INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATIONS:

UNIT I DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:

SYLLABUS: units, dimensions, basic and derived units, dimensional homogeneity,
dimensionless numbers, Rayleigh method, Buckinghams pi theorem, similitude, kinematics and
dynamic criteria.
INTRODUCTION:
For the biotechnology students the unit operation is required to know the different operations
taking place in the biotech industries so as to purify the end high value products like
pharmaceuticals. In this unit the purpose of studying the dimension and units is to understand
better the theoretical aspects of unit operation by knowing the units of the physical parameter that
are explioted for separation. The dimensionless number is used in many operations for better
understanding and correlating parameter o an equation form.
Physical theories gain their definiteness from the mathematical form in which they are expressed.
The function of numbering and measuring is indispensable even in order to produce raw material
of facts that are to be reproduced and unified in a theory.
DIMENSIONS AND SYSTEM OF UNITS:
According to Maxwell every physical quantity can be expressed as a product of pure number and
as unit where the unit is a selected reference quantity in terms of which all quantities of the same
kind can be expressed. Physical entities are defined by means of certain quantities such as mass,
length, pressure, energy etc. while defining a particular physical quantity.
Two questions need to be answered:
i. What would be the most convenient unit?
ii. What would be the best form and material for the standard physically representing that unit?
The physical quantities can be classified into two groups namely:
Fundamental quantities and derived quantities.
The first group consists of four quantities namely length, mass, time and temperature. These are
called dimensions or basic units and are represented by symbols L, M, and T. the second group
consists of quantities derived from fundamental quantities such as area, force, pressure, energy
etc. it follows therefore that derived quantities are represented algebraically in terms of base units
by means of the mathematical symbol of multiplication and division.
The fundamental quantities are represented by a system of units according to the system of
measurements. Basically, the standard physically representing the basic unit differs in different
system of units. Viz FPS, MKS, CGS and SI units.
The FPS system developed in England is based on foot, pound and second as standard
measurements for length, mass and time respectively.
In 1791 in France, a system of units entirely based on unit of length, the meter was created
because of its foundation entirely on the meter; this system got the name systems metrique or
metric system (MKS). The unit of mass in the metric system is kilogram. An important feature of
the system was the decimal expression. This system was increasingly adopted in various
countries including India. In India MKS system was introduced in 1957.
In around 1860, the British association for the advancement of science (BAAS) played an
important role in development of the CGS system in which the three base units were chosen
namely the centimeter, gram and second. It is needless to say that the CGS system is derived from
the MKS system as the base standards of CGs system were accepted to those of MKS system. In
practice, it is difficult to work with the MKS system alone and therefore, theses two different

systems are used side by side depending on the convenience. For EX: it is common to express
density in g/cc rather than in kg/m3.
For better international understanding, in particular, in science and technology and in
international trade relations, a need for an international system was felt. At the 10 th general
conference in weights and measurements in 1954 at Paris it was decided to have an international
practical system of units, based on six base units, namely meter, kilogram, second, ampere,
Kelvin and candela. It may be noticed that first four base units are the same as those in MKS
system. In 1960, the 11th general conference on weights and measurements in Paris gave the name
system international units or international system and abbreviated as SI in all languages. Along
with six base units for more supplementary units, radian and streadian were also defined.
The quantity mass, although it may be appropriate concept in mechanics is entirely unstable for
use in chemistry where the molecular structure are in particular the number of molecules in a
system is much more relevant than its total mass. For this reason,, the concept amount of
substance was introduced as a base unit in general conference 1971 which by definition is the
amount of substance of 0.012 kg of carbon 12 and this unit of quantity was called a mole
(abbreviated as mol). The unified scale of mole thus obtained gives value of the relative atomic
mass.
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES:
The fundamental quantities in different system of units are given in the table. In the
thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin) defined in SI is accepted on an absolute temperature in the
metric system. In FPS system, the absolute temperature in the metric system. In FPS system, the
absolute temperature is Rankine.
K = degree Kelvin = 273.167 C
R = degree Rankine = F + 459.67
Radian and streadian units are defined as the supplementary unit which could not be defined as
base unit or derived units by the international bureau of weights and measurements.
DERIVED QUANTITIES:
There are many numbers of derived quantities and hence it is difficult to list all of them. However
the more commonly used quantities for biotech unit operation calculations are discussed here.
The international committee for weights and measures has considered that in general CGS units
should preferably not be used with SI.
1. FORCE:
The definition of force follows from Newtons second law of motion, which states that force
is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration.
Fm*a
Introducing a proportionality constant k
F = kma
Force and acceleration are vector quantities and hence they should act in the same direction.
There are two ways of selecting the constant k. In one case k is selected to be unity
(dimensionless), with this choice the units dyne and Newtons are defined.
i. dyne: (dyn) is the force which when applied to a body having a mass of 1 gm gives it an
acceleration by 1 cm/sec2.
ii. Newton (N): is the force which when applied to a body having a mass of 1 kg given as
acceleration of 1 m/sec2.
Based on these definition,
5
1N = 10 dyn

A similar unit in FPS system is the poundal which is the force when applied to a body having a
mass of 1 pound, given it an acceleration of 1 ft/sec 2.
1 pdl = 30.48 * 4535924 = 13825.5 dyn.
Another choice of the constant k yields the technical unit of force. In this choice, force is
defined as a fundamental quantity. Thus, the constant k becomes a dimensional quantity. Its
numerical value is not unity but fixed at 1/gc.
F = (1/gc) ma.
Where gc is the Newtons law of conversion factor.
gc = 9.80665 (kg.m)/(kg f sec2)
(or)
gc = 32.174 (lb.ft)/(lbf. sec2)
gc is the Newtons law of conversion factor. Its value corresponds to the acceleration due to
gravity (g) at the mean sea level. (9.80665 (m)/(sec 2). It should be clearly noted that although g
varies from place to place gc does not vary. in ordinary calculations, however g/gc will be teken
as 1.0 kg f/kg.
g/gc = 1.
The technical units of force in MKS and FPS system are kilogram force and pound force
respectively. The kilogram force (kgf) is the force which when applied to a body having a mass of
1 kg gives it an acceleration of 9.80665 m/sec2.
The pound force (lbf) is the force which when applied to a body having a mass of 1 pound gives
it an acceleration of 32.174 ft/ sec2.
The force becomes weight when the body acts under gravitational acceleration (g) i.e. a = g in the
above equation weight G = (1/gc) mg.
Since g and gc are assumed equal for all practical purpose G = M.
Thus the value of weight and mass becomes practically equal. For this reason mass and weiht
term are used synonymously.
In order to differentiate between the term mass and force these two units are distinguished by
writing f at the end of fundamental unit of force.
The measurement of force, pressure, mass and weight have in the past been conventionally made
through the use of gravitational acceleration without taking into account the variation of this
acceleration from one location to another which was normally insignificant in the applications.
However as manufacturing process have spread geographically and as the process involved
require more sophisticated control, the difference between the point of calibration and use of an
instrument has become more significant.
2. volume:
Volume is measured in cubic meters (in SI), in liters (in MKS) and gallons (in FPS units). A liter
is the volume occupied by the mass of 1 kg of pure air free water at the temperature of its
maximum density (4C) and under normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg). Truly speaking,
the cubic decimeter and liter are unequal and differ by about 28 parts in million (10 6) parts. Hence
liter can be employed as a special name of cubic decimeter. However, the name liter should not
be employed to give the results of high accuracy volume measurement.
1 lit = 1000.028 cubic centimeter
Approximately 1 cubic meter = 1000 lit = 1 kilo liter
The US and UK (Imperial) are different. The former is defined as the volume occupied by a
quantity of distilled water which weight 10 lb in air at the temperature of 62F (16.7C) and the
pressure of 30 in (762 mm Hg). The US gallon is equal to 231 in 3.

Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force acting on unit area, exposed to pressure.
P = F/A
The common units of pressure in SI, MKS and FPS units are N/m2 (known as Pascal symbol Pa),
kgf/c m2 and lbf/in2 (commonly known as psi) respectively. Pressure is normally measured with
the help of a guage which registers the difference between the pressure in a vessel and the local
atmospheric pressure. This is known as the guage pressure and the letter g follows the unit. The
guage pressure does not indicate the true total pressure. To obtain true pressure or pressure above
reference zero, it is necessary to add the local atmospheric or barometric pressure expressed in
coherent units. This sum is called the absolute pressure and the letter a follows the units. In
general, if no letter follows the pressure units, it is taken as the absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = guage pressure + atmospheric pressure
Although the actual atmospheric pressure varies from locality to locality. Its value at mean sea
level is 1.033 kgf/cm2 (101325 N/m2 or Pa) and is called the normal atmosphere. In SI normal
atmosphere and bar are accepted as the practical units.
1 bar = 105 pa = 1.019716 kgf/ cm2
Quite often, the pressure is expressed in pressure heads.
Pressure head = absolute pressure/density
The more commonly used pressure heads are in terms of mercury and water column.
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 10.33 m water
1 atm = 1 kgf/ cm2
Vacuum refers to sub atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure vacuum
Vacuum is usually expressed in mm Hg (torr).
4. work/energy and power:
Work (energy) is defined as the product of force acting on body and the distance travelled by the
body.
W=F*L
The units of work (energy) in SI, MKS, CGS and FPS system are joule. M Kgf erg and ft.lbf
respectively.
Energy is a physical entity which is present in a system in different forms e.g. mechanical (work),
electromagnetic, chemical or thermal etc. are form of energy is convertible to another force.
The joule is the work done when the point of application of 1 dyne force moves a distance of 1
cm in the direction of force.
1J = 107 erg.
The power is defined as the work done per unit time.
Power P = W/
1 watt = 1 J/sec.
1metric horse power = 75 (m.kgf)/sec.
1british horse power = 550 (ft.lbf)/sec.
5. Heat:
Heat is one form of energy. The units of heat in SI, MKS, CGS and FPS systems are joule (J),
kilo calorie (kcal), calorie (cal) and British thermal units (Btu) respectively.
There are several definitions of Btu and Cal. All are defined in terms of joule. Btu and its
corresponding cal are related by a heat capacity equation.
1 calorie (thermo chemical) = 4.184 J.

1 calorie (at 15C) = 4.1855 J.

1 calorie (International steam table) = 4.1868 J.
1 Btu (International steam table) = 1055.0565
Other units used in FPS system are Celsius heat unit (CHU) and therm.
1 CHU = 1.8 Btu.
5
1 therm = 10 Btu.
6. derived electrical units:
Current is a fundamental volt V is the unit of electromotive force or potential difference.
Resistance (R in ohms) of a conductor is defined as
R = V/I
Where R is the resistance in ohms.
V is the potential difference in volts and
I is the current in amperes.
Coulomb is the unit of quantity of electricity and is defined as the quantity of electricity carried in
one second by a current of 1 ampere across any cross section.
1 Faraday (F) = 96487 Coulombs (based on C - 12).
Conversions:
It is often required to convert units of a particular quantity from one system to another.
Recommendations for use of units:
The recommendations issued by the general conference on weights and measurements and
international organizations for standardization for the use of units and summarized below.
1. SI prefixes are given in the table 1.4.
2. Prefix symbols are printed without any space between the prefix symbol and the unit symbol.
3. Compound prefixes formed by the Juxta position of two or more SI prefixes are not to be used.
Eg: correct: 1nm
incorrect: 1 mm
Nano meter
milli micro meter
4. The product of two or more units may be indicated in any one of the following ways.
Correct: N.m, N.m
incorrect: Nm
5. A solidus (oblique stroke, /) a horizontal line or negative powers may be used to express a
derived units.
Eg: m/s, m or ms-1.
S
6. The solidus must not be repeated on the same line unless ambiguity is avoided by parenthesis.
Correct: m/s2 or ms-2
incorrect: m/s/s
-1 -1
J/(mol.K) or J.mol k
J/mol/K
7. Unit symbol do not change in the plural.
Eg: 5 centimeters should be abbreviated as
Correct: 5cm
incorrect: 5 cms
8. Unit symbol are not followed by the full stop.
Correct: 8 kg
incorrect: 8 kg.
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENITY:

In any equation which express a certain relationship between number of different physical
quantity. Each item in the equation must have the same dimensions. This principle is known as
dimensional homogeneity.
This principle requires is that each term in an equation must have the same net dimensions and
units as every other term to which it is added, subtracted or equated. Consequently dimensional
consideration can be used to help identify the dimensions and units of terms or quantities in an
equation. This concept of dimensional consistency or homogeneity can be illustrated by an
equation that represents the gas behavior and is known as Vander Waals equation.
P + a (V - b) = RT
V2
By closer inspection of this equation it is clear that the constant a must have the units of
[(pressure) (volume) 2] in order for the expression in the first set of parenthesis to be consistent
throughout. If the units of pressure are atm and those of volume as cm 3, a will have the units
specifically of [(atm) (cm) 6].similarly b must have the same units as V or in this particular case
the units of cm3. If T is in K what must be the units of R. the units of R is given below.
R = 1.987 cal/ (gmol) (K)
= 1.987 Btu/ (lb mol) (K)
= 10.73 (psia) (ft3)/ (lb mol) (K)
3

= 8.314 (kpa) (m )/ (kg mol) (K)

= 8.314 J/ (kg mol) (K)
3
= 82.06 (cm ) (atm)/ (kg mol) (K)
= 0.08206 (l) (atm)/ (gmol) (K)
= 21.9 (in Hg) (ft3)/ (lb mol) (K)
= 0.7302 (ft3) (atm)/ (lb mol) (K)
All equations must exhibit dimensional consistency or homogeneity.
DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS OR NUMBERS:
Certain fundamental scientific equations include variables collected into groups which are
dimensionless provided a set of consistent units is used for each variable of the groups. If an
equation has all of the variables collected into a dimensionless groups, any numerical constants
appearing outside of the group will also be dimensionless and will have a fixed numerical values,
regardless of the units that may be employed for the individual variable within the differential
groups.
Eg: of dimensionless number are
1. Reynolds number: NRe = DV

2. Prandtl number: NPr = Cp

K
3. Nusselt number: NNu = hD
K
Etc.

An example of dimensionless groups for heat transfer is

0.8
0.5
hD = 0.023 DG
Cp

K
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:
Dimensional analysis is an algebraic treatment of the symbols for units considered independently
of magnitude.
Use of dimensional analysis:
All mechanical quantities can be expressed in terms of a limited number of fundamental
dimensions. Three fundamental dimensions used in engineering practice are mass, length and
time for which we use the symbol L, L and T. the choice of primary quantities is arbitrary both in
number and type and is largely based on convenience.
The physical quantities such as velocity, energy, momentum, force etc. can be regarded as the
derived quantity and are expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions.
Eg: velocity regardless of unit of magnitude is found by dividing a length by a time and the
dimensions of velocity is LT-1.
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:
If the variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the relation among the
variables can be determined by the following two methods:
1. Rayleighs method.
2. Buckingham method.
1. Rayleighs method:
This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends on less number
of independent variables. If the number of independent variable is more, it is difficult to find the
expression for dependent variable.
Let Y be the variable which depends on X1, X2 and X3. Then according to Rayleighs method. Y
is a function of X1, X2 and X3 and mathematically written as
Y = f(X1, X2, X3)
This can be written as
a

Y = kX 1 X 2 X

Where k is a constant and

a, b and c are arbitrary powers.
Powers a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimensions on both
sides. Thus, the expression is obtained for dependent variable.

STEPS:
1. Write the functional relationship with the given data.
2. Write the equation in terms of a constant and with exponents a, b, c etc.
3. With the help of the principle of dimensional homogeneity, find the value of a, b, c etc by
obtaining simultaneous equations.
4. Substitute the values of these exponents in the main equation and simplify.
PROBLEMS:
The time period (t) of a pendulum depends upon the length (L) of the pendulum and acceleration
due to gravity (g). Derive an expression for the time period.
SOL: