SENSORS

and
TRANSDUCERS
 INTRODUCTION
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
 Sensor
• A Device that receives and
respond to a signal or stimulus.
• Sensors are sophisticated
devices that are frequently used
to detect and respond to electrical
or optical signals.
• A Sensor converts the physical
parameter (for
example: temperature, blood
pressure, humidity, speed, etc.)
into a signal which can be
measured electrically..
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values

real primary analog secondary usable

world transducer transducer values
Sensor

• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
 Sensor characteristics
• Span or Full scale input
– A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by
a sensor
– represents the highest possible input value that can be
applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably
large inaccuracy

• Full scale output

– algebraic difference between the electrical output
signals measured with maximum input stimulus and
the lowest input stimulus applied
 Sensor characteristics
• Accuracy
– Accuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a
value represented by the sensor from the ideal or true
value at its input
– accuracy limits generally are used in the worst-case
analysis to determine the worst possible performance
of the system
– The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a
number of forms:
• Directly in terms of measured value ()
• In percent of input span (full scale)
• In terms of output signal
 Sensor characteristics
• Calibration
– determination of specific variables that describe the
overall transfer function
• Overall means of the entire circuit, including the sensor, the
interface circuit, and the A/D converter
– E.g. use of forward biased diode for temperature
measurement
• Transfer function v=a+bt
• Take measurement at two T’s and solve and determine a
and b
– V1=a+bt1 and V2=a+bt2
– For Non-linear function more than one point can be
required depending on the transfer function
 Sensor characteristics
• Calibration error
– inaccuracy
permitted by a
manufacturer when
a sensor is calibrated
in the factory

Error is systematic in
nature
 Sensor characteristics
• Hysteresis
– deviation of the
sensor’s output at a
specified point of the
input signal when it is
approached from the
opposite directions
 Sensor characteristics
• Non-linearity error
– specified for sensors
whose transfer function
may be approximated
by a straight line

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum

deviation in input ⁄ Maximum
full scale input
 Sensor characteristics
• Repeatability
– caused by the inability of a sensor to represent the
same value under identical conditions
– It is expressed as the maximum difference
between output readings as determined by two
calibrating cycles
– It is usually represented as % of FS

Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given)/full range

 Sensor characteristics
• Resolution
– the smallest increments of stimulus which can be
sensed

• Response time
- Response time describes the speed of change in
the output on a step-wise change of the
measurand
Classification of Sensors

• The sensors are classified into the following

criteria:
1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical
and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application
Quantity being Input Device Output Device
Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Lights & Lamps
Photodiode
Light Level LED’s & Displays
Photo-transistor
Fibre Optics
Solar Cell

Thermocouple
Thermistor Heater
Temperature
Thermostat Fan
Resistive Temperature Detectors

Potentiometer
Motor
Encoders
Position Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
Panel Meters
LVDT

Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks

Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnet
Load Cells Vibration

Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors

Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake

Bell
Carbon Microphone
Sound Buzzer
Piezo-electric Crystal
Loudspeaker
 Sensor Classification
Passive
• Doesn’t need any additional energy source
• Directly generate an electric signal in response to an
external stimuli

Active
• Require external power called excitation signal
• Sensor modify excitation signal to provide output
Light Sensors

• A Light Sensor generates an output signal

indicating the intensity of light by measuring the
radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of
frequencies basically called “light”, and which
ranges in frequency from “Infra-red” to “Visible” up
to “Ultraviolet” light spectrum.
• Commonly known as Photoelectric Devices or
Photo Sensors.
• Photo-emissive Cells, Photo-conductive Cells,
Photo-voltaic Cells, Phototransistors
 PhotoTransistors

An alternative photo-junction
device to the photodiode is
the Phototransistor which is
basically a photodiode with
amplification. The
Phototransistor light sensor
has its collector-base PN-
junction reverse biased
exposing it to the radiant light
source.
PhotoTransistors
 PhotoTransistors

In the NPN transistor the collector

is biased positively with respect to
the emitter so that the
base/collector junction is reverse
biased. therefore, with no light on
the junction normal leakage or dark
current flows which is very small.
When light falls on the base more
electron/hole pairs are formed in
this region and the current
produced by this action is amplified
by the transistor.
Photodarlington Transistors

• Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar

NPN transistor to provide additional amplification or
when higher sensitivity of a photodetector is
required due to low light levels or selective
sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an
ordinary NPN phototransistor.
Temperature Sensors

• Temperature Sensors measure the amount of

heat energy or even coldness that is generated by
an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or
detect any physical change to that temperature
producing either an analogue or digital output.
Temperature Sensors

• A temperature sensor consists of two basic

physical types:

• Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These

types of temperature sensor are required to be in
physical contact with the object being sensed and
use conduction to monitor changes in
temperature.

• Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types –

These types of temperature sensor use
convection and radiation to monitor changes in
temperature.
Temperature Sensors

• The two basic types of contact or even non-

contact temperature sensors can also be
sub-divided into the following three groups
of sensors,
• Electro-mechanical,
• Resistive, and
• Electronic
Thermostat

• The Thermostat is a contact type electro-

mechanical temperature sensor or switch,
that basically consists of two different metals
such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
aluminium etc, that are bonded together to
form a Bi-metallic strip.
• The different linear expansion rates of the
two dissimilar metals produces a
mechanical bending movement when the
strip is subjected to heat.
Thermostat
 Thermostat

• There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based

mainly upon their movement when subjected to
temperature changes. There are the “snap-action”
types that produce an instantaneous “ON/OFF” or
“OFF/ON” type action on the electrical contacts at a
set temperature point, and the slower “creep-action”
types that gradually change their position as the
temperature changes.

Snap-action type - commonly used in our

homes for controlling the temperature set
point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water
tanks and they can also be found on walls
to control the domestic heating system.
Creeper type - generally consists of a bi-
metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or
coils-up as the temperature changes.
Thermostat

• Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to

temperature changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types as
the strip is longer and thinner making them ideal for use in
temperature gauges and dials etc.

• Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating

range, one main disadvantage of the standard snap-action type
thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they
have a large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts
open until when they close again. For example, it may be set to
20oC but may not open until 22oC or close again until 18oC.
Thermistor

• The Thermistor is another type

of temperature sensor, whose
name is a combination of the
words THERM-ally sensitive res-
ISTOR. A thermistor is a special
type of resistor which changes
its physical resistance when
exposed to changes in
temperature.
Thermistor

•Thermistors are generally made from

ceramic materials such as oxides of
nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in
glass which makes them easily damaged.
Thermistor

Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative

Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that
is their resistance value goes DOWN with an
increase in the temperature, and of course there are
some which have a Positive Temperature
Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value
goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Thermistor

• The following thermistor has a resistance value of

10KΩ at 25oC and a resistance value of 100Ω at
100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the
thermistor and hence its output voltage (Vout) for
both temperatures when connected in series with a
1kΩ resistor across a 12v power supply.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)

• Another type of electrical resistance

temperature sensor
• RTD’s are precision temperature sensors
made from high-purity conducting metals
such as platinum, copper or nickel wound
into a coil and whose electrical resistance
changes as a function of temperature,
similar to that of the thermistor.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)

• Also known as Resistance Thermometers

• RTDs have positive temperature coefficients (PTC)
but unlike the thermistor their output is extremely
linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature.
• Passive resistive devices
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)

• Carbon resistors – Most reliable at extremely low

temperatures
• Strain free elements – Uses a wire coil minimally
supported within sealed housing filled with inert
gas.
• Thin Film elements – have a sensing element that
is formed by depositing a thin layer resistive
material (platinum), on a ceramic substrate.
• Wire Wound elements – Have greater accuracy,
especially for wide temperature ranges.
• Coiled elements – Has a wire coil that expand
freely over temperature and is strain free.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)

• Measuring temperatures of materials and equipment in

industrial manufacturing facilities
• Measuring air temperature in laboratories, clean rooms,
and other locations
• Measuring temperature inside air ducts
• Measuring temperatures in harsh or highly pressurized
environments, including plating baths
• Measuring temperatures inside ovens, stoves and food
processing equipment
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Advantages:
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitability for precision applications.

Limitations
• Rarely used above 660 °C
• Less sensitive to small temperature changes
• Slower response time
Thermocouple

• The Thermocouple is by far the most

commonly used type of all the temperature
sensor types.
• Thermocouples are popular due to its
simplicity, ease of use and their speed of
response to changes in temperature, due
mainly to their small size.
• Thermocouples also have the widest
temperature range of all the temperature
sensors from below -200oC to well over
2000oC.
Thermocouple

Based on the “SEEBECK EFFECT”

Thermocouple

• Uses “Seebeck effect”

• When fused together the junction of the two dissimilar metals
such as copper or iron and constantan produces a “thermo-
electric” effect which gives a constant potential difference of
only a few millivolts (mV) between them.
• Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of
the temperature changes.
Thermocouple Sensor Colour CodesExtension and Compensating Leads

Code
Conductors (+/-) Sensitivity British BS 1843:1952
Type

Nickel Chromium /
E -200 to 900oC
Constantan

J Iron / Constantan 0 to 750oC

Nickel Chromium / Nickel

K -200 to 1250oC
Aluminium

N Nicrosil / Nisil 0 to 1250oC

T Copper / Constantan -200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel

U Compensating for “S” and 0 to 1450oC
“R”
Temperature Sensors

• Other Temperature Sensor Types not

mentioned here include, Semiconductor
Junction Sensors, Infra-red and Thermal
Radiation Sensors, Medical type
Thermometers, Indicators and Colour
Changing Inks or Dyes.
Position Sensors

• Position Sensors detect the position of

something which means that they are
referenced either to or from some fixed point
or position.
Potentiometer

• The most commonly used of all the “Position

Sensors”.
• It relates the change in position (linear or rotary)
into the change in resistance, as shown in Figure a
and b
 Potentiometer

• The resistance change is then converted to a proportional

voltage change in the electrical circuit of the sensor.
• Hence, the relationship between the measured physical
variable, translational displacement x or rotary displacement θ,
and the output voltage for a ideal potentiometer is

where the sensitivity, (k * Vr ) , of the potentiometer is a function of the winding

resistance and physical shape of the winding.
Potentiometer
Potentiometer
• It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that
can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider type)
in its movement, and which causes the resistance value
between the wiper/slider and the two end connections
to change giving an electrical signal output that has a
proportional relationship between the actual wiper
position on the resistive track and its resistance value.
Positional Sensing Circuit
Potentiometer
Advantages
• Low cost
• Low tech
• Easy to use

Disadvantages
• Wear due to moving parts
• Low accuracy
• Low repeatability
• Limited Frequency response
• Output voltage is limited to the physical size
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Principle of LVDT:

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and

the displacement which is a non-electrical energy is
converted into an electrical energy.
And the way how the energy is getting converted is
described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner.
 Cont.…
• Construction of LVDT:
• LVDT consists of a cylindrical
former where it is surrounded by
one primary winding in the centre
of the former and the two
secondary windings at the sides.
Working of LVDT:
Case 1:
On applying an external force which is the displacement,
if the core reminds in the null position itself without
providing any movement then the voltage induced in both
the secondary windings are equal which results in net
output is equal to zero

Esec1-Esec2=0
 Working of LVDT:
Case 2:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron
core tends to move in the left hand side direction then
the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1 is
greater when compared to the emf induced in the
secondary coil 2.
Therefore the net output will be
Esec1-Esec2
 Working of LVDT:
Case 3:
When an external force is applied and if the steel iron
core moves in the right hand side direction then the emf
induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when
compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary
coil 1.
The net output voltage will be
Esec2-Esec1
Advantages of LVDT:
1. Infinite resolution is present in LVDT
2. High output
3. LVDT gives High sensitivity
4. Very good linearity
5. Ruggedness
6. LVDT Provides Less friction
7. Low hysteresis
8. LVDT gives Low power
consumption.
Applications of LVDT:

1. LVDT is used to measure displacement

ranging from fraction millimeter to
centimeter.

2. Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can

be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure, etc..
Inductive Proximity Sensor

• Also called as Eddy Current Sensor

• Mainly used to detect the presence of an object within close
proximity
• Proximity sensors, are non-contact position sensors that use a
magnetic field for detection with the simplest magnetic sensor
being the reed switch.
Inductive Proximity Sensor

An inductive proximity sensor

has four main components;
The oscillator which produces the
electromagnetic field,
the coil which generates the
magnetic field, the detection
circuit which detects any change
in the field when an object enters
it and the output circuit which The “sensing” range of
produces the output signal, either proximity sensors is very small,
with normally closed (NC) or typically 0.1mm to 12mm.
normally open (NO) contacts.
Inductive Proximity Sensor

Applications
1. Metal Detectors
2. Traffic Lights
3. Car washes
4. Automated industrial processes

Disadvantage
1. Omnidirectional
 Optical Encoder
What is an encoder?
• An encoder is a device which converts a mechanical information of
a shaft or position into an electrical signal.

Encoder
 Cont.…
How is this accomplished?
As the code disc rotates, it shutters light from the LED and is received and
transmitted as square\sine waveforms

Receiver / Sensor

Code disc

Lens

Transmitter / LED

Shaft
 Cont.…
Types of Encoders

Encoder

Rotary Encoder Linear Encoder

Incremental Absolute Wire Draw Linear with Scale

Incremental Absolute
Rotary Encoders

• An electromechanical,
non-contact optical
devices used for
converting the angular
position of a rotating
shaft into an analog or
digital data
code/signals.
Rotary Encoders

• All optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light

from an LED or infra-red light source is passed through a
rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the required
code patterns, either binary, grey code or BCD. Photo detectors
scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit processes
the information into a digital form as a stream of binary output
pulses that are fed to counters or controllers which determine
the actual angular position of the shaft.

• There are two basic types of rotary optical

encoders, Incremental Encoders and Absolute Position
Encoders.
 Cont.…

incremental encoders Absolute encoders

 Cont.…

diode diode
Logical 0 Logical 1

Photo sensor Photo sensor

• Rotating disk •Rotating disk

blocking light allowing light through
• Photo sensor has a •Photo sensor has a
low logic output high logic output

•Continuous train of pulses formed as the photo sensor traverses

between logic high and logic low in response to the rotation of the disk
Absolute Optical Encoder
Absolute Optical Encoder
Slotted Optical Switch

• The slotted optical switch, sometimes known as opto

switch or optical switch but not to be confused with the optical
component, is a device comprising a photoemitter (e.g. LED)
and a photodetector (e.g. photodiode) mounted in a single
package so that the photoemitter normally illuminates the
photodetector, but an opaque object can be inserted in a slot
between them so as to break the beam.

A diagram of a mechanical computer

mouse showing two slotted optical
switches
 Pressure Sensor

• A pressure sensor is a device or pressure

measurement of gases or liquids.

• A pressure sensor usually acts as

a transducer; it generates a signal as
a function of the pressure imposed.

• Pressure sensors are used for control and

monitoring in thousands of everyday
applications.

• Pressure sensors can also be used to

indirectly measure other variables such as
fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude.
Pressure Sensor

Pressure sensors can be classified in

terms of pressure ranges they measure,
temperature ranges of operation, and
most importantly the type of pressure
they measure.
Pressure Sensor

• Absolute pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect
vacuum.

Absolute pressure sensors

are used to measure
atmospheric pressure
barometers or altimeters.
Pressure Sensor

• Gauge pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to ambient
atmospheric pressure. The average atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 1013.25 mbar.

Gage pressure sensors only offer

one pressure port. The ambient air
pressure is directed through a vent
hole or a vent tube to the back side
of the sensing element and thus
compensated.
Pressure Sensor

• Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the
difference between two pressures,
one connected to each side of the
sensor.
These sensors are called
bidirectional differential pressure
sensors with ranges of e.g. -
1...+1 bar or -2.5...+2.5 mbar.
Pressure Sensor

• Vacuum pressure sensor

Measures pressures below atmospheric pressure, or
absolute pressure relative to a vacuum.

• Sealed pressure sensor

This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except
that it measures pressure relative to some fixed pressure
rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which
varies according to the location and the weather).
Pressure Sensor
LVDT Strain
Gauge Sensor
LVDT WITH
DIAPHRAGM
Pressure Sensor
Bellows
Pressure Sensor

TUBE PRESSURE SENSOR

BOURDON
TUBE

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are

used for the measurement of relative
pressures from 0.6 ... 7,000 bar. They
are classified as mechanical pressure
measuring instruments, and thus
operate without any electrical power.
 Pressure Sensor
Piezoelectric actuators and sensors

Piezoelectric effect
(sensor)
An electric field is generated
due to a change in dimensions
of a material
(Curie brothers 1880)

Converse Piezoelectric effect

(actuator) + -
A change in dimensions of
a material due to the
Application of an electric field

- +
 Piezoelectric Force Transducer

Preload stud

Electrical output

Piezoelectric element

• Can be used in tension and compression

• Fragile to moments
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
 Pressure Sensor
Tactile Sensor
• The term tactile sensor usually refers to a
transducer that is sensitive to touch, force, or
pressure.
• The term tactile sensor usually refers to a
transducer that is sensitive to touch, force, or
pressure.
• Tactile sensors are useful in a wide
variety of applications for robotics and
computer hardware and even security systems.
 Pressure Sensor
Strain Gauge Load Cell
• A load cell is a “load transducer” which converts the weight or load acting on it
into electrical signals.
• A load cell is composed of an aluminum alloy spring element, strain gauges
(serving as sensors) and a bridge circuit.
• The strain gauges themselves are bonded onto four areas which become
considerably distorted in the spring element. The load cell detects the force of
the distortion as voltage change.
Speed Sensors

According to physics, speed is related to motion.

Distance travelled by a moving body in a given time is
called speed. Other related terms are angular speed,
velocity, and angular velocity. Angular speed is the
angular distance per unit time. (Linear) Velocity and
angular velocity are vector quantities and are defined as
displacement (linear/angular) per unit time.
Speed Sensors

Various kinds of principles are employed in speed sensors. Some

of them are listed below
1. Variable reluctance based
2. Hall effect based
3. Eddy Current based
4. Radar Doppler based
5. LIDAR based
6. Accelerometer based
7. Pitot tube based.
8. Pitometer based.
Speed Sensors

• VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SPEED SENSORS

Variable Reluctance (VR) sensors convert
mechanical motion to electric energy without direct
contact when positioned near a gear, shaft, rotor, or
other regularly moving device.
As the ferromagnetic material, e.g.,
gear teeth, flywheel or other target
features, pass by the sensor
tip, the magnetic field is
disrupted. The amount of magnetic
flux passing through the magnet,
and consequently the coil, to
varies. Due to the time varying flux,
a voltage is induced in the coil.
Speed Sensors

• Hall Effect Sensors

Hall Effect speed sensor uses a Hall Effect transducer
element between the magnet and the target. As in VR
sensors, the induced flux due to movement of the target is
detected. But, a Hall transducer is sensitive only to the
magnitude of flux; it does not sense its rate of change.
Speed Sensors
• Eddy Current Speed Sensors
Eddy Current principle is utilized in speed sensors the
same way as Variable reluctance or Hall Effect. However, they
need a preamplifier or a signal conditioner to operate. When a
target is present, eddy currents are formed causing decrease in
signal amplitude. The preamplifier demodulates the signal,
detects the changes in voltage and produces an output whose
frequency is directly proportional to the target speed
Speed Sensors

• Radar Doppler Speed Sensors

Echo of a radar signal sent toward a moving target
will have its frequency shifted and the shift in the
frequency is related to the velocity of the moving target.
This occurs due to Doppler Effect.
Speed Sensors

• LIDAR SPEED TRAPS

LIDARs use the standard pulsed time of flight
measurement technique using a micro-controller that
processes the measured data to estimate the position
and speed of the target. Velocity estimates are made
using a tracking filter or by measuring the change in
range as determined by the varying time of flight
between successive pulses.
Speed Sensors

• ACCELEROMETERS
A very common method for measuring velocities in
situations where magnetic field based sensors are not
practical is to use accelerometers.
Speed Sensors
Tachogenerator
 The semiconductor element and the magnetic source are fixed relative to one another in a single
package.

 By moving the ferromagnetic member into the air gap between the magnetic source and the
semiconductor element, the flux linkage can be altered. This changes Vo.

 Suitable both as an analog proximity sensor and as a limit switch.

 The relationship between the output voltage Vo and the distance of a Hall effect sensor measured
from the moving member is non linear. Linear Hall effect sensors use calibration to linearize their
outputs.

DIGITAL TACHOMETER
WHERE USED:
DIGITAL TACHOMETER AS A MEASUREMENT DEVICE
Speed Sensors

• PITOT TUBES
Pitot tubes are used by the
aircrafts for measurement of their
flying speeds. Pitot based system
functions as the speedometer of the
aircraft.
Speed Sensors

• PITOMETERS
Pitot tubes are used for aircrafts; Pitometers are
used for ships and submarines. Pitometers measure the
speed of the ship with respect to the water
Speed Sensors

SELECTION OF SPEED SENSORS

1. Application Scenario
Though selection of a speed sensor depends upon number of
factors, it is primarily dependent upon the application.
2. Type of Output
One of the factors may be the output format; digital or analog.
3. Target Details(for sensors operating on principle of magnetic
field)
The output of a speed sensor is highly dependent upon
application details such as the size, shape and material of the target.
4. Operational temperature range.
Selected sensor must be able to operate in the complete
operating range
 Practical Accelerometer Designs
Compression Type

 Advantages  Disadvantages
– Few Parts / Easy to Fabricate – Very high thermal
– High Resonant Frequency transient sensitivity
– High base strain sensitivity
 Classification of Transducers
Transducers

On The Basis of Transducers/

Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analogue/Digital Inverse Transducers
principle Used

Capacitive

Inductive Transducers may be classified

according to their application, method of
Resistive energy conversion, nature of the output
signal, and so on.

14
 Selecting a Transducer
• What is the physical quantity to be measured?
• Which transducer principle can best be used to measure
this quantity?
• What accuracy is required for this measurement?
– Fundamental transducer parameters
– Physical conditions
– Environmental conditions
– Compatibility of the associated equipment
• Reducing the total measurement error :
– Using in-place system calibration with corrections performed in
the data reduction
– Artificially controlling the environment to minimize possible errors

15
 Transducer, Sensor, and
Actuator
• Transducer:
– a device that converts energy from one form to
another
• Sensor:
– converts a physical parameter to an electrical output
(a type of transducer, e.g. a microphone)
• Actuator:
• converts an electrical signal to a physical output
(opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)

16
 1.DISPLACEMENT,POSITION &
PROXIMITY
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of the amount by which some
object has been moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the
determination of the position of some object in
relation to some reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor
and are used to determine when an object has
moved to within some particular critical distance
of the sensor. They are essentially devices
which give on/off outputs.
 1.1 Potentiometer Sensor

• Potentiometer is one of the common sensors for position

measurements.
• It relates the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in
resistance, as shown in Figure a and b
 Cont….
•

• The resistance change is then converted to a proportional

voltage change in the electrical circuit of the sensor.
•
• Hence, the relationship between the measured physical
variable, translational displacement x or rotary displacement θ,
and the output voltage for a ideal potentiometer is

where the sensitivity, (k * Vr ) , of the potentiometer is a function of the winding

resistance and physical shape of the winding.
Potentiometer
Picture
 1.2 Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge: it is an electrical conductor whose resistance changes as it is
strained.
• Structure of Strain Gauges
There are many types of strain gauges. Among them, a universal strain gage
has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic
resistive foil (3 to 6μm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16μm
thick) and is laminated with a thin film.

Laminate film

Metallic resistive foil

(sensing element)

Plastic film (base)

• Principle of Strain Gages
Cont.…
• The strain gage is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that the sensing
element (metallic resistive foil) may elongate or contract according to the
strain borne by the measuring object.
• When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction, most metals undergo a
change in electric resistance.
• The strain gage applies this principle to strain measurement through the
resistance change. Generally, the sensing element of the strain gage is
made of a copper-nickel alloy foil.
• The alloy foil has a rate of resist-ance change proportional to strain with a
certain constant.
Let’s express the principle as follows:
ΔR = K.ε
R
where, R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
ΔR: Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
K: Proportional constant (called gage factor)
ε: Strain
 1.5 Pneumatic Sensor
• Pneumatic sensors are displacement sensors and use compressed air
to measure the displacement of objects. Whenever the body whose
displacement we want to measure changes its position will result in
the change in air pressure.
• If we look at the working of pneumatic sensor, we have low pressure
air escape from the port in front of sensor. If we don’t have any object
in front of sensor, this air will escape and reduce air pressure in the
nearby output port. But if we have an object in the path of compressed
air then air will escape and increase air pressure at sensor output
port. The rise in output pressure depends upon the closeness of the
object.

These sensors
are used to
work for short
range
applications
ranging from 3
mm to 12 mm.
 1.6Hall Effect Sensor

• A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in

response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for
proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
 2.2Pyroelectric Sensor
This charge leaks away through the measurement circuit until the
charge on the crystal once again is balanced by the charge on the
electrodes.
 Cont.…
Pyroelectric (from the Greek pyr, fire, and electricity) materials, e.g.
lithium tantalate, are crystalline materials which generate charge in
response to heat flow.

Polarising a pyroelectric material

The effect of
temperature on the
amount of polarisation.
 Cont.…
The pyroelectric sensor thus behaves as a charge generator which
generates charge when there is a change in its temperature as a result of
the incidence of infrared radiation.

For the linear part of the graph shown below , when there is a
temperature change the change in charge is proportional to the change in
temperature.
 Cont…

When the sensor is idle, both slots detect

the same amount of IR, the ambient
amount radiant from the room or walls or
outdoors. When a warm body like a human
or animal pass by, it first intercepts one half
of the sensor, which causes a positive
differential change between t two halves.
When the warm body leaves the sensing
area, reverse happens, whereby the sensor
generate negative differential change.
Dual pyroelectric sensor
5. Level Sensor
Cont.…

CAPACITIVE
METHOD

BALL
FLOAT
 6.Signal Conditioning
• Signal conditioning is the operation
performed on the signal to convert them to
a form suitable for interfacing with other
elements in the process control
 6.1Signal-level and bias changes

• The method to adjust the level

(magnitude) and bias (zero value) of
voltage signal
• For example

0.2 V – 0.6 V 0 V – 5V
Signal conditioning circuit
0.2 V – 0.6 V 0 V – 0.4 V 0V–5V
Zero shift Amplification
 6.2Linearization

• Often, the
characteristic of a
sensor is nonlinear
• Special circuit were
devised to linearize
signals
• Modern approach is
to use computer
software to linearize
 6.3Conversion

• The circuit to covert one form of signal or

physical values into the other form
– Resistance to voltage
• Typical conversion is to convert resistance
or voltage to 4 to 20 mA and convert back
to voltage at the receiving end
• Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-
voltage circuits are essential
 6.4Digital Interface

• The use of computer is process control

requires the conversion of analog to digital
signal
– ADC
– DAC
 6.5Filtering
• Some signals input are spurious (contain more than 1 frequency)
• It is necessary to filter the frequency matched with the devices
• Example
– Highpass, lowpass, bandpass filter
– Band Pass Filters passes signals within a certain "band" or
"spread" of frequencies without distorting the input signal or
introducing extra noise. This band of frequencies can be any
width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
 Cont.…
• The passive filter networks use only passive elements such as
resistors, inductors and capacitors.
• The active filter circuits use the active elements such as op-
amps, transistors along with the passive element.
• Modern active filters do not use inductors as they are bulky,
heavy & non-linear.
• The inductors generate the stray magnetic fields. They
dissipate considerable amount of power.
 PASSIVE FILTERS
Four types of filters - “Ideal”

lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop
 Realistic Filters:

lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop
 Basic Active Filters
Low pass filter High pass

C Rfb

Rfb C Rin

+
+ Rin +
Vin +
Vin _ VO
_ VO
_
_

Band pass filter

R1 C2

C1 R2 Rfb
R1 R2
Ri
+
Vin
_ +
VO
_
 BAND STOP FILTER

C1

R1
R1

Rfb

R2 Ri
+ C2 +
Vin VO
_
_
 6.6Impedance Matching

• Connecting the sensors or process control

element with different impedance causes
signal reflection
• The network or circuit to match impedance
thus to reduce signal reflection
 6.7Concept of Loading

• When the sensor or circuit is connected to

load, this will introduce the uncertainty in
the measurement (amplitude of voltage)
• The output voltage is calculated using
voltage division as
 RL 
V y  Vx  
 L
R  Rx 

 Rx 
 Vx 1 
 RL  Rx 

• Output voltage is reduced by the voltage

drop
• To reduce the uncertainty, RL  Rx
 7.Data acquisition
•

• Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring an electrical

or physical phenomenon such as voltage, current, temperature,
pressure, or sound with a computer.
• Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals
that measure real world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric
values that can be manipulated by a computer
 A DAQ system
Cont.… consists of sensors,
DAQ measurement
hardware, and a
computer with
programmable
software. Compared
to traditional
measurement
systems, PC-based
DAQ systems
exploit the
processing power,
productivity,
display, and
connectivity
capabilities of
industry-standard
computers providing
a more
powerful, flexible,
and cost-effective
measurement
Data acquisition system