Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

Characterisation of Sandstones: Mineralogy and

Physical Properties
Mukuna P. Mubiayi. Member, IAENG

for construction and decorations purposes.

Abstract Sandstones from QwaQwa in South Africa were

characterised for their mineralogical and physical properties.
Six samples (whitish, greenish, blackish, reddish, yellowish and
greyish) were collected and studied. The X-ray Diffraction
(XRD) revealed that the samples were quartz based. Scanning
Electron Microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) revealed the differences in the
morphology and Silicon element was found present in all the
samples. The X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) exhibited that the
samples contained 43.14% of Silicon (whitish). The grain sizes
of the samples ranged from coarse, medium to fine grains. The
Greyish sample had the highest compressive strength value of
56.74 MPa. Dielectric properties measurements were also
conducted on the samples; and the results were temperature
dependant. The water absorption by total immersion revealed
that the blackish sand stones had the highest percentage of
6.62%.

II. GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA

The Free State lies in the heart of the Karoo Sequence of
rocks, containing mudstones, shales, sandstones and the
Drakensburg Basalt forming the youngest capping rocks [4].
The province is high-lying, with almost all the land being
1,000 meters above the sea level. Some of the sandstones
are resistant to weathering yet easy to work. The geological
map of South Africa indicating the QwaQwa region is
displayed in Fig 1.

Keywords: dielectric properties, compressive strength Phase

identification, water absorption.

I. INTRODUCTION

he characterisation and identification of minerals is

fundamental in the development and operation of
mining and minerals processing systems [1]. Worldwide,
sandstones have been used as construction material for
centuries and are still being used for this purpose [2].
Although, sandstones show similar appearances and
properties; a geological background may cause differences
in colour, mineral composition, granulometric properties,
pressure strength and / or weathering behaviour [2]. On the
other hand, mineralogical properties of sandstones could
predict their mechanical properties such as the uniaxial
compressive strength. The inherent parameters of sandstones
can be characterised by their petrographical properties [3].
There is a large deposit of sandstones in QwaQwa in the
Free State province of South Africa as shown in Fig 1. The
presence of this large deposit of sandstones in the QwaQwa
region was the motivation to initiate this study on the
characterisation of sandstones. On the other, the knowledge
on the physical such as compressive strength of QwaQwa
sandstones will help the booming construction industry in
South Africa by providing the characteristics of sandstones

Mr. M.P. Mubiayi is a doctorate candidate in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg, South
Africa, 2006. (Phone: +2711-559-2931 and +2773 808 - 8595; e-mail:
[email protected]).

QwaQwa

Fig.1. Geological map of South Africa showing the presence

of sandstones in QwaQwa area of Free State [4]

Sandstones have been used as construction material

worldwide and are still used for this purpose [5]. On the
other hand, mineralogical properties of sandstones could
predict their mechanical properties such as the uniaxial
compressive strength. According to Zorlu et al., [3] the
uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones is controlled by
several inherent and environmental parameters. The inherent
parameters can be characterized by the petrographical
properties. The mineral composition, the void space, the
degree of grain interlocking, the packing density and the
grain size is known to be affected by the petrographic
characteristics [3]. However, contradictory results have been
reported relating the influence of mineral content on the
geomechanical properties of sandstones [6]. It has been
reported that rocks containing quartz as binding materials

(revised on 8 July 2013)

ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

WCE 2013

Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

are the strongest materials followed by calcite, and ferrous

minerals; but rocks clayey binding materials are the weakest
ones [7][3]. Furthermore, the shape of the grains is another
petrographical property. The shape of the grains is usually
expressed in terms of the roundness or sphericity, roundness
being distinct from sphericity in that, it is concerned with
the curvature of the corners. In fact, sphericity represents a
quantitative means of expressing the departure of a grain
from equidimensiality [6][3]. Shakoor and Bonelli (cited by
[3]) found that there is a fairly strong relationship between
the uniaxial compressive strength and the percent of angular
grains [3]. On the other hand, Ulusay and co-workers (cited
by [3]) reported that there is a strong correlation between the
uniaxial compressive strength and the percent of rounded
grains [3]. However, Fahy and Guccione cited by [3]
obtained no meaningful correlation between the uniaxial
compressive strength and the roundness while they found an
extremely strong relationship between the uniaxial
compressive strength and the sphericity of the grains. A
study done by Zorlu et al., [8] did not obtain meaningful
correlation between the uniaxial compressive strength and
the grain shape parameters.
Within the framework of quantifying the natural stones in
the QwaQwa area (South Africa) in term of quality, this
paper is focusing on conducting mineralogical and physical
characterisation of selected sandstones from QwaQwa rural
area in South Africa.
III. CHARACTERISATION TECHNIQUES
A. Mineralogy
The mineralogical studies of the sandstones were
conducted using XRD, XRF and SEM combined with EDS.
Moreover, the grain sizes measurements were conducted by
using Olympus BX51M optical microscope on the mounted
samples. On the other hand, the sandstones samples were
crushed and milled using a jaw crusher and a milling
machine, respectively. The powder obtained was then used
for XRD and XRF analysis. The elemental composition of
the sandstones was analysed using The Philips Magix Pro
X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy. An X-ray Powder
Diffractometer (XRD) Phillips Xpert Model 0993 to
determine their mineralogical phases. A SEM JEOL JSM840 combined with EDS instrument was used to analyse the
surface morphology and qualitative analysis of the samples
respectively.

B. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The uniaxial compressive strength was used to measure
the capacity of the six types of sandstones to withstand a
load. The uniaxial compressive strength result helped to
investigate and correlate the use of the six types of
sandstones as construction material along with their water
absorption and mineralogy. The six sandstones samples
were tested in confined uniaxial compression in room-dry
condition. The six sandstones samples were cut into cubical
shape with an approximately size of 3 x 3 x 5 cm3. The

sandstones samples were then placed in the testing machine

and loaded in compression at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) laboratory (South Africa). An
Amsler universal machine was used to determine the
uniaxial compressive strength. On the hand, the water
absorption analysis was performed using a total immersion
method. The sandstones samples were cut in a cubical shape
of approximately 70 grams. The samples were washed with
distilled water in order to eliminate powdered material from
their surfaces. Thereafter, the samples were dried in the
oven at 60 oC for 24 hours. The samples were then placed in
a desiccator with dry silica gel to cool. They were removed
from the desiccator, measured (weight), put in a container
filled up with water until the samples were totally immersed.
After 24 and 48 hours, the samples were measured (weight)
and the water absorption percentage was calculated.
Additionally, the dielectric constant and loss factor of
samples placed in a microwave cavity are related to the shift
in the resonant frequency and change in the Q-factor or the
bandwidth of the resonance. Standard closed-form
perturbation models exist for the resonant frequency
changes due to a cylindrical dielectric sample in a
cylindrical microwave cavity. The cavity used for these
measurements resonates at 915 MHz, a frequency allocated
for microwave heating purposes. Each sample was placed in
a 6 mm ID quartz tube and the microwave properties
measured in the dielectric measurement fixture. A
conventional high temperature furnace was used to heat the
sample in the quartz tube to the required temperature
(1000oC). It was then rapidly lowered into the microwave
test fixture for the measurement of the dielectric properties.
This was repeated for each measurement temperature. A
ramp and soak heating profile was used, with the
temperature increased to the next value over a period of 30
minutes, with a 30 minutes soak at that temperature before
the measurement was taken. A slow nitrogen purge was bled
trough the quartz tube to displace any oxygen present and
prevent oxidation at high temperature. A vector network
analyzer (model: Hewlett Packard 8753B) was used to
measure the dielectric properties of the sandstones
specimens. The dielectric measurements of the samples
were carried out at DELPHIUS CIT Laboratory (South
Africa).
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Mineralogy and surface morphology

A representative fraction of the overall samples were

analyzed to establish the starting point for the experiment.
The diffractograms (Fig 2 and 3) show the XRD patterns of
the reddish and blackish sandstone samples from QwaQwa
rural area in South Africa.

(revised on 8 July 2013)

ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

WCE 2013

Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

Table.1. Chemical composition of six of sandstones samples

using XRF
Elem
ents

Fig.2. XRD graph of Reddish sandstone showing the

minerals identified (Q= Quartz, crl= Crysobilite).

Al
Ca
Fe
K
Mg
Mn
Na
P
Si
Ti

Concentration (%)
Whitish

Yellowish

Blackish

Reddish

Greyis
h

Greenish

2.00
0.42
1.01
0.06
0.06
43.14
0.06

4.01
0.09
0.83
1.87
0.19
1.52
39.10
0.14

4.62
0.23
2.04
0.85
0.38
0.30
0.71
0.03
38.81
0.26

1.92
0.03
1.39
0.59
0.05
0.09
42.76
0.10

4.66
0.10
1.44
1.58
0.32
0.66
0.03
39.48
0.19

4.81
0.40
1.32
1.71
0.28
1.62
0.02
38.18
0.16

The results in Table 1 revealed a significant presence of

Silica in all the sandstones types implying that the
QwaQwa sandstones are silica based. The XRF results
correlate to a very large extent with the XRD findings. This
is in particular with regards to the dominance of the silicon
species followed by Al and Fe. Mn was found in trace level
only in the blackish sample whereas P which is also at trace
level is evident in three samples: blackish, greyish and
greenish as presented in Table 1. In addition, Ti although at
negligible percentage is available in the six samples. The
presence of these elements in the sandstones could be
attributed to the origin of the mineral bearing.

Fig.3. XRD graph of blackish sandstone showing the

minerals identified (Q= Quartz, alb = Albite, Gl =
Glauconite, Kl= Kaolinite)
The XRD analysis revealed that the Quartz (SiO2) was the
major mineral present in all the sandstones followed by
feldspar minerals such as Illite ((K, H3O) (Al, Mg, Fe) 2(Si,
Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]), Albite (Na Al Si3 O8). Other
identified minerals include Glauconite (K, Na)(Fe3+,Al,
Mg)2(Si, Al)4O10(OH)2) Kaolonite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4),
Crysobalite (SiO2) and Orthoclase(KAlSi3O8) were minor in
the composition.
The XRF results are shown in Table 1. The chemical
elements for the six types of QwaQwa sandstones identified
were: Aluminium (Al), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Potassium
(K), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn), Sodium (Na),
Phosphorus (P), Silicon (Si) and Titanium (Ti).

Furthermore, Fig 4 and 5 show the SEM/EDS

micrographs revealing the surface morphology and the
chemical composition of the spotted grains for the blackish
and greenish sandstones. The correlation between the XRD,
XRF results and SEM/EDS is once again evident based on
the elemental chemical composition of the spotted grains
which reveals Si followed by Al and Fe as the main
components. This is in accordance with the chemical
composition of phases found using the XRD analysis (Fig 2
and 3) and the chemical composition using XRF displayed
in Table 1. Furthermore, the results from the optical
microscopy analyses conducted revealed that the samples
had a wide range of grain sizes which range from coarse,
medium to fine grains. The whitish sandstone had coarse
grains while the reddish and blackish had medium-coarse
grains. On the other hand, the greyish, yellowish and the
greenish have medium-fine, fine and fine grains
respectively. Fig 6 and 7 show the grain sizes of the whitish
and yellowish sandstone respectively.

(revised on 8 July 2013)

ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

WCE 2013

Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

Si, O, Mg, Al, Fe

Si, O
Si, O, Al, Mg, K
Si, O, Al, Mn, Fe

Si, O

Fig.4. SEM combined with EDS micrograph of the blackish

sandstone showing the surface morphology and the chemical
composition of the spotted grains respectively

Si, O
Si, O, Cl, S

Si, O
Si, O
Si, O, Al, Mo, Ca, La, Nd, Ce

Fig.5. SEM combined with EDS micrograph of the greenish

sandstone showing the surface morphology and the chemical
composition of the spotted grains respectively

Fig.7. Optical photomicrograph of the surface of the

yellowish sandstone showing fine grains size
B. Physical properties
The uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock is among
the main parameters used in almost all engineering projects.
The uniaxial compressive strength test requires high quality
core samples of regular geometry [3]. Fig 8 and 9 show the
graphs of the compressive stress versus compressive
extension of the greyish and yellowish sandstones under a
load. The loads were recorded and the unconfined
compressive strength of the sandstone was determined. The
uniaxial compressive strength of the six QwaQwa
sandstones samples recorded were 9.4 MPa, 22.8 MPa, 26.3
MPa, 16 MPa, 8.3 MPa and 56.7 MPa for yellowish,
reddish, greenish, blackish, whitish and greyish,
respectively. The whitish sandstone has the lowest
compressive strength (8.3 MPa) whereas the greyish shows
the highest value (56.7 MPa). Furthermore, Singh [9] and
[3] and Zorlu et al., [3] stated that the uniaxial compressive
strength also vary with the grain size range. Therefore, it
was observed that a good correlation exists between the
grain size of the whitish sandstone sample and the
compressive strength which was the lowest; the result was in
correlation with the results found by Singh [9].

Fig.6. Optical photomicrograph of the surface of the whitish

sandstone showing coarse grains size

(revised on 8 July 2013)

ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

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Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

Fig.8. Compressive stress versus compressive extension of

greyish sandstone. The uniaxial compressive stress was
measured to be 56.7 MPa.

Fig.10. The water absorption mass change of dried

sandstones, samples were dried overnight in an oven and
immersed in water for 24 and 48 hours.

Fig.11. The water absorption percentage of dried

sandstones, samples were dried overnight in an oven and
immersed in water for 24 and 48 hours.
Fig.9. Compressive stress versus compressive extension of
yellowish sandstone. The uniaxial compressive stress was
measured to be 9.4 MPa.
The water absorption using dried sandstones was
performed. The graphs of the water absorption by mass
change and percentage are displayed in Figure 10 and 11.
The percentage of water absorption ability of the samples
was as followed in a descending order; blackish (6.6%),
greenish (6.4%), whitish (6.0%), reddish (5.9%), yellowish
(5.8%), and greyish (2.7%) as shown in Figure 11. Figure 10
shows the water absorption by mass change. The water
absorption results suggest that the greyish samples absorbed
less water than the other samples. A correlation between the
water absorption and the grain sizes for some of the
sandstones samples (yellowish, blackish, reddish, whitish,
and greyish) was noticed. However, the blackish sample had
medium fine grain size. On the other hand, the blackish
sample showed the highest water absorption which could be
assumingly due to its higher porosity.

The knowledge of the dielectric properties or permittivity

of granular or powdered materials is an important parameter
in the application of the dielectric heating or sensing
moisture content using radio frequency or microwave
instruments [10]. Six sandstones samples were used for the
microwave dielectric measurements. The microwave
dielectric constant and the loss factor measured were found
to be temperature dependant. This is shown by the results
obtained which varied with the temperature. The dielectric
constant and loss factor results ranged from 2.45-3.19, 2.393.51, 2.20-2.51, 1.80-2.51, 2.59-2.98, 2.56-2.87 for the
greenish, reddish, yellowish, greyish, blackish and whitish
sandstones respectively. On other hand, the dielectric loss
factor ranged from 0.14-0.52, 0.01-1.01, 0.01-0.19, 0.010.18, 0.07-0.37 and 0.001-0.137 for greenish, reddish,
yellowish, greyish, blackish and whitish respectively. The
dielectric results exhibited in Fig 12 and 13 are for the
greenish and blackish sandstones respectively. Moreover,
the tangent delta (tan ) was calculated using the dielectric

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ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

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Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2013 Vol III

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, 2013, London, U.K.

constant and loss fact results in the following equation:

tan = / (1)
where = dielectric constant = dielectric loss factor
It has been reported that the correlation between the
dielectric properties or permittivity and water content of
hygroscopic materials for sensing moisture content is
important [10]. In our case, the dielectric properties
measured were used to simulate the electric field and power
absorption distribution using HFSS software for the design
of a microwave heating cavity.

ranging from fine to coarse grains size. Both EDS and XRF
results were in good correlation by exhibiting Silicon as the
highest chemical element on the sandstones. On the other
hand, the compressive strength and water absorption
demonstrated a complexity in the ability for the samples to
absorb water and to sustain a load. Thus, the results of the
characterisation studies provided good mineralogical and
physical properties of different types of sandstones.
Furthermore, sample collections at different sites in the
QwaQwa rural area are encouraged. The collections will
assist to conduct more characterisation and confirm the
findings in this study thus to create a database of identical
physical and mineralogical properties results for the whole
QwaQwa area which is desirable for use in the construction
industry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author sincerely acknowledges Prof A. F. MulabaBafubiandi for initiating the project on QwaQwa sandstones.
Fikile Moreti sandstones (Mr. Kgarafu, QwaQwa, South
Africa) for providing the sandstone samples. Their
contribution is very much appreciated. The financial support
of the University of Johannesburg is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1]

Fig.12. Dielectric constant, loss factor and calculated

tangent delta of Greenish showing the temperature
dependency

Fig.13. Dielectric constant, loss factor and calculated

tangent delta of Blackish showing the temperature
dependency

Olubambi, P.A., Ndlovu, s., Potgieter, J.H., Borode, J.O.

Mineralogical characterization of Ishiagu (Nigeria) complex
sulphide ore. Int J. Min. Proc., 2008, 87, pp 83-89
[2] Jens Gotze, Heiner Siedel, A complex investigation of building
sandstones from Saxony (Germany), Materials Characterization.,
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[3] Zorlu, K., Gokceoglu, C., Ocakoglu, F., Nefeslioglu, H.A., Acikalin,
S. Prediction of uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones using
petrography-based models. Engineering Geology ,2008, 96, 141-158.
[4] Lurie, J., South African geology for mining, metallurgical,
hydrological and civil engineering, 1994, Lupon Publishing, JHB,
Seventh revised edition
[5] Hajpal.M and Torok. A. Mineralogical and colour changes of quartz
sandstones by heat Environmental Geology ,2004, 46, pp 311-322
[6] Bell, F.G., Lindsay, P. The petrographic and geomechanical
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[7] Vutukuri, V.S., Lama, R.D., Saluja, S.S.Handbook on Mechanical
Properties of Rocks, Vol.1. Trans Tech Publications Clausthal, 1974,
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[8] Zorlu, K., Ulusay, R., Ocakoglu, F., Gokceoglu, C., Sonmez, H.
Predicting intact rock properties of selected sandstones using
petrographic thin-section data, International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences , 2004, 41(1), pp 93-98.
[9] Singh. S.K. Relationship among fatigue strength, mean grain size
and compressive strength of a rock. Rock Mechanics and Rock
Engineering, 1988, 21, 271-276, Springer-verlag.
[10] Nelson Stuart O., Useful relationships between dielectric properties
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Department of agricultural, Agricultural Research Service,2004.

V. CONCLUSION
Modifications

The mineralogical and physical characterisation of

QwaQwa sandstones (South Africa) was successfully
achieved. The XRD diffractograms confirmed that the
sandstones are quartz based minerals along with traces of
Kaolonite, Illite and Albite. Optical microscopy analyses
revealed that the QwaQwa sandstones had grain sizes

A modification was made on the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT section. The

modifications were made on the 10 June 12, 2013.

(revised on 8 July 2013)

ISBN: 978-988-19252-9-9
ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)

WCE 2013