1-Intro and First Unit

Contents
 Definition and example for Sensor and transducer

 General Concept and terminology of measurement system
 Transducer classification
 General input-output configuration
 Static characteristics of measurement system
 Dynamic Characteristics of measurement system
 Calibration and standards
 Error analysis in measurement system
Definition of Sensor
 Formal definition: “A device that receives and responds to a signal or

stimulus” (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)
 Informally, a sensor is a device that takes in information from the

outside world. Based on the information, the sensor creates a signal
on which a system can base a decision
 In our case, a sensor will measure some physical quantity
 Examples: Resistive sensor, optical sensors, physical sensor chemical,

Biomedical sensors etc..
Definition for Transducer
 A Device which converts energy from one form to another form
 A Device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity
 A Device which for the purpose of measurement converts the physical

input quantity into electrical output quantity, its output-input and its
output-time relationship being predictable to a known degree of
accuracy at specified environmental conditions.
 Examples : Thermocouple, LDR, LVDT, Piezo-electric transducer,

Magnetostrictive transducer, capacitive and inductive transducer
Difference between Sensor and Transducer
 A sensor is a device that responds to a physical stimulus (as

heat, light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular motion)
and transmits a resulting impulse (a signal relating to the
quantity being measured).
 For example, certain sensors convert temperature into a change
in resistance.
 A transducer is a device that is actuated by power from one
system and supplies power usually in another form to a second
system.
 For example a loudspeaker is a transducer that transforms
electrical signals into sound energy. Often the words transducer
and sensor are used synonymously.
All sensors are Transducer
But
All Transducer are not Sensor
Concepts of Generalized Measurement system
Signal End/display
Sensor
Conditioner Device
Variable Variable
Sensor Manipulation Conversion
Element Element
Data Data
Presentation Transmission
Element Element
Transducer Classification -1
Based on source of Energy
Active Transducer: a transducer which does not require

auxiliary energy source for conversion. (e.g.
Thermocouple, piezoelectric, photovoltaic cell)
Passive Transducer: a transducer which requires auxiliary

energy source for conversion. (e.g. LDR, Strain Gauge,
LVDT)
Based on Parameter of Measurement
Displacement transducer - (1)linear (2)Angular

Velocity transducer - (1)linear (2)Angular
Acceleration transducer - (1)Linear (2)Angular
Force
Temperature
Light
Time
Based on Transduction Principle
Variable Resistance Transducers

Variable Inductance Transducers
Variable Capacitance Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers
Hall effect Transducers
Magnetostrictive Transducers
Eddy Current Transducers
Fiber optic Transducers
IC sensors
General input and output configuration
Desired input
Measuring
Interfering input Output
Instrument
Modifying input
Example: Strain Gauge

Desired Input – Strain, Interfering Input – Temperature
ΔR1 Change in resistance due to strain

R = R + ΔR
Change in resistance due to temperature
ΔR2
Example: Thermistor
Temperature
Light
Thermistor Resistance
Strain
Modifying Input
Modifying input changes relationship between desired input
and output and/or interfering input and output
Characteristics of measurement system
 Static Characteristics
Involves measurement of quantities that are either constant or vary
slowly with time
 Dynamic Characteristics
Applications like aerospace and bio-logical inputs are subjected to vary
with time
Static Characteristics
D A L R Re S T S H I P?
List of Static Characteistics
 Static sensitivity  Stability

 Linearity  Resolution
 Precision/Repeata-bility  Hysteresis
 Accuracy  Range & Span
 Threshold  Input Impedance/ Loading effect
 Drift, Zero Drift
Input and Output Range
Output
 Input Range
the interval between the
maximum and minimum
admissible input range:
Imax, Imin
Output  Output Range
Range the interval between the
maximum and minimum
reachable output range:
Omax, Omin
Input Range Input
Span and Zero
Output  Span: the interval of

output range of a
measurement device:
Span Omax Omin
Span
 Zero: the system output

Zero corresponding to a zero
input.
Input
Accuracy & Error Bands
O
 Error Bands ±h
manufacturer defined
performance values
h
Oideal h Error bands is an
indication of accuracy in
terms of a statistical
density function.
I
Resolution
Resolution is the smallest

detectable incremental change of
input that can be detected in
i output signal.
For any devices, their

resolution is fixed.
Sensitivity & Gain
Sensitivity (Gain) is the

rate of change in output
corresponding to the rate
dO of change in input dO/dI.
dI
At different range, the
sensitivity may be different
a device
Repeatability
Inability of a sensor to represent

o the same valve under identical
Run 2 conditions.
s1
Run 1
r 100%
Omax Omin
i
Bias and Drift
22.0
 Bias (offset)
the residual error
21.5 between the output and
the true value after all
21.0 possible compensations.
Bias
20.5  Drift
Drift
rate of change of the
20.0
output with time NOT
caused by input.
True value
19.5
0 5 10 15 20
Deadband
 Deadband
o (Dead Band)
range of input in which

the output remains at 0:
d
o(i ) 0; x xd
Xd i
Hysteresis
 Hysteresis
o
the delay phenomenon in
output due to energy
dissipation.
The actual output is either

smaller or greater than the
theoretical output depends on
increasing or decreasing in
input.
i
Non-Linearity
Linearity is an ideal
o
relationship between
input and output:
o ki a
k
Linearity is often specified
in terms of percentage of
a non-linearity:
i max( N ( i ) ( ki a ))
NL(%) 100%
Omax Omin
Dynamic Characteristics
 Speed of Response
The rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in
the measured quantity
 Dynamic error
Difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the measurement system
 Fidelity
Degree of which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error
Dynamic analysis of measurement system
 Time domain Analysis

Time is used as an independent variable
inputs is applied to the system and the behavior of the system is
studied
For the purpose of analysis and design it is necessary to assume some
basic types of input signal like step, ramp, parabolic, impuls
 Frequency domain Analysis :
Frequency is used as an independent variable

Sinusoidal, cosine are input signals
ZERO ORDER INSTRUMENT
•ZERO ORDER SYSTEM (Example: Potentiometer)

•Characterized by a zero order differential equation
•Infinite bandwidth
•Instantaneous response
•Static gain / Sensitivity
•ABSENCE OF ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENT
•No time delay
•Step response
•Frequency response
FIRST ORDER INSTRUMENT
 FIRST ORDER SYSTEM (Example: Thermocouple without thermo well, mercury

in glass thermometer)
 Characterized by a first order differential equation
 Static gain (which determines the dynamic response)
 Time Constant ( which determines the dynamic response)
 Settling time ( 2%, 5 % and 10 %)
 Slope at time t=0 will be 1/ (time constant) { based on step response of
I-order instrument)
 Slope at time t=infinity will be zero.
 PRESENCE OF ONE ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENT.
Contd..
 Step Response of first order Instrument

 Ramp Response of first order Instrument
 Impulse Response of first order Instrument
 Terminated Ramp response of first order Instrument
 Frequency Response ( 3 dB bandwidth of first order
instrument {0,1/Time constant} –
 first order instrument will behave like a low pass filter
 FIRST PRINCIPLES MODEL ( TIME CONSTANT AND
GAIN WILL BE FUNCTION OF PARAMETERS LIKE HEAT
TRANSFER AREA, HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT,
MASS OF THE SENSING ELEMENT ETC.)
 Estimation of first order parameters ( Gain and Time
constant)
 Least Square Method (pseudo inverse)
 Number of Data Points (N)
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
 SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (Example: Thermocouple with thermo
well)
 Characterized by a second order differential equation
 Damping ratio ( Under damped -Galvanometers, over damped- T/C
with thermo well, critically damped)
 Damping ratio recommended – 0.6 to 0.7 ( Linear phase
characteristics and amplitude ratio being constant)
 Undamped Natural Frequency ( Larger natural frequency will have
lower settling time)
 Damped Natural Frequency
 Rise time
 Peak time
 Settling time ( Percentage Tolerance)
 Percentage Overshoot
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM – Cont’d
 Step Response of second order under damped, critically

damped and over damped systems
 Ramp Response of second order under damped, critically
 Frequency Response second order under damped, critically
 Slope at time t=0 will be zero for second order over damped
system.
 Estimation of Second order parameters from step response
 Least Square Method ( pseudo inverse)
 For all second order critically damped and over damped
instruments the time for 73 % recovery will be at about t =
1.3* (tau1+tau2)
 Higher order Instrument
 As the order of the instrument increases the response of the
instrument will become sluggish.
Calibration
 CALIBRATION is the method of checking the accuracy of an

instrument
 It is the comparison of two measurement devices or systems one of
known uncertainty and other of unknown uncertainty to estimate the
correct value of the unknown and its uncertainty
Why Calibration?
 Result of Calibration enables the estimation of errors of measuring

instrument or the assignment of values to mark or arbitrary scales
 In many Instruments, suitable adjustments (range, span) are made
during calibration in order to reduce the error
 Calibration is an accredited laboratory enables to establish
TRACEABILITY
 When products are exported to other countries, they insist on
traceability
 In short calibration enhances CREDIBILITY in measurement
Note: Traceability is a document able link between the accuracy of the

Instrument and the highest level of standard as maintained by a
national/international laboratory
Calibration
Calibration
Absolute Comparative
Method Method
Error
Measurement
Standards
• Standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement
•Standard is a material measure, measuring instrument, reference

material or system intended to define, realize, conserve, reproduce a
unit in order to transmit them to other instruments by comparison
Classification of Standards
International Standard
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Working Standards
Errors in measurement system
 Gross Error
 Random error
 Limiting error
 Relative limiting error
 Known error
 Systematic error
 Instrumental error
 Environmental error
 Observational error
Error Analysis
 Arithmetic Mean
 Deviation
 Average Deviation
 Standard deviation
 Variance
 Median
 Mode
 Probable error
 Standard deviation of mean
 Standard deviation of Standard deviation
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Contents

 Definition and example for Sensor and transducer

 Formal definition: “A device that receives and responds to a signal or

 Informally, a sensor is a device that takes in information from the

 In our case, a sensor will measure some physical quantity

 Examples: Resistive sensor, optical sensors, physical sensor chemical,

 A Device which converts energy from one form to another form

 A Device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity

 A Device which for the purpose of measurement converts the physical

 Examples : Thermocouple, LDR, LVDT, Piezo-electric transducer,

 A sensor is a device that responds to a physical stimulus (as

Based on source of Energy

Active Transducer: a transducer which does not require

Passive Transducer: a transducer which requires auxiliary

Based on Parameter of Measurement

Displacement transducer - (1)linear (2)Angular

Based on Transduction Principle

Variable Resistance Transducers

Example: Strain Gauge

ΔR1 Change in resistance due to strain

 Static sensitivity  Stability

Output  Span: the interval of

 Zero: the system output

Resolution is the smallest

For any devices, their

Sensitivity (Gain) is the

Inability of a sensor to represent

range of input in which

The actual output is either

 Time domain Analysis

 Frequency domain Analysis :

Frequency is used as an independent variable

•ZERO ORDER SYSTEM (Example: Potentiometer)

 FIRST ORDER SYSTEM (Example: Thermocouple without thermo well, mercury

 Step Response of first order Instrument

 Step Response of second order under damped, critically

 CALIBRATION is the method of checking the accuracy of an

 Result of Calibration enables the estimation of errors of measuring

Note: Traceability is a document able link between the accuracy of the

• Standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement

•Standard is a material measure, measuring instrument, reference

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