MYSTICISM IN

THE 21st CENTURY

(SUFISM SAMPLE CHAPTER)

Connell R. Monette
Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane

Foreword by Robert Svoboda

 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

CHAPTER ONE:
THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

Sufism holds an interesting position in the field of mysticism, as it

is simultaneously one of the largest and most internationally
widespread of contemporary mystic traditions, while likewise
possessing a common sense of authentic tradition and practices
that descend from the original Muslim community in its earliest
phases.1 While Sufism is not necessarily accepted as orthodox by
the entire global community of Islam, it is certainly the favored
path or sect of Islam for millions of Muslims around the globe.
Likewise, as Sufism has spread across the world, it has maintained
certain techniques in common, but also adapted itself to the
various loci in which it is situated. A visitor to a zawiya in
Morocco and a khaneqa in Turkey will see similar practices (such as
chanting, recitation of the Quran, prayer), but also remarkable
differences in devotional practices. Further, the origins of Sufism
itself remain a mystery to students of Islamic history while Sufi
mystics themselves consider their practices to be traced directly to

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

the practices of the Prophet Muhammed himself, it is difficult to

reconcile the wide range of practices as representative of a single
original tradition. Most notable of these common practices are
(1) the constant chanting of the 99 divine names of God as an act
of remembrance (called dhikr in Arabic), (2) an emphasis on the
Quran as a pillar of daily life, and (3) a strong relationship between
the shaykh (spiritual master) and murid (disciple).2
Whatever the beginnings of Sufism, over the course of the
nearly 1500 years since the rise of Islam, it has become one of the
most powerful mystic traditions (if not the most powerful), with
influence in religious, political and cultural arenas. In most cases,
Sufi societies are organized like a large extended family, giving its
adherents access to a community network which offers spiritual
and mundane assistance to its membership. This chapter focuses
on the Boutchichi (also called in Arabic Boutchichia or
Boutchichiyya), which is one of the primary Sufi tariqas (lineages)
native to North Africa. The Boutchichi are lead today by Shaykh
Hamza Boutchichi, who resides in the village of Naima in
Berkane province of Morocco. The tariqa itself provides an
overview of its distinct understanding of Sufism, saying:

The Tariqa Qadiriyya Boutchichiyya is a school where the master

educates and elevates the seekers (Murids) to high stages of
gnosis and appropriate stations of mysticism, promotes them
in the Divine Love, and helps them to rise above their ego
(Nafs) by means of Invocation (Dhikr), Love (Mahabba) and
Companionship (Suhba) ... To discover Sufism, it is up to you
to take the first step to drink from the sources of Divine Love.
It is like honey you cannot enjoy its sweetness if you do not
taste it.3

BACKGROUND OF THE BOUTCHICHIA TARIQA

In Persia during the 12th century, there arose to prominence a

mystic named Abdul-Qadir Jilani. Jilani came from a family of

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

religious scholars, and inherited the family madrasa (religious

school) in the natural course of time. A mystic of great
reputation, he penned several notable works which remain in
circulation today. After his death, the spiritual movement which
he began spread through his disciples, who claimed to practice
certain esoteric devotional practices passed down from the
Prophet Muhammed to Ali bin Abu Talib. These disciples spread
his teachings throughout Iran into Turkey and Iraq, and by the
15th century the Qadiri tradition was established in much of the
Near East and Africa. In the 18th century, in Morocco, the Qadiri
became established with the arrival of Sidi Ali Qaidiri.4 He was
succeeded by Shaykh al-Mokhtr the first, who was succeeded by
Hajj al-Mokhtr, succeeded by Hajj Muhy Addin, succeeded by
Sidi Al Mokhtr (grandfather of Sidi Hamza), Sidi Abu Madyan
Boutchichi (shaykh of Sidi Hamza and Sidi Hajj al Abbas), who was
succeeded by Sidi Hajj al Abbas (father of Shaykh Hamza), who is
succeeded today by Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi, the
contemporary leader of the tradition.5 Thus, as part of the greater
Qadiri tradition, the Boutchichia can be considered to be nearly a
millennium old; on the other hand, the tariqa itself is relatively new
to Morocco, and can be considered as a Moroccan phenomenon
of roughly three centuries.6 The term Boutchichi stems from the
family name of Sidi Abu Madyan, and has remained in use since
then as the various shaykhs have been from the Boutchichi family.7
In the three centuries that the Qadiri-Boutchichi have been in
Morocco, the movement has grown exponentially to become one
of the two largest tariqas in the Maghreb, and also to expand
beyond Moroccos borders such that Boutchichi zawiyas (spiritual
lodges) are found internationally. Within Morocco itself, the
movement began as a rural phenomenon, and most of its few
members were initially from the lower levels of society. Yet today
in 2013, it has shifted to a largely urban movement, where the
majority of Boutchichi zawiyas are located. Further, many of its
members occupy positions of considerable social importance, even
within the royal palace and at senior levels of the government.

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

One recent study on the order, Sidi Hamza Boutchich: Cheikh al

Akbar, al Kibrit al Ahmar (Hamza Boutchich: The Great Shaykh,
the Red Sulfur), contains a chapter on prominent contemporary
members, which shows how it is considered a powerful or
prominent social force today a serious contrast with the humble
beginnings of the tariqa.

Zawiya Sidi Messaoud l-Qadiri8

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

THE ZAWIYA

A zawiya is a spiritual lodge or center, usually a dedicated physical

building in areas that have a sizeable Boutchichi population,
though outside of Morocco it is not uncommon to hear of a
residential house or apartment owned by murids, who have a
dedicated space within that is used as a zawiya. In the medieval
period, zawiyas could range from small structures to very sizable
complexes. The zawiya is usually headed by a muqadam, who
oversees the logistics and also serves as a contact person for the
murids of that zawiya; in some cases, the muqadam also serves as a
spiritual guide, as they are often selected from more senior murids.
The central zawiya of the Boutchichi (Madagh) is located currently
in Berkane province.

Shaykh Hamza Al Boutchichi

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

SHAYKH HAMZA BOUTCHICHI

The current leader, Sidi Hamza Boutchichi, was born in 1922 in

Madagh, Morocco to a prominent Sufi shaykh, Sidi Hajj Abbas. As
the scion of a deeply religious family, his early education was in
keeping with the classical Moroccan schooling for future religious
leaders. Apparently possessed of a mystical nature even as a
youth, he was recognized by mystics as a future prodigy.9 Thus it is
known that that at a very young age, the future shaykh began his
education by memorizing the Quran in its entirety, and then
studied such Islamic disciplines as Arabic Grammar, Usul Quran
(basics of the Quran), Tafsir (Commentary), Sharia (Canon Law),
Fiqh (Jurisprudence), and Mantiq (Logic). Later, the young Sidi
Hamza studied advanced disciplines in Islamic studies, such as
tasawuf (Sufism), and went on to pursue his ijaza (license) degree at
University of Oujda. A prominent online Boutchichi biography of
him reports that:

He pursued his studies along the lines of the traditional

education of the time in the Zawiya at Madagh and Quranic
school. His early disciplines entailed four main pursuits:

1. Learning the Quran (from 3/4 years until 8/9 years).

2. The religious sciences (MUTUN) grammar (NAHU),
jurisprudence (FIQH) for six years.
3. After the death of his uncle and teacher, Sidi al-Makki in
1936, Sidi Hamza went to Oujda to continue his studies
at the university (1937-1940).
4. He returns to the Zawiya in Madagh, where for a further
four years he deepened his knowledge in the company of
two religious scholars (ULEMA) from the city of Fes.10

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

Thus the initial, secondary, and university training of Shaykh

Hamza was completed by the approximate age of 18, and the
Shaykh would have been approximately 22 by the time his studies
in Fez were completed. During his second year in Fes, in 1942, he
became a disciple of the prominent mystic, Sidi Abu Madyan, at
the relatively young of 19. It was thirty years later in 1972 that he
received the leadership of the tariqa, which passed to him at the
death of his father. Since that time, Shaykh Hamza has come to
be recognized as one of the leading spiritual figures of all North
Africa, and is considered by other Sufis to have reached the
highest levels (or stations) of spiritual evolution.

STRUCTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS

While it is difficult to calculate the global Boutchichi population, it

can be safely said that Morocco has the greatest concentration of
Boutchichi, and that their number surpasses a million members
within Morocco alone.11 One of the easiest ways to gather data on
the Boutchichi is through their websites, of which a strong
concentration are found in French (and in France), but also in the
US and throughout Europe to a lesser extent. Several websites,
for example, identify Boutchichi centers in such cities as
Birmingham, Bradford, London, Manchester, and Nottingham.
One of the primary websites reports that the growth of the tariqa
in recent decades has resulted in the widespread growth of the
Tariqa beyond the hundreds of thousands of disciples in Morocco,
to Muslim and ethnic convert communities across Western
Europe, Great Britain, the USA, West Africa, the Middle East,
Thailand and beyond.12

In terms of demographics, historically Sufism has been a primarily

male-dominated tradition, but not exclusively so. Today, the
Boutchichi welcome female and male members both, though the
group devotions are segregated. In keeping with mainstream

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Islam, the leadership of the zawiyas and the tariqa itself is reserved
only for males.

Sufism is considered attractive today to those potential initiates

who desire a spiritual tradition that gives meaning to daily religious
rituals that might otherwise seem dry. Normally (but not always),
most murids are already Muslim by religion, though to what extent
they are practicing mainstream Islam varies, as is the case with
other paths of spirituality that are part of larger faith traditions.
The Boutchichi tariqa considers itself to be orthodox, yet also a
tradition in the spirit of the age, and thus it especially tends to
attract those interested in Sufism who crave a tradition that is both
rooted in classical tradition, yet very compatible with the
contemporary world in which Islam is situated.13 This is in
distinction to other tariqas that place greater emphasis on classic
tradition with little regard for the specifics of the particular century
in which they may be situated.

Sufism is not by any means a private system of spirituality, nor is it

a path for those who like to work alone and unsupervised. For the
Boutchichi, like many other tariqas, one of the most important
aspects of the spiritual discipline is the relationship between the
murid (disciple) and the shaykh (literally elder). To join a tariqa, a
potential member must swear an oath of allegiance (bayah in
Arabic) to obey the shaykh in all things. This applies first and
foremost to spiritual matters, of course, but as Islam considers
itself to be a system that covers all aspects of life, the oath of
allegiance extends the shaykhs influence (or responsibility) to
almost all areas of a murids life. Thus the murid may (and in some
cases should) seek guidance and wisdom from the shaykh not only
for religious practice, but in family, education, and career matters
also. Specifically, such issues as the choice of career, selection of a
spouse, and the decision to relocate the home to a different
country or continent these are all issues in which the murid can
request religious guidance.

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

CURRENT LEADERSHIP

Sufism is both a private and a social pursuit, in that the mystic is

expected to practice devotions in private, and indeed the act of
seclusion (khilwa) is well documented, in which the mystic
withdraws entirely from society for a period of usually one month.
Yet likewise, Sufism places strong emphasis on the tariqa as a
community or society. True, all Muslims are considered a spiritual
family, as the Prophet said that all Muslims are siblings, but
members of a tariqa (such as the Boutchichi) feel a strong sense of
kinship, perhaps heightened by the oath of loyalty to the shaykh,
and also by the emphasis on such group practices as dhikr and
hadra.
Unlike in Dharmic traditions, the disciple does not worship the
shaykh per se, though the reverence with which the shaykh is held is
on par with the level of devotion shown towards Hindu gurus by
their devotees.14 Further, many Muslims regard the shaykh as a
modern day prophet, believing them to be in direct touch with the
divine a problematic notion by Sunni standards and able to do
miracles at will. Clearly, the shaykh is expected to exhibit very
special characteristics to maintain their position as head of the
order. On the relationship between the shaykh and murid, the
prominent site Sufiway.net reports:

The Shaykh does not have to talk with his disciple (MURID) to
achieve these meanings (MAAANI). Sidi Hamza said: The one
that understands the value of the Shaykh knows that his
relationship with him does not depend on words. You see me
and I see you, it is largely sufficient.

Eye contact between Sidi Hamza and his disciple is the key to
existence (HADRA), closeness (KHURB), and education
(TARIBIYA). It is one vision (NADRA) from Sidi Hamza that
enter the MURID to HADRA. This NADRA is the chemistry of

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

rapture (SAADA) and the gate to drink His (GOD) wine, and
what a wine!

After this very priceless NADRA takes place, the MURID gets
into the stage, which drives his/her power of heat (HIMMA)
very high to love, worship, and invocation.15

Thus the relationship of the shaykh and murid cannot be

stressed enough, as it is a critical part of the tariqa and Sufism in
general. It is also an issue that causes no small amount of curiosity
in those who study the history of Sufism (in the general sense, and
not specifically the Boutchichi). No early Muslim works mention
anything resembling the tariqa, or the intended relationship
between the shaykh and murid. Likewise, the unquestioning
devotion and obedience seems curious, given several hadiths of
the Prophet which criticized the Christian and Jewish communities
for similar unquestioning obedience to their respective spiritual
leaders.
It has been said already that Sufism relies on the relationship
or bond between the teacher and student, which is one of fealty
and obedience in return for guidance and support. Ideally, all
murids would take the oath of allegiance directly with the living
head of the Order. Yet as a tariqa grows, such as in the case of the
Boutchichia, who are a sect of the larger Qadiriya tariqa, this
proves nearly impossible, as it may not be feasible for murids to
travel internationally to meet their shaykh. This being the case,
some tariqas have evolved a series of ranks not unlike a pyramid,
where the shaykh is the proverbial top of the pyramid, and is
seconded by other shaykhs (elders) or senior devotees, who often
hold of khalifah or muqadam, who act as deputies of the shaykh in a
given region. A local zawiya will usually have a muqadam, who is the
leader or caretaker of the zawiya itself. In this way, the tariqa is like
a web, in that various deputies of the shaykh are found all over
world, who connect the murids to the shaykh himself.

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

Needless to say, as the shaykh receives the fealty of the entire

tariqa, he can commands considerable social and political power.
Further, as (in the case of the Boutchichi tariqa) a tariqa may have
many members that are quite wealthy, the shaykh has access to
considerable financial resources. This is not the say that the shaykh
lives in luxury, but rather that he has the means to allocate funds
to build infrastructure for the benefit of the tariqa, which go
beyond the simple private means to which they would otherwise
be accustomed.
It is a frequent feature of Sufism that the immediate and
extended family of the shaykh often tend to inherit the leadership
position, not unlike a family business, though this is not always the
case. This comes not necessarily from a point of nepotism, but
rather from the idea that the baraka (charismatic power) of the
shaykh is passed down the family line, and thus the children or
relatives of the shaykh are the most likely to inherit the baraka
itself. On a more mundane level, the family of the shaykh are likely
to have the shaykhs interests at heart, and so they form an
entourage that protects the shaykh and limits access to him, again a
way that parallels perhaps the social dynamics of royalty.
The Boutchichi have zawiyas all over the world, though they
are concentrated most in North Africa, and especially in Morocco.
Shaykh Hamza directs the tariqa from the central zawiya in Madagh
(near Naima where he resides today with his family). Madagh thus
serves as a sort of pilgrimage site for the Boutchichi, and especially
on Islamic holidays it is filled with devotees from around the
world, who travel great distances to be near the shaykh, and to
enjoy fraternal bonds with the other members.

BELIEFS & PRACTICES OF THE BOUTCHICHI

SUFISM: THE BOUTCHICHIA VIEW

The Boutchichia tariqa views itself as a tradition of education and

spiritual formation. The shaykh is held to be the supreme teacher

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

of the movement, who is responsible for the spiritual growth of

his many disciples. Like many Sufi traditions, the Boutchichi tariqa
holds that Islam is intended to properly connect the human being
with the Divine Presence. Sufism is thus viewed as a tradition
within Islam wherein the disciple performs all of the obligatory
acts, but then supplements these with additional voluntary
practices, that are designed to cause spiritual development.
Already, mainstream Sunni Islam (as found in Morocco) sets forth
practices by which a Muslim can prepare themself to encounter
the Divine Presence in the afterlife and in anticipation of the Day
of Judgment, and likewise to enjoy the permissible fruits of
material life while still living on earth. Sufism does not deny this
by any means, but offers a system by which the believer can purify
themselves in order to enjoy the Divine Presence not only in the
Afterlife (as in mainstream Islam) while still living on earth. The
miracles and visions of the prophets and early saints are
considered to be current phenomena, experienced by those Sufis
that have advanced considerably along this particular path, as a
result of their own baraka (this term is discussed below). Indeed,
the very term tariqa actually means road or way in Arabic,
likening Sufism to a journey or pilgrimage with the Divine
Presence as the ultimate goal of the traveler.
The close, personal relationship of the believer to the Divine
Presence is one of the most significant concepts in all of Sufism,
and is found in all tariqas globally. Since God is considered the
source of all light, knowledge, blessing and power, Sufis aims to
develop their connection with the Divine Presence, in hopes of
attaining a genuine communion with God which surpasses the
normal relationship sought by other practicing Muslims.

The Boutchichi conception of the tariqa can be compared to a

field: there are periods of growth and development, and periods
where growth recedes and the field lies fallow. At times when a
strong and spiritually advanced shaykh leads the tariqa, the tariqa
takes on the function of the tariqa at-tarbiya, meaning tariqa of

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

spiritual education.16 At other times when a less advanced (or less

potent) shaykh leads the tariqa, its influence and growth may
diminish, and at this time it is referred to as a tariqa tabarukh (tariqa
of blessing).17

ORTHODOXY

It should be stressed that while today Sufism may not be

considered mainstream by all Muslims globally, nevertheless it is
very much a spiritual tradition which was embraced and practiced
in the classical period, sometimes with different names or
terminology, and that it was taught at eminent Islamic institutions
as an advanced science of Islam as a good example, by the
prominent Persian mystic and scholar, Imam Al Ghazali. While
like any broad spiritual tradition it has had its offshoots which may
themselves have been (or are) studied as liminal or syncretic, this
is not the case for the greater majority of classical Sufi movements,
both Sunni and Shiite. Thus Sufism is considered by its
contemporary adherents to be a tradition that is very well attested
and established historically within Islam, and to have been very
respected by the religious scholars of Islams early and classical
periods. The Boutchichi consider themselves to be very orthodox
Muslims, the majority being Maliki by jurisprudence and Ashari by
creed.

TAKHALI AND TAHALI

Traditionally, many eastern tariqas have taught that spiritual growth

involves takhali (deprivation, austerity) and tahali (embellishment).
This is to say that before a Sufi is ready to accept the sweetness of
the Divine Presence, they must first be cleansed of the impurities
of character and spirit.18 This cleansing can be very unpleasant, as
it usually involves activities that humiliate the mystic in order to
break down the ego, which is itself a barrier to true spiritual
growth. This historically would often involve retreats in isolation,

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

fasting, and even more extreme practices.19 Of course, this

particular idea is not generally unique to Sufism, and is found in
other mystic traditions, such as medieval Christian monasticism.
After the Sufi has undergone enough of the difficult or unpleasant
takhali activities, they can then begin to be rebuilt by the process
of tahali.
Yet notwithstanding this classical teaching, Shaykh Hamza
today teaches that humanity no longer has the patience for the
rigorous austerities needed for spiritual growth. In age of instant
gratification, social media, and rapid pace of life, people are no
longer willing to suffer humiliation or hardship to make their first
steps in spirituality, Sufism or otherwise. Thus the Boutchichia
tariqa today holds that God sends first the tahali (embellishments),
in order to attract and retain its newer initiates who may
otherwise be frightened away by what they perceive to be
extreme spirituality. Newer members are more likely to initially
have pleasant or positive experiences, such as spiritual ecstasy,
auspicious dreams, or trance states with visions. Those who are
dedicated will later move on to the more rigorous takhali exercises.

RANKS

In eastern Sufism, it is commonly believed that there are several

ranks or stations (Arabic maqam) to which a practitioner can aspire.
Building on orthodox Islamic doctrine, eastern tariqas articulate
that every Muslim occupies a certain spiritual level or station, and
that those levels closest to God are reserved for prophets and
saints of the highest quality. Indeed, through continuous
devotional acts and piety, a Muslim may hope to attain the level of
a saint or Wali-Allah (Friend of God) through certain devotional
practices, which have been passed down from the sunnah or
tradition of the Prophet Muhammad himself. In speaking of
ranks, it should be understood that mainstream Islam itself
establishes that all believers will be assigned to particular rank or
station. The senior members are those who have reached the

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

highest level of spiritual growth, and thus are the most qualified to
give guidance to others who seek the divine presence. In a way,
the ranks may be considered as milestones along the path that
leads to union with the Divine Presence.
Yet the Boutchichi (and likewise other North and West
African tariqas) differ from their eastern cousins. The Boutchichi
have no concept of ranks or stations, and no esoteric hierarchy. In
fact, there are no specific terms that exist to differentiate a senior
member from a new initiate. This is not to say with time that a
member of the tariqa does not experience a change in their
experience of the divine, but rather that it is not reified or
articulated in the same way that is common to the eastern
traditions.
Nevertheless, the Boutchichi do have a specific vocabulary for
the type of shaykh who leads the tariqa. Much like the tariqa itself
has two periods (either of blessing or education), the shaykh is
considered to be of two types. The first category of shaykh is that
of the shaykh rabani or shaykh at-tarbiyya (shaykh of formation), so
termed because through the considerable spiritual powers, he is
able to guide his disciples to make swift spiritual progress.20 The
second category of shaykh is the shaykh tabarukh (shaykh of
blessing), who is considered to be a spiritually advanced figure
who is possessed of much spiritual power or baraka (see below).
This type of shaykh is considered to be a spiritual leader and
mentor, yet is not perhaps as charismatic or as gifted as the first
type of shaykh at leading and growing the tariqa.21

BARAKA

One of the more complex terms within Islam is baraka, which

could be translated as spiritual power or alternately blessing,
which flows ultimately from God. The possession of baraka is
thought to convey good fortune in the normal Muslim, and to
bring actual spiritual or supernatural power to those saints and
holy places which possess large stores of it. The Boutchichi, like

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

other Sufi traditions, believe that as a mystic progresses upwards

on the spiritual path, it is expected that they would collect
increased amounts of baraka through more and more frequent
contact with the Divine Presence. Consequently, it is normal for
miraculous or supernatural phenomena to be caused or observed.
Likewise, the more advanced the practitioner, of course, the more
powerful the phenomena. Shaykh Hamza himself is widely held
by the Boutchichi members to possess formidable supernatural
powers, as evidence of his very elevated spiritual station. 22
Popular examples of this include knowledge of the future,
perception of remote events, the power to expel harmful jinn
(spirits) from a place or person, and the ability to heal illness. It is
not normal, by contrast, to hear tales of miracles like those of the
Old Testament prophets like Moses or Elijah. Further, as baraka is
a quality that can be transmitted, it is believed that Shaykh Hamza
and his closest disciples can share their baraka with those whom
they wish to empower, and thus the physical presence of the
shaykh (or his deputies) is greatly sought by sincere devotees.

SIRR

The term sirr means literally secret in Arabic, but in the

Boutchichi tariqa (and Sufism in general) it refers to the ultimate
truth, the highest knowledge that is understood completely only by
the shaykh, and radiated from him to the all members of the tariqa.
It is indescribable that is, it cannot be communicated by words,
cannot be discovered in books, and cannot be taught by another
it must be directly apprehended through the devotional practices
and austerities that lead to communion with the Divine Presence.
The possession of the sirr is the trait that marks and defines (at
least in part) the shaykh of the tariqa. The baraka of the sirr is
believed to be passed to the next shaykh at the death of his
predecessor. In joining the tariqa, each of the members of the
tariqa gain some measure of the sirr, though their ability to
comprehend it is limited to their own mystic advancement along

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 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

the path. Thus a new initiate might have some sense of the sirr,
whereas a senior member of the tariqa who has practiced the
austerities and devotional practices with rigor is likely to have a
considerably more developed understanding of the mystical secret
at the core of the tariqa.

PRACTICES

Like all Muslims of the Sunni denomination, the Boutchichi

rigorously uphold the five pillars of Islam, namely: 23

1. Prayer: all Muslims must perform five obligatory daily prayers,

and these may be supplemented by supererogatory prayers,
which are based on the sunnah (Ar. practice or tradition) of
the Prophet.

2. Alms-giving: all Muslims must give a fixed percentage of their

annual income. This in turn may be supplemented by
additional charity to those in need, or to such pious institutions
as schools, mosques, and hospitals.

3. Testimony of faith: to be recognized as Muslim, one must

pronounce the testimony of faith before witnesses (though this
is usually not ritualized for those raised to Muslim parents).
The testimony is (in English): I testify that there is no god but
God, and that Muhammed is His prophet.

4. Pilgrimage: it is obligatory on all Muslims with sufficient

financial means to make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in their
lifetime.

5. Fasting: all adult Muslims of healthy mind and body must fast
(i.e. abstain from sexual conduct, food, and water, from dawn
to dusk) during the month of Ramadan each year.

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

DHIKR

As stated above, the Boutchichi tariqa teaches that through

particular practices inherited from the Prophet Muhammad, the
mystic may greatly increase their connection to the Divine
Presence.24 Unlike other forms of mysticism which require
rigorous austerities, the Boutchithi focus more on acts and rituals
of devotion through which the negative aspects of the self may be
purged, and the positive characteristics enhanced. One of the most
important practices for the Boutchichia tariqa, and indeed for Sufis
of most traditions, is the practice of dhikr (remembrance), a form
of meditation in which the mystic practices the repetitive chanting
of the names of Allah.25 The importance of the practice is stressed
by the shaykh, and the official websites of the tariqa reflect this,
saying:

Invocation (dhikr) is the invocation with the tongue, and

remembrance by the heart, of the Divine, through repetition of
specific litanies which may include the names of Allah,
chapters of the Quran, or prayers of blessings on the Prophet
Mohamed, peace be upon him. The disciples practice regular
morning and evening invocations (dhikr), on their own,
referred to as the Wird. The format of this Wird is prescribed
by Sidi Hamza, and is the means by which the master uses to
educate the disciple.26

This passage is interesting, as it expands the Quranic sense of dhikr

(which is indeed an emphatically commanded practice) to include
not only the remembrance of the Divine Presence, but also to
include the blessing of the Prophet Muhammad. This inclusion of
the prayers for the Prophet reinforces the important status that he
holds within the Boutchichi order, and as the wird (liturgy) of the
tariqa is set by the shaykh, it stands to reason that the convictions
or beliefs of Shaykh Hamza are reflected in this practice.

18
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

Tasbih (Prayer Beads)27

The standard wird (Arabic for daily liturgy) of the Boutchichi is

considered to be a serious exercise, and is not taken on lightly. It

19
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

is composed of a set liturgy of verses and invocations, which the

Sufi must recite daily. It can be noted that this liturgy includes
pious phrases (e.g. Astaghfirullah (God forgive me) and Tahlil (la
ilaha ila Allah, There is no god but God); recitation of Salat an-
Nabi (Prayers for the Prophet) as well as the recitation of several
Quranic surahs, such as Al-Fatiha and Ya-Sin. Also recited are
passages from the Dala'il al-Khayrat, a famous 15th century
devotional work, commonly recited by many contemporary tariqas.
It should be stressed that these devotional activities would take
several hours per day, especially for the performance of the Tahlil
recitation. Sufis will commonly use tasbih (prayer beads, see
example on p.29) to assist in keeping track of their repetitions,
which in the case of the Boutchichi, number in the thousands per
day.

Dala'il al-Khayrat Manuscript

(Chester Beatty Library)28

20
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

It should be noted that while Dhikr is indeed considered an

obligation on the individual Boutchichi murid, it can be performed
by multiple murids together. This group practice may be at the
home of a murid, in a mosque, or else in a zawiya itself.

WADIFA

Sufism is certainly a pursuit that places responsibility for

advancement on the shoulders of the mystic themself, but it is not
at all a solitary pursuit. As described above, the Boutchichi
congregate in zawiyas for fellowship, but also for group devotional
practices. A wadifa is a group liturgy which is practiced every night,
usually at a zawiya. It can be noted that this liturgy is composed of
songs of praise, pious phrases (e.g. HasbunAllah God is my
refuge; invocations (e.g. Salat an-Nabi Prayers for the Prophet,
the names of God (e.g. Ya Latif Oh Sweet One) and the
recitation of two Quranic surahs. Another important component
of the wadifa is the recitation of qasidas, special poetry or spiritual
songs which typically exalt the Prophet Muhammed.
While the wadifa is indeed a nightly event, this is not to say that
every Boutchichi in the region would attend, and so in some
regions it may not be performed if the congregation is not large.
Likewise, the wadifa does not replace the wird, so a member of the
tariqa must perform the daily wird regardless of their participation
in the group ceremony.

HADRA

As part of the wadifa, it is normal for the Boutchichi to also recite

qasidas or spiritual songs. During the performance of these songs,
it is possible for one or more of the members to be overcome by a
powerful state of spiritual ecstasy, referred to as hal in Arabic.
This can be observed sometimes by the mystic in question rising
to stand, and rocking back and forth in a rhythmic fashion. 29
When three or more of the tariqa enter this state (and rise to their

21
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

feet), the entire gathering will likewise stand in recognition of the

fact that several of their number have been taken by this state. It
is understood that this state is brought on due to baraka, and thus
it is regarded with a certain reverence, and not with distaste of any
kind. It is important to note that this state can also occur outside
of the zawiya and in the course of non-devotional activities, though
this is much less frequent that during group devotional practices.

MAWLID

While Boutchichi, like other Muslims, celebrate the annual holy

days of Eid Iftar (the feast making Ramadans End) and Eid Kabir
(the feast of sacrifice, also called Eid l-Adha), the Birthday of the
Prophet (called Mawlid or sometimes Eid Mawlid in Arabic) is a
special day for the Boutchichi tariqa. During the week of this
holiday, of members congregate at the central zawiya in Berkane,
where they carry out the dhikr and wadifa en masse, and with the
physical presence of the shaykh understood as a great spiritual
asset. This gathering is not limited only to Moroccans, but also
draws members of the tariqa from Africa, Europe, and North
America, so that the gathering itself gives a very real taste of the
new international character of the tariqa. By contrast, the Mawlid
celebrations a century earlier would have been likewise large, but
likely also entirely Moroccan in terms of the membership. The
Mawlid event is very important for the tariqa, as it serves as a
chance for members from distant regions to meet and socialize, to
strengthen ties between themselves, and for the fortunate few, a
chance to spend a few minutes alone with the shaykh. It should be
understood that as contact with the Shaykh Hamza is considered a
necessary part of spiritual advancement, members are indeed
willingly to travel and undertake expenses for this opportunity. At
an event as large as the Mawlid, it is more likely that one will only
glance the shaykh, but even that brief conduct is considered an
opportunity to gain more of the sirr and baraka of the living saint.

22
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

CONTEMPORARY GOALS

EXPANSION

Convinced of its divine mandate, the tariqa at present seeks to

grow and expand its membership firstly within Morocco,
certainly, but also globally. As long as the tariqa is headed by a
shaykh rabani (as Shaykh Hamza is held to be), the tariqa will
certainly continue to grow and expand at a rapid pace. The
Boutchichia tariqa positions itself as a tariqa of education (tarbiya),
dedicated to the improvement of spirituality within Morocco and
abroad. In terms of the goals of the tariqa, one official Boutchichi
website articulates it as follows:

Tariqa Qadiriyya Boutchichiyya continues to function as an

alive Sufi Way with a living Shaykh. The transmission of
spiritual secret (sirr) from Prophet Muhammad (blessings and
prayers of GOD be upon him) through the spiritual chain until
it arrived to Sidi Hamza, in addition to the Shadili Sufi Order
and Tijani Sufi Order secrets that Sidi Boumadiane acquired
see: Initiatory Chain As-Silsila, is now making Tariqa Qadiriyya
Boutchichiyya the alive Sufi school on earth that is able to
graduate Savants of GOD and educate its [sic] disciples
correctly. Tariqa Qadiriyya Boutchichiyya is not a Way of
blessing (baraka) but way of spiritual secret (sirr). A witnessed
growth in disciples; men and women from diverse age, cultures,
nationalities and professions [italics mine for emphasis].30

As evidence of this deliberate move towards globalization, it is

also important to note that even in the last decade, the public
online presence of the tariqa has changed considerably.31 Where
previously all printed and digital materials on the tariqa were
available predominantly in French or Arabic, there are now a
number of official or sanctioned Boutchichi websites and online
media archives (most noticeably, for example, Radio Samaa at

23
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

www.radiosamaa.info) which are in Arabic, French and English.

This adaptation of English, a medium not used by many murids in
Morocco, can be read as a deliberate effort to make the teachings
of the tariqa available to the global community, rather than merely
to those Arabic and French regions in which the majority of the
membership currently exists.

NEW LEADERSHIP

Correspondingly, a secondary, more private contemporary concern

is likely also the identification of the next spiritual leader of the
tariqa. While Shaykh Hamza has done an excellent job of bringing
the Boutchichi into the 21st century, he is advanced in years (just
over 90) and is not likely to lead the tariqa for many more years.
Thus a successor will need to be found shortly, if one has not
already been identified. In keeping with the history of the tariqa
over the last hundred years, it is likely that the son (Sidi Jamal
Boutchich) or grandson (Sidi Mounir Boutchich) are strong
candidates for the position of shaykh. This is not to say that the
succession will be necessarily patrilineal, but the recent successions
have all been within the Boutchichi family, and Shaykh Hamza
himself succeeded his own father (Hajj Abbas).

SOCIAL MOBILITY

A third potential goal (albeit unarticulated officially) is that of

social advancement. While the origins of the tariqa lie certainly
outside urban centers and among the rural poor, the tariqa in 2013
has become an urban phenomenon, and is well represented at all
levels, included the elite of Moroccan society. 32 While this is not
an urgent priority, it stands to reason that the tariqa will continue
to attract new membership for join for a variety of reasons, be
they spiritual or social and if the new membership happens to be
increasingly from the middle and upper classes, it will only serve to
strengthen the social and political influence of the tariqa itself.

24
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

FUTURE VISION

On the one hand, the Boutchichi tariqa has made incredible

progress in terms of its demographics, both in terms of the social
strata from which its membership stems, and also in terms of its
new global character. Yet on the other hand, unlike the eastern
tariqas which have always been large with a strong infrastructure
and well-defined chain of command, the Boutchichi have always
placed emphasis on the need for direct contact with the shaykh.
Whereas eastern tariqas have evolved a kind of chain-of-blessing
by which one may receive the baraka and sirr of a shaykh though
authorized deputies (sometimes called khalifas), this concept is
entirely foreign to the Boutchichi. While indeed one may join the
tariqa by taking the oath of allegiance with a muqadam who has idhn
(permission) to receive the oath, the muqadam is not a replacement
for the shaykh, and cannot transmit the baraka or sirr (though in
exceptional cases, the Boutchichi might argue that a senior murid
may possess a measure of baraka that can be passed on). This
being the case, it is understandable that murids would take pains to
see the shaykh and to spend time with him as much as possible.
Indeed, a century or more ago when the tariqa was still a small
rural phenomenon, this was indeed possible. However today, the
tariqas Moroccan initiates alone surpass one million, and its
numbers abroad are rapidly increasing. It is logically impossible for
the shaykh to know or see all the members, and so it is very likely
that by 2050 (for example) the structure of the tariqa may have
evolved a more formalized hierarchy though this in turn would
require the reformation of some core beliefs about the nature of
the shaykh, his sirr, and his baraka.

25
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

NOTES ON THE BOUTCHICI

1 I am deeply grateful to my friend and colleague, Pr. Stephen
Abdullah Trevathan, for his assistance with this chapter. As a
senior member of the Boutchichi tariqa and the former muqadam of
London, his experience of the tariqa (now over 30 years) and
knowledge of the tradition and its practices has been invaluable in
drafting this chapter. The image at the head of the chapter is
courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, obtained at: <commons.wik-
imedia.org/wiki/File:Surat_Al-Ikhlas_-_Maghribi_script.jpg>
2 This said, the Boutchichi (among other Sufis) contend that

Sufism indeed began with the actual practices of the Prophet

Muhammad, and that they were transmitted through various of the
khalifas or senior companions of the Prophet (e.g. Ali bin Abi
Talib and Abu Bakr). Thereafter these practices were codified and
taught only to those spiritually advanced to properly understand
and employ them. The Boutchichi view on this tradition is
discussed well in pp. 14-27 of Karim Ben Driss, Sidi Hamza al-
Qadiri Bouchich. Le renouveau du soufisme au Maroc. (Beirout: Dar
albouraq, 2002).
3 The entire text reads: The Tariqa Qadiriyya Boutchichiyya is a

school where the master educates and elevates the seekers

(Murids) to high stages of gnosis and appropriate stations of
mysticism, promotes them in the Divine Love, and helps them to
rise above their ego (Nafs) by means of Invocation (Dhikr), Love
(Mahabba) and Companionship (Suhba). Tariqa Qadiriyya
Boutchichiyya accepts without condition people with different
levels of knowledge. Everybody, Muslim and non-Muslim, is
welcome to the Sufi path, as long as they want to purify and
enlighten their hearts and souls. It is the Tariqa Qadiriyya
Boutchichiyya, starting with the previous master Sidi Hajj Al
Abbas and continuing with the existing master Sidi Hamza Qadiri
Boutchich, may GOD be pleased with them, that inaugurated a

26
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

new era of Sufism based on flexibility, love and beauty. It is easier

to follow now than before but this does not mean that it has lost
its value. The addition of flexibility to spiritual education has
attracted the hearts of disciples from all over the world. Today,
Sufis are more integrated into their social lives. They can enjoy the
Sufi experience without it affecting their social rhythm or losing
their social identities. One aspect of the Tariqa Qadiriyya
Boutchichiyya, as explained by its spiritual master Sidi Hamza, is
that the retreat of the Sufi is inside the heart (alkhalwat fi al-qalb).
Sufis do not need to isolate themselves in order to find their way
to GOD. On the contrary, they can participate in their social
activities as much as they can without affecting their beautiful
spiritual experience, providing they are happy in their hearts.
While explaining aspects of the Tariqa, Sidi Hamza said that the
path is based on beautification then detachment (at-takhliya bada
at-tahliya). The meaning of this important aspect is that the Sufi
first tastes the sweetness (tahliya) of the remembrance of GOD
(dhikr) then moves to another stage of purifying the heart and
detaching it from its darkness and diseases (takhliya). Sidi Hamza
may GOD be pleased with him, gave a beautiful explanation of
this aspect: Stability of GODs love inside the heart, then moving
to the practice. In the past, however, the Sufi needed to purify
his/her heart before entering the path and following the master.
To discover Sufism, it is up to you to take the first step to drink from the
sources of Divine Love. It is like honey you cannot enjoy its sweetness if you
do not taste it [italics mine for emphasis]. Source:
<www.thesufiway.co.uk/the-path/overview-of-the-path/>.
4 www.sufiway.net/sec14=edcu=TQchainsaint8113261.html
5 On the point of the Boutchichi family itself during the French

occupation of Morocco, several French administrative documents

discussing the Boutchichi family are available in (e.g.) pp. 25-48 of
Okacha Berahab, Zaouiua Boutchichiya: Textas et documents lappui.
(Rabat: Editions Bouregreg, 2004). This indicates something of
the social prominence or importance of the family at this time.

27
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

6 A Boutchichi review of the coming of the Qadiria tradition into

Morocco and the rise of the Boutchichi tariqa is discussed in
pp.41-66 of Er Rachid Ben Rochd, Sidi Hamza Boutchich.
(Casablanca, Editions Dchra, 2004).
7 The name Boutchichi itself refers to a tale earlier in the history

of the tariqa, at which a young mystic received the baraka of an

elderly shaykh through consuming tchich (cooked grain) in the
home of the shaykh, after which the mystic was known as Bou
tchich (possessor of the grain), which became the family name of
the mystic thereafter. Trevathan points out that while it is likely
that the next shaykh will also be a member of the Boutchichi
family, if a future shaykh was from a different family, the tariqa
would be thereafter known by the adjectival form of the new
shaykhs family name. Interview with Trevathan, 15 September
2013.
8 Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons from: <upload.wik-

imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Sidi_messaoud_Zaouia.jpg
>.
9 www.sufiway.net/ar_SidiHamzaQadiriBoutchichi.html
10 ibid.
11 Interview with Trevathan, 15 September 2013.
12 www.thesufiway.co.uk/the-path/history/
13 Interview with Trevathan, 15 September 2013.
14 Here, one may consider Sufi and Tantric practices where the

disciple visualizes the guru/sheikh, and envisions themselves being

absorbed into the guru/sheikh figure. This is considered a
devotional act by both traditions, though Sufis consider it an act of
devotion and respect for the teacher, where some Tantric refer to
it as an act of worship for the guru.
15 www.sufiway.net/sec2=edcu=teaTQ811326.html
16 Interview with Trevathan, 15 September 2013.
17 ibid.
18 ibid.

28
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

19 One particular sect (generally unknown in the Maghreb) is the

Malamatiya (blameworthy), who focus intensely on the
suppressing of the ego through public acts of humiliation and
shame, such as buffoonery or public drunkenness.
20 For a discussion on the role of the Shaykh as shaykh at-tarbiyya,

see pp. 61-66 of Ben Driss, who himself cites Ibn Khaldun at
length on the phenomenon of the various types of shaykh.
21 Personal communication from Trevathan, 15 September 2013.
22 This belief is not unusual in mystical societies which place

strong emphasis on the master-student relationship, and is found

likewise among mystic traditions of the Dharmic faiths also.
23 These five pillars are termed in Arabic: Salat (Prayer), Zakat

(Alms-giving), Shahada (Testimony of faith), Hajj (Pilgrimage to

Mecca), and (5) Sawm (Fasting in Ramadan).
24 Boutchichi dhikr and its central role in the tariqa are discussed in

Ben Driss (47-52), where dhikr is referred to as the cl du Trsor

cach (Key to Hidden Treasure [translation mine]), thus
indicating the virtue or purpose of the practice.
25 On this practice, the tariqas official British site states: The one

who is seeking the Face of God must apply themselves to a school

that is based on perfect teaching. Sidi Hamza el Qadiri el
Boutchichi has said: Our Tariqa is based on the Quran and
Sunnah. And whatsoever the Messenger gives you, take it, and
whatsoever he forbids you, abstain (from it) (Al Quran, al-Hashr)
59:8. The Tariqa Qadiriyya Boutchichiyya is thus based on
correct instruction where the living Shaykh educates and lifts his
disciples to high stages of gnosis and appropriate stations of
mysticism, promotes them in the Divine and Muhammadan love,
and helps them to overcome the power of their ego (nafs) by
means of invocation (dhikr), love (mahabba), and generosity
(karam). Invocation (dhikr) is the invocation with the tongue,
and remembrance by the heart, of the Divine, through repetition
of specific litanies which may include the names of Allah, chapters
of the Quran, or prayers of blessings on the Prophet Mohamed,

29
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

peace be upon him. The disciples practice regular morning and

evening invocations (dhikr), on their own, referred to as the
Wird. The format of this Wird is prescribed by Sidi Hamza, and
is the means by which the master uses to educate the disciple.
Beware of the limits of mental comprehension. There exists a
sensible intellect and a luminous intellect. The first intellect has a
limit. To transcend this limit, we have to cultivate ourselves and
seek the company of the men of God. Only God can transform
the intellect from sensible to luminous, an intellect illuminated by
the light from the heart. As the disciple progresses, more
elements are added to the litanies that make up the Wird, including
verses of the Quran and prayers on the Prophet, peace be upon
him. The first fruit obtained from this discipline and perserverance
are a feeling of peace and serenity, as well as the convicton that
this tariqa is an authentic one. Wisdom is in the heart. He who
wants to find water in his well must dig. The deeper he digs, the
more abundant the water; if he stops digging, the water will not
exceed the initial amount. The one that digs this well should not
say nor believe that all the water has been found; he must continue
to dig, for this well has no limit. The transformation and
education experienced by the seekers heart is due to the spiritual
authority (idhn) of Sidi Hamza, who prescribes dhikr appropriate
to the student and his time: the living shaykh. (Source: <the-
sufiway.co.uk/the-path/invocation>)
26 ibid.
27 Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, from:

<commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masbaha.jpg>
28 Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, from:

<commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CBL_Quran.jpg>
29 It does not appear, by contrast, as a kind of seizure or state of

wild possession, more commonly seen in (for example) other

African spiritual traditions.
30 www.sufiway.net/sec2=edcu=teaTQ811326.html

30
 THE BOUTCHICHI TARIQA

31 Indeed, the growth and development of the Boutchichi tariqa is

deserving of an entire study. Somewhat anecdotally, this is
addressed in Ben Rochd, 200-233.
32 As an example of prominent membership, at the time of writing

(Fall 2013), the Minister of Islamic Affairs and Endowments, Dr.

Ahmed Toufiq, is publically acknowledged as a member of the
Boutchichi tariqa. Several other prominent members (e.g. Pr.
Faouizi Skalli, Dr Ahmed Qostass) are also discussed in Ben
Rochd, 200-233.

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON
THE BOUCHICHI TARIQA

1. What is the background of the Boutchichia tariqa? To which

larger tariqa does it belong?

2. What are the current demographics of the Boutchichi? In

which country is it based?

3. Does the tariqa have a rigid or more organic structure?

4. What is do the terms baraka and zawiya mean?

5. What are the routine activities of a member, e.g. rituals,

meditation, etc.?

6. To which major religious tradition does Sufism belong?

7. Who is Shaykh Hamza?

8. For what reasons might a person become involved in Sufism,

as opposed to mainstream Islam?

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

FURTHER READING FOR

THE BOUCHICHI TARIQA

Ben Driss, K. Sidi Hamza al-Qadiri Bouchich. Le renouveau du soufisme

au Maroc. Beirout: Dar albouraq, 2002.

Ben Rochd, E. Sidi Hamza Boutchich. Casablanca, Editions Dchra,

2004.

Berahab, O. Zaouiua Boutchichiya: Textas et documents lappui. Rabat:

Editions Bouregreg, 2004.

Chittick, W. Sufism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld

Publications, 2000.

Corbin, H. Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of

Ibn Arabi. Chichester: Princeton University Press, 1997.

Ernst, C. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. London: Shambhala, 1997.

Ernst, C. Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam.

Boston, Shambhala, 2011.

Green, N. Sufism: A Global History. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Jackson, S. Sufism for non-Sufis? Ibn Ata Allah Al-Sakandaris Taj al-
Arus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Livingstone, J. Anatomy of the Sacred: an Introduction to Religion, 6th ed.

London: Pearson Education, 2009.

Sells, M. Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Quran, Miraj, Poetic and

Theological Writings. New York: Paulist Press, 1996.

33
 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Bouasria, A. The Boutchichi order and the Politics of Jouissance

in Middle East Studies, V. 3 (6), 08/2011, p. 421-427

Dehlvi, S.Sufism: the Heart of Islam. New Delhi: HarperCollins

Publishers India, 2009.

Green, N. Sufism: A Global History. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell,

2012.

Michon, J. & Gaetani, R.Eds. Sufism : Love & Wisdom.

Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2006.

Frithjof Schuon. Sufism: Veil And Quintessence: A New Translation

With Selected Letters. Ed. James S. Cutsinger. Bloomington: World
Wisdom, 2006.

Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee. Sufism: The Transformation of the Heart.

Inverness, Calif.: Golden Sufi Center, 1995.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Living Sufism. London: Unwin Paperback,

1980.

Fatima Hussain. Sufism Revisited. Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2010.

Catharina Raudvere and Leif Stenberg, Eds. Sufism Today: Heritage

And Tradition in the Global Community. London: New York : I.B.
Tauris, 2009.

Philip Gowins. Practical Sufism : A Guide to the Spiritual Path Based

On the Teachings Of Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan. Wheaton: Theosophical
Pub. House, 2010.

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

ONLINE SOURCES

www.sufiway.net One of the main official English language

sites of the Boutchichi tariqa.

www.dar-sirr.com An English language site dedicated to

Sufism in Morocco. Covers multiple tariqas in North Africa.

www.radiosamaa.info The multimedia website of the

Boutchichi Tariqa, hosting digital text achive, Dalail Khayrat with
audio reading, Quran, and impressive holdings of audio and video.

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 MYSTICISM IN THE 21ST CENTURY

36