Abstract

Rapid expansion of rural cell phone subscriber base in India is facing some tough challenges
in getting the stable back up power for cell sites. Grid power availability is very poor and use
of diesel generator is turning out to be expensive with heavy fuel and transportation costs.
Use of alternative energy provides a long term viable solution. Solar-wind hybrid power
generation system was installed on a typical rural Indian cell site to demonstrate the reduction
of fuel consumption by over 90%. Practical implementation and results are presented in this
paper along with providing the grid power availability scenario in rural India.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

In recent times, the Mobile Telephony has seen the fastest growth with over 4 billion users
worldwide. By end of 2009, India had the worlds second largest subscriber base of 545
million. In next two years it is expected to cross 700 million mark, mostly spreading into
country side. However the lack of stable grid power (mains or popularly known as Electricity
Board EB power) in rural India provides a bigger challenge to this phenomenal growth.
Average EB power availability in these parts for commercial usage is less than 7 hours a day;
during remaining period Diesel Generators (DG) provide the power. Cell site running on DG
is turning out to be expensive and nonprofit due to high fuel cost, heavy pilferages, regular
maintenance and fuel transportation for long distances.

Fig1.1- Solar wind Hybrid System

Use of alternative energy can reduce the operation of diesel generators. In major parts of
India good solar power is available and in most parts sufficient wind can also be tapped. In
this paper, a practical implementation of solar-wind hybrid power on a typical rural Indian
cell site is presented. Solar hybrid power systems are hybrid power systems that combine
solar power from a photovoltaic system with another power generating energy source. A
common type is a photovoltaic diesel hybrid system, combining photovoltaics (PV)
and diesel generators, or diesel genets as PV has hardly any marginal cost and is treated with
priority on the grid. The diesel genets are used to constantly fill in the gap between the
present load and the actual generated power by the PV system. As solar energy is fluctuating,
and the generation capacity of the diesel genesets is limited to a certain range, it is often a
viable option to include battery storage in order to optimize solar contribution to the overall
generation of the hybrid system.

The best business cases for diesel reduction with solar and wind energy can normally be
found in remote locations because these sites are often not connected to the grid and transport
of diesel over long distances is expensive. Many of these applications can be found in
the mining sector and on islands

In 2015, a case-study conducted in seven countries concluded that in all cases generating
costs can be reduced by hybridizing mini-grids and isolated grids. However, financing costs
for diesel-powered electricity grids with solar photovoltaic are crucial and largely depend on
the ownership structure of the power plant. While cost reductions for state-owned utilities can
be significant, the study also identified short-term economic benefits to be insignificant or
even negative for non-public utilities, such as independent power producers, given historical
costs at the time of the study. Other solar hybrids include solar-wind systems.
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

T.A Willams discovered the technologies for new energy have developed rapidly since the
energy crisis and the environmental pollution got worse. And the solar energy generation
technology tends towards the stage of a large number of applications in engineering from
the research stage. This paper designed a grid connected PV system firstly, then
introduced the operation principle of the various parts as well with the control strategy of
the power flow. The design of energy storage is of great significance as the output power
of PV cells array is greatly affected by the light intensity and the temperature change.
Battery is used as the energy storage device normally in the traditional energy storage
system. In this paper, it used the Ultra capacitor as the energy storage device after
comparing with the battery, and designed the charge discharge control strategy according
to the characteristics of the ultra capacitor. Finally it verified the feasibility of the energy
storage control strategy through the simulation models which was built based on the
PSCAD/EMTDC platform.[1]

R.k puchouri A control scheme is described to charge series connected super capacitors for
photovoltaic generation systems. Based on the features of the super capacitors charge, the
control scheme consists of three modes, i.e., the constant current charge mode, the constant
power charge mode, and the constant voltage charge mode. The shift of three modes can be
realized by controlling the duty of IGBT in the Boost Buck converter system. Meanwhile,
the high voltage, which is more suitable for application, can be obtained. Compared with the
normal charge method with series connected current limiting resistance and the charge
method with the constant current charge mode and the constant voltage charge mode, the
proposed charging control scheme can shorten the charging time and improve the usage of
the electric power generated from the PV arrays. The advantage described above is verified
by simulations.[2]

Shirish Guard said that It is important to maintain high efficiency when charging electrical
energy storage elements so as to achieve holistic optimization from an energy generation
source (e.g., a solar cell array) to an energy storage element (e.g. a super capacitor bank).
Previous maximum power point tracking (MPPT) methods do not consider the fact that
efficiency of the charger varies depending on the power output level of the energy
generation source and the state of charge of the storage element. This paper is the first paper
to optimize the efficiency of a super capacitor charging process by utilizing the MPPT
technique and simultaneously considering the variable charger efficiency. More precisely,
previous MPPT methods only maximize the power output of the energy generation source,
but they do not guarantee the maximum energy is stored in the energy storage element. Note
that the load device takes its energy from the storage element so it is important to maximize
energy transfer from the source into the storage element. We present a rigorous framework
to determine the optimal capacitance of a super capacitor and optimal configuration of a
solar cell array so as to maximize the efficiency of energy transfer from the solar cells into a
bank of super capacitors. Experimental results show the efficacy of the proposed technique
and design optimization framework.[3]

Enibe worked on the design, fabrication and performance evaluation of a passive solar
powered air heating system based on exergy analysis. The system consists of a single-glazed
flat plate solar collector integrated with a phase change material (PCM) heat storage system.
The PCM is prepared in modules, with the modules equispaced across the absorber plate. The
spaces between the module pairs serve as the air heating channels, the channels being
connected to common air inlet and discharge headers. The experiments were carried out
under the climatic conditions of Nsukka (Nigeria) in the daytime with no-load conditions
where the ambient temperature varied in the range of 1941 C, and a daily global irradiation
varied in the range of 4.919.9 MJ/m2. Peak cumulative useful efficiency was found to be
about 50% while peak temperature rise of the heated air was about 15 C. The system has
been found suitable for the use as a solar cabinet crop dryer for aromatic.[4]
Kurtbas and Turgut designed a new solar air heater and evaluated it on the basis of exergy
analysis. In their study they used five solar collectors with dimensions of 0.9x0.4 m and the
flow line increased where it had narrowed and expanded geometrically in shape. These
collectors were set to four different cases with dimensions of 1x2 m. Therefore, heating fluids
exit the solar collector after at least 4.5 m displacement. According to the collector geometry,
turbulence occurs in fluid flow and in this way heat transfer is increased. In this study they
found that the efficiency of the collector enhances with the increase of mass flow rates due to
an enhanced heat transfer to the air flow and also increase in efficiency depends on the
surface geometry of the collector and extension of the air flow line. Collector efficiency,
temperature difference of the air and pressure loss is the more important parameters in order
to decrease the exergy loss.[5]

Ajam and Durmus worked on the optimization of the solar air heater based on the exergetic
analysis. For this purpose, an integrated mathematical model of thermal and optical
performance of the solar heater has been derived. The overall thermal loss coefficient and
other heat transfer coefficients of the heater were assumed to be variable while deriving an
equation for the exergy efficiency. Using the MATLAB toolbox the exergy efficiency
equation has been maximized. After maximizing the exergy efficiency equation it has been
compared with the thermal efficiency of the heater, which ultimately results in an
extraordinary increase of the exergy efficiency according to the optimized parameters. They
also concluded that the exergy analysis was a better method for design, development and
optimization of solar air heaters due to the fact that exergy efficiency is a proportion.
Solar powered WLAN infrastructure is a cost effective option in outdoor deployments where
continuous power sources are not practical. In these nodes the cost of the solar panel and
battery can be a significant fraction of the total, and therefore reducing access point power
consumption is very important. In this type of network, peak bandwidth requirements may
not be satisfied by a single access point radio, even though long term average bandwidth
requirements may be very low. In this case multiple radio APs or overlapped AP coverage
deployment is required to meet this peak demand. When this happens the long term power
consumption of the nodes can be reduced by implementing shared dynamic power saving
between the WLAN mesh nodes. In this paper we propose and evaluate two algorithms for
efficiently activating the solar powered infrastructure when additional bandwidth is needed
[6]
Kurtbas and Turgut investigated the solar air heater with free and fixed fins using exergy
analysis. In this study each of the fins with rectangular shape was having two different
surface areas and located on the absorber surface in free and fixed manners. In the first type,
the fins were located on the absorber surface in a way that the fins are able to move freely,
while in the second type model fins were fixed to the absorber surface. The absorber surface
area was 1.64 m2 while the fixed and free fins with 8 and 32 items were having surface areas
0.048 and 0.012 m2 respectively. Therefore the total fin area in the absorber surface was equal
to 0.384m2. They found that the fins located in flow area increases the heat transfer
coefficient and output temperature of air due to which collector efficiency increases too. Also
they found that there exists a reverse relationship between exergy loss ratio and collector
efficiency as well as temperature difference of the fluid. Thus if there is increase in the
pressure drop, both heat transfer and exergy loss were also found to be enhanced, while it has
been observed that the exergy loss ratio was affected less because heater has very little
pressure drop.[7]

Koca and W.W.W Charters investigated the flat-plate solar collector with phase change
material (PCM) using energy and exergy analyses, CaCl2.6H2O has been used as PCM in
thermal energy storage (TES) system. Solar energy collection and storage has been combined
in single designed collector unit. Phase Change Material was stored in a storage tank, which
was located under the collector. For transferring heat from collector to PCM a special heat
transfer fluid was used. The experiments were carried out for 3 different days in the month of
October. From the measured data calculations were made and they found that stored and
instantaneous solar radiation show bell-shaped variation during all experimental days. Also a
significant difference between energy and exergy efficiencies had been reported and the
energetic efficiency was always higher than that of exergetic efficiency. From the obtained
experimental data and calculations it has been found that the exergy efficiencies of latent heat
storage systems with PCM are very low.[8]
Esen and S.I Iwuoha worked on the energy and exergy analysis of a novel flat plate solar air
heater (SAH) with and without obstacles. The experiments were carried out at different
values of mass flow rate of air and different levels of absorbing plates in flow channel duct.
The measured parameters were solar radiation and temperatures at different state of points
such as inlet, outlet, at the absorbing plate and the ambient. After the analysis of the results it
had been found that, the optimal value of efficiency was in the middle level of absorbing
plate in flow channel duct for all the operating conditions and it was also found that the
double-flow collector supplied. For commercial applications, ability of the drier to process
continuously is very important to dry the end products for their safe storage to maintain the
quality and nutrient values of the product. Normally thermal storage systems are employed to
store thermal energy, which includes sensible heat storage, chemical energy storage and latent
heat storage. The solar drier is an energy efficient option in the drying processes [1]. Use of
forced convection solar driers seems to be an advantage compared to traditional methods and
improves the quality of the product considerably [2-4]. The common sensible heat storage
materials used to store sensible heat are water, gravel bed, sand, clay, concrete, etc. for
different applications [9]

B.K Gupta and Kaushik presented a comparative study of various types of artificial
roughness geometries in the absorber plate of solar air heater duct and their characteristics
based on energy, effective and exergy efficiencies. The performance evaluation for some
selected artificial roughness geometries in the absorber plate of solar air heater duct in terms
of energy efficiency, effective energy efficiency and exergy efficiency has been carried out at
various values of Reynolds number (Re). In this study the correlations for heat transfer and
coefficient of friction developed by respective investigators have been used to calculate
efficiencies. From the study it has been found that the artificial roughness on absorber surface
is the better option in the enhancement of the efficiencies in comparison to smooth surface.
The energy efficiency was found to be increased in the following manner: smooth surface,
circular ribs, V shaped ribs, wedge shaped rib, expanded metal mesh, rib-grooved, and
chamfered ribgroove. The effective efficiency also found to be following the same trend of
variation among various considered geometries however trend was reversed at very high
Reynolds number. The exergy efficiency based criteria also follows the same pattern; but the
trend was reversed at relatively lower value of Reynolds number and for higher range of
Reynolds number the exergy efficiency approaches zero or may be negative.[10]
Ozgen and A. Yalcin had worked on a device for inserting an absorbing plate made of
aluminium cans into the double-pass channel in a flat-plate solar air heater. In this
experimental study, three different absorber plates had been designed and tested. In the first
type (Type I), cans had been staggered as zigzag on absorber plate, and in Type II they were
arranged in order, while in Type III a flat plate was without cans. Experiments were
performed at air mass flow rates of 0.03 kg/s and 0.05 kg/s. From the experiments it has been
found that the double-flow type of the solar air heater with aluminium cans has been
introduced for increasing the heat-transfer area has the improved thermal efficiency. Because
of the double heat-transfer area in double-flow systems, the performance of double-flow type
solar air heater, in which air was flowing simultaneously over and under absorbing plate, is
found to be more efficient than that of the devices with one flow channel over or under the
absorbing plate.[11]

Farahat worked on the exergetic optimization of flat plate solar collector, in this study a
simulation program has been developed for the thermal and exergetic calculations. A detailed
energy and exergy analysis was carried out for evaluating the thermal and optical
performance, exergy flows and losses as well as exergetic efficiency for a typical flat plate
solar collector under given operating conditions. The optical efficiency has a great effect on
the exergy efficiency. By using the flat plate solar collectors with optical concentrators, the
optical efficiency increases. It was found that the energy efficiency increases without
extremum points with operating parameters. The absence of such maximum points has
created difficulties in the design of flat plate solar collectors. However, the exergy efficiency
presents points of local maxima and a point of global maximum. The exergy efficiency was
found to be decreasing rapidly with increasing nature of ambient temperature and the wind
speed.[12]
.
 Chapter-3

SOLAR ENERGY

3.1 Introduction

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photo voltaics solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized
as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar
energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
 Fig3.1- Solar Energy

The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of
electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy
Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,57549,837 exajoules (EJ).
This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in
2012.

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable,
inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will
increase countries energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and
mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs
of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These
advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment
should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared

3.2 Potential
The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts (TW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the
upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed
by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly
spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-
ultraviolet. Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150-300
watts/m, or 3.5-7.0 kWh/m per day.

Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans which cover about 71% of
the globe and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where
the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's
surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies
convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature
of 14 C. By photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy,
which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour
than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in
biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one
year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable
resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined The potential solar energy
that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface
of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land
available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire.

Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a
greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photo voltaics that can follow the
position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are
farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during
the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to
absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud
cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the
sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar
panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels. Roofs
have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that
they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for
solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be
established.

Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they
capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different
levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar
energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies,
other than Geothermal power and Tidal power, derive their energy either directly or indirectly
from the Sun.

Active solar techniques use photo voltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collectors,
pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include
selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate
air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase
the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar
technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand
side technologies.

In 2000, the United Nations Development Programme, UN Department of Economic and

Social Affairs, and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy
that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation,
cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans. The estimate found that solar energy has a
global potential.

3.3 Electricity Production

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems
use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.

Solar power is anticipated to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with
solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global
overall consumption, respectively.

Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354
MW SEGS CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power
plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power
Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua
Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India,
are the worlds largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being
developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than
5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. In 2013
solar generated less than 1% of the world's total grid electricity.

3.4 Photovolatics

In the last two decades, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, has evolved from a pure
niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source.
A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric
effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German
engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper
oxide. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into
electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the
importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in
1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.56%. By
2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20%, and the maximum efficiency of research
photovoltaics was in excess of 40%

3.5 Concentrated solar power

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus
a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source
for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most
developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish
and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all
of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for
power generation or energy storage

3.6 Architecture and rural planning

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history.
Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by
the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and
warmth.

The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun,
compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs)
and thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they
can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron
House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar
design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems
in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and
switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.

Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the
surrounding environment. The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar
energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and
higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of
counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white, and to plant trees in the
area. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has
projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 C at an estimated
cost of US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced
air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings.

3.7Transport

Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s.
The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from
universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia
from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67
kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87
kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the
planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an
international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the
interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.

In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger boats
incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996, Kenichi
Horie made the first solar-powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the Sun21 catamaran
made the first solar-powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006
2007. There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.

In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight. On 29 April
1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar-powered, fully controlled, man-carrying
flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made
the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by
the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Scott
Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power.
Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with
the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the
altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in
2001. The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar
aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights were envisioned by
2010. As of 2016, Solar Impulse, an electric aircraft, is currently circumnavigating the globe.
It is a single-seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power.
The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days.

A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the
balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an
artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but
usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is
relatively high.

3.8 Energy storage method

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful
temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use
readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone.
Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and
reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.

Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage
medium. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically
useful temperatures (approximately 64 C or 147 F). The "Dover House" (in Dover,
Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948. Solar energy can
also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium
because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at
temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two project used this
method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 terajoules (400,000 kWh) in its 68 m
storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%.
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity.
With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard
grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems
a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is handled by 'rolling back' the meter
whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is
below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month. Other
approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity
produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter.
Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter
unnecessary.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is
available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered
when demand is high by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power
generator

3.9 Devlopement and economics

Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy
consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early
development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that
coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the
early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal
and petroleum.

The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies
around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar
technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal
Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other
efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. (SERI, now NREL), Japan
(NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. These
systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more
reliable heating fuels. As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention
as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling
petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily
throughout the 1990s and annual growth rates have averaged 20% since 1999. Although
generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed
solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.

The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable
contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:

The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have
huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries energy security through reliance on an
indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability,
reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices
lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the
incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be
wisely spent and need to be widely shared
 Chapter-4

WIND ENERGY

4.1 History

Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than two
millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was
widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring
sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid
regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided
water for live stock and steam engines.

Fig4.1- Distribution of Wind Energy

The first windmill used for the production of electric power was built in Scotland in July
1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde
University). Blyth's 10 m high, cloth-sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his
holiday cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire and was used to
charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse Faure, to power the
lighting in the cottage, thus making it the first house in the world to have its electric power
supplied by wind power. Blyth offered the surplus electric power to the people of Marykirk
for lighting the main street, however, they turned down the offer as they thought electric
power was "the work of the devil." Although he later built a wind turbine to supply
emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary and Dispensary of Montrose the
invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically
viable.

Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was
designed and constructed in the winter of 18871888 by Charles F. Brush, this was built by
his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900. The Brush wind
turbine had a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 m (60 foot) tower.
Although large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected
dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent
light bulbs, three arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory.

With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting
buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths
developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind
generators that could be connected to electric power grids for remote use of power. Today
wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery
charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide
electric power to national electrical networks.

Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators
for electric power. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during
operation, consumes no water, and uses little land. The net effects on the environment are far
less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources.

Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric
power transmission network. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power,
competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier
and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, but construction and
maintenance costs are considerably higher. Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy
into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations.

Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has
significant variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with
other electric power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power in a
region increases, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional
production can occur. Power management techniques such as having excess capacity,
geographically distributed turbines, dispatchable backing sources, sufficient hydroelectric
power, exporting and importing power to neighboring areas, using vehicle-to-grid strategies
or reducing demand when wind production is low, can in many cases overcome these
problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied
for the predictable variations in production that occur.

As of 2015, Denmark generates 40% of its electric power from wind, and at least 83 other
countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids. In 2014
global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is
also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electric power usage, 11.4%
in the EU

4.2 Wind Farms

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric
power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines distributed
over an extended area, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other
purposes. For example, Gansu Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in the world, has several
thousand turbines. A wind farm may also be located offshore.
 Fig Wind Farms

Almost all large wind turbines have the same design a horizontal axis wind turbine having an
upwind rotor with three blades, attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower.

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5
kV), power collection system and communications network. In general, a distance of 7D (7
Rotor Diameter of the Wind Turbine) is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind
farm. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with
a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system

4.3 Genearator characteristic stability

Induction generators, which were often used for wind power projects in the 1980s and 1990s,
require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection systems
include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind
turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive
modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required
by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults.
In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike
steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators.

Today these generators aren't used any more in modern turbines. Instead today most turbines
use variable speed generators combined with partial- or full-scale power converter between
the turbine generator and the collector system, which generally have more desirable
properties for grid interconnection and have Low voltage ride through-capabilities. Modern
concepts use either doubly fed machines with partial-scale converters or squirrel-cage
induction generators or synchronous generators (both permanently and electrically excited)
with full scale converters.

Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to
specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power
factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a
system fault.

4.4 OFF Shore Wind power

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in large bodies of water to
generate electric power. These installations can utilize the more frequent and powerful winds
that are available in these locations and have less aesthetic impact on the landscape than land
based projects. However, the construction and the maintenance costs are considerably higher.

Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. DONG
Energy, Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore operators. As of October 2010, 3.16
GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According
to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of
2014 and the UK and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power
capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant
contributions from China and the US.

In 2012, 1,662 turbines at 55 offshore wind farms in 10 European countries produced 18

TWh, enough to power almost five million households. As of August 2013 the London
Array in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW. This
is followed by Gwynt y Mr (576 MW), also in the UK.
4.5 Collection and Transmission Network

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5
kV) power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-
voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high
voltage electric power transmission system.

A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to (often remote) markets. For an
off-shore station this may require a submarine cable. Construction of a new high-voltage line
may be too costly for the wind resource alone, but wind sites may take advantage of lines
installed for conventionally fueled generation. One of the biggest current challenges to wind
power grid integration in the United States is the necessity of developing new transmission
lines to carry power from wind farms, usually in remote lowly populated states in the middle
of the country due to availability of wind, to high load locations, usually on the coasts where
population density is higher. The current transmission lines in remote locations were not
designed for the transport of large amounts of energy. As transmission lines become longer
the losses associated with power transmission increase, as modes of losses at lower lengths
are exacerbated and new modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased,
making it harder to transport large loads over large distances. However, resistance from state
and local governments makes it difficult to construct new transmission lines. Multi state
power transmission projects are discouraged by states with cheap electric power rates for fear
that exporting their cheap power will lead to increased rates. A 2005 energy law gave the
Energy Department authority to approve transmission projects states refused to act on, but
after an attempt to use this authority, the Senate declared the department was being overly
aggressive in doing so. Another problem is that wind companies find out after the fact that
the transmission capacity of a new farm is below the generation capacity, largely because
federal utility rules to encourage renewable energy installation allow feeder lines to meet only
minimum standards. These are important issues that need to be solved, as when the
transmission capacity does not meet the generation capacity, wind farms are forced to
produce below their full potential or stop running all together, in a process known as
curtailment. While this leads to potential renewable generation left untapped, it prevents
possible grid overload or risk to reliable service.
4.6 Wind power capacity and production

Worldwide there are now over two hundred thousand wind turbines operating, with a
total nameplate capacity of 432,000 MW as of end 2015. The European Union alone passed
some 100,000 MW nameplate capacity in September 2012, while the United States surpassed
75,000 MW in 2015 and China's grid connected capacity passed 145,000 MW in 2015.

World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling
about every three years. The United States pioneered wind farms and led the world in
installed capacity in the 1980s and into the 1990s. In 1997 installed capacity in Germany
surpassed the U.S. and led until once again overtaken by the U.S. in 2008. China has been
rapidly expanding its wind installations in the late 2000s and passed the U.S. in 2010 to
become the world leader. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world were using wind power
on a commercial basis.

Wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy
production was around 4% of total worldwide electric power usage, and growing rapidly. The
actual amount of electric power that wind is able to generate is calculated by multiplying
the nameplate capacity by the capacity factor, which varies according to equipment and
location. Estimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35% to
44%. By doubling installed capacity an average 40% increase in electricity production would
be expected.

Europe accounted for 48% of the world total wind power generation capacity in 2009. In
2010, Spain became Europe's leading producer of wind energy, achieving 42,976 GWh.
Germany held the top spot in Europe in terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215
MW as of 31 December 2010. In 2015 wind power constituted 15.6% of all installed power
generation capacity in the EU and it generates around 11.4% of its powe

4.7 Growth trends

The wind power industry set new records in 2014 more than 50GW of new capacity was
installed. Another record breaking year occurred in 2015, with 22% annual market growth
resulting in the 60 GW mark being passed. In 2015, close to half of all new wind power was
added outside of the traditional markets in Europe and North America. This was largely from
new construction in China and India. Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show
that 2015 recorded an increase of installed capacity of more than 63 GW, taking the total
installed wind energy capacity to 432.9 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. In terms of economic
value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets,
with the total investments reaching US$329bn (296.6bn), an increase of 4% over 2014.

Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial crisis in 2009 and
2010, GWEC predicts that the installed capacity of wind power will be 792.1 GW by the end
of 2020 and 4,042 GW by end of 2050. The increased commissioning of wind power is
being accompanied by record low prices for forthcoming renewable electric power. In some
cases, wind onshore is already the cheapest electric power generation option and costs are
continuing to decline. The contracted prices for wind onshore for the next few years are now
as low as 30 USD/MWh.

In the EU in 2015, 44% of all new generating capacity was wind power; while in the same
period net fossil fuel power capacity decreased.[

4.8 Capacity factor

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as
the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of
actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical
capacity factors are 1550%; values at the upper end of the range are achieved in favourable
sites and are due to wind turbine design improvements.

Online data is available for some locations, and the capacity factor can be calculated from the
yearly output. For example, the German nationwide average wind power capacity factor over
all of 2012 was just under 17.5% (45867 GWh/yr / (29.9 GW 24 366) = 0.1746), and the
capacity factor for Scottish wind farms averaged 24% between 2008 and 2010.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is affected by several parameters,
including the variability of the wind at the site and the size of the generator relative to the
turbine's swept area. A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor
but would produce less electric power (and thus less profit) in high winds. Conversely, a large
generator would cost more but generate little extra power and, depending on the type,
may stall out at low wind speed. Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 4050% would
be aimed for.

A 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy noted that the capacity factor of
new wind installations was increasing as the technology improves, and projected further
improvements for future capacity factors. In 2010, the department estimated the capacity
factor of new wind turbines in 2010 to be 45%. The annual average capacity factor for wind
generation in the US has varied between 29.8% and 34.0% during the period 20102015

4.9 Penetration

Wind energy penetration is the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total
generation. The wind power penetration in world electric power generation in 2015 was
3.5%. There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration. The limit for a
particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity
for energy storage, demand management and other factors. An interconnected electric power
grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment
failures. This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate for the varying power generation
produced by wind stations. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total annual electrical
energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been
for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable
energy or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnected to a
large grid area enabling the export of electric power when needed. Beyond the 20% level,
there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant.
Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large scale penetration of wind generation
on system stability and economics.

A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different durations of time, but is often
quoted annually. To obtain 100% from wind annually requires substantial long term storage
or substantial interconnection to other systems which may already have substantial storage.
On a monthly, weekly, daily, or hourly basisor lesswind might supply as much as or
more than 100% of current use, with the rest stored or exported. Seasonal industry might then
take advantage of high wind and low usage times such as at night when wind output can
exceed normal demand. Such industry might include production of silicon, aluminum, steel,
or of natural gas, and hydrogen, and using future long term storage to facilitate 100% energy
from variable renewable energy. Homes can also be programmed to accept extra electric
power on demand, for example by remotely turning up water heater thermostats.

In Australia, the state of South Australia generates around half of the nation's wind power
capacity. By the end of 2011 wind power in South Australia, championed by Premier (and
Climate Change Minister) Mike Rann, reached 26% of the State's electric power generation,
edging out coal for the first time. At this stage South Australia, with only 7.2% of Australia's
population, had 54% of Australia's installed capacity.

4.10 Variability

Electric power generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different
timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant.
Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to
maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating
large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-
dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation,
incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the
already existing energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions or system
interconnection with HVDC cables. The variably of wind is quite different from solar, wind
may be producing power at night when other baseload plants are often overproducing.

Fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large fossil-fuel generating units requires
operating reserve capacity, which can be increased to compensate for variability of wind
generation.

Wind power is variable, and during low wind periods it must be replaced by other power
sources. Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants and
daily changes in electrical demand, but the variability of intermittent power sources such as
wind power, is more frequent than those of conventional power generation plants which,
when scheduled to be operating, may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity.

GE has installed a prototype wind turbine with onboard battery similar to that of an electric
car, equivalent of 1 minute of production. Despite the small capacity, it is enough to
guarantee that power output complies with forecast for 15 minutes, as the battery is used to
eliminate the difference rather than provide full output. In certain cases the increased
predictability can be used to take wind power penetration from 20 to 30 or 40 per cent. The
battery cost can be retrieved by selling burst power on demand and reducing backup needs
from gas plants.

In the UK there were 124 separate occasions from 2008 to 2010 when the nation's wind
output fell to less than 2% of installed capacity. A report on Denmark's wind power noted
that their wind power network provided less than 1% of average demand on 54 days during
the year 2002. Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind can be dealt with
by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness, or interlinking
with HVDC. Electrical grids with slow-responding thermal power plants and without ties to
networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of wind power. According
to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and
Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the
total energy produced (i.e. about 8% of total nameplate capacity) to be used as
reliable, baseload electric power which can be relied on to handle peak loads, as long as
minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.

Conversely, on particularly windy days, even with penetration levels of 16%, wind power
generation can surpass all other electric power sources in a country. In Spain, in the early
hours of 16 April 2012 wind power production reached the highest percentage of electric
power production till then, at 60.46% of the total demand. In Denmark, which had power
market penetration of 30% in 2013, over 90 hours, wind power generated 100% of the
country's power, peaking at 122% of the country's demand at 2 am on 28 October.

A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for managing intermittency as a
function of wind-energy's share of total capacity for several countries, as shown in the table
on the right. Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009, generally agree
that variability of wind needs to be taken into account by adding 20% to the operating
reserve, but it does not make the grid unmanageable. The additional costs, which are modest,
can be quantified.

The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location, forecasting their
variation, and integrating them with dispatchable renewables, flexible fueled generators, and
demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet power supply
needs reliably. Integrating ever-higher levels of renewables is being successfully
demonstrated in the real world:

4.11 Predictability

Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of any particular wind farm is
low for short-term operation. For any particular generator there is an 80% chance that wind
output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10% or
more in 5 hours.

However, studies by Graham Sinden (2009) suggest that, in practice, the variations in
thousands of wind turbines, spread out over several different sites and wind regimes, are
smoothed. As the distance between sites increases, the correlation between wind speeds
measured at those sites, decreases.

Thus, while the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds
vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output
becomes less variable and more predictable.

Wind power hardly ever suffers major technical failures, since failures of individual wind
turbines have hardly any effect on overall power, so that the distributed wind power is
reliable and predictable, whereas conventional generators, while far less variable, can suffer
major unpredictable outages.

4.12Energy storage
Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of any particular wind farm is
low for short-term operation. For any particular generator there is an 80% chance that wind
output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10% or
more in 5 hours.

However, studies by Graham Sinden (2009) suggest that, in practice, the variations in
thousands of wind turbines, spread out over several different sites and wind regimes, are
smoothed. As the distance between sites increases, the correlation between wind speeds
measured at those sites, decreases.

Thus, while the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds
vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output
becomes less variable and more predictable.

Wind power hardly ever suffers major technical failures, since failures of individual wind
turbines have hardly any effect on overall power, so that the distributed wind power is
reliable and predictable, whereas conventional generators, while far less variable, can suffer
major unpredictable outages.

4.13 Environmental effect

The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of
fossil fuels, is relatively minor. According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-cycle global
warming potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of between 12 and
11 (gCO2eq/kWh) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being assessed.
Compared with other low carbon power sources, wind turbines have some of the
lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated.

While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are
compatible with it, as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made
unavailable for use.

There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial
structures. The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant, depending on
specific circumstances. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and protection of peat
bogs, affect the siting and operation of wind turbines.

Wind turbines generate some noise. At a residential distance of 300 metres (980 ft) this may
be around 45 dB, which is slightly louder than a refrigerator. At 1.5 km (1 mi) distance they
become inaudible. There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on
people who live very close to wind turbines. Peer-reviewed research has generally not
supported these claims.

The United States Air Force and Navy have expressed concern that siting large wind turbines
near bases "will negatively impact radar to the point that air traffic controllers will lose the
location of aircraft.

Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape are
significant. Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes.
 Chapter-5

Working of Solar wind Hybrid system

5.1 Introduction

Every device we use in our day-to-day life such as mobile phone, computer, induction
cookers, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, etc., requires electric power supply. Thus, the
advancement in technology is increasing the electrical and electronic appliances usage
which, in turn is increasing the power demand. Thus, to meet the load demand, different
techniques are used for electric power generation. In the recent times, to avoid pollution and
to conserve non-renewable energy resources like coal, petroleum, etc., renewable energy
sources like solar, wind, etc., are being preferred for power generation. The combination of
renewable energy sources can also be used for generating power called as hybrid power
system. As a special case, we will discuss about the working of solar-wind hybrid system in
this article. Solar and wind hybrid power systems are designed using solar panels and small
wind turbine generators for generating electricity. Generally, these solar wind hybrid systems
are capable of small capabilities. The typical power generation capacities of solar wind
hybrid systems are in the range from 1 kW to 10 kW. Before discussing in brief about
the solar and wind hybrid power system, we should know about solar power generation
systems and wind-power generation systems.

5.2 Working

To better understand the working of solar wind hybrid system, we must know the working of
solar energy system and wind energy system. Solar power system can be defined as the
system that uses solar energy for power generation with solar panels. The block diagram of
solar wind hybrid system is shown in the figure in which the solar panels and wind turbine
are used for power generation. Solar energy is one of the major renewable energy resources
that can be used for different applications, such as solar power generation, solar water
heaters, solar calculators, solar chargers, solar lamps, and so on. There are various advantages
of solar energy usage in electric power generation including low pollution, cost-effective
power generation (neglecting installation cost), maintenance free power system, etc. Solar
power system consists of three major blocks namely solar panels, solar photovoltaic cells,
and batteries for storing energy. The electrical energy (DC power) generated using solar
panels can be stored in batteries or can be used for supplying DC loads or can be used for
inverter to feed AC loads.

Fig5.1- Working of Solar Wind Hybrid

5.3 Solar Panels Working Principle

A solar panel is made up of solar cells or solar photovoltaic cells, and is used for converting
solar energy into electrical energy. The solar panels utilize Ohmic material for
interconnections and external terminals. Thus, the electrons produced in the N-type material
are passed to the battery through electrode and wire. From the battery, electrons reach p-type
material, where these electrons and holes are combined. Hence, the solar panel connected to
the battery behaves like another battery, and hence, is comparable to the two serially
connected batteries

The solar panel output is electric power and is measured in terms of Watts or Kilo watts.
These solar panels are designed with different output ratings like 5 watts, 10 watts, 20 watts,
100 watts etc. So, based on the requirement of output power, we can choose appropriate solar
panel.
But, in fact, the solar panels output is affected by number of factors like climate, panel
orientation to the sun, sun light intensity, the presence of sunlight duration, and so on. During
normal sunlight a 12 volt 15 watts solar panel produces around 1 Ampere current. Generally,
solar panels maintained properly will work for 25 years. It is essential for designing the solar
panel arrangement on the roof top for efficient usage and typically solar panels are arranged
such that they face the East at an angle of 45 degree.

There are advanced technologies for improving the output of solar panels by using sun-
tracking solar panel arrangement, that rotates the solar panel so as to get more light from the
sun. The quality of wire must be good and have sufficient gauge for handling the current to
ensure proper battery charging. If length of the wire increases, then the charging current
reduces. So, the solar panels are arranged at a height of 10-20 feet from the ground level. It is
recommended to properly clean the surface of the solar panels for removing dust, moisture
and also to reconnect the terminals.

5.4 Solar Photovoltaic Cells Working

We must also know the working of the solar cells to understand how the solar panels convert
solar energy into electrical energy. Solar cells or solar photovoltaic cells are the devices that
are used for converting solar energy into electrical energy by utilizing the photovoltaic effect.
These cells are used in many real-time applications such as railway signaling systems, street
lighting systems, domestic lighting systems, and remote telecommunication systems.

Solar photovoltaic cell consists of a P-type of silicon layer that is placed in contact with an N-
type silicon layer. The electrons diffuse from the N-type material to the P-type material. The
holes in the P-type material accept the electrons but there are more electrons in the N-type
material. So, with the influence of the solar energy, these electrons in the N-type material
moves from N-type to P-type
 Fig5.2- Diagram of Photovolatic cell

Thus, these electrons and holes combine in the P-N junction. Due, to this combination a
charge on either side of the P-N junction is created and this charge creates an electric field.
This formation of electric field results in developing a diode like system that promotes the
charge flow. This is called as drift current and the diffusion of electrons and holes is balanced
by drift current. This drift current occurs in an area where mobile charge carriers are lacking
and is called as the depletion zone or space charge region. Thus, during night time or in the
darkness, these solar photovoltaic cells behave like reverse bias diodes.
Generally solar panel open circuit voltage (voltage when battery is not connected) is higher
than solar panel rated voltage. For example, consider a 12 volt solar panel giving an output
voltage of around 20 volts in bright sun light- but, whenever a battery is connected to the
solar panel, then the voltage drops to 14-15 volts. Solar cells are made of most frequently
used semiconductor materials such as silicon.
Solar photovoltaic (SPV) effect is a process to convert solar energy into DC electricity using
an array of solar panels. This, DC electricity can be stored in batteries shown in the figure or
can be used to feed DC loads directly or can be used to feed AC loads using an inverter that
turns DC electricity into 120-volt AC electricity.

5.5 Working of Wind Power System

Wind energy is also one of the renewable energy resources that can be used for generating
electrical energy with wind turbines coupled with generators. There are various advantages of
wind energy, such as wind turbines power generation, for mechanical power with windmills,
for pumping water using wind pumps, and so on.

Large wind turbines are made to rotate with the blowing wind and accordingly electricity can
be generated. The minimum wind speed required for connecting the generator to the power
grid is called as cut in speed and maximum wind speed required for the generator for
disconnecting the generator from the power grid is called as cut off speed. Generally, wind
turbines work in the range of speed between cut in and cut off speeds. Wind power capacity
has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4%
of total worldwide electric power usage, and growing rapidly. The actual amount of electric
power that wind is able to generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate capacity by
the capacity factor, which varies according to equipment and location. Estimates of the
capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35% to 44%. By doubling installed
capacity an average 40% increase in electricity production would be expected.
 Fig5.3- Working of Wind Power System

5.6 Wind Turbine

Wind turbine can be defined as a fan consisting of 3 blades that rotate due to blowing wind
such that the axis of rotation must be aligned with the direction of blowing wind. A gear box
is used for converting energy from one device to another device using mechanical method;
hence, it is termed as a high-precision mechanical system. There are different types of wind
turbines, but the frequently used wind turbines are horizontal axis turbines and vertical axis
turbines. The figure shows different blocks of the wind turbine generator system.

Fig5.4- Monthly average Electric Production by 2 KWP solar PV array and 5 Kw

Wind turbine.
 CONCLUSION

Hybrid power generation system is good and effective solution for power generation than
conventional energy resources. It has greater efficiency. It can provide to remote places where
government is unable to reach. So that the power can be utilize where it generated so that it
will reduce the transmission losses and cost. Cost reduction can be done by increasing the
production of the equipment. People should motivate to use the non conventional energy
resources. It is highly safe for the environment as it doesnt produce any emission and
harmful waste product like conventional energy resources. It is cost effective solution for
generation. It only need initial investment. It has also long life span. Overall it good, reliable
and affordable solution for electricity generation.
 FUTURE SCOPE

In this paper we study the various data about the wind, solar for generating the hybrid at
small level that help to the decision makers to study the various factors in construct a Hybrid
generation plant with a various minimum cost with highest generating capacity. The result
shows by the experimental and theoretical data that has been able to predict the energy
generation through hybrid system. For future scope different time period has been use for
calculating the power and efficiency. This method motivates the engineers to install small
scale solar wind hybrid system in Jodhpur region. The government of India takes a major
decision towards the hybrid energy sources. The Jawaharlal Nehru solar mission (JNNSM)
target to produce 20 gig-a watts up to 2022 and should 100 % Renewable up to 2050.
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