Chapter 1

Fig 1 Electrical Energy

INTRODUCTION
Importance of electrical energy:
The electrical energy is used in home, industries, and agriculture and even in transport.
Besides its use for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes it is required for
increasing defense and agricultural production. In agricultural, it is used for pumping
water for irrigation and for improving the method of production and numerous other
options. Electrical energy is a convenient form of energy because it can be generated
centrally in bulk and transmitted economically over long distance and is almost pollution
free at the consumer level further it can be adopted conveniently in the domestic,
industrial and agriculture and improvement in quality of life of the people depends such
upon the supply of electrical energy that the annual per capita consumption of electrical
energy has emerged these days as an accepted yardstick to measure the prosperity of a
nation. Some of the advanced and developed nations of North America and Europe have a
very high annual per capita consumption of electrical energy; say from 8 to 13 thousand.

Chapter

Electrical Energy

Fig. 2.1 Electrical Energy

2.11

Superiority of Electrical Energy:

Electrical energy is considered superior to all other form of energy due to following
reasons:1. Cheapness:
It is much cheaper than that in other forms and therefore, it is economical to use energy in
this form for domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural purposes

2. Convenient and Efficient Transmission:

The electrical energy can be transmitted convenient and efficiently from the generating
stations, usually located quite away from the centers of usage, through conductors of
suitable size.

3. Easy Control:
Electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting control and
operation. For example an electric motor can be started or stopped by making the switch
on or off and its speed can be conveniently controlled over a wider range with simple
arrangements.
4. Cleanliness:
Use of electricity does not produce smoke, fumes, dust or poisonous gases and therefore.
Its use ensures cleanliness and pollution free conditions.
5. Greater Flexibility:
Electrical energy offer greater flexibility as it can be taken to any corner of the house,
factor, street, hospital, farm, mine etc through solid stranded of flexible conductors.
About 220KV Substation
This is one of the most important substations in distribution system. This substation is
located on the outskirts of JAIPUR in the signaler area. A 400kv and a 220kv supply
comes from the HEERAPURA. One line also comes from KTPS. It gives power
supply to SANGANER, MANSAROVAR, PRATAPNAGAR, SITAPURA INDUSTRIAL
AREA, and MALPURA GATE. This substation is divided in to two main parts
namely SWITCHYARD and CONTROL ROOM.
The incoming voltage is made to pass through wave trap and coupling capacitor for
power line communication purpose. After this operation it appears across ABCB (air blast
circuit breaker).On both side of breakers isolators are attached in order to isolate the
breaker for repairing

Fig

2.2 view of subststion

The 220 KV is fed to two bus bars through isolators. These two bus barsfactor and it is
installed at the end of the bus bar. This voltage at 33 KV is then transmitted to the nearest
areas like Sanganer, Pratap Nagar, Mansarovar, Sitapura Industrial area

In electric power stations and large capacity substations, the operating and automatic
control circuit, the protective relay systems, as well as emergency lighting circuits are
supplied by station batteries.
2.12 Capacitor Bank:
A capacitor bank is built up of a number of capacitors units connected in series and in
parallel. The units for series capacitors are designed, manufactured and tested with due
regard for the specific service conditions, such as high over-voltages and capacitor
discharge current.
Earthing process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and
equipment to the huge mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called
earthing

Generation of Electrical Energy

chapter 3

Electrical energy is generated by conversion of energy available in different forms from

different natural sources such as kinetic energy of blowing winds, pressure head of water,
chemical energy of fuels(either in solid, liquid or gaseous form) and nuclear energy of
radio-active substances into electrical energy
3.11 Conventional method of power generation:
Make use of prime-movers ( such as petrol engines, steam engines, steam turbines, gas
turbines or hydraulic turbines) for driving electrical machines which convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy, the electrical machines employed for generating dc are
called the generators whereas those employed for generating by conventional methods
are:
1.

Thermal

2.

Hydro

3.

nuclear
Substations serve as source of energy supply for the local areas of distributions in which
these are located. Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage
from the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local
distribution and providefacilities for switching. Some substations are simply switching
stations where different connections between various transmission lines are made, others
are converting substations which either convert ac into dc or vice-versa or converts
frequency from higher to lower or vice-versa. Substations have some additional functions.
They provide points where safety devices may be installed to disconnect equipment or
circuit in the event of fault. Voltage on the outgoing distribution feeders can be regulated
at a substation. A substation is convenient place for installing synchronous condensers at
the end of the transmission line for the purpose of improving the power factor and
makemeasurements to check the operation of various parts of the power system.

3.12

1.

FOLLOWING ARE THE MAIN FUNCTION OF THE SUBSTATIONS

To improve the power factor by installing the capacitor bank. To switch the power
lines i.e. for the switching purpose.

2.

To transform voltage to higher or lower level i.e. to step up or step down.

3.

To convert the A.C. to D.C. i.e. power converting system.

4.

To convert frequency from higher to lower i.e. to frequency control systems

Types of Substations:

1.

Secondary sub-stations.

2.

Distribution sub-stations.

3.

The bulk supply and industrial sub-stations.

4.

Specific purpose sub-station

Essential Equipments For A Substation1

1.

Power transformer.

2.

Switch gear.

3.

Current transformer and potential transformer.

4.

Lightning arrestors.

5.

Earthing system.

6.

Protective equipment and control.

7.

Isolators.

8.

Bus bar arrangement.

9.

Power line communication system.

10.

Battery bank.

11.

Capacitor bank

3.13

Power Transformer

The heart of any substation is its transformer which needs to be protected at any cost
since it major part of the transmission/distribution system three installed at our substation.

Fig 3.2
Different Power TransformersThere are

four transformers installed at the substation. These

are two transformers of rating 100MVA, 220/66kv. These transformers are apex made.
Transformers as a system consist of several elements suchmade and installed at the site.

Fig
3.3 power transformer

3.14

Switchgear

The electrical energy is almost needed in every field of our life, therefore every made
protect the power system so as to maintain uninterrupted supply. For this purpose,
measure are provided to switch on or off generators, transmission lines, distributor and
other equipment under both normal and abnormal conditions. This is achieved by
switchgear, which essentially consist oswitches, fuses circuit breakers, relay isolators 7
An assembly of switchgear applied to protect the power system under normal operating
condition the circuit breaker connects remain closed and carries the the full-load current
continuously, hi this condition, the E.M.F induced in the secondary winding of current
transformer (ct) and hence the current flowing through the relay coil is insufficient to
close the trip coil of the circuit breaker. When a fault occur, heavy current flows through
the primary of ct. which increases the current flowing through the relay coil and closes
the trip coil circuit, thus the trip coil is energized which pulls the circuit breaker contact
downward and open the circuit. The arc produced in the circuit breaker during opening
operation is extinguished by oil or air blast. Hence it is seen that relay detects the
faulwhereas circuit breaker interrupts the circuit and extinguishes the arc.

Chapter 4
4.11 Current Transformer
It can be used to supply information for measuring power flows and the electrical inputs
for the operation of protective relays associated with the transmission and
Distributions circuit power transformers.

Fig no 4.1

400Kv Current Transformer

Fig no 4.2

Metering CurrentTransformer

Current transformers are also used for street lighting circuits. Street lighting
requires a constant current to prevent flickering lights and a current transformer is used to

provide that constant current. In this case the current transformer utilizes a moving
secondary coil to vary the output so that a constant current is obtained.
These instrument transformers are connected in ac power circuits to feed the current coils
of indicating and metering instruments and protective relays. In high voltage installations
CTs in addition to above, also isolate the indicating and metering instruments

4.12 Potential Transformer

The potential transformers are employed for voltages above 380 volts to feed the potential
coils of indicating and metering instruments and relays. These transformers make the
ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high voltage and isolate
them from high voltage. The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary
voltage is known as turn or transformation ratio.

Fig

4.3

potential

transforme
r

which steps down the voltage to be measured to a safe value, which is then displayed by
the low voltage operated meters. The potential transformers are of the following types:
1.

Hermetically Sealed Transformer:

A liquid immersed voltage transformer which is sealed and does not communicate with
the atmospheric air.
Measuring Voltage Transformer:
A voltage transformer intended to supply indicating instrument, integrating meters and
similar apparatus.

3.

Protective Voltage Transformer:

A voltage transformer intended to supply protective relays and similar apparatus.

4.

Dual Purpose Voltage Transformer:

A voltage transformer intended to serve the dual purposes of the measuring and
protection.

Lightning Arresestor
An external cause due to which over-voltages occur on the power system in lightning. In
the high voltage system, much damage is caused by the lightning in spite of taking all
types of protective measurings.
Lightning causes an increase in voltages which may be nearly double of that of the
normal operating voltage of the system. Therefore, the common practice is to design the
insulation of the system to withstand such high voltages for a reasonable length of time
and provide protective devices for the voltages having value more than this high voltage.
These devices are known as over-voltage protection devices. The common devices used
for the protection of power system against over-voltage are:
1.

Ground wires

2.

Earthing screens

3.

Lightning arrestors.
The ground wire or earthing screens used for the protection of overhead lines and power
station and substation not only provides an adequate protection against lightning but also
reduces the overvoltages induced electrostatically, but such shielding is inadequate in
providing protection against traveling waves which may reach the terminals of the
equipment and cause damage to it. The damages that may be caused by traveling waves
are:

1.

The high peak or crest voltage of the surge may cause flashover in the internal
winding .The steep wave front of the surge may cause internal flashover between
interterm of theTransformer

2.

The high peak voltage of the surge may cause external flashover, between the
terminals of the electrical equipment which may result in damage to insulators

3.

The step wave front resulting into resonance and high voltage many

cause

internal or external flashover of the oscillation in the electrical apparatus.

Thus it is absolutely necessary to provide some protective device at the power stations or
substation to prevent transformers and other equipment from being subjected to traveling
surges reaching there. The most common devices used for protection of equipment at the
substation against traveling surges are lightning arrestors or surge diverters. A surge
diverter is a device that is connected between line and earth i.e. in parallel with the
equipment to be protected at the substation.
1.

Line in rural areas:

During conducting survey of distribution lines In voltage, the map of village is taken and
following are marked on the and following are marked on the map

1.

The nearest HT lines from which the tapping will be taken.

2.

Load

3.

Layout of line

2.

Line in urban area:

The power lines should be plotted on map of the city after consultation with the municipal
authorities.
Agricultural area
The transformer should be installed in the center of load so as to reduce the length of lines
and voltage drop.
Survey of H.T. lines(11kv to 33kv)
Point to be considered

1) The H.T. lines should be run along if possible. This will help in Construction and
maintenance
Of lines.
2) The number of angle pole should be minimum.
3) An intersection of highway and railway tracks and telephone lines
Should be avoided.
Repairing and jointing of conductor:
Whenever an ACSR conductor is damaged i.e. its strands break but whole conductor is
not broken, it should be repaired by pulling sleeve over the damaged part of conductor.

Jumper:
It is short length of conductor used to connect the line pole to the conductor on the line
conductor on the other side of the terminal pole is known as jumper is made of same
material and
Current carrying capacity as that of line conductor.

4.13 Guarding:
A guarding is provided for safety of life. The guarding for 11kv lines providing at road
crossing. Canal crossing, railway crossing telephone lines generally cardie guard is
provided and directly connected to the earth wire. If a line conductor breaks it will fall on
the guard thus blowing the fuse. Guard is made of same material as used for earth wire
8.5 WG guards should be uniformly spaced.

4.14 Faults:
Most of the faults on the power system lead to a short-circuit condition. When such a
condition occurs a heavy current called short-circuit current flows through the lines
causing considerable damage to the equipments and interruption of service to consumers.

The following are the various faults which can occurs in the 3-phase overhead
transmission lines.
1) Single phase to ground: This may occur when one of the Conductors of transmission
line
2 Phase to phase: If one of the conductor of the 3-phase line breaks and fall on the other
Conductor, it forms a phase to phase fault.

3) Two phases to ground: If two conductor of 3-phase transmission line break and fall
on the ground fault.
4) Phase to phase and third phase to ground: This is combination of Fault shown at
number 1 and 2 i.e. if one conductor breaks and Fall on the second and if third break and
fall on the ground.
5) AH the three phases shorted: This may occur if two conductor of Transmission line
fail on the third conductor.
6) All the three phases to ground: In this type of fault all the three Conductor break and
fall on the ground or fall on any other which Is further grounded.
Location of faults in overhead transmission lines:
Overhead lines are generally subjected to various troubles, lightning snow and ice being
perhaps the most prevalent. Lightning will induced a high voltage in a line irrespective of
the working voltage of the circuit. It causes less trouble on extremely high tension lines
than on those work at lower pressures. This is because of the heavier insulation of the
former. For location of faults, overhead lines are patrolled regularly by skilled linemen
whose job is to notice even the smallest visible defect. This work is added by binoculars.
In addition, the linemen keeps an eye for anything which might lead to trouble such as
growth of trees building work going on in the neighboring place of the line the erection of
radio and television aerials. The comparatively few interruption of current shows the
general reliability of equipment and do credit to those whose duty is to maintain supply.
Types of faults in underground cables:
1) Breakdown of cable insulation:

When the insulation of the cables gets damaged the current starts rowing from the core
to earth or to the cable or to the cable sheath and such faults arc known as ground or earth
faults.

2) Short circuit fault:

When the insulation between two cables or between two core to another core of a multicore cable directly without passing through the load. Such faults are known as short
Circuit faults in case of short circuit faults the protection system will switch off the line.
3) Open circuit fault:
When the conductor of the cable is broken or a Joint is pulled out and there is no current
in the cable, such faults

are known as open circuit faults. If a faults occur on my section

of A power system network is likely that the immediate effect will be to interrupt the
supply to a section of the consumers. It may be
the alternative routes in the
overloaded,

possible to restore the supply by using

network but by doing so the circuits involved become

resulting in these too become faulty which do arise be located and

repaired as quickly as possible and various techniques have been

purpose. Different methods are in use for

adopted for this

underground cables

Power Factor
(a) It shall be obligatory for the consumer to maintain the desired average power factor
of 0.9 for his load or any other value that the Commission may specify in its Tariff order
during any billing period.
(b) The Licensee may disconnect the supply temporarily if power factor is below 0.75
unless otherwise specified in the tariff order, during any billing period as per details given
in clause 4.36.
(c) Licensee may charge a penalty and / or give an incentive for high/low power factor as
per the tariff order of the Commission

The electric energy is almost generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current. Therefore the question of power factor immediately comes into
picture. Most of the load i.e. 3-phase induction motors are inductive in nature and hence
have low lagging power factor. The low power is highly objectionable as it causes an
increase in current resulting in more losses. In order to ensure more favorable conditions
for a supply it is most important to have power factor as close to unity as possible.

Concept of power factor:

1.

Power factor may be defined as cosine of angle between voltage and current.

2.

The ratio of resistance to impedance

3.

P.F. = R/z = resistance/impedance

The ratio of real power to apparent power Real power/apparent power=V1cos/V1= cos.
The term cos is called power f
The term cos is called power factor. Its value can never be more than one. To obtain
maximum power, the power factor in a circuit is made high as possible i.e. current is
brought in phase with the applied voltage so that cos is nearly equal to unity. The leading
and lagging power factor depends upon the phase of current vector with respect to voltage
vector in case current lags the voltage, the power factor is lagging if it leads the voltage
the power factor is leading thus current I lags the voltage v

4.5 Advantage of power factor

let current I be resolved in two components so that I cos@ the horizontal component is in
phase with voltage and I sin@ lagging the voltage by 90 degree let all the three sides of
triangle shown in fig be multiplied by voltage v the triangle so obtained is shown in fig.
All the three angle of the triangle still remain unchanged VI cos@ in the phase
component of voltage is called real power and is denoted by p.
VIsin@ lagging voltage V by 90 degree is called the reactive power and is represented by
VAR.16
VI is called apparent power and is represented by VA
Thus power factor cosc@
= VI cos@/ VI Real power/apparent power/

4.16 Disadvantages of low power factor

For fixed power and voltae P and V are fixed load current and is inversely proportional to
the power factor. Lower the p.f. higher the current and results in following disadvantages.
a) Large KVA rating of equipment: the electrical machinery e.g.
Alternator transformer is always rated in KVA. KVA rating of equipment is inversely

Proportional to power factor for given amount of power KVA rating will be more for
p.f. and
Vice versa.
b) Greater conductor size: To transmit fixed amount of power at fixed voltage the
conductor will
Have to carry more current at low p.f therefore large size of conductor is required.
c) Large copper losses: At low power factor conductor have to carry large current
magnetizing current makes the total current lag with Respect to EMF at normal loads
this magnetizing current is quite Small as compared to load current and therefore does not
effect. The power factor much but at light loads.

Economics Of Power Factor Improvement:

When the power factor is to be improved power factor improvement plant is
required to be installed which involves some expenditure. Improvement of power factor
results in reduction of maximum demand which in turn reduce the maximum demand
charges annually but extra expenditure is to be increased every year in the form of interest
and depreciation on account of investment made over the power factor improvement
equipment.

Earthing
The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipments
to the huge mass of earth by wire having negligible resistance is called earthing. When a
body is earthed, it is basically connected to the huge mass spindle of the disk carries the
moving contact which close the trip, circuit under fault condition. Under normal
condition, th Earthing :
Connecting of an electrical equipment or apparatus to the earth with the help of
connecting wire of negligible resistance is known as earthing or grounding. There are four
main purpose of earthing.
To avoid risk or fire due to earth leakage current through

unwanted path.

1.To maintain the potential of any part of a system at a definite value with respect to earth
Significance of earthing

In an installation if a metallic part of an electrical apparatus

comes in direct contact with a bare or live wire the metal being good

conductor of

electricity, is charged. If any person comes in contact with this charged metallic part, he
will get a sever shock.
4.17 Protective Equipment:
Switch:
It makes and breaks the circuit under full load or normal load condition but it cannot be
operated under fault condition it is generally operated manually.
Circuit Breaker:

It makes and breaks the circuit under no load full load or fault conditions. It can be
operated manually under normal conditions and automatically under abnormal conditions.

Fig no 4.4 Typical circuit Breaker

Classification of circuit breaker On the basis of the medium used for arc extinction, the
circuit breaker is classified as:
1.

Oil circuit breaker in which transformer oil is used for arc extinction

Fig no 4.5 Electrical Arc

2. Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers in which sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used
for arc excitation.
3. Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers in which sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used
for arc excitation.

Fig 4.5

Fig 4.6

Sf6 Circuit Breaker

4.

High Voltage Sf6

Water circuit breakers in which water is used for arc extinction.

4.18 Oil Circuit Breaker:
In this circuit breaker, the current carrying arc is immersed in transformer oil. When
contacts are separated, arc is struck between them. The heat of the arc dissociates the oil
and gases viz. hydrogen etc is evolved. The hydrogen gas bubbles surround the arc and
cool it down which help in deionization of the medium between the contacts and
extinguishing the arc. Moreover, gases set up turbulence in the oil and force it into the arc
space when the current is zero which further helps in extinguishing the arc. The major
advantages of coil as an arc quenching medium are given below:

Fig 4.8
Oil Circuit Breakers

Advantages
It absorbs the arc energy in decomposing the oil into gases.
1.

The gases evolved provide good cooling effect.

2.

It has ability to flow into the arc space after the current zero.

3.

It acts as an insulator between the live contact and earthed tank.

4.

The surrounding oil in close proximity to the arc provides cooling effect.
Disadvantages

1.

It is easily inflammable.

2.

It may from an explosive mixture with air.

3.

It requires more maintenance.

Types of oil circuit breakers:
1) Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker
In this circuit breaker oil serves two purposes

1.

It acts as an insulator between the live contact and earthed tank. For this reason,
depending upon the dielectric strength of oil, a particular clearance is required between
the live contact and earthed tank. Therefore, bulk of oil is required.
In the bulk oil circuit breakers the oil moves into the arc space after the current zero may
be affected

1.

By the pressure due to the natural head of the oil above the contacts.

2.

By the pressure generated by the action of a.c current itself.

3.

By the pressure exerted by the external means.

4.

Accordingly the oil circuit breaker is called;

1 Plain break oil circuit breakers

2 Self generated pressure oil circuit breaker.
3 Externally generated pressure oil circuit breaker.
2) Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers:
In these circuit breakers, a small quantity of oil used which only serves to extinguish the
arc. The live parts are insulated by porcelain or organic insulating materials.
Air Blast Circuit Breaker:
In this circuit breaker compressed air (18 to 20 kg/cm*cm) is employed for arc extinction.
When contacts are separated, the arc is struck; simultaneously the blast valve is opened.
The air blast cools the arc and sweep away the ionized medium between the contacts and
prevent the restriking of the arc. Thus the extinguished and current is interrupted.
These circuit breakers are finding their best application in system. Operating at 132
kv and above (up to 400 kv) with breaking capacity of 7000 MVA and above. However,
this type of circuit breakers has also designed to cover the voltage range 11kv to 132 kv.
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of air blast circuit breaker over the
oil breaker
Advantages:
1.

There is no risk of fire and explosion.

2.

Due to short arc duration, burning of contacts is lees.

3.

They require less maintenance.

4.

The arc extinguished very quickly, since the ionized medium

is removed rapidly by air

between the contact

Disadvantages
Compressor plant requires for compressed air.
1.

Air leak at the pipe line fittings.

2.

They are very sensitive to restriking voltage.

3.

Since air is poor dielectric medium as compared to oil, therefore, it has relatively
inferior arc extinguishing properties.
Type of air blast circuit breakers
Accordingly to the direction of air blast with respect to the direction of arc struct between
the contacts, air blast circuit breaker are classified into:

1.

Cross-Blast Circuit Breakers: In which air-blast cuts across the Arc.

2.

Axial-Blast Air Circuit Breakers: In which air-blast acts along the Arc.
Cross- blast circuit Breakers
In cross blast air circuit breakers the fixed contact is

located, at the base of chute

between two insulating blocks. The fixed contacts has a number of spring loaded fingers,
the arcing portion of one of the fingers is being coated with silver tungsten

2Axial

Blast Air Circuit Breakers:Axial-blast air circuit breakers the arcing portion of the fixed
and moving contacts is coated with silver tungsten alloy. The moving contact is connected
to a piston and shaft of the contact is guided by guide sprin

4.19

Relays

The protective relay is an electrical device interposed between the main circuit and the
circuit breaker in such a manner that any abnormality in the circuit acts on the relay,
which in turn, if the abnormality is of a dangerous character, causes the breaker to open
and so to isolate the faulty elements. The connection is divided into 3 main circuits
consisting of:
1) Primary winding of the CT (current transformer) connected in
Series with the main circuit to be protected.
2) Secondary winding of the CT and the relay operating winding.
3) The tripping circuit.
Under normal operating condition, the voltage induced in the secondary winding of
the CT is small and, therefore, current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient in
magnitude to close the relay contacts. This keeps the trip oil of the circuit breaker
inactive. Consequently, the circuit breaker contacts remain closed and it carries the
normal load current. When some fault occurs, large current flows through the primary of
CT.
4.20 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF RELAY
The main protective relay is to disconnect the faults sections of power system through
circuit breaker, before damaging the costly equipment , in order to perform this function
satisfactorily. It should have the following important features:
1.

Selectivity

2.

Sensitivity

3.

Reliability

4.

Quickness.

4.21 Electro-Magnetic Attraction Relays

These are the simplest type of relays and include plunger (or

solenoid), hinged

armature, rotating armature (or balanced beam) and moving iron polarized relays. All
these relays operate on the same principle i.e. in such relays the operation is obtained by
virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being
drawn into a solenoid. The electromagnet force being exerted on the moving element is
proportional to the square of the current flowing through the coil.
In an electromagnetic attraction relays, the flux developing the electromagnetic force
is splitted into two fluxes acting simultaneously but differing in time phase, so that the
resulting deflecting force is always positive and constant. This can be easily achieved
either by providing two winding on the electromagnet having a phase shifting network or
by putting shading rings on the poles of the electromagnet .the sensitivity of the hinged
armature relays can be increased for dc operation by the addition of a permanent magnet.
This is known as a polarized moving iron relay.
Attraction armature relays can be designed to respond over and under current , overunder voltage for both dc and ac operations. They are employed as measuring or auxiliary
relays.

4.22 Protection Of Transformer

Buchholz Realy
Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay. It is practically universally used on all oil
immersed transformers having rating more than 500 kVA. Such relay can only be fitted to
the transformer equipped with conservator tanks as it is installed in between the
conservation and main tank i.e. in the pipe connecting the two. It is employed in
conjunction with the same form of electricity operated protective .

Working Principle:
Whenever a fault occur inside the transformer, the oil of the tank gets overheated and
gases are generated. The generation of the gases may be slow or violent depending upon
whether a fault is minor or incipient one or heavy short-circuit. Most short-circuits are
developed either by impulse breakdown between adjacent turns at the end turns of the
winding or as a very poor initial contact which will immediately heat to arcing
formation. . Buchholz relay operate on this principle.
Construction:
It consist of two hinged floats in a metallic chamber located in the pipe connection
between the conservator and the transformer tank. One of the floats is near the top of the
chamber and actuates the mercury switch connected to the external alarm circuit. The
other float is opposite the orifice of the pipe to the transformer and actuates the mercury
switch connected to the tripping circuit.

Fuse:
A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in series with the circuit which melts when
excessive current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.
The material used for the fuse element should posses the following properties:
1.

Low melting point

2.

High conductivity

3.

Free from oxidation

Disadvantages:
1) Considerable time is lost in re-wiring or replacing fuses after every operation.
2) On short-circuit determination between fuses in series can only be obtained if there is
considerable difference in the relative sizes of the fuse concerned.
There are basically two main categories of fuses:

1.

Low voltage fuses

2.

High voltage fuses

Fig. 4.9 some high voltage Fuse

4.23 Insulators:
These are used to connect to conductors without any leakage of current. These are
basically employed to completely insulate any object in the substation from the supply or
any leakage current.
Various types of insulators:
1.

Pin type

2.

Suspension type

3.

Strain type

4.

Spool type or shackle type

Pin Type Insulators:
These insulator are moulded with a central threaded hole so that the insulator is supported
from thread insulators are grooved on the side or top to support the wires. Medium
voltage pin insulator have grooves on both top sides. High voltage pin insulators are
stronger in construction and they consist of two or three pieces of porcelain cemented
together.. The conductor is placed in the groove at the top of the insulator and is then
attached to insulator by typing it down with the binding wire.

Bus- Bar Arrangement And Layout

Before the rating of all the equipment in a sub-station are chosen and there location in the
sub-station decides, it is necessary to draw a single line diagram are called key diagram.
This indicate the proposed bus bar arrangement and relative position of all the equipment
to be installed.These are various numerations of the bus bars arrangement.
Various Arrangement Of Bus-Bar
1). Single Bus- bar

1 This arrangement is simplest and cheapest, it suffers however from two major defects.
2

Maintenance without interruption of supply is not possible.

t
Fig 4.10 Bus bar arrangement

2) Double Bus-bar
This scheme allows the use of two identical bus bars so that:
1.

Each load may be fed from either bus.

2.

The load circuit may be divided into two separate groups

This arrangement is frequently used where the load and continuity of supply justify the
additional cost. In such a scheme a bus coupler is generslly provided as to enable on
load change of bus bar over to another. Also the normal bus isolators cannot

4.24 Power Line Communication

The main purpose of power line communication is to transmit speech or to convey
message from one substation to the other through transmission lines at higher frequencies
Principle of operation of PLC:
In power line communication a speech signal is modulated with the carrier frequency
ranging from 35 kHz to 500 kHz before modulation the speech band is limited to 300 to
2400 Hz whereas 2.4 to 4.0 kHz frequency band is used for tele-metering tele-printing
tele-indication and tele-protection. The modulation signal is filters and amplified the it is
transmitted over the power lines through line matching unit protective devices and
coupling capacitor. At receiving end the HF carrier signal is protected from the HV power
frequency with the help of line trap and coupling capacitor through line matching unit
carrier frequency signal is sent to the power line communication terminal. Where the
speech signal is separated from the carrier frequency and is sent to subscriber.
Equipment used in power line communication:
The following are the main equipment used in the power line carrier communication:
1.

Wave Trap:

2.

Wave trap contains main coils lightning

arrestor and a tuning

device. All are connected in parallel; the main coil has an inductance of 0.2 mH to 2.0
mH.

Introduction
Disturibution System

Chapter 5

Distribution of electrical power is an important part of power system.

1.

Feeders

2.

Distributors

3.

Service main
5.11 Distribution system:
The arrangement of conveying electric power from bulk power source to the various
consumers is called distribution system. Distribution itself is of two types:

1.

High voltage of primary distribution

2.

Low voltage or secondary distribution

Power Distribution Transformer

High voltage distribution which is carried out at voltage of the order of 33kv, 66kv or
11kv supplies power to those consumers who take bulk power and have their own step
down substation like factory owners, institutions etc.

Battries Of Battery Room

Chapter 6
In electric power stations and large-capacity substations, the operating and automatic
control circuit, the protective relay systems, as well as emergency lighting circuits, are
supplied by station batteries. The latter constitute independent sources of operative dc
power and guaranty operation of the above mentioned circuits irrespective of any fault
which has occurred in the station or substation, even of complete disappearance of the ac
supply in the installation. Station batteries are assembled of a certain number of cells
depending on the operating voltage of the respective dc circuits. Storage batteries are of
two type viz lead acid and alkaline batteries..

Fig 6 . Battries room

6.11 Capacitor bank

A capacitor bank is built up of a number of capacitors units connected in series and in
parallel. The units of series capacitor are designed, manufactured and tested with due to
regard for the specific service conditions, such as high over-voltage and capacitor
discharge currents.
A capacitor unit consists of a number of capacitor elements in a container. The units are
equipped with fuses, which may be either external ones for each unit or internal
individual element fuses, The capacitor units are mounted in simple frames, called the
racks, placed on supporting insulators and stacked in top of each other.

6.12 Substation
A substation may be defined as an assembly of apparatus which is installed in control
transmission and distribution of electric power. Substation took place when it became
possible to generate high voltage for transmission to load centres which were far away
from generating stations. The substation from the most important part of power system.
The electric power is generated at the power stations handled at several substation and
then delivered to the consumers of electricity.
Function of a substation:
A substation may be required to perform one or more of the following functions:
1.

To switch on and off the power lines, this operation is known as switching
operation.

2.

To raises or lower the voltage the operation is known as voltage transformation

operation.

3.

To convert ac into dc or vice-versa, this operation is known as power converting

operation.

4.

To convert frequency from higher to lower or vice-versa the operation is known

as frequency operating operation.

5.

To improve the power factor by installing synchronous condensers at the end of

the line the operation is known as power factor correction operation.
Out of these operations probably the voltage transformation is most important of a
substation.
6.13 Types Of Substation:
There are many ways of classification of substation as under:
1)

According to system of supply

a) D.C. Substation.

Fig 6.2 6oo volt dc substation

b) ac substation

Fig 6.3 Ac Substation

2)

According to design
a) Indoor type.

Fig 6.4 Indoor type

b)outdoor type

Fig 6.5 230/115 kv outdoor substation

According to the equipment in substation

a) Motor converter.
b) Rotary converter.
c) Mercury arc rectifier.
d) Metal rectifier.
e) Transformer.
4)
According to the system of operation
a) Manual.
b) Automatic.
The entire substation working on A.C. has transformers. These may be outdoor
indoor or pole mounted type. The operation may be automatic or manual.

Fig 6.6
Transformer

Pole mounted

Control Room

Chapter 7

The control room ( or the operating room) is the nerve centre of a power station. The
various controls performed from here are voltage adjustment, load control, emergency
tripping of turbines etc. and the equipments and instruments housed in a control room are
synchronizing equipment, voltage regulators, relays, ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters,
kWh meters, kVARh meters, temperature gauges, water level indicators and other
appliances, as well as a mimic diagram and suitable indicating equipments to show the
open or closed position of circuit breakers, isolators etc.

Fig 7 Control panel

The location of control room in relation to other sections of the power stations is also very
important. It should be located away from the sources of noise and it should be near
switch house so as to save multi-core cables used for interconnection. Of course, if there
is any fire in the switch house, the control room should remains unaffected. Also there
should be access from the control room to the turbine houses. The control room should be
neat and clean, well lighted and free from draughts. There should be no glare and the
color scheme should be soothing to eyes. The instruments should have scales clearly
marked and property calibrated and all the apparatus and circuits should be labeled so that
they are clearly visible.

Nuclear Power Plant