Ethnomedicinal plants

used for the treatment of

cuts and wounds by the
Agusan Manobo of
Sibagat, Agusan del Sur,
Philippines
Mark Lloyd G. Dapar, Ulrich Meve, Sigrid Liede-
Schumann, Grecebio Jonathan D. Alejandro

Research was significantly different (p < 0.05) when grouped

according to occupation, educational level, civil
status, gender, and age but not when grouped
Abstract according to location (p = 0.234) and social position
This study was conducted to investigate the (p = 0.580).
ethnomedicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo
as potential drug leads for the treatment of cuts and Conclusion: The current study documents the
wounds. Despite the prominence of the locality on medicinal plant knowledge of Agusan Manobo in the
medicinal plant use, the area was previously ignored treatment of cuts and wounds. The traditional
due to distance and security threat from the medicinal systems of Indigenous Cultural
Communist Party of the Philippines - New People’s Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs) are
Army. Oral medicinal plant knowledge was sources of knowledge for bioprospecting. More
documented. ethnobotanical studies should be encouraged before
the traditional knowledge of indigenous people
Methods: Ethnomedicinal survey was conducted vanishes.
from October 2018 to February 2019 among 50 key
informants through a semi-structured questionnaire;
Correspondence
open interviews and focus group discussions were
conducted to gather information on medicinal plants Mark Lloyd G. Dapar1,3*, Ulrich Meve3, Sigrid
used as a treatment for cuts and wounds. Liede-Schumann3, Grecebio Jonathan D.
Nonparametric inferential statistics Kruskal-Wallis Alejandro1,2,3
and Mann-Whitney U tests were set at 0.05 level of
1The
significance to determine if there was a significant Graduate School and Research Center for the
Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo
difference of ethnomedicinal knowledge among
Tomas, España Boulevard, 1015 Manila, Philippines
respondents when grouped according to location,
social position, occupation, educational level, civil 2Collegeof Science, University of Santo Tomas,
status, gender and age. Quantitative ethnomedicinal España Boulevard, 1015 Manila, Philippines
data was obtained from Family Importance Value
3Department
and Relative Frequency of Citation. of Plant Systematics, University of
Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, D-95440 Bayreuth,
Germany
Results: Present documentation enumerates 48
species of medicinal plants belonging to 45 genera *Corresponding author. E-mail address:
and 26 families used by the community and their only [email protected] (M.L.G. Dapar)
tribal healer for the treatment of cuts and wounds.
Asteraceae (7 species) was the best-represented Ethnobotany Research & Applications
family and Piper species were cited to be the most 19:31 (2020)
frequently used medicinal plant species. Statistically,
the medicinal plant knowledge among respondents

Manuscript received: 02/01/2020– Revised manuscript received: 11/03/2020 - Published: 17/03/2020

http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2

Key words: Agusan Manobo; Cuts; Ethnomedicine; Background

Sibagat; Wound The Philippines is rich in traditional knowledge of
medicinal plants used by various ethnic
Abstract (Bisaya/Cebuano) communities. WHO estimates around 2% of the
world’s population are currently disabled as a result
Background: Kini nga papel nag imbestigar sa gamit of cuts and injury (Peabody et al. 2000); about 1–2%
sa mga tanom alang sa pagpanambal sa mga in developed countries will experience a chronic
Manobo sa Agusan isip potensyal nga idiskobre nga wound in their lifetime (Gottrup 2004). Although
tambal alang sa mga hiwa ug samad. Bisan sa kaila scant data on cuts and wounds are available for
sa ilang mga tanom gamit pagpanambal, wala developing countries of Asia, such sufferings are a
madokumentar kini tungod sa kalayo ug kakuyaw sa major health problem facing indigenous peoples.
mga Communist Party of the Philippines - New
People’s Army nga nagapuyo aning lugara. Ang WHO has also recorded around 60% of the world’s
ilang kahibalo sa pagpanambal nga gipasapasa population rely on herbal medicine (Farnsworth
pinaagi sa mga estorya, gidokumentar niining 1994). There are about 35,000–70,000 medicinal
papela. plant species worldwide (Schippmann et al. 2002), of
which 7,000 species are in South Asia (Karki &
Methods: Gibuhat kining dokumentasyon gikan William 1999) and ca. 6,500 species in Southeast
Oktubre 2018 hangtud Pebrero 2019 sa 50 ka mga Asia (Madulid 1989, Burns 1998). There are around
taong maalamon pinaagi sa pakisestorya, 1,500 species of medicinal plants in the Philippines
pangutana, ug pakigpulong sa komunidad sa mga (Dela Cruz & Ramos 2006). A total of 120 medicinal
tambal nga tanom alang sa mga hiwa ug samad. plants have been scientifically validated for safety
Gigamitan ug estatistika pinaagi sa Kruskal-Wallis and efficacy (Eusebio & Umali 2004) which include
ug Mann-Whitney U na mga test sa 0.05 lebel sa some of the top 100 medicinal plants listed used in
significance kung adunay kalambigitan ang kaalam various treatments for cuts, wounds, infections and
sa mga maalamon base sa lokasyon, posisyon sa other diseases (Tan & Sia 2014). A number of these
tribo, trabaho, nahumang edukasyon, kahimtang sa medicinal plants with folkloric bases were recently
kaminyoon, tawhanun, ug edad. Gilista ang maong validated scientifically by evaluating their biological
mga tanom nga tambal ug ang pila ka mga nalitok sa and biochemical properties (e.g. Abdulaziz et al.
mga maalamon pinaagi sa family importance value 2019, Añides et al. 2019, Dela Peña et al. 2019,
ug relative frequency of citation. Nadayag et al. 2019, Uy et al. 2019, Dapar et al.
2020b). Several plants are used for the treatment of
Results: Ang maong dokumentasyon nakalista ug 48 cuts, wounds and skin infections. They are known to
ka species nga mga tanom nga tambal ug mikabat be used in the form of extracts, poultice and
ka 45 ka genera ug 25 ka pamilya nga gigamit sa decoction from various ethnic groups, but yet to be
komunidad ug sa ilang mananambal sa tribo alang documented from the Manobo community of
sa mga hiwa ug samad. Ang pamilya sa Asteraceae Mindanao, Philippines.
(7 species) ang nagrepresentar ug dako ug ang
Piper species ang pinakagigamit nga tanom alang sa Mindanao archipelago of Philippines is inhabited by
pagpanambal. Base sa estatistika, ang kaalam sa various indigenous peoples (IPs) (UNDP 2010).
tanom nga tambal sa mga maalamon kay adunay Majority of these IPs belong to the Agusan Manobo
significant nga deperensiya (p < 0.05) kung igrupo community (NCIP 2010, NCCA 2015, Reyes et al.
sa unsang trabaho, nahumang edukasyon, 2017). Etymologically, the term Manobo was named
kahimtang sa kaminyoon, tawhanun, ug edad apan after ‘Mansuba’ meaning river people. They live
walay significant nga deperensiya kung igrupo sa along the Agusan river valley and Agusan marshland
lokasyon (p = 0.234) ug posisyon sa tribo (p = 0.580). territories of the province (Dapar et al. 2020a). The
municipality of Sibagat in Agusan del Sur province is
Conclusions: Kini nga panukiduki nagpakita sa listed among the localities approved with a
tradisyonal nga gamit ug kahibalo sa mga Manobo Certification of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) by the
sa Agusan alang sa epektibong tanom pagpanambal National Commission on Indigenous Peoples
sa mga hiwa ug samad. Ang systema sa (NCIP). Their common livelihoods are traditional
pagpanambal sa mga Indigenous Cultural agriculture or animal husbandry and their source of
Communities/Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs) kay food comes from their rice harvest, root crops, and
importante nga kaalam para sa pagdiskobre sa mga vegetables. Recorded common ailments of Agusan
tambal. Daghan pang mga pagdokumentar ang Manobo were bites, cuts, wounds and skin infections
gikinahanglan ug gidasig ang tanan sa pagtuki sa dili based on current study but only one species locally
pa mawala ang mga kahibalo ug kaalam sa atong named “Lunas-bagon” has yet been documented
mga nitibo ug lumad. (Dapar & Demayo 2017) which was molecularly
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 3

confirmed recently as an indigenous Piper Field survey

decumanum L. (Dapar et al. 2020b) and previously A total of 38 field visits were conducted from October
evaluated for its antimicrobial, cytotoxic and 2018 to February 2019 to collect ethnobotanical
phytochemical properties (Dapar et al. 2018). information on the treatment of cuts and wounds.
The fieldwork was carried out after obtaining ethics
One of the riversides occupied by the tribe is their approval, consents, resolution, certification, and
ancestral domain nearby Sibagat River, which is permits. These were obtained prior to the actual
historically known as the battle zone of opposing interview and field sampling of medicinal plants in
tribes (PIMO 2012). During wars and conflicts, three selected barangays of Sibagat, namely Ilihan,
injuries such as cuts, wounds and burns were Mahayahay and Villangit (Figure 1). This survey
common, resulting in various medicinal plant usage coordinated with the municipal administration of
to address them. Moreover, war conflicts involving Sibagat and consulted the tribal council of elders to
secessionists and communist insurgents against the converse about research intent as purely academic.
government have also affected the Agusan Manobo A Manobo ritual was observed for mutual agreement
communities in their location. This conflict scenario and respect with the tribal community (Figure 2).
inflicts injuries, particularly cuts and wounds resulting When all free prior informed consents, resolution and
to increasing demand for medicinal plants. Their long certification from the tribal community were secured,
tradition of preserving their medicinal plant this survey was duly certified and permitted by the
knowledge have also proven to be useful in other regional offices, namely NCIP and Department of
situations such as motor vehicle accidents, burns, Environment and Natural Resources Office (DENR)
fractures, lacerations and animal interactions. of CARAGA Administrative Region, respectively.

The law and order situation brought about by security A total of 50 purposively and snowball sampled
threats posed by the Communist Party of the Manobo key informants (more than 10% of the total
Philippines - New People’s Army previously hindered population of selected barangays) were interviewed
possibilities of ethnomedicinal surveys. In this using a semi-structured open-ended interview. There
context, the recent reduction in conflicts and were 35 females and 15 males with an age range
prevalence of peace makes it possible to conduct from 18 to 78 years old and an average age of 42.
ethnobotanical studies. Therefore, this study was The sample also included their lone tribal healer, one
conceived to document ethnomedicinal plants used Indigenous Peoples Mandatory Representative
by the Agusan Manobo of selected CADT areas of (IPMR), the municipal tribal chieftain, 13 tribal
Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, for the treatment of cuts leaders, 34 tribal council of elders. A valid translation
and wounds. to Manobo dialect (Minanubu) was secured in
coordination with the NCIP focal personnel and tribal
Materials and methods elders. A total of 19 focus group discussions were
performed with the municipal chieftain and IPMR,
three respective barangay tribal leaders and the only
Study area tribal healer.
Sibagat is geographically located in the coordinates
8° 96' 61" N, 125° 76' 25" E, situated in the Collection and identification
northeastern tip of the province of Agusan del Sur Voucher specimens of medicinal plants were
(Figure 1). It was formerly part of Bayugan and deposited in the University of Santo Tomas
became an independent municipality in 1961 with a Herbarium (USTH) and folk names compared to the
total of 24 barangays along the local river called Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names by Madulid
“Sibagat River”. Fieldwork was carried out in three (2001). Plant identification was authenticated with
purposively selected barangays with approved the help of Danilo Tandang, a botanist and
CADTs as endorsed by the municipal administration researcher at the National Museum of the
and NCIP focal personnel. Research intent was Philippines. All scientific names were verified for
permitted by the tribal council, and approved by the spelling and synonyms, and family classification
NCIP, and the Provincial Environment and Natural using The Plant List (2013), World Flora Online
Resources Office (PENRO) of the provincial and (2019), the International Plant Names Index (2019)
local administration of Agusan del Sur. There is only and Tropicos (2019). Medicinal plant species
one hospital and health center in the municipality and occurrence, distribution, and species identification
poor access of the local healthcare can be observed were further confirmed by referring to the updated
due to limited facilities and distant location from the Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (CDFP 2011
communities. Hence, the long traditional use of onwards).
medicinal plants for treating cuts and wounds is still
prevalent in the locality.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 4

Figure 1. Map of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines showing the three barangays (villages): Ilihan, Mahayahay,
and Villangit (red pins).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5

Figure 2. Rituals being performed with the Manobo officials of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur: (A) The tribal chieftain,
healer, leaders, and council of elders together with the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) focal
personnel; (B) Ritual prayer asking permission to their deities; (C) Sacrificing chicken; (D) Offering to their deities;
(E) Signing of certification using blood thumbmarks; and (F) Group photo on the approval of the conduct of study.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 6

Table 1. Demographic profile of informants.

Category Subcategory No. of % of Total No. of Species
Informants informants Cited
Location Ilihan 10 20 40
(barangay or Mahayahay 5 10 45
village)
Villangit 35 70 42
Educational level Primary 9 18 33
Secondary 24 48 36
Higher education 17 34 31
Gender Female 35 70 40
Male 15 30 43
Social position Tribal chieftain 1 2 36
Tribal healer 1 2 43
Tribal IPMR 1 2 38
Tribal leaders 13 26 36
Tribal council of elders 34 68 37
Occupation Farming 30 60 43
Animal husbandry 9 18 41
Employed 10 20 31
Unemployed 1 2 38
Civil status Single 27 54 37
Married 23 46 40
Age 18-34 years old 20 40 32
35-49 years old 14 28 36
50-65 years old 10 20 43
More than 65 years 6 12 45

Quantitative ethnomedicinal analysis status, gender and age. Statistical analyses were
Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) helps in employed using IBM SPSS Statistics software v.23.
determining the local importance of each medicinal
plant species. This is calculated using the formula: Results and discussion
RFC = FC/N, where FC (frequency of citation) is the Demographic profile of respondents
number of informants who cited the medicinal plant, The study area comprises three barangays (villages)
and N is the total number of informants (Vitalini et al. in the Municipality of Sibagat as shown in Table 1
2013). RFC identifies the cultural importance of plant and Figure 1. The field interviews conducted here
species in the area ranging in value from 0 to 1, with included heterogenous informants with varying
values closer to 1 represent the most important educational levels, gender, social position,
species. Family Importance Value (FIV) identifies the occupation, civil status, and age. Indeed, medicinal
local importance of the medicinal plant families. This plant knowledge is not homogenous but varies
is calculated using the formula: FIV = (FC/N) x 100, significantly among the respondents of the
where FC is the frequency of citation of the plant community (Voeks & Leony 2004; Voeks 2007;
family, and N is the total number of informants (Ali et Camou-Guerrero et al. 2008)
al. 2018). FIV determines the most important family
based on the number of citation reports among key The sample comprises of 30% female and 70% male
informants and the number of medicinal plant informants. In terms of occupation, most of the key
species used to treat cuts and wounds. informants are farmers (60%) followed by formal
employment (20%), animal husbandry (18%), and
Statistical analysis one unemployed (2%). Many of them finished
Medicinal plant knowledge of respondents on the secondary level (48%), followed by higher education
number of medicinal plant species known were (34%), and primary (18%). The sample involved both
statistically analyzed by descriptive and non- single (54%) and married (46%) respondents.
parametric inferential statistics Mann-Whitney U and Majority of them were Manobo council of elders
Kruskal-Wallis tests, grouped according to location, (68%), followed by tribal leaders (26%%), and one
social position, occupation, educational level, civil each for tribal chieftain (2%), tribal healer (2%) and
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 7

tribal IPMR (2%). In terms of age, there was a knowledge when grouped according to civil status
decreasing number of informants with increasing and gender (p < 0.05).
years of age as 18-34 years (40%), 35-49 years
(28%), 50-65 years (20%), and more than 65 years Married informants had more medicinal plant
(12%). The total number of species cited varied knowledge (Md = 35, n = 23) than single informants
relatively according to the demographic profile of the (Md = 32, n = 27). In terms of gender, male
informants. informants had more medicinal plant knowledge (Md
= 36, n = 35) when compared to female informants
Medicinal plant knowledge (Md = 35, n = 25). On the other hand, key informants’
On the average, each Agusan Manobo key informant plant knowledge when grouped according to age
has a recorded knowledge of 35 medicinal plant increases significantly by increasing age as revealed
species used for cuts and wounds. The relative in the highly significant difference in Kruskal-Wallis
frequency of citation (RFC) and family importance test (p < 0.05). This result was presented starting
value (FIV) of medicinal plants were relatively from the lowest age range, 18–34 years old (Md =
dependent on the number of medicinal plants known 27, n = 20), then 35–49 years old (Md = 34, n = 14),
among the Agusan Manobo respondents for the 50–65 years old (Md = 36, n = 10), and finally, more
treatment of cuts and wounds. These number of than 65 years old (Md = 39, n = 6). This result implies
medicinal plant knowledge among the key that medicinal plant knowledge for cuts and wounds
informants varied comparatively according to among the Agusan Manobo could be attributed to the
location, social position, occupation, educational period duration of experience of medicinal plant
level, civil status, gender and age. Descriptive and practices as manifested in their age.
inferential statistics revealed significant factors
influencing medicinal plant knowledge of Agusan Medicinal plants used and their distribution
Manobo key informants for cuts and wounds. The present study documented ethnobotanical
information on 48 species of medicinal plants
When grouped according to location and social belonging to 45 genera and 25 families for the
position, Kruskal-Wallis test revealed no significant treatment of cuts and wounds (Table 2). Most of
differences of medicinal plant knowledge (p = 0.234 these medicinal plants grow in the wild in various
and p = 0.580, respectively). This result may suggest ecotypes as the Agusan Manobo believe that these
that there could be an active exchange of knowledge plants with healing powers should thrive in their
in the three localities among the Agusan Manobo natural habitat.
tribal communities within and among social
positions. Sharing of information could be observed Only three species (6.25%) were Philippine endemic,
during their monthly social meeting and preparation namely Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal,
which perpetuates the uses and knowledge of their Homalomena philippinensis Engl. ex Engl. &
medicinal plants used for cuts and wounds. K.Krause, and Omalanthus macradenius Pax &
However, when respondents were grouped Hoffm. On the other hand, the other 45 species
according to occupation, nonparametric Kruskal- (93.75%) were recorded not endemic. These species
Wallis test showed significant difference (p < 0.05) could be listed exotic species which could be either
on their knowledge of medicinal plants used for cuts introduced or naturalized, or both. Two recorded
and wounds. introduced species were Hippobroma longiflora (L.)
G. Don and Jatropha curcas L. Naturalized species
Respondents doing farming had the highest included Ageratum conyzoides L., Chromolaena
medicinal plant knowledge (Md = 36, n = 30), odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob., Gmelina arborea
followed by those doing animal husbandry (Md = 34, Roxb. ex Sm., Jatropha gossypifolia L., Kalanchoe
n = 9), employed respondents (Md = 29, n = 10), and pinnata (Lam.) Pers., Phyllanthus amarus
the lowest was recorded from the lone unemployed Schumach. & Thonn., and Piper aduncum L. Other
respondent (Md = 28, n = 1). When grouped species were both naturalized and invasive species
according to educational level, key informants who such as Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. while some
had secondary level as highest educational species were both introduced and naturalized such
qualification had the highest medicinal plant as Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Steud.,
knowledge (Md = 38, n = 24), followed by primary Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Rohr, and
level (Md = 35, n = 9), and finally tertiary level (Md = Psidium guajava L. Some species were known
25, n = 17) as revealed by the highly significant native of the Neotropics, such as Ageratum
difference in Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.05). conyzoides L., Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King
Moreover, both nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis and & H. Rob., and Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Mann-Whitney U tests showed significant
differences of key informants’ medicinal plant
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8

The prehistoric introduction of plants, mostly trees medicinal plants continued during post-war and
was preliminarily recorded among the Malayo- planting them were included in reforestation
Polynesian settlers (Baguinon et al. 2003). Additional (Baguinon et al. 2003). Large number of invasive
exotic trees and crops were brought to the species were being used in various ethnic groups
Philippines through Acapulco trade during the since these could have competitive advantage for
Spanish regime (Baguinon et al. 2003) and even the resilience of medical systems in the Philippines.
more exotic trees during the American regime Exotic species could increase species diversity of
(Caguioa 1953). Caguioa (1953) provides a good plant species considered by the tribal community as
account of the introduction of plants to the medicinal or therapeutic (Alencar et al. 2014).
Philippines. The introduction of exotics including

Table 2. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds
No. Scientific name Family Origin Folk name FC RFC Used Mode of
(Voucher No.) part preparation and
administration
1. Abroma augusta Byttneriaceae Samboligawn 10 0.22 Bark, Decocted leaf
(L.) L.f. leaf and bark are
(USTH 015637) washed on cuts
and wounds.
2. Acmella grandiflora Asteraceae Lunas pilipo 37 0.74 Flower Fresh flower is
(Turcz.) crushed and
R.K.Jansen applied on cuts
(USTH 015548) and wounds.
3. Ageratum Asteraceae Albahaca 15 0.30 Leaf Leaf is pounded
conyzoides L. and applied on
(USTH 015602) cuts and wounds.
4. Alstonia Apocynaceae Dita 29 0.58 Leaf Leaf is crushed,
macrophylla Wall. heated and
ex G.Don applied on cuts
(USTH 015546) and wounds.
5. Anodendron Apocynaceae Lunas tag-uli 36 0.72 Stem Stem infused
borneense (King & with coconut oil is
Gamble) D.J. applied on to
Middleton affected parts.
(USTH 015639)
6. Arcangelisia flava Menispermaceae Lagtang or 18 0.36 Stem Stem infused
(L.) Merr. Abutra with coconut oil is
(USTH 015600) applied on to
affected parts.
7. Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Tuway-tuway 8 0.16 Leaf Leaf is crushed
(USTH 015582) and applied on
cuts and wounds.
8. Chromolaena Asteraceae Hagonoy 33 0.66 Leaf Leaf sap is
odorata (L.) R.M. sap applied on to cuts
King & H. Rob. and wounds.
(USTH 015632)
9. Cinnamomum Lauraceae Ende Kaningag 37 0.74 Bark, Bark, branch and
mercadoi S.Vidal mic branch, root infused with
(USTH 015585) root coconut oil is are
applied on
affected parts.
10. Coleus Lamiaceae Mayana pula 33 0.66 Leaf Leaf is crushed
scutellarioides (L.) and applied on
Benth. cuts and wounds.
(USTH 015644)
11. Cratoxylum Hypericaceae Bansilay 17 0.34 Leaf Leaf is pounded
sumatranum (Jack) and applied on
Blume cuts and wounds.
(USTH 015541)
12. Curcuma longa L. Zingerberaceae Duwaw 10 0.20 Rhizom Extract of the
(USTH 015674) e pounded rhizome
is applied on to
affected parts.
13. Dianella ensifolia Xanthorrhoeaceae Ikug-ikug 13 0.26 Leaf Leaf is applied on
(L.) DC. to cuts and
(USTH 015656) wounds.
14. Eleusine indica (L.) Poaceae Bilabila 13 0.26 Leaf Decocted leaf is
Gaertn. washed on cuts
(USTH 015569) and wounds.
15. Erechtites Asteraceae Gapas-gapas 12 0.24 Leaf Leaf sap is
valerianifolius (Link bae sap applied on to cuts
ex Spreng.) DC. and wounds.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 9

(USTH 015666)
16. Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Tawa-tawa 27 0.54 Leaf Decocted leaf is
(USTH 015665) washed on cuts
and wounds.
17. Ficus concinna Moraceae Balete 38 0.76 Bark, Decocted bark
(Miq.) Miq. root and root are
(USTH 015552) washed on cuts
and wounds.
18. Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae Madre de 26 0.52 Leaf Leaf sap is
(Jacq.) Kunth ex Cacao sap applied on to cuts
Steud. and wounds.
(USTH 015620)
19. Gmelina arborea Lamiaceae Gemelina 24 0.48 Leaf The leaf is
Roxb. ex Sm. applied on to cuts
(USTH 015635) and wounds.
20. Hippobroma Campanulaceae Elepanteng 14 0.28 Leaf Decocted leaf is
longiflora (L.) G. puti washed on cuts
Don and wounds.
(USTH 015583)
21. Homalomena Araceae Ende Payaw 13 0.26 Rhizom Extract of the
philippinensis Engl. mic e pounded rhizome
ex Engl. & is applied on to
K.Krause affected parts.
(USTH 015597)
22. Hoya imbricata Apocynaceae Pikot-pikot 10 0.20 Leaf Burned and
Decne. powdered leaf
(USTH 015618) infused with
coconut oil is
applied on to
affected parts.
23. Hydrocotyle Araliaceae Goto kola 16 0.32 Leaf Leaf sap is
vulgaris L. sap applied on to cuts
(USTH 015563) and wounds.
24. Hyptis capitata Lamiaceae Sawan-sawan 15 0.30 Leaf Leaf is crushed
Jacq. and applied on
(USTH 015574) cuts and wounds.
25. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Tuba-tuba puti 19 0.38 Leaf Decocted leaf is
(USTH 015595) washed on cuts
and wounds.
26. Jatropha Euphorbiaceae Tuba-tuba 22 0.44 Leaf Decocted leaf is
gossypifolia L. tapol washed on cuts
(USTH 015586) and wounds.
27. Kalanchoe Crassulaceae Hanlilika 25 0.50 Leaf Decocted leaf is
pinnata (Lam.) washed on cuts
Pers. and wounds.
(USTH 015584)
28. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Mangga 25 0.50 Leaf Leaf is crushed
(USTH 015591) and applied on
cuts and wounds.
29. Melastoma Melastomataceae Hantutuknaw 11 0.22 Stem Decocted stem is
malabathricum L. applied on cuts
(USTH 015588) and wounds.
30. Mentha canadensis Lamiaceae Sencia 10 0.20 Leaf Leaf is decocted
L. or crashed
(USTH 015670) crushed and
applied on
affected parts.
31. Micromelum Rutaceae Lunas kahoy 39 0.78 Root, Stem or root
minutum (G. Forst.) stem infused with
Wight & Arn. coconut oil is
(USTH 015538) applied on cuts
and wounds.
32. Mikania cordata Asteraceae Moti-moti 36 0.72 Leaf Leaf sap is
(Burm.f.) B.L. Rob. sap applied on to cuts
(USTH 015543) and wounds.
33. Ocimum basilicum Lamiaceae Sangig 12 0.24 Leaf Leaf is crushed
L. and applied on
(USTH 015630) cuts and wounds.
34. Omalanthus Euphorbiaceae Ende Banti 16 0.32 Leaf Leaf is pounded
macradenius Pax & mic and applied on
Hoffm. cuts and wounds.
(USTH 015633)
35. Paspalum Poaceae Miligoy 14 0.28 Root Decocted root is
conjugatum P.J. washed on
Bergius affected parts.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 10

(USTH 015627)
36. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllantaceae Talikod or 23 0.46 Fruit, Decocted fruit
Schumach. & Likod-likod root and root are
Thonn. washed on
(USTH 015590) affected parts.
37. Piper aduncum L. Piperaceae Lunas buyo 25 0.50 Stem Decocted stem is
(USTH 015568) applied on cuts
and wounds.
38. Piper decumanum Piperaceae Lunas bagon 42 0.84 Stem Stem infused
L. tapol with coconut oil is
(USTH 015544) applied on to cuts
and wounds.
39. Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Lunas bagon 40 0.80 Stem Stem infused
(USTH 015560) puti (wild) with coconut oil is
applied on to cuts
and wounds.
40. Pipturus Urticaceae Handamay 16 0.32 Bark Bark is scraped
arborescens (Link) and applied on
C.B. Rob. cuts and wounds.
(USTH 015673)
41. Poikilospermum Urticaceae Hanupi 14 0.28 Root Decocted root is
acuminatum washed on
(Trecul.) Merr. affected parts.
(USTH 015655)
42. Premna odorata Lamiaceae Abgaw 25 0.50 Leaf Leaf is crushed
Blanco and applied on
(USTH 015559) cuts and wounds.
43. Pseudelephantopu Asteraceae Kukog banog 11 0.22 Leaf Leaf sap is
s spicatus (Juss.) sap dropped on
Rohr affected parts.
(USTH 015564)
44. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Bayabas 38 0.76 Leaf Decocted leaf is
(USTH 015663) washed on cuts
and wounds.
45. Rosa sp. Rosaceae Rose (wild) 12 0.24 Flower Flower is infused
(USTH 015628) with hot water
and applied on
affected parts.
46. Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Eskuba laki 12 0.24 Bark, Decocted leaf
(USTH 015601) leaf and bark are
washed on cuts
and wounds.
47. Tinospora crispa Menispermaceae Panyawan 28 0.56 Stem Stem sap is
(L.) Hook.f. & sap dropped on
Thomson affected parts.
(USTH 015566)
48. Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Dupang bae 14 0.28 Whole Burn the whole
(USTH 015664) plant plant as incense
and smolder
smoke it around
the affected
parts.

Folk plant names particular disease or health condition. Accordingly,

Folk plant names are highly essential in the field of two Piper species, namely Piper decumanum L.
ethnopharmacology, pharmacognosy, and (lunas bagon tapol), and the wild Piper nigrum L.
pharmacovigilance (Farah et al. 2006, De Boer et al. (lunas bagon puti) have local name similarity
2014) and very useful basis of ethnoclassification denoted with the first word lunas (meaning cure in
(Ghorbani et al. 2017, Dapar et al. 2020a, 2020b). Minanubu and Bisayan dialects). The respondents
Interestingly, previous investigations also showed distinguish these two Piper species based on the leaf
that plant names could serve as indicators of the and stem coloration with shades of white for P.
local knowledge patterns (Franco 2009) and nigrum while shades of red for P. decumanum.
linguistic stratigraphy (Bostoen 2007) of the Another lunas named Piper species is Piper
community. aduncum L. (lunas buyo) which has nothing to do
with the ethnoclassification of colour. These folk
Our findings reveal that folk names of medicinal names are essential ethnoclassification references
plants among the Agusan Manobo are based on the but reliance on these names can cause confusion
traditional uses of plants as a treatment for a resulting to incorrect identification of plant species
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 11

which must be confirmed using molecular data The best-represented family was Asteraceae with
(Dapar et al. 2020a, 2020b), or evaluation of its seven species, also with the highest FIV (337.78),
constituent present and cytotoxic properties (Dapar followed by Lamiaceae (FIV=264.44) with six
et al. 2020b). Recently, two Piper species used by species. Third highest FIV was Piperaceae (237.78)
the Agusan Manobo were molecularly confirmed as with three species and followed by Euphorbiaceae
an indigenous Piper decumanum and an introduced (FIV=186.67) with four species as tabulated in Table
Piper aduncum (Dapar et al. 2020b). Other 3. Asteraceae (sunflower family) is the largest family
associated lunas named species were Anodendron of flowering plants with uncounted pharmacological
borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton (lunas properties against inflammation, tumor, bacterial,
tag-uli), Acmella grandiflora (Turcz.) R.K.Jansen and fungal infections (Koc et al. 2015). Lamiaceae
(lunas pilipo), and Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) (mint family) possesses a wide range of medicinal
Wight & Arn. (lunas kahoy). However, among the and aromatic plants with abundant essential oils that
identified lunas named species, two species, namely are used in traditional and modern medicine
A. borneense and P. decumanum were novel (Mamadalieva et al. 2017). Piperaceae (pepper
ethnomedicinal reports for cuts and wounds to date family) contains species of herbs known to have
and only reported among the Agusan Manobo in medicinal properties as effective antibacterial (Scott
Mindanao, Philippines. et al. 2008; Rekha et al. 2014), as a potential
treatment for skin infections, cuts and wounds.
Relative importance of medicinal plant species Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) are mostly of herbs
and families often showing effective remedies against various
Two Piper species were cited to be the most skin ailments, inflammation, and injuries like several
important medicinal plant species in the three species under the genus Euphorbia L. (Ernst et al.
barangays (villages) of Sibagat for the treatment of 2015).
cuts and wounds. These were Piper decumanum L.
(RFC=0.84) and wild Piper nigrum (RFC=0.80). Table 3. FIV values of medicinal plants used by the
Piper extracts are widely known, particularly in South Agusan Manobo for cuts and wounds.
Asian medicinal practices as effective antibacterial Family
(Scott et al. 2008), with diverse phytochemicals and No. Family Importance Value
(FIV)
essential oils as an effective treatment of diseases
1. Anacardiaceae 55.56
(Salehi et al. 2019). The most commonly used spice 2. Apocynaceae 166.67
Piper species, P. nigrum, is known to have 3. Araceae 28.89
remarkable pharmacological activities including 4. Araliaceae 35.56
wound healing properties (Salehi et al. 2019). Piper 5. Asteraceae 337.78
nigrum in this study was collected from the wild as 6. Byttneriaceae 22.22
believed to be a potent medicinal plant for cuts and 7. Campanulaceae 31.11
8. Crassulaceae 55.56
wounds among the respondents. Correspondingly,
9. Euphorbiaceae 186.67
cultivated or commercialized P. nigrum could only be 10. Fabaceae 57.78
used as additives in foods and not as effective as 11. Hypericaceae 37.78
collected from the wild for treatment of cuts and 12. Lamiaceae 264.44
wounds of the Agusan Manobo. 13. Lauraceae 82.22
14. Malvaceae 57.78
Other highly cited and relatively important species 15. Melastomataceae 24.44
16. Menispermaceae 102.22
are members of other families. These species were
17. Moraceae 84.44
Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) 18. Myrtaceae 84.44
D.J.Middleton (RFC=0.72, Apocynaceae), Acmella 19. Phyllantaceae 51.11
grandiflora (Turcz.) R.K.Jansen (RFC=0.74, 20. Piperaceae 237.78
Asteraceae), and Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) 21. Poaceae 60.00
Wight & Arn. (RFC=0.78, Rutaceae). The wound 22. Rosaceae 26.67
23. Rutaceae 86.67
healing potentials of these species could be
24. Urticaceae 66.67
supported by previous wound healing investigations 25. Xanthorrhoeaceae 28.89
under the same genus or family. These species were 26. Zingerberaceae 22.22
Piper species (Piperaceae) (Durant-Archibold et al.
2018; Salehi et al. 2019); Carissa spinarum L. Asteraceae, the highest FIV in this study, is among
(Apocynaceae) (Sanwal & Chaudhary 2011); the largest families of flowering plants in the world
Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K.Jansen and Achyrocline (Hattori & Nakajima 2008) with ca. 1600 genera and
satureioides (Lam.) DC. (both Asteraceae) (Yamane ca. 23,000 species botanically described (Funk et al.
et al. 2016); and Clausena excavata Burm.f. 2009) and even more revisions in relation to its
(Rutaceae) (Albaayit et al. 2015). biology and chemistry. Asteraceae has a very wide
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 12

distribution dispersed in all continents except al. 2014; Pizon et al. 2016), and the Ayta (Tantengco
Antarctica (Jeffrey 2007) but with cosmopolitan et al. 2018).
representation in temperate and semiarid regions of
the tropics and subtropics (Roque & Bautista 2008) The majority of the documented medicinal plants
including the Philippines. The family is very diverse were herbs (39%), followed by trees (23%), shrubs
with very complex morphology and taxonomy. The (21%), and climbers (17%) as shown in Figure 3. The
current classification recognizes 12 subfamilies, and most frequently used plant part is the leaves (49%)
43 tribes which are often herbaceous plants and with decoction as the most common mode of
small shrubs, but rarely trees (Campos et al. 2016). preparation (31%) as illustrated in Figures 4 and 5,
Nationwide distribution of this medicinal plant family respectively.
is widespread as used by various ethnic tribes
throughout the Philippine archipelago. Asteraceae This is the first ethnomedicinal documentation of
dominates medicinal plant collections in a number of medicinal plants focusing on cuts and wounds
Philippine ethnobotanical surveys in several ethnic among the ethnic tribes in the Philippines.
groups, namely the Higaonon (Olowa et al. 2012), Cl
the Ivatan (Abe & Ohtani 2013), the Muslim Maranao 17%
(Olowa & Demayo 2015), the Ilongot-Eǵongot
(Balberona et al. 2018), the Ayta (Tantengco et al.
2018), and the Subanen (Alduhisa & Demayo 2019) Hb
with the emphasis for the treatment of cuts and 39%
wounds.

Comparison with other ethnomedicinal studies Sh

for cuts and wounds 21%
Comparative evaluation of ethnobotanical studies of
medicinal plants used for cuts and wounds across
countries showed either convergent or divergent
data as shown in Table 4. Useful species and plant
parts including mode of preparation varied
geographically across continents. Leaves remained Tr
the mostly used aerial plant part prepared in several 23%
ways for treatment of cuts and wounds. Useful
Figure 3. Plant habit of medicinal plants. Cl, climber;
species in different countries were also diverse
Hb, herb; Sh, shrub; Tr, tree
indicating divergent information primarily depending
on the ecological types and habitats of these
medicinal plant species to thrive. Rz Wh
Fw 3%
2%
Rt 3%
Current findings also showed that the leaves of the
documented medicinal plants used by the Agusan 7%
Manobo have traditional wound healing potential.
The highest percentage of using leaves was
previously reported in ethnobotanical studies across Bk
divergent cultural communities in the Philippines 9%
(Olowa et al. 2012, Abe & Ohtani 2013, Ong & Kim Lf
49%
2014, Morilla et al. 2014, Olowa & Demayo 2015,
Pizon et al. 2016, Balangcod & Balangcod 2018,
Tantengco et al. 2018, Dapar et al. 2020a). Most of Sp
11%
these ethnic tribes cited more than one plant part like
leaves, stems, barks, and roots of the same species.
Sometimes, a mixture of multiple plant parts was
suggested for a more effective treatment. Decoction
as the most common method of preparation is similar St
to previous ethnobotanical investigations of 16%
medicinal plants among other Philippine indigenous
tribes such as the Higaonon (Olowa et al. 2012), Ati
Negrito (Ong & Kim 2014), the Muslim Maranaos Figure 4. Medicinal plant parts used. Bk, bark; Br,
(Olowa & Demayo 2015), the Subanens (Morilla et branch; Fw, flower; Lf, leaf; Rt, root; Rz, rhizome;
St, stem; Wh, whole plant.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 13

3. The ethnomedicinal information documented

Bu Ht
through this study could serve as lead for further
Po 4% 2%
pharmacological investigations and clinical studies.
10%
Dc
31% 4. Relative medicinal importance of the reported
species in this study will serve as reference for future
conservation priorities.
In
16% 5. This study demonstrated the importance of
documenting ethnomedicinal knowledge to
perpetuate cultural traditions and save traditional
knowledge for future use and advantage.

Conclusions
Cr Da This study discussed the rich ethnomedicinal plant
18% 19% knowledge of Agusan Manobo on medicinal plants
used to treat cuts and wounds. The results obtained
include new reports of medicinal uses from two
Figure 5. Mode of preparation and administration of indigenous species documented for the first time for
medicinal plants. Bu, burning; Cr, crushing; Da, cuts and wounds only known from the Agusan
directly applying; Dc, decoction; Ht, heating; In,
Manobo. This study highlights the need for more
infusion; Po, pounding.
comprehensive documentation of medicinal plants
Research highlights used for treating different ailments. This wealth of
traditional knowledge of Agusan Manobo could be
1. The present study presents ethnomedicinal lost unless it is transmitted in its entirety to the
information on plants used by the Agusan Manobo to younger generation. Our results reinforce the need
treat cuts and wounds. for complete documentation of indigenous traditional
knowledge related to wound healing before it
2. Two documented indigenous species, namely A. becomes lost and forgotten. It is also essential to
borneense and P. decumanum are novel recognize the role of indigenous knowledge for future
ethnomedicinal information used to treat cuts and drug discovery and development, sustainability and
wounds reported only from the Agusan Manobo conservation of plant genetic resources.
community.

Table 4. Comparative ethnomedicinal information of medicinal plants used for cuts and wounds across continents.
Location Useful Parts Mode of Useful species for cuts and wounds Reference
Preparation
Eastern Leaf, stem Poultice, infusions Polystichum pungens, Cheilanthes Grierson &
Cape, bark, root, made from fresh viridis, Malva parvifolia, and Grewia Afolayan
South bulb, and or dried material, occidentalis 1999
Africa corm extracted juice,
lotion, powder,
and ointment
Russia and Leaf, flower, Galenical, Vitis spp., Punica granatum, Simmondsia Mamedov et
Central root, seed, essential oil, spp., Arnica chamissonis, Arnica foliosa, al. 2005
Asia rhizome powder, juice Arnica montana, Hippophae rhamnoides,
Aloe arborescens, Plantago major,
Plantago psyllium, Viola tricolor
Izmir Leaf, aerial Salve, poultice, Achillea millefolium, Arctium Ugulu et al.
Province, parts, seed, oil, powder, tomentosum, Calendula officinalis, 2009
Turkey tuber, gum, decoction, juice Borago officinalis, Capsella
petal bursapastoris, Hypericum perforatum,
Momardica charantia, Trigonella foenum-
graecum, Rosmarinus officinalis,
Asphodelus aestivus, Malva sylvestris,
Papaver rhoeas, Pinus pinea, Rumex
patientia, Paliurus spina-christi, Rosa
damescena, Rubus canescens,
Verbascum thapsus, Veronica officinalis,
Solanum nigrum, and Parietaria Judaica
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 14

Luzon, Leaf, stem Fresh stem latex Epipremnum pinnatum, Alocasia Abe &
Philippines or leaf sap, macrorrhiza, Colocasia esculenta, Aloe Ohtani 2013
poultice barbadensis, Ageratum conyzoides,
Crassocephalum crepidioides, and
Commelina benghalensis
Visayas, Leaf, bark Infusions, fresh Mangifera indica, Annona squamosa, Ong & Kim
Philippines stem latex or leaf and Parameria laevigata 2014
sap and extract
Kerala, Leaf, root, Fresh juice, Tridax procumbens, Mimosa pudica, Thomas et
India bark, latex, powder, paste and Viscum articulatum, Hemigraphis al. 2014
tuber, decoction colorata, Leonotis nepatifolia, Melastoma
inflorescence, malabathricum, Cleome viscosa,
and whole Euphorbia hirta, Tagetes erecta, Oxalis
plant corniculata, and Ziziphus enoplia
Dobruja Leaf, fruit, Fermented, Cydonia oblonga, Malus domestica, Pieroni et al.
(South- aerial parts, distilled, dried Nicotiana tabacum, Plantago major, 2015
East bulb Prunus armeniaca, Prunus cerasifera,
Romania) Prunus domestica, Prunus persica, and
Pyrus communis, and Vitis vinifera
Mediterran Aerial parts Oil, wash, Hypericum perforatum L., Juglans regia Tsioutsiou et
ean compress or L., and Plantago lanceolata L. al. 2017
poultice, and
ointment
Azad Leaf and Paste, powder, Hypericum perforatum, Berberis lycium, Amjad et al.
Jammu and resin and poultice Sapindus mukorossi, Adiantum 2017
Kashmir, venustum, and Rumex dentatus
Pakistan
Balkan Rhizome, Infusion, Plantago major, Hypericum perforatum, Jarić et al.
region bulb, root, decoction, Plantago lanceolata, Achillea millefolium, 2018
(Southeast stem, fruit, tincture, syrup, oil, Calendula officinalis, Sambucus nigra,
Europe) flower, seed, ointment, and Tussilago farfara, and Prunus domestica.
resin, and balm, or direct to
whole plant the skin

Declarations Consent for publication: Consent was obtained for

photographing individuals.
List of abbreviations: CDFP: Co’s Digital Flora of
the Philippines; DENR: Department of Environment Availability of data and materials: Data can be
and Natural Resources; USTGS-ERC: University of obtained from the corresponding author upon
Santo Tomas Graduate School - Ethics Review request.
Board; FIV: Family Importance Value; FPIC: Free
Prior Informed Consent; IPMR: Indigenous Peoples Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they
Mandatory Representative; NCIP: National
have no competing financial interest.
Commission on Indigenous Peoples; PENRO:
Provincial Environment and Natural Resources
Office; RFC: Relative Frequency of Citation Funding: This research was supported by the
Department of Health - Philippine Institute of
Ethical approval and consent to participate: Free Traditional and Alternative Health Care (DOH-
prior informed consents (FPICs) were obtained from PITAHC).
the municipal mayor and all participants.
Certifications from the tribal council of elders and the Authors’ contributions: MLD proposed the study
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples of and conducted the fieldwork, collection and analysis
CARAGA Administrative Region (NCIP-CARAGA, of data. MLD and GJA developed the manuscript.
no. R13-2019-01) were granted. Wildlife gratuitous UM and SLS improved the manuscript and critically
permit was issued from the Department of analyzed all data. All authors read, corrected and
Environment and Natural Resources of CARAGA approved the final manuscript.
Administrative Region (DENR-CARAGA, no. R13-
2019-12) granting permission for wild plant Acknowledgements
collection. Ethics approval was acquired from the
We are very thankful to the Manobo indigenous
University of Santo Tomas Graduate School - Ethics
community of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur who
Review Board (USTGS-ERC, protocol no. GS-2019-
participated in our study. We also extend our
PN007).
gratitude to the DOH-PITAHC, the local government
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 15

units (LGUs), provincial government administration, properties of the white variety of ‘Sibujing’ (Allium
PENRO-LGU and NCIP-LGU of Agusan del Sur, ampeloprasum). Pharmacophore 10(1):1–12.
DENR-CARAGA, NCIP-CARAGA, and USTGS- Baguinon NT, Quimado MO, Francisco GJ. 2003.
ERC. The first author would like to thank his Country report on forest invasive species in the
scholarship grant from the Department of Science Philippines. Country reports. Proceedings of the
and Technology - Accelerated Science and Asis-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference in
Technology Human Resource Development Kunming, China.
Program - National Science Consortium (DOST-
Balangcod TD, Balangcod KD. 2018. Plants and
ASTHRDP-NSC) and Alexander von Humboldt
culture: plant utilization among the local communities
Foundation as a Junior Researcher. The last author
in Kabayan, Benguet Province, Philippines. Indian
thanks the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for
Journal of Traditional Knowledge 17(4):609–622.
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