction measure the torque exerted on it
by the field.
 
If the magnetic dipole moment of the needle is 'm', the torque is
given by
 
The similarity in the behavior of electric and magnetic dipoles in
electric and magnetic dipoles in electric and magnetic fields
respectively can be made use of to obtain an expression for the
potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a given magnetic field.
The potential energy of an electric dipole of moment p at that
point r in an electric field E is p.E(r) and the torque is p x E (r).
 

 
By a similar argument, it follows that a magnetic dipole of
moment m situated at the point r in the field B has the potential
energy m.B.
 
In the case of a solenoid, the direction of m is related to the
sense of flow of current. The solenoid behaves like a bar
magnet. Like a bar magnet the stable orientation of the
solenoid corresponds to m parallel to B, the unstable
equilibrium corresponds to m anti parallel to B.