DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY

DHVSU CANDABA CAMPUS

CE DEPARTMENT

MODULE 1 : INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
CONTENT:
• Definition of Surveying
• Kinds of Surveys
• Surveying Unit of Measurements
• Errors, Mistakes and Most Probable Value
• Residual, Probable Error and Weighted Observations.
• Distance by Pacing
• Distance by Taping
• Measuring Tapes, Taping, Accessories and Composition of Taping Party
• Corrections in Taping Works and Combined Corrections.

OUTCOMES:
After completing this module, the student must be able to:

o Introduced to the Surveying

o Identify the Different Types of Surveying
o Apply the Basic Surveying Concepts, Principles and Theories on Distance and
Angular Measurements.
o Solve for Distances using Pacing and Taping.

REFERENCES:

O Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007

O Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R. Elementary Surveying: an Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
O Minchin M., Introduction to Surveying, (2nd Edition), 2003
O J. P. La Putt, Elementary Surveying: Instruction Manual, 1981

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
ENGR. HAROLD GRANT L. GUMABON
ENGR JOHN HAROLD I. LAYUG
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING AND LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Definition:

Surveying, also known as geomatics, is defined in different ways. Some notable

definitions of surveying are:
➢ The science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such points.
➢ that discipline which encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our environment, processing that
information, and disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide range of
clients.

Surveying may be represented in analogue form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or

in digital form such as a digital ground model (DGM). In engineering surveying, either or both
of the above formats may be used for planning, design and construction of works, both on the
surface and underground. At a later stage, surveying techniques are used for dimensional
control or setting out of designed constructional elements and also for monitoring deformation
movements.

Surveyors:

Surveyors generally are involved in both field and office work. The fieldwork consists in
making observations with various types of instruments to either (a) determine the relative
locations of points or (b) to set out stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide
building and construction operations. The office work involves (1) conducting research and
analysis in preparing for surveys, (2) computing and processing the data obtained from field
measurements, and (3) preparing maps, plots, charts, reports, and other documents according
to client specifications. Sometimes the fieldwork must be performed in hostile or dangerous
environments, and thus it is very important to be aware of the need to practice safety
precautions.

Classifications of Surveying:

Surveying has two main classifications. These are:

➢ Plane surveying deals with areas of limited extent and it is assumed that the
earth’s surface is a plane and therefore no corrections necessary for the
earth’s curvature.
➢ Geodetic surveying is concerned with determining the size and shape of the
Earth (Ellipsoid – curved surface).

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Types of Surveying:

Here are some types of surveying which are commonly used in the field of Civil
Engineering, which differ mainly in purpose and in nature:

➢ Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that

serve as a reference framework for initiating other surveys.
➢ Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and
elevations used in map making.
➢ Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property corner
markers. The term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public lands
systems.
➢ Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans,
reservoirs, and other bodies of water.
➢ Alignment or Route surveys are made to plan, design, and construct highways,
railroads, pipelines, and other linear projects
➢ Construction surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions,
dimensions, and configurations for construction operations.
➢ As-built surveys document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering
works and record any design changes that may have been incorporated into the
construction.
➢ Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to guide tunneling and
other operations associated with mining.
➢ Solar surveys map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions according
to sun angles, and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title insurance
companies.
➢ Ground, aerial, and satellite surveys are broad classifications sometimes used.
Ground surveys utilize measurements made with ground-based equipment such as
automatic levels and total station instruments. Aerial surveys are accomplished
using either photogrammetry or remote sensing. Photogrammetry uses cameras
that are carried usually in airplanes to obtain images, whereas remote sensing
employs cameras and other types of sensors that can be transported in either
aircraft or satellites

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Surveying Measurements

Measurement is a process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a particular

quantity in comparison to a given standard.

Units of Measurements:

SYSTEM OF ENGLISH (SI) METRIC

MEASUREMENT (unit) (unit)
LENGTH Inches / Feet / Miles /Nautical Miles Meter / Kilometer
AREA in2 / ft2 m2 / km2
VOLUME in3 / ft3 m3
ANGLE Degree / Radians Degree / Radians

Prefix Values in unit

Mega (M) 1 x 10^6
Kilo (k) 1 x 10^3
Hecto (h) 100
Deca (da) 10
deci (d) 0.1
centi (c) 0.01
milli (m) 0.001
micro (µ) 1 x 10^-6
Nano (n) 1 x 10^-9

Direct Measurements vs Indirect Measurement

➢ Direct Measurement Is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard

measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.

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➢ Indirect Measurement is done when a direct measurement is not possible. In this

type of measurement, the observed value is determined by its relationship to some
known values.

Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured. Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which
any physical measurement is made.

In surveying, it is very important for the surveyors to obtain results in an accurate and
precise manner.

Errors

There are two types of errors, Systematic errors stem from bias and can be controlled.
Random errors are accidental and are beyond our control. By definition, and error is the
difference of an observed value and the actual value.

𝐸 = 𝑋̅ − 𝑥̅
where:
E = error in observation
𝑋̅= Observed Value
𝑥̅ = Actual Value

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Errors in results may come from three sources which are classified accordingly.

➢ Natural Errors – Caused by variations in wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric

pressure and refraction, gravity and magnetic declination.
➢ Instrumental Errors – caused by any imperfections in the construction or
adjustments of instruments and from the movement of individual parts.
➢ Personal Errors – caused by the limitations of the human senses of sight and touch.

Theory of Probability Assumptions

1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than error.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is
they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.

Most Probable Value

Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has more
chances of being correct than any other. From the theory of probability, it is the arithmetic
mean or average of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions.

∑𝑚
̅=
𝑀
𝑛
where:
̅ = most probable value
𝑀
∑ 𝑚 = summation of measurements
𝑛 = number of observations

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Residual (Deviation)

Residual is the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most
probable value. Residuals and errors are theoretically identical but errors cannot be calculated
because there is no way of knowing the true values.

̅
𝑣=𝑀− 𝑀
where:
𝑣 = residual
̅ = most probable value
𝑀
𝑀 = any measured value of a quantity

Methods of Linear Measurement:

These are some of the methods in determining distances which are considered as
linear:

➢ Distance by Pacing
➢ Distance by Taping
➢ Distance by Tachymetry
➢ Distance by Graphical Method
➢ Distance by Mechanical method

But in this module, we will only focus on the distance by pacing and distance by taping.

Standard Deviation, Variance and Probable Error:

Some other values that can be used to measure precision include the standard
deviation (𝜎) and the variance (𝜎 2 ). The variance is the square of the standard deviation. The
formula for the standard deviation is given below.

∑ 𝑣2
𝜎 = ±.0.6745√
𝑛−1

Probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value of
the measured quantity lies inside the limits thus set.

Probable Error for a single measurement and for the mean can be computed using the
following formula:

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∑ 𝑣2 ∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±.0.6745√ 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±.0.6745√
𝑛−1 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
:
where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = Probable Error of a single measurement
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = Probable Error of the mean
𝑣 = residual
𝑛 = number of observations

Relative Error or Relative Precision is the ratio of the Probable Error and the Most
Probable Value.

𝑃𝐸
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑀𝑃𝑉

Weighted Observations:

Weights can be allocated in a variety of ways, such as: (a) by personal judgement of the
prevailing conditions at the time of measurement; (b) by direct proportion to the number of
measurements of the quantity (c) by the use of variance and co-variance factors.

𝑎1𝑤1+⋯+𝑎𝑚𝑤𝑚 ∑ 𝑎𝑤
Weighted mean = 𝐴𝑚 = =
𝑤1+𝑤𝑛 ∑𝑤

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Example #1: A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to

measure a distance between two points marked on the ground. The students
came up with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04,
250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that
variations result from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of
the distance measured.

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Example #2: Four measurements of a distance were recorded as

284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4
respectively. Determine the most probable value of the distance.

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Example #3 It is desired to determine the most probable value of an

angle which has been measured at different times by different observers. The
values observed were as follows: 74 39’45” (measured two times), 74 39’27”
(measured four times), and 74 39’35” (measured six times).

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Distance By Pacing:

A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured from

heel to heel or toe to toe. Pacing consists of counting the number of steps for a
required distance.

Pacing is a way of checking measurements rapidly. It is suitable in determining

approximate distances where low precision measurement is sufficient.

The distance is determined using the pace factor. Pace Factor is the equivalent
unit of measurement per number of paces. Distances is determined by multiplying the
number of paces by your own pace factor.

PD = MNP X PF

Where:
PD = Pace Distance
MNP = mean number of Paces
PF = Pace Factor

Note that every single one of us has a unique pace factor. To get a pace
factor, follow the following steps.

1. Count the number of steps from one point to another with its distance known.
It is usually done with many trials
2. Compute the mean number of paces (MNP) by summing up all the recorded
attempts performed, then divided with the number of trials.
3. Compute the Pace Factor by dividing the known distance of line AB by the
MNP.

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Example #4: A line 100m long was paced four times by a surveyor with
the following data: 150, 146.50, 148.50 and 147. Another line was paced four
times by the same surveyor with the following data: 984.50, 982, 981.50 and
985. Determine the approximate length of the line.

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Example #5: Michael is a CE Student. During his surveying class he

determined his pace factor by walking on a 50m line with the following results;
64, 63.50, 65, 63, 64. His family owns a triangular lot and it is known that lines
AB and BC are perpendicular with each other. Michael paced from A-B and B-
C in order to determine the area of the said lot. Using the following data, what
is the area of the lot?

Average Number of Paces

A-B 18
B-C 21

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Example #6: A 45 m course AB on level ground was paced by a

surveyor for the purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces
for each trial are shown in the accompanying table.

Trial Line No. of Paces

1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53

a) Determine his pace factor.

b) If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces in walking
an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c) Assuming that the taped length of the line CD is 667 m, determine the
relative error of the measurement performed.

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Distance By Taping:

The most common method of measuring horizontal distances is with the use
of tape. Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two points and reading
the distance indicated in the tape.

In measurement by taping, there are two main purposes or tasks, First is

observing an unknown distance between fixed points, such as between two stakes in
the ground, which is also known as measuring. Second is laying out a known or
required distance with only the starting mark in place, which is also known as laying
out.

Measuring Tapes

Measuring tapes are made in a variety of length, materials and weights.

The following are the commonly used tapes of measuring tapes:

1. Steel Tape 6. Wires
2. Metallic Tape 7. Builder’s Tape
3. Non-metallic Tape 8. Phophor-bronze tape
4. Invar Tape 9. Fiberglass Tape
5. Lovar Tape 10. Nylon Coated Steel Tape

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Taping Accessories

The following are the accessories used in taping work:

1. Range Pole 7. Wooden stake or hub
2. Tape Climbing handles 8. Leather Thongs
3. Chaining Pins 9. Hand Level & Clinometers
4. Tension handle 10. Tape Repairs List
5. Tape Thermometer 11. Crayons
6. Plumb Bob

Taping Party

When the measurement is undertaken in the level ground and open field, the taping
party consists of the following individuals:
1. Head Tape Man 3. Flag Man or Rod Man
2. Recorder 4. Rear Tape Man

Steps in Taping:

1. Aligning the Tape

2. Stretching the tape by applying tension.
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Tape lengths
5. Reading the Tape
6. Recording the tape distance.

Errors in Taping:

There are three fundamental sources of taping error, listed as:

1. Instrumental Error – a tape may differ in actual length as compared to its

nominal and graduated length because of manufacturing errors.
2. Natural Error – tape lengths can be affected by temperature, wind, and other
forces of nature
3. Personal error – there will always be a human factor when it comes to taping.
There can be errors in measurement reading, pin marking and other parts of
the taping process.

We have four main taping errors, namely, slope, incorrect tape length,
temperature, pull and sag corrections.

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Slope Corrections:

Slope correction can be shown in the figure above. L is the tape measurement
and H is the actual horizontal distance measured. With the use of the angle α.

H = L cos α

If the difference between the tape ends is already measured, H can be

computed with the formula

𝐻 = √𝐿2 + 𝑑 2

When the distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal
distance may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope
correction

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝑺 =
𝟐𝑺

Where:
H = S – CS
H = horizontal distance or corrected distance
S = inclined distance
H = difference in elevation at the end of the tape.

Incorrect Tape Length Corrections

An error caused by incorrect tape length occurs each time the tape is used. If
the true length of a tape is not equal to its nominal value, the correction can be solved
as

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(𝒍 − 𝒍′ )
𝑪𝑳 = ( )𝑳
𝒍′
Where :

CL = incorrect tape length correction,

l = actual tape length
l’ = nominal tape length
L = measured length of the line

Temperature Error Corrections

The temperature error occurs when the actual temperature of the tape is not
equal to the standardized temperature of the tape. The temperature correction can
then be determined as

𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝑻 = (𝑪𝒕 ) Ct = k (T2-T1) NL CT = k (T2-T1) ML
𝑵𝑳

Where :

CT = Temperature Correction
K = 0.00000645 per degree F.
K = 0.0000116 per degree C.
T1 = temp. when the length of tape is L1
T2 = temp. during measurement.
ML = measured length of the line

The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is 6.45 x 10-6 per unit length per
°F or 11.6 x 10-6 per unit length per °C.

Pull Error Corrections

The pull error occurs when the actual pull applied of the tape is not equal to
the standard pull of the tape. If the actual tension is greater than the standard pull,
then the tape will elongate. If the actual tension is less than the standard pull, then the
tape will shorten. The pull correction can then be determined as

𝑳
CP = (P2 - P1) 𝑨𝑬

Where :

Cp = Pull Correction
P2 = actual pull
P1 = standard pull temperature
L = measured length of the line

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A = cross sectional area of the tape

E = Modulus elasticity of the tape.
.
Sag Error Corrections

Sage happens when there is an unsupported length that forms a catenary.

Thus, the actual length of the horizontal chord is less than the graduated distance
measured by the tape (thus, the sag correction is always negative). Sag can be reduced
by increasing the applied pull, but cannot be eliminated unless the tape is supported all
throughout its length. The formula for sag correction is

𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝒔𝟑
CS = 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟏𝟐
Where :

Cs = Sag Correction
P1 = actual pull
Ls = unsupported length of the tape
W= weight of the tape per unit length

Interpretation of Taping Errors .

Tape too long - Subtract the corrections in laying out distances. Add the corrections in
measuring distances

Tape too short - Add the corrections in laying out distances. - Subtract the corrections
in measuring distances.

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Too SHORT
LAYING-OUT
ADD
MEASURING
SUBTRACT

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Example #7 A student was asked to make a 500m. line using 25m.

tape that is of standard length at a temp. of 28℃. If the average temp. is 12℃,
what is the required measurement? Assume k = 0.0000116 /℃.

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Example #8 A 50m. tape was standardized and was found to be

0.0042 m. too long than the standard length at an observed temperature of
58℃ and a pull of 15 kilos. The same tape was used to measure a certain
distance and was recorded to be 673.92m long at an observed temp. of 68℃
and a pull of 15kilos. Coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116m/℃.

1. Determine the standard temperature.

2. Determine the total correction.
3. Determine the true length of the line.

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Example #9:.A 100m. tape is 12mm. wide and 0.80mm. thick. If the tape
is correct under a pull of 54N, compute the error made by using a pull of 68N.
E = 200,000MPa

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Example #9:. 5. A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45kg is of standard length

under a pull of 5 kg supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring
a line 938.55m long on a smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg.
Assuming E = 2x106 kg/cm2 and the unit weight od steel to be 7.9x10-3
kg/cm3

1. Determine the cross sectional area of the tape in cm2.

2. Compute the total correction for increase in tension
3. Compute the true length of the line measured

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Activity 1 – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Activity 1.1: Essay

Instructions: Answer the following questions, in your own words (Minimum of 150
words each):

1. Define Surveying
2. Differentiate Direct Measurement and Indirect Measurement?
3. What is the connection of Precision and Accuracy?

Activity 1.2: Survey Equipment

Draw and explain the uses of the following equipment:

1. Tape Measure
2. Auto level
3. Theodolite
4. Levelling Rod
5. Safety Vest
6. Compass
7. Tripod

Activity 2: Measurement by Pacing

Instructions: Write or create 15 examples of Pacing problems with solutions. Examples

shall differ from one another.

Activity 3: Measurement by Taping

Instructions: Write or create 15 examples of Pacing problems with solutions. Examples

shall differ from one another.

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Fieldwork 1 – Measurement By Pacing - Determine your pace factor.

Notes:
.
1. A minimum of 5 trials in data gathering
2. The measured length shall be determined by the group itself. The longer the
length, the more accurate the pace factor.
3. Follow the fieldwork template in completing this fieldwork.
4. The instructions for this activity will be explained during the class discussion.

DATA : PACE FACTOR

TRIAL LINE Tape Distance Number of Paces Mean Number
of Paces
1 AB
2 BA
3 AB
4 BA
5 AB

SOLUTION:

DATA : RELATIVE PRECISION

TRIAL LINE Number of Paced Tape
Paces Distance Distance
1 CD
2 DC
3 CD
4 DC
5 CD

SOLUTION:

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References:

▪ Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007

▪ Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R. Elementary Surveying: an Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
▪ Minchin M., Introduction to Surveying, (2nd Edition), 2003
▪ J. P. La Putt, Elementary Surveying: Instruction Manual, 1981

Other References:

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