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Table of contents
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Document 1 of 1

Primary Isoniazid Prophylaxis against Tuberculosis in HIV-Exposed Children

Author: Madhi, Shabir A, MD, PhD; Nachman, Sharon, MD; Violari, Avy, MD; Kim, Soyeon, ScD;
Cotton, Mark F, MD, PhD; Bobat, Raziya, MD; Jean-Philippe, Patrick, MD; McSherry, George, MD;
Mitchell, Charles, MD
ProQuest document link
Abstract: Background
The dual epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis is a major cause of
sickness and death in sub-Saharan Africa. We conducted a double-blind, randomized, placebocontrolled trial of preexposure isoniazid prophylaxis against tuberculosis in HIV-infected children
and uninfected children exposed to HIV during the perinatal period.
Methods
We randomly assigned 548 HIV-infected and 804 HIV-uninfected infants (91 to 120 days of age) to
isoniazid (10 to 20 mg per kilogram of body weight per day) or matching placebo for 96 weeks. All
patients received bacille Calmette-Gurin (BCG) vaccination against tuberculosis within 30 days
after birth. HIV-infected children had access to antiretroviral therapy. The primary outcome
measures were tuberculosis disease and death in HIV-infected children and latent tuberculosis
infection, tuberculosis disease, and death in HIV-uninfected children within 96 to 108 weeks after
randomization.
Results
Antiretroviral therapy was initiated in 98.9% of HIV-infected children during the study. Among HIVinfected children, protocol-defined tuberculosis or death occurred in 52 children (19.0%) in the
isoniazid group and 53 (19.3%) in the placebo group (P=0.93). Among HIV-uninfected children,
there was no significant difference in the combined incidence of tuberculosis infection,
tuberculosis disease, or death between the isoniazid group (39 children, 10%) and the placebo
group (45 children, 11%; P=0.44). The rate of tuberculosis was 121 cases per 1000 child-years
(95% confidence interval [CI], 95 to 153) among HIV-infected children as compared with 41 per
1000 child-years (95% CI, 31 to 52) among HIV-uninfected children. There were no significant
differences in clinical or severe laboratory toxic effects between treatment groups.
Conclusions
Primary isoniazid prophylaxis did not improve tuberculosis-disease-free survival among HIVinfected children or tuberculosis-infection-free survival among HIV-uninfected children immunized
with BCG vaccine. Despite access to antiretroviral therapy, the burden of tuberculosis remained
high among HIV-infected children. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and Secure the
Future; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00080119.)

Full text: Related Article: Editorial, N Engl J Med 2011;365:79-81

Tuberculosis is highly endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, a situation aggravated by the ongoing
epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1).1 The increased burden of tuberculosis
among adults in areas with a high prevalence of HIV infection is also associated with high rates of
transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) to household members and other contacts.2-5
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Therefore, it has been proposed that in areas such as South Africa, tuberculosis-prevention
strategies with isoniazid chemoprophylaxis, which so far have targeted only household contacts of
adults with positive sputum smears for MTB acid-fast bacilli, be expanded to include other highrisk groups.
Among otherwise immunocompetent children, MTB infection in the first 2 years of life is
associated with a 43% risk of the development of tuberculosis during the next 12 months.6 Also,
the risk of culture-confirmed tuberculosis is increased by a factor of more than 20 among HIVinfected children under 2 years of age.7,8 Furthermore, postmortem studies have identified
tuberculosis as a leading cause of death in HIV-infected children in Africa, accounting for 12 to
18% of deaths in these children.9,10 Isoniazid has shown effectiveness in preventing progression
to tuberculosis disease in children who had known contact with persons with infectious
tuberculosis,11-13 but its role in preexposure prophylaxis has not been evaluated in HIV-infected
infants or uninfected children exposed to HIV during the perinatal period -- both groups at
increased risk for tuberculosis.
Our study evaluated the safety and efficacy of isoniazid versus placebo for preexposure
prophylaxis against tuberculosis in HIV-infected children and uninfected children exposed to HIV
during the perinatal period, when treatment was started at 3 to 4 months of age and continued
for 96 weeks.
Methods
Study Sites
This multicenter, phase 2-3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of isoniazid was
undertaken in three South African centers (Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital, Johannesburg;
Tygerberg Hospital, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town; and King Edward VII Hospital, Durban)
and one center in Botswana (Princess Marina Hospital, Gaborone). Enrollment at the Botswana
site began shortly before the study was terminated. All sites had existing programs for the
prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Children infected with HIV were given
antiretroviral treatment, which primarily included stavudine, lamivudine, and lopinavir-ritonavir,
per country-specific guidelines, or zidovudine, lamivudine, and lopinavir-ritonavir.
Study Enrollment and Participants
Enrollment occurred between December 2004 and June 2008. Enrollment of the HIV-uninfected
cohort was completed in June 2006. Infants born to HIV-infected women were identified through
programs for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. The HIV-infection status of
infants was determined by means of HIV-1 DNA polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR) testing. HIVuninfected infants had their negative status confirmed by a second negative DNA PCR assay 24
weeks after randomization and a negative HIV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) at 18
months of age. Participants were enrolled between the 91st and 120th days of life. Eligibility
criteria included receipt of the BCG vaccine by 30 days of age; no history of tuberculosis in the
infant, known exposure to a microbiologically confirmed case of tuberculosis, or active
antituberculosis treatment in the mother at the time of the infant's birth; and no evidence of
failure to thrive, recurrent pneumonia, chronic diarrhea, or immunosuppressive conditions other
than HIV infection.
Infants were randomly assigned to receive daily isoniazid, at a dose of 10 to 20 mg per kilogram
of body weight, or placebo. Other aspects of their care, including trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
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prophylaxis, are detailed in the Supplementary Appendix, available with the full text of this article
at NEJM.org.
Study Objectives and End Points
The coprimary objectives were to compare the isoniazid and placebo groups with respect to
tuberculosis-disease-free survival (hereafter referred to as disease-free survival) among HIVinfected children and tuberculosis-infection-free survival (hereafter referred to as infection-free
survival) among HIV-uninfected children 96 weeks after randomization. The end point for diseasefree survival was the first occurrence of death from any cause or tuberculosis disease, and the
end point for infection-free survival was the first occurrence of death from any cause, tuberculosis
disease, or MTB infection. Secondary study objectives for the cohort of HIV-infected children were
to determine whether isoniazid prophylaxis decreased the incidence of tuberculosis infection at 96
weeks and whether it reduced the risk of HIV disease progression, defined as the first occurrence
of worsening of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) clinical categorization of HIV
infection or death. A secondary objective for the cohort of HIV-uninfected children was to
determine whether isoniazid prophylaxis improved disease-free survival.
Tuberculosis Investigation and Outcome Categorization
Participants were screened for symptoms of tuberculosis at each study visit and assessed further
if they had a score of 4 or more on the clinical algorithm scale (Table 1),
Illustration
Table 1:
Algorithm Used to Screen for and Diagnose Clinical Tuberculosis.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
14 excluding scoring on the tuberculin skin test. Children were also assessed for pulmonary
tuberculosis when presenting with clinical or radiographic evidence of pneumonia or at the
discretion of the attending physician. For children with MTB exposure, the study drug was
discontinued and open-label isoniazid was administered according to the guidelines in South
Africa.14
Investigations for tuberculosis included collection of information on the status of sputum smears
in the index case, a history taking for symptoms and signs suggestive of MTB infection, an
intradermal tuberculin skin test with the use of RT23 2TU (Statens Serum Institut), a chest
radiograph, and microbiologic or histopathological evaluation as clinically indicated. In children
suspected of having pulmonary tuberculosis, two gastric washings, two induced-sputum samples,
or both were tested by means of auramine staining and a mycobacterial culture was tested with
the use of the Bactec method at nationally accredited laboratories. Mycobacterial isolates were
analyzed for drug resistance with the use of the BACTEC 460 system (Becton Dickinson).
On the basis of positive results of these evaluations, children received a diagnosis of "definite,"
"probable," or "possible" tuberculosis (Table 2).
Illustration
Table 2:
Protocol-Defined Criteria for Categorization of Tuberculosis Disease and Infection.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
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Children whose health care providers initiated antituberculosis treatment but who did not fulfill
protocol-defined criteria for a diagnosis of tuberculosis were classified as having "non-algorithm
tuberculosis." Latent tuberculosis infection was diagnosed on the basis of a positive tuberculin
skin test (induration 5 mm in horizontal diameter in HIV-infected children and 10 mm in HIVuninfected children), in the absence of evidence of active tuberculosis disease, 96 weeks after
randomization. An end-point review committee of study-team clinicians who were unaware of the
study-group assignments reviewed all deaths and potentially tuberculosis-related primary and
secondary end points.
Screening for safety was undertaken at scheduled visits every 3 months while the participants
were receiving the study drug. Screening included serum liver enzyme tests, complete blood
counts, and clinical neurologic evaluations for peripheral neuropathy with the use of a modified
Denver Developmental Screening Test, with severity grading based on criteria from the Division of
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
(NIAID).16
Study Oversight
The study was approved by the institutional review board of each participating center, the
Medicines Control Council in South Africa, and the Division of AIDS at the NIAID. The study was
conducted in accordance with Good Clinical Practices guidelines and the Declaration of Helsinki.
Written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardians of the children before they
underwent randomization. All authors vouch for the accuracy and completeness of the analyses
presented and the adherence of the study and this report to the protocol, available at NEJM.org.
Statistical Analysis
The study was designed and powered to evaluate study outcomes independently in the HIVinfected and HIV-uninfected cohorts. A detailed description of the sample-size calculation (with a
target sample of 500 HIV-infected and 800 HIV-uninfected children) and of oversight by the data
and safety monitoring board is provided in the Supplementary Appendix.
Kaplan-Meier estimates were used to summarize the distribution of time to efficacy and safety
end points. Data on end points were censored at week 96, with allowance for the inclusion of end
points for 12 additional weeks (up to 108 weeks after randomization). Log-rank tests were used to
compare these distributions between the study groups. Cox regression was used for hazard ratios
and analyses adjusted for covariates.
Analyses followed an intention-to-treat approach unless otherwise specified. Data on children
whose guardians declined further study follow-up before meeting a study end point were censored
at the date of the last follow-up visit. All testing was two-sided at the 5% significance level. To
maintain the significance level for each cohort at 5%, nominal P values of 0.0492 and 0.0493 for
between-group differences in the HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected cohorts, respectively, were
required in the final analysis of the primary end points. All P values presented were nominal. Data
were analyzed with the use of SAS software, version 9.1 (SAS Institute).
Results
Characteristics of the Participants

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A total of 548 HIV-infected and 806 HIV-uninfected infants were enrolled; the majority (65%) were
enrolled in Johannesburg. Figure 1A shows the disposition of the 274 HIV-infected infants enrolled
in each study group;
Illustration
Figure 1:
Enrollment, Randomization, and Follow-up of the HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Study Cohorts.
Four HIV-infected children (one in the isoniazid group and three in the placebo group) who were
positive for HIV at baseline were subsequently confirmed to be HIV-uninfected. Six HIV-uninfected
children (two in the isoniazid group and four in the placebo group) who were negative for HIV at
baseline were subsequently confirmed to be HIV-infected. The numbers of participants lost to
follow-up or who discontinued the intervention denote those who were lost to follow-up or
discontinued the intervention before a primary end point occurred. The reasons for discontinuing
the intervention are enumerated only for those not lost to follow-up. INH denotes isoniazid, and
TB tuberculosis.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
the study drug was initiated within 4 days after randomization, except in 1 child who never
received it and was excluded from the analysis. The disposition of the HIV-uninfected infants,
including 2 children who did not receive the study drug and were excluded from the analysis, is
shown in Figure 1B.
Illustration
Figure 1:
Enrollment, Randomization, and Follow-up of the HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Study Cohorts.
Four HIV-infected children (one in the isoniazid group and three in the placebo group) who were
positive for HIV at baseline were subsequently confirmed to be HIV-uninfected. Six HIV-uninfected
children (two in the isoniazid group and four in the placebo group) who were negative for HIV at
baseline were subsequently confirmed to be HIV-infected. The numbers of participants lost to
follow-up or who discontinued the intervention denote those who were lost to follow-up or
discontinued the intervention before a primary end point occurred. The reasons for discontinuing
the intervention are enumerated only for those not lost to follow-up. INH denotes isoniazid, and
TB tuberculosis.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
The baseline characteristics were generally well-balanced between the two groups (Table 3) in
both cohorts.
Illustration
Table 3:
Baseline Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or
Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
Infants underwent randomization at a median age of 96 days. All infants had received BCG
vaccination by 30 days of age, before their positive HIV status was determined. The majority of
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infants were indigenous Africans (97.0%). By chance, in the HIV-infected cohort, a higher
percentage of children of mixed ancestry were enrolled in the isoniazid group. A history of
maternal tuberculosis was reported for 7.1% and 7.2% of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected
participants, respectively. Four participants in the HIV-infected cohort, who initially had a positive
HIV PCR test, were subsequently found to be HIV-negative on PCR assay. At study entry, 65.3% of
HIV-infected infants were asymptomatic (CDC clinical category N) and 26.2% were mildly
symptomatic (category A) (Table 3).
Illustration
Table 3:
Baseline Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or
Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
Among children who were confirmed to be HIV-infected, the median CD4+ lymphocyte percentage
and HIV-1 viral load were 28% and 625,000 copies per milliliter, respectively, at study entry, and
171 children (31.5%) had already started to receive antiretroviral treatment (Table 3).
Illustration
Table 3:
Baseline Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or
Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
Efficacy
HIV-Infected Cohort
Primary end points are detailed in Table 4.
Illustration
Table 4:
Summary of First End Point Met toward Primary Outcome Measures in Children Randomly
Assigned to Isoniazid or Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
Participants who reached more than one end point were categorized according to the first end
point met. Eight participants with previous protocol-defined tuberculosis died, and only
tuberculosis end points were included in the efficacy analysis for these participants. Either
protocol-defined tuberculosis or death occurred in 52 children (19.0%) in the isoniazid group as
compared with 53 children (19.3) in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.98; 95% confidence
interval [CI], 0.67 to 1.44) (Fig. 1 in the Supplementary Appendix). Tuberculosis accounted for 31
(59.6%) of the primary end points in the isoniazid group and for 38 (71.7%) in the placebo group
(P=0.40); death accounted for 21 (40.4%) and 15 (28.3%) of the primary end points in the two
groups, respectively (P=0.12). The results were similar when the analysis was adjusted for status
with respect to antiretroviral treatment at baseline and maternal history of tuberculosis. Overall,
98.9% of HIV-infected children were initiated on antiretroviral treatment during the study. The
results of analyses of the secondary end points were consistent with lack of efficacy. In addition, a
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post hoc analysis of the composite end point of "probable" or "definite" tuberculosis showed no
significant difference in incidence between the isoniazid group (10 participants, 3.7%) and the
placebo group (11 participants, 4.0%; P=0.83). The overall incidence of tuberculosis was 121
cases per 1000 child-years (95% CI, 95 to 153).
Details on compliance with study follow-up, HIV-AIDS disease progression, and mortality rates and
causes of death are provided in the Supplementary Appendix. Self-reported compliance at
scheduled visits (defined as no missed doses since the last visit) ranged from 74 to 92% across
visits and did not differ significantly between the study groups.
HIV-Uninfected Cohort
The rate of loss to follow-up at 96 weeks was 14.4% (95% CI, 12.0 to 17.0) in the cohort of
children without HIV infection, with no significant difference between the isoniazid and placebo
groups (P=0.58). Eighty-four children (10.4%) reached a primary end point, a composite of
tuberculosis disease, latent tuberculosis infection, or death. The estimated hazard ratio for the
isoniazid group as compared with the placebo group was 0.85 (95% CI, 0.55 to 1.30) (Table 4,
Illustration
Table 4:
Summary of First End Point Met toward Primary Outcome Measures in Children Randomly
Assigned to Isoniazid or Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
and Fig. 1 in the Supplementary Appendix). There was no significant difference between study
groups (P=0.44) (Table 4).
Illustration
Table 4:
Summary of First End Point Met toward Primary Outcome Measures in Children Randomly
Assigned to Isoniazid or Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
Analyses of all secondary end points showed lack of efficacy of isoniazid prophylaxis as compared
with placebo. The overall incidence of tuberculosis was 41 cases per 1000 child-years (95% CI, 31
to 52). Six HIV-uninfected children (three each in the isoniazid and placebo groups) died of either
gastroenteritis or unknown reasons (Table 1 in the Supplementary Appendix). Survival did not
differ significantly between the study groups (P>0.99). Self-reported compliance at scheduled
visits ranged from 62 to 82% across visits and was similar in the two groups.
Drug-Susceptibility Testing
Overall, isoniazid resistance was identified in 5 of 19 children (26.3%; 95% CI, 9.2 to 51.2) with
culture-confirmed tuberculosis who were tested for susceptibility. Of these 5 children, 2 children (1
HIV-infected and 1 HIV-uninfected) were in the isoniazid group and 3 (all HIV-uninfected) were in
the placebo group.
Safety
Rates of grade 3 or higher clinical or laboratory abnormalities were similar in the two study
groups, stratified according to HIV status (Table 2 in the Supplementary Appendix). With the
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exception of grade 3 peripheral neuropathy in one HIV-infected child in the isoniazid group, all
grade 3 or higher toxic effects resolved, allowing for the resumption of treatment with the
randomly assigned study drug. All reportable serious adverse events are shown in Table 3
Illustration
Table 3:
Baseline Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or
Placebo.
[Image Omitted: See PDF]
in the Supplementary Appendix.
Discussion
The prevention of tuberculosis in perinatally exposed HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected infants in
areas with high incidences of tuberculosis and HIV infection, such as southern Africa, is a major
public health challenge. The only current alternative to BCG vaccination for preventing
tuberculosis is chemoprophylaxis, especially with isoniazid. Our study showed no benefit of
isoniazid as preexposure prophylaxis in improving disease-free survival among HIV-infected
children or infection-free survival among HIV-uninfected children. Similarly, a post hoc analysis
that included the composite outcome of protocol-defined tuberculosis, death, or non-algorithm
tuberculosis showed no significant differences in outcome between the isoniazid group (24.2%)
and the placebo group (24.1%, P=0.93) among HIV-infected children.
A meta-analysis of trials of tuberculosis prophylaxis in HIV-infected adults showed that isoniazid
reduced the incidence of tuberculosis (by 62%) in those with a positive tuberculin skin test but
was ineffective in those with a negative test,17 suggesting that prophylaxis does not prevent
primary tuberculosis. In addition, the meta-analysis showed no significant overall reduction in
mortality.17 These data are corroborated by our study, in which isoniazid prophylaxis failed to
prevent tuberculosis among HIV-infected children without a history of MTB exposure.
The other major published study of isoniazid prophylaxis in HIV-infected children was undertaken
in Cape Town, South Africa. Isoniazid prophylaxis was associated with a 54% reduction in all-cause
mortality and a 72% reduction in the incidence of tuberculosis, prompting early trial termination
by the data and safety monitoring board.18 There were marked differences between the HIVinfected children enrolled in our study and those in the Cape Town study, limiting a direct
comparison of the findings from the two studies. The children enrolled by Zar et al. as compared
with our cohort were older (median age, 24.7 months vs. 96 days), had been treated for
tuberculosis in some cases before enrollment (16% vs. 0%), were more likely to be severely
immunocompromised (CDC category B or C, 88% vs. 8%), were less likely to be receiving
antiretroviral treatment at study entry (9% vs. 31%), had lower CD4+ percentages (20% vs. 28%),
and were more severely malnourished at study entry (median z score, -1.56 vs. -0.58). In addition,
9% of children in the study by Zar et al. had a reactive tuberculin skin test at study entry, possibly
indicating previous MTB infection.
Contrary to the findings of the meta-analysis of antituberculosis prophylaxis in HIV-infected adults
with a nonreactive tuberculin skin test,17 the study by Zar et al. showed a 49% reduction in
mortality and a 68% reduction in the incidence of tuberculosis among children with a nonreactive
tuberculin skin test.18 A clinically relevant aspect of the findings by Zar et al. is that the causes of
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death in both groups were primarily attributed to sepsis (44%), pneumonia (22%), and
gastroenteritis (9%), not directly to tuberculosis. However, tuberculosis could have predisposed
the children to bacterial infection.19 In addition, the greatest difference in survival observed
between the groups occurred primarily within 30 days after randomization, with marginal
differences between the groups thereafter. The study also enrolled 44.8% of the children during
the course of hospitalization for an acute illness.20
Because the progression from MTB infection to active disease takes 1 to 3 months to be
manifested,21 the mechanism by which isoniazid prophylaxis prevented tuberculosis and
improved survival in the study by Zar et al. remains unexplained. It is possible, however, that the
reduction in the incidence of tuberculosis observed in the isoniazid group by Zar et al. was the
result of treatment of unrecognized underlying primary tuberculosis in the enrolled children, as
was observed in early studies of isoniazid,22 rather than the result of prophylaxis against MTB
infection and its progression, which was the objective in our study.
Possible reasons why isoniazid prophylaxis was ineffective in children without known MTB
exposure in our study include a suboptimal dose of the drug, isoniazid resistance, lack of
compliance with the medication regimen, and issues regarding the specificity of the study end
points. A discussion of these factors is available in the Supplementary Appendix.
Finally, a limitation of our study is related to possible changes in the epidemiology of tuberculosis
and in mortality among HIV-infected children because of increased access to antiretroviral
treatment. The overall rate of a primary end point among HIV-infected children in our study was
22% over a period of 96 weeks, which is below the 40% rate that we originally estimated. We
therefore continued enrolling children after the initial target enrollment of 500 participants had
been reached. The futility analysis, nevertheless, indicated that even with the most optimistic
estimates, it was unlikely that the study was adequately powered to show significant differences
in the primary end points between the two groups. Our study was adequately powered (91.7%) to
detect a 50% relative reduction in primary end points among HIV-infected children on the basis of
an estimate that 25% of the children in the placebo group would reach a primary end point over
the 96-week period, an incidence similar to that observed in our study.
In conclusion, in our study isoniazid prophylaxis as compared with placebo was safe but
ineffective as preexposure prophylaxis against tuberculosis in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected
children. However, the results of our study are specific to a setting such as South Africa with a
high dual burden of tuberculosis and HIV infection. Much insight has been gained into the
epidemiology of tuberculosis in southern Africa in the era of antiretroviral treatment. In a study
conducted in Cape Town from 2004 to 2007, the incidence of culture-confirmed tuberculosis was
1596 cases per 100,000 HIV-infected infants.7 In addition, the incidence of hospitalization for
culture-confirmed and all categories of pulmonary tuberculosis in Johannesburg, before the
introduction of antiretroviral treatment, was 3028 per 100,000 and 10,016 per 100,000,
respectively, in children under 5 years of age.8 The burden of tuberculosis among HIV-infected
children (121 cases per 1000 child-years) in our study remained high despite access to
antiretroviral treatment. A high burden of tuberculosis was also identified among HIV-exposed
uninfected children (41 cases per 1000 child-years). These findings underscore the need to
explore alternative options for the prevention and management of tuberculosis in HIV-exposed
children.
Drs. Madhi, McSherry, and Mitchell contributed equally to this article.
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The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily
represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
Overall support for the International Maternal-Pediatric-Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT)
Group was provided by grants from the NIAID (U01 AI068632), the Eunice Kennedy Shriver
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), and the National Institute of
Mental Health (AI068632). This work was supported by the Statistical and Data Analysis Center at
the Harvard School of Public Health, under NIAID cooperative agreements with the Pediatric AIDS
Clinical Trials Group (5 U01 AI41110) and the IMPAACT Group (1 U01 AI068616). Support of the
sites was provided by NIAID and the NICHD International and Domestic Pediatric and Maternal HIV
Clinical Trials Network (NICHD contract number N01-DK-9-001/HHSN267200800001C). The study
was also funded by a grant from the Secure the Future Fund, a philanthropy program sponsored
by Bristol-Myers Squibb.
Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with the full text of this article at NEJM.org.
We thank the parents and legal guardians for allowing their children to participate in the clinical
trial; the health care workers for providing care to the participants; other members of the P1041
team for assisting in the conduct of the study; Peter R. Donald, M.D., and H. Simon Schaaf, M.D.,
for their critical review of the manuscript; and Anneke Hesseling, M.D., for her contribution to
drug-susceptibility testing.
Supplementary Appendix
Supplementary PDF file supplied by authors.
Protocol
Financial Disclosures
Financial disclosure PDF file supplied by authors.
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(http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/clinicaltrials/documents/DAIDS_AE_GradingTable_FinalDec2004.pdf
.)
17. Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV
infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;1:CD000171-CD000171
18. Zar HJ, Cotton MF, Strauss S, Effect of isoniazid prophylaxis on mortality and incidence of
tuberculosis in children with HIV:randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2007;334:136-136
19. Moore DP, Klugman KP, Madhi SA Role of Streptococcus pneumoniae in hospitalization for
acute community-acquired pneumonia associated with culture-confirmed Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in children:a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine probe study. Pediatr Infect Dis J
2010;29:1099-1004
20. Cotton MF, Wasserman E, Smit J, Whitelaw A, Zar HJ High incidence of antimicrobial resistant
organisms including extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae and
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in nasopharyngeal and blood isolates of HIV-infected
children from Cape Town, South Africa. BMC Infect Dis 2008;8:40-40
21. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, Beyers N, Donald PR, Starke JR Childhood pulmonary
tuberculosis:old wisdom and new challenges. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:1078-1090
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22. Mount FW, Ferebee SH Preventive effects of isoniazid in the treatment of primary tuberculosis
in children. N Engl J Med 1961;265:713-721
From the Department of Science and Technology/National Research Foundation: Vaccine
Preventable Diseases and the Medical Research Council: Respiratory and Meningeal Pathogens
Research Unit (S.A.M.), and the Perinatal HIV Research Unit (A.V.), University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg; Stellenbosch University, Cape Town (M.F.C.); and the University of KwaZulu Natal,
Durban (R.B.) -- all in South Africa; the Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York at
Stony Brook, Stony Brook (S.N.); the Center for Biostatistics in AIDS Research, Department of
Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston (S.K.); Henry Jackson Foundation, Division of
AIDS, Bethesda, MD (P.J.-P.); Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey (G.M.);
and the University of Miami, Miami (C.M.).
Address reprint requests to Dr. Madhi at the Respiratory and Meningeal Pathogens Research Unit,
P.O. Box 90753, Bertsham, Gauteng 2013, South Africa, or at [email protected].

Subject: Human immunodeficiency virus--HIV; Children & youth; Disease transmission; Age;
MeSH: Antitubercular Agents -- adverse effects, Double-Blind Method, Drug Resistance, Bacterial,
Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Infant, Intention to Treat Analysis, Isoniazid -- adverse effects,
Kaplan-Meier Estimate, Male, Tuberculosis -- diagnosis, Viral Load, AIDS-Related Opportunistic
Infections -- prevention & control (major), Antitubercular Agents -- therapeutic use (major), HIV
Infections -- drug therapy (major), HIV-1 (major), Isoniazid -- therapeutic use (major), Tuberculosis
-- prevention & control (major)
Location: Botswana, South Africa
Substance: Antitubercular Agents; Isoniazid;
Corporate/institutional author: P1041 Study Team
Publication title: The New England Journal of Medicine
Volume: 365
Issue: 1
Pages: 21-31
Number of pages: 11
Publication year: 2011
Publication date: Jul 7, 2011
Year: 2011
Section: Original Article
Publisher: Massachusetts Medical Society
Place of publication: Boston
Country of publication: United States
Publication subject: Medical Sciences
ISSN: 00284793
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CODEN: NEJMAG
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: General Information, Clinical Trial, Phase II
Accession number: 21732834
ProQuest document ID: 875534004
Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/875534004?accountid=50673
Copyright: Copyright 2011 Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.
Last updated: 2014-04-03
Database: ProQuest Medical Library,ProQuest Psychology Journals,ProQuest Nursing & Allied
Health Source

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Bibliography
Citation style: Vancouver
(1) Madhi, Shabir A,M.D., PhD., Nachman S, M.D., Violari A, M.D., Kim S, ScD., Cotton, Mark F,M.D.,
PhD., Bobat R, M.D., et al. Primary Isoniazid Prophylaxis against Tuberculosis in HIV-Exposed
Children. N Engl J Med 2011 Jul 07;365(1):21-31.

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