Research

Writing
Workshop

Politecnico di
Milano
January 2017

Prof. Ken Friedman

Chair Professor of Design Innovation Studies
College of Design and Innovation
Tongji University
Shanghai
University Distinguished Professor
Center for Design Innovation
Swinburne University of Technology
Melbourne

Part 1

Research

Research:
Etymology: Middle French
recerche, from recercher to go
about seeking, from Old French
recerchier, from re- + cerchier
to search more at SEARCH
Date: 1577 ...

1: careful or diligent search

2: studious inquiry or
examination; especially:
investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision
of accepted theories or laws in
the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new
or revised theories or laws

3: the collecting of information

about a particular subject.
(Merriam-Websters 2015: unpaged)

Research: verb Date: 1593

transitive senses 1: to search or
investigate exhaustively
<research a problem> 2: to do
research for <research a book>
intransitive senses: to engage
in research.
(Merriam-Websters 2015: unpaged)

Research: Methodical search

for knowledge. Original
research tackles new problems
or checks previous findings.
Rigorous research is the mark
of science, technology, and the
living branches of the
humanities.

10

It [research] is typically
absent from pseudoscience and
ideology.
Synonyms: exploration,
investigation, inquiry.
(Bunge 1999: 251)

11

Do not confuse research with

knowledge creation. They are
not the same. Not all knowledge
creation is research.
There are many legitimate ways
to create knowledge not all
are research. Learning creates
knowledge. Learning how to do
something creates knowledge
for the learner.

12

Research creates knowledge for

the larger community of human
beings beyond the internal
mental or physical world of the
individual researcher.

13

This is why we describe

research as a contribution to
the knowledge of the field.
Research produces knowledge
for all members of a research
field, a discipline, or a
profession.

14

This is also why one criterion of

the PhD as a research doctorate
involves making an original
contribution to the knowledge
of the field sometimes
described in shorter form as
an original contribution to
knowledge.

15

Research creates knowledge for

researchers and information for
the field. When other members
of the field integrate this
information into their
knowledge, it becomes the
knowledge of the field.

16

All legitimate modes of

knowledge creation are
important. Knowledge creation
may not constitute research.

17

To constitute research,
knowledge creation must
involve investigation or
experimention to discover and
interpret facts, investigation or
experimention to revise
accepted theories or laws in the
light of new facts, or
investigation or experimention
to apply new or revised
theories or laws.
18

Knowledge creation to develop

or master skills that are new to
the individual without being
original or new to the world at
large is learning rather than
research.

19

Learning often involves original

discovery for the individual that
is neither original or new to the
world. This may be research for
the individual in the same sense
as collecting of information
about a particular subject. This
kind of research does not
warrant publication.
(Merriam-Websters 2015: unpaged)

20

Preliminary
Research

Preliminary research explores

the area within which a
research question may exist.

22

Typical questions in preliminary

research include:
What kinds of issues do I wish to
explore?
What do I want to know?
What kinds of questions do I want
to ask?

23

Typical tasks of preliminary

research:
Survey an area.
Map issues.
Understand the field of inquiry.

24

Exploratory
Research

Once preliminary research

narrows the field of inquiry,
exploratory research focuses on
and explores the research
question.

26

Typical questions in exploratory

research include:
What kinds of questions should I
ask?
What kinds of methods may I
choose among to ask these
questions?
What specific methods should I
use to answer the questions I
ask?
27

Typical tasks in exploratory

research include:
Developing research questions.
Selecting research methods.

28

Three
Research
Frames

Basic Research
Applied Research
Clinical Research

Basic research involves a search

for general principles.
Abstract and general principles
cover a variety of situations and
cases.

31

Basic research generates theory

on several levels. This may
involve macro-level theories
covering wide areas or fields,
mid-level theories covering
specific ranges of issues, or
micro-level theories focusing on
narrow questions.

32

General principles often have

broad application beyond their
original field of inquiry.
The generative nature of
principles sometimes gives them
surprising predictive power.

33

Applied research adapts the

findings of basic research to
classes of problems.
Applied research may involve
developing and testing theories
for classes of problems.

34

While applied research tends to

be mid-level or micro-level
research, applied research may
develop or generate questions
that become the subject of basic
research.

35

Clinical research involves specific

cases, applying the findings of
basic research and applied
research to specific situations.
Clinical research may generate
and test new questions, or it may
test the findings of basic and
applied research in a clinical
situation.

36

Clinical research may also

develop or generate questions
that become the subject of
basic research or applied
research.
Clinical research is often labeled
diagnosis when it involves
examining specific problems,
questions, or issues for an
individual client or organization.
37

Any of the three research frames

may generate questions for the
other frames.
Each may test the theories and
findings of other kinds of
research.

38

Clinical research generally

involves professional
engagement. In the rush of daily
practice, most research is
clinical. There isnt time for
anything else.

39

Most professional practice

requires diagnosis. Diagnosis is a
major form of clinical research.

40

Skilled professional practice

often requires practitioners to
choose among the results and
findings of applied research for
specific clinical or diagnostic
solutions.

41

Understanding basic research

establishes the frame for
wise choices and deepens the
skills needed for effective
diagnosis and professional
practice.
(Friedman 2003: 510-512)

42

Many Kinds
of Research

Theoretical
Empirical
Conceptual

44

Qualitative
Quantitative
Descriptive
Interpretive

45

Mathematical
Logical
Philosophical

46

Historical
Textual
Exegetical
Hermeneutic

47

Positive
Normative

48

Phenomenological

49

Practice-led
Practice-based
Generative
Expressive
(These four approaches are the subject of
open questions and ongoing debate.)

50

Research
Methods

Methods
Methodology
Methodics

52

Research methods
are how we do
research.

53

Methodology is the
comparative study
of methods.

54

Methodics is the
comprehensive
repertoire of
methods in a field.

55

Methodological awareness
and methodological sensitivity
involve our ability to understand
research methods and use
them effectively to
answer questions.

56

Methodological awareness
involves such questions as
choice of method, understanding
appropriate methods for
examining kinds of questions, and
awareness of theoretical
presuppositions.

57

Methodological awareness also

involves such issues as problem
finding, problem selection,
choice of research object,
levels of analysis, units of
analysis, and other research
questions in any project.

58

Part 2

Writing

There are only two kinds

of research: perfect
research and published
research ...

SWINBURNE DESIGN

60

Perfect research is
never published and
published research is
never perfect.

Johan Olaisen

SWINBURNE DESIGN

61

Research results seem to be

incomplete until they are
written up, and in the writing
come new insights into the
work that you didnt have when
you were performing it.

62

Language structures thought

through rhetorical conventions
which stimulate additional
thought.
Research activity proceeds in a
fairly linear fashion, whereas
language poses problems of
explanatory necessity to
complete its statements.

63

You can often DO something

immediately following a prior
action, but you often cannot
SAY something following a
previous statement without
setting the background
for its understanding.

64

I suppose the missing

component is that when
writing, you understand
that you cannot assume the
reader had your same state of
mind, whereas as the actor
DOING things, you knew your
state of mind.
(Amsler 2007)

65

Do
Introduce terms.
Define terms.

66

What does this term mean?

How do I use the term?
What meaning and function do
these terms have in the context
of this inquiry?

67

Sources
Excellent sources for definitions and
language work in English:
Merriam-Websters Collegiate
Dictionary
Oxford English Dictionary
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary

68

Do
Write carefully.
Build good sentences.
Link related sentences in clear
paragraphs.
Work toward an overall
structure.
69

Strunk & White

SWINBURNE DESIGN

70

Elementary Principles
of Composition
Choose a suitable design and
hold to it.
Make the paragraph the unit of
composition.
Use the active voice.
71

Put statements in a positive

form.

Use specific, definite, concrete

language.
Omit needless words.
Avoid a succession of loose
sentences.

72

Express coordinate ideas in

similar form.

Keep related words together.

In summaries, keep to one
tense.
Place the emphatic words of a
sentence at the end.
(Strunk and White. 2000: vi)
73

An Approach to Style
(With a list of reminders)

Place yourself in the background.

Write in a way that comes
naturally.
Work from a suitable design.

74

Write with nouns and verbs.

Revise and rewrite.

75

Do not overwrite.

Do not overstate.
Avoid the use of qualifiers.
Do not affect a breezy manner.
Use orthodox spelling.

76

Do not explain too much.

Do not construct awkward

adverbs.
Make sure the reader knows
who is speaking.
Avoid fancy words.

77

Do not use dialect unless your

ear is good.

Be clear.
Do not inject opinion.
Use figures of speech sparingly.
Do not take shortcuts at the cost
of clarity.
78

Avoid foreign languages.

Prefer the standard to the

offbeat.
(Strunk and White. 2000: vi)

79

The Elements of Style is the best

short and simple writing guide in
English today.

80

Buy it.
Read it.
Use it.

81

Those who wish to read more

deeply into writing for academic
journals should read Stylish
Academic Writing by Helen
Sword (2012).

82

Additional writing resources and

books are available as a free .pdf
document titled Research
Writing Resources at URL:
<http://swinburne.academia.edu/Ken
Friedman> .

83

Ten Principles of
Reference and
Citation
(Friedman 2014, 1998)

SWINBURNE DESIGN

84

1 Use citations constructively to

substantiate the argument of an
article.

85

2 Use citations creatively to

advance the argument.

86

3 Argue the case of the article in

the narrative. External sources
support the argument.
External sources support the
argument. External support
cannot replace the authors
argument. Do not confuse the
two.

87

4 Use precise, fine-grained

references. These permit the
reader to locate cited materials
at their exact place in the source
document. Fine-grained
references allow the reader to
examine, question, challenge,
and learn from cited sources.

88

5 Treat direct quotations, indirect

quotations, and paraphrases the
same way. Give explicit
references to the exact page or
section in the cited sources for all
quotations and paraphrases. This
serves readers while building and
supporting the knowledge of the
field.

89

6 Review cited passages in the

original sources to ensure exact
quotes and accurate
paraphrasing. Reviewing sources
helps the author to use source
text well. It allows the author to
reflect on the quoted material for
added depth and development.

90

7 Never use second-hand

references from other articles or
books. Always check cited
sources first hand.

91

8 Never use loose or vague

references. Be precise.

92

9 Every source document cited in

the text must appear in the
reference list.
Every item in the reference list
must appear in the text.

93

10 Each source in the text

requires an appropriate citation
in the text and a full entry in the
reference list. All sources must
be cited using standard style,
including digital sources. Digital
sources require a complete
reference. A URL or a doi is not
sufficient.

94

10 Every entry in the reference

list must be complete. All
citations and all references must
use the same style. All citations
and references must be complete
and consistent to be correct.

95

IMPORTANT
Cite direct quotations carefully
and explicitly.
Cite indirect quotations and
paraphrased quotations carefully
and explicitly.

96

VITAL
Offer evidence.
Provide sources for the evidence
in original work or earlier work.
These are the foundation of
research and the warrant for
research claims.

97

Reference and Citation

References are a conceptual tool
for the writer and for the reader.
Skilled authors recognize the
stylistic and intellectual issues
involved in referencing.

98

Reference and Citation

Outstanding authors practice and
master the art of referencing.
These authors build a conversation
across the field and bring readers
into the conversation.

99

Beware of These
Common Problems

SWINBURNE DESIGN

100

Dont
It is generally best not to use
footnotes for substantive
content.
Place issues in the body of the
paper or cut them entirely.

101

Dont
Dont use footnotes for
references if a publisher requires
another style.
Footnotes often lead to such
substantive problems as
missing notes, missing details,
inconsistencies, poorly formatted
entries, and confused styles.
102

Part 3

Advice and
Warnings

First Person Writing

When writing as the author of an
article, write in the first person
using active verbs.
Take responsibility for opinions
and findings.
Use the first person when
necessary and only when
necessary.
104

Necessity
An author is a necessary actor who
should write in the first person in
four specific cases:

105

1
To narrate events that he or she
has witnessed,

106

2
To narrate personal experience,

107

3
To take responsibility for
findings and results, or

108

4
To state an expert or professional
opinion.

109

Dont
An author should not enter the
narrative without good reason.
An author should not narrate
personal involvement unless he or
she is a necessary actor.

110

Dont
NEVER complain about the difficulty
of a research project. State the
challenges and problems, then stop.
NEVER emphasize the work of
writing with such phrases as I
asked myself, or To prepare, I
read many books and articles.

111

Dont
Dont use clichs.
Dont use stock phrases.

112

Dont
Dont use jargon. Use clear terms
in common language.
If you must use a technical term,
explain it in common language or
define it.

113

Dont
Dont use professional,
technical, or scientific terms that
you cannot explain or define.

114

Dont
Dont use words in quotation
marks to indicate that you mean
the word in a special way.
Readers may not know how your
words differ to ordinary
words. You cannot assume that
readers will share the special
meaning that you intend to
indicate.
115

Dont
Dont place a word in quotation
marks to suggest ironic
meaning. Unless readers share
your ideas and assumptions,
they may not understand
intended ironic meaning or
they may recognise your intent
without understanding the
meaning.
116

Dont
Dont use fancy words in an
attempt to seem scholarly or
scientific. If an author does
not understand a word, it is
likely that the reader wont
understand it, either.

117

Warning!
If an author misuses a word
that he or she does not
understand when the reader
does understand it, the
reader may think of the
author as a fraud.

118

Do
Write to make your meaning
clear, understandable, and
explicit. To the greatest degree
possible, write well. If clarity
requires an occasional difficult
passage, prefer clarity. And seek
advice to see whether you can
write the difficult passage more
simply.
119

Good Advice
Start early.
Make a schedule and keep to it.
Read and write.
Revise, rewrite, and polish.
Get advice often.
120

Rhetoric
Develop rhetoric carefully and
Systemically.
Ensure continuity.
State the promise of the paper and
keep the promise.

121

Development
Define terms.
State assumptions. Explain,
clarify, and limit them.
Develop the paper with a sense
of narrative dramaturgy.

122

Do
Clarify issues.
Explain key issues.
Answer what, why, how, and
when.
Use appropriate forms of
demonstration: narrative,
testimony, evidence, and models.
123

Do
Present and address contrary
evidence.

124

Do
Work carefully with tense, time,
and narrative sequence.
Pay careful attention to process.
Make every process description
clear.

125

Do
Use active verbs.
Establish agency.
Represent time flow.
Be clear.

126

Start writing!

127

What to do and
how to do it.

128

A robust manuscript should meet

several criteria. These criteria
vary by discipline, field, and
method.
Use this checklist as a basic
frame. Adjust the checklist to
suit the discipline, journal, or
conference. Book chapters may
be different while meeting
comparable requirements.
129

An author should:
1 State the theme of the paper.
2 Introduce the subject.
3 Promise a contribution.

130

4 State the goals of the paper.

5 Identify the issues of the
paper.
6 Give appropriate background
information.

131

7 Describe the approach and

method.
8 Describe the circumstances in
which he or she did the work.

132

9 Describe the research

process.
10 State the structure of the
argument and state how the
paper will develop it.
11 Provide evidence for the
argument.

133

12 Show how the evidence and

the argument lead to a
contribution.
Evidence may include empirical
work and material from the
literature of the field.

134

13 Describe the findings or

conclusions and how they fulfill
the goals of the paper.
14 State what the author learned
or accomplished.

135

15 Suggest future work to

answer remaining questions and
unresolved issues.
16 Provide a reference list
containing all sources cited in
the text.

136

Writing is a window!
Effective scholarly or scientific
writing enables to reader to see
what the author sees, to
understand what the author
knows, and to make a reasoned
judgment on the authors
conclusions.

137

References
Amsler Robert. 2007. Subject: RE: 20.391 Feynmans
version of Kelvins declaration. Humanist Discussion
Group, Vol. 20, No. 392. London: Centre for Computing
in the Humanities, Kings College London. Date: Fri, 12
Jan 2007, Subject: 20.392 making, saying,
understanding. URL: <http://dhhumanist.org>. Accessed
2015 May 4.
Bunge, Mario. 1999. The Dictionary of Philosophy.
Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
Friedman, Ken. 2014 (1998). Reference, Argument, and
Evidence. Melbourne: Centre for Design Innovation,
Swinburne University of Technology. Archived at URL:
<http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman> .
Accessed 2015 May 4.
138

Friedman, Ken. 2003. Theory Construction in Design

Research. Criteria, Approaches, and Methods. Design
Studies. Vol. 24, 507-522. doi:10.1016/S0142694X(03)00039-5 507
Friedman, Ken. 2015. Research Writing Resources. A
Research Skills Working Paper. Research Skills
Workshop. Melbourne, Australia: Centre for Design
Innovation, Swinburne University of Technology. URL:
<http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman> .
Accessed: 2015 April 12.
Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary. 2015.
Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary. Online edition.
Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. URL:
<www.academic.eb.com> . Accessed: 2015 April 3.

139

Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. 2000. The

Elements of Style. Fourth edition. Foreword by Roger
Angell. New York: Longman.
Sword, Helen. 2012. Stylish Academic Writing.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

140

Suggested Citation
Friedman, Ken. 2017. Research Writing Workshop.
Version for Politecnico di Millano. Shanghai, China:
College of Design and Innovation, Tongji University.

141

Publishing History
This edition of the Research Skills Workshop
presentation is designed for the staff and students of
Politecnico di Milano. Earlier versions were presented at
The Shanghai College of Design and Innovation at Tongji
University, Swinburne University of Technology School of
Design, Hong Kong Polytechnic University School of
Design, and at the Design Advanced Research Training
(DART) Doctoral Master Class at Middlesex University
and London Metropolitan University. The DART Doctoral
Master Class was funded by the UK Arts and Humanities
Research Council.

142

About Ken Friedman

Ken Friedman is Chair Professor of Design
Innovation Studies at Tongji University College of Design
and Innovation, and University Distinguished Professor at
Swinburne University of Technology, where he formerly
served as Dean of the Faculty of Design.
Friedman is Editor-in-Chief of She Ji. The Journal of
Design, Economics, and Innovation published by Tongji
University in cooperation with Elsevier. He is co-editor of
the book series Design Thinking, Design Theory for The
MIT Press.

143

Acknowledgements
Thanks for suggestions and advice to Dr. Deirdre Barron,
Prof. Charles Burnette, Prof. Cees de Bont, Prof. Lily
Diaz, Prof. David Durling, Dr. Ida Engholm, Prof. Yongqi
Lou, Dr. Joao Lutz, Dr.Jin Ma, Dr. Kristina Niedderer,
Prof. Jack Ox, Dr. Anne Prince, Dr. Thomas Rasmussen,
Prof. Chris Rust, Dr. Chris Smith, Dr. Marilyn C. Smith,
Dr. Simone Taffe, Dr. Byrnjulf Tellefsen, and Prof. Peter
Ullmark.
Copyright 2017 by Ken Friedman. Licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0
International License.
May be copied, quoted, and printed freely.

144

Digital Copies Available

Free digital copies of this document and
other research development resources are
available in PDF format at URL:
http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman

For More Information

Email: [email protected]

145

Thank you
Copyright 2017 by Ken Friedman. Licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0
International License. May be copied, quoted, and
printed freely.
Version 2017 January 16

SWINBURNE DESIGN

146