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I AFWAL-TR-85-2103
VOLUME III
<I LABYRINTH SEAL ANALYSIS
Volume III - Analytical and Experimental Development

of a Design Model for Labyrinth Seals
Donald L. Tipton
Thomas E. Scott
Rodney E. Vogel
Allison Gas Turbine

Division of General Motors Corporation
P.O. Box 420
Indianapolis, Indiana 46206-0420
January 1986
Final Report for Period June 1980 - April 1985
Distribution limited to U.S. government agencies only; test and evalua., tion;
July 1985. Other requests for thls document must be referred to AFWALiPOTX,
Wright-Patterson Air ForLe Base, Ohio 45433.
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_________________________ ___________ AFWiAL-TR-85-21fl3. Vol T11
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1All ison Gas Turbine Division
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I T~~~uWMAIm 62203F 3066 10 18

Labyrinth Seal Analysis-Vol.111 (Unclass~ified) ____________ ___________
ia. PARSONAi. AUTHOR0IS

IDonald L. Tipton, Thomas E. Scott, and Rodney E. Vogel
1t3&TV#% OP REPORT V3406TWAE COVERED 14. DATIL OF REPORT ~. b~.
ay, 5 40 ON
Final Report PRO 18 .rVA January 1986 309
Vo tS.I oiil computer software; therefore distribution is limited in accordance withi
A 300-6 Noti-fODeqst must Aqicltde thp statement of terms and conditions contained in
COSAIt CODES T &SsaaCT tsAWcw of* It4O01)d saft"1) by bi" t&SUN"9
VIS60 amour su8,*A Labyrinth seal "Aotating seals, Contactiess seals, Gas path
121 05 Iseals, Interstage seals, Air leakage in gas turbines.
thorough review of the literature concerning labyrinth seals was conducted and the signific-
antgeoetic ndaerodynamic parameters influencing leakage were identified. An extensive
data base was accumulated from published and in-house experimental results as the foundation
for the development of a Deslgn.#'Iodel for labyrinth seals. Full-size two-dimensional seal
geometries were tested to extend the data range in key areas. The empirically based model was
developed using statistical methods to define correliting equations based on the seal parameters.
.Ccumparison of the resulting model to experimental data revealed an accuracy of +5%. Flow
visualization studies yielded qualitative descriptions of the internal flow fieTds' and loss
mechanisms at work in both straight and stopped labyrinth seals. Measurement of pressure~s and
temnperatures in the seal cavities provided data for comparison with theoretical predictions.
Hot.-wire anemometer data for internal velocity profiles were in qualitative agreement with
the Navier-Stokes analyses.?
I 21LDIST ^$&UT ON,14A VA&IA81 LIT Y Of A^"TRACT
IUNCLASSiPtaOrUjmiaaogI
233.
0
kAME OF A&SPOKSIGLE INDIVIDUAL
SAMW AS WOT. M DTC USERS 0 fUnclass'i
!I. ^"TYRACT RECUR.? V CLA&SPIP CAT ION
122W TILI'HNOIt NUMOER11160 OFFICE SYM11O10.
Topham, Keith C., 1st Lt., USAF j fd.

I~AM*Ci AWA/P
DD FORMI 1473. 83 APR *DaTIONs OF 1JAN 73 t 04S OLETA. j~j.jid-

SECURITV C.A-PSIVICATION OP IMLS PAGIL
FOREWORD
This final report describes technical work accomplished during the Labyrinth
Seal Analysis program conducted under Contract AF33615-80-C-2014. The work
described was performed during the period 15 June 1980 to 30 April 1985. This
contract with Allison Gas Turbine Division of General Motors Corporation was
"sponsored by the Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories, Aero Propulsion
Laboratory, United States Air Force, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio, with Mr.
SCharles W. Elrod (AF.AL/POTX) as Project Engineer. Technical coordination was
provided by 1st Lt. Keith C. Topham.
The technical effort reported in this volume was performed by Dr. Raymond E.
Chupp, Mr. Glenn F. Holle, Mr. Raymond L. Owen, Mr. Thomas E. Scott, and Mr.
Donald Tipton. The experimental efforts reported in this volume were per-
formed by Mr. Glenn F. Holle, Mr. John W. Rothrock, Jr., Mr. Steven G. Gegg,
Mr. Steven 3. Hllpisch, and Mr. Warren S. Sherman. Managerial direction was
provided b Mr. Howard G. Lueders and Mr. Peter C. Tram.
This report was submitted in four volumes in May 1985. Volume I summarizes
the Labyrinth Seal Analysis Model. Volume II presents the user's manual for
the Analysis Model computer code. Volume III contains the experimental re-
suits and summarizes the Disign Yodel based on these empirical data. Volume
IV presents the user's manual for the oessign Model computer code. K,'. 1 i6)
Publication of this report does not constitute Air Force approval of the find-
ings or conclusions presented. It is published only for the exchange and
stimulation of ideas.
T+
. . . /@
fr'a IDis L,' -' ' +':1 +
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.0 Introduction ............. ........................... 1
2.0 Summary..................... ...................... . 5
3.0 Literature Survey ...... ........................ 9

3.1 Analytical Models ........... ...................... 9
3.1.1 Rough Pipe Global Model ..... ............... ... 11
3.1.2 Series-of-Restrictions Global Model ..... ......... 11
3.1.3 Knife-to-Knife Model ....... ................. 12
3.2 Aerodynamic Parameters ..................... ... 14
3.3 Geometric Parameters ...... ..................... ... 16
3.4 Labyrinth Seal Performance Data Base ...... ............. 17
$ 3.5 Design Model Candidates ....... ........... ..... 19
4.0 Labyrinth Seal Design Model.......... .......... . . . . . . 25

4.1 Model Formulation ...... ...................... . 25
4.2 Single-Knife Seal Model ....... ................. ... 30
4.3 Straight Seal Model ......... ...................... 33
4.4 Stepped Seal Model ......... ................... ... 43
4.5 Design Model Computer Program .................... ... 50
5.0 Labyrinth Seal Design Optimization ..................... .. 53

4 5.1 Optimization Algorithm ....... ................... .. 53
5.2 Optimization Capabilities ......... .................. 54
* 6.0 Labyrinth Seal Experimental Investigatie .. . . ....... 59

., 6.1 Test Rigs and Procedures ....... ................... 59
6.1.1 2-0 Static Rig ......... ................... 60
6.1.2 2-0 Rig Modified for flow Visualization .......... 63
6.1.3 3-0 Dynamic Rig ....... .................. .. 66
'Iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
6.1.4 Test Rig Instrumentation ..... ................ ... 69

6.1.4.1 2-D Rig Instrumentation ................ ... 69
6.1.4.2 3-D Rig Instrumentation ................ ... 70
6.1.5 Data Reduction and Calculation Methods ..... ......... 72
6.2 Performance Tests on Full-Scale Labyrinth Seal Models ..... ... 73
6.2.1 Design Model Data Base Extension ................ ... 75
6.2.2 Effect of Interknife Cavity Aspect Ratio in
Straight Seals .......... ..................... 75
6.2.3 Effect of Open-Cell Honeycomb Lands
in Straight and Stepped Seals .......
i ............. 77
6.3 Internal Flow Structure ...... ...................... g9
"6.3.1 Large-Scale Seal Performance ....... .............. 98
6.3.2 Flow Visualization ...... ................... .. 102
6.3.2.1 Analysis Model Reference Seals . . .... . 102
6.3.2.2 Straight Seal Parameter Effects ......... ... 115
6.3.3 Internal Pressures and Temperatures ..... .......... 116
'6.3.4 Internal Velocity Profiles ..... .............. ... 130
6.3.4.1 Laser Doppler Velocimetry .............. ... 135
6.3.4.2 Hot-Wire Anemometry ...... .............. 137
* References .... ............... ..... ....... ..... ....... ... 151
List of Symbols .......... ....... ........................... 157
Appendix A - Labyrinth Seal Bibliography ......... ....... ......... 161
Appendix 8 - Supporting Data for Model Development .... ........... ... 210
8.1 2-D Rig Data ....... ..................... ... 211
"8.1.1 Full-Scale Seals .......... ....... ....... 211
8.1.2 Large-Scale Seals ..... ............... .. 235
B.2 3-D Rig Data ....... ..................... ... 245
* Appendix C - Effect of Interknife Cavity Aspect Ratio (KP/KH) on
Straight Seal Performance .... ................ .. 249
Appendix 0 - Effect of Open-Cell Honeycomb Lands on the Performance
of Straight and Stepped Labyrinth Seals ............. 269
Labyrinth Seal Nomenclature. ......... ....... ..... ....... ....... 309
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figiure Paige
1 Thermodynamic processes for labyrinth seal leakage .... ...... 10

2 Comparison of labyrinth seal performance models with
test data ........ .......................... .. 22
3 Seal loss zone schematic ....... ................... 26
4 Labyrinth seal schematic illustrating the governing
parameters for a vertical knife straight seal ............ 27
5 Venturi-friction coefficient from Kearton and Keh data . . .. 31
6 Loss coefficient correlations for a single-knife seal . . 32
7 Model results compared to Allison data for a single-knife seal 34
8 Determination of a for straight seals ...... ............ 37
9 Straight seal correlations in the Design Model ..... ....... 38
10 Model compared to Allison 2-0 rig test data for straight
seals with smooth or rough lands . . . ............ 41
11 Model compared to Allison 3-0 rig test data for a slanted
five-knife straight seal with a smooth land..............42
S12 Determination of the area multiplier for a stepped seal . . . 44
m 13 Stepped seal correlations in the Design Model . ..... ...
. .. 46
14 Design Model compared to Allison test data for a stepped
seal with a solid-smooth land. .. ............ ..........47
15 Design Model compared to Allison test data for a stepped
se&l with a rough land ....... ................. ... 48
16 Design Model performance--predicted and measured .... ...... 52
17 Two-dimensional (2-0) labyrinth seal air test rig installation 61
18 Two-dimensional (2-0) labyrinth seal rig with stepped seal
installed ...... ... ...................... .... 62
S19 Two-dimensional (2-0) labyrinth seal rig with straight
seal installed ......... ..................... ... 62

20 Clearance deflecton measurement system mounted on the 2-0
static rig ........... ......................... 64
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)
Figure Page
21 Two-dimensional (2-D) labyrinth seal test rig with plate

glass windows in aluminum side plates ..... ............ 65
22 Three-dimensional (3-0) dynamic labyrinth seal air test rig
installation ........ ... ........................ 67
, 23 Three-dimensional (3-D) dynamic labyrinth seal air test
rig components .......... ....................... 68
24 Typical two-dimensional static seal test rig instrumentation 70
25 Typical three-dimensional dynamic seal test rig
instrumentation ........... ...................... 71
26 Effect of clearance on straight seals with open-cell
honeycomb lands........... ...................... 80
27 Design Model prediction compared with test data for a
honeycomb straight seal at CL - 0.005 in..... .......... 81
"* 28 Design Model prediction compared with test data for a
honeycomb straight seal at CL - 0.010 in ...... ....... 82
29 Design Model prediction compared with test data for a
honeycomb straight seal at CL - 0.020 in ..... .......... 03
30 Influence coefficients for Ko - 900 straight seals
with honeycomb lands ....... ................... 8S
S31 Influence, coefficients for Ke - 700 straight seals
with honeycomb lands ........ ..... ............... 86
32 Influence coefficients for KO - 500 straight seals
with honeycomb lands .......... .................. 87
33 Effect of straight seal knife angle on 0.062 in.honeycomb
lands ...... ... ..... ........................... 88
34 Effect of straight seal knife angle on 0.031 in. honeycomb
lands ...... ... . .......................... ... 89
S35 Effect of knife tip speed on the leakage of honeycomb
* lands at CLe 0.020 in .......... ... ... ..... ... ... 91
I viii
Figure PaE,
36 Effect of knife tip speed on the leakage of honeycomb

lands at CL= 0.010 in ....... ................... 92
37 Effect of knife tip speed on the leakage of honeycomb
= =lands at CL - 0.005 in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .993
lansaCL-.O!i...........................
38 Effect of open-cell honeycomb lands on the performance
of four-knife stepped seals ..... ................ ... 95
39 Stepped seal configurations tested in support of the
Analysis Model development ....... ................. 99
40 Straight seal configurations tested in support of the
Analysis Nodel development ......... ................ 100
41 Schlieren imaging system ...... .................. .. 103
42 Single-knife straight seal with typical sharp tip, schlieren
flow visualization at low aP ...... .............. .. 105
43 Single-knife straight seal with rounded tip. schlieren
flow visualization at low aP ....... ............... . 106
44 Single-knife stepped seal with flow in the STLD direction,
schlleren flow visualization at low &P .... ........... 107
45 Single-knife slanted seal with flow in the STLD direction,
schlierer flow visualization at low P ... .............. 0
46 Three-knife straight seal, schlieren flow visualization at
lowA P ....... ... ............................ 109
47 Three-knife stepped seal with flow in the LTSD direction,
schlieren flow visualization at low aP ..... ........... 110
48 Three-knife stepped seal with flow in the STLD direction,
schlieren flow visualization at low aP .... ........... 111
49 Tapered three-knife stepped seal with flow in the I.TSD
direction (flow up the step). schlieren flow visualization
at low f .P
........ .......................... .. 113
50 Tapered three-knife stepped seal with flow in the STLD
direction (flow down the step). schlieren flow visualization
at low Ap ......................................... 114
ix
Fiure Pae
51 Vortex formation between vertical knives in a straight seal

with KP/KH = 0.5 ....... ... ...................... 117
52 Vortex formation between vertical knives in a straight
seal with KP/KH = 2.0 .. ..... ... ................. 118
53 Pressure distribution through the large-scale three-knife
straight seal .......... ...................... .. 120
54 Mach number variation through the carry-over in the large-
scale three-knife straight seal .... .............. ... 121
55 Internal distribution of stagnation air temperature in the
large-scale three-knife straight seal ................. 122
LTSO stepped seal .. ..... ... ... .................... 123
STLO stepped seal. .......... .................. 124
58 Mach number variation through the clearance gaps of the
large-scale LTS1 stepped seal ........ ............... 126
S59 Mach number variation through the clearance gaps of the
large-scale STLO stepped seal ... ..... ... .............. 121
large-scale LTSO stepped seal .... ............. ..... 128
large-scale STLO stepped seal ........ ............... 129
62 Static pressure drop through a straight seal with a smooth
stator .......... ... ........................... 131
b3 Static pressure drop through a straight seal with a rough
stator .......... ... ........................... 132
64 Data stations for the three-knife straight seal with
tapered knives . ..... ....
. ..................... ... 133
65 Data stations for the three-knife stepped seal with
tapered knives ....... ....................... ... 134
h"
Figure Paae
66 LV system for measuring flow velocities through a

labyrinth seal model in the 2-0 test rig. .. .. ............ 136
67 Components for Not-wire anemometry measurements In the
labyrinth seal mo'el .... ..... .................. ... 138
68 Improved hot-wire access to minimize flow disturbance
near the land ..... ..... ..................... ... 142
69 Measured inlet velocity profile for the three-knife
straight seal ........ ..... ...................... 149
70 Measured inlet velocity profile for the three-knife STLD
stepped seal ...... ... ....................... ... 150
14 x
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table PaQe
1 Aerodynamic parameters for labyrinth seals ..... .......... 15

2 Geometric parameters for labyrinth seals ..... ........... 17
3 Labyrinth seal Design Model data base ............... ... 20
4 Parameter ranges in the labyrinth seal Design Model
data base ....... ..... ......................... 20
5 Design model types reported in the literature ..... ....... 21
6 Parameters in the Design Model ....... ................ 28
7 Jet expansion angle (*) for straight seals as determined
by correlation ........ ........................ .36
8 Design Model error results for straight seals ..... ........ 40
9 Design Model error results for stepped seals ............. 49
10 Comparison of the verification test results with the Design
Model performance prediction ........ .............. 51
11 Design Model optimization parameters ...... ............. 55
12 Full-scale labyrinth seal performance tests for the
Design Model data base ....... ............... ... 76
13 Effect of KP/KH, KN, CL on vertical knife straight seals at
Pu/P = 2.0 ...... ...................... ..... 77
14 Performance tests on honeycomb lands in straight
labyrinth seals ....... ... ...................... 79
15 Performance tests on honeycomb lands in stepped
labyrinth seals ....... ... ...................... 79
16 Effects of honeycomb on temperature rise through a 5-knife
straight seal at P = 2.0 ..... ................ 94
11 Large-scale labyrinth seal performance tests for the
Analysis Model verifi-ation ....... ............... 101
18 Flow visualization tests for the flow field structure in
the reference seals ....... ..... ............. ..... 104
l Fl,,w visualization tests for straight seal parameter
effects ....... ... ... ......................... 115
xii
LIST OF TAB'ES (Con't)
Table Paae
20 Three-knife straight (lOX) labyrinth seal model hot-wire

anemometer data above the first knife at PR = 2.0 .... ...... 143
21 Three-knife straight (lOX) labyrinth seal model hot-wire
anemometer data above the third knife at PR = 2.0 .... ..... 144
22 Three-knife STLD stepped (SX) labyrinth seal model hot-wire
* anemometer data at P - 2.0 ......... ................ 144
&- 23 Velocity components in the cavity regions for the three-knife
""straight seal at P /P - 2.0. ............... ....... 146
"'S. 5UU
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;.55l
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The present trend of gas turbine design has been characterized by significant
increases in cycle pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperatures to provide
higher thermal and propulsive efficiencies. These trends accentuate the need
for improvements in sealing technology and the development of advanced design
and analysis capabilities to reduce gas path seal leakage, minimize vent leak-
age, provide better control over sophisticated cooling circuits, and prevent
high levels of seal leakage into critical aerodynamic locations in the turbine
gas path.
Labyrinth seal design and analysis methods available today rely heavily on
empiric!l relationships which severely limit the applization range. Available
analytical formulations which originated many years ago do not take advantage
"of modern flowfield calculation techniques such as offered by solution algo-
rithms for the Navier-Stokes equations. In addition, empirically derived
models do not provide the design engineer with guidance on how to improve the
seal efficiency beyond the information that has been determined experimentally.
The Labyrinth Seal Analysis program was, therefore, directed to the develop-
ment of an advanced labyrinth seal analysis computer code to provide the seal
specialist with a tool to calculate and evaluate the details of the seal in-
ternal flow field and to assess the effects of subtle geometric changes rela-
tive to improving seal efficiency.
To further enhance the predictive accuracy of labyrinth seal performance, the

program included the development of an improved empirical design model to pro-
j.
.,' vide the calculation of the flow paratmeter characteristic based on salient
. geometric and aerodynamic parameters.
The Labyrinth Seal Analysis effort was structured as a three-phase program.

* Phase I was directed to the analytical development of both an *analysis* model
and an improvwd empirical *design" model. Supporting rig tests, including
flow visualization, passage velocity surveys and performance data, were con-
ducted under Phase II. The Phase III effort was devoted to improving the
'analysis* program usability.
The "analysis4 model, presented in Volume I of this report (66)*, uses numeri-
cal solutions Gf the time dependent, compressible Navier-Stokes equations to
provide the aerodynamic details of the seal interior flowfield.. Using existing
Navier-Stokes computer codes which incorporate a consistently split, linearized
block, implicit algorithm, suitable coordinate systems have been constructed
to analyze single-knife and multiple-knife straight and stepped labyrinth
seals. The continuity, momenta, and energy equations are solved with a mixing
iength turbulence model or with a two-equation turbulence model based on tur-
ib?,lence kinetic energy and dissipation rate. Typical "analysis" model geo-
metric capabilities permit variations in clearance, knife height, knife thick-
.* ness, knife sharpness, and, where appropriate, knife pitch, number of knives,
* * and knife angle. Surface roughness, rotation, heat transfer, and coolant flow
i'jecticn are also input variables. Modifications were made to the program -to
simplify input and output for user friendly operation.
The user's maniual for thE labyrinth seal analysis code is presented in Volume
II (67). The Aaalysis program has been compiled for the CDC and Cray I com-
puters.
The '-design" model development, prese'nted in this volume, is based on detailed

knife-to-knifi (KfK) flow analysis which uses empirical corrections to sir-
plifieO one-dimensiunal theory. The empirical corrections for seal geometric
effects are based on statistical analyres of generalized experimental perfor-
mance. The "design" model is c3pable of predicting the leakage for a wide
range of straight, stepped, and mixed otraigh. and stepped seal configurations.
*. in addition, the "design" model has the capability to optimize a seal confi3LI-
ration within specified geemetrical constraints such as clearance, axial en-
*"velope, inlet air temperature, and overall pressure ra*io. The user's manual
"for the labyrinth seal design code is presented in Volume IV (68).
Rig tests were performed on selected fuli-scale labyrinth seal configurations

to extend the data base and provide v-rification for the "design' model. A
test progiara devoted to the characterization of straight and stepped seal per-
formance with a variety of open-cell honeycomo lands was run stittiLally and
.
* *Numbers In ( ) refer to References, page 148.
2
dynamically in the three-dimensional (3-0) test rig. Large-scale seal models
were tested in the Allison two-dimensional (2-D) seal test rig to obtain leak-
age performance, intraseal pressures and temperatures, velocity'distributlons,
and flow field visualization for *analytical' model verification.
This volume is devoted to the presentation of results from the literature sur-
vey, development of the empirical "design" model, and supporting experimental
data.
.1
(3
4. . 4
i,4
4 4,
.'4'
4%
2.0 SUMMARY
The Design Model development program was started with a literature search to
identify significant geometric and aerodynamic parameters that influence leak-
age, to determine the most useful theoretical approaches to predicting laby-
I rinth seal performance, and to acquire a data base upon which to develop an
advanced empirical model.
* The knife-to-knife approach to modeling labyrinth seal performance was selected

as the most promising technique to achieve flexibility and accuracy. Using an
"empirical building block procedure, a three element loss model was formulated
for a single knife and extended to include multi-knife straight seals and
stepped seals. A statistical analysis was employed with the performance data
base to derive loss correlations for contraction, expansion, and venturi and
friction. These correlations were derived not only to produce a good data
match, but to provide physical realism to the loss process. The resulting
knife-to-knife (KTK) seal design model demonstrated an accuracy of 5% in the
prediction of leakage flows for the data base configurations which include
- straight and stepped seals with vertical or slanted knives.
" A seal design optimization routine was developed for the KTK Design Model.'
With this capability, a minimum leakage seal configuration can be identified
"for a specific engine application, e.g., design constraints on clearance, axial
"envelope, inlet air temperature, and overall pressure ratio.
Performance data were acquired by testing specific labyrinth seals to fill

voids in the KTK model data base obtained from the literature search and
. existing Allison data. Twenty-three tests on straight seals (12 tests) and
"stepped seals (11 tests) were conducted to extend experimental coverage on the
effects of knife angle, tip thickness, pitch, height, number of knives, and
land surface roughness. This entire data base was utilized in the development
of the Allison Design Model.
wl| 5
* Flow visualization studies were conducted to provide qualitative data upon
which to identify loss mechanisms and to verify flow phenomena calculated with
the Analysis Model (66). These tests were conducted in the 2-0 static rig us-
ing large-scale seal hardware with a schlieren flow visualization technique.
A total of nineteen tests were performed on straight seals, and six tests were
conducted on stepped seals. Valuable insights were obtained about the con-
formation of flow fields through single knife and multiple knife seals. The
flow perturbations introduced by knife edge rounding, knife slanting, knife
spacing, and clearance change were observed. Although some still pictures
were acquired, the motion on the video tapes provided the most definitive de-
scription of the internal flow characteristics. These visualization experi-
ments provided good qualitative verification of the Analysis Model and aided
in the corroboration of loss mechamisms for the Design Model development.
Five performance tests were conducted on large-scale (ten times size) straight
seals to provide quantitative comparisons of seal leakage characteristics with
the Analysis Model. Four large-scale tests (at five times full-scale) were
performed with stepped seals. These tests were done on the large-scale flow
visualization models in the 2-0 static rig. Keasurements of static pressure
and total temperature were made at selected points in the intraseal flow pass-
age. A comparison with an approximate analytical equation for labyrinth seal
pressure gradient derived by Kearton and Keh (31) showed good agreement with
the exception of the first knife which seems to provide a larger than antici-
pated pressure drop. As the overall seal pressure ratio increases, the accel-
eration to the last knife becomes more pronounced until choking occurs. The
jet from the last knife appears to behave ii. the same way as the discharge
from a convergent, annular nozzle with an extensive base recirculation region.
Detailed velocity surveys were made on the three knife straight and stepped
"seal models with the tapered large-scale knives using LDV and hot wire mea-
surement techniques. Velocity distributions measured in front )f the first
knife, in the clearance gaps. and in the cavities between knives provided good
qualitative agreement with the Analysis Model. The hot wire measurements
6
produced better resolution of the velocity profiles than the LDV due to the
proportionately large spot size of the LDV beam. The LOV data appeared to be
dampened due to usmearing" of the velocity gradient through the spot. Local
distortions of the flow field were incurred at the seal land due to the access
holes for entry of the hot wire probe. A redesign incorporating a reduced
slot size provided substantial improvement in the accuracy of velocity profile
data. The integrated velocity profiles in the clearance gaps of the straight
seal and the stepped seal agreed well with the mass flowrates measured down-
stream of the rig.
Additional full-scale performance testing was conducted to extend the laby-

rinth seal data base to evaluate the effect of interknife cavity aspect ratio
(KP/KH) and the interaction with clearance. A total of eighteen tests were
made on vertical knife straight seals with interknife cavity aspect ratios
from 0.40 to 4.0 at three clearance values. The results of these tests con-
firmed the optimum performance of a square (KP - KH) interknife cavity for the
knife geometry utilized. The Design Model predicts the performance of straight
seals very well at knife tip clearances of 0.010 in. or greater when inter-
knife cavity aspect ratio is 1.0 or larger. However, significant overpredic-
tions of leakage can occur for straight seals with short or deep interknife
cavities (KP < KH) or with clearances near 0.005 in. The uncertainties asso-
ciated with full-scale model testing at small parametric dimensions are sus-
* pected as the cause of the data dispersion which is the source of the modeling
problem.
Wide-spread usage of open-cell honeycomb lands over the last ten years prompted
* an experimental effort to quantify the effects of honeycomb on seal perfor-
mance. Thirty-eight tests, using the 3-D dynamic rig, were conducted on a
* five knife straight seal (30 tests) and on a four knife stepped seal (B tests)
with three honeycomb cell sizes. The effect of knife slant angle was investi-
gated statically and dynamically to 785 ft/sec knife tip speed. The data sup-
ported earlier indications (54) that open-cell honeycomb lands could be bene-
ficial or detrimental to the performance of multiple knife straight seals. As
* ,expected, the smaller honeycomb cell size tends to more closely follow solid
7
-.02
land performance characteristics, but the leakage is strongly affected by the
ratio of cell size to clearance. In general, honeycomb cell sizes of 0.031 in.
and larger are detrimental to straight seal performance at clearances less
than 0.010 in. A reduction in leakage as compared with a solid-smooth land
was noted for honeycomb cell size to 0.125 in. at a clearance of 0.020 in. A
significant rise in the temperature of the air leaking through the seals with
honeycomb lands is associated with the increased pumping work required to
swirl the flow past the honeycomb.
I,
Eight tests were performed to evaluate the effect of honeycomb on stepped seal
performance. In all cases, the application of honeycomb resulted in a large
increase in leakage relative to the solid-smooth land.
During this Labyrinth Seal Analysis program an extensive bibliography and a

large performance data base have been compiled. The KTK Design Model was de-
rived from this data base. The evaluation tests vindicated the selection of
three element loss correlations for the KTK flow analysis. The Design Model
provides an improved performance prediction capability applicable to a wide
M range of seal geometric and aerodynamic parameters. The use of an optimiza-
tion algorithm with the KTK performance model enables the selection of the
seal configuration which will leak the least for an arbitrary set of design
constraints.
A.
i"8
3.0 LITERATURE SURVEY
4m' 4 A literature survey was conducted to identify the most successful theoretical
the inei reot6)
approaches to modeling labyrinth seal performance and to obtain *outside' ex-

perimental data on conventional labyrinth seals. Citations of books, reports,
technical papers, and articles relating to labyrinth seal technology were found
through automated literature searches and reviews of NTIS Government Report
Announcements. A detailed discussion of the literature search can be found in
3.1 ANALYTICAL MODELS
The reference evaluations (64) revealed certain general areas of agreement

among past and present researchers as well as some points of disagreement or
departure.
The leakage through a labyrinth seal is invariably modeled as an adiabatic

throttling process. Gas phase and vapor phase working fluids have been de-
scribed with the thermally perfect equation of state and calorically perfect
thermodynamic assumptions with apparently good results. The neglect of real
gas and heat transfer effects evidently is of secondary importance to most
labyrinth seal applications. The thermodynamic model for the series-of-
* throttles process ideally predicted for labyrinth seal leakage is illustrated
as shown in Figure 1.
The ideal throttling model has led to two schools of analytical representation
for labyrinth seal performance calculations. The most widely employed assump-
tion treats the labyrinth seal as a series of discrete restrictions with asso-
N'
ciated local pressure losses. However, another model characterizes the laby-
rinth seal as a rough pipe with uniformly distributed wall friction. The gen-
eral opinion of most researchers seems to support the series-of-restrictions
model as having a more physically realistic formulation with the attendant
ability to develop the pressure loss components on a rational geometric and
parametric basis. The rough pipe model seems to rely more heavily on purely
6~ 9
INLET PLENUM STATIC PRESSURE
_ ,.-. - 2-,.---- -(n-i)-
1 '; TOTAL CONDITIONS
STATIC CONDITIONS
--- BETWEEN KNIVES
KNIFE 1 2 (Partial carry-over)
(n-))
.~ From Reference By Egli
WITH LINE CHOKED

"Uj FOR SEALS FANNO
SUBSONIC
CONSTANT KNIFE DISCHARGE PLENUM
CLEARANCE AREA- STATIC PRESSURE
FREE-JET EXPANSION
ENTROPY
0/.. -\INLET PLENUM STATIC PRESSURE
I' From Reference By Gercke
L2' n
3' -
n*
'
n*
"-n CHOKED
DISCHARGE
St)LENUM- TOTAL
STATIC PRESSURE : -
/ STATIC
FREE-JET EXPANSION CONDITIONS
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Figure 1. The-modynamic processes for labyrinth seal leakage.
10
empirical correlations to predict the equivalent wall friction. However, very
little difference in model accuracy, current or potential, could be found.
"Several survey papers on labyrinth seals were utilized to assist the literature
search. Those discussions cited in Ref 3, 5, 8, 19, 39, 51, and 57 elaborate
on the series-of-restrictions models and the rough pipe models.
3.1.1 Rough Pipe Global Model
The rough pipe model assumes that the leakage through a labyrinth seal is
*i analogous to the compressible flow through a duct with uniformly distributed
Sroughness. Under these assumptions the resulting labyrinth seal model becomes
"global in the sense that no mechanistic analysis of the internal flow is re-
quired. The early Fanno line analysis concepts of Becker (6) were extended by
Trutnovsky (57) where the pressure drop characteristics of the seal were re-
lated to an equivalent wall roughness, 4f, of the basic seal channel which is
characterized by t/H. This concept was simplified and elaborated on by
Zabriskie and Sternlicht (61) who correlated the equivalent wall roughness
parameter with certain seal geometry characteristics and a Reynolds number
parameter. The mathematical formulation and data correlation of the labyrinth
seal performance based on equivalent roughness friction factor can evidently
be carried out with accuracies equivalent to those achieved with the series-of-
restrictions models. However, the lack of physical relevance of the roughness
friction factor limits the use by the designer.
i 3.1.2 Series-of-Restrictions .lobal MoIel
," The series-of-restrictions model assumes that leakage through a labyrinth seal
is governed by the local character of the sequential accelerations and decel-
erations experienced as the fluid passes through the clearance gaps at the
knives. The earliest analyses based on this model postulated the total annihi-
.lation of the dynamic nressure after each knife, i.e., complete thermodynamic
reheat, to derive a global equation of the form.
""a. 11
1 -r
COr
KN - a in r
The value of a results from the local thermodynamic restrictions imposed upon
"themodel derivation. For seal leakage limited to the incompressible flow
regime, a = 0 (10 and 55). When the flow regime is considered compressible,
l the a = 1 for local isothermal processes (17 and 41) and a = 2/y for local
isentropic processes (18).
The theoretical derivation of the global equation is postulated on equal effec-

tive areas for each clearance gap. This assumption is approximately true for
axial, straight, or staggered seals with constant clearance. Then the primary
deviation is attributable to compressibility effects, C u f (Pn/Pn+l). For
On
stepped seals and, more dramatically, for radially oriented seals of any type,
the constant effective area assumption leads to erroneous leakage predictions.
However, these geometrical contributions to area variation can be accounted
for analytically (42) with some additional formulation complication proposed
by Gercke (21).
* The global model assumption that contributes the greatest deviation from the
real physics of straight-seal leakage is the assumption of no velocity carry-
over, r a 1.0. The residual velocity in jets encountering downstream knives
can significantly increase the leakage through straight seals (18). A variety
of analytical correction factors (26, 58, and 60) and empirical correction
factors (18 and 25) have been proposed to account for this global model defi-
ciency.
3.1.3 Knife-to-knife Nodel
All global models (both series-of-restrictions and rough pipe approaches) en-
counter difficulties with supercritical seal operation (45). A supplementary
Z and necessarily approximate model for the choking pressure ratio is required
* (31. 40, and 55). Also, the global models do not treat the variation of knife
discharge coefficient and velocity carry-over realistically with respect to the
d *. 12
* pressure ratios through the seal (43). The accurate treatment of clearance
area changes and other aionconstant geometrical parameters is difficult at best
(32) and is frequently impossible. The routine use of large, high-speed digi-
tal computers for engineering design makes the basic knife-to-knife analysis
of individual labyrinth seal designs feasible from the standpoint of time and
effort and desirable for flexibility, comprehensiveness, and accuracy. In the
knife-to-knife approach, the one-dimensional flow parameters in the knife
throats are computed and linked together by a total pressure loss calculation.
.4
Usually, a flow coefficient is utilized *o account for the vena contracta in
the knife throat. Each knife may have an individual flow coefficient value,
or groups of knives may have one value and the last knife another. Carryover
, of the velocity head in a straight seal is considered by taking only a partial
velocity head loss in total pressure between knives. Komotori (37) utilized
an expansion angle to determine the fraction of velocity head lost.
Callendar (10) performed an early knife-to-knife analysis using the isentropic

* kSt. Venant-Wantzel flow equation with adiabatic throttling process constraints
to evaluate the accuracy of the global equations of Stodola and Martin. Egli
(18) later utilized the same technique to extend his flow curves to include
small numbers of knives (effectively 1 < KN < 4). Recent researchers have ex-
tended and refined the knife-to-knife model until it is unquestionably the
most versatile and precise labyrinth seal design model.
SSince Koenig and owley (34) demonstrated the versatility of the knife-to-knife
model using the compressible flow equation of St. Venant and Wantzel with the
seal performance data of Egli (18) coded for digital computer, a series of
similar but increasingly complicated knife-to-knife models have been proposed.
* tThe knife-to-knife %eal models of Komotori and Morl (36) are by far the most
sophisticated and versatile proposed to date. The models are broadly based on
Sthe adiabatic character of the fluid flow through a series of throttles. How-
..... ever. the applicability to seal leakage involvinq heat transfer has been demon-
strated experimentally. These data indicated a very weak effect of heat trans-
fer on leakage wagnitude. The flow through each knife gap is calculated with
13
the St. Venant-Wantzel equation for isentropic flow corrected bj an empirical
discharge coefficient. Downstream expansion losses are assumed complete for
staggered and steppel seats. However, the velocity carry-over effects for
straight seals are modeled as a sudden expansior pressure loss from Borda's
equation. The expansion ratio is 4btained from a constant jet expansion angle
which was derived from test data and the geometrical characteristics of the
seal knife pitch and clearance. This straight seal model was empirically ex-
tended by Komotori and Miyake (37) to account for the effects of knife rota-
tion on leakage.
A similar knife-to-knife approach was derived by Hawas and Muneer (24). A cor-
rection was added to the single knife discharge coefficient for the influence
of downstream knives. Also, an empirical correction for velocity carry-over.
in straight seals was substituted for the theoretical Borda equation.
The results of the evaluation of the surveyed labyrinth seal performance models
which have been projsed in the literature indicate that the global models are
no longer suffi.'iently versatile or accurate for the analysis, design, and
optimization o. modern labyrinth seals. The knife-to-knife models with physi-
cally appropriate empirical corrections appear to offer the greatest potential
for the accurate calculation of seal performance.
3.2 AERODYNAMIC PARAMETERS
The aerodynamic parameters which specifyi labyrinth seal performance on a dimen-

sionlo, eeneralized basis are given in Table 1. The labyrinth seal perfor-
manc:e is conventionally expressed in terms of the dimensionless mass flowrate
parameter as a function of overall seal pressure ratio. Frequently, the mass
flowrate parameter is expressed dimensionally, but with almost as much gener-
ality, as 0 = w u/PuAt (lbm ORl/ 2 /lbf sec), and the reciprocal
of the pressure ratio, r, is used to obtain a finite range of that parameter,
0 to 1.0. Perry (46) demonstrated the facility of elliptical coordinates.
2 2
0 versus (1-r ), in linearizing orifice flow data. Inspection of
Stodola's global formula for labyrinth seal leakage supports the efficacy of
elliptical coordinates for the presentation of labyrinth seal performance.
Table 1.
Aerodynamic parameters for labyrinth seals.*
Parameter Symbol Function Effect
M.ass Flowrate w-=RT/- PUAt Dependent variable
Pressure Ratio PR PU / PO Strong

Axial Reynolds Re (w/At) 2CL/pu Moderate
Number
Ki~tfe tip speed Vcorr V/q gcRTU Moderate
Rotational ReN PU w2 /puR TU Weak

Reynolds Number
Taylor Number Ta (PUV CL/IuRTu)-(7-'7rL Weak
*See seal nomenclature and list of symbols.
The axial Reynolds number influences the discharge coefficients for the sea:
knives, but its effect on overall seal performance has not been established
experimentally. The axial Reynolds number, which is constant for a specific
seal operating at a given pressure ratio with the exception of very slight
temperature and pressure effects on viscosity, has been found by Wittig, Oorr,
and Kim (63) to affect the performance of similar seals of different sizes.
Rotor angular velocity affects seal performance at high knife tip speeds. but
the characteristic is strongly perturbed by seal geometry and land surface
conditions in a presently undetermined manner (37). Similarly the effect of
rotational Reynolds numbe- is unknown but may be involved with the knife tip
speed effects observed. Taylor number has no significant effect on the leak-
age past cylinders rotating relative to one another, although it has a strong
effect on heat transfer. However, its influence on the labyrinth seal leakage
"has not been investigated. Intuitively, the effect of Taylor number, which is
the product of a Reynolds number and CL/rK. would seem to be insignificant
based on the excellent agreement between 2-0 rig and 3-D rig test results.
* Since curvature (CL/rK) appears to have little if any effect on the perfor-
*i15
mance, all of the influence could be ascribed to rotational Reynolds number
alone. The present dearth of reliable test data and the divergent opinions of
many researchers on the importance of rotational effects would make modeling
of the knife tip speed, rotational Reynolds number, and Taylor number effects
highly speculative and unreliable.
3.3 GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS
The seal geometry parameters which specify labyrinth seal performance can be
expressed in terms of geometrical similarity criteria compatible with the gen-
eralized aerodynamic performance parameters (8). The strongest geometrical
variable affecting seal leakage is the clearance between the knife tip and the
land surface (CL), which defines the throttling area (At). Therefore, the
seal clearance is the best basis for establishing geometrical similarity in
labyrinth seal design. A list of the geometric parameters for conventional
straight and stepped labyrinth seals is given in Table 2. The classification
by influence of the geometric parameters in Table 2 is based on the empirical
evidence accumulated from the test results and opinions of many researchers
reviewed during the literature survey.
The strong effect of the number of knives was recognized in the earliest anhly-
ses of labyrinth seal performance. Knife angle influence was not considered
until later, after the separate effects of stream contraction due to orifice
geometry and stream velocity distribution due to Reynolds number were observed.
The importance of relative knife tip thickness on the discharge coefficient

was determined by Egli (18). Trutnovsky (57) reported on the investigation by
Troyanovski of the influence of knife blade shape and knife tip sharpness.
The effect of leading-edge rounding on discharge coefficient was quantified.
Jackson (28) showed that the back face geometry of the knife could affect
carry-over. Relative knife pitch, KP/CL, was used by Jones (30) to correlate
the performance of straight seals in the practical range of relative knife tip
thickni,. KT/CL. Stocker (54) showed that some optimization of KP/CL was
possible in stepped seals. Abramovich (1) contends that relative knife height
.16
] lb
Table 2.
Geometric parameters for labyrinth seals.*
Parameter S Functional Influence

Straight Stepped
Number of knives KN Number of throttles Strong Strong
Knife angle Ke Orifice geometry Moderate Moderate
Knife tip thickness Relative throat length Moderate Moderate

CL
rt
Knife tip sharpness - knife relative sharpness Moderate Moderate
CL
Knife blade shape parallelogram Orifice geometry Weak to Weak
tapered, etc Moderate
Knife pitch CL Relative throttle spacing Moderate Weak
Knife height K- Relative chamber depth Weak Weak

LL
-' C
Land surface 2CL Land relative roughness Moderate Weak
roughness
Land surface Pb Land relative porosity Moderate Weak to

porosity Moderate
',' SH
Step height CL Relative step height Weak
Distance to contact CL Rotor relative axial Weak to

CL location Moderate
Flow direction STLD Flow down the stator step Weak

LTSD Flow up the stator step
*See nomenclature and list of symbols.
"17
V.,
has a weak influence on straight seal performance until the labyrinth cavity
becomes so shallow that the through-flow jet expansion fills the cross-section.
Then the sudden compression of the stream which occurs at the downstream knife
is controlled by the relative knife height geometry. Testing by Stocker (54)
indicated a weak effect of relative knife height on stepped seals, also.
Stocker (54) also initiated some investigation of the effects of land surface
roughness and porosity on seal performance. Surface roughness was shown to
have a limited range of benefit, but porosity always has a detrimental effect
on seal leakage. Most investigators have accepted the hypothesis that the
tortuosity of the step geometry results in nearly complete destruction of the
carry-over velocity. However, experiments by Stocker (54) have demonstrated a
*. weak but surprising optimization for relative step height. Distance to contact
and flow direction were also shown to have a usually small but measurable ef-
fect on seal performance by Stocker (53) and Cox (14).
3.4 LABYRINTH SEAL PERFORMANCE DATA BASE
The data base of labyrinth seal performance was established by a careful

screening process. All applicable sources of experimental seal data identi-
fled in the literature survey were examined to see if the tests yielded accu-
* rate results and if all pertinent geometric and aerodynamic parameters were
reported. In some cases, authors were contacted to obtain additional informa-
tion. Data deemed satisfactory were digitized electronically, converted to
flow factor versus pressure ratio and plotted. These plots were reviewed to
eliminate apparent bad data by identifying specific points or curves in obvious
disagreement with the majority of the data.
Data which passed the screening process were placed in a computer data file.
The file contained the performance test data points (. versus pressure ratio)
and corresponding seal geometric parameter values. This file then became the
data base for the Allison Design Model discussed in Section 4.0.
18
Table 3 summarizes the sources, seal types, and quantities of performance data
in the data base. A configuration represents a set of test data points for a
given seal geometry. Data were included for 175 different single-knife seal,
straight seal, and stepped seal configurations. The number of data points per
, _configuration varied from 1 to 54 yielding a total of 1839 test points in the
* data base. Table 4 lists the ranges of the geometric parameters covered in
the data base.
Tables 3 and 4 show that the data base used to build the Design Model is ex-
tensive and covers a wide range of parameter values. The data come from a
diversity of sources with 40% of the configurations tested at Allison under
, various contracts including this AFAPL contract.
3.5 DESIGN MODEL CANDIDATES
The literature survey yielded several potentially useful performance prediction

models for labyrinth seals as summarized in Table 5. Six models were coded for
computer solution. Five models were global types: Egli, Allison Design Manual
,., (similar to Egli), Jones, Martin and Stodola. One model was chosen to repre-
sent the knife-to-knife analyses, i.e., Hawas and Muneer. The global model
type refers to the approach of treating an entire seal, rather than the se-
* quence of individual internal component geometries, as a means of estimating
leakage. A comparison of the predictions from the models with test data for a
typical seal configuration in the data base is given in Figure 2. The model
predictions deviate from the test data by as much as -17% to +38%, indicating
the wide range of results which can be calculated from models available in the
"literature. Additional comparisons of the three global models based on per-
formance maps, i.e., Egli, Jones, and the Allison Design Manual, have been made
,. with test data for 38 of the straight seal configurations in the data base.
The performance map model type uses input plots of flow function versus geo-
metric variables to obtain leakage rates. Deviations were found to range from
-22% to +76%, again demonstrating the inadequacy of available models to accu-
rately predict seal performance for a variety of geometric designs.
o1
b~i 19
7-4.
4
Table 3.
Labyrinth seal Design Model data base.
Number of seal configurations

Single knife Straight Stepped Total
Kearton and Keh (31) 3 0 0 3

Caunce and Everitt (13) 6 4 46 56
Meyer and Lowrie (43) 10 0 G 10
Komotori and Miyake (37) 1 12 0 13
Harrison (23) 0 13 10 23
Allison (14), (53), (54)
(IR&D), and (AFAPL 8 29 33 70
contract)
Total No. Configurations 28 58 89 175
"Total No. Test Points 373 779 687 1839
Table 4.
Parameter ranges in the labyrinth seal Design Model data base.
Seal type
Single Straight Stepped seal
Parameter knife seal STLD dir. LTSO dir.
KN min 1 2 2 2
max 1 12 6 6
KT/CL min 0.21 0.21 0.50

max 3.3 4.4 2.64 1.50
Ke min 30 60 50 50
max 90 90 90 90
KH/CL min - 2.7 5.1 5.1

max - 31.3 29.4 28.0
KP/CL min - 4.0 6.4 9.2

max - 56.3 53 40
* c/(2CL) min 0 0 0 0
max 0 0.030 0 0.030
SH/CL min - 2.0 4.0

max - 29.4 12.5
DTC/CL min - 0.85 4.1

max - 40 19.4
(KP-KT)/CL min 3.5 6.2 8.9

max 55.0 51.8 38.5
20
Table 5.
Design model types reported in the literature.
Modeling
Approach Global (Control Volume) Knife-to-Knife
Analysis Friction
Method Formula Factor Performance Maps Fluid Mechanical
Authors Martin Becker Egli Morrow

Stodola Trutnovsky Jones Robinson
"Dollin & Zabriskie & Myer & Lowrie Idel'chik
Brown Sternlicht Heffner Abramovitch
Gercke Allison Koenig & Bowley
Bartosh Design Manual Komotori
Scheel Hawas & Muneer
*.Vermes Benvenuti, et.al.
Applicability Simple Difficult Moderately Complex.

to complex difficult Good fluid me-
chanical concept
* of losses.
Solution Manual Manual Manual Computer

* computation or or computation
* computer computer
"computation computation
"Disadvantages Difficult to Requires ex- Requires exten- Requires exten-

apply carry- tensive sive overall sive models of
over correc- friction correlations for knife throat &
tions & factor or flow coefficient cavity fluid
Sknife-to- flow coeffi- & carry-over dynamics.
- - knife flow cient data. factor.
coefficient Lacks physi-
variations. cal signi-
ficance.
".4 21
'4l
04
~) ;04
o00 o
Go
03U
Io 4
v-0 -0
CA LL,
06i
IL-m
I oh.
.4 1 ~ C ~22 (
One approach to developing a design model is simply to correct the candidate
model(s) with a multiplying factor. The factor in general would be a function
of the geometric parameters. This approach was pursued by calculating the
multiplying factor from the model-test data deviations, i.e., ratio of test
flow factor to calculated value, and correlating the result as a function of
the geometric parameters. A linear regression analysis for several models for
both straight and stepped seals was used to obtain the correlation. The re-
sults showed that the modified models could predict the seal performance within
"t7%mean deviation.
Using an overall correction factor approach on any existing model is simple to

implement and would give reasonably accurate results for the data ranges con-
sidered. However, such models would not lend themselves to extrapolation be-
cause the terms in the correlations would, in general, not be physically rele-
vant.
SBased on the review of various candidate model approaches for considering the
flow in labyrinth seals, a knife-to-knife (KTK) analysis was selected as a
starting point for the Design Model in this program. The KTK approach
provides:
o the most physically realistic formulation of the knife throat and cavity
fluid dynamics in terms of geometric parameters,
* o interknife pressure information,
So a versatile tool with growth potential to include additional parameters

_i I and/or extended parameter ranges.
52
* * 23
S.
4.0 LABYRINTH SEAL DESIGN ANALYSIS
The labyrinth seal Design Model developed by Allison is based on the knife-to-
knife (KTK) flow analysis approach. The losses at each knife have been sep-
arated into the following three dynamical mechanisms as shown in Figure 3:
o contraction--stations 1 to 2 and 4 to 5,
o venturi and wall friction--stations 2 to 3 and 5 to 6,
o full or partial expansion--stations 3 to 4 and 6 to 7.
The three loss coefficients can be related to the geometric and aerodynamic
seal parameters in a physically realistic way. Consequently, the chosen
knife-to-knife model is potentially more flexible and accurate than a global
.(control volume) model which uses overall flow coefficients or a KTK model
that employs a single discharge coefficient for each knife.
4.1 MODEL FORMULATION
The design model is based on:
o a one-dimensional representation of a locally adiabatic flow which may be

piecewise diabatic,
o the calculation of three individual loss coefficients at each knife from
flow and geometric conditions,
o the modification of the loss coefficient values due to the position of the
knife in the seal (presence of adjacent knives),
o a sequential solution for the pressure distribution in the seal from the
dynamics of the flow through the series of knife throttles.
Table 6 presents the parameters which were selected for incorporation into the
Design Model. The parameter selection was based on the results of the litera-
ture survey and previous Allison experience. These parameters, which govern
labyrinth seal performance, are illustrated in Figure 4. The more complex
seal geometries are defined in the nomenclature of labyrinth seal geometry.
25.
25
III D
IIIIA
4')
1t
P. j
iiii (ii
a 0
..1P
4 Vt
4
0
A 4c
IS
!| I
262
* I I
25
H V
OfC
.5 5. CP
3 w
E
| At
ti31t
4
Aa
I-
SICL
0 A
9.%I.
4 9. I a
cb 'I
lb
Table 6.
Parameters in the Design Model
Geometric parameters for straight and stepped seals
o Knife height (KH)

o Knife pitch (KP)
o Number of knives (KN)
o Knife angle (Ke)
o Knife tip thickness (KT)
o Knife taper angle (KO)
o Knife tip leading edge radius (KR)
o Clearance (CL)
o Surface roughness ( t )
Additional parameters considered for stepped seals
o Step height (SH)

o Distance to contact (OTC)
o Flow direction (LTSO or STLD)
Flow parameters
o Overall pressure ratio (PuIPD)

o Inlet stagnation pressure (Pu)
o Fluid temperature distribution (Tz)
o Flow rate (w)
*, All local flowstation conditions were assumed to be adiabatic so that the coam-
." pressible flowrate could be Calculated from the Saint Venant-Wantzel equation.
t Ft
?2g P Y ' 41
* VR(.y l k ) -
Using the isentropic relationship between total and static pressure.
.4.2
Ps2
01
the mass flowrate parameter can be expressed in terms of the local Mach number,
R= RY l
(1+ y 2 2(y-l)
2
The dynamic loss in total pressure between any two stations can be expressed
by using the appropriate equation in the three element loss model,
-AP = K - P M2 contraction loss 4.4

t c2 s
-P Kf P M venturi and friction loss 4.5
t vf 2 s
Pt= Ke (P - PS-) expansion loss 4.6
The loss coefficients are based on tho isentropic flow conditions in the
smaller of the channel areas at the seal station. Equations 4.3 through 4.6
define the -low characteristic through the seal as a function of seal pressure
ratio. An iterative solution is employed that assumes the mass flowrate until
the specified seal pressure ratio is matched. The contraction loss, venturi
and friction loss, and expansion loss are computed in the sequence of flow for
each knife in series. Corrections are applied to the baseline single-knife
loss coefficients to adjust for the effects of adjacent knives.
A building block approach was used to derive the loss coefficient correlations.
Starting with the single-knife performance, the loss coefficients were corre-
lated against the independent seal parameters with a multiple regression
analysis. Physically relevant candidate equations were chosen on the basis of
limit analysis. The applicability of tne candidate equations was examined tb'
comparing their predictive capability against the labyrinth seal performance
data base. The equations which produced the best overall data match were
selected to model each of the three bzsellne loss coefficientt. Then these
single-knife seal performance correlations were extended to include multiple
knives in straight seal and stepped seal configurations by applying a similar
regression analysis and data matching procedure.
29
4.2 SINGLE-KNIFE SEAL MODEL
The correlation of single-knife data affords the advantage of basic loss

phenomena evaluation without the complicating influence of adjacent knives.
The available single-knife data were analyzed for the purpose of characterizing
the contraction loss (Kc) and venturi loss with wall friction (Kvf).
The expansion losses (Ke) incurred for the single-knife seals were nearly
equal to the entire difference between the total and static pressures at the
throttle discharge due to the very large downstream channel areas relative to
the clearance gap areas. Therefore, the expansion loss coefficient was speci-
i". fied as unity, Ke = 1.0.
Due to the large area variation between the inlet channel and the clearance
-. gap, the flow into the knife throat is analogous to that into a sharp-edged
"orifice. Here the radius on the leading edge of the knife is the primary
* parameter affecting the contraction loss. Using the single-knife data of
Kearton and Keh (31) in which the knife exhibited a very sharp leading edge, a
* K value of 0.7 was found when the venturi loss was assumed to be independent
c
of the leading edge radius.
With the contraction loss established, the characteristic of the venturi loss
,,' can be determined as a function of relative knife tip thickness (KT/CL) and
land wall roughness (1/2CL). The single-knife seals had aerodynamically
smooth lands so that the relationship between knife tip thickness and venturi
loss could be found directly, Figure 5. The correlation of Kvf with flow
parameter is equivalent to expressing Kvf as a function of the Mach number
over the knife. A relatively sharp knife (small KT/CL) has a strong influence
,. on the pressure drop at low Mach numbers, but becomes less effective as the
pressure ratio increases.
S.
Additional sources of single-knife seal data were utilized to establish the

effect of the knife leading edge sharpness on single-knife performance. The
linear regression analysis of these data resulted in the functional relation-
ship for contraction loss coefficient (Kc) shown in Figure 6. The data
sources are cited in Figure 6.
30
- *.4.* *
- KT/CL
1 .0 0.77
0.9
.4.1.
0.7
0.6
0.5
iG0.4
.-
0.33
* 02
0.1
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.4 o.5

*m~
4.-
Figure S. Venturi-frictionl coofficent from Koarton and Koh data.
31
.*. -,- .... --., ... -...... ,- ... ,* , .--

Ke = 1.0
Klvf - f(*,KT/CL)
Figure 5: 0.77 < KT/CL < 3.3, but good for 0.0 < KT/CL < 3.3
[Derived from Kearton and Keh data for Kc = 0.70 (KR very
small)]
K .7E' C4 2/fCLNO0.25 KR
C = 0.fj. - EXP C1. C2 ,2(-) + C3 (-L
where KR - in. from Data Source

0.0 KEARTON & KEH (31)
0.00167 Allison
0.005 KOMOTORI & MIYAKE (37)
0.005 HARRISON (23)
0.010 CAUNCE & EVERITT (13)
K = Kc 9 00 for KG 900
Kc = Kc @ 900 x (1.- C4 (Ke - 900)] for Ke >900

[from IDEL'CHIK (27)]
Kc = Kc @ 900 + C5 (1. - SIN (KG)] for 300 < Ke < 900
(from Allison plus MEYER AND LOWRIE data (43)]
NOTE: Ke is actual front surface angle relative to the flow direction so that
Ke = 90 + KB/2 when the specified knife angle is vertical or beyond,
Ke >900.
C= constant, the value of which is given in the User's Manual

program listing for the Design Model (68).
Figure 6. Loss coefficient correlations for a single-knife seal.
32
-a j,
Contraction losses are affected by the slant angle (Ke) of the knife. The
effectiveness of a knife increases, i.e., the KC becomes larger, as the
knife is slanted into the flow (Ke < 90o). Likewise the knife leakage in-
creases, i.e., the Kc becomes smaller, as the knife is slanted backward with
"the flow (Ke > 900). The contraction loss coefficient for reentrant knives
in the range 300 < Ke < 900 was correlated from the test data of Meyer and
Lowrie (43) and Allison. The effect of backward slanted knives was obtained
from a correlation by Idel'chick (27). The modifications to the K correla-
C
tion for vertical knives which correct for a knife taper angle (KO) are noted
in Figure 6.
The physical relevance of the correlation equations can be evaluated best by

comparing the predicted performance of single-knife seals with their measured
performance. An example of the good agreement obtained is shown in Figure 7.
The single-knife seal performance algorithm was the basis for the model devel-
. opment for multiknife straight and stepped seals.
.I 4.3 STRAIGHT SEAL MODEL
The single-knife seal model was extended to multiknife seals by linking the
triplet losses for each knife in the series. The overall pressure loss is the
summation of the individual total pressure losses at each knife. The losses
are calculated sequentially starting with the known inlet pressure because the
loss coefficients and Mach number are functions of the local parameter 0.
For a straight seal, there is a carry-over of the velocity head from an up-
stream knife. This carry-over through the interknife cavity affects the Kvf
and K of the upstream knife and the K and K of the downstream knife.
e c v
Thus, all the loss coefficients of a multiknife straight seal are influenced
by the adjacent knives except the Kc of the first knife and the Ke of the
last knife. The modeling approach followed for multiknife seals was to deter-
mine the three loss coefficients for a given knife location from the single
knife correlations of Figure 11 and then to correct them for the effects of
adjacent knives. The corrections are based on the expansion angle of the
carry-over jet discharging from the clearance gap over a knife. This approach
* 33
'i -* . . . . . *~** * . . . . ~ '* . . . . '**4 ,
Straight Seal-Smooth Land
CL= .020, KN= I, KH= .110, K8 =90
.36
.32
. .28 /
""'
.24-
* .20
u..16 /-0
tA /.0
4 /'
N aI
. o.0 -1
'04 0
" ,,'Ig .08,

1 .12
""!0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
2
I-(PD/PU)
4Figure 7. Model results compared to Allison data for a single-knife seal.
434
l has been proposed by Abramovich (1) and utilized by Komotori and Miyake (37)
in their KTK model. The carry-over expansion angle, a, is defined by the
* m) straight seal schematic in Figure 4. The flow in the jet
expands until it im-
pinges on the upstream face of the next knife. The maximum downstream flow
height is (CL + 6) so that the expansion area ratio is (CL + 6)/CL. The
upper limit of the expansion area ratio, 1 + KH/CL, is encountered with short
knives, with large knife pitch, and after the last knife in the seal. This
expansion ratio not only represents the amount the Sjet
flow expands from the
upstream knife but also the contraction into the downstream knife gap. The
equations for 6 in terms of =and the other geometric parameters in Figure
4 are:
for vertical knives (Ke = 900)

6 = (KP-KT)/[Tan KO + (1/Tan )].7
for slanted knives (a < Ke < 900)

6 = (KP-KT)/(Cot =- Cot Ke) 4.8
To incorporate the effects of a on the three loss coefficients, relation-

ships proposed by Dodge (16) were utilized as follows from Figure 3:
SUDDEN CONTRACTION
SKc K= 1 -4.9
V Kc
VENTURI WITH FRICTION
Kvf vfA t At
2 4.1
[2
I,. SUDDEN EXPANSION
Ke =Ke-[ 4.11
'2]
I3,
4 43
The ratios At/AI and At/A 2 are simply the ratio CL/(CL + 6) relative
to the upstream and downstream sides of a given knife, respectively.
In general, the expansion angle will vary from knife toknife as the pressure
ratio varies. This was observed in the flow visualization test results. The
expansion angle variation was not modeled, however, because of the lack of
complete seal performance with interknife pressure data. The Design Model
could be developed to include a variation through the seal based on results
from Analysis Model calculations and/or test data.
Equations 4.7 through 4.11 were formulated in the Design Model with a as an
independent variable. Straight seal performance for geometries in the data
base was calculated for a range of a values. Comparing model results with
the test performance data yielded the average a for each seal configuration.
Figure 8 shows a typical comparison of test data with the model results for
assumed values of a. From this plot, an average a value of 3 deg was
detemined for the tested straight seal configuration. Table 7 summarizes the
range of * values obtained from the various data sources. The M range ob-
tained for the data of Komotori and Miyake (37) compares well with the value
of 6 deg reported in a discussion of their paper.
A linear regression analysis was performed on the Q results. The Jet expan-
sion modeling equation obtained is given in Figure 9.
Table 7.
Jet expansion angle (a) for straight seals as determined by correlation.
o Caunce and Everett, 6 knife = 6 - 8 deg

o Komotori 2, 4, 8, and 10 knife = 4 - 6 deg
o Allison 4 knife = 2 - 4 deg
o Allison 8 knife = 4 - 5 deg
o Allison 4, S knife slanted = 2 - 4 deg
36
FOUR SLANT KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL - SMOOTH LAND
CL - .010, KN = 4, KP = .110, K6 600, DIR 81
- LEGEND -
ALPHA
-- A TEST DATA -
.32 S~0
2
-
br 2
,, .28 . ~o40 deg
.24 -
,
- .244 4
, 1 . .. 6
1010
-" .16 -,/._ ' ,, . 6

o
08
g/, / (No cary-oer
.04
s/ /' . 1
U,
S 20 .2 . 6 .8 2.
"" / , .- (No carry-over)
2
08I ( /~ -
0-0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Figure 8. Determination of ot for straight seals.
". ~37
JET EXPANSION ANGLE
for
0.54 < (KP-KT) < 4.0

KH
Average deviation 25%
C6 = constant. The value of this constant is given in the User's

Manual program listing for the Design Model (68).
WALL ROUGHNESS
Kvf -K vf smooth (Correction for upstream and downstream knives) + Kf rough

S~where
f rough " f (c/H,

Kw Re, KP)
At At smooth CL
- m
Figure 9. Straight seal correlations in the Design Model.
38
N ,,'
The effect of land roughness was included in the model by adding a frictional
head loss term (Kf rough) to the venturi loss coefficient (Kvf smooth ) A
wall friction loss coefficient (Kf smooth) for a smooth land is the baseline
* for' Kvf. The flow area in each knife throat was increased to account for
the increase in clearance due to the land roughness. An explicit equation for
the Fanning friction factor was obtained from regression analysis:
.1
'-6
(c-30) 10 -6
6.02 - 138.41
4f H 4.12
f
0.82 log1 0 [10/Re + .2 ( - 30) 10
H
where 4f >0.
This equation is similar in form to the implicit equation for transition flow
in rough conduits that was proposed by C.F. Colebrook. The frictional head
loss coefficient was determined as
Kf rough 0 (4f rough - 0fsmooth) L/H 4.13
where H = 2 CL
The knife-to-knife flow analysis was maintained by utilizing a rough wall

length equal to the knife pitch of the downstream knife. Consequently, the
rough wall length for the last knife is equal to the knife tip thickness.
Figure 9 outlines the modeling for wall roughness. Figure 10 shows a compari-
son of model results to test data for a rough straight seal land and a corre-
spending smooth land. The model accurately accounts for the effect of rough-
ness for the seal geometry evaluated.
Comparisons of Design Model predictions with the straight seal test data show
I,2 that, based on overall average, the model is accurate within + 5%. Figure 11
is a typical example of these comparisons.
Table 8 summarizes the model deviation from the test data for the single-knife
and multiknife straight seals in the data base.
93 i 39
Table 8.
Design Model error results for straight seals.
Number of Avg. Error*

Type Source Configurations
Single Kearton & Keh 3 1.4

knife Caunce & Everitt 6 1.2
Komotori & Miyake 1 1.8
Allison
(including slanted knives) 8 3.5
Multiple Caunce & Everitt 4 3.5

knife Komotori & Miyake 12 4.3
Harrison 13 5.9
Allison
(including slanted knives
and roughened lands) 26 4.6
* All 73 4.2
*Average error is the arithmetic mean of the average deviations between model
and test data.
40
CL : .020, KN = 4, Ke= 90, KP = .110, KH = .110,
KT = .010, DIR. = BI
.28
*1.26 C3~ r
cEua3OiAn.
.24 .,0.
.22
X/
.18
",16
** o
.12
-Calculated(smooth)
.10 / -- Calculated (rough)
.06
O
..
.02
4i
0 10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 - (O"Jlu 2
-. 4
.44
Figure 10. Model comparqd to Ajllisoi Z-0 r~g test data for
straight seals with smooth or rough lands.
41
% .X
-%- .. '-,.. .................. 4...
FIVE SLANT KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL - SMOOTH LAND
CL- .010, KN =5, KP -. 110, KH -.110, KOe 60, DIR -81
.32* -r -
:IIO
A - Design Model
.28 Test data
; .24
iJ K.. *.'.***,* ..
.04 [
0 12 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Figure 11. Model comp~ared to Allison 3-0 rig test daia for a slanted five-knife
straight Sed) with a*Smooth land.
42
-'4.4 STEPPED SEAL MODEL
Stepped seals are designed to minimize the dynamic pressure recovery from one
*' knife to the next by disrupting the velocity carry-over. Accordingly, the
straight seal model approach which correlated the jet expansion angle in terms
of cavity dimensions has limited physical applicability to stepped seals. The
test data show that stepped seals flow both more and less than comparable
straight seals depending primarily on the operating clearance. Consequently,
a more comprehensive model is required to account for the influence of the
additional geometric parameters of step height (SH) and distance-to-contact
(DTC) which affect the performance of STLO and LTSD stepped seals differently.
Physically, the flow between knives it,a stepped seal does carry-over some of
the velocity head to the next knife. But while the intervening flow path dis-
sipates a large part of the velocity head, it also affects how the flow enters
the next knife and, thereby, influences the loss coefficients of that knife.
The complex flow patterns involved woaId make correlations for corrections to
the individual loss coefficients difficult to determine accurately. Conse-
quently, a different approach was taken to include all of the diverse flow
- distortion and loss mechanisms into a single area correction factor (XMUL) for
a knife throat downstream of a step. This factor is a multiplier on the flow
area and can be less than or greater than unity. It accounts for carry-over,
additional pressure loss in the flow turning between the knife face and step,
which is important for small distances to contact (OTC). and flow distortion
into the next knife throat.
The 4 asic model for stepped seals assumes that the flow behaves as if it were
passing through a series of single-knife seals. Correlations for X14UL were
cbtained through a procedure similar to that followed to evaluate a for
"straight seals. For a range of XMUL values performance predictions were
calculated from the Design Model for the stepped seal configurations in the
-V data base. A comparison of these results with the test data yielded the re-
quired XMUL value for each configuration. Figure 12 shows a typical comparison
plot. The area multiplier (XMUL) was found to vary from 0.55 to 1.32. A cor-
relating equation for XMUL in terms of the influential geometric parimeters
U 43
* iU4
STLD STEPPED SEAL WITH SOLID-SMOOTH LAND

KP = .275, CL .030, KN a .04, KH .176, SH .125
DTC =.22
KO a 906
.16
- (XHUL)AREA MULT. -
* - LEGEND
- /TEST DATA -
I .14 - --
- ....... o--- -
800 XMUL AREA MULT
.900 - 1.3
1.000 -
i
1.100
~1. 200
.12 .. 1.2
01.1
.10 / 51
il.08 /
1/70 O/. 9
it S
".06 /0
"0.7
1- .04/./
II :: ~ ~.02 z;.
0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
. - (PD/PU) 2
" Figure 12. Determination of the area multiplier for a stepped seal.
44
A,
[, < JA 4
was derived using a multiple linear regression analysis. Stepped seals with
STLD flow direction, backward facing stator steps, were analyzed first because
of the larger data base (62 configurations). A correlation for the LTSD flow
direction was obtained from comparisons of the STLD equation to the LTSD test
data (15 configurations). A correction equation based on the comparable STLD
stepped seal was derived. This approach provided the best extrapolation of
the narrower parameter ranges for the LTSD stepped seal data. Figure 13 gives
the STLD and LTSD correlations for XMUL and their respective parameter ranges.
Roughened land surface effects for stepped seals were handled in the model
with a procedure similar to that developed for straight seals, i.e., adding a
friction head loss term (Kf rough) to the Kvf for a smooth wall and in-
creasing the throat area by the amount of the roughness. The effective length
of the rough wall was taken equal to the knife tip thickness because the steps
induce significant flow separation in the interknife cavities. This wall
friction model produces good agreement with the test data.
Figures 14 and 15 show typical comparisons of model results with test data in
the data base. The Design Model deviations from the test data are summarized
4. in Table 9 for all of the stepped seal data in the data base. The disagree-
ments between test data and Design Model predictions are within +5%.
41"
I'e
4'45
4%
4%4
"64
STEPPED SEAL AREA MULTIPLIER, XMUL
STLD Flow Direction
C8 C CI
XMUL = C7 (DTC/CL) (KT/CL) 8 (DTC/(KP-KT)) (KH/CL) 10
((KP-KT)/KH) ' (SH/CL)

. * .(SH/C) 12/J(DTC/CL)2 + C13
0.85 < DTC/CL < 40, 0.21 < KT/CL < 2.6, 0.09 < DTC/(KP-KT) < 1.0,
5.1 < KH/CL < 19.4, 1.16 < (KP-KT)/KH < 1.76, 2.0 < SH/CL < 29.4
LTSD Flow Direction
XMUL " XMULsTLD

STL C14 (KH/CL)C1 5
*1 4.0 < DTC/CL < 19.4, 0.50 < KT/CL < 1.5, 0.35 < DTC/(KP-KT) < 0.50
* ,~ 5.1 < KH/CL < 28, 1.02 < (KP-KT)/KH < 1.9, 4.0 < SH/CL < 12.5
I'.
Note: The limits on the seal parameters result from the range of the seal
geometries used in developing the correlation equations.
1'
WALL ROUGHNESS
Kvf a K'vf + Kf rough

"
Krough f(c/H, Re, KT)
t t smooth (cL )
Figure 13. Stepped seal correlations in the Design Model.
46
4 KNIFE STEPPED SEAL SOLID-SMOOTH LAND
* I I
.4.
DESIGN MODEL
.28- TEST DATA
Nel
.24
.20-
.16
.12L
V.2 i.08
4,'
0
0 .2 .4 .6 .. 1.0
1 PD/PU)2
. . .. *i04. .
'
Figure 14. Design Model compared to Allison test data for a stepped seal
*. * f 1*'. .I
with a solid-smooth seal. 1..
h
47
CL = 0.020 in
Kn = 2
KP = 0.400 in.
KH = 0.280 in.
KT = 0.015 in.
K0 = 70 deg
Rough = 300 Ain.
Direction = LT SD
.22 - SH= 0.120 in.
S...........I -DTC 0.194. in.
1:" .20
.18 i- 0
07~
".16
.. 14
,.. 12 L
cc _.. Design Model
.14
.4. I, .08 - i/ /
S[ 'S.o4k .06
.. 0
* .02 - ,7"
4,
0*~
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
,4 l-(P
0 /Pu)
Figure 15. Design Model compared to Allison test data for a

stepped seal with a rough land.
17 48
4.K,
V 4%
Table 9.
Design Model error results for stepped seals.
Number of Avg Error*

Type Source Configurations M
Multiple knife Caunce & Everitt 44 2.9

(STLD only)
Harrison 8 5.3
(STLD only)
DDA
STLD data 9 4.0
LTSD data (includes 24 4.8
roughened land)
Both 3....3 4.6
All 85 3.8
I"
"*Average error is the arithmetic mean of the average deviations between model
* land test data.
"S..
49
A."
4.5 DESIGN MODEL COMPUTER PROGRAM
The Design Model for calculating the flow through labyrinth seals has been
* coded in Fortran IV language for rapid and comprehensive computations. The
one-dimensional compressible flow equations satisfactorily represent the flow
in the knife throats when they are coupled with empirical relationships for
S41 1. ....the_..oss..coef.ficients..... hi~s.-.s~emti -emp-irala- etis-as-gteprsue..........
distribution through the seal. The model accurately predicts straight and
stepped seal leakage within +5% for a wide range of seal parameters encountered
in gas turbine engines. Since the model considers one knife at a time, non-
constant geometry seals, e.g., different clearance at each knife tip, can be
considered. Nonconstant seal geometry can accommodate mixed straight and
stepped configurations in a single seal.
Features available in the Design Model code include:

o abbreviated input where possible
o override available for many of the loss coefficient parameters
o function loss can be specified instead of or in addition to the three
loss coefficients
o nonconstant geometry straight and stepped seals, or a mixed combinat4on
of the two, can be considered
o calculations for two-dimensional (rectangular) seals are possible to
simulate some static seal rigs.
o calculation options are available:
pressure distribution for a given flow rate.
pressure distribution and flow rate for a given overall pressure ratio.
flow characteristic curve (, versus P
A comprehensive description of the structure, capabilities, and use of this

computer code is presented in Reference (68).
uso
50
4 * *. N.
4
A Design Model verification test was made with previously untested stepped
seal hardware. This seal configuration was not part of the data base used to
derive the Design Model. The vertical knife stepped seal was tested in the
STLD configuration statically and dynamically at 246 and 492 ft/sec average
knife tip speeds. The measured performance and the performance predicted by
the deiamodel are plotted in Figure 16. Table 10 compares the design model
performance predictions with the test data;- The correlation between measured
and predicted seal performance was within one percent throughout the pressure
ratio range tested. Although this was a single point check, the predictive
* capability of the Design Model within the limits specified for the labyrinth
* seal parameters is expected to be within +5% of the true value for conventional
seal configurations at clearances greater than 0.005 in.
Table 10.
Comparison of the verification test results with the
Desicin Model performance prediction.
OR 1/2
/lbm
lb f sec _____V.T.
lll ADssig n Model

verilcation test
dtDesign Model h tic condition ste.pL
1.0 0 0
selcniuain tceracsgetrta .0 n
-- 1.25 0.1508 .152 -0.8
m m 9 1.50 0.1857 .187 -0.1
2.00 0.2142 .216 -0.8
4.50 0.2379 (.237)* (+0.4)
Average -0.8
*Extrapolated from elliptical coordinate plot of the measured data. Not

included in overall average.
51
Cl 0
oo ~E
.- .
00
0)
o
* gj g~ .5 ,
4Ji
00)
It 1
*to-
-Jp
..'
u 0m 100
I
In4j
=1 0).
0 '.0
LM.
mojA-
52U
5.0 LABYRINTH SEAL DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
The Design Model is a performance analysis tool for a specified labyrinth seal
geometry. The seal designer often needs to solve the inverse problem: con-
figure a seal to minimize the leakage for a particular application. The seal
design is generally constrained by installation and fabrication limits. Con-
sequently, the haphazard selection of candidate seals from among the myriad
possible designs on the sole basis of experience criteria will seldom result
in a "best" choice. However, mathematical optimization theory provides a reli-
able and efficient iterative procedure for determining the best seal design.
5.1 OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
The optimization of a seal geometry from the performance predicted by the De-
sign Model requires the maximization of nonlinear functions of the independent
*1 variables, which are subject to nonlinear equality or inequality constraints.
The nonlinear constrained optimization is transformed to an unconstrained

problem through the use of a penalty function. Then the variable metric meth-
od of Fletcher-Power-Davidon is used to solve the problem. This approach ap-
"plies to continuous variables and is reliable even for erratic functions that
_ _are frequently encountered in design problems.
i i
Discrete variables, e.g., the type of seal, the number of knives, and the flow
direction, are also encountered in the optimization problem. The algorithm
performs the continuous variable optimization for each set of discrete vari-
able values. Then the individual optimum designs are compared to determine
the overall optimum seal design.
Constraints have been included in the algorithm to ensure that the optimized
seal configuration satisfies the design requirements. Constraints on the dis-
crete variables simply limit the matrix of values considered in the trial and
comparison procedure. Constraints on the continuous variables are imposed by
adding inequality penalty functions to the functions being optimized. A
* penalty function equals zero if the design meets a given contraint. It is
53
* .
.9
greater than zero if the constraint is violated, and the penalty varies para-
bolically with the magnitude of the violation. Each continuous variable con-
straint has one .-.Ity function associated with it.
A driver routine has been programmed for the Design Model code which calculates
the independent parameter values to be evaluated in the search for an optimum

configuration. This driver automates the procedure of: (1) determining the
overall design constraints, (2) selecting the allowable range of each parameter
to meet design and model constraints, (3) using the Design Model to calculate
the leakage flow rate for a matrix of possible seal configurations, and (4)
optimizing the seal design from the performance matrix, i.e., finding the seal
geometry with the lowest leakage.
5.2 OPTIMIZATION CAPABILITIES
. Three types of parameters are involved in the seal optimization process: (1)
input parameters which are held at specified constant values during the opti-
mization, (2) optimized parameters which will define the unique best seal con-
figuration, and (3) constraining correlation parameters which limit the para-
metric search to the Design Model envelope. The optimization of a seal design
can consider a matrix of these parameters listed in Table 11. Input parame-
ters have constant values imposed by the operating environment of the sealing
application or by physical limitations of the design or fabrication processes.
The parameters defining a maximum seal geometry envelope. i.e., Lmax and
H , are optional and should be stipulated only if the space allocated to
the seal is limited. The optimized parameters are either continuous or dis-
crete functions. Each discrete parameter defines an optimization matrix which
is solved by the variable metric method. The optimum solutions for each dis-
crete parameter are compared to obtain the best seal configuration. The con-
straining correlation parameters limit the selection of the best seal design
so that the parametric correlations in the Design Model are not extrapolated
beyond their reliable range. Alternative constraints can be superposed on the
optimization by the input of minimum and maximum values for the continuous hnd
discrete optimized parameters. These additional constraints are arbitrary and
54
optional, similar to the use of the overall seal length and height specifica-
tions. If the program limits on an optimized parameter are not overridden by
input data, the constraining limits are set by default to the code values.
Table 11.
Design Molel optimization parameters.
Input Parameters Optimized Parameters
,-Straight and Stepped Seals Continuous Variables

Clearance (CL) Knife height (KH)
Temperature (T) Knife pitch (KP)
Inlet total pressure (Pu) Knife tip thickness (KT)
Pressure ratio (PR) Knife angle (Ke)
Knife radius (KR) Roughness (c)
Knife taper angle (K0) Step height (SH)**
Maximum axial length (Lmx)*
i e .,?ed Seals Only Discrete Variables

* Maximum seal height (Hmx)* Seal type (straight, stepped)
Distance to contact (OTC) Number of knives (KN)
Maximum or minimum diameter (Omax. Dmin) Flow direction (LTSO, STLO)**
Minimum knife pitch (KPmin)
(= 2X maximum allowable axial travel)
-4
*4*
*Optional
* **Stepped seals only
CQnstrln ing Coryrelation Parameters
'traiaht Seals Stepped Seals
KT/CL XT/CL
.eRe
(KP-KT)/KH (KP-KT)/KH
- 30)/CL OTC/CL
SH/CL
KH/CL
(C - 30)/C-
a 55
062 %dg
The optimization code capabilities can be summarized as follows:
o Constant geometry straight and stepped seals can be considered. However,

variable parameters from knife-to-knife or mixed straight and stepped seal
geometries cannot be optimized.
o An optimum configuration may be determined for both seal types and for
both flow directions through the stepped 3eals. Any subset of these may
* be considered.
o Each independent parameter has a default range which may oe overridden.

Even the correlation parameter ranges may be overridden if desired.
o An independent parameter may be held constant (by inputting both its mini-
mum and maximum values equal to the one desired).
o Before optimization is attempted, the parameter values and ranges are

checked to be sure a solution is possible, e.g.. a solution is impossitle
if Lmax is less than the minimum KP divided by the maximum KN, If a
solution does not exist, information is printed desc.ribing the problem.
"and the execution of the data set is halted.
o Intermediate output information is given for each combination of discrete

variables employed. This output information includes algorithm parameter
values, derivatives of the optimized function with respect to each con-
tinuous variable, and comparisons of the continuous variabie values with
the allowable ranges.
o Final output information includes sensitivity results for each discrete

variable step and summary data for the optimum seal cnnfiguration desig-
nated.
56
The output information not only defines the optimum seal configuration but in-
dicates the effect, if any, of imposing each constraint. Also, the improve-
ment in decreased leakage of the optimum configuration compared to the other
possible configurations is given. This information can be used to assess the
penalty caused by each limiting censtraint and the penalty for choosing an
alternate design.
A detailed description of the optimization algorithm and its use with the
Design Model code can be found in the User's Manual (68). A sample input file
and the resulting optimum seal configuration output are included.
-.i
........................
.45
.
6.0 LABYRINTH SEAL EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The labyrinth seal rig tests were designed to extend the ranges of geometric
parameters in the data base for the design model development, to provide veri-
fication of the capabilities of both the Design Model and the Analytical Model,
and to substantiate the physical reality of the flow-field structure calculated
:1 *by the Navier-Stokes analysis model. The bulk of this seal performance test-
ing was done in the two-dimensional (2-D) static rig. This rig was also uti-
lized as the test section for schlieren flow visualization apd flow field
velocity measurements in large-scale seal models. Supporting performance tests
were made independently with intracavity pressure and temperature instrumenta-
, tion. A program to characterize the leakage performance of typical straignt
seals and stepped seals with open-cell honeycomb lands was run statically and
- dynamically in the three-dimensional (3-0) test rig. The effects of knife ro-
tation on full-scale straight seals with smooth and rough lands were investi-
gated using intracavity pressure instrumentation. Verification tests were run
on the 3-f dynamic rig with a seal configuration which had not been previously
tested.
6.1 TEST RIGS AND PPOCEDURES
-* Two complementary test rigs were used to acquire the variety of data required
to support the development of the analytical models. A cost effective two-
dimensional (2-0) static rig was employed to obtain the seal performance data
for the full-scale models of straight and stepped seals under the influence of
geometric and land surface roughness %3riations. This 2-D rig was also used
to study the internal details of the labyrinth seal flow through large-scale
models which were also suitable for flow field velocity measurements with hot-
wire anemometers and for flow vi;ualization with a schlieren technique devel-
oped specifically for the purpose. A three-dimensional (3-0) dynamic rig was
used to investigate the performance perturbations imposed by rotating knives
"* next to several different land materials with annular clearance gaps. The
following sections describe the test equipment and instrumentation utilized to
obtain these data.
* 59
, ,. . . . . . . . . . . . , , . , . . . . . . .. . . . . . , . .
6.1.1 2-D Static Rig
The terminology, 2-D (two-dimensional) static test rig, is based on the seal
models which are installed in the rectangular test section. These models do
not simulate the effects of seal curvature or rotation and involve small end-
wall effects. However, the high aspect ratio test section, 6.28 in. wide,
minimizes these end effects.
Building block, adjustable seal hardware is used to obtain versatility and

multiple use of components. Individually adjustable knife and land sections
can produce continuous changes in the primary geometric variables of straight
and stepped seals in a cost effective manner. The features incorporated in
the rig design, Figure 17, allow one set of knife hardware to cover the con-
ventional range of variation in:
o knife clearance
o knife pitch
o knife height
o number of knives
o step height
o distance-to-contact (axial clearance)
The maximum test envelope will accommodate a seal length of 2.0 in. This
test section will allow a considerable number of straight seal knives (depend-
ing on pitch) and stepped seal knives to be tested at full-scale over a com-
plete range of clearance encountered in small and large high-temperature air-
* craft engines.
Figure 18 shows a close-up view of the 2-0 rig test section with a four-knife
stepped seal installed. Each knife and each land are an individual horizontal
* piece and can be adjusted in an axial direction relative to adjacent pieces to
make arbitrary changes in the pitch. Step height can be varied by inserting
shims (not shown) between adjacent knife and land sections. The knife pitch
and axial seal clearance (OTC) can be easily changed with the adjustment
I - 60
. .4 ,% I", 'w r % , ,' ' % ,% .

: ! " SEAL UPSTREAM PRESWURE
TEMPERATURE
AN "' FLOW MEASURING ORIFICE
S~UPSTREAM PRESSURE
A N
SEAL AIR EXIT DUCT
S~DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE
MEASURING ORIFICi S
J i~e SEAL AIR INLET TRANSITION
m4 as shown in Figure 18. Vertical clearances between the corresponding S

lands and knives can be varied by clearance shims as noted. Changes in knife
4.o
S, . . , , . o . . , . , . . , . . . . . , . . , . , . , .
height are accomplished by filling the knife cavities with low .temperature
. . , . , . .. . .
i pattern wax. The number of knives are easily variable by removing or adding
corresponding knife and land sections, For vertical knife seals, the flow di-
rection through the seal can be changed by reversing the knife and land found-
ations. Changes in knife angle and land contour do require different hardware.
"I ~Figure 1g shows a close-up view of a four-knife straight seal installed in the
2-0 test section. The straight-seal assembly is similar to, but simpler than.
that for the stepped seal since one land section is required. Spacers between
knives. with specific height and thickness dimensions, are used to adjust knife
,. pitch and height in the straight seal.
61
M e
nfe-Landlaac hm
Knifc-nd Vertical Clearance Shims 0N Knife Pitch Adjustment Screws
7 1W A-
Land Pitch Adjustment Screws
Kife-Land Axial Clearance Adjustment

Seal Knife Foundation Locking Screws
Figure 18. Two-dimensional (2-0) labyrinth sea] rig with

stepped seal installed.
.5.
SEX
.4'
TE-9619
Figure 19. Two-dimensional (2-0) labyrinth seal rig with
straight seal installed.
62
The 2-0 rig installation permits aerodynamic evaluation of seal performance to
a seal inlet pressure of eight atmospheres at room ambient temperature. The
test condition range and the local Mach iiumbers encountered in the seal flow
limit pressure and temperature variations in air to compressibility factors,
mZ= Ps/Rt, near unity. The desiccated air supply prevents the possibility
* . of variation in the test fluid due to composition changes and removes any
chance of condensation shocks. The rate of change of thermal characteristics,
A V
c and y, for air is small in the ambient temperature range. Therefore,
the 2-0 rig test environment enhances the accuracy and generality of the data
-re-aduction procedures. The primary modeling variable which is not controlled
is Reynolds number, which varies primarily with seal model scale.
The rig normally discharges to the atmosphere outside the test cell through a
5.76 in.inner diameter (I.D.) pipe which creates less than 0.2 psi pressure
loss.
The flat plane walls forming the rectangular test section of the 2-0 rig ex-
"perience small structural deflections which can result in clearance changes
under high air pressure loading. A micrometer dial gauge (see Figure 20) with
0.00002 in. readability is mounted on the top plate to monitor the relative
movement of the seal knife hardware, which is indicated by the vertical travel
of the follower pin.
'S'
'K, The 2-0 rig allows an extensive survey of seal geometry and material effects
on performance to be accomplished expeditiously at minimal costs In hardware
* .fabrication, manpower, and schedule.
, 6.1.2 2-0 Rig Modified for Flow Visualization
Aluminum side plates with 5.5 in. x 3.5 in. x 1/2 in. thick plate glass windows
.". at the seal model viewing location, were substituted for the standard steel
side plates used in normal performance testing, Figure 21. These two matching
side plates were made for use with the schieren optical imaging technique and
a laser doppler velocimeter (LDV) system. The side plate windows are limited
to a pressure difference of 15 psi, but this pressure level is adequate for rig
63
AA
It,I*~
4V
jk 1
644
41
44-1
aR
A
4 fl'-lv
10
L"G
At- E
All .
V41.-
testing with large-scale models. The conventional pressurized inlet plenum
was employed for some of the schlieren testing, but better flow visualization
and flow field velocity measurements were obtained with an atmospheric inlet
and discharge evacuated by a steam ejector. Pressure ratios to 3.5 were ob-
tained within the structural limits of the window glass with this pump-down
arrangement.
Intraseal instrumentation requirements and flow visualization limitations

placed constraints on the minimum model scale for the seal. The relatively
small dimensions of the full-scale seal models prohibit accurate visualization
"* of local flow-field phenomena. Therefore, a ten times (lOX) full-scale seal
model size was selected as the largest scale reasonably accommodated by the 2-0
rig and air supply. Additional constraints on step height limited the size of
stepped seal models to five times (5X) full-scale. Classical flow similarity
,-,theory governed the design which preserves the ratio of pressure forces to
inertia forces and compressibility effects at the expense of variations of the
ratio of viscous forces to inertia forces. Then the observations and measure-
ments of the fluid dynamics in the large-scale seal will be comparable to
those in the full-scale seal when flow similarity is independent of Reynolds
-, number.
6.1.3 3-D Dynamic Rig
The terminology, 3-0 (three-aimenslonal) dynamic test rig, is based on the

* circular geometry of the seal models. The test seals typically have a maximum
diameter of 6.00 in. and can be run at rotational speeds to 30,000 rpm for the
simulation of actual engine applications. The 3-0 rig rotor is driven by an
A impulse turbine with speed control that is independent of the seal inlet pres-
sure. Therefore. static performance (at 0 rpm) and the influence of knife tip
speeds up to 785 ft/sec can be evaluated over a range of seal pressure ratio
from 1.0 to approximately 0. 3 21'V-C. Figure 22 shows the 3-0 rig installed
in the research test facility. The principal %ubassemblies are identified in
iFigure
* 23.
66
*1
.J." .' ... *".",' ' . . .. . . . .. .

:"'' * .'.-:: '.
.
''
.
'
.
" ."'.:'''"'
. .
""
.
"''
.
.'"
.
'"- '
.
' ". "
.
" " ''"
.
'"
.
"'..
*.%....
''.*
."*" '. * .
.
' *'
.
*" "
'OR
OLL
'4$'
4Or
* U,
"NI
CM
400
f. C
IA
40
The seal knife geometry is normally tested on the rotor which is a unique com-
bination of knife angle, number of knives, pitch, and knife height for a given
flow direction and step height in the case of stepped seals. The matching
stator is designed for a single clearance and can be reversed for the large-to-
small diameter (LTSD) and the small-to-large diameter (STLD) flow direction
testing in the case of stepped seals. Similarly, vertical knife stepped seal
rotors can be tested in both flow directions. The distance-to-contact (DTC)
for stepped seals or knife position over the land, as in the case of straight
seals, can be varied by inserting shims behind the stator housing.
6.1.4 Test Rig Instrumentation
* Comparable air temperature and static pressure instrumentation are used to

determine the seal leakage performance in both the 2-0 static rig and the 3-0
* ,dynamic rig. The 3-0 rig employs additional temperature and static pressure
instrumentation to define the tubine power produced during dynamic operation.
Dynamic testing also requires some electronics to record rotor speed and to
monitor two-degrees-of-freedom vibration levels at the seal test and turbine
drive sections. Both rigs have been modified to accept instrumentation within
the seal model.
**. 6.1.4.1 2-0 Rig Instrumentation
The instrumentation locations for the 2-0 rig are shown schematically in Figure
24. Airflow through the seal model is determined with a standard ASME square-
edge orifice with static radius taps.
Static pressures are measured upstream and downstream of the airflow orifice,
at the seal inlet plenum, and at the seal downstream plenum. All of the
large-scale seal models were instrumented with static pressure taps of 0.020
"in. diameter located on the longitudinal centerlines of the knife-tips well
away from any sidewall influence. Additional cavity static pressures were
installed at appropriate axial locations in the same longitudinal plane.
69
-SS
.
S,/
E-921
S~to
static seal test rig instrumentation-

SFigure 24. TypiCal two-dlmensional
Air temperatures upstream of the airfhnw measuring orifice and
n pstream Of the
ic
th sal oelC one the -

are measured with shielded iron the se et
seal model located downstream Of
Two I.C. thertOucOUes are
the test section n one e~oCOUPle in
in the downstream PiUn of ri
couple seal MOde
the exhaust pipe. All of the large-scale
in the avitiesd
I.C. therWOcouple$ to measure air temperaturs
additional tippedr
The cavity theasOCpuples Allrobthe
in the velocity carry-over Jets.
shrouded and taps t p e ride
The carry-over thermocouples were
the 5 t"ti preU0 taps to provide
couples were located out of line with
from wake spreading.
reasonable isolation
6.1.4.2 3-D Rig jostrumentatin figure

rig are shown schematically in
or the 3-0
,istrumentatiOn
The
locatiOi
to define the leakage performance in
sealrig-
the 2-D
oitio. reuire ... r in
. 25.he Theitrfenlow
~25. airflu- -
'a m! ,ite4Se ,r
,A the 3-0 rig are the
10
PTOU TTW
* PTO0
i PSOC!
p
OTD TO 1 T
TSo
TE-9622
Figure 25. Typical three-dimensional dynamic seal test

rig instrumentation.
4. A larger diameter ASAI square-edge orifice is required for the 3-0 rig which
will pass three times the airflvwt rate as a similar 2-D rig seal configuration
under the same pressure ratio.
The labyrinth seal upstream pressure is sensed on the diffuser wall well away
from the local acceleration of the flow entering the seal and away frtm the
, vortex pumping of the rotor. The upstream I.C. therOcouple is deeply itmersed
near the axis of rotation of the 3-D rig rotor. The seal downstream pressure
and temperature measurements are made in the discharge jet from the seal.
Five static pressure taps of 0.020 in. diameter were positioned in the smooth
S 'and -ough stators, halfway between the knife tracks of the four knife straight
71
seal, and on the same spacing ahead of and behind the rotor. No intraseal
pressure instrumentation was installed in the stepped seal models or in the
honeycomb seal models.
Additional data for the airflow conditions in the turbine section of the 3-0
rig are necessary to define the power delivered to the rotor during dynamic
testing. The turbine airflow is measured in the supply line with a standard
ASME thin-plate, square-edge orifice. One additional thermocouple is required
to measure turbine orifice inlet temperature.
Several operating parameters are monitored to ensure proper and safe dynamic
testing in the 3-D rig. The most important of these from the standpoint of
good performance measurement is the static pressure in the rotor thrust
balance cavity. Here the thrust bearing load is controlled, which is crucial
to valid power absorption data. Lubrication system pressures and temperatures
are monitored as a safety precaution.
6.1.5 Data Reduction and Calculation Methods
The leakage performance of a labyrinth seal correlates on the airflow

parameter,
PU At
as a function of the seal pressure ratio, P /P in the absence of Reynolds

U Dt
number or heat transfer effects. When the discharge pressure and inlet air
temperature are approximately constant, the test Reynolds number is invariant
at a given rressure ratio. The test air is delivered at essentially ambient
temperature. The heat transfer influences are also minimized by the ambient
temperature test fluid. The seal throat area is corrected from the buildup
clearance measurements for rig case deflections in the 2-0 rig and for rotor
growth at dynamic conditions in the 3-D rig.
72
The data repeatability of the 2-0 rig and the 3-D rig is typically 3%. Cor-
relations between test results from the 2-0 rig and the static 3-0 rig are
*: good with the principal variations attributable to the clearance area change
through the stepped seal hardware for the 3-0 rig.
When the local envirornment of an engine labyrinth seal is known in terms of air
temperature (Tu) and the hot running clearance of the seal
is specified so
that the flow area can be calculated (At), then a unique iterative solution
for compatible leakage flowrate (w), upstream pressure (Pu), and downstream
pressure (P,) is defined by the generalized seal performance curve
(w' PU At versus Pu/P,) in conjunction with the other restrictions
in the seal flow circuit. The potential errors incurred by the extrapolation
of this room temperature and barometric discharge pressure data to higher
temperature and pressure engine environments are a function of Reynolds number
and heat transfer effects. Generally, Reynolds number is most strongly in-
fluenced by model scale rather than kinematic viscosity of the air. Ordinarily
heating of the seal leakage is influenced by rotor windage, seal pumping, and
environmental heat transfer. Modeling of these secondary variables would re-
quire a full-scale engine seal with actual simulation of the thermal and pres-
sure environment or an analytical model with this theoretical sophisticatioA.
The complication and expense of such rig testing makes the performance gener-
. alizing procedure the most feasible empirictl approach. The Navier-Stokes
Analytical Model could be used to calculate correction factors for Reynolds
number and heat transfer effects in much the same manner that specific heat
and humidity corrections have been developed for turbine engine performance
parameters through aerothermodynamic cycle analyses.
6.2 PERFORMANCE TESTS ON FULL-SCALE LABYRINTH SEAL MODELS
*,, Performance tes;ts were run on selected full-scale models of straight and
stepped labyrinth seals to extend the range and distribution of the geometric
parameters for the Design Model data base, to evaluate the Design Model pre-
dictions for straight seal configurations outside of the conventional range of
interknife cavity geometry, and to characterize the effect of open-cell honey-
comb lands on the performance of straight and stepped seals.
73
A
One of the objectives of the literature survey was to identify the geometric
parameters which affect the performance of labyrinth seals and to determine
their ranges of application in the gas turbine industry. These parameters for
straight and stepped seals are summarized below:
KN number of knives
KO knife angle
CLKT relative knife tip thickness
SKCP relative knife pitch

CL
relative knife height
CL
S~KP
KP- interknife cavity aspect ratio
KH
C
C=_L land relative roughness S
*" for stepped seals only
SH
CL" relative step height
DTC relative distance to contact
STLD
or flow direction
LTSD
The tests required to fill voids in the available data base matrix were planned
on the basis of these generalized geometric parameters. The performance data
used in the multiple linear regression analysis for the Design Model develop-
ment were correlated with seal geometry defined by these parameters.
A significant reduction in the number of tests required for the formulation of

a comprehensive design model was made possible by the application of statisti-
cal analysis to model theory for compressible flow similarity.
74
6.2.1 Design Model Data Base Extension
Twenty-three performance tets were made over pressure ratios to 6 in the 2-D
static labyrinth seal test rig. Of these, twelve were straight seal tests
and eleven were stepped seal tests to augment the data base for the develop-
ment of the Design Model. Table 12 lists the geometrical details of the seal
configurations and the data voids filled by the tests. The performance data
from each of the tests are presented graphically in Appendix B.
6.2.2 Effect of Interknife Cavity Aspect Ratio in Straight Seals
* Komotori and Miyake (37) contend that an optimum interknife cavity aspect ratio
exists for straight seals near a KP/KH.4. The earlier testing at Allison in-
"dicated a minimum straight seal leakage when the interknife cavity was square.
,". The compilation of these somewhat conflicting empirical results into the data
4
.. base for the Design Model was certain to skew the predictive capability away
from the measured performance of the individual tests in the set. Consequent-
ly, an evaluation program was conducted to determine the capability of the De-
sign thodel to predict the performance of straight seals that were not in the
data base which have a range of interknife cavity aspect ratios, 0.4 < KP/KH <
4.0. A nominal envelope of relative seal geometries was covered by varying
the clearance between 0.005 in. and 0.020 in. and testing two and four
knives. Eighteen configurations of straight seals with vertical knives were
, tested in the 2-D rig. The geometric parameters of each test are listed in
Table 13 with the evaluation of the Design Model prediction at a seal pressure
ratio of 2.0. The plots of the seal performance measured and predicted are in
.* Appendix C.
From these tests it was concluded that:
v o the Design Model predicts the flow parameter * too high for low
interknife cavity aspect ratios, KP/KH < 1.0.
o the Design Model predicts the flow parameter * too high for small
clearance. CL 0.005 in.
75
.Ji a 4 b .JJ j
" "a%S,a %a
z - zzx
9 :z Cz z
V4
4440 V4A& 1 V4A4I 4 I!
ooo0o0 o ~ 0
W- .4%..&
Ii o 0.
o o o o o o o o o o
a.4
"* ii !
ooa ~ 0 oooooo6o
000
II.~~1 . v. .444.
61J
41 IN (4ft
2U
0 .
476
Table 13.
Effect of KP/KH, KN, CL on vertical knife straight seals at Pu/P = 2.0.
Test KN KT KH KP CL 1T .DM 'DM/0T

No. in. in. in. in. Test Design
Model
1 2 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.005 0.327 0.445 1.361

2 2 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.010 0.400 0.451 1.128
3 2 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.020 0.418 0.455 1.089
4 4 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.005 0.314 0.415 1.322
"5 4 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.010 0.375 0.435 1.160
6 4 0.010 0.110 0.044 0.020 0.414 0.448 1.082
7 2 0.010 0.110 0.220 0.005 0.302 0.349 1.156
2 "8
0.010 0.110 0.220 0.010 0.346 0.352 1.017
9 2 0.010 0.110 0.220 0.020 0.357 0.374 1.048
10 4 0.010 0.110 0.220 0.005 0.232 0.269 1.159
11 4 0.010 0.110 0.220 0.010 0.268 0.277 1.034
12 4 0.010 0.110 0.220 0.020 0.304 0.306 1.007
13 2 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.005 0.275 0.333 1.211
14 2 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.010 0.325 0.328 1.009
15 2 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.020 0.325 0.335 1.031
16 4 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.005 0.182 0.249 1.368
. 17 4 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.010 0.236 0.243 1.030
18 4 0.010 0.110 0.440 0.020 0.243 0.254 1.045
o the Design Model predicts the flow parameter * very well at high
interknife cavity aspect ratios, KP/KH > 1.0.
o the Design Model predicts the flow parameter 0 very well for large
clearances, CL > 0.010 in.
These test data imply that the minima predicted for the flow parameter of
straight seals near a clearance of 0.010 in. may not exist, or at least occurs
"at a clearance less than 0.005 in. This abberation in the Design Model may be
due to the difficulty in determining the actual clearance in seal models that
* are tested at clearances of 0.005 in. and less. The experimental uncertainty
in seal data at small clearances is significantly greater than that obtained
at clearances of 0.010 in. and greater.
% 6.2.3 Effect of Open-cell Honeycomb Lands in Straight and Stepped Seals.
"Limited experimental data acquired during a NASA sponsored program (54)

indicated that in four-knife straight seals:
77
o honeycomb reduced leakage at large clearances,
o honeycomb increased leakage at small clearances,
o small cell size showed the least sensitivity to clearance.
A single test with an advanced four-knife stepped seal suggested that severe
leakage penalties might be associated with the use of open-cell honeycomb in
stepped seals. A slanted knife straight seal which was tested during an IR&D
program showed that this seal leaked more with open 0.062 in. cell honeycomb
than a similar straight seal with vertical knives. Dynamic testing with open-
cell honeycomb lands in straight or stepped seals revealed a characteristic
where leakage increased with knife tip speed, which is contrary to experience
with solid-smooth lands. The apparently anomolous behavior of labyrinth seal
leakage with open-cell honeycomb lands stimulated an interest in acquiring
enough additional performance data to verify or refute the earlier
observations.
The objective set for this program was to experimentally quantify the flow
characteristics of straight seals with vertical and slanted knives over a
conventional range of knife tip clearances. Three honeycomb cell sizes were
investigated in the 3-0 dynamic test rig, Table 14.
A sample of stepped seal performance was obtained with 0.062 in. open-cell
honeycomb lands to verify the surprisingly high leakage rate observed during
the NASA program. Vertical and slanted knives in both STLO and LTSD flow
directions were tested in the 3-0 dynamic rig as outlined in Table 15.
The data acquired from testing the five--knife straight seals are in excellent
agreement with the previous NASA data, Figure 26. The performance ratio of
honeycomb lands with respect to a baseline solid-smooth land provides a means
for estimating the performance of labyrinth seals using honeycomb lands from
the performance predictions of the Design Model. The test data from the
vertical knife straight seals are compared with the predictions of the KTK
model in Figures 27, 28, and 29. The Design Model performance correlated best
78
Table 14.
Performance tests on honeycomb lands in straight labyrinth seals.
Test KO KN KT-in. KP-in. CL-in. X-in. b-in.
1 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.005 0.031 0.075

2 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.005 0.062 0.075
3 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.005 0.125 0.075
4 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.005 Solid Smooth
5 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.010 0.031 0.070
6 90 5 0.010 0.100 0.010 0.062 0.070
7 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.010 0.125 0.070
8 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.010 Solid Smooth
9 90 5 0.010 0.100 0.020 0.031 0.060
* 10 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.020 0.062 0.060
"" 11 900 5 0.010 0.100 0.020 0.125 0.060
12 9g0 5 0.010 0.100 0.020 Solid Smooth
"13 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 0.031 0.075
" 14 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 0.062 0.075
is 70 0 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 Solid Smooth
16 70 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 0.031 0.070
17 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 0.062 0.070
18 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 Solid Smooth
19 70 0 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 0.031 0.060
20 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 0.062 0.060
21 700 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 Solid Smooth
- 22 50 0 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 0.031 0.075
"23 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 0.062 0.075
24 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.005 Solid Smooth
25 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 0.031 0.070
26 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 0.062 0.070
27 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.010 Solid Smooth
28 500 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 0.031 0.060
29 S0 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 0.062 0.060
30 50 0 5 0.015 0.100 0.020 Solid Smooth
Table 15.
Performance tests on honeycomb lands in stepped labyrinth seals.
Flow
, Test direction KO KN KT-in. KP-in. SH-in. CL-in. Xin. b-in.
1 STLD 900 4 0.010 0.300 0.120 0.020 0.062 0.090

2 STI.D 900 4 0.010 0.300 0.12) 0.020 Solid Smooth
3 LTSD 900 4 0.010 0.300 0.120) 0.020 0.062 0.090
4 LTSD 900 4 0.010 0.300 0.120 0.020 Solid Smooth
5 STLD 500 4 0.015 0.300 0.120 0.020 0.062 0.090
6 STLO 500 4 0.015 0.300 0.120 0.020 Solid Smooth
7 LTSO 50 0 4 0.015 0.300 0.120 0.020 0.062 0.090
8 LTSD 500 4 0.015 0.300 0.120 0.020 Solid Smooth
'7
4,'79
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with the test data for the largest clearance, CL = 0.020 in. Figures 30, 31,
and 32 provide influence coefficients for honeycomb lands with vertical nd
slanted knives over a range of clearances. These plots indicate that the
honeycomb lands leak more than solid-smooth lands as the relative cell size
(X/CL) increases, probably due to the large surface porosity. However, leakage
significantly lower than that obtained from a solid-smooth land can result at
sufficiently small relative cell sizes, X/CL < 7, probably due to the effect
of the roughness of the land surface. Slanting the knives of the straight
seal generally reduces the influence of the large (X/CL > .8) and small
(X/CL < .4) relative cell size honeycomb lands on the leakage performance.
The leakage of the large relative cell size (X/CL > .8) honeycomb lands de-
creases with decreasing knife angle, and the leakage of the small relative
cell size (X/CL < .4) honeycomb lands increases with decreasing knife
angle. Crossover characteristics exist for the leakage of intermediate
relative cell size (4 < X/CL <8) honeycomb lands. These characteristics can
be verified by reference to Figures 33 and 34.
Knife rotation appears to have three distinct and essentially independent ef-
fects on the leakage performance of labyrinth seals: the thermodynamic effect
of disk pumping on the inlet total temperature to the seal. the dynamic effect
of the centrifugal forces on the seal flow-field structure, and the abrasive
wear of the rotor knife tip and land. The abrasive wear effects result from
the thermal and dynamic characteristics of the engine structure and the
tribology of the seal materials. The disk pumping effect is influenced by the
disk face geometry, wheel to stationary panel Spacing, and thrs.ugh-fiow
(ventilation) in the wheel space. The rotational effects on the seal flow
field are influenced by the gemetry of the labyrinth seal and the surface
structure of the stator land. The typical influence of rotation on conven-
tional straight and stepped seal configurations produces between 5% and 10%
leakage reduction at 785 ft/sec knife tip speed when compared with static
performance. With a smooth land surface, the effect of rotation is small.
However, with a roughened land or stepped seal configuration, the effect of
rotation may be sizable.
4%!
84
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W ., RESTRICTIONS ARE IMPOSED UPO
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DISTRISUTIN STATEENT A
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5:, 89
Rotation of labyrinth seal knives reduces the flow parameter as knife tip speed
increases near a solid-smooth land. The effect of open-cell honeycomb lands
is similar in the roughness dominated domain at small relative cell sizes,
Figure 35. However, as the relative cell size increases, the porosity effects
become significant, and the flow parameter tends to increase with knife rota-
tion, Figure 36. Then in the porosity dominated domain (X/CL > .8), the seal
leakage increases with increasing knife tip speed, Figure 37. The slanted
knives exhibit effects similar to those of the vertical knives on leakage per-
formance as the knife tip speed increases.
A significant temperature rise is produced in the leakage flow passing through

a high speed labyrinth seal with open-cell honeycomb lands. Table 16 lists the
increase in leakage air temperature observed under dynamic test conditions with
the straight seals in the 3-0 rig. The solid-smooth land tests provide a base-
line temperature rise resulting from windage off of the front face of the test
rotor. The work required to swirl the flow between the rotor and a solid-
smooth land is equivalent to a temperature rise of only a degree or two in the
leakage flowrates at a Pu/P - 2.0. Consequently. the additional windage
at a honeycomb land in the labyrinth seal results in a temperature rise in the
leakage of as much as 206F at PR a 2.0. The temperature rise is a function
of seal clearance and honeycomb size in addition to knife tip speed.
The results of the four-knife stepped seal tests corroborated the behavior
observed in the NASA program for the replacement of a solid-smooth land with a
honeycomb land using 0.062 in. cell size. When 0.062 in. open-cell honeycomb
lands replaced solid-smooth lands In vertical or slanted four-knife stepped
* seals. the leakage increased from acout 15% at static conditions to about 20%
at a knife tip speed of 523 ft/sec. Figure 38 shows the performance
comparisons between the stepped seals which were tested with solid-smooth
lands and honeycomb lands. The apparent data inconsistency between the
.] , honeycomb land and solid-smooth land in the slanted knife stepped seal
"oriented for LTSO flow direction is explained by the inability of the knife
4b tips to reach the honeycomb land inserts at Ko a SO'. Therefore, the knives
were running with a solid-smooth land in both tests.
- 90
4.
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(N0AYS/~1i D'tN N Ar ) D
93
Table 16.
Effects of honeycomb on temperature rise through
a 5-knife straight seal at PR - 2.0.
4T. temperature rise through seal

Land with rotation, OF
Ke CL H/C type V=261 V = 523 V = 785
degi in. X. in. ft/sec ft/sec ft/sec
90 0.005 Solid 15.9 23.7 47.4

90 0.005 0.031 16.4 31.3 57.8
90 0.005 0.062 10.5 30.4 61.6
90 0.005 0.125 4.7 16.8 45.1
90 0.010 Solid 6.7 16.1 42.8
"90 0.010 0.031 9.0 22.4 53.2
90 0.010 0.062 7.1 21.1 52.5
90 0.010 0.125 5.2 15.5 40.5
90 0.020 Solid 0.9 7.7 24.5

90 0.020 0.031 2.1 9.5 25.5
90 0.020 0,062 2.4 11.2 31.7
90 0.020 0.125 3.3 11.2 31.2
70 0.005 Solid 11.3 24.9 46.6

70 0.005 0.031 15.2 27.3 55.7
70 0.005 0.062 12.6 32.3 66.2
70 0.010 Solid 8.0 19.9 40.4

70 0.010 0.031 7.5 19.8 51.5
70 0.010 0.062 7.7 20.3 50.8
70 0.020 Solid 1.9 10.0 28.0

70 0.020 0.031 2.7 10.2 31.8
70 0.020 0.062 3.6 12.0 31.3
50 0.005 Solid 11.8 25.8 44.4

50 0.005 0.031 8.2 30.7 55.4
50 0.005 0.062 10.9 30.0 61.6
50 0.010 So1id 7.3 19.3 40.1
50 0.010 0.031 6.S 22.3 52.0
50 0.010 0.062 6.8 19.9 SO.7
50 0.020 Solid 2.2 10.3 28.9

50 0.020 0.031 2.7 10.8 38.3
50 0.020 0.062 2.8 11.5 33.0
"94
.32 -* T T I
.30 ............ :.................. .. . . . ........ .........
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w T ..........++....
............... . ........ ..................
.28 .................. ................... -:.. 1.4 --~
... . n . ..........) TTE ST .l!... ................... .................. ..................
.26 .......... ..... . ........................ :... ..........TEST

.......... .................. ................. .
.24 ................. . ........... ............
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.16 ..../.. f. -- ....

I ....-.......
_....... .................... , .................. .................. ".................. ..................
_..
COPOSITE PLOY OF STEPPED LABYRNTH SEALS
.12 ....... .................. . TEST KB-DEO O.....
........... .................... .- . . ..................
.. .... ..
46 ... ..........
."00 ........
O " ........... : 21 90
90 SrLD
STLD HONEYCOMB
SOLID ..... :...................
3 90 LTSD HONEYCONM
.6 . R....... 90 LTSD SOLID ..... ..............
.ER RPM 5 SO STLD HONEYCOMB
. * ............. 6 s50 STLD SOLID ........
7 50 LTSD HONEYCOMB
.2 ................................... a 50 LTSD SOLID ..... ............
! .e 1.S all 2.6 3.0 3.6 4*1 4.16 ;.!
(Pu/PD) - SEAL PRESSURE RATIO
. . .. .... ......... ........ ....... ... . ...... . ..........

12 e ......... ......... .. . : ..... T I ............. ........ .......... .................. ............. ..
.2 6 ..........
. . . .. w - 1-
......... . . . . . . .....
. . .. . ....... ......... ........ '............ Te S T a ............. :.................
. ......................... ................
.+-.................
K
.8
. .ey............
.. ..... :..... .....
~
TEST ~ ~ FO ~.................
I. :T8 LNISDS
t+.O o * * e e * ...... 9 T D S L........ .................

*~ :..;.;..;~.. 90.........C.N
I 1 90 SYLD WoNEYcoNI
............. 2 90 STLD SOL.D ...... ..................
o 50 STLD HONEYCOMB
... ..... 2 90 STLD SOLID .............
a7 90 LTSO HONEYCOi
. ......... . . . 90 LTSD SOLID ...... ..........
S.I2 . . - ..... - . " - - SOLID
t.6 I.5 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.; 4.6 4.6 $.0
(PU/PO)- SEAL PRESSURE RATIO
Figure 38. Effect of open-cell honeycomb lands on the performance

of four-knife stepped seals.
95
.,30
.32 .. .. ..., ... ....
.... ..... , . ... .. ........
....... 0- "T ..... .....
.. . :....... ..............
S..........". ;* ** ' * '
....... " . ..... *w
.....""............... . I*.P**.........
.... .. I. . . .... *.. * . ... .
.2 8........."... ... T*TES [T2 ..............
2 :
.26 .................. . .o j ........ ,................... .................. ;................... -Tr S ....... .................. .................. -
.2.4.
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I............ ..... -,-_-;:
.... .. .. TE T .. ......................
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,T
. . . ... ...... ................. ..........................
iEST 6
... . . ......... .
te t ~.....
. .. ' t........... .......... .......... ......... ................................... .... .......
S4
S........... COPOSITEK5-DEO
TEST PLOT OF STEPPED LABYMTH
FLOW DIR. LAND SEALS :
e~te~o ,*****
4 90LTSD S t.If)....
so
* O.OO . 4f. .OO... OO..OO...
.. .. OO OO.. OO..OO..OO..O O..OO O O.OO..OO..OS..
;................
..

31 90 STLD HONEYCOMB
.04 ... ............ . 2 90 STLD SOLID ......................
Igoe$ RPM 3 90 LTSD HONEYCOMB3
. . 6 . 0......
90 ..
SOLID.. .......
S so STLD HONEYCOMB
.............
e oe . . . ..................
.04..... . . b. . ... ........... .... . .................
7.so LTS9 HONEYCOM~B..
.02 ................... .,
............-...... 50 L SD SOLID .
1.0 1 3.02.6 3.0 3.6. 466
SEAL PRESSURE RATIO

(U/P)-
. ........................ .. ............... .............

....... . . . . . ......-....
. . . . . .
.24
....
.... r...... .. . ...... .. . . . 4 .s It........... ., ....... ......... , ......... -.........,..... .. ... .
S... /... ..... . ............ ......................... ..................
. ...................... ..... ...........
.
. J.. . . . . .. .....
.... .. .......
. ... . .............. ............. . . . . ...............
a .
...... ...........
............
o
COMPOSIT PLOT OF STEPPES LAsoYRN... SEALS;
.. .YESr
.. .. .. . .. . . . .. . . .
KS..DEO FLOW D SIR.
...... ...
LAND.. ... .. . . ...
.. .. ................... "
-6 190 SSLP HONMEUORA

90 STI.D SOLID
. i6r20063. ec
fPu
... o..n.-9eS0 LTShoneycoObln.s perforance
4 90 LYSOI SOL 'n .on..e
.04 .... ...... 5 1 STLD Il~tA 'COMB
lb 50 STLV ISO L 0
o. ......... eso e LSD . DUYCO
a so LISD SOLID ..............
1.4 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 13440 .
P V/
0 - SEAL PRESSURE RATIO
figure 38. Effect of open-ceil honeycomnb lands on the performance

of four-knife stepped seals.
(continued)
96
The decreased leakage of the LTSO seal with K6 - 500 slanted knives and the
* honeycomb land is attributed to the wall roughness effect on the cavity flow
between knives. This observation leads to the assumption that the increased
leakage incurred by the use of the 0.062 in. open-cell honeycomb lands in
stepped seals is due to the porosity effects at the knife-tips. Consequently.
it may be that porosity effects dominatp the flow at the knife tips while the
roughness effects accrue to the overall gas path length in both straight seals
and stepped seals.
The following conclusions can be derived concerning the design of straight

seals with honeycomb lands:
o Honeycomb lands may be employed effectively for abradability and for

leakage control in straight seals. However. cell size is an important
* parameter for abradability and for aerodynamic effectiveness, which is a
function of operating tip clearance. A large size honeycomb, e.g.. 0.125
in.. should be used only where tip clearance will be approximately 0.020
in. or more. Cell size should be kept to the minimum acceptable for
abradability since that will minimize the seusitivity of performance to
tip clearance.
o Slanted knives are only advantageous at smll operating clearances (near

0.005 in.) when used in conquiction with a more open cell size (0.062 in.)
honeycomb. -However, if abradability will permit the ute of smaller cell
size honeycomb (0-031 in. or less) slanting knives will not cause a
performance penalty. Design simplicity would still require the general
use of vertical knives in straight seals with honeycomb lands because
slanted knives are most beneficial at clearances greater than 0.010 in.
Do not use open-cell honeycomb lands in stepped seals. Stepped seals excel at
large clearances where abradability should not be a major design requirement.
If abradability requirements necessitate honeycomb lands, design vertical
knife straight seals with the largest permissible cell size for acceptable
leakage performance.
b97
4:g
9 9
6.3 INTERNAL FLOW STRUCTURE
Fourteen seal-like configurations were subjected to a full Navier-Stokes flow

analysis during the process of developing the Analysis Model code (66). Sup-
porting tests to obtain leakage performance, qualitative flow field structure,
and quantitative data for local flow field parameters were required to assist
the analytical modeling and to evaluate the predictions of the Analysis Model.
Large-scale models of these straight and stepped seals were required for de-
finitive flow visualization and flow field measurements. Seven of the seal
configurations studied with the Analysis Model were fabricated and tested in
the 2-D rig, Figures 39 and 40. Leakage performance, local flow field pres-
sure and temperature, and local velocity distributions were measured in these
seals.
A modified schlieren technique was developed for the visualization of the sub-
sonic flow structure in the large-scale seal models. The technique is dynamic
in nature and relies primarily on the motion of the flow for structural defi-
nition. The flow fields for the seven reference seal configurations were re-
corded on video tape for qualitative comparison with the carry-over and re-
circulation structure calculated by the Analysis Model. In addition, sixteen
"flow visualization tests were made to determine the way in which relative knife
edge sharpness (KR/CL) and interknife cavity aspect ratio (KP/KH) influence the
* structure of the flow field in vertica' knife straight seals.
6.3.1 Large-Scale Seal Performance
Performance tests, which were separate from the flow visualization tests, were
conducted on the nine configurations of the large-scale seal models defined in
JTable 17. Tn addition to providing leakage characteristics for the overall
performance comparisons in Ref (66). these 2-0 rig models were instrumented
""for int-rval temperature and static pressure measurements, which will be dis-
cussed laLer. The straight seals were designed on a scale ten times (lOX) the
size of the nominal full-scale seals. The stepped seals were limited to five
-times (5X) the nominal full-scale dimensions by the test section height of the
98
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(e) Tape~red -Single-Knife
ilT T
(f) Worn - Single-Knife
11Tapered -Three Kirmves
Figure 40. Straight seal configurations tested in support of the

Analysis Model development.
100
% 4 11.
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2-D rig. The leakage performance from the testing of the large-scale seals
was not incorporated into the Design Model data base because. of the Reynolds
number influence. The measured performance for the large-scale labyrinth
seals, Table 17, are collected in Appendix B, section 8.1.2.
6.3.2 Flow Visualization
The complex flow structure within the large-scale labyrinth seals was
*" visualized by means of a schlieren system because it is the only system
presently suitable for the observation of high-frequency, unsteady flow. The
2-0 rig lends itself to the use of a Freon doping technique to generate the
required density gradients. Single and multi-location seeding points were
used to observe the diverse flow field phenomena. The single pass schlieren
system is shown schematically in Figure 41. The imaging was done over a
horizontal knife-edge so that the flow field displays ap/ay characteristics.
The airflow through the labyrinth seals was induced at low pressure ratios to
extend the viewing lengths by minimizing the mixing rates with the Freon.
"Pressure drop across the seals was varied between 0.01 in. H20 and 10 in.
H20. Testing over this range of pressure ratios confirmed the maintenance
of flow field similarity. The only differences in the flow patterns occurred
in the size and rotational speeds of the vortices and the angle of the
expansion fan trailing the knife tip. This qualitative flow field information
assists in the understanding of local velocity and turbulence interaction and
provides substantiation for the flow patterns predicted by the Analysis Model.
6.3.2.1 Analysis Model Referene Seals
Seven of the fourteen reference labyrinth seal flow fields which were analyzed
by the full Navier-Stokes code were visualized with the schlieren system and
recorded on video tape. Table 18 defines the geometric parameters for the
nine tests which comprised this effort. In Figures 42 through 48, frames
representative of these recordings are presented in photographs of each of the
seal configurations tested.
* 102
* HG ARC LAMP
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-.... "- -r ....
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TRANSLUCENT SCREEN
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Figure 41. SchliarQn imaging system,
103
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Although individual frames of the flow visualization video are not dramatically
informative, flow-field characteristics associated with local velocities,
separation, and stability can be readily seen from the fluid motion observed
in the videotape replay on a television monitor. For example, the recording
of flow over the single-knife of a straight seal, Fio.re 42 clearly shows the
vortices upstream and downstream of the kniK, as well as the acceleration and
separation of the flow in the clearance gapand the diffusion angle of the
discharging jet. In contrast, the flow across the knife with the rounded tip,
Figure 43, shows no separation of the flow into the gap and diminished regions
of vorticity both upstream and downstream from the knife. It can be seen that
the presence of a backward facing step upstream from a knife creates a
circuitous approach to the clearance gap which enhances the separation over
the knife tip, Figure 44. The slanting of such a knife creates a re-entrant
flow situation with a large well-defined vortex ahead of the knife, as visible
in Figure 45, and a severe separation over the knife tip. When multiple
knives are used in series, the downstream vortices are confined in the cavity
much closer to the knife than wou, occur in the free-expansion behind a
single knife. Figure 46 shows hat the carry-over from upstream knives in a
straight seal influences the discharra coefficients of the downstream knives
by imposing a significant ,elocity of approach, which results from the small
diffusion angle of the jets. The rotation of the second cavity vortex at
about twice the angulat velhcity of the vortex in the first cavity was an
interesting observation from the video taped records. The flow-field
configuration in stepped seals of STLL design is much different from that of
LTSD design. A comparison of Figure 47 with Figure 48 shows that both stepped
seal types experience some carry-over. However, thp STLO design demonstrates
more flow blockage between knives and better vortex definition in the cavity
and ahead of the knife than that which exists in the LTSO flow. These
observations tend to reinforce the relative leakages measured during the
performance tests on these labyrinth seals.
The Lapered knife stepped seal was observeu in both the LTSD and STLD
configurations, Figures 49 and 50, respecti%.31y. The conventional tapered
knives had minimal effect relative to the flow patterns observed in the
112
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4. 0
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similar seals with rectangular knives. For flow in the direction of small
diameter to large diameter (STLD), the seal exhibits a pair of counter-rotating
vortices between knives. For flow in the direction of large diameter to small
diameter (LTSD), the seal maintains three vortices between knives with a
nebulous transitory region in the wake of the upstream knife.
6.3.2.2 Straight Seal Parameter Effects
Another flow visualization study, Table 19, was made to investigate the
effects of knife edge sharpness (KR/CL) and interknife cavity aspect ratio
(KP/KH) on the seal flow field. The observations of these sixteen tests were
recorded on video tape and used to rationalize the results of the performance
testing on the full-scale labyrinth seal models.
Table 19.
* Flow visualization tests for straight seal parameter effects.
Objective: Observation of flow field change with variable KR, KP/KH and seal
clearance in lOX-scale straight seals
Ke K 3
KN I.I0 _.EL C.L justification
1 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.050 round tip, CL
2 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.100 round tip, CL
3 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.200 round tip, CL
*4 90 0.100 3 1.10 0.55 0.100 round tip, KP/KH
5 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.050 CL
6 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.100 hot-wire baseline
7 90 0.100 3 1.10 1.10 0.200 CL
8 90 0.100 3 1.10 0.55 0.050 KP/KH. CL
9 90 0.100 3 1.10 0.55 0.100 KP/KH, CL
10 90 0.100 3 1.10 0.55 0.200 KP/KH, CL
11 90 0.100 3 0.275 1.10 0.050 KP/KH, CL
12 90 0.100 3 0.275 1.10 0.100 KP/KH, CL
13 90 0.100 3 0.275 1.10 0.200 KP/KH, CL
14 90 0.100 3 0.275 0.55 0.050 KP/KH, CL
15 90 0.100 3 0.275 0.55 0.100 KP/KH, CL
16 90 0.100 3 0.275 0.55 0.200 KP/KH, CL
* 115
ft If
With the straight seal design, changing the clearance from 0.050 in. to 0.200
in. did not significantly change the observed flow patterns. The worn edged
knives caused a slightly larger expansion fan than the sharp edged knives as
the flow passed into the cavity between knives. Increasing the clearance
decreased the relative effect of the knife tip radius (KR) based on the
leakage flow passing through the clearance gap (CL). The most noticeable
difference in flow patterns was observed upon changing the knife spacing (KP)
relative to the knife height (KH). For KP/KH = 1.0, there is a single vortex
between the knives. With KP/KH = 0.5, Figure 51, there is a double vortex
between knives with the bottom vortex forming and disintegrating. With KP/KH
A = 2.0, Figure 52, the cavity vortex is moved downstream to the front face of
the trailing knife. The backwash behind the upstream knife is nebulous and
transitory.
6.3.3 Internal Pressures and Temperatures
Measurements of static pressure and total temperature were made at selected

points of the intraseal flow fields of the large-scale, 2-0 rig models during
the performance testing. The static pressure measurements were compared with
the analytical equation derived by Kearton and Keh (31):
Pn (11-_ n()2 [ 1 2
P0 \r -KN r) 6.1
.K
where r > r*
* The total temperature measurements were evaluated against the adiabatic

throttling model for seal leakage. The flow factor based on the average
static pressure in the knife gap was used to calculate an effective Mach
number at each knife clearance. The implied total pressure of this flow in
conjunction with the measured static pressure in the downstream cavity yields
an estimate for the Mach number of the carry-over. The area of the carry-over
jet at the cavity static pressure taps then provides a diffusion angle for the
efflux from the knife gap.
116
i
* ..
4,
Figure 51. Vortex formation between vertical knives in a

straight seal with KP/KH = 0.5.
117
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II
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S118
The typical measured pressure gradient for a straight seal is shown in Figure
53. This test was with the lOX size straight seal of three knives with a.
solid-smooth land. The slope increase with increasing pressure ratio is
characteristic of rough lands also. A comparison with the approximate
analytical equation for labyrinth seal pressure gradient derived by Kearton
and Keh (Eq. 6.1) shows good agreement with the exception of the first knife
which seems to provide a larger than anticipated pressure drop.
The local Mach numbers in the straight seal carry-over, as indicated by the
static pressure measurements, are shown in Figure 54. As the overall pressure
"ratio across the seal increases, the acceleration to the last knife becomes
more pronounced until choking occurs. The jet from the last knife appears to
"behave in the same way as the discharge from an annular, convergent nozzle
with a large central base.
The total temperature measurements, as typified by Figure 55, had an

unexpected characteristic apparently generated in the cavity vortices. The
thermodynamic model for labyrinth seal leakage is the adiabatic throttling
process. For a nearly ideal gas (air in this case), the total temperature of
the system remains constant. This does not obviate the possibility of local
A variations in stagnation temperature which might be generated by the cavity
Svortices.
For whatever reason, total temperature stratification occurred
within the seal. The temperature in the carry-over increased as the
temperature in the cavity decreased. The effect was most pronounced in the
cavity behind the first knife and was intensified by increasing overall
pressure ratio to approximately 2. At larger pressure ratios, no further
reductions in seal cavity temperatures were observed. The phenomena were
universal between smooth and rough lands and were repeatable for different
j ,model builds.
The typical measured pressure gradient for a stepped seal of LTSD design is
shown in Figure 56 and of STLO design is shown in Figure 57. The superior
throttling dynamics of the STLD design are indicated by the more uniform
119
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pressure gradient to the last knife. The good correlation of the measured
STLD seal pressures with the pressures predicted by the Kearton and Keh equa-
tion highlights the excellent carry-over control*.
The local Mach numbers in the stepped seal carry-over, as calculated from the
static pressures, are plotted in Figure 58 for the LTSO design and in Figure
* 59 for the STLD design. The reduced STLD carry-over is indicated by the
slightly lower Mach numbers at equivalent seal pressure ratios. Comparison
with the Mach numbers of the straight seal at the same pressure ratio, Figure
54, shows that the higher leakage for the straight seal is reflected in the
higher carry-over Mach number relative to both LTS1and STLD stepped seals.
Typical total temperature characteristics for the LTSO and the SILO stepped
seals are illustrated by Figures 60 and 61, respectively. The temperature
stratification phenomenon is Identifiable in both types of stepped seals.
However, the temperature distributions are observed to be different based on
the measurements made in the instrumented large-scale stepped seals. The LTSO
design exhibits a temperature rise at the land similar to that observed in the
straight seal. However, no temperature depression was found in the between
knife cavities, as was the case with the straight seal. This may be due tW
the serpentine "wash-through* flow characteristic seen in the cavities between
LTSD knives which prevents the establishment of large, well defined cavity
vortexes like those observed in the straight seals and the STLC stepped seals.
However, small rotational flow fields. which form at the corners of the forward
facing steps downstream of the knives and in the bottom half of the interknife
cavities, must operate to produce the elevated Stagnation temperatures observed
at the stator land. Total temperature drops similar to but smaller than those
occurring in the straight seal cavities were seen in the cavities of the STLD
stepped seal. However, a combination of temperature drop followed by tempera-
ture rise occurred at the stator thermocouples in the STLO design. A satis-
factory physical explanation of the total temg)erature measurements made in both
straight and stepped seals may depend upon a more detailed Wavier-Stokes
analysis.
4, *The Kearton and Keh derivation assumes no carry-over between seal knives.
9 ,
125
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Static pressure measurements similar to those made in the 2-D rig on the large-
scale hardware were made at the stator walls of a full-scale straight seal that
was tested in the 3-D dynamic rig. Only the cavity pressures were measured and
compared to the Kearton and Keh model for these seals. Solid-smooth and rough
* _land hardware were used for these tests. No intraseal temperature measurements
were made with the full-scale geometry. Static pressure measurements were made
along the lands of a typical four-knife straight seal at the midline of the
cavities to investigate carry-over perturbations caused by stator surface
* . roughness and by rotation. The pressure gradient through the static 3-D seal
exhibits the same characteristic as it did in the large-scale 2-D seal, Fig-
ures 62 and 63. An unexpectedly large part of the overall pressure drop oc-
curs across the first knife. This characteristic is moderated by rotational
"effects and to a lesser extent by surface roughness.
6.3.4 Internal Velocity Profiles
The velocity profiles within the flow fields of two baseline seal configura-
tions were measured for Analysis Model validation. The conventional configur-
ations of a straight seal and a stepped seal in the STLD flow direction were
selected as the baselines for experimental data comparison with the full
* Navier-Stokes calculations from the Analysis Model (66). Figure 64 is a
schematic representation of the baseline three-knife straight seal with the
* velocity measurement stations identified by alphabetic sentinels. Figure 65
is a similar schematic for the baseline three-knife stepped seal. These seals
were large-scale models from the set that was tested with the schlieren system
in the 2-D rig. The availability of the flow visualization results assisted
the evaluation and interpretation of the velocity measurements.
Two techniques were employed for the measurement of the velocity profiles at
the designated seal stations. A Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV) system was
selected initially, but the small size of the seal model with respect to the
sampling volume of the instrumentation forced the LDV testing to be
abandoned. A hot-wire anemometer system (HWA) was substituted successfully
for the LDV. The experimental procedures and data are discussed, but the
comparisons with the Analysis Model calculations are presented in Ref. (66).
4 130
I.
1.0-!.
SOLID-SMOOTH STATOR
LINE rMEASI CALq V PU/PD
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I
7251 1.25
.90 L~ 0 o- 2.0
\ N..
.8-
>: .75-
.7-'
.6-.
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50 -"
Ui 2 3 4 D
KN - KNIFE LOCATION
. Figure 62. Static pressure drop through a straight seal with a

smooth stator.
131
SOLID-ROUGH STATOR
.95- LINE IMEA CAL
0 c> o 1.25
.90- L 78 f 1.2.
..85- ,
W .80-
CL
L)
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U 1 2 3 4
"K -KNIFE LOCATION.
Figure 63. Static pressure drop throulh a straight seal with a rough stator.
i9~
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6.3.4.1 Laser Doppler Velocimetry
The LDV technique was the instrument of choice for measuring the velocity dis-
* tribution in the 2-D labyrinth seal rig models. LDV is an optical technique
which does not disturb the flow and permits unambiguous determination of the
flow direction. The LDV concept proposed by M. 3. Rudd was utilized as shown
in Figure 66. The Allison system consisted of a 4 watt Argon-ion laser for
the coherent light source, a beam splitter, appropriate optics, and a photo-
detector to observe the frequency shift in the scattered light, which is due
to the velocity of the target. The system was operated in the forward
scattering mode with the laser output in the single green line. It was
necessary to seed the flow with fine (1 pm average, 3 pm maximum diameter)
dioctyl phthalate (DOP) oil mist to obtain sufficient reflective particulate
for a measurable signal. Theoretical calculations verified that the DOP
particles followed the airflow with negligible slip. A TSI processor analyzed
the LDV signal.
The difficulties with the LDV system were two-fold:
1) The design and dimensions of the 2-0 rig were inappropriate for the
measurements being attempted.
* 2) The single-component LDV system was inadequate for measuring two-component
velocities in the interknife cavities.
The width of the 2-0 rig (6.28 in.) and the small clearance gaps (0.100 in.)
* of the seal models limited the laser beams to a narrow crossing angle. The
resultant probe volume was on the order of 10% of the clearance gap with an
aspect ratio of about 10. This relatively large probe volume tended to smear
the velocity gradient toward the average velocity, especially in the neighbor-
hood of the boundary layers. Although good correlation was obtained between
the mass flowrate integrated from the velocity profile and the mass flowrate
measured by a downstream orifice plate, the velocity gradients were much
smaller than those predicted by the Analysis Model.
4 44
135
E
4. 0.
LL
'4'
136
Sequential, orthogonal (at 450 and 135* to the flow in the knife gap)
measurements in the interknife cavities were required of the single-component
LDV system. The vortex instability made the sequential measurements for
resultant velocity uncertain.
*" As a consequence of these experimental difficulties with the small seal model
and the two-axis velocity measurements, the LDV system was abandoned in favor
of hot-wire anemometer testing.
6.3.4.2 Hot-Wire Anemometry
In conjunction with the visualization of the global flow fields of the

baseline seal configuration by schlieren imaging, a HWA system has
sufficiently high response and accuracy to measure local velocities and
turbulence intensities,
Np
Np
where U instantaneous velocity
*' U average velocity

*
b N number of data samples
p
Since the flow visualization studies had indicated a quasi-steady, two-dimen-

sional streamline pattern within the cavities and vortex patterns which were
statistically repeatable, the HWA system can measure the local velocities in
the regions of swirling, separated, or stagnated flow. The flow through the
clearance gaps and in the carry-over is essentially jet-like, which makes
these flows easily measured with a HWA system. The experimental arrangement
of the HWA system for flow field measurements in the large-scale baseline
seals In the 2-D rig is shown schematically in Figure 67.
137
I .I ... . . . . . . . . . . . Q . . . .. ,. . . - . .
x.
00. 0
"4"
N 41
lU 0
-41.
#41
Srib
4 841
1381
The DISA type 55M constant temperature anemometer (CTA) system was used for
single-wire hot-wire measurements in the labyrinth seal rig. The single-wire
probes used were the DISA type 55P11 straight general purpose miniature wire
probes with a wire diameter of 5 um. Calibrations of hot-wires were made
using DISA calibration equipment for atmospheric pressure calibration.
Subatmcspheric calibrations were made using a callbrator that attached to a
steam ejector which provided conditions from 12 psia to 4 psia static oressure
at the hot-wire. A calibration curve was obtained for the hot-wire output
voltage versus the flow velocity at conditions of constant temperature and
static pressure.
The linearizer shown in the Figure 67 schematic is used to linearize the raw
anemometer output voltage. The linearizer must be set up for each calibration
curve over the desired measurement range. The linearized voltage and the RMS
voltage are used to calculate the turbulence intensity as follows:
T (vRNs/vudc) 100% 6.3
The raw hot-wire velocity data must be corrected for density differences
between the calibration conditions and the run conditions. The response of a
constant-temperature hot-wire anemometer is sensitive to the product of pU
for static pressures near ambient (14.5 psia 4 psi). For these cases, the
indicated velocity is simply corrected by a density ratio:
UE UEASUREO x p osh..
MASRO Pmeasurement cond.
A temperature difference between calibration and run conditions requires a

further hot-wire data correction, besides the temperature dependence of the
density in equation 6.4.
The paper by Bearman (1971) presents a correction for ambient temperature

drift to be applied to the indicated velocity. A complete correction equation
to apply to hot-wire anemometer data for P. 14.5 psia + 4 psi is:
139
St . .U.b- * * * . - . *
Ucorr = + OO8 3 4 (TmeasTcal ) s[Ps
cal/Tcal )/(ps meas/Tmeas)] Umeas 6.5
where T is in Rankine degrees
For static pressures outside the range above, the measured velocity is
determined by interpolation directly from the calibration curves, and then the
multiplicative temperature correction, [(l + .00834 (TTmeas-T Tcal), is
applied.
Hot-wire velocity measurements were also made at the seven measurement

locations along the rig centerline shown in Figures 64 and 65. These
measurements were made by inserting the hot-wire through a side plate and
using a sliding clamp positioner. Flow direction was determined by minimizing
the output of a single-wire hot-wire. The minimum output is reached when the
hot-wire is aligned with the flow direction. A protractor attached to the
hot-wire sheath gave the flow direction to an overall accuracy of +5 deg.
Initial hot-wire anemometry work above the knives was performed by extending
the hot-wire through a 0.161 in. diameter hole above the first and third
knives of the straight seal. This hole was large relative to the knife tip
thickness, KT = 0.100 in. The velocity profile measured above the first knife
with this setup was always peaked near the knife tip. The analytical
solution, on the other hand, yielded a velocity profile above the first knife
that was peaked near -Lhe land and deficient near the knife tip. This velocity
"profile discrepancy between the analytical and experimental results above the
- first knife can be explained by the local diffusion into the access hole. A
-- local reduction in the flow velocity near the land was measured by the
* hot-wire anemometer due to the large access hole The HWA probe tended to
plug the hole as the hot-wire approached the knife tip which reduced the
measurement error. ,owever, agreement between the experimental and analytical
results was obtained for the velocity profile above the third knife. The
*.- higher Mach number (.0.7) decreased the effect of the hole.
140
* * .*.** * *.4,* * , . * ~ ** .. .
J4
The rig hot-wire access was improved by making slotted holes to allow just the
two prongs supporting the hot-wire to enter the flow field for measurements
near the land. A sketch of the hot-wire access provided above the first knife
is shown in Figure 68. The hot-wire was located using a precisely machined
holder that was shimmed up until the sensing element was flush with the upper
land. By removing shims the hot-wire was accurately extended into the flow
field near the upper land.
The experience with the effect of the HWA access holes on the measurement of
-' I! the labyrinth seal flow in the clearance gaps demonstrates a primary
experimental difficulty with invasive instrumentation. The instrumentation
distorts the parameters to be measured. Consequently hardware scale relative
to all invasive components of the measuring instrument must minimize the
relative disturbance to the investigated phenomena.
Discounting the perturbations of the flow field by the HWA probing system the
velocity measurements had an experimental uncertainty of about 3% based on
instrument calibration, data interpolation, and unsteadiness.
The flow field velocities were measured at the selected locations within thi
stepped seal at a pressure ratio (Pu/Po) of 2. The velocity measurements
along the centerlines of the cloarance gaps are given relative to the vertical
distance above the knife tips in Tables 20 and 21 for the three-knife straight
a.seal and in Table 22 for the three-knife stepped seal.
The geometry of the slots precludes the effective measurement of any small
transverse velocities. Therefore, the HWA measurements in the clearance gaps
consist only of streamwise velocities. The velocity measurements which were
"made itear the faces of the knives and in the interknife cavities of the
three-knife straight seal included streamwise and transverse components. The
resultants of these velocities are tabulated in Table 23 for HWA measurements
relative to the root of the interknife cavities. Neasurements were not made
along the station planes in the interknife cavities of the three-knife stepped
seal.
a. 141
Jo
(a.
0 IL
oe - E
IA.
AA
LUU
'4143
Table 20.
Three-knife straight (lOX) labyrinth seal model
hot-wire anemometer data above the first knife at PR 2.0.
Station B
.4
Velocity profile above the first knife, Pstatic = 11.02 psia

Test 1:
U TI
y, position streamwlse turbulence
in. above knife tip velocity., m/s intensity. %
0.100 198 2.13

0.098 198 1.99
0.095 198 2.19
0.090 200 3.61
0.080 200 4.37
0.070 198 4.24
0.060 198 4.67
0.050 197 4.99
0.040 196 5.75
0.030 193 6.78
0.020 180 15.0
0.010 142 20.0
0.008 145 19.9
0.005 105 28.8
Worifice - 0.154 lbm/sec

Wveloctty profile - 0.157 lbr/sec (2.2% high)
Velocity profile above the first knife. Pstatic " 10.90 psia
.U
Test 2: TI
"y,position streamwise turbulence
In. above knife tip velocity, mr/s intensity. %
0.100 197 4.73

, 0.097 206 2.80
0.095 206 2.91
0.090 206 3.50
0.080 205 3.68
0.070 203 3.56
0.060 202 4.01
0.050 201 3.88
0.040 198 4.84
0.030 188 7.68
* 0.020 172 14.6
Worifice - 0.154 ibm/sec

Wvelocity profile - 0.156 ibm/sec (1.7% high)
143
-" +.,,-.. .. ...... ., ,. , ,4 :..... ,. .. '...--.'S.:, ;';:: , :

Table 21.
Three-knife straight (lOX) labyrinth seal model
hot-wire anemometer data above the third knife at PR- 2.0.
Station I
Velocity profile over the third knife, Pstatic = 7.25 psia
U
y, position streamwli se
in. above knife tip velocity, m/s
0.100 no measurement
0.090 285
0.080 278
0.070 270
0.060 262
0.050 255
0.040 249
0.030 243
0.020 241
S0.010 226
0.005 195
Worifice - 0.141 ibm/sec

wvelocity profile - 0.157 ibm/sec (11.5% high)
Table 22.
Three-knife STLD stepped M) labyrinth seal model
hot-wire anemometer data at P.-2.0.
Station 8
S..Velocity profile above the first knife. Pstatic - 12.96 psia

Ttotal - 70.OF
U TI
y, position streamwise turbulence
in. above knife tiio velocity, m/s intensity,.
0.100 124 1.4
0.095 125 2.7
0.090 125 3.2
0.080 126 4.6
0.070 126 5.4
0.060 126 6.1
0.050 126 6.3
0.040 126 7.4
0.030 123 11.4
0.020 55 22
0.010 24 21
144
Iii b S. . . o .
Table 22 (Can't)
Station F
Velocity profile above the second knife. Pstatlc = 10.51 psia
T total = 71.5*F
U
y, position streamwi se
in. above knife tiD velocity. m/s
0.100 163
0.095 171
0.090 173
0.080 178
0.070 181
0.060 181
0.050 180
0.040 165
0.030 130
* 0.020 59
0.010 40
Station I
Velocity profile above the third knife. Pstatic - 7.85 psia

Ttotal - 7l.5*F
U
y, position streamwise
in.above knife tio velocity, m/s
0.100 no measurement
0.095 191
0.090 185
0.080 177
0.070 170
0.060 160
'0.050 147
0.040 136
0.030 125
0.020 108
0:010 62
S14
" ~145
"Table 23.
Velocity components in the cavity regions for the three-knife
straight seal at PU/PD = 2.0.
STATION A STATION C STATION D STATION E

y Urn em Urn em Urn 0M Urn em
49.8 28 S1.1
30.4 341 74.5 0 107.5 359
1.0 42.7 39 43.1 52 50.0 14 44.3 351
.3 0.9 33.4 50 47.9 75 30.0 4 36.7 314
0.8 26.3 56 52.5 95 20.0 14 43.1 267
0.7 19.1 55 56.3 99 17.0 90 48.8 254
0.6 13.8 47 60.9 103 17.6 90 49.6 253
0.5 10.2 25 55.1 110 20.0 128 54.5 248
0.4 34.6 160
0.3 51.5 170
0.2 52.8 167
0.1 54.9 161
"STATION G STATION H STATION J

_2M_ Oflj Urn Om Urn 6
1.1 30.8 52 125.1 352 40.5 306
- 1.0 51.4 64 53.8 347 25.3 295
0.9 59.6 80 37.8 317 24.7 321
0.8 66.2 98 46.6 280 23.4 15
0.7 69.6 98 53.1 257 23.4 16
, 0.6 62.0 100 59.9 256 21.8 22
"0.5 47.6 95 63.1 252 20.0 22
"4,
L~ecend
y (in.) - Distance from rotor
um(m/sec) - Measured speed
,em(deg) - Measured angle
146
The velocities measured in the straight and stepped baseline seals are compared
to the calculated flow fields in Ref. (66) as a method for evaluating the com-
putational accuracy of the Navier-Stokes solution employed in the Analysis
Model. Basically the velocities measured in the clearance gaps of the three-
knife straight seal were about 20% higher than those calculated. The measured
velocity profiles had thinner boundary layers on both the knife tip and land
than the Analysis Model results. However, the measured and predicted flow
fields are qualitatively similar, especially in the cavity regions. The
straight seal comparison reversed for the baseline STLD stepped seal. The
measured boundary layer or separation on the knife tips was thicker than that
predicted by the Analysis Model. The lack of a discernible boundary layer on
-V-. the lands of either the straight seal or stepped seal models is attributed to
the flow perturbation introduced by the hot-wire access slots in the lands.
Qualitatively and quantitatively the comparison of the measured flow fields
with the calculated flow fields was better in the stepped seal than in the
straight seal.
Some of the discrepancies between experimental and analytical velocity data

*. might be caused by the differences between the inlet velocity profiles assumed
,,
for the calculations and the inlet velocity profiles measured for the straight
* seal, Figure 69, and the stepped seal, Figure 70. The initial boundary layer
thicknesses imposed upon the Analysis Model solutions were significantly
greater than those measured at the *starting" upstream station. The carefully
.4
constructed lemniscate inlet of the 2-0 rig minimized the boundary layer effect
on the flow approaching the seal models. Also, the calculations did not cor-
rect for end wall losses present in the 2-0 rig. There are several obvious
improvements which could be made to the experimental procedures, e.g., in-
creased model scale, non-invasive velocity measuring system, and careful sim-
ulation of far upstream and far downstream channel geometry. The Analysis
Model could be modified to more accurately represent the test conditions, e.g.,
exact input of the measured inlet velocity profile, corrections for end wall
effects, and fine tuiting of the wall friction and turbulence modeling. How-
ever. as an initial attempt at numerical solutions of the full Navier-Stokes
147
equations for the compressible flow through conventional labyrinth seals of
straight and stepped configurations, the results of the Labyrinth Seal
* Analysis program have been very encouraging.
'S|l
.4
|Ni
S. . .. . . ..4 , , , . . - , + . , . . , . - . , , . . ' :
I-9~
L_
? a -
* 0
e Z 4
00
4.49
'aE
(0
.
ijc
.0
*U 0
o4'4
40
IV
4 JC
* w
W L ~fL
0 CN
:. 150
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*.6
LIST OF SYMBOLS
SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS
a Constant
in. 2
A Cross-sectional area
in. 2
At Flow area between the seal knives and land, seal throat
b Thickness of land material inserts in.
i ~BtuR
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure bt
m
Co Discharge coefficient, CD-w/w.d
CL Clearance between seal knives and land in.
DTC Distance-to-contact: axial clearance between knife and in.
land, undefined for constant height straight-through seals
f ( ) Function of the variables ( )
f Fanning friction factor
gc Standard gravitational acceleration mass conversion factor lbmft/lbbse
H Height of the seal in.
4A
H Hydraulic diameter, H - in.
iA
KP
Kc Contraction coefficient
Ke Expansion coefficient
* Kf Wall friction loss coefficient
KH Knife height In.
*' KN Number of knives
KP Knife pitch in.
KR Knife tip radius in.
KT Knife tip thickness in.
"Kvf Venturi-friction coefficient
Ka Knife taper angle deg. "
KO Knife slant angle deg, 6
It Length of gas path in.
SLn
Natural or Naperian logarithm
L Length of the seal in.
LTSD Leakage flow direction from the large-to-small seal diameter
i5 157
M Mach number
in Specific seal knife number
p Land material porosity, ratio of effective open area to
total area
P Wetted perimeter of duct in.
Ps Local static pressure psia
P Seal plenum downstream pressure psia
D
Pn Static pressure downstream of seal knife n psia
mPR Seal pressure ratio, Pu/P

P Local total pressure psia
P Seal plenum upstream pressure psia
U
r P /P
r* PD/PU where P0 is the maximum downstream pressure to
maintain choked leakage flow through the seal
rk Rotor radius at the knife tips in.
rt Radius of the edge break on knife tips in.
R Gas constant lbf tR
Re Streamwise Reynolds number, P-

0
,xI~rK 2
ReN Rotational Reynolds number,
SH Step height in.
STLD Leakage flow direction from the small-to-large seal diameter

t Local static temperature O
T Local total temperature OF
Ta Taylor number. Ta - pV(CL) i
Tu Seal upstream plenum temperature OR

u Absolute (resultant) flow velocity at angle 0 r/sec
U Streamwise velocity r/sec
v Voltage volts
V Seal knife tip speed ft/sec
I58
t
* w Seal airflow rate lbm/sec

Wid Ideal or isentropic airflow rate lbm/sec
_ x Multiplication operator
X Honeycomb cell size in.
XMUL Area correction factor for clearance 3bove a knife which
is downstream of a step
Sy Vertical axis or transverse flow direction
z Horizontal axis or streanmise flow direction
. Z Compressibility factor relative to a thermally perfect gas
jet expansion angle
jc deg,
y Ratio of specific heats
r Velocity carry-over factor
a jet expansion height in.
Land surface roughness v in.
lb
- Fluid dynamic viscosity ft
ftsec
w Conventional transcendental number, ratio of circular
circumference to diameter
lb
P Density -- M'
3
ft
2lb
* -
P irf low parameter lb
Ut sec
Rotational speed, angular velocity se_

sec
159
N
*
S4 ,
APPENDIX A
LABYRINTH SEAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
9161
4.,
"a 161
S 4
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CONVEHTIONAL AND ADVANCED DESIGN LASY0HNYH SEALS WITH SOLID-SMOOTH,
ABRADABLE, AND HONEYCOMB LANDS, NASA CR-135307, (EDO 9339), DETROIT

DIESEL ALLISON, DIVISION Of GENERAL 14OTORS CORP., INDIANAPOLIS.
NOVEMBER, 1977, (ODA B'31
SUZUKI* S. "Ot if kASE OF WATER IN CLEARANCE SPACES"o JOURNAL Of

THE fJC1Y Oi iNGINEERXNO, TO"YO IMPEkIAL UNIVERSITY* VOL. 18o
No. za 1919.
SZU104RKI, A.P. "DI3C4ARGX COEFFICIENTS FOR AIR OUTFLON THROUGH A

SINGL9 ORIFICE IN THE HALL OF A TUBE". ARCHINRIH OUDOWY MASZYWN
* VOL. A**. NO. 4. 1197z. PP. 5st-544.
TAKAHAMA* H. "ATUDIES 3N VORTEX TUBES". J.S.M.I., BULLETIN. VOL. 8.

AUGUST. 1945. PP. 433-440.
TAOD L.N., AND N.F. DONOVAN. "THROUGH-FLOW IN CONCENTRIC AND

ECCENTRIC ANNULI Of FINE CLEARANCE WITH AND WITHOUT RELATIVE
MOTION OF THE BOUNDARIES4, TRANS. ASME, VOL. 7?. NO. s. NOVEMBER.
19Ss, PP. 1291-1301.
TNOM. A. "THE FLOW PAST CIRCULAR CYLINDERS AT LO SPEEDS', PROCEEDINGS

OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY* A141. LONDON* 1933. P. 4S1.
TIPTON. DONALD L., THOMAS E. SCOTT, AND ROD E. VOGEL. LABYRINTH SEAL
ANALYSISi VOLUME III - ANALYTICAL AND fXPERIMENTAL DEVELOPMENT Of
A DESIGN MODEL FOR LABYRINTH SEALS. FINAL REPORT JUNE 1960 - APRIL
198S. AFWAL-TR-BS-XXXX. (IDR 12096). ALLISON GAS TURBINE DIVISION.
GENERAL MOTORS CORP.. INDIANAPOLIS. INDIANA. MAY# 194S.
TROYANOVSKI, b.". "FLOM OF STEAM THROUGH4 STEAM TURBINE LABYRINTWa

GLANDS", MITTEILUNGEN DES NARNE TECHNISCHEN INSTITUTE DER
TECHNISCHEN NOCHSCHULE. DORMSTAOT, NO. 1* 1950. (GERMAN)
TRUTNOVSKY, KARL. "INVESTIGATIONS INTO NON-CONTACT SEALS".

CONSTRUCTION* VOL. 6o NO. 10. OCTOBER. 19S4, PP. 389-392. lGERMANI
182
10
UEDA, TATSUHIRO AND ICHIRO HARADA. EXPERIMENT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON THE

SURFACES WITH TRANSVERSE FINS FOR FLOW DIRECTION, TRANSACTIONS OF
THE JAPANESE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, VOL. 30, NO. 210,
1964, PP. 278-287. (JAPANESE)
VIANO, M. "LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE LOSSES IN

LABYRINTHS IN FRANCIS TURBINES", PROCEEDINGS OF THE AIRH SYMPOSIUM,
NICE, SEPTEMBER 16-20, 1960, P. 52. (FRENCH)
NINKHAUS, A. "STEAM LOSS IN LABYRINTH SEALS", VOI-ZEITSCHRIFT,

VCL. 66, NO. 33/34, AUGUST 26, 1922, PP. 804-807. (GERMAN)
WINKLER, H. "INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF LABYRINTH SEALS,

ESPECIALLY THOSE FOR TURBOMACHINES", (DISSERTATION, TH DRESDEN,
1957.), MISS. ZEITSCHRIFT TH DRESDEN, VOL. 7, NO. 1, 1957-1958,
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MINKLER, H. "INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF CONTACTLESS SEALS,

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ENERGIETECHNIK: VOL. 8, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER, 1958, PP. 388-394.
VOL. 8, NO. 10, OCTOBER, 1958, PP. 470-478.
VOL. So NO. lo DECEMBER. 1958, PP. 549-559.
(GERMANI
MOLD, J.H. Cl;ARACTI.RIST1CS OF FLUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES IN ROTATINO

CISKS, M.S. THESIS, AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, WRIGHT-
PATTtRSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO, MARCH, 1966.
VAtIADA, Y. "EXPERIMENTS ON FLON IN THE LABYRINTH PACKING$

2ND REPORTt PRESSURE LOSS OF FLOM BETWFEN COAXZAL CYLINDER WITH
REC1AN1ULAR GROOVES", TRANS. JAP. SOC. MECH. ENGRS., VOL. 26.
NO. 171, 19604 PP. 1S14-1522. (JAPANESE)
YAMADA, Y. "TORQUE AND PRESSURE DROP OF THE FLOW BETWEEN ROTATING

COAXIAL CYLINDERS IN LOW REYNOLDS NUMBER", TRANS. JAP. SOC. MECH.
ENGRS., VOL. 27, NO, 177. 1961. PP. 410-616, (JAPANESE)
YAMADA, Y. "RESISTANCE OF A FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS WITH AN INNER

ROTATING CYLINOCR", BULLETIN Of JSME, VOL. S, NO. 18, 1062.
PP. 302-310.
YAHAPA, Y. "TORQUE RESISTANCE Of A FLOM BETWEEN ROTATING COAXIAL

CYL1INDERS HAVING AXIAL FLOM", BULLETIN OF JSME, VOL. 5, NO. 20.
19lZ4 PP. 634-.42.
YAMADA. N. "ON THE PRFSSURE LOSS OF FLOM BETNEEN ROTATIAG COAXIAL

CYI)NDERS WITH RECTANULAR GROOVES". BULLETIN OF JSIIE, VOL. S.
NO. ;o. 1962, PP. 6'i-651.
YEA. RIDtERZCK C.. AND REEVES P. COCHRAN. COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL

AN3 IOEAL LEAKA.[ FLOWS THROUGH LABYRINtH SEALS FOR VERY SMALL
PRESSURE DIFFtRENCES, NASA TM X-1958, tE-S336), LEWIS RESEARCH
CENTER. LLEVELANO. OCTOBER 30, 1169. (1DA 7S-12761
ZANNFR. K.J. ORIFICE PLATE DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS, BRITISH HYDRO-

HLLHANICS RESEARCO ASSOCIATION, HARLOW. ENGLAND, OCTOBER. 19b1.
TOTAL NUNRER OF REFERENCES FOR COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS * 135

STRAIGHT SEAL FLOM
"LABYRINTH SEALS - STATIONARY", AERO DESIGN STANDARDS, VOL. 1. DESIGN

FEATURES, ADS 640, P. Al, Cl.
"LABYRINTH SEALS - ROTATING", AERO DESIGN STANDARDS* VOL. 1. DESIGN

FEATURES, ADS 641, P. Bi.
DEICH, M.E., A.Y. SHKVAR, AND V.I. SOLOMKO. "INVESTIGATION OF

STRAIGHT-FLOM LABYRINTH SEALS", POWER ENGINES, NEW YORK, VOL. 16,
NO. 49, 1978. PP. 128-133.
HUGUENIN, R., P. BOUILLAUD, AND F. BREUIL. "REMARQUES COMPLEMENTAIRES

ET ETUDE COMPARATIVE DES TRAVAUX RELATIFS AUX PERTES DANS LES
LABYRINTHES CYLINDRIQUES LISSES", ("REMARKS, COMMENTS, AND STUDIES
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P. 62. (FRENCH)
JERIE, JAN. "FLOW THROUGH STRAIGHT-THROUGH LABYRINTH SEALS",

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS FOR APPLIED
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* KONOTORI, KAZUKARI. "LEAKAGE OF AIR THROUGH LABYRINTH PACKING (ON THE

STRAIGHT-THROUGH TYPE)", TRANSACTIONS OF THE JAPANESE SOCIETY OF
'IECHANICAL ENGINEERS:
*1ST REPORT. VOL. 21, NO. 105, 1955, PP. 377-38Zt
*ZtbD REPORT, VOL. 21, NO. 108, 1SS, PP. 408-6131
3RO REPORT& VOL. 21s NO. It1, 19S6, PP. 474-6861
*4TH REPORT* VOL. 23t NO. 129, 1957, PP. 330-334. IJAPANESE)
KOHOTORI. KAZUNARI. "A CONSIDERATION ON THZ LABYRINTH PACKING OF

STRAIGHT-THROUGH TYPE"* TRANSACTIONS OF THE JAPANESE SOCIETy OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEEqS. VOL. 23, NO. 133. .EPTFMBER, 196?. PP. 417-
6Z3. tJAPANESE)
KONOTORIs KAZUNARI. "LEAKAI# u.ARACTERISTICS Of STRAIGHT-TNROUGH

LABYRINTHS )413H AXIAL moTiON", PAPER Hi, PROCEEDINGS Of THE 3R0
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FLUID SEALING. BRITISH HYDROKECHANICS
R1S[ARCH ASSOCIATION, APRIL, 1967, PP. Hi-i TO H1-20.
(ODA TJ146 1SS)
KOMOTORI* KAZUNARI, AND HIDEO MORI. "LEAKAGE CHARACTERISTICS Of

LABYRINTH SEALS", PAPER E4, PROCEEDINGS OF THE STH INTERNATIONAL
COHFERENCE 04 FLUID SEALING* BRITISH HYDROMECHANZCS RESEARCH
ASSOC14TION, COVENTRY, ENGLANOD MARCH 30-APRIL 3, 1971.
PP. E4-45 TO E4-63.
KOHOTORI. K.. AND K. MIYAKE. "LEAKAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF LABYRINTH

SEALS WITH HIGH ROTATING SPEED", PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1977 TOKYO
JOINT GAS TURBINE CONGRESS, NAY 22-27, 1977, PP. 371-378.
IDISCUSSIONt PP. 378-380.1 4DOA TJ7TS T46)
MEYER. C.A., AND JA. LONRIE, 11. THE LEAKAGE THRU STRAIGHT AND
SLANT LABYRINTHS AND HONEYCOMB SEALS. (PAPER NO. 74-WA/PTC-Zl,
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR PONER, TRANS. ASME. SERIES A, VOL. 97.
OCTOBER, 1975, PP. 495-Soi. IOISCUSSION: PP. S01-SO2.1
184
2
PEFLEY, P.S. 4 LIP STRAIGHT-THROUGH AND SPOILED LAS SEAL TEST RESULTS,
FTDM 325, MARCH 4, 1970.
SHANKAR RAO, N.B. AND N. SIDHESNAR. "INFLUENCE OF STRAIGHT-THROUGH

TYPE OF LABYRINTH GLAND PARAMETERS ON THE AMOUNT OF AIR LEAKAGE",
J INST. ENG (INDIA), MEC.H. ENS. DIV., VOL. 54, PT HE 4, JANUARY,
1976, PP. 176-181,
UEDA, TATSUHIRO, AND TOSHISUKE KUBO. "THE LEAKAGE OF AIR THROUGH

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OF JSME, VOL. 10, NO. 38, 1967, PP. 298-307.
"VIANO, N. "LOSSES IN CYLINDRICAL LABYRINTH SEALS"s LA HOUILLE BLANCHE,

NO. 1, 1970, P. 55. (FRENCH)
WITTIGt S..L.K.s L. DORR, AND S. KIM. SCALING EFFECTS ON LEAKAGE

LOSSES IN LABYRINTH SEALS, ASHE PAPER NO. 62-GT-157, (JOURNAL OF
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TOTAL NUMBER OF REFERENCES FOR STRAIGHT SEAL FLOW * 14
I,.
* 5
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"* 189
4
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GRIESER. D.R.* ET AL. A STUDY OF ROTARY-SHAFT-SEALING CONCEPTS FOR

PRESSURIZED-NATER-REACTOR APPLICATIONS. REPORT NO. BMh 1676.
(EURAEC-1189)o BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE. JUNE 30. 1964.
HABIREAN. DARRY. OWORLD'S LARGEST PUMPING PLANT"* NATIONAL [NO.*

VOL. 77, NO. 9, SEPTEMBER. 1973. PP. 4-7.
HARPER, O.S. "SEAL LEAKAGE IN THE ROTARY REGENERATOR AND ITS EFFECT ON
ROTARY-REGENERATOR DESIGN FOR GAS TURBINES", TRANS. ASME. VOL. 79.
NO. 2. FEbRUARY, 19S5? PP. 23Z-245.
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DECEMBER 10. 1948, PP. S87-569.
NOT?. G.". "A SURVEY Of ACTUATOR SHAFT SEALING TECHNIQUES FOR

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ZND EOITZON, HCGRAN-HILL, NEN YORK, 1976, CHAPTER So PP. S-I TO
S-25. (ODA TAISSI
FLEMING, DAVID P. HIGH STIFFNESS SEALS FOR ROTOR CRITICAL SPEED

CONTROL, NASA TM X-736S4, CASNE PAPER 77-DET-lO), 197?.
HERRM&4Ns G., AND I1 MIRSKY. ON VIBRATION OF CONICAL SHELLS, MISSILE

STRUCTURES SESSION, lAS TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING, NEN YORK,
JANUARY 27-30* 1958.
HOCHREUTHER4 N. FORCES GENERATED BY AXIAL FLOW THROUGH GAPS,

(DISSERTATION), UNIVERSITY OF STUTTGART, 197S. (GERMAN)
INGARbo U. "FLOW EXCITATION AND COUPLING OF ACOUSTIC MODES OF A SIDE

BRANCH CAVITY IN A DUCT", JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTIC SOCIETY OF
AMERICA. VOL. 40, NO. $, NOVEMBER. 1976, PP. 1213-1213.
KAPITSAv P.L, "STABILITY AND TRANSITION THROUGH THE CRITICAL

REVOLUTIONS OF ROTORS ROTATING AT HIGH SPEED IN CASES INVOLVING
FRICTION", JOURNAL OF TECHNICAL PHYSICS. VOL. IX, ISSUE 2t 1939.
PP. 194-147. (RUSSIAN)
KOSTYUK, A.G. "A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AERODYNAMIC FORCES IN THE

LABYRINTH GLANDS OF TURBO-MACHINES", TEPLOENERGETIKA, VOL. 19,
NO. 11, 1972, PP. 29-32.
206
3
LEONGY.M.M.S., AND R.D. BROWN. "CIRCUMFERENTIAL PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTIONS IN A MODEL LABYRINTH SEAL". ROTORDYNANIC INSTABILITY
PROBLEMS IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE MACHINERY, NASA-CP-2250, 1982,
PP 223-241.
LEHIS, D.A., C.E. PLATT, AND E.B. SMITH. AEROELASTIC INSTABILITY IN

Fi0 LABYRINTH AIR SEALS, (PAPER 78-1087, AIAA/SAE 14TH JOINT
PROPULSION CONFERENCE, LAS VEGAS, NEVADA, JULY 2S-27, 1978),
JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT, VOL. 14, NO. 7s AIAA, JULY. 1979. PP. 484-490.
LONAKIN* A.A. "CALCULATION OF THE CRITICAL SPEED AND THE CONDITIONS

PROVIDING FOR DYNAMIC STABILITY IN THE ROTOR OF HIGH-HEAD HYDRAULIC
"MACHINERY, TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION FORCES BUILDING UP IN THE
SEALS", ENERGOHASNINOSTRONENIE. VOL. 4o NO. 4. 1958, PP. 1-S.
(ODA 80-8961
LONAKINs A.A.* AND BETTSCHER. "DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL ROTATION RATE

OF PUMP RUNNERS NITH CONSIDERATION OF FORCES IN THE FIELD",
COLLECTION OF LENINGRAD MACHINE FACTORY AND STEAM AND GAS TURBINE
FACTORIES. NO. S, 19S8. (RUSSIAN)
MACKE H.J. "TRAVELING-HAVE VIBRATION OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE SHELLS",

(PAPER NO 43-NA/GTP-3* WINTER ANNUAL MEETING OF THE AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, CHICAGO. NOVEMSER 7-l. 1965),
TRANS. ASME, SERIES At VOL. 188, PP. 179-187.
HANHAJM, J., AND D.C. SWEENEY. "AN INVESTIGATION OF HYDRAULIC LOCK"*

PROCEEDINGS Of THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, VOL. 149.
NO. 42. 195S, PP. 865-874. (DISCUSSION: PP. ?74-479.)
mHANNAH, J. "FURTHER ASPECTS OF HYDRAULIC LOCK", PROCEEDINGS OF THE

INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, VOL. 171, 1959, PP. 499-714.
HARTSINKOVSKII, V.A. AND I1.. KARINTSEV. "THE EFFECT OF LABYRINTH

SEALS ON THE CRITICAL SPEEDS OF FEED PUMP ROTORS". ENERGONASKINOS-
TRONEhIE# VOL. 7, NO. 4, 1941, PP. 12-14. $ODA 0-B97)
MOREL, THOMAS. "EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF A JET-DRIVEN NELMMOLTZ

OSCILLATOR", JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERINGo TRANS. ASHE[ SERIES 16
VOL. 101. NO. So SEPTEMBER, 1979, PP. 1'3-390.
POLL)AN, E.o AND H. TERMUEHLEN. TUR&INE ROTOR VIBRATIONS EXCITED &Y

STEAM FORCES iSTEAM WHIRL), ASH! PAPER NO. ?S-NA/PMR-11% TRANS4
ASME, OECEMBER. 1975.
PROKOP*EV4 V.1., AND G.M. NAZA*RENO. "AEROELASTIC VIBRATIONS IN
LABYRINTH SEALS", STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. VOL. to NO. 7I APRIL.

1974, PP. 7M8-602.
REKLIS, E.P. "COMPRESSOR AIR SEAL FAILURE, SUPERSONIC NINO TUNNELS#

ABERDEEN PROVING GROUND. MARYLAND. MAY tO 1949", ABERDEEN
PROVING GROUND. MARYLAND. 1949.
ROSENEREG, S.S., ET AL. "INVESTIGATING AERODYNAMIC TRANSVERSE FORCES

IN LABYRINTH SEALS IN CASES INVOLVING ROTOR ECCE0TRICITY.o
tNERGONASHINOSTROENIE, VOL. Go NO. So 1974. PP. IS-17. IDOA 79-780)
207
4
SAMSONOV, Y.F.. V.I. SOLOMKO, AND G.S. ZEZYULINSKII. "INVESTIGATION

OF LEAKAGE OF SUPERHEATED AND NET STEAM IN LABYRINTH SEALS", HEAT
TRANSFER SOV. RES.* VOL. 10, NO. Z, MARCH-APRIL, 1978, PP. 80-87.
SPURK, JOSEPH H. AND RUDOLF KEIPER. "SELF-EXCITED VIBRATIONS IN

TURBOMACHINES CAUSED BY LABYRINTH FLON", INGENIEUR-ARCHIVo VOL. 43,
NO. 2-3, 1974, PP. 127-135. (ODA 80-893)
STETSON, K.A., AND P.A. TAYLOR. *THE USE OF NORMAL NODE THEORY IN
WiHOLOGRAPHIC VIBRATION ANALYSIS WITH APPLICATION TO AN ASYMMETRICAL
CIRCULAR DISK", JOURNAL OF PHYSICS, SERIES E, SCIENTIFIC
INSTRUMENTS* VOL. 4, 1971, P. 1009.
*1
STETSON, K.A. HOLOGRAPHIC VIBRATION ANALYSIS STUDY OF A 32 IN.

DIAMETER JET ENGINE FAN ASSEMBLY, REPORT Nt9t720-1, RESEARCH
LABORATORIES* UNITED AIRCRAFT CORP., EAST HARTFORD, CONN.*
SEPTENBER, 1974.
THOMAS, N.J. UNSTABLE NATURAL VIBRATIONS IN TURBINE ROTORS kXCITED

BY THE LEAKAGE FLOWS IN THE GLANDS AND BLADES* BULLETIN DO L'ASSOC.
"CE INGEHIFURS, MONTEFIORE. VOL. 71. NO. 11-12t 1958, PP. 1039-
1063.
THOMAS. N.J.* K. URLICHS6 AND R. NOHLAAB. "ROTOR INSTABILITY IN

THERMAL TURBOMACH1NIS DUE TO GAP EXCITATION". VOB-
"KRAFTNEAKSTECNNIK. VOL. S-6 NO. 4o JUNE, 1976, PP. 3?7-383.
IODA 4O0S95)
TINOSHENKO, S.P. VIBRATION PROBLEMS IN ENGINEERING. 0. VAN NOSTRANO,

NEW YORK* 1937, P. 433. (ODA TAlSS)
TIMOSHENKO, S.P.v AND J.14. GE0E. THEORY OF ELASTIC STASILITYo RN*

ODITION, MCORAN-NILL PUBLISHING CO* NEW YORK, 1961.
. IDBOA QA9lI T&SR
* URLICHS. K. "LEAKAGE FLOW4 IN TURBINES AS THE CAUSE Of LATERAL FORLtS

GIVING RISE TO VIBRATIONS", INGENItUR ARCvtVq VOL. 49, NO. 3. 1914,
PP. 193-D08. ODDA 79-7411
VON PRAGENAU, GEORGE L. DAMPING SEALS #OR TURSOMACHINERY, NASA

TECHNICAL PAPER 1987, GEORGE C. MARSHALL SPACE PLIGHT CENTER.
HUNTSVILLE, ALASANA. 1982.
WOOD, ALEXANDER. ACOUSTICS, DOVER PUOLZCATIONS, NEN YORK. 1964.
NRZGHT, DEXTER V. "AIR NODEL TESTS OF LABYRINTH SEAL FORCES ON A

NHIRLINO ROTOR", JOURNAL Of ENCINEEIGNO FOR POWER, TRANS. ASNE,
SERIES A. VOL. 100o OCTOBER, 19)8, OP. S33-S*3.
TOTAL NURDER OF hEFERElhCES FOR SEAL DYNAMICS a St
208
APPENDIX 8
SUPPORTING DATA FOR MODEL DEVELOPMENT
"210
4',
-". . - "'' " . . . " . " " . , , . ... `..:.:.5 ..' ..... .-.:`..-2: . . .... ` ' ? ' .i-2.;`.
B.1 2-0 RIG DATA
The following static data were acquired in the 2-0 labyrinth seal test rig
l with a pressurized inlet plenum and an atmospheric exhaust. The inlet air
temperatures were those of the ambient air.
B.l.1 Full-Scile Seals
The full-scale seal dimensions are typical of mealum to large gas turbine
engines. These test results formed a part of the data bank for the Design
Model development.
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B.I.2 Large-Scale Seals
The large-scale seals were geometrically similar to full-scale seal

.1
configurations but were enlarged to the maximum model size acceptable to the
2-0 rig:
Straight seals: 10 times full-scale

Stepped seals: 5 times full-scale
The performance data and interknife cavity pressure and temperature

measurements were used to verify the accuracy of the Analysis Model
predictions.
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B.2 3-D RIG DATA
The static and dynamic performance data acquired from the 3-0 rig tests on
full-scale seals:
o Supported the Design Model development with data base performance and
interknife cavity pressures.
* o Validated the Design Model accuracy for a seal configuration not in the
development data base.
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oI!
92.
*. . *, ,. "*, * " ..h e .. .,,,, *. . , . . ., , . ",.. . 1 .1,.1. ..- * * ***., . . ,, . " * '. .
with a pressurized inlet plenum and an atmospheric exhaust. The inlet air
temperatures were the same as the rig ambient air.
The data reduction and plotting were automated. Irregular plots of the seal
performance are the result of the plot algorithm. The test points are
connected with straight lines without regard for smoothing data scatter.
,*, .***.lI .*
iIIU. . % . ~ * . . ~ . ... *i
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w ,*2I8
N
iI"
-' APPENDIX D
EFFECT OF OPEN-CELL HONEYCOMB LANDS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF
STRAIGHT AND STEPPED LABYRINTH SEALS
V21E
269
with a pressurized inlet plenum and an atmospheric exhaust. The inlet air
temperatures were the same as the environmental temperature.
The data reduction and plotting were automated. Irregular plots of the seal
I. performance are the result of the plot algorithm. The test points are
connected with straight lines without regard for smoothing data scatter.
A.p J2.
270
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S oin...........
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.+ +................
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U.S'.'1Otsg'.~IPtgntin-4 Office: 1966 - 646-067/60131

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UNCLASSIFIED

NEW LIMITATION CHANGE

AFWAL ltr, 13 Jul 1987

THIS PAGE IS UNCLASSIFIED

<I LABYRINTH SEAL ANALYSIS

Volume III - Analytical and Experimental Development

Allison Gas Turbine

Final Report for Period June 1980 - April 1985

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EDR 12096 1. MONITORaNG O#rGAoiizATiON REPORT NUUMOLPIM)

[1Ae~ro Propulsion Laboratory

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ia. PARSONAi. AUTHOR0IS

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122W TILI'HNOIt NUMOER11160 OFFICE SYM11O10.

Topham, Keith C., 1st Lt., USAF j fd.

DD FORMI 1473. 83 APR *DaTIONs OF 1JAN 73 t 04S OLETA. j~j.jid-

1.0 Introduction ............. ........................... 1

2.0 Summary..................... ...................... . 5

3.0 Literature Survey ...... ........................ 9

4.0 Labyrinth Seal Design Model.......... .......... . . . . . . 25

5.0 Labyrinth Seal Design Optimization ..................... .. 53

* 6.0 Labyrinth Seal Experimental Investigatie .. . . ....... 59

6.1.4 Test Rig Instrumentation ..... ................ ... 69

1 Thermodynamic processes for labyrinth seal leakage .... ...... 10

seal installed ......... ..................... ... 62

21 Two-dimensional (2-D) labyrinth seal test rig with plate

36 Effect of knife tip speed on the leakage of honeycomb

51 Vortex formation between vertical knives in a straight seal

66 LV system for measuring flow velocities through a

1 Aerodynamic parameters for labyrinth seals ..... .......... 15

20 Three-knife straight (lOX) labyrinth seal model hot-wire

To further enhance the predictive accuracy of labyrinth seal performance, the

The Labyrinth Seal Analysis effort was structured as a three-phase program.

The '-design" model development, prese'nted in this volume, is based on detailed

Rig tests were performed on selected fuli-scale labyrinth seal configurations

* The knife-to-knife approach to modeling labyrinth seal performance was selected

Performance data were acquired by testing specific labyrinth seals to fill

Additional full-scale performance testing was conducted to extend the laby-

During this Labyrinth Seal Analysis program an extensive bibliography and a

approaches to modeling labyrinth seal performance and to obtain *outside' ex-

3.1 ANALYTICAL MODELS

The reference evaluations (64) revealed certain general areas of agreement

The leakage through a labyrinth seal is invariably modeled as an adiabatic

WITH LINE CHOKED

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