PART I - Ergonomics 1 PDF

What is Ergonomics?
The word ergonomics comes from two Greek words: ERGO: meaning work NOMOS:
meaning laws Therefore, ergonomics is the law of work.
Ergonomics is a science focused on the study of human fit, and decreased fatigue and
discomfort through product design. Ergonomics is the science of designing the job to fit the
worker, rather than physically forcing the workers body to fit the job. What do you say about
the fitness of this person and his work shown on figure 1?
Ergonomics puts people first, taking into account their capabilities and limitations.
Ergonomics aims to make sure that tasks, equipment, information and the environment suit
each worker. At work, school, home, when job fit the user, the result can be more comfort,
higher productivity, and less stress.
Ergonomics is defined as the design of the workplace, equipment, machine, tool, product,
environment, and system, considering humans capabilities and optimizing effectiveness and
productivity of work systems while assuring safety, health, and wellbeing of workers.
Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)
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Application of ergonomics principles to work practices allows prevention and control of

musculoskeletal injuries arising from repetitive or forceful movement or/and maintaining
awkward or constrained postures. And it goal is to reduce work-related musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs) by adapting the work to fit the person, instead of forcing the person to
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adapt to the work. Since everything is designed for human use or consumption, human
characteristics should be considered at the beginning of the design process.
Ergonomics is used to design an environment (layout, work methods, equipment, noise, etc)
which is compatible with each individuals physical and behavioral characteristics.
Ergonomics looks at the behavior of the person performing the job. Good ergonomic design
makes the most efficient use of worker capabilities while ensuring that job demands to not
exceed those capabilities. Many years ago, equipment was built to do a job not to fit a
person. Most factory jobs needed a tall person with long arms to work the equipment. Now
factory equipment is adjustable to fit the different employees who work there. Another
example is the old clerical chairs that were stationary. Now most chairs are adjustable.
Historical background of Ergonomics

Ergonomics starts in the context of the culture of ancient Greece.
In 1700s, Ramazzini describes relationship between physical labor and stress invoked
in human body.
In 1800s, Taylor develops methods & tools to reduce work fatigue.
In 1920s and 1930s, Frank and Gilbreth provide the foundation for the science of
Ergonomics.
In 1949, discipline of ergonomics emerged in Great Britain.
In 1960s and 1970s, ergonomics became familiar study in IE.
In late 1970s, it was recognized as a multidisciplinary field at Michigan University.
Ergonomics Approach
According to IEA, ergonomics broadly divide into three domains:
1. Physical ergonomics: is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric,
physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
2. Cognitive ergonomics: is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements
of a system.
3.
Organizational ergonomics: is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical
systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes.
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Ergonomics system Dimensions
People consider points about physical capacities, psychological drivers, expectations

and individual differences.
Task Analysis considers points about
performance measures, quality requirements
& what, how, when details.

Tools & Equipment considers points about design of tools to suit (Persons and
Tasks).
Workplace design considers points about layout of workplace, workstation design,
adjustability / adaptability and storage / transport of items.
Work Environment considers points about physical, psychological, chemical and
biological.
Work Organization consider points about
job design, team based requirements,
working hours / shift work, rest breaks and task specialization.

Workplace culture considers points about
management commitment / leadership,
communication / consultation processes and feedback / performance management.
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Goal of Ergonomics
Effects of poor Ergonomics
Reduced error
Discomfort
Fewer injuries or illness
Accidents and injuries
Fewer health problems
Fatigue
Increased productivity
Errors
Higher quality
Illness
Annoyance
Productivity down
Anthropometry
The science of measuring the human body as to height, weight, and size of component parts,
including skin fold thickness, to study and compare the relative proportions under
normal/abnormal conditions and for the purposes of understanding human physical variation.
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Anthropometry is the science that measures the range of body sizes in a population. When
designing products it is important to remember that people come in many sizes and shapes.
Anthropometric data varies considerably between regional populations. For example,
Scandinavian populations tend to be taller, while Asian and Italian populations tend to be
shorter.
Types of Anthropometry
There are two types of anthropometry measurements
Structural anthropometry (often called static anthropometry) measurement of
the body at rest including overall measurements like total stature and weight,
measurements of links or circumferences like wrist to elbow, knee to hip,
circumference of head and measurement of specific landmarks in reference to some
other point, like the floor, e.g eye height.
Static Measurements
Functional anthropometry (often called dynamic anthropometry) measurement

of the body in motion like the reach envelope of seated work, the movement of body
parts in relationship to one another or the space required to turn a wheelchair.
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Functional dimensions
The ten most important human engineering dimensions

1. Height
2. Weight
3. Sitting height
4. Buttock-knee length
5. Buttock-popliteal length
6. Breadth across elbows
7. Breadth across hips (seated)
8. Knee height
9. Popliteal height
10. Thigh clearance height
Purpose of measuring anthropometric measurements
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Stature: This is used to determine the minimum overhead clearance required to avoid
head collision.
Functional overhead reach: This is used to determine the maximum height of
overhead controls.
Functional foreword reach: Items that are often used within the workstation should
be located with in the functional reach.
Buttock-knee-depth: This defines the seat depth for chairs and clearance under the
work table
Popliteal height: This is used to determine the range of adjustability for adjustable
chairs.
Buttock popliteal depth: This is used to determine the length of the seat pad.
Elbow height: This is an important marker for determining work height and table
height.
Design of Anthropometry
Anthropometry design motto
A. Let the small person reach
B. Let the large person fit.
The anthropometric motto implies that reach distances should be designed for the small, 5th
percentile individual, where as clearance dimensions should be designed for the large, 95th
percentile individual.
Anthropometrics Design Principles
There are three general anthropometric design principles useful in the design of
workspaces. Each Design principle is described with its advantages and disadvantages
1. Design for Average: With the design for average principle, you design a workspace for
the average-sized person or a one-size-fit all approach. This is a commonly used approach
by designers without knowledge of population variability and is generally not
recommended.
2. Design for Extreme: The design for extreme principle is very useful in specific
circumstances when it make sense to design a dimension at an extreme end of the
distribution and, because of its function, the entire distribution is accommodated. Here are
a few examples: Doorways, escape apparatus, ladders, etc are designed so that extremely
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tall males and extremely broad people can fit through it. Both these dimensions exceed
the 99th percentile for height and body breadth.
3. Design for Range: Designing for the range normally means designing an adjustable
workspace. For example the standing workstation for light assembly, an adjustable-height
workstation might be designed to accommodate elbow heights ranging from the 5th
percentile female to the 95th percentile male. Now the potential shoulder, neck, and low
back discomfort may have been eliminated.
Percentile Humans
Anthropometric dimensions for each population are ranked by size and described as
percentiles. It is common practice to design for the 5th percentile (5th%) female to the 95th
percentile (95th%) male.
The 5th% female value for a particular dimension (e.g. sitting height) usually represents the
smallest measurement for design in a population. Conversely, a 95th% male value may
represent the largest dimension for which one is designing. The 5th% to 95th% range
accommodates approximately 90% of the population. To design for a larger portion of the
population, one might use the range from the 1st% female to the 99th% male.
Figure below shows comparisons of percentile males and females.
FIG: The relative sizes of different percentile humans.
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Human Measurement Editor (HME)
HME allowed the designer to personalise the manikin dimensions and to select its
work position.
After establishing the manikins type and dimension, the user must choose the work
position by correct manipulation of the object.
Users can amend all 103 anthropometric variables on the manikin.

The HME also has the capacity to define the mean and standard deviation of all
anthropometry variables.
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Common Workplace Postures

There are common postures found in working environment that can be considered when
designing workplace products or space. This section reviews guidelines for these postures:
Standing
Sitting
Reaching
Moving
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1- Standing
Some users may need or want to stand while at their workstations.
If this is the case, an appropriate desk can be designed and selected for the type of work
being performed.
Desk height for a standing operator can range from 28-43"(Grandjean, 1997) depending
on whether the desk is for precision, light, or heavy work.
Different work-surface heights can be used depending on the type of work performed.
2-Sitting
Knowing what parameters to design for while the user is seated can help increase the
comfort of the user. Common seated anthropometric measurements can be seen in
Figure below.
Common anthropometric measurements for the seated position
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3. Reaching
While sitting or standing, an individual at work will usually have to reach for
something.
The workstation, and parts that go with workstations (such as overhead storage and
pedestals), should allow the majority of movement of the users body joints within
healthy zones.
When designing products, consider how much individuals will have to reach in order
to minimize awkward or unhealthy positions.
4- Moving
Users will move around in their environment to file papers, answer a phone, or
stretch. An occasional break from sitting is encouraged because it helps to stimulate
muscles, and increases blood flow, which decreases fatigue.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOMECHANICAL ERGONOMICS

Work physiology
Work physiology is the study of the function of the human organisms affected by muscular
work stresses. Work physiologists devise work systems that allow individuals to accomplish
their work without developing excessive fatigue, so that at the end of the work day not only
can they recover from the work-induced fatigue for returning to work on the next day, but
also they will be able to enjoy their off-the-job leisure time.
Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the internal workings of living things,
including functions such as metabolism, respiration, and reproduction, rather than with their
shape or structure. This science is applied by the job designers towards two objectives: the
most productive use of human capabilities, and the maintenance of human health and wellbeing. Work physiology addresses the energy requirements of the body, and sets standards
for acceptable physical work-rate and workload, and for nutrition requirements. Physiology
deals with the functions and activities of the living body including the physical and chemical
processes involved. Environmental physiology analyses the impact of physical working
conditions thermal, noise and vibration, and lighting and sets the optimum requirements.
The bodys physiological responses to physical workload involve the musculoskeletal and
cardiovascular systems. Muscular forces are required to perform the physical work , that is, to
hold and move the load from one point to another. Muscular activities (muscle contraction
and extension) during physical work require energy. Supplying the demanded energy creates
loads on the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels) and respiratory (lungs) system.
The heart must pump faster to deliver the increased oxygen demand through blood vessels to
the involved muscles. The rate of ventilation (inhalation and exhalation) must increase to
supply the additional oxygen requirements.
These physiological responses are directly
related to the work intensity (workload). They are assessed in-terms of such parameters as
heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, respiration rate, and oxygen consumption rate.
Ergonomics typically examine energy expenditure rates to assess physiological demand on
workers. In theory, if workers are required to exert less than 50% of their energy expenditure
capacity during the work day, then they should not become physiologically strained during
the work day.
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Mostly the recommended workload is less than 33% of the workers capacity for the work
day.
Energy and energy sources of the body
The body obtains the energy demanded by the muscles involved in physical activities in two
ways: aerobically (i.e. in the presence of oxygen) and anaerobically (in the absence of
oxygen). When the person performs a normal-paced work activity, which can be sustained for
a relatively long period of time, the oxygen entering into the body through the lungs is
sufficient to meet the energy requirements. Under resting conditions (basal metabolism),
approximately two-thirds of the energy consumed by the body is supplied by fat and the rest
by carbohydrates.
Categories of work: there are two categories of work: prolonged work or continuous work
typically involves sub-maximal efforts for a relatively long period of time (maintained for a
few minutes to several hours).
FIG : Oxygen consumption profile for a prolonged work bout
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Intermittent work usually consists of sustained effort for short periods of time
followed by periods of rests.
Fig: Oxygen consumption profile for an intermittent work bout
Respiration: the process of exchanging carbon dioxide and oxygen between the
bodys organisms and the environment is called respiration. In humans, the gas
exchange takes place in the lungs, at the alveolar-capillary and tissue-capillary
membranes, by diffusion.
Circulatory system: The circulatory system is the plumbing system of the body.
Oxygenated blood is delivered to the capillary beds where gas exchange can take
place in the tissues.
Oxygen is diffused into the cells, and carbon dioxide and waste products are diffused
into the blood stream. In the lungs, the partial pressure differences between the
venous blood and the air in the lungs will result in carbon dioxide being removed
from the blood and eliminated through exhalation, and oxygen being extracted from
the inhaled air.
Cardiac output is the volume of blood ejected into the main artery by the left ventricle
per unit time (typically expressed in liters per minute or L . min-1). It is a product of
stroke volume times heart rate.
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Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle during a
ventricular contraction (usually expressed in milliliters per heartbeat or ml . beat-1).
CARDIAC OUTPUT
Stroke volume can change with both level of activity and level of training. Heart rate
is defined as the number of ventricular beats per minute. Heart rate is generally
assume to be the same as pulse rate. We can express cardiac output by the following
equation:
Cardiac output = SV * HR
SV Stroke volume in ml.beat-1
HR Heart rate in beats per minute (bpm)
At rest the cardiac output for an adult male is approximately 5-6 L . min-1. Cardiac
output can increase to 25-30 L. min-1 during heavy work. During increased metabolic
activity, blood flow is distributed to the working muscles.
Metabolism: It is a series of biomechanical processes that take place in the body. It
may be defined as the collective chemical process of the conversion of foodstuffs and
oxygen into mechanical work (both internal and external) and heat.
PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY

Physical work capacity (PWC) refers to the maximum capabilities of the physiological
systems to produce energy for muscular work.
In a normal healthy person, the PWC is directly related to the capability of the
cardiovascular system to provide oxygen to the working muscles and to remove waste
products of metabolism.
PWC can be defined in terms of specific muscle group activities (e.g., PWC for arm
lifting tasks) or for whole-body activities (e.g., inclined tread mill walking, ladder
climbing, or other activities involving the major muscle groups of the body).
Workplace Designs
The work place should be designed in such a way that employees
will be able to
perform their jobs effectively.

To achieve this crucial goal, the workplace designer should keep two design factors in
mind.
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1.
The first factor is that there is a large variability in size of people in the work-force
population.
2.
The second factor is to understand the user population; that is, culture, education,
training, skills, attitude, physical and mental capability, etc.
Therefore, designers should be cautious that the worst design mistake they can make
is, probably, to design to their own personal specifications (the syndrome of if I can
use it, it must be designed well).
Such a mistake can be avoided by using the relevant anthropometric data in design of
the workplace for the work-force population.
The design of workstations should be based upon anthropometric data, behavioral
patterns of employees, and specific requirements of the work being done.
For example, the height at which work takes place is important in designing
workstations. Work should be located to suit the height of the operator, whether
sitting or standing.
If the work is located too high, the neck and shoulders may suffer due to the shoulders
frequently being raised to compensate for the incorrect height.
If the work is located too low, a backache can result from required leaning and
bowing the back.
Adjustable work tables allow operators to determine a comfortable working height.
Anthropometric dimensions can also be used in workplace layout to optimize vertical
and horizontal reaches and grasps.
General principles for workstation design

The general principle for designing individual workstation is to provide an efficient and safe
location in which the work can be performed. To establish this general principle, the design
engineer must answer the following six key questions:
1. What must the work see while on the job? This includes: parts of the workplace
that must be visible to the worker; number, types, and locations of controls that
must be utilized by the worker and the types of actions required to operate them;
interaction with other workers; and necessity to view the job activities performed
by other workers.
2. What must the worker hear? This includes the oral communication during job
performance, auditory signals that must heard by the worker.
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3. What tasks must the worker perform? the designer must determine the required
movements and job tasks performed by the worker. It must be determined whether
the job requires lifting, carrying, and positioning of materials. The types of tools
needed to perform the job must also be considered.
4. What is the consequence of objectives? The designer must understand the nature
and sequence of the job activities that must be performed by the worker.
5. What clearances are required? The designer must determine and make provisions
for clearances that are required in order for the worker to perform the job
efficiently and safely. The designer must consider the size of the workers who will
perform jobs at the workstation and clearances for their clothing and movements.
6. What storage is required? The designer must make provisions for the storage of
raw materials, in-process work-pieces, and finished product, as well as the worktools and other job aids that must be used and stored at the workstation.
In general, the work place design must satisfy the following important criteria:
Be economical;
Enhance the workers efficiency;
Allow good working postures;
Minimize fatigue;
Minimize health-and safety-risks, such as stresses on the musculoskeletal system.
The application of ergonomic principles in the workplace can result in the following:
increased productivity;
improved health and safety of workers;
lower workers compensation claims;
compliance with government regulations (e.g. OSHA standards)
job satisfaction;
increased work quality;
lower worker turnover;
lower lost time at work;
improved morale of workers;
decrease in absenteeism rate.
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Inadequate design of workplace will inhibit the ability of worker to perform his tasks
and may result in injuries, strain or fatigue.
Anthropometry is the measure of human body and the data is used to design
workplace, chairs, tools, equipment and others.
The goal of workplace design is to provide efficient, safe, and comfort for the worker.
Workplace design considers age, sex, body size, strength, disabilities and others.
1.
Work should be located to suit the height of the operator, whether sitting or standing.
If the work is located too high, the neck and shoulders may suffer due to the
shoulders frequently being raised.
2.
If the work is located too low, a back pain can result from required leaning & bowing
back
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Three workplace layout are:

The first one is actual working area 1 which is most convenient area for working.
The second workplace layout is normal working area 2 that is within the easy reach of
the operator.
The third suggested area is maximum working area 3 which is accessible with full
arm stretch.
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Digital workplace with a digital human model
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Digital workplace with adjustable material shuttles
Ergonomically planned manual assembly system
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3. CATIA V5 R16: A TOOL FOR ERGONOMIC DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

CATIA an abbreviation of (Computer Aided Three Dimensional Interactive Application) is a
multi-platform CAD/CAM/CAE commercial software suite. Commands are organized in
workbenches in CATIA. Each workbench has commands to do a specific work. Product
structure workbench is the default workbench. There are several workbenches available for
our use; they are listed in the start menu. Some of the available workbenches in CATIA V5
are as follows:
Infrastructure (Product Structure, Material Library, Product Data Filtering, etc).
Mechanical Design (Part Design, Assembly Design, Sketcher, Structure Design,
Drafting, Wireframe and surface Design, etc).
Shapes (Freestyle, Sketch Tracer, Generative Shape Design, etc.)
Analysis and Simulation (Advanced Meshing Tools)
AEC Plant (Plant Layout)
Machining (Lathe Machining, Surface Machining, Advanced Machining, etc).
Equipment & System (Electrical Cabling Discipline, HVAC Discipline)
Machining Simulation
Ergonomics Design & Analysis (Human Builder, Human Activity Analysis, Human
posture, etc).
Knowledge ware (Knowledge Advisor)
One of the features of CATIA is the Specification Tree. It lists all the features of the part.
The sketching area is called Geometry Area. To sketch a part in CATIA, several tools are
available from the toolbars. Commonly used workbenches in CATIA are Sketcher and Part
Design. Sketcher is used to draw two-dimensional profiles. In part design workbench, we
can create hybrid design, geometrical set and/or ordered geometrical set. It allows us to draw
three-dimensional objects.
3.1 Ergonomics Design and Analysis using CATIA V5 R16
The ergonomics design and analysis process using CATIA V5 is possible with the help of
Ergonomics Design and Analysis (EDA) module. By implementing and using the ergonomics
facilities we obtain a CATProduct. The EDA contains four modules: Human Builder (HB),
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Human Posture Analysis (HPA), Human Measurement Editor (HME), and Human Activity
Analysis (HAA).
3.1.1 Human Builder
Human Builder is based on a best-in-class human modeling system which, for many years,
has permitted detailed investigation into human-centered design issues in the context of a
workplace before it physically exists. Human Builder provides very accurate simulation of
humans and their interactions with products to ensure they will operate naturally in a
workplace tailored to their tasks. The Human Builder product specifically focuses on creating
and manipulating digital humans for "first level" human-product interaction analysis.
Figure 3.1 Different posture of manikin
This module can define and create the probable user of the product or system that is, in fact,
the human operator (worker) represented by a manikin. To define a new user (human body),
the New Manikin command must be selected, taking into consideration the product or the
system where the manikin will be implemented. The human interface then has to be defined.
The module allowed defining the manikin's sex and the correct percentile (%) for the human
body dimensions corresponding to the probable workers body dimensions (considering
Gauss normal distribution). Tools contained within the Human Builder product include
manikin generation, gender specification, percentile specification, direct kinematics and
inverse kinematics manipulation techniques, animation generation, monocular, binocular and
ambinocular vision simulation, as well as vision output cones. The manikin can be
manipulated as needed in the design process for defining the human interface. Moreover, it
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can be settled in a determinate position, such as Stand, Sit, Reach, Extended Reach, Span or
Kneel, and it can be moved freely by using the Posture Editor command or directly with
Forward Kinematics.
Figure 3.2 Manikin sitting on chair and work on workbench with extended reach
3.1.2 Human Posture Analysis

Human Posture Analysis focuses on how human posture can affect task performance by
analyzing local and global postures, preferred angles, and comfort. Human Posture Analysis
permits users to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze all aspects of manikin posture.
Whole body and localized postures can be examined, scored, iterated, and optimized to
determine operator comfort and performance throughout the complete range of task motion in
accordance with published comfort databases.
Human Posture Analysis module allows the designer to develop the posture analysis after
manikin definition is complete. By using the Posture analysis command the designer can edit
the angular limits of some human body (manikin) segments. After all the angular limitations
for all the human body segments have been analyzed, we have to evaluate the posture. The
system can easily establish the global score (from minimum 1 to maximum 10) of the posture
and the score for some details corresponding to the different manikin segments position.
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Based on the initial score value, we can understand whether a posture is conformable or
whether we have to optimize it. Either the designer can do this, or the software module has
the possibility for automated optimization of the posture by considering the angular limits
given by the designer. The posture command is optimized from the dialog box. Postural score
analysis can assure a correct, perfect result for the optimization (the score value is 10).
Thoracic
Lumber
Figure 3.3 Thoracic and Lumber of a manikin
User-friendly dialog boxes provide postural information for all segments of the manikin.
Color-coding techniques ensure that problem areas can be quickly identified and iterated to
optimize posture. Human Posture Analysis allows users to create specific comfort and
strength libraries to meet the needs of individual applications.
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Figure 3.4 Movement of manikin body parts

3.1.3 Human Measurements Editor
The Human Measurements Editor specifically focuses on creating detailed digital humans for
advanced human factors analysis and global target audience accommodation. This module
allows the designer to personalize the manikin. There are two possibilities for the variable
edition. The designer can either tape the variable value or adjust it. The second possibility is
better because the variable value cannot exceed the limits determined by the manikin
constitution. After establishing the manikins type and dimension, the user must choose the
work position by correct manipulation of the object. The Forward Kinematics command
allows the user to move the different body segments easily and directly. The Posture edition
command makes it possible to modify the manikins body segments by selecting them from
an additional list. Finally, the correct posture is established.
In addition to six default manikins, Human Measurements Editor users can create any human
being from any population anywhere in the world. Users can amend all 103 anthropometric
variables on the manikin or manipulate a smaller number of "critical" variables and ask the
Human Measurements Editor to determine the rest. These variables can be altered manually
by inputting desired measurements in percentile value, unit measurement, or by an intuitive
"click and drag" graphical user interface.
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The human measurements editor also has the capacity to define the mean and standard
deviation of all anthropometry variables. Using a unique multi-normal technique, the human
measurements editor ensures that resultant manikins do exist in the target population. In
addition, it is possible to specify the percentage of the population to be accommodated in the
design using the boundary manikin technique.
Figure 3.5 Measurements of manikin front and side view (standing)
Figure 3.6 Measurements of manikin side, front and back view (sitting)
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3.1.4 Human Activity Analysis

In the demanding global marketplace, ensuring that human fit, form, and function are
comprehensively addressed is becoming an increasingly important aspect of design. Human
Activities Analysis specifically focuses on how a human will interact with objects in a
working environment, as well as the effects of lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling and carrying
on task performance. Human Activity Analysis evaluates all elements of human performance
from static posture analysis to complex task activities. Human Activity Analysis possesses a
range of tools and methods that specifically analyze how a manikin will interact with objects
in the virtual environment. A designer can determine a number of task variables such as
action limit, recommended weight limit, and maximum lifting/lowering weight. Benefits
include accurately predicting human performance, ensuring conformance to health and safety
standards and maximizing human comfort and safety. Human Activity Analysis is part of the
V5-based human modeling solution that also includes Human Builder, Human Posture
Analysis, and Human Measurement Editor. Together, these tools provide designers with a
comprehensive, quantitative and intuitive capability to design products that reflect the key
skills as well as the limitations of the target audience.
This module enables development of dynamic strain analysis for an adopted position of work
activity. In this context we can evaluate the tiredness degree for a human operator that lifts a
weight with a particular frequency. We can also determine the maximum weight that can be
pushed or pulled by the human operator, etc.
Figure 3.7 Different working posture of manikin (sitting)

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The ergonomics study uses four types of analysis: (A) RULA analysis (Rapid Upper Limb
Assessment) that enables evaluation of the occupational risks that can appear at the workers
hand level considering the determinate work condition. (B) Lift/Lower analysis enables the
evaluation of the tiredness degree that is induced by weigh manipulation (lifting or lowering
of heavy objects). The analysis starts by establishing the initial and final positions of the
move. Then, the tiredness degree can be evaluated by using NIOSH 1981 based on the
tiredness degree analysis in the case of a weigh lift using a symmetric move of both hands
without turning the superior part of the body, with a maximum anvergure of 75 cm. NIOSH
1991 is an extended method of the first one where applied in the case of weight lifted using
an asymmetric move of the hands. Snook and Ciriello is similar to NIOSH 1981 but allowed
us to determine the tiredness degree depending on the length of the movement. Push/Pull
analysis allowed us to establish the tiredness degree in the case of the weights push or pull
movement and is similar to the Snook and Ciriello analysis. Carry analysis allowed us to
determine the tiredness degree when the worker is moving and carrying a considerable
weight. Based on the EDA module we have developed applications and case studies and have
elaborated a methodology in which we first define the probable user (the manikin definition)
and the optimal posture for the work place (product use) by analyzing the work position and
activities. We then define the other objects (tools, furniture) that have to be included in the
work place.
Ergonomics Seating
The two main objectives of ergonomic seating in the workplace are to increase
individual efficiency and reduce fatigue.
When sitting, the main part of body weight is transferred to the seat pan.
Some weight is also transferred to the floor, back rest, and armrests.
Where weight transferred is the key to a good seat design.
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The lumbar needs to be supported to decrease disc pressure.

Providing a seat back that inclines backwards and has a lumbar support is critical to
prevent excessive low back pressures.
Another key to reducing lumbar disc pressure is the use of armrests.
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Some ergonomics principles that should be applied to the workplace, whether it be an

industrial or an office environment, include the following:
Aim at dynamic work, avoid static work (work where there is no movement). Static
work or static loading of the muscles is inefficient and accelerates fatigue. Static work
can occur when the workplace is too high or too low, when holding a weight in ones
arms for an extended period, or constant bending of the back to perform some task.
Work surface heights should depend on the size(anthropometry) of the worker and the
type of task performed (precision, light assembly, or heavy manual).
In general, work within 30 per cent of ones maximum voluntary contraction
(strength). Avoid overloading of the muscular system.
Primary controls, devices, and work pieces should be placed within the normal
working area. Secondary controls should be placed within the maximum working area
so as to reduce extended reaches and fatigue.
Strive for best mechanical advantage of the skeletal system.
Work with both hands. Do not use one hand (non-preferred hand) as a biological
holding device.
Hands should move in symmetrical and opposite directions.
Use the feet as well as the hands.
Design knowing the capacity of the fingers. Do not overload the fingers.
Avoid unnatural posture. Bend the handle of the tool not the wrist.
Permit change of posture.
Maintain a proper sitting posture.
Ergonomics tools and techniques
Work-tools are extensions of human hands. They enhance the capability of the users
in performing their tasks so efficiently that the tasks would otherwise be difficult, if
not impossible.
However, the ill-effects of an improperly designed work-tool can be devastating, yet
so subtle as to remain blameless.
Poorly designed tools are one of the common factors contributing to the development
of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). They can also impair the productivity of
workers.
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Improper use of a work-tool, regardless of its design, can also lead to CTD problems.
Tools can also cause bodily injuries in single-exposure incidents. Ergonomically welldesigned and properly used tools can reduce or prevent such problems.
The principles of ergonomics and biomechanics should be considered in the selection,
evaluation, and use of work-tools.
Grip Strength and Endurance
Grip strength and endurance are two terms related to the design and use of hand tools
which have been defined by Bazar (1978).
Grip strength is the maximum momentary squeeze force exerted on a hand
dynamometer.
Endurance is the length of time a person can exert a specified force. Consideration of
grip strength and endurance is very important in the design and use of hand-tools
requiring gripping force, and in manual materials handling (MMH).
Grip strength and endurance can be measured using a hand dynamometer. A hand
dynamometer is a device which measures the force an individual exerts through the
hand grip.
The fingers in a normal closed fist form an elliptical shape (Fig A). The grip strength
in this situation is found to be greater than when the person tries to hold the tool
handle perpendicular to the hand-arm axis without changing the wrist posture, as
illustrated in (Fig B).
A- Normal closed fist
B- An abnormal closed fist
What factors are known to affect both grip strength and endurance, and should be considered
in hand-tool design?
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1. Size of grip span and diameter: The tool handle should fit the hand of the user. A handle of
a too large or too small grip diameter cannot be held comfortably and reduces the grip
strength.
2. Type of grasp/grip: Power grip strength is about four times greater than the maximum
pinch strength. Pinch grip requires significantly higher muscle force than power grip.
3. Age: Maximal muscle strength is reached at the age of about 20 for men, and a few years
earlier for women (Rodahl, 1989).Grip strength may reach its maximum value in the
middle to late 20s and then declines as age advances.
4. Gender: The grip strength of men is greater than that of women (Falke1 et al., 1985). On
average the grip strength for women (24.5-35.0 kg for US females) is about 60% of men's
(41.9-59.8 kg for US males; Fraser, 1983).
5. Handedness: The grip strength and endurance of the dominant hand are higher than those
of the non-dominant hand. The average percentage difference between dominant and nondominant hands for men is in the range of 3.2-11.5%.
6. Vibration: Grip strength requirements for grasping and controlling vibrating tools are
higher than those required by non-vibrating tools.
7. Wrist posture: Grip strength is reduced with the deviation of the wrist from its neutral
posture.
8. Gloves: Gloves increase grip strength requirements. They also increase the size of the
hand. For example, woolen or leather gloves add 5 mm to hand thickness and 8 mm to
hand breadth at the thumb (Fraser, 1983).
Types of work tools

Work-tools may be divided into two categories:
1- Hand tools: Hand tools are non-powered and include axes, hammers, wrenches,
screwdrivers, hand saws, pliers, etc.
2- Power tools: There are several different types of power tools, based on the power source
they use. They include electric, pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic, and power-actuated tools.
A slightly bent handle better fits the natural contour of the hand and minimizes the need
for a tight grip to maintain the tool. Based on this principle in the early 1970s,John
Bennett introduced a handle for push brooms with a 19o bend at its stem (Emanuel et al.,
1980). He selected this angle as the basis for his new design to keep the user's wrist
straight. Bennett has patented the 19 5 angles on virtually all tool handles and named
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them Bio-curve tools. When a Bio-Curve tool is gripped, the third (middle) finger is
locked into the center of the curve while the other fingers naturally fall into the curve of
the handle.
A 19 angle formed by the lifeline

under the ball of the hand
A bent handle allows the wrist to

be maintained straight.
Ergonomics principles for hand-tool design and evaluation

The following ergonomic guidelines for tool design, evaluation, and selection have been
prepared.
Avoid rigid, form-fitting handles with grooves for each finger. Such handles do not
improve the grip strength and function unless they are sized to a particular users hand.
These types of handles, as one-size fits- all, are usually designed to fit the average hand
size (i.e the 50% percentile).
Avoid hand tools which require awkward movements, or cannot be, operated
effectively with neutral wrist posture and low force (Fig. a). Tool handles should be
designed so that the user can maintain the hands in line with the forearms as much as
possible (Fig. b).
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a) Awkward
b) Good
Avoid tool handles with sharp corners, edges, or pinch points. Tool handles should be
either round or oval. All pinch points should be eliminated or effectively guarded.
The tool-handle surface should be compressible, non-conductive, and smooth.
However, handles should have enough coefficient of friction to minimize handgripping forces required for tool control.
Comparison of (a) an inappropriate tool handle that requires an awkward wrist posture and
creates high forces in the unprotected palm of the hand and (b) an improved tool handle that
allows the wrist to be in a more neutral posture and distributes forces over a larger, more
muscular area of the hand.
a) short-handled screwdriver
b) long-handled screwdriver
Avoid hand tools that impose concentrated pressure over the soft tissues of the hand
which can impair circulation and the nerve function in the hand. Figure a above
shows a short-handle screwdriver digging into the palm of the hand. Long-handle
screwdrivers are more comfortable to use (fig b).
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Choose or design tools that can be used by either hand. Left handed workers should not
be forgotten in the design of the tool. Many power tools (e.g., chain saws, sanders and
drills) are equipped with two handles, one of which is the primary handle (usually with a
trigger and used by the dominant hand) and the other is a secondary handle, used as the
stabilizing handle.
Choose ergonomically designed tools to maintain a more natural position of the wrist and
to ensure better distribution of grip forces during task performance. Examples are benthandled tools, such as bent-handled pliers.
Provide vibration dampening for vibrating hand tools.
Use long-handled screwdriver, because short handles dig into the palm of the hand, which
may cause nerve and blood vessel damage and/or irritation of the tendons.
Provide workers with tools and machine controls which can be operated most effectively,
with neutral body part postures and low forces.
Use power grips for power, and use precision grips for precision.
Substitute power tools for hand tools that require high force levels.
Tool manufacturers from all industries are now designing tools to be more ergonomic or
body-friendly. Tools used repetitively over an extended period of time can cause injury if
theyre not ergonomically designed. Sewing and sewing tools are no exception to this rule.
Each year, manufacturers of notions and tools are creating more items that are kinder to our
hands, backs and necks. It is important that sewers, whether young or old, take as much care
as possible when sewing as there is plenty of repetitive motion
A wise investment in the right tool can repay itself many times over through savings in
medical costs, lost work time, and lost productivity, but selecting the right tool can be
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complicated and time-consuming without assistance, especially for small businesses that lack
specialized in-house resources.
Principles of work design: (hand) tools
1. Use power grip for tasks requiring force
2. Use pinch grips for tasks requiring precision
3. Avoid prolonged static muscle loading
4. Perform twisting motions with elbows bent
5. Maintain a straight wrist
6. Avoid tissue compression
7. Design tools to be used by either hand
8. Avoid repetitive finger motions
9. Use strongest working fingers: middle and thumb
10. Design 1.5 handle diameters for power grips
11. Design handle lengths to be a minimum of 4
12. Design a 3 grip span
13. Design appropriately shaped handles
14. Design grip surface to be compressible and non-conductive
15. Keep the weight of the tool below 5 lbs.
16. Use gloves judiciously
17. User power tools instead of hand tools (e.g. screw drivers, etc)
18. Use proper configuration and orientation of tools
19. Choose a power tool with proper characteristics
Use the correct tool for the task. These principles apply to all types of hand tools- shop,
kitchen, garden are just examples.
The greater the effort to maintain controls of a tool the higher the potential for injury. Tools
with a longer handle allows the user to generate more leverage by applying a smaller force at
a greater distance whereas a thicker tool handle allows more surface for grasping, or in the
case of a standard screw driver, increase the torque thereby reducing the overall required
force. In some situations, a hand tool with a pistol grip may require less gripping force than
an in-line tool handle. Conventional hand tools such as pliers and wrenches are designed
with slightly wider handles that allow the grip force, and resultant contact stress, to be
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distributed over a larger surface and thus decrease the grip strength. Keep in mind that no
one tool is perfect or every user. For example, choosing a hand tool with a large diameter
handle to allow for decreased grip strength may in fact cause a problem when a person with a
small hand uses the tool. Tools should be properly maintained, because for example a dull
drill bit requires more force to use.
Many steps can be taken to avoid repetitive motions when using tools over a prolonged
period of time. The list above is examples. Power tools do the repetitive work for you. The
same for the spring loaded.
Awkward positions-Bent or curved handles can help maintain a more natural wrist position.
Tool extenders can also help keep the body in a natural position. Poor wrist positioning can
lead to injuries therefore using tools that minimize flexion, extension, and deviation is
preferred.
Support the equipment from overhead if working in awkward positions to help
employee. Keep buttons in proper position-arms reach, not over head etc.
Common work place motions

Ultimately, the workplace should be comfortable for users and adapt to their needs as
much as possible. Workplace products designed with this in mind can lead to higher
worker productivity and lower risk of injury and illnesses.
The human body has a natural range of motion (ROM). Movement within the proper
ROM promotes blood circulation and flexibility which could lead to more comfort and
higher productivity. Despite the need to promote motion, users should try to avoid
repetitive movements and certain extremes in their ROM over long periods of time.
Good and Bad Zones
There are 4 different zones that a user might encounter while sitting or standing:
1- Zone 0 (Green Zone) Preferred zone for most movements. Puts minimal stress on muscles
and joints.
2- Zone 1 (Yellow Zone) Preferred zone for most movements. Puts minimal stress on
muscles and joints.
3- Zone 2 (Red Zone) More extreme position for limbs, puts greater strain on muscles and
joints.
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4- Zone 3 (Beyond Red Zone) Most extreme positions for limbs, should be avoided if
possible, especially with heavy lifting or repetitive tasks.
Zones 0 and 1 include smaller join movements, while Zones 2 and 3 represent more
extreme positions.
Zone 0 and Zone 1 are preferred for most movements to occur. Zones 2 and 3 should be
avoided when possible, especially for repetitive and heavy tasks. Motion in these ranges
puts more strain on muscles and tendons and could lead to the development of
musculoskeletal disorders.
Ergonomics hazard and risk assessment

A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something
or someone under certain conditions at work. A Hazard can cause harm or adverse
effects (to individuals as health effects or to organizations as property or equipment
losses). It is something that is potentially very dangerous.
How are the hazards identified?

Overall, the goal is to find and record possible hazards that may be present in your
workplace. As mentioned, it may help to work as a team and include both people familiar
with the work area, as well as people who are not - this way you have both the "experienced"
and "fresh" eye to conduct the inspection.
To be sure that all hazards are found:
look at all aspects of the work,
include non-routine activities such as maintenance, repair, or cleaning,
look at accident / incident / near-miss records,
include people who work "off site" either at home, on other job sites, drivers,
teleworkers, with clients, etc.,
look at the way the work is organized or "done" (include experience and age of people
doing the work, systems being used, etc),
Look at foreseeable unusual conditions (for example: possible impact on hazard

control procedures that may be unavailable in an emergency situation, power outage,
etc.),
examine risks to visitors or the public,
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Include an assessment of groups that may have a different level of risk such as young
or inexperienced workers, persons with disabilities, or new or expectant mothers.
It may help to create a chart or table such as the following:

How do you know if the hazard is serious (poses a risk)?
Each hazard should be studied to determine its' level of risk. To research the hazard, you can
look at:
product information / manufacturer documentation,
past experience (workers, etc),
legislated requirements and/or applicable standards,
industry codes of practice / best practices,
health and safety material about the hazard such as material safety data sheets
(MSDSs), or other manufacturer information,
information from reputable organizations,
results of testing (atmospheric, air sampling of workplace, biological, etc),
the expertise of a occupational health and safety professional,
information about previous injuries, illnesses, "near misses", accident reports, etc
Risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse
health effect if exposed to a hazard. It is a chance of something going wrong. It may also
apply to situations with property or equipment loss.
How do you do a risk assessment?

Assessments should be done by a competent team of individuals who have a good working
knowledge of the workplace. Staff should be involved always include supervisors and
workers who work with the process under review as they are the most familiar with the
operation.
In general, to do an assessment, you should:
identify hazards,
evaluate the likelihood of an injury or illness occurring, and its severity,
consider normal operational situations as well as non-standard events such as

shutdowns, power outages, emergencies, etc.,
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review all available heath and safety information about the hazard such as MSDSs,
manufacturers literature, information from reputable organizations, results of testing,
etc.,
identify actions necessary to eliminate or control the risk,
monitor and evaluate to confirm the risk is controlled,
keep any documentation or records that may be necessary. Documentation may

include detailing the process used to assess the risk, outlining any evaluations, or
detailing how conclusions were made.
When doing an assessment, you must take into account:
the methods and procedures used in the processing, use, handling or storage of the
substance, etc..
the actual and the potential exposure of workers,
the measures and procedures necessary to control such exposure by means of

engineering controls, work practices, and hygiene practices and facilities.
By determining the level of risk associated with the hazard, the employer and the joint health
and safety committee can decide whether a control program is required.
It is important to remember that the assessment must take into account not only the current
state of the workplace but any potential situations as well.
Risk assessment: In practical terms, a risk assessment is a thorough look at your

workplace to identify those things, situations, processes, etc that may cause harm,
particularly to people.
Risk assessments are very important as they form an integral part of a good
occupational health and safety management plan. They help to:
create awareness of hazards and risks,
identify who may be at risk (employees, cleaners, visitors, contractors, the public,
etc),
determine if existing control measures are adequate or if more should be done,
prevent injuries or illnesses when done at the design or planning stage, and
Prioritize hazards and control measures.
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FIVE STEPS TO RISK ASSESSMENT

Step 1- Look for the hazards.
Step 2- Decide who might be harmed, and how.
Step 3- Evaluate the risks arising from the hazards and decide whether existing
precautions are adequate or more should be done.
Step 4- Record your findings.
Step 5- Review your assessment from time to time and revise it if necessary.
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD)

Musculoskeletal disorders occur in every kind of occupation and industry.
They occur in backs and upper & lower extremities.
They occur gradually over a relatively long period of time of exposure to the
corresponding contributing factors.
They are, therefore, called cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs).
Back and Neck CTDs affect:
Neck and shoulders
Lumbar spine
Upper extremities affect:
Hands
Wrists
Elbows
Lower extremities affect:
Feet
Knees
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Common body parts affected by CTDs
Fig: common types of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and body parts affected by them
MSDs are illnesses and injuries that affect one or more parts of the musculoskeletal
system. They include sprain, strains, inflammation, degeneration, tears, pinched
nerves or blood vessels, bone splintering and stress fractures.
MSDs are common types of workplace injuries in industries and
can be caused
gradually through awkward posture, repetitive motions, carrying, bending, twisting,

working in hot or cold environments, and poorly designed workstation or tools.
MSDs are generally caused or aggravated by repetitive work.
Awkward posture is one of the common causes of CTDs. The table below lists several
examples of awkward postures that should be avoided to reduce the risk of developing
these types of work-related health impairments.
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Properties of Musculoskeletal Disorders

Mechanical and physiological process.
Related to work intensity and duration.
Require periods of weeks, months or years to develop.
Require periods of weeks, months or years for recovery.
Poorly localized, nonspecific and episodic.
Often unreported.
Multiple work and personal causes.
How do I know if I have MSD?
You could have a work-related MSD if you experience any of the following:
Numbness in your fingers,
Numbness in your thighs,
Difficulty moving your finger,
Stiff joints, or
Back pain.
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Progression of MSI signs and symptoms in workers
Occupational risk factors
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The following are known to be occupational factors that contribute to the development of
CTDs.
1- Highly repetitive movements: Performing some manual tasks involves highly repetitive
use of the limbs. Repeating the same movements over and over will eventually fatigue the
involved muscles. Frequent movements become much more risky if they are combined with
poor postures and excessive force.
2- Awkward postures: No matter whether sitting or standing, a poor body position may place
the person at risk of developing CTDs. Fixed postures, even good ones, are also harmful if
held unchanged for so long that muscle tension builds up and circulation is reduced.
Excessive bending of the wrists in any direction, that is, palmarly, dorsally, ulnarly, or
radially can lead to CTDs. Extreme positions increase pressure on muscles, tendons, and
nerves.
FIG: When the wrist is bent (a) dorsally or (b) Palmarly
3- Excessive forces: Performing certain manual tasks requires the worker to exert excessive
force. Activities requiring excessive force strain muscles and tendons, and hence increase the
risk of developing CTDs. Force is required in gripping a tool; rotating a control; lifting,
pushing or pulling an object; and cutting a work-piece.
4- Inadequate tool handles: Using tools that dig into the palm of the hand and irritate the
tendons can lead to CTDs.
5- Low-frequency vibration: Using vibrating tools (e.g., air- or motor powered drills,
chippers, sanders, saws, and drivers), especially under cold conditions, can cause CTDs.
6- Low temperature: Working in the cold can lead to CTD injuries as blood flow may be
reduced or restricted in the extremities.
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How MSDs differ from injuries and fatigue?
Signs and Symptoms of MSI/MSD

The common signs of MSI are:
Swelling
Redness
Difficulty moving a particular joint
And the common symptoms that indicate MSI are:
Numbness
Tingling
Pain
Prevention of MSD related Problems
MSD prevention is based on two levels of approaches:
I.
II.
Control the risk factors and

Recognize and respond to early signs and symptoms.
Prevention measures that minimize the risk of CTDs may be grouped into the
following three categories:
1- Engineering solutions
2- Administrative controls; and
3- Personal protective equipment.
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FIG: A schematic illustration of preventive measures for cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs)
I. Controlling risk factors
1- Engineering controls: Engineering solutions are based upon ergonomic principles which
are used to analyze repetitive motion tasks, identify the stressful ones, and reduce such
stressors. For example, workstations, work-tools and work methods can be modified to
eliminate repetitive movements, excessive forces and/or awkward postures.
a- Job redesign: The jobs performed by workers in a problem area should be investigated to
pinpoint job elements which may be responsible for problems. Some repetitive tasks may not
be necessary at all, and should be eliminated.
Following ergonomics guidelines should be considered in job design & job modification:
All repetitive tasks performed in awkward postures or that require excessive exertion
should be eliminated.
Avoid keeping the same posture, even a good posture, for too long. Allow and
encourage postural changes.
Minimize pinch grips. Use the whole hand as much as possible when grasping is
required.
Hold an object near its center of gravity, so that its weight is balanced.
Avoid activities requiring excessive forces. Try to minimize lifting, pushing, pulling,
and grasping.
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Avoid tasks requiring the same movements repeated over and over for a long period
of time. Frequent rest pause help tensed and fatigued muscles to recover their normal
effectiveness.
Minimize exposure to vibration and cold temperatures.
Frequent movements become much riskier if they are combined with poor postures
&excessive force.
b- Workplace redesign: Many musculoskeletal disorders are caused by awkward postures
due to poor workplace designs. All workstations in the problem area should be evaluated
based on ergonomics principles. The key solution is to design or redesign for neutral
postures.
Inappropriately designed workstations force workers to assume awkward postures
affecting the back, neck, shoulders, and wrists.
FIG: Proper workstation design can prevent awkward wrist postures

c- Tool and equipment redesign: A poor tool design is another crucial factor that imposes
awkward postures and/or unnecessary exertion upon the tool users. When multiple workers
use the same workstation and equipment, the equipment should be adjustable.
d- Workplace accessories: There are situations in which engineering solutions and
administrative controls are either insufficient or not feasible. A great number of ergonomics
products are marketed that seem to be useful for minimizing the risk of developing
musculoskeletal disorders.
2- Administrative controls: Reduce exposure to the hazard by controlling behaviors through
design of safety rules and safe work practices and procedures as:
Broadening or varying the job content
Training in the recognition of risk factors
Adjusting the work pace
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Reducing shift length or curtailing the amount of overtime

Rotating workers
Scheduling more breaks
3. Use of personal protective equipments:
Use of vibration lessening gloves
Use of knee pads
II. Recognizing and responding to early signs and symptoms by:
Taking preventive action before pain starts to affect their daily lives.
Seek professional medical assistance soon.
Ergonomics of Manual Materials Handling

Manual handling includes any tasks which require a person to lift, lower, push, pull,
hold or carry any object, animal or person.
MMH is seizing, holding, grasping, turning, or otherwise working with the hand or
hands.
The subject of MMH concentrates on the identification and control of injury-causing
conditions associated with MMH, and minimizing the health hazards by employing
administrative controls (e.g. proper personnel selection, training in good material
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handling techniques, and worker rotations) and engineering controls (e.g. job
redesign, mechanical assists).
MMH places strains on both the cardiovascular system and the musculoskeletal
system.
The strain on the cardiovascular system is revealed by increased oxygen consumption

and heart rate to deliver more oxygen and chemical energy to the involved muscles.
Musculoskeletal strain, which can be injurious, is of a greater concern.

Activities involved in MMH
1- Lifting / Lowering
Lifting is to rise from a lower to a higher level. The range of a lift can be from the
ground to as high as you can reach your hands. Lowering is the opposite activity from
lifting.
Lifting puts stress on two main body systems. One is the musculoskeletal system and
the other is the cardiovascular system.
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Ergonomics of manual lifting
Restrict the number of tasks which require displacing loads manually
Create optimum circumstances for lifting
Make the workplace suitable for lifting activities
Loads should be fitted with handgrips
Use correct lifting techniques
Heavy lifting should be done by several people
Use lifting accessories
Hold the load as close to the body as possible
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Correct lifting techniques
2- Ergonomics of pushing / pulling
A correct pulling and pushing posture is one which uses the bodys own weight.
When pushing, the body should be bent forwards and when pulling, it should lean
backwards.
The friction between the floor and the shoes must be sufficiently large
In pulling and in pushing, the horizontal distance between the rearmost ankle and the
hands must be at least 120 cm.
3- Ergonomics of carrying
Employee Guidelines for Safer Carrying

Keep loads close to your body.
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Make sure you have a clear view of the path.

Alternate hands.
Whenever appropriate, use two hands to carry containers.
Take rest breaks.
Reduce weight of load
Use light weight containers
Divide loads in smaller parts
4- Ergonomics of Twisting
As applied to MMH is the act of moving the upper body to one side or the other while
the lower body remains in a relatively fixed position.
Rapid, jerky, and/or twisting motions, as depicted here, should be avoided.
Ergonomics manual handling checklist

It is possible to develop a manual handling checklist to identify the risk of manual
handling injuries.
This identification process emphasizes lifting/lowering activities by assessing six
factors:
Weight;
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Posture and layout;

Frequency and duration;
object characteristics;
Individuals;
Environment.
Risk factors of MMH

Manual material handling tasks may expose workers to physical risk factors. If these tasks
are performed repeatedly or over long periods of time, they can lead to fatigue and injury.
The main risk factors, or conditions, associated with the development of injuries in
manual material handling tasks include:
1- Awkward postures (e.g. bending, twisting)
2- Repetitive motions (e.g. frequent reaching, lifting, carrying)
3- Forceful exertions (e.g. carrying or lifting heavy loads)
4- Pressure points (e.g. grasping [or contact from] loads, leaning against parts
or surfaces that are hard or have sharp edges)
5- Static postures (e.g., maintaining fixed positions for a long time)
Repeated or continual exposure to one or more of these factors initially may lead to
fatigue and discomfort.
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Over time, injury to the back, shoulders, hands, wrists, or other parts of the body may
occur.
Injuries may include damage to muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and blood
vessels.
Manual lifting task Evaluation
MMH evaluations are conducted in a variety of ways.
Biomechanical, physiological, and psychophysical approaches have been used for
many years to evaluate the MMH stresses imposed on workers.
However, since the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
published its Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting (NIOSH, 1981)and its revision
(Waters et al., 1994), those two documents have been widely used to assess MMH
activities.
NIOSH original lifting model
The WPG defines a manual lifting task as the act of manually grasping and raising an
object of a definable size without mechanical aids. The WPG was based on the
thought that "an overexertion injury is the result of job demands that exceed a
worker's capacity.
This thought, which has also been used as the basis of the revised lifting equation, can
be expressed by a strain index, as shown in the following equation:
Strain index = Job demands
Worker capacity
Therefore, any lifting situation in which this strain index exceeds 1.0 would present a
potential for overexertion injury. The 1981 WPG presented a mathematical equation for
determination of an action limit (AL) for manual lifting tasks. In its guide, NIOSH divided
lifting tasks into three classes (FIG:B below):
1.
Acceptable (below the AL);
2.
Unacceptable for some individuals (between the AL and maximum permissible limit, or
MPL), with administrative controls recommended;
3.
Unacceptable for most individuals (above the MPL), with engineering controls
recommended to redesign the work to eliminate or reduce the MMH hazard.
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FIG B: Illustration of the three classes of lifting tasks based on object weight and horizontal
distance of the object.
1- Action limit
Because of the large variability in capacity of individuals, loads falling between the
AL and MPL may be lifted if administrative controls (e.g., personnel selection and
training) are applied since:
Musculoskeletal injury and severity rates increase moderately when workers perform a
lifting task up to the AL (epidemiologic criterion).
A 350-kg (3430-N or 770-lb) biomechanical compression force on the L5/S1 intervertebral
disk imposed by the conditions described by the AL can be tolerated by most young, healthy
workers (biomechanical criterion) .
Metabolic rates would exceed 3.5 kcal . min-1 for most individuals performing a lifting task
above the AL (physiologic criterion).
Lifting loads up to the AL are acceptable to over 99% of male and over75% of
female populations with a nominal risk of back injury (psychologic criterion).
1- Maximum Permissible limit
Lifting loads beyond the MPL should not be permitted, but engineering
controls must be applied to lower the load within the acceptable range. This
limit has been set based on four criteria (epidemiologic, biomechanics,
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physiologic, and psychologic) as summarized below:

Musculoskeletal injury and severity rates increase significantly when a lifting task is
performed above the MPL.
Biomechanical compression forces on the L5/S1 intervertebral disk above 650 kg (6370 N
or 1430 lb) are not tolerable by most people.
Metabolic rates would exceed 5.0 kcal . min-1 for most individuals performing a lifting task
above the MPL.
Only about 25% of male and fewer than 1% of female workers would find a lifting task
above the MPL acceptable.
The original NIOSH equations for AL and MPL are as follows:
AL (kg) = 40 x (15) x (1-0.004 V-75) x ( 0.7 x 7.5) x (1- F ) (metric units)
H
Fmax
MPL = 3 x AL
Where:
H = horizontal location of lift centerline;
V = vertical location of the hands at origin of lift;
D = vertical travel distance from origin to destination of lift;
F = frequency of lifting, average number of lifts per minute;
Fmax = maximum frequency of lifting which can be sustained (from Table below);
AL = action limit;
MPL = maximum permissible limit = 3 X AL.
Table 1: Maximum lift per minute (Fmax)
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FIG A: Illustration of the independent variables in the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) lifting model.
Lifting task variables

The primary lifting task variables that affect the AL and MPL, as presented in the equation
above and shown in Figure above, are as follows:
Horizontal location (H) of the hands at origin of lift, measured from the midpoint
between ankles (in centimeters or inches). H must be between 15 and 80 cm (6-32 in).
The minimum 15 cm (6 in) is due to body interference.
Vertical location (V) of the hands at origin of lift, measured from floor level (in centimeters
or inches). V must be between 0 and 175 cm (0 and 70 in), which is the range of vertical
reach for most individuals
Vertical travel distance (D) from origin to destination of lift (in centimeters or
inches). D must be between 25 cm (10 in) and (200- V) cm [(80 - V) in]. If the
travel distance is less than 25 cm (10 in), then D= 25 cm (10 in) must be used.
Frequency of lifting (F), average number of lifts per minute. F must be between 0.2
(one lift every 5 min) and Fmax. If the frequency of lift is less than once per 5 min,
then set F = 0.
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Maximum frequency of lifting (Fmax) which is determined based on the duration or

period of the task during the work-shift. Lifting is assumed to be occasional (less than
1 h) or continuous (more than 1 h, up to 8 h). Table 1 above provides the Fmax values.
In calculating the four modifying factors (horizontal factor, vertical factor, distance
factor, and frequency factor), it should be noted that each factor has to be less than
or equal to 1.
If a factor exceeds 1 (or falls its lower bound), an error has been made. A common
error is to use travel distances of less than 25 cm (10 in). If the actual travel distance
is 10 cm, the distance factor could be improperly calculated as
D = 0.7 + 7.5/10, or
D = 1.45
How to prevent manual handling injuries
Commitment and involvement of the entire workplace, from top management to line workers,
are essential elements of a successful injury prevention program. The best approach to
prevent manual handling injuries involves the following components.
Education: It is a key step in preventing injury. The worker should have a basic
understanding of ergonomics principles and handling techniques, and should be able to
recognize the risk factors and injury symptoms. Workers should make sure that injury
symptoms, risk factors, near misses, hazards, incidents, accidents, etc. are reported to
their supervisors.
Management should have knowledge to assume a leadership role.
This includes:
Visible involvement;
Policy that places health and safety at the same level of importance as production;
assigning responsibility;
providing authority and resources to all responsible parties, and;
ensuring that everyone is accountable for their responsibilities.
Design: The design of the job itself (work/rest schedules, job rotation), the object being
handled and the workstation (dimensions/layout) have a direct impact on the risk of
injury. In order to prevent injuries, you have to consider modifying all of these aspects.
The following four control measures for hazards of MMH shall be considered for every
organization.
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Biomechanics
Biomechanics is the study of the structural elements of the human body in relation to
how the body functions and how much stress, acceleration, and impact it can stand.
It is the application of the principles of mechanics to living biological material.
Today, the total energy demanded from a person in the performance of an industrial
task has often been drastically reduced through better engineering and technology.
However, stress may be created in small components of the workers anatomy.
Ergonomists use information about the functional anatomy of the living body to
eliminate, reduce, or manage such stresses.
Ergonomists apply the principles of biomechanics to problems of occupational health,
occupational safety, and industrial productivity.
Biomechanics combines engineering physics (mechanics), anthropometry and basic
medical sciences (biology and physiology), through mathematical relationships.
Biomechanics utilizes the laws of physics to describe biological phenomena in the
human body.
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Biomechanics principles are used to study the responses of the human body to loads
and stresses placed on the body in the workplace.
Biomechanical models are often utilized to analyze the forces and torques on
segments of the body and to compare those forces to muscle strength limitations of
people, to predict stressful work postures and conditions.
A biomechanical analysis is typically utilized for conditions involving large forces
(push, pull, lifting, holding, etc.) or work postures that impose stress on the body.
In a biomechanical analysis, the body segments are assumed to be rigid links that
rotate about joint centers.
Rigid body mechanics are based on Newton's laws and deal with the
interrelationships among the forces acting upon rigid bodies.
Both static and dynamic analyses can be conducted using rigid body mechanics.
FIG: A simplified subdivision of mechanics
Descriptive terminologies in Biomechanics

Statics is the study of the body at rest. Static analysis involves the calculation of
composition and resolution of forces, moments, and torques, such that the body
remains in static equilibrium.
A variety of static conditions exist in industry. The obvious example is holding an
object.
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Some researchers have argued that "slow" dynamic activities can be analyzed with
static models.
Dynamics is the study of the body in motion. With upper- and lower extremity
movements, as frequently occur in industry, dynamic analyses become very
important.
Examples of dynamic activities in industry include:
- walking,
- manual materials handling,
- pushing,
- hand work,
- pulling,
- foot work, and many others.
Dynamics can encompass both kinematics and kinetics components.

Kinematics is that area of mechanics which describes the motion of a body without
considering the forces causing the motion. Kinematics variables include linear and
angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Velocity is the time rate of change
in displacement. It is expressed in units of length per unit of time, such as meters per
second. Acceleration is the time rate of change in velocity. It is expressed in terms of
units of velocity per unit of time, such as meters per second per second.
Kinetics deals with the forces acting on the body. The term kinetics refers to the
forces that cause the movement. These forces include both internal and external
forces. In biomechanics, internal forces are those forces generated by or acting on
muscles, ligaments and joints. External forces come from ground (i.e. gravitational
force).
Examples of kinetic analyses include evaluation of moments of external forces at a
joint, estimation of muscular forces generated to overcome these moments,
calculation of compressive and shear forces acting on the body joints.
Force is defined as a physical quantity that can accelerate and/or deform a body. The
international unit of measurement of force is newton, where one newton is the amount
of force required to accelerate a mass of one 1Kg by one meter per second per second.
Work results when a resisting force acts on a body to produce motion in the body.
The amount of work is calculated by the product of effective force and the distance
through which the force acts. Here, effective force means the projection of the actual
force in the direction of the displacement. Consider that a constant external force (F)
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acts on a body at an angle () with the direction of motion and causes it to be

displaced a distance (d). Work = F . Cos o. d
The energy of a body is its ability to do work. Since the energy of a body is measured
in terms of the work it can do, it has the same units as work. Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, but only transformed from one kind to another (law of
conservation of energy). The potential energy (Ep) of a body is its ability to do work
because of its position or state. The kinetic energy (Ek) of a body is its ability to do
work because of its motion.
Workload or power is the rate of performing work per unit time.
Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System
Three most commonly injured parts Hand, Arm , Spinal column
The hand has 27 bones: the 8 bones of the carpus, or wrist, arranged in two rows of
four; the 5 bones of the metacarpus, or palm, one to each digit; and the 14 digital
bones, or phalanges, 2 in the thumb and 3 in each finger. The carpal bones fit into a
shallow socket formed by the bones of the forearm. The movements of the human
hand are accomplished by two sets of muscles and tendons: the flexors, for bending
the fingers and thumb, and the extensors, for straightening out the digits.
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Arm
The arm extends from the shoulder to the wrist. The upper arm is formed by one long
bone, the humerus.
The two bones of the forearm are the radius and the ulna. The ulna is fixed in
position, but the radius can rotate over the ulna.
Together the biceps and triceps muscles control most of the movements of the arm.
The axillary artery is the primary vessel that supplies the upper arm with blood.
Spinal Column
It is also called a vertebral column, spine, or backbone (S-shaped).
It forms the major part of the skeleton. It attached the skull, shoulder bones, ribs, and
pelvis.
The spinal column contains 33 vertebrae: 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck; 12 thoracic,
or dorsal, vertebrae in the region of the chest, or thorax, providing attachment for 12
pairs of ribs; 5 lumbar vertebrae in the small of the back; 5 fused sacral vertebrae
forming a solid bone,
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Statics analysis and models

In a two-dimensional static analysis, the following information must be obtained: external
forces acting on the body and their directions, body posture, and the body segment
parameters (segment masses and locations of centers of mass) of the person being analyzed.
FIG : A 70-kg man lifts 15-kg part containers from a 35-cm height conveyor and places them
onto a cart 65 cm above the floor.
External forces are usually the weight of the object being lifted, lowered, or held, or the
push/pull forces being generated as a result of the task. In cases such as postural analysis, the
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external forces might be zero and the internal forces caused by the body posture and segment
masses might be of interest. Once the body posture and external forces have been identified,
simple trigonometry can be utilized to resolve the external and internal forces into horizontal
and vertical components.
Example 1: The task to be analyzed requires that a male worker pick a container off a
conveyor (located 35 cm above the floor) and lift the container to a cart (shelf located 65 cm
above the floor). The container has a mass of 15 kg. This task is performed 360 times per
shift.
The following measurements were taken from the male worker:
Distance from wrist to center of mass (c.m.) of hand (SL1)
0.07 m
Distance from wrist to elbow (SL2)
0.28 m
Distance from elbow to shoulder (SL3)
0.30 m
Distance from shoulder to L5/S1 disk (SL4)
0.36 m
Angle of hand from horizontal (1)
30o
Angle of forearm from horizontal (2)
30o
Angle of upper arm from horizontal (3)
80o
Angle of trunk from horizontal (4)
45o
Body weight (mass)
70 Kg
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Before calculating the forces and moments for a static analysis, we can easily determine how
much external work is being done on this particular job.
Work = m . g . h . F where m = mass of the load in kilograms
g = gravitational constant (9.8 m . S-2);
h =height of lift in meters (m);
f = frequency (number of lifts per shift).
Work = (15 kg/lift) * (9.8 m . S-2) . (0.65m - 0.35 m) * (360 lifts/shift)
Work = 15876 J per shift.
We can perform the static analysis with a segment-by-segment analysis. First, we need to
state our assumptions and draw a free body diagram showing the forces and body
postures.
Assumptions
Body segment parameters from Table 4.4 is appropriate. Mass distribution of the trunk is
0.45M (which represents the sum of the masses of the head, neck, thorax, and lumbar
segments).
Centers of mass remain constant and can be represented by single points.
The body is symmetric, with the external load evenly distributed between the right and left
hands.
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The resulting forces and moments at each joint can be determined. Calculate the forces and
moments until you reach the L5/S1disk, where you will find the compression and shear
forces on the L5/S1 disk as well as the required muscle force of the erector spinal muscles to
maintain static equilibrium.
For the hand segment where:
Wo = Force due to the weight of the external load = m * g
= 15 kg * 9.8 m/S-2 = 147 N
WH = Force due to the weight of the hand = mH * g
= (0.006 . 70 kg) . (9.8 m . S-2) = 4.1 N
Mw = Resultant moment at the wrist to maintain static equilibrium
Fxw = Resultant force in x-direction at the wrist to maintain static equilibrium.
Fyw = Resultant force in y-direction at the wrist to maintain static equilibrium.
1 = Angle of the hand relative to horizontal (1 = 30 for this example)
SL1 =Measured length from wrist to c.m. of hand (at handles of box) (SL1 = 0.07 m for this
example)
Fx = Fxw = 0
Fy = Fyw - Wo - WH = 0
Mw = Mw - (Wo + WH) . SL1 * Cos 1
And the result is given as follows:
Fxw =0
Fyw = Wo + WH = (147N)/2 + 4.1 N = 77.6 N
Mw = (77.6 N) * (0.07 m) * (cos 30) = 4.7 N. m
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For the lower arm segment: In drawing the free body diagram for the lower arm
segment, we include forces at the wrist that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction from those just calculated for the hand segment (this is necessary to
maintain static equilibrium at the wrist).
Where:
WLA = Force due to the weight of the lower arm
= mLA * g = (0.017 * 70 kg) * (9.8 m . S-2)
= 11.7 N
Mw = 4.7 N m
Fxw = 0
Fyw = 77.6 N
2 = Angle of the lower arm relative to horizontal
= 30 for this example
SL2 = Measured length from wrist to elbow (for this example SL2 = 0.28 m)
2 = Location of c.m. as a portion of SL from elbow
= 0.43 (or 43%)
Me = Resultant moment at the elbow to maintain static equilibrium
Fxe = Resultant force in x-direction at the elbow to maintain static equilibrium
Fye = Resultant force in y-direction at the elbow to maintain static equilibrium
Fx = - Fxw + Fxe = 0
Fy = - Fyw - WLA + Fye = 0
Me = Me - Mw - WLA * 2 * SL2 * Cos 2 - Fyw * SL2 * Cos 2 - F xw * SL2 * Sin 2 = 0
The result is given as follows
Fxe =0
Fye = Fyw + WLA = 77.6 N + 11.7 N = 89.3 N
Me = 4.7 N m + 11.7 N * 0.43 * 0.28 m* 0.866 + 77.6 N * 0.28 m * 0.866 = 24.7 N . m
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For the upper-arm segment: Again, the resultant forces and moment at the elbow,
calculated from the lower-arm segment, are included with equal magnitudes and
opposite directions for the upper-arm segment.
Where:
WUA = Force due to the weight of the upper arm
= mUA . g = (0.028 * 70 kg) . (9.8 m . S-2) = 19.2 N
Fxe = 0
Fye = 89.3 N
Me = 24.7 N m
3 = Angle of the lower arm relative to horizontal
= 80 for this example
SL3 = Measured length from the elbow to shoulder (for this example SL3 = 0.30 m)
3 = Location of c.m. as a portion of SL from shoulder
= 0.436 (or 43.6%)
Ms = Resultant moment at the shoulder to maintain static equilibrium
Fxs = Resultant force in x-direction at the shoulder to maintain static equilibrium
Fys = Resultant force in y-direction at the shoulder to maintain static equilibrium
Fx = - Fxe + Fxs = 0
Fy = - Fye - WUA + Fys = 0
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Me = Ms - Me - WUA * 3 * SL3 *Cos 3 - Fye * SL3 * Cos 3 - Fxe * SL3 * Sin 3 = 0

And the given result is given as follows
Fxs =0
Fys = Fye + WUA = 89.3 N + 19.2 N = 108.5N
Ms =24.7N . m + 19.2N * 0.436 * 0.30m *0.174 + 89.3N *0.30m *0.174 = 29.8 N . m
For the trunk segment The free body diagram for the trunk segment is presented
in Figure 5.9. Note that the trunk segments ends at L5/51 (actually, the disk between
the fifth lumbar and the first sacral vertebrae). In this case it was necessary to estimate
A4' the location of the center of mass of the trunk segment.
Where:
WT = Force due to the weight of the trunk
= mT . g = (0.45 * 70 kg) * (9.8 m . S-2) = 308.7 N
Fxs = 0
Fys = 108.5 N for each shoulder = 217.0 N for both shoulders
Ms = 29.8 N . m for each shoulder = 59.6 N m for both shoulders
4 = Angle of the trunk relative to horizontal = 45 for this example
SL4 = Measured length for L5/S1 to shoulder; for this example SL4 = 0.36 m
4 = Location of c.m. as a portion of SL from L5/S1: 4 = 0.67(estimated)
Mt = Resultant moment at L5/S1 to maintain static equilibrium
Fxt = Resultant force in x-direction at L5/S1 to maintain static equilibrium
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Fyt = Resultant force in y-direction at L5/S1 to maintain static equilibrium

Fx = - F xs + F xt = 0
Fy = - Fys - WT + Fyt = 0
Me = Mt - Ms - WT * 4 *SL4 *Cos 4 - Fys * SL4 * Cos 4 Fxs *SL4 * Sin 4 = 0
And the result is given as follows:
Fxt = 0
Fyt = Fys + WT = 217.0 N + 308.7 N = 525.7 N
Me = 59.6 N . m + 308.7 N * 0.67 * 0.36 m * 0.707 + 217.0 N * 0.36 m * 0.707 = 167.5 N . m
Examination of the calculations in the static analysis shows that a resultant moment of
167.5 N . m at L5/S1must be countered if the body is to remain in static equilibrium.
If we assume that the erector spinae muscle group is the only muscle group in the
back active to counter the moment at L5/S1, and we know the moment arm of the
erector spinae muscle group, we can estimate the muscle force necessary in the
erector spinae muscle group to maintain static equilibrium. (Such assumptions allow
for a simplification of the problem, but may not be appropriate for a more detailed
analysis).
If the moment arm of the erector spinae muscle group is 0.04 m (from L5/S1), we can
determine the muscle force required by:
F . d = 167.5 N . M
F = 167.5 N.m
= 4187 N
0.04 m
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Where: F = Muscle force required in erector spinae to maintain static equilibrium

d = Moment arm length of erector spinae muscle group (from L5/S1)
Now, if we wish to examine the compressive and shear forces acting on the disk
between the fifth lumbar and first sacral vertebrae (L5/S1), we can use the
calculations above. Since the trunk (L5/S1)is bent at a 45 angle, the vertical force can
be resolved into equal compressive and shear components. The vertical force, other
than that exerted by the erector spinae muscle group, is the sum of the weights of the
load (box), the arms and trunk. Therefore:
Fv = Total vertical force acting upon L5/S1 disk

= Wo + WH + WLA + WUA + WT
= 147 + 2(4.1) + 2(11.7) + 2(19.2) + 308.7
= 525.7N
Then, as shown in Figure 5.10, the vertical force due to weight of the box, arms and trunk,
which is 525.7 N, is resolved into its compressive (Fye) and shear (Fys) components. The
calculations are as follows:
Fvc = 525.7 * Cos 45 = 371.7 N
Fvs = 525.7 * Sin 45 = 371.7 N
Therefore, the total compressive (Fe) and shear (Fs) forces are found as follows:
Fc = 371.7 N + 4187N = 4558.7N
Fs =371.7 N
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Dynamic models and analysis
Time-displacement data are often obtained for joint center movement and/or center of
segment mass movement.
Through a process of inverse dynamics (velocity is obtained by taking the derivative

of displacement and acceleration is found by taking the derivative of velocity), the
kinematics of a body in motion can be determined.
Techniques exist (e.g., video-based systems, and a variety of sensor-based systems) to

collect time-displacement data automatically.
Many of these systems also incorporate computer software to smooth the data and
calculate the velocity and acceleration profiles of the motion.
In cases where automated data collection and analysis are not available, the velocity
and acceleration can be found through finite difference equations. To find the velocity
at time i, a two-time unit interval is used:
Vi = (di+1 di-1) /2t
Where: Vi = velocity at time i

di+1 = displacement at time i +1
di-1 = displacement at time i-1
M = sampling interval (time between samples)
The acceleration at time i can be found similarly as:

ai = (Vi+1 Vi-1) / 2t
or, substituting velocities with their displacement derivatives, the acceleration equation can
be rewritten as:
ai = (di+2 2di + di-2 )/ 4t2 or ai = (di+1- 2di +di-1)/ t2
In most cases, the data sampling system has some inherent errors that result in "rough
raw data". Such data should be smoothed before applying the finite differences to
obtain velocity and acceleration profiles. It is easy to examine a graph of acceleration
data to determine if the data need smoothing. Most human movement is relatively
smooth (very little jerking). If very erratic acceleration patterns exist, more likely than
not, the data are in need of smoothing.
Once a smooth data set has been obtained, the analysis can begin. For those situations
involving no (or very little) movement, the body can be considered to be in static
equilibrium, and a static analysis can be conducted.
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For dynamic data, Newton's second law is utilized to develop the equations of motion.
In general, the forces can be determined from:
Fx = m * ax (where m is segment mass and ax is acceleration in the x-direction)
Fy = m * ay (where ay is acceleration of the segment mass in the y-direction)
Mcm = Icm * (where Mcm are the moments about the center of mass and Icm is the
moment of inertia of the segment about its c.m., and is the angular acceleration of
the segment)
The values for ax, ay, and are obtained from the kinematics analysis (displacementtime relationships). The segmental masses can be approximated by using the data
from the table.
ENVIRONMENTAL ERGONOMICS
Introduction to Environmental Ergonomics
The human body, as a warm-blooded (homeothermic) animal, possesses an excellent
thermoregulatory mechanism for maintaining an internal thermal balance.
Advances in science and technology have made great contributions to the design of
workplaces to improve workers' safety and comfort.
However, the issues of thermal stress (both heat and cold) in many occupational
environments have not yet been totally resolved. Heat and cold can cause illnesses
and injuries in the exposed individuals.
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In such occupational environments workers are often exposed to high environmental

heat loads. Heat stress, associated with these environments, is a major health hazard
and reduces worker productivity.
In some other occupations workers are exposed to very low thermal conditions. Cold
stress under such environmental conditions can present health hazards and reduce
worker productivity. Examples of cold environments are pipeline operations, meat
packing, and power and utility activities during the cold season.
Climate
The indoor climate needs to satisfy several conditions if work is to be carried out in comfort.
Four climatic factors i.e. air temperature, radiation temperature of cold and hot surfaces, air
velocity, and relative humidity are significant in this respect. Whether a climate is considered
pleasant depends also on the level of physical effort required by the work and on the type of
clothing. Work is sometimes carried out in very cold environments such as in cold-rooms or
outside, or in very warm environments such as near ovens. Special precautions are then
necessary to prevent freezing or burning of the exposed skin, mainly on the face and hands.
Without these precautions, the time spent in cold or hot environments has to be limited.
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Guidelines on thermal comfort

This section contains guidelines on the four climatic factors of air temperature, air humidity,
radiant temperature, and air velocity.
i.
Allow people to control the climate themselves
Whether people find a climate pleasant depends very much on the individual. The aim must
therefore be to allow people to control the climatic factors as far as possible themselves. This
is feasible, for example, in an office with separate rooms.
ii.
Adjust air temperature to physical effort
Table 2.3 contains global guidelines on air temperature for tasks requiring different levels of
physical effort. The guidelines ensure that people will feel comfortably cool to comfortably
warm. The assumption here is that the air humidity is 30 per cent to 70 per cent, that the air
velocity is less than 0.1ms 1 and that normal clothing is worn.
Table 2.3 Guidelines on air temperature for tasks requiring different levels of physical effort
Type of work
Air temperature (C)
Seated, thinking task
1824
Seated, light manual work
1622
Standing, light manual work
1521
Standing, heavy manual work
1420
Heavy work
1319
iii.
Avoid very humid and very dry air
Humid air (relative humidity in excess of 70 per cent) or dry air (relative humidity less than
30 per cent) can affect thermal comfort. Dry air can lead to irritation of eyes and mucous
membranes, and also increases the possibility of static electricity (risk of inflammation or
ignition of chemical substances, unpleasant shocks, equipment failure). The humidity can be
controlled either by adding moisture to the air or by removing it.
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iv.
Avoid hot or cold radiating surfaces
Hot surfaces such as a roof and cold surfaces such as a cold window can affect thermal
comfort. Steps must be taken whenever the radiant temperature of these surfaces differs by
more than four degrees from the air temperature
v.
Prevent draughts
Draughts can affect thermal comfort, mainly in the case of light work. Draughts are
uncomfortable at air velocities above 0.1ms 1. Draughts can be caused among other
things by ventilation
Guidelines on heat and cold

Hot and cold environments are not only uncomfortable; hot climates, such as near
ovens, can be energetically very stressful to the heart and lungs. In addition, parts of the body
can be injured by burns or frost.
i.
Avoid extremely hot and cold climates
Exposed parts of the skin can reach the threshold of pain in extremely hot climates or near
very hot radiating surfaces. In a very cold climate, the hazard is frost-bite, the risk of which
increases at high air speeds.
ii.
Materials which must be touched should be neither too cold nor too hot
If bare skin comes into contact with very cold metal, it may adhere to the metal surface. To
be on the safe side, the temperature of metals likely to be touched should be at least 5 C. A
lower value can be tolerated for objects made of dry plastic or dry wood.
Table 2.4, on the other hand, shows the maximum temperature of materials allowed if skin
burns due to contact are to be avoided.
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Duration of
Type of material
Maximum
temperature
contact
Up to 1 min
(C)
metals
50
glass, ceramics, concrete
55
plastics (perspex, teflon),
60
wood
Up to 10 min
all materials
48
Up to 8 h
all materials
43
Climate control
In this section we discuss measures relating to thermal comfort, and to hot and cold climates.
Locate equally heavy tasks together in a room: It is desirable that tasks which are more or
less equally heavy should be located together in a separately heated room. This makes it
possible to achieve a pleasant climate for each group of tasks.
Adjust outdoor tasks to the climate: It is not possible to control the outdoor climate, but
cold and hot outdoor climates, to a certain extent, can be tolerated better by adjusting the
energy demand of the task. In a cold climate, tasks should be heavier so as to increase body
temperature and reduce the risk of freezing. In a hot climate, the opposite applies.
Adjust the air velocity: Where there is a draught (maximum 0.1ms 1) it is sensible to
increase the air temperature to allow work to be carried out in comfort. In very cold climates
the air velocity should always be as low as possible to prevent parts of the body from
freezing. Conversely, a hot environment becomes more pleasant if the air velocity increases.
Prevent unwanted hot or cold radiation: Hot or cold radiation can be suppressed by
insulating or screening off hot or cold radiating surfaces such as walls, floors, roofs and
windows. In addition, correct layout of the workspace can help increase the distance between
the person and the source of radiation. Finally, the air temperature can also be adjusted to
reduce the difference between air temperature and radiant temperature.
Limit the time spent in hot or cold environments: People themselves should be able to
determine how much time they spend in hot or cold environments.
Use special clothing when working for long periods in hot or cold environments:
Clothing with a high insulation value affords protection against cold. Similarly, special
clothing can also be used as protection against heat (e.g., firemen).
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Physiological responses and heat exchange
Maintenance of life demands a constant flow of energy from the environment through
organisms.
The intake of energy is in the form of chemical potential energy of foodstuffs. The
potential energy of foodstuffs is released in a form usable for organs.
The released energy is finally returned to the environment in the forms of mechanical
work and heat.
The mechanical work may be external (e.g., physical activities) or internal (e.g., heart
beats, respiration, digestion, and brain activities).
The energy used in internal work, finally, leaves the body in the form of heat. The
heat produced by the body is called metabolic heat.
When people are exposed to a hot environment, they experience first, vasodilatation
(expansion of blood capillaries near the skin surface), which facilitates increased heat
transfer from the core to the shell of the body to be removed by evaporation; and
second, an activation of the sweat glands to facilitate evaporative heat loss.
To prevent the internal heat build-up, the body has to dissipate some of its metabolic
heat.
The body attempts to achieve thermal equilibrium with its surrounding environment
through the following heat exchange methods: metabolism, evaporation, convection,
conduction, and radiation. The heat exchange follows the second law of
thermodynamics.
The process of heat exchange between the body and its surrounding environment can
be expressed by the heat balance equation:
S = M CV CD R E
Where:
S = heat storage (positive sign indicates heat gain, while negative indicates heat loss. If
the heat balance is achieved, S = 0);
M = metabolic heat (always positive);
CV = convective heat (positive sign indicates air temperature is higher than skin
temperature, and negative indicates a reversed case);
CD =conductive heat (positive when the contacting objects are warmer than skin, and
negative when the skin is warmer);
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R = radiant heat (positive when surrounding objects are warmer than skin, and negative
when the skin is warmer);
E = evaporative heat (always negative).
Heat stress not only may reduce work performance but also can lead to a heat
disorder.
At lower levels of heat stress there is no health damage risk, even though an
individual may feel discomfort (Dukes-Dobos,1981).
However, when the heat stress exceeds the persons heat tolerance capacity, adverse
health effects will occur.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT STRESS AND STRAIN

1- Environmental thermal conditions: i.e ambient temperature, radiant heat, humidity, and
air movement.
2- Physical workload : which positively affects the body's heat generated internally, through
metabolism.
3- Clothing: Some clothes are permeable and allow heat exchange between the body and
the surrounding environment. Others are impermeable, especially those used in personal
protective garments for use in chemically hazardous environments, which constrict the heat
exchange process.
LIGHT AND VISION

Light is the stimulus for vision. Thus, insufficient or too strong and, particularly,
glaring illumination causes visual inefficiency, resulting in fatigue, headache,
dizziness, and increased accident.
Good lighting, that enhances visual performance, has many advantages, including
fewer mistakes, increased productivity, reduction of accidents, improved morale, and
improved housekeeping.
Ergonomics principles can be applied to achieve these goals through visual
improvement.
The range of visible light is from 380 to 760 nanometers (nm) 10-9 of a meter. The
visible-light portion of the spectrum may be divided into the six principal colors,
(Violent, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red). These colors can be seen when
white light is diffracted into its primary colors upon passing through a prism.
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Light can be controlled in a number of ways by application of one or more of the

following physical phenomena: reflection, refraction, polarization, diffraction,
diffusion, absorption, and transmission.
Reflection is a process by which a part of the light waves falling on an object (or
medium) leaves that object from the incident side.
Reflection may be specular, spread, or diffused
Luminous intensity: which is also called candlepower, is the amount of light output
emitted from a source in a specific direction and is measured at the light source. The
unit of luminance intensity is the candela or candle (cd).
Luminance flux: which is also called luminous energy is the time rate of flow of
light output from a light source emitted initially in all directions.
The lumen (lm) is the unit of light output from a source. Incandescent lamps have an
efficiency of 17-23 lm * W-1 , while fluorescent lamps or tubes have an efficiency of
50-80 lm * W-1.
Illumination level is the density or quantity of the flow of light falling on a surface
and is measured in lux (lx)in the International System of Units (SI units). One Ix is
equal to 1 lm . m-2.
The illumination level at a distance of d units from a light source, of some luminous
intensity emitting a luminous flux in all directions, can be calculated as follows:
Illumination = Candlepower or luminous flux (in lumens)
4 d2
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Where
d is the radius of a sphere surrounding the light source and
4 d2 is the surface area of the sphere.
1 cd equals 4 lm
Lighting- Providing optimal illumination for multi-worker offices is difficult as a 60-year old
worker requires up to 10 times more light than a 20 year-old worker. Glare from lighting,
internal and external. Internal could be fluorescent. There are standard fluorescent bulbs are
less expensive, but can increase glare. Full Spectrum fluorescent mimic natural light but cost
more. Fluorescent overhead lighting can cause a general feeling of tiredness in the eyes.
External lighting from windows can put glare on computer screens causing eye fatigue and
strain. Sit at right angles to windows and at least 3 feet away from the window. To ensure
adequate lighting, fixtures may need to be redesigned or repositioned to provide each
workstation with the recommended illumination for the task. Adjust desk lamp or task light
to avoid reflections on the work area including computer screen. Computer screens and other
workstations may need to be repositioned to eliminate glare. Anti-glare screens can help.
Adjust drapes or blinds to reduce glare. To help limit reflected glare, walls should be painted
a medium or dark color and not have reflective finish. Usually the higher the contrast the
better.
OCCUPATIONAL NOISE ENVIRONMENT

Noise is one of the most widely and most frequently experienced problems of the
industrial working environment.
Noise affects physically, psychologically and socially, it can:
Damage hearing, interfere with communication, be annoying, cause tiredness
and reduce efficiency.
There are two primary attributes of sound which are of great concern to ergonomists
and safety professionals: intensity (or loudness) of the sound energy (or sound
pressure) and frequency of the sound pressure waves.
The risk of hearing damage depends on the:
Sound level
Time spent in the noisy environment
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Characteristics of the sound
Individual
Measures to reduce noise

1. Noise reduction at source
Selection of a quiet working method
Using quiet machines
Maintained machines regularly
Enclosing noisy machines
2. Noise reduction through workplace design and work organization
Separating noisy work from quiet work
Maintaining a sufficient distance from the noise source
Using ceiling to absorb noise
Using acoustic screens
Noise survey
Noise is usually measured with a sound-level meter, that should be used
in
accordance with American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The sound-level

meters should be calibrated on a regular basis.
The factors to be considered in a noise survey include first, the layout of the work
area; second, the height at which the worker is usually stationed; and third, the
number of working machines.
The noise level at a point r ft away from the noise Source can be calculated using the
following equation:
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Lp = Ls - 10 log (4 r2) 10
Where Lp = the noise level at a point away from the noise source in decibels;
Ls = the noise level at the source in decibels
r = the distance between the point and the noise Source in feet.
2.1 Noise
Noise is one of the most widely and most frequently experienced problems of the industrial
working environment.
Noise affects man physically, psychologically and socially. Noise can:
Damage hearing
Interfere with communication
Be annoying
Cause tiredness
Reduce efficiency
The risk of hearing damage increases both with the sound level and the time spent in the
noisy environment, but the risk also depends on the characteristics of the sound. In addition
sensitivity to noise is extremely dependent on the individual.
It is not only hearing that can be affected by noise. Studies have shown a number of other
harmful effects of noise. Prolonged exposure decreases workers coordination and
concentration; this therefore, increases their chances of accidents. Some studies have shown
that noise increases stress and this can lead to a number of health problems, including heart,
stomach and nervous disorders. Noise is therefore suspected of being one of the causes of
heart disease and stomach ulcers. Noise is also thought to promote permanent changes in
many other organs of the body. Workers exposed to noise sometimes complain of
nervousness, sleeplessness and fatigue. Excessive noise exposure can also reduce job
performance and may cause high rates of absenteeism.
The presence of high noise levels during a task can be annoying and in time can result in
impaired hearing. Annoyance and impaired hearing can be avoided by setting upper limits for
noise levels. Noise levels are expressed in decibels, dB(A).
Guidelines on noise
In order to prevent hearing damage, as well as to limit annoyance:
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i.
Keep the noise level below 80 decibel
A noise level which, over an 8-hour working day, exceeds 80 dB(A) on average, can damage
hearing. Assuming constant noise levels, this daily level will be reached, for example, with an
8 hour exposure to 80 dB(A), or with a 1 hour exposure to 89 dB(A)
(Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Constant noise levels should not last too long. To prevent impaired hearing, the
average daily level should not exceed 80dB(A).
ii.
Limit the annoyance
Annoyance during thinking and communication tasks can already arise at levels below 80
dB(A). An excess of noise will prove annoying even though the limit for damage to hearing
has not yet been reached. It is mainly noise produced by others, unexpected noise and high
frequency noise that cause annoyance.
iii.
Rooms should not be too quiet
Although the aim is to reduce noise levels to below a certain maximum, at the same time, the
level should not drop below 30dB (A), otherwise unexpected irrelevant noise becomes too
obvious.
Noise reduction at source

The most fundamental measures in noise reduction are ones taken at source. A number of
possibilities for achieving this are discussed below.
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Select a quiet working method: Consideration should also be given to noise levels when
selecting a particular working method. A less noisy working method is not only of
importance to those exposed to the noise; in many cases it also means less machine wear and
less damage to the product. It is sometimes also possible to reduce or eliminate certain noisy
stages in a process, for example finishing-off by grinding can sometimes be partly or totally
eliminated.
Use quiet machines: Developments in the construction of quiet equipment mean that an
increasing number of quiet machines, tools and accessories have come onto the market.
When selecting machines for purchase, attention should be paid to potential noise production
during normal usage.
Well maintained machines are quieter: Poor fit, eccentricity and imbalance cause
vibration, wear and noise. Regular maintenance of machines and equipment is therefore of
great importance.
Enclose noisy machines: Noisy machines can be placed in a sound-insulating enclosure
(Figure 2.2). This can significantly reduce noise levels, but the disadvantage is that enclosed
machines are less accessible for operation and maintenance. Special arrangements are also
required to bring in and remove any process material, and possibly also to provide
ventilation.
Figure Noisy machines such as woodworking machines can be enclosed to reduce noise in
the vicinity.
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Noise reduction through workplace design, and work organization

Noise reduction is achieved in most cases by reducing or preventing the transmission of noise
between source and receiver.
Separate noisy work from quiet work: Noisy activities can be segregated from quiet
activities by having them carried out in separate areas, or outside normal working hours. The
advantage is that fewer people are exposed to the noise, but other measures still have to be
taken to protect those who are nevertheless exposed to the noise.
Maintain a sufficient distance from the noise source: The correct choice in selecting a
location for a noise source is to keep it as far away as possible from those who may be
exposed to it. Increasing the distance is most effective close to the source.
Use the ceiling to absorb noise: The ceiling is often used to absorb noise. Although this
decreases the noise level only to a limited extent, it is particularly effective in reducing the
annoying effects, such as echo. Measures involving the ceiling are worth undertaking mainly
in rooms where sound reverberates and where many workers are present. In existing
buildings or in localized applications, one can use loose elements made of sound damping
material, which are hung from the ceiling. Another possibility is to install a lower ceiling
made of such material. This also offers a way of concealing pipe work, ducting, leads and
suchlike, and can help thermal insulation.
Use acoustic screens: Acoustic screens placed between the source and the person can reduce
the noise level. This measure is often only meaningful in combination with a sound-absorbing
ceiling. The screen should be large enough to prevent the source of noise from being seen.
Acoustic screens are ineffective if the distance between the source and the person is large.
Various types of screen are available: as a fixed wall, a moveable screen, a screen hung from
the ceiling or one which can be attached to a machine.
Hearing conservation
One can resort to protecting hearing by using ear-plugs or -muffs if the previous measures,
which were aimed at the source or at the transmission, are not feasible. Ear protectors must be
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available if the noise level is temporarily too high, for example during noisy maintenance
activities. Different types of ear protectors are illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Figure Examples of ear protectors. Ear protectors should only be used if other methods have
failed to reduce noise sufficiently.
Ear-plugs are fitted into the ear, which also means that the degree of noise reduction is often
limited if they are not properly used. Earmuffs, by contrast, are placed over the ears. The
resulting noise reduction is often greater than with plugs. They are also more convenient for
frequent donning and removing, and they are more hygienic. Many people find them
uncomfortable to wear because of perspiration, and they are also less suitable for those who
wear spectacles. Noise reduction will be limited if the muffs do not fit closely over the ears.
The pitch (frequency) of the noise must be taken into account when choosing ear protectors.
Different types of protective equipment have maximum damping effects in certain frequency
ranges. Data on the characteristics of ear protectors can be obtained from the suppliers. In
order to encourage the use of ear protectors, personal preferences in comfort and ease of use
must be taken into account. Different types of ear protectors should therefore be available.
OCCUPATIONAL VIBRATION
Vibration or oscillation is a periodic back-and-forth or up-and-down motion, such as
the motion of a pendulum or spring.
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The vibratory motion reverses itself twice in every complete cycle.

Vibration is inherent in any machine because of the motion of its moving parts that
oscillate, rotate, and/or reciprocate.
It can be characterized by frequency and intensity.
Vibratory frequency is the rate at which vibration oscillations occur.
This quantity is expressed in hertz (Hz) which is the number of cycles per second
(cps), where each cycle represents the motion of the device from a mean position to
one extreme, and return to the mean position.
Vibration intensity is measured in terms of a variety of parameters such as
amplitude, displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk.
Types of vibration with respect to its source

1- Forced Vibration: When an object is forced to vibrate under the action of a periodically
reversing force or under the action of reversing displacement of a support, its vibration is
called forced vibration. Vibrations occurring in machines are typically forced vibrations.
2- Free vibration: When the periodic forcing action is absent and vibration is induced by
displacing an object (e.g., a spring) and then releasing it, permitting it to vibrate freely, the
vibration is called free vibration (or natural vibration).
Types of vibration with respect to the human body
1- Whole-body vibration is vibration transmitted to the entire human body via some
supporting structure. Common modes of transmitting vibration is vibration through a
vehicle seat to the buttocks.
Whole-body vibration is a major concern when considering human reactions to
vibration in the workplace. Transportation and farming vehicles present common
whole-body vibration problems.
2- Segmental vibration is vibration entering the human body through specific body
parts, such as the hands and feet. This type of vibration is also known as upperextremities or hand arm vibration. Example: drilling, grinding , etc.
Assessment of vibration
Vibration is a vector quantity, it is necessary to measure vibration in the three
mutually orthogonal directions (x, y, and z) at a reference point close to where
vibration enters the body (e.g., the hand in the case of segmental vibration). The
Page 93
direction x is horizontally in the sagittal plane (from back to front and vice versa), y
is horizontally in the frontal plane (laterally from side to side) and the direction of z is
vertically in the sagittal plane or perpendicular to the transverse plane (up-and-down
or head- feet) in the biodynamic (anatomical) position.
The coordinate system for whole-body vibration in :

a) standing,
b) lying and
c) seated positions.
Vibration is defined as the oscillation of a body about a reference position. Of most interest in
ergonomics are the effects of vibration on health, task performance and communication.
In any discussion of vibration, a distinction has to be made between whole-body vibration
and hand-arm vibration. In whole-body vibration, the whole body is brought into vibration
via the feet (in standing work) or via the seat (in seated work). Usually, the vibration is
predominantly vertical, such as in vehicles. Hand-arm vibration affects only the hands and
arms, and often arises when using motorized hand-held tools.
Three variables are important in assessing vibrations:
their level (expressed in m s 2),
their frequency (expressed in Hz)
the exposure duration
Page 94
Low-frequency body vibrations (<1 Hz), can produce a feeling of seasickness. Body
vibrations between 1 and 100 Hz, especially between 4 and 8Hz, can lead to chest pains,
difficulties in breathing, back pain and impaired vision. The possible consequences of handarm vibration frequencies between 8 and 1000 Hz are reduced sensitivity and dexterity of the
fingers, vibration white finger (see below), as well as muscle, joint and bone disorders. The
most common frequency range for hand-held motorized tools is between 25 and 150 Hz. The
main disorders in which vibration is a causal factor are summarized in Table 2.1
Disorder
Effect of Vibration
Low back problems
Gastrointestinal problems
- Microfracture of vertebral endplate Schnorls

nodes (following sudden intense shock)
- Increased disc pressure caused by higher back
muscle activity
- Decreased disc height
- Increased radial disc bulge (after chronic
exposure)
- Bad posture amplifies effects of vibration
Urogenital problems
- Increased secretion of gastric juices causing

acute stomach ache
- Possible link with gastric ulcers
Cardiovascular problems
- Slight evidence for a link with whole-body

vibration in women
Hearing problems
- No evidence for an association
- Some evidence that whole-body vibration
combined with noise amplifies hearing loss by 6
dB
Table Health effects of vibration exposure
Guidelines on vibration
This paragraph contains guidelines on whole-body vibration, hand-arm vibration as well as
shocks and jolts.
i.
Body vibration should not result in discomfort
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Body vibration results in discomfort at certain combinations of exposure duration and

average vibration level. Figure 2.4 shows the limit for various combinations of exposure
duration and average vibration level for whole-body vibrations in standing and seated work.
Figure 2.4 Body vibration results in discomfort, depending on exposure duration and average
vibration level.
ii.
Prevent vibration white finger resulting from hand-arm vibration
Vibration white finger (also called dead finger) is caused by hand-arm vibration. The main
symptom of this disorder is a reduction of blood flow in the fingers leading to discoloration
of the skin. The fingers feel cold and become numb, which in time can actually lead to
necrosis of the fingertips. The condition is aggravated by cold. The development of vibration
white finger depends among other things on the exposure duration and the average vibration
level. Figure 2.5 shows the limit for various combinations of exposure duration and average
vibration level.
Page 96
Figure 2.5 Hand-arm vibration can cause white finger, depending on the exposure duration
and average hand-arm vibration level.
iii.
Prevent shocks and jolts
Shocks and jolts often arise together with vibrations. Shocks and jolts with peak intensities
more than three times higher than the average vibration level will increase the total vibration
stress, and should be avoided. The reader should note that the guidelines for vibrations given
here, assume that no shocks or jolts occur.
Preventing vibration
Vibration can be prevented at source, during the transmission between source and exposed
person and, to a limited extent, at the individual level. In this section we deal with a few
possible measures.
Tackle vibration at source

Large machines and motorized tools often constitute a source of vibration. Rotating
movements generally cause less vibration than reciprocating movements, a fact worth
remembering when designing or selecting machines and tools. Likewise, hydraulic and
pneumatic transmissions are superior to mechanical transmission in this respect. Heavy
machines (those with a large mass) also generally cause less vibration.
Page 97
Maintain machines regularly: Machines and hand-held tools sometimes display loose fits,
eccentricity or imbalance, all of which cause vibration, noise and wear. Regular maintenance
is therefore very important.
Prevent the transmission of vibration

Whenever measures at source are inadequate, attention should be devoted instead to reducing
the transmission of vibration. This is best done by damping the vibration where it enters the
body, for instance, by fitting floors, seats and handgrips with a damping material. An
example is a well-damped seat in a bus, which makes it difficult for the vibrations to reach
the body from the floor. The seating surface is fitted with a damping material and a
pneumatic spring is located between seat and floor for damping.
If necessary, direct the measures at the individual

If measures at source and in transmission are not effective, then attention must be directed at
the individual. This can be done by reducing the duration of exposure, for example by
alternating tasks which entail vibration with tasks that do not entail vibration. Cold, humidity
and smoking increase the risk of vibration white finger and can be counteracted at the
individual level, among other things, by using gloves for protection against cold and
humidity.
COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS
Mental workload
Work should be a source of health in the sense of enhancing motivation and personal
development. Work promotes health when it satisfies the basic human needs.
Improperly organized work not only has negative effects on employees performance but
in the long run may also cause permanent damage to health.
Mental workload is defined as the total of all assessable influences impinging upon a
human being from external sources and affecting it mentally.
Every employee has a different strain under the same conditions.
While a difficult task may be considered a positive challenge by one employee, it is seen
as stressful by another.
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In dependence on the individuals performance parameters and coping strategies we have

different consequences of mental strain. These may be:
1- Positive consequences conducive to health and development or
2- Negative consequences that may impair health and development.
Occupational overload or underload may have short-term consequences (stress,
monotony, mental satiation and mental fatigue), which may tend to become long term
consequences such as psychosomatic or mental diseases whenever the employee has
to cope with unfavourable working requirements over a prolonged period of time.
It is therefore necessary to identify and assess possible causes of mental overload or
underload and to define appropriate measures that may help to avoid detrimental
short-term effects.
Fig: Relation between mental workload and mental strain.
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Signs that workload and requirements can no longer be coped with include:
complaints of employees about mental workload and physical problems at the
workplace
Reduced motivation, poor company climate, mobbing, addictive behavior.
Lack of flexibility and commitment on the part of employees.
Downtimes due to absenteeism, sickness leaves, fluctuation.
Rejects, need for reworking, complaints.
Excessive throughput times, inventories and overhead costs.
It is necessary to classify the jobs based on their intensity as follows:

Category 1
Adverse impact on workers health appears to be improbable.
Category 2
No hygiene thresholds are exceeded /adverse health effect on vulnerable
individuals.
Category 3
Exposure is not definitely reduced by technical measures/ PPE,
organizational or other measures.
Category 4
High level of health risk
Human-machine systems
Ignoring the human operator's needs, behavior, and preferences results in human
errors, which are usually due to poor design.
The complexity of a human-machine interface creates confusion, errors, accidents,
and loss of resources.
In H-M system the human operator interacts with the machine. This interaction is a
closed-loop system. In this loop, the operator:
First- perceives the status of the machine through displays;
Second- interprets and mentally processes the perceived information;
Third- makes a decision and, then,
Fourth- conveys the decision to the machine through operated controls.
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Poor ergonomic designs lead to waste of time and money, and often tragedies. For
example, errors in operating a complex machine result in loss of production.
Therefore, for a human-machine system to be efficiently operated, the designers must
consider ergonomics principles and concepts.
Displays and controls are the principal communication devices interfacing the
operator with machines.
The role of ergonomics in this interface is to facilitate the effective use of these
devices by the human operator and to minimize errors in their use.
Fig: Illustration of human-machine interface

Ergonomics is concerned with the following aspects of the human-machine systems:
The design of tools to match the physical characteristics of the worker
The design of the workplace and work space to meet the physical characteristics of
the worker;
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The design of controls and displays to allow the worker to operate and monitor the
work system processes efficiently with minimum errors.
The development of job procedures that meet the worker's capabilities;
The minimization of the effects of external factors (i.e., thermal conditions,
illumination, noise, and vibration) on the worker in the workplace.
It is necessary to design human-machine system (consisting of input, process, and
output of the system). This system design consists of the following seven steps.
1. Objectivesdetermination: desired output must be designed.
2. Input specifications: The required input to obtain the output
3. Process description: Process must be described to show how input can be converted into
desired output.
4. Functional allocation: All specific functions or tasks to be performed
5. Interface design: The interfaces between the human operator and machine must be
properly designed.
6. Facilitator design: all materials and procedures that enhance operators performance.
7. Testing and evaluation of the system : review and evaluate the system performance.
Job-Analysis: it describes the process and divided into five main stages:
1. Preparation: What steps are necessary to prepare the worker for performing the job?
2. Observation: What information and data must the worker have to perform the job?
3. Control: What steps (i.e decisions & mental processes) must the worker take to control
the job processes?
4. Physical demands: What physical tasks must the worker do to perform the job?
5. Termination: What steps must the worker take to terminate the job?
Controls and displays
A proper design of the human-machine interface is of great importance for enhancing

the operator's productivity, safety, and well-being.
Displays: A variety of displays are available to interact with the human sensory
systems. The most common are visual displays and auditory displays.
Visual displays can be either analog or digital. Analog displays include dials, graphs,
and status indicators. Digital displays include mechanical counters and electronic
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alphanumeric displays. There are three common types of visual display instruments
found in industry.
Fig: Three types of display:
a) Counter
b) Fixed scale with moving pointer
c) Fixed pointer with moving scale
Controls: It include valves, toggle switches, push-buttons, pedals key, boards, levers,
rotary knobs, thumb wheels, hand-wheels, and cranks.
Selecting a suitable control from a large number of types available is critical for the
effectiveness of human-machine performance.
The control should be selected based on its suitability for the particular task. A
control that is suitable for a given task may be inappropriate for another.
Page 103

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What is Ergonomics?

Application of ergonomics principles to work practices allows prevention and control of

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Historical background of Ergonomics

Organizational ergonomics: is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical

systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes.

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Ergonomics system Dimensions

People consider points about physical capacities, psychological drivers, expectations

performance measures, quality requirements

& what, how, when details.

job design, team based requirements,

working hours / shift work, rest breaks and task specialization.

management commitment / leadership,

communication / consultation processes and feedback / performance management.

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Effects of poor Ergonomics

Fewer injuries or illness

Accidents and injuries

Fewer health problems

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Functional anthropometry (often called dynamic anthropometry) measurement

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

The ten most important human engineering dimensions

Purpose of measuring anthropometric measurements

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

FIG: The relative sizes of different percentile humans.

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Human Measurement Editor (HME)

Users can amend all 103 anthropometric variables on the manikin.

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Common Workplace Postures

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Common anthropometric measurements for the seated position

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOMECHANICAL ERGONOMICS

These physiological responses are directly

FIG : Oxygen consumption profile for a prolonged work bout

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Fig: Oxygen consumption profile for an intermittent work bout

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY

perform their jobs effectively.

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

General principles for workstation design

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Three workplace layout are:

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Digital workplace with a digital human model

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Digital workplace with adjustable material shuttles

Ergonomically planned manual assembly system

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

3. CATIA V5 R16: A TOOL FOR ERGONOMIC DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Amare Matebu Kassa (PhD)

Figure 3.1 Different posture of manikin

3.1.2 Human Posture Analysis