Measurements and Instrumentation

Chapter One

Basic Concepts Of Measurement Method

Basic Terms
 The input to a measuring system is known as measurand and the output is
called measurement.
 Measurement standard: are those devices, artifacts, procedures, instruments,
systems, protocols, or processes that are used to define (or to realize) measurement
units and on which all lower echelon (less accurate) measurements depend..
 Calibration:
Comparing the output of the instrument or sensor under test against the output of an
instrument of known accuracy when the same input (the measured quantity) is applied to both
instruments.
Has to be repeated at prescribed intervals because the characteristics of any instrument change
over a period.
 Metrology: The science of measurement includes all aspects, both theoretical and
practical, with reference to measurements, whatever their uncertainty, and in
whatever fields of science or technology they occur.
Cont.
 Instrumentation: the technology of using instruments to measure and control
the physical and chemical properties of material.
Process instrumentation: when the instruments are used for the
measurement and control of industrial manufacturing, conversion or
treatment processes the term process
When the measuring and controlling instruments are combined so that
measurements provide impulses for remote automatic action, the result is
called a control system.
What is measurement?
 Measurement is the act or the result of a quantitative comparison
between a predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude.
Determination of the amount is what measurement in all about.
A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable.
That physical variable is the measured variable or measurand.
A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured
variable.
Cont.
 The measurand may be:
1. Fundamental quantity, e.g. length, mass and time
2. Derived quantity, e.g. speed, velocity, acceleration, pressure.
Components of a general measurement system
 Measurement systems can, in general, be considered to be made up of three basic
elements.
1. A sensor and Transducer:
 Sensor: Responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a
signal which is related to the quantity.
 A transducer: converts the sensed information into a detectable signal.
2. A signal conditioner: takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a
condition which is suitable either for display or, in the case of a control system, for use
to exercise control. Eg. Amplifier
3. A display system: displays the output from the signal conditioner. This might, for
example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.
Cont.
Cont.
Signal can be
Analog instrument
 Output varies continuously with respect to time
 Maintains a constant relationship with input
Digital instrument
 Output varies discreetly with respect to time
 Maintains a constant relationship with input
 The basic requirements for getting, meaningful result of measurement are:
1. The standard employed for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and
should be commonly acceptable
2. The standard must be of the same character as the measurand and usually, but
not always is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognized agency or organization.
e.g., International Organisation of Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus use and method adopted for the comparison purpose must be
provable.
Significance of measurements
 Measurements play a very significant role in every branch of scientific
research and engineering processes which include Control systems, Process
instrumentation and Data reduction
 The whole area of automation or automatic controls is based on
measurements.
 The measurements confirm the validity of a hypothesis and also add to
it its understanding.
 Through measurements a product can be designed or a process to
operated with maximum efficiency, minimum cost and with desired
degree of reliability and maintainability.
Standards of measurement
1. Primary standards
 Defines the value of a unit, where unit defines a quantitative measure of a
dimension
 It provides the means to describe the unit with a unique number that can
be understood throughout the world.
 Quite stable
 Independent
 Invariant
 Not relative but finite
Cont.
 While setting up the primary standards, the following points are given by
consideration:
i. Long time stability of the material
ii. Low temperature coefficient
iii. No deterioration in its characteristics with changes in humidity, temperature and other
environmental conditions.
iv. Rigidity of construction
v. Accuracy of machining.
 The primary standards constitute the ultimate basis of reference and are used
for the purpose of verification and calibration of secondary standards maintain
Cont.
2. Secondary standards
Designed and calibrated from the primary standards.
Are sent periodically to the national standard laboratories for their calibration
(the interval of calibration depends upon the accuracy and the type of
standard being maintained).
Are kept by the measurement laboratories and the industrial organizations
to check and calibrate the general tools for their accuracy and precision.
Cont.
3. Working Standards:
 These standards have an accuracy of one order lower than that of the
secondary standards.
 These are the normal standards which are used by the workers and
technicians who actually carry out the measurements.
Fundamental SI Units
Mechanical Measurements
1. Mechanics type of measurements
Commonly applied to experimental or developmental programmes.
Are three distinct methods
a. The empirical method:
 Use is made of the knowledge of satisfactory previous performance, either personally
observed or generally recognized as good practice
 Cannot be relied upon especially in case of complex system design
b. The rational method:
 Is strictly based upon well established scientific laws and relationships.
c. The experimental method:
 the component is designed by trial and error based on existing knowledge
2. Power type of measurement:
 Are generally used for monitoring of operational measurement in control system.
Methods Of Measurement
a. Direct comparison method
parameter to be measured is directly compared with either a primary or a secondary
standard.
Generally, this method is not always the most accurate or the best, it is not
sensitive enough also.
b. Indirect comparison method
Comparison is done with a standard through the use of a calibrated system.
used in those cases where the desired parameter to be measured is difficult to be
measured directly, but it has got some correlation in the some other parameter
which can be easily measured.
Modes Of Measurement
1. Primary measurements:
 In this case the sought value of a parameter is determined by comparing it directly
with reference standards
 There is no conversion of measurand in terms of length.
Examples: a. Measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock
b. Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler
2. Secondary measurements:
 The indirect measurement involving one translation
Examples: a. The temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometers.
b. The pressure measurement by manometers
3. Tertiary measurements: The indirect measurement involving two conversion
Examples: The measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple
Generalized Measurement System And Its Functional
Elements
1. Primary sensing element:
Sensitive to the measured variable.
Sense the condition, state or value of the process variable by extracting a small part of
energy from the measurand and
Produce an output which reflects this conditions, state or value of the measurand.

2. Variable conversion of transducer element

Converts the signal from one physical form to another without changing the
information content of the signal.
Cont.
3. Manipulation element
Operates on the signal according to some mathematical rule without changing the physical
nature of the variable.
4. Data transmission element
Transmits the signal from one location to another without changing its information
contents.
5. Data presentation element
Provides a display record or indication of the output from the manipulation elements.
Illustration of Measuring System
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge  Acts as the primary sensing element and
a variable conversion element.
 The closed end of the Bourdon tube is
displaced and thus the pressure is
converted into a small displacement.
 The closed end of the Bourdon tube is
connected to a gearing arrangement
through mechanical linkage.
 the mechanical linkage acts as a data
transmission element while the gearing
arrangement acts as a data manipulation
element.
Pressure actuated thermometer
Instruments
 A device to measure a physical quantity (e.g. velocity, pressure, temperature etc.)
 Enables the man to determine the value of unknown quantity or variable
 A measuring instrument provides information about the physical value of
some variable being measured.
 Also provided the controls by which the operator can obtain manipulated and
respond to the information.
Classification of Instruments
Cont.
Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments:
a) Mechanical instruments:
 very reliable for static and stable conditions
 unable to respond rapidly to the measurements of dynamic and transient conditions
 Most of them cause noise pollution
b) Electrical instruments
 more rapid than that of mechanical methods.
 Unfortunately they are normally depends upon a mechanical meter as an indicating
device.
 This mechanical movement has some inertia due to which the frequency response of
these instruments is poor.
C) Electronic instruments: very fast responses
 The response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia of electrons.
 Very weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.
Classification of Electrical Instruments
1. Absolute and secondary instruments
i. Absolute instruments: give the magnitude of the quantity under
measurement in terms of physical constants of the instruments.
Example: Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance are seldom
used except in standard institution.
ii. Secondary instruments: the quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument
Are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument.
Example: Voltmeter, glass thermometer, pressure gauge etc.
The secondary instruments find wide use in every sphere of measurement.
Classification of Secondary Instruments
 Analog and digital instruments
I. Analog instruments:
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite
number of values in a given range.
Examples: Fuel gauge, ammeters and voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer of an
automobile etc.
II. Digital instruments:
Instruments corresponding to signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a
finite number of different values in a given range
Examples: Odometer of an automobile, calibrated balance of a platform scale,
timer on a scoreboard, etc.
Advantages of Digital Instruments:
High accuracy; high speed; elimination of human operational errors
Classification of Analog Instruments
 Deflection and null output instruments
 Deflection: measured quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or
produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument.
 An opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection
or the mechanical displacement of the moving system.
 The deflection or mechanical displacement at the point of balance then gives
the value of measured quantity
 Examples: Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter
 Null type: zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of
measured quantity. The null condition is dependent upon some other known
conditions.
Example: D.C. potentiometer
Advantages: can be highly sensitive as compared with deflection type instruments
More accurate than deflection type instrument
Other Types
 Manual and automatic instruments
 In case of manual instruments services of an operator are required.
Example: Measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer
incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its circuit
 In an automatic type of instrument, an operator is not required.
Example: Measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer.
 Self -contained and remote indicating instruments:
 self-contained instrument: has all its different elements in one physical
assembly.
 Remote indicating instrument: the primary sensing element may be
located at an adequate long distance from the secondary indicating element.
wide use in the modern instrumentation technology.
Cont.
 Self operated and power operated instruments
 A self-operated instrument: does not require any outside power for its
operation; the output energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input
signal.
 Examples: Mercury in glass thermometer, Dial indicator etc.
 Power operated instruments : are those instruments which require some
auxiliary source of power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic
supply etc. for their operation.
 Example: Electro-mechanical measurement system; shown in figure.
Factors Relating to Selection of Instruments
 The accuracy expected from the instrument
 When are the final data required (i.e. at the time of taking the measurement)
 The cost criterion (i.e., the cost of the measuring process)
 In what form the data should be displayed (i.e. indicating, recording,
integrating etc.)
 Whether quantity to be measured has constant value or it is a time variant?
Functions of instruments
1. Indicating functions
 The value of the quantity can be read by the movement of the needle on
a calibrated scale provided on the instrument.
 Readings can be taken to any fraction within the limitation of the instrument
and human eye.
Example:
Deflection of a pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed the automobile at that
moment.
The use of pressure gauge for indicating pressure.
2. Recording function.
 The value of measured quantity against some other variable or against time is
continuously records, with pen and ink
 A graph paper is provided whose speed can be adjusted.
Example: A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records
Cont.
3. Controlling function
 The controlling function is perhaps one of the most important functions
particularly in the field of industrial control processes.
 the information is used by the instrument/system to control the original
measured quantity.
 Examples:1. Floats for liquid level control,
2. Thermostats for temperature control.