Module 3 : Wear

Introduction of Wear
Undesirable removal of material from operating solid surface is known as wear. There are two
definitions
:
(1) Zero wear : Removal of material which causes polishing of material surfaces may be
known as "Zero wear". It may increase performance. It is for betterment, so it is not
undesirable.
Zero wear is basically a polishing process in which the asperities of the contacting surfaces
are gradually worn off until a very fine, smooth surface develops. Generally, polishing&in
wear is desirable for better life of tribo&pair. Fig. 3.1(a) shows polished surface of helical gear
which occurs due to slow loss of metal at a rate that will have a little affect on the satisfactory
performance within the life of the gears.

Fig. 3.1(a): Zero wear of helical gear.

(2) Measurable wear : Removal of material from surface that increases vibration; noise or
surface roughness may be treated an "Measureable wear". Often we measure wear in
volume/mass reduction. Undesirable removal of material occurs in measurable wear.
Measurable wear refers to a loss of material which must be counted to estimate the life of
tribo&pair. The extent of measurable weardepends on the lubrication regime, the nature of
the load, the surface hardness and roughness, and on the contaminants in the lubricating oil.
A typical example of measurable wear in helical gear is shown in Fig. 3.1(b) which is typically
known as pitting wear.

Fig. 3.1(b): Measurable wear of helical gear.

Pitting is a surface fatigue failure which occurs due to repeated loading of tooth surface and
the contact stress exceeding the surface fatigue strength of the material. Material in the
fatigue region gets removed and a pit is formed. The pit itself will cause stress concentration
and soon the pitting spreads to adjacent region till the whole surface is covered with pits.
Subsequently, higher impact load resulting from pitting may cause fracture of already
weakened tooth. Sometimes impurities in materials provide nucleus for crack generation as
shown in Fig. 3.1(c). Fig. 3.1(d) shows merger of generated cracks, which finally detaches
from the surface as shown in Fig. 3.1(e). Such formation of pits (removal of material) comes
undermeasurable wear.

Fig. 3.1: Formation of pit.

Many time the change in surface profile alters the optimum value of clearance and reduces
load capacity of machine components. Let us consider Fig. 3.2 of worn out rollers. Sliding to
rolling ratio for these worn out rollers increase with wear rate and usage of rolling element
bearing loses its purpose.

Fig. 3.2: Worn out rollers.

This Fig. 3.3 shows variation in bearing clearance due to abrasion of the bearing surface. With
increase in bearing clearance load capacity of bearing decreases as shown in Fig. 3.4. X&axis
of Fig. 3.4 represents radial clearance which is given by 0.1% of radius multiplied with the
factor depicting increase in clearance due to wear.

Fig. 3.3: Abrasion marks on bearing

bore.

Fig. 3.4: Effect of clearence on load.

Removal of material from operating solid surfaces by solid particles depends upon Load,
Velocity, Environment, and Materials. Removal of material from operating solid surface by
Fluid (liquid/gas) depends upon Velocity, pressure, Environment and material.
As wear increases power losses increases, oil consumption increases, rate of component
replacement also inreases. Ultimately, it reduces efficiency of the system. Therefore, as far as
possible wear should be minimized.
Wear Mechanisms :

Wear can be classified based on the ways that the frictional junctions are broken, that
is, elastic displacement, plastic displacement, cutting, destruction of surface films and
destruction of bulk material. There are many types of wear mechanisms, but we shall
discuss about common wear mechanisms, which are:
Abrasive Wear : polishing, scouring, scratching, grinding, gouging.
Adhesive Wear : galling, scuffing, scoring.
Cavitation (interaction with fluid).
Corrosive Wear (Chemical nature).
Erosive Wear.
Fatigue : delamination.
Fretting Wear.

Module 3 : Wear
Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear is very common in metals. It is heavily dependent on the mutual affinity
between the materials. Let us take example of steel and indium [Fig. 3.5(a)]. When steel pin
under load is pushed [Fig. 3.5(b)] in indium block, and subsequently retracted [Fig. 3.5(c)], a
thin layer of indium transferred on the steel pin. Similar behavior is observed by pushing brass
metal in indium metal. This behavior demonstrates the loss of indium material, which occurs
due to high value of adhesive force between steel and indium. If steel pin is subjected to
normal load as well as tangential load [Fig. 3.5(d)] then severe wear of indium material occurs.
By introducing a thin layer of lubricant at the interface of indium and metal, the severe wear
can be reduced to mild wear. Shear strength of lubricant layer is much smaller than shear
strength of indium metal, therefore weak interface between steel and indium occurs which can
be sheared easily and wear rate reduces to mild value.

Fig. 3.5: Adhesive wear.

All theories which predict wear rates start from the concept of true area of contact. It is usually
assumed that the true area of contact between two real metal surfaces is determined by the
plastic deformation of their highest asperities. Severity of adhesive wear is based on the area
of contact which is given by A = W/H. Here, W is load applied to press one surface over other
surface and H is hardness of soft material. This expression provides appropriate results if whole
load is supported due to plastic deformation of the surface. However, for elasto&plastic
deformation, the expression needs to be slightly modified. (A = (W/H)n where (2/3 < n < 1).
Here assumption is that higher asperities could be deformed plastically, while the lower
contacting asperities are subject to within elastic limits. In addition, the adhesive wear will
depend on the shear strength of friction junctions. This means total true area of contact
consists of plastic and elastic asperity contacts and shear strength of the contacting asperities
vary in shear strength and thus influence the rate of adhesive wear. If the junction is weaker
than the material on either side of it, shearing occurs at the interface itself Fig. 3.6(a). There
will be little surface damage and little wear. This situation occurs if sliding occurs within the
surface oxide layer. If the junction is stronger than one of the metals, shearing will not occur at
the interface but at a little distance within the softer metal [Fig. 3.6(b) and Fig. 3.6(c)]. This
may lead to an enormous increase in wear rate.

Fig. 3.6: Location of shear plane.

Scoring wear, a severe form of adhesive wear, occurs due to tearing out of small particles that
weld together as a result of overheating (due to high contact pressure and/or high sliding
velocity) of the tooth mesh zone, permitting metal to metal contact shown in Fig. 3.6(d). After
welding, sliding forces tear the metal from the surface producing a minute cavity in one surface
and a projection on the other. The wear initiates microscopically, however, it progresses
rapidly. Scoring is sometimes referred to as galling, seizing or scuffing.

Fig. 3.6(d): Scoring.

Fig. 3.7(a): Contaminant layers on metal surface.

Fig. 3.7(b): Surface asperities on metal surface.

Fig. 3.7(c): Interaction between contaminant layers and surface asperities on metal
surface.

Steps leading to Adhesive Wear :

It is well known that macroscopically smooth surfaces are rough on micro scale as shown
in Fig. 3.7(a) and Fig. 3.7(b). When two such surfaces are brought together as shown in
Fig. 3.7(c), contact is made at relatively few isolated asperities. As a normal load is
applied, the local pressure at the asperities becomes extremely high. In the absence of
surface films the surfaces would adhere but a small amount of contaminant prevents
adhesion under purely normal loading. However, relative tangential motion at the
interface disperses the contaminant films at the points of contact, and welding of the
junctions can take place. Continued sliding causes the junctions to be sheared and new
junctions to be formed. The amount of wear depends on the position at which the junction
is sheared as shown in Fig. 3.6(a) to (c). If shearing occurs at the interface then wear is
negligible. If shear takes place away from the interface then metal is transferred from one
surface to the other. With further rubbing, some of the transferred material is detached to
form loose wear particles. We can summarize these steps as :
Deformation of contacting asperities Fig. 3.8(a).
Removal (abrasion) of protective oxide surface film.
Formation of adhesive junctions Fig. 3.8(b).
Failure of junction by pulling out large lumps and transfer of materials Fig. 3.8(c).

Fig. 3.8: Steps leading to adhesive wear.

Fig. 3.9: Wear transition[1].

Laws of Adhesive Wear :

Wear Volume proportional to sliding distance of travel (L)

0 True for wide range of conditions except where back transfer occurs.
Wear Volume proportional to the load (W)
0 Dramatic increase beyond critical load as shown in Fig. 3.9.
Wear volume inversely proportional to hardness(H) of softer material
Using these laws, wear volume is given by V = K1WL/3H. This equation is known as
Archards Wear Equation.
The value of k1 depends on elastic plastic contacts, shearing of those contacts, effect of
environment, mode of lubrication, etc. This expression of wear volume is a simple
expression, as it does not require to estimate constant n(A = (W/H)n), individual shear
strength of elastic and plastic junctions, effect of lubricant thickness, roughness, etc.
Archard assumed that the contact between tribo&pair involve formation and breakage of
junctions. In other words, contacts occurs only at asperities. The real area of contact of
contacting surfaces, as distinguished from the apparent or geometric area of contact, is the
instantaneous sum of the areas of all junctions. The Archard model is demonstrated in Fig.
3.10, where cross section of asperities after plastic deformation is assumed to be circular. First
sketch demonstrates the approach of junction forming asperities. Area of contact increases
with sliding distance and subsequently decreases. But this process is continuous and happens
among number of asperities. On average, it is assumed that n asperities will be in contact at
any frame of time.

Fig. 3.10: Archard wear model.

W = k1 H(a2)
W = k1 H(a2) for n asperities.
V = k2(2a3/3)
V = (V/2a) = k2(a2/3)
v = k2 (a2/3)
v = k1W/3H
V = k1(WL/3H)

Understanding of wear constant k1 :

k1 is a dimensionless constant expresses the probability of removing a wear particle. Factor k1
(often referred as index of severity) represents the fraction of the friction junctions producing
wear.
k1 = 1. Every junction involved in the friction process produces a wear fragment.
k1 = 0.1. One tenth of the friction junctions produce wear fragments. For clean gold surfaces
k1 is between 0.1 and 1. For clean&copper surfaces k1 is between 0.1 and 0.01. Clean gold
surfaces
wear
about
ten
times
more
rapidly
than
clean
copper
surfaces.
k1 = 10&7 means that of the junctions responsible for friction only one in ten million produces
a wear fragment.
Relation between Coefficient of Friction and Wear Constant :

Table 3.1: Data related to friction coefficient and wear rate.

Table 3.1 shows some relation between coefficient of friction and wear rate. To establish
relation between = and k1, Rowe proposed modified adhesion theory. In Eq.(3.1) km is
constant and is fractional surface film defect. This means fraction of contact area is
under dry lubrication, while one minus contact area is under lubricated condition. Here
lubricated condition means shear strength of interface lower than shear strength of bulk
material.
= km (1+B2) (W/H)...Eq.(3.1)
= wear volume per unit sliding distance.
v = K1W/3H ...Eq.(3.2)
It is interesting to compare Rowe`s equation(3.1) with Archard`s equation(3.2). There are
three constants in equation(3.1) while only one constant in equation(3.2).
Equation(3.3) provides a modified form of wear constant k1. In this equation, 'h'
represents the thickness of asperity while 'l' represents the length of asperity. P is the
probability of wear particle formation. For spherical asperity, l = 2*h which means k1 is
equal to probability of wear particle formation. But if h is greater than radius of sphere
then k1 will be greater than P. Similar if h is lesser than sphere radius than k1 will be

lesser than P. This relation has its merits but difficulties lies in determining h, l and P.
K1 = 2(h/l)P....Eq.(3.3)
In literature there are many wear equations[2], but the most popular equation is
Archard`s equation(3.2).
Some Guidelines based on Adhesive Wear :
For longer service life or reliability of devices/machines, designers always aim for mild wear
regime. It means wear particle coming out from the surfaces need to be much smaller in size.
For getting this conditions dissimilar metals are usually chosen to run together as they do not
weld together easily. If the metals are already at their maximum hardness, as in rolling
bearing steel, no further work hardening is possible, so identical metals can be used for both
elements.
If severe wear behavior cannot be avoided, such as in ore processing or earth moving
equipments, routine maintenance is essential. For example, outer ring of rolling element
bearings, if subjected to severe wear, then it can be rotated by few degrees to avoid wear of
same localized surface. Many plastics undergo a transition from mild to severe wear as a
function of sliding speed (that increases temp.) or combination of sliding and contact pressure.
For better life of those plastics, load & speed conditions must be closely controlled.

Fig. 3.11: Pin on disk arrangement.

Example : To find the best material for a dry journal bearing few tests were conducted on pin
on disk machines(Fig. 3.11). Disk material remained AISI 1040 steel. While pin materials were:
A (225), B(30), C(50), D (70), and E (100). Numbers in bracket for materials A,B,.....E are
surface hardness BHN. Find the best material for following experimental results. The wear on
the pin can be measured with a toolmakers microscope by measuring the size of wear scar.

Table 3.2: Experimental data.

As per Table 3.2, wear scar(d) is maximum for test 7(20.83 mm) and minimum for test
2(8.81 mm).
To find the best material following equation can be used.
Wear volume, V = k1 W L/3H = d4/64R
where sliding distance, L = test duration * sliding speed.

Table 3.3

Wear constant(K12345) for various tests has been listed in Table 3.3. The result of tests 4 & 5 are
favorable therefore material B may be treated as best material. The values corresponding to
material A in the table represent the transition behavior of metal(A) from mild wear to severe
wear.

Mild Wear :
In mild adhesive wear, small wear fragments (0.01 to 1 M m) mostly of metal oxides are
generated.
This kind of wear occurs at flow contact pressure (below transition limit) and sliding velocity.
Formation
of
black
powdered
oxide
is
typical
example
of
mild
wear.
At higher velocities more oxidation replenishes losses due to break&away of oxide fragment as
wear
debris,
therefore
at
higher
velocities
mild
wear
is
possible.
In some cases at higher loads, a hard surface layer (most likely martensite) is formed on
carbon&steel surfaces because of high flash temperatures, followed by rapid quenching as heat
is conducted into underlying bulk, and mild wear in such situation is possible. In short if oxide
or contamination layers remain throughout operating time, wear will be in mild regime.

Fig. 3.12: Mild wear.

Severe Adhesive Wear : If load increases, the oxide film cracks off, exposing fresh metal
which welds and wear rate may increase several hundred fold. Typical debris size range 20 to
200 Mm metallic particles.

Fig. 3.13: Debris in severe wear.

Seizure :

Seizure means to bind or fasten together. It is a result of mutual plastic deformation of

materials and it is an extreme form of adhesive wear. Let us take example of inner ring
and rollers of roller bearing, shown in Fig. 3.14. In ordinary cases after seizure,
components do not get separated on their own. Manual force is required to separate the
parts. In other words, after seizure tribo0pair loses its utility and cannot be used without
proper reconditioning. The figure clearly demonstrate the grooves made at inner ring and
loss of material from roller surfaces. The relative sliding motion between two contacting
solids generally results in a loss of mechanical energy due to friction. The power

dissipation associated with friction results in an increase in temperature of the sliding

bodies. Causes for seizure are :
(1). Poor heat dissipation. It is related to material properties such thermal conductivity.
(2). Poor lubrication system or improper lubricant also cause seizure.
(3). Smaller clearances. It is related to improper design.
(4). Installation errors. It is related to maintenance.
(5). The ability of the metals to seize or to join in solid state.

Fig. 3.14: Seizure of rolling elements.

In others words, excessive loading & heating govern the Seizure phenomenon. To illustrate, all
wear requires wear map as shown in the Fig. 3.15, are used. The two variables bearing
pressure and sliding velocity, are under the control of the operator, and are easily measured.
The field boundaries are lines along which two mechanisms give the same wear&rate. The
contours show the total wear rate V; it is the sum of the contributions from all the
mechanisms. The thickness of oxide layer is a function of three factors, the time required to
rupture the oxide layer, time available to re&oxidize and rate of formation of the oxide layer.

Fig. 3.15: Wear7Mechanism Map[3].

References :

1. Archard J F and Hirst W, The Wear of Metals under Unlubricated Conditions, Proc. R.
Soc., London, A 236, 3970410, 1956.
2. Ludema K C, Friction, Wear, Lubrication: A textbook in Tribology, CRC Press, 2010.
3. Lim S C and Ashby M F, Wear Mechanism Maps, Acta Metall., Vol. 35 (1), 1024, 1987.

Module 3 : Wear
Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear, sometimes called cutting wear, occurs when hard particles slide and roll under
pressure, across the tooth surface. Hard particle sources are: dirt in the housing, sand or scale
from castings, metal wear particles, and particles introduced into housing when filling with lube oil.
Scratching is a form of abrasive wear, characterized by short scratch&like lines in the direction of
sliding. This type of damage is usually light and can be stopped by removing the contaminants
that caused it. Fig. 3.16(a) shows abrasive wear of a hardened gear.

Fig. 3.17: Two7Body abrasion

Fig. 3.16: Abrasive wear of gear.
Abrasive wear is caused by the passage of relatively hard particles/asperities over a surface.
Following are few well0known reasons of abrasive wear mechanisms :
Micro cutting : sharp particle or hard asperity cuts the softer surface. Cut material is
removed as wear debris.
Micro fracture : generally occurs in brittle, e.g. ceramic material. Fracture of the worn
surface occurs due to merging of a number of smaller cracks.
Micro fatigue : When a ductile material is abraded by a blunt particle/asperity, the worn
surface is repeatedly loaded and unloaded, and failure occurs due to fatigue.
Removal of material grains : Happens in materials (i.e. ceramics) having relatively week
grain boundaries.
Two other mechanisms, very similar to abrasive wear are :
0 Erosive wear : Impact of particles against a solid surface is known as erosive wear.
0 Cavitation wear : Localized impact of fluid against a surface during the collapse of bubbles
is known as cavitation wear.
Basic modes of abrasive wear are classified as two body abrasion and three body abrasion.

Two Body Abrasion :

This wear mechanism happens betweent two interacting asperities in physical contact, and one of
it is harder than other. Normal load causes penetration of harder asperities into softer surface thus
producing plastic deformations. To slide, the material is displaced/removed from the softer surface
by combined action of microploughing & micro&cutting.

Fig. 3.18: Three7Body abrasion

Rabinowiczs Quantitative Law for Two.Body Abrasive Wear :
Assume conical asperities indenting soft surface during traverse motion(as shown in Fig. 3.16) and
all the material displaced by the cone is lost as wear debris. Here basic assumptions are :
All asperities can be represented by equal dimensions cones.
All the material displaced by the conical asperity in a single pass is removed as wear particles.
Load carried by nth asperity
wn = H(0.5 * a2)
where H is the hardness.
Volume swept by penetrated asperity.

Total wear is sum of the wear caused by individual asperity.

Three Body Abrasion :

Three body abrasion is material removed from softer surface by hard loose particles(Fig.
3.18), which are free to roll as well as slide over the surface, since they are not held rigidly.
The hard particles may be generated locally by oxidation or wear from components of
tribological system. Iron oxides wear debris produced during adhesive wear cause further
damage due to abrasion. Due to rolling action, abrasive wear constant is lower compared to
20Body abrasion. Generally K2B = 0.005 to 0.05; and K3B = 0.0005 to 0.005;
From above values of wear constants, one can conclude that wear rate is lesser in three
body abrasion than two body abrasion. The reduction in 30body abrasion occurs due to
energy consumed in rolling motion of free hard particles.
Abrasion by Magneto.Rheological Particles :

Fig. 3.19: M.R.Particles.

M.R.Fluids are known as smart fluids, which varied viscosity due to magnetic attraction among
particles. If MR particles(Fig. 3.19) are spherical and relatively smaller in size compared to
available clearance then abrasion by MR particles is negligible. But larger particle size and irregular
shape of particles, may wear off contacting surfaces. Therefore a good design must use
spherical/regular shape of MR particles having size much smaller than provided clearance.

Module 3 : Wear
Corrosive Wear

Chemical reaction + Mechanical action = Corrosive wear

The fundamental cause of Corrosive wear is a chemical reaction between the material and a
corroding medium which can be either a chemical reagent, reactive lubricant or even air.
Understanding the mechanisms of corrosive is important to reduce this kind of wear. Let us
consider a jaw coupling used for connecting shaft and motor, as shown in Fig. 3.20. This
coupling is corroded, due to moist environment and its outer dimensions have increased. If
we rub this coupling with fingers, brown colour debris will get detached from the coupling
surface. In other words, after chemical reactions, mechanical action is essential to initiate
corrosive wear.

Fig. 3.20: Jaw coupling.

Stages of corrosive wear :
Sliding surfaces chemically interact with environment (humid/industrial vapor/acid)
A reaction product (like oxide, chlorides, copper sulphide)
Wearing away of reaction product film.
The most corrosion films passivate (Fig. 3.21) or cease to grow beyond a certain thickness.
This is favourable as corrosion process stops its own. But most corrosion films are brittle &
porous, and mechanical sliding wears away the film. The formation and subsequent loss of
sacrificial (Fig. 3.22) or short life0time corrosion films is the most common form of corrosive
wear.

Fig. 3.21: Passivation of corrosion. Fig. 3.22: Continuous corrosion.

Sliding surfaces may wear by chemically reacting with the partner surface or the environment, or
both. The oxide layers resulting from reactions with the environment are typically 10 microns
thick, and they may have a protective role unless the thickness tends to grow during the cyclic
contact process. If the oxide layer grows, it becomes liable to break in brittle fracture, producing
wear particles. Hard, broken&off oxide particles may then profoundly affect subsequent wear life as
abrasive agents. If soft, ductile debris results, it may form a protective layer on the surface.

Erosive wear
Erosive wear caused by the impact of particles (solid/liquid) against a solid surface. For example
dust particles impacting on gas turbine blades and slurry impacting on pump impeller. Erosive
wear rate(Ve) is function of :
1. Particles velocity (K.E.)
2. Impact angle and
3. Size of abrasive.
Ve = K.A().(particle_vel)n.(particle_size)3.
Relationship between wear rate and impact velocity is described by a power law. Here K is an
empirical constant and n is a velocity exponent.
n = 2 to 2.5 for metals.
n = 2.5 to 3 for ceramics.

Angle of impact decides the magnitude of transfer. Angle between eroded surface &
trajectory of particle immediately before impact can range from 00 to 900.
0 Low impact angle : cutting wear prevails, hardness resists wear.
0 At large angle, fatigue wear prevails. Soft (ductile) material may be suitable.

Fig. 3.23: Impingement angle vs wear rate.

If the speed is very low then stresses at impact are insufficient for plastic deformation to occur and
wear proceeds by surface fatigue. When the speed is increased, it is possible for the eroded
material to deform plastically on particle impact. In this regime, which is quite common for many
engineering components, wear may occur by repetitive plastic deformation. If the eroding particles
are blunt or spherical, thin plates of worn material form as a result of extreme plastic deformation.
If the particles are sharp, cutting or brittle fragmentation prevail. Brittle materials on the other
hand, wear by subsurface cracking.
Example : Pneumatic Transportation : Steel pellets damage (wear out) elbow, larger
speed, lower life.

Fig. 3.24: Pneumatic transportation.

From tribological point of view, elbow must be reinforced with rubber inside the elbow to sustain
the impact.
Example : Engine particle (sand) separator
Erosion by sand particles inside engine is a major problem. The design of helicopter engine must
be modified to reduce the number of particles.

Fig. 3.25: Helicopter Engine.

As per tribology, traveling distance of particles should be minimized. Based on this guideline
modified design shown in Fig. 3.26 was proposed.

Fig. 3.26: Modified Engine.

In new design, impacting angle is on higher side, and therefore material needs to selected
accordingly. This improved design requires only 50% of the volume of the earlier design. In
addition, scavenge pressure loss is reduced by 40%, which reduces wear rate.
Fatigue Wear :
Fatigue is attributed to multiple reversals(apply and release) of the contact stress, occurring due
to cyclic loading such as in rolling bearings, gears, friction drives, cam and follower. Abrasive and
Adhesive wear involve a large contribution from fatigue. Fig. 3.27 shows surface fatigue failure of
outer ring of roller bearing. At the start of bearing operation, the rolling bearings rely on smooth
undamaged contacting surfaces for reliable functioning. A certain number of rolling contact cycles
must elapse before surface defects are formed, and their formation is termed contact fatigue.
Once the rolling surfaces of a bearing are pitted, its further use is prevented due to excessive
vibration caused by pits passing through the rolling contact.

Fig. 3.27: Fatigue Wear.

Fig. 3.28: Fatigue wear during sliding.

Fig. 3.28 illustrate the induced strains in top of the surface in the direction of sliding. Thickness t
depends on the coefficient of friction. For high value of sliding of friction, material within 0.1 [mm]
of the surface shifts in the direction of sliding due to deformation caused by the frictional force.
Also, close to the surface the grain structure is orientated parallel to the wearing surface. Strains
caused by shearing in sliding direction are present to some depth below the surface. The strain
induced by sliding eventually breaks down the original grain structure at the surface to form
dislocation cells. Materials vary greatly in their tendency to form dislocation cells. For example,
aluminium, copper and iron have a high tendency to form dislocation cells. These dislocation cells
are probable regions for void formation and crack nucleation. A primary crack originates at the
surface at some weak point and propagates downward along weak planes such as slip planes or
dislocation cell boundaries as shown in Fig. 3.29. When the developing crack reaches the surface,
a wear particle is released.

Fig. 3.29: Mechanism of fatigue wear.

In other words, pure materials (without any inclusions in it) may exhibit high service life. It was
found that pure copper (99.96% purity) sliding against steel gives a wear rate ten times lower
than any other material despite exhibiting the highest coefficient of friction of all the materials

tested. On the other hand, a steel rich in carbide particles shows a low coefficient of friction and
gives one of the highest wear rates. The wear rate was found to increase with inclusion density in
the material, while friction was determined by adhesion factors so that complex impure materials
exhibited the lowest friction coefficient.
Fatigue Wear during Rolling :

During rolling, the local contact stresses are very high, which are concentrated over a small
area and are repetitive. Such loading occurs in rolling bearings, gears, friction drives, cams
and followers, etc. Steps leading to generation of wear particles are :
Application of normal load that induce stresses at contact points.
Growth of plastic deformation per cycle.
Subsurface crack nucleation.
Expansion of crack due to reversal of stress.
Extension of crack to the surface due to traction force.
Generation of wear particles.
Cracking :
Cracking is ultimate failure to split the component. In other words cracking results in complete
failure of the component. Causes for cracking are excessive load with vibration, loose fit and
excessive impact. To reduce cracking the correction of fits and vibration isolation are fool proof
methods.

Fig. 3.30: Cracking.

Module 3 : Wear
Fretting Wear
Fretting Wear coined in 1927 by Tomlinson. It refers to small amplitude(1 to 300 Mm), with high
frequency oscillatory movement mainly originated by vibration. This generally occurs in
mechanical assemblies (press fit parts, rivet / bolt joints, strands of wire ropes, rolling element
bearings), in which relative sliding on micron level is allowed. It is very difficult to eliminate such
movements and the result is fretting. Fretting wear and fretting fatigue are present in almost all
machinery and are the cause of total failure of some otherwise robust components.

Fig. 3.32: Fretting wear.

Fretting occurs wherever short amplitude reciprocating sliding between contacting surfaces(Fig.
3.32) is sustained for a large number of cycles. The centre(Fig. 3.32) of the contact may remain
stationary while the edges reciprocate with an amplitude of the order of 1 micron to cause fretting
damage. One of the characteristic features of fretting is that the produced wear debris is often
retained within the contact due to small amplitude sliding. The accumulating wear debris gradually
separates both surfaces(Fig. 3.33) and, in some cases, may contribute to the acceleration of the
wear process by abrasion. The process of fretting wear can be further accelerated by temperature.
Reciprocating movements as short as 0.1 micron in amplitude can cause failure of the component
when the sliding is maintained for one million cycles or more.

Fig. 3.33: Process of Fretting wear.

More details related to fretting wear is described by Waterhouse[1].
References :
1. Waterhouse R B, Fretting Wear, Wear Vol. 100(1&3), 107&118, 1984.

Module 3 : Wear
Wear Analysis
Generally, wear does not involve a single mechanism, are therefore it is advisable to take an
integrated wear analysis approach assuming the wear behaviour as a system property. In other
words wear analysis is not limited to the evaluation of the effects of materials on wear behaviour,
but recommends changes in contact geometry, roughness, tolerance, and so on so that overall
favourable results can be achieved. Prof. Ludemas quoted [1991] that Overall, it is probably
accurate to say that there is little incentive for a designer to use any of the wear&equations
available in the literature. A scan of many wear models shows considerable incongruity. Equation
have either too many undefined variables or too few variables to adequately describe the system.
Most of available equations are derived/made for mild wear rate of components. Therefore; it can
be said that to estimate wear theoretical equations, experimental coefficients are required.
Example : Cam Wear Analysis
Cam having pits on surface as shown in the Fig. 3.34 was rejected because it was making noise
and it was not performing intended function. It is necessary to digout the cause of failure of such
pitting so that in future service life is improved.

Fig. 3.34: Cam wear.

How does pitting failure occur ?
Pitting is a fatigue wear. Reversible stresses are main cause of such failure. To illustrate it, a
sketch (Fig. 3.35) is shown. Yellow block, which is supported on blue block, is subjected to
reversible stresses. Due to this arrangement, blue block will experience compressive and shear
stresses. The variation in magnitude of shear stress is shown by a free curve, which shows
maximum shear stress below the surface. Now question comes from where reversible stresses are
induced. We estimated normal compressive force applied on the cam surface and is plotted with
cam angle. This Fig. 3.36 shows that maximum force occurs at 90 and 270 degrees, remains
constant in magnitude between 120 to 240 degrees. This means applied load on cam surface is
dynamic and shall induced dynamic stresses.

Fig. 3.35: Sketch to

illustrate pitting.

Fig. 3.36: Normal load vs Cam angle.

Can dynamic load be reduced ?

It is very obvious to explore whether this dynamic load can be reduced or not. Variation in
pressure angle with cam rotation is given in Fig. 3.37. It is possible by redesigning cam so that
pressure angle remain lesser than 10 degrees. Pressure angle is angle between direction of
motion
(velocity
of
follower)
and
axis
of
force
transmission.
& = 0 &&> Transmitted force is completely
& = 900 &&> No motion of the follower. Gross sliding.

utilize

to

move

the

follower

Fig. 3.37: Pressure angle vs cam angle.

....Eq.(3.4)
Convex/Concave Interaction ?
Fig. 3.38 shows cam follower interface at various angular positions. One rotational cycle has

been divided into twenty five divisions. Cam and follower remain in convex contact from point 8 to
18. Contact between points 1 to 7, and 19 to 25 can be modeled as concave contact" using
Eq.(3.4). Values of contact stresses are given in table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Contact stress.

Transition from convex to concave contact introduces sliding. Present cam & follower mechanism
is subjected to variable stresses and sliding conditions, which repeat at frequency of cam rotation.
Increasing
rotational
speed
will
reduce
operating
life
of
cam&surface.
Further clearance between groove & follower(required to avoid jamming) reduces support area.
Follower contacts only one side of groove. Red color thick curve indicates contact curve between
follower and cam. Sudden change in velocity of roller follower particularly at areas shown by green
colored hatched ellipse in Fig. 3.39 occurs. Sudden change in the velocity causes gross sliding at
interface. Therefore, cam&follower interface needs proper lubrication.

Fig. 3.38

Fig. 3.39: Cam7follower mechanism.

How sliding reduces life ?

Pitting, a fatigue wear, initiates on or near the surface of component. Tangential force not
only increases (Fig. 3.40) max but also shifts position of max to the surface. The pitting occurs
if max > Sys.
where Sys is yield shear strength of the material.
Total pitting life(Nf) = non0cracking life (NO) + crack propagation life(Np)

In lubrication, max is reduced in magnitude and occurs below surface. This means lubrication
delays the crack to reach at the surface.

Fig. 3.40: Effect of tangential force.

3.D stress analysis of cam follower mechanism :
Frictional force causes normal as well as tangential loading. Finding location of incipient crack is
quite unpredictable. Therefore, it is more difficult to accurately predict the condition of stress at an
expected point of failure. Therefore, contact zone stress as a reference value to compare to
material strength is used. Strength needs to be compared with largest negative principal contact
stress. In a pure rolling case, its magnitude will be equal to maximum contact pressure. But it will
be greater than that value if sliding is present. When rolling and sliding are both present, stresses
due to normal and tangential loading need to be accounted.

Table 3.5: Stresses accounting tangential

force.

Table 3.5 lists the calculated stresses at various cam angles. This table clearly indicates increase in
contact stresses due to frictional force.

Failure of Cam System :

Evaluated

stresses(Table

3.5)

must

be

compared

with

materials

reference

Reference strength[1].

Table 3.6: Material strength data for rolling with 9% sliding[1].

Table 3.7: Material data for pure rolling case.

stress.

Finding location of incipient crack is quite unpredictable. Therefore contact zone stress as a
reference value to compare to material strength is used. Strength needs to be compared with
largest negative principal contact stress. In a pure rolling case, its magnitude will be equal to
maximum contact pressure. But it will be greater than that value if sliding is present. From
maximum principal stress we can calculate value of K ,then we can calculate life in number of
cycles. This will be relative not absolute. Relative reduction in life due to increases in speed is
given in Table 3.8.
Stress vs. Cam life :

Table 3.8: Cam life for various materials.

Conclusions :
Theoretical study shows 25&30% reduction in cam life on increasing speed from 60 rpm to 65
rpm.
Nodular cast iron provide much higher life compared to CI 45 material. Therefore, nodular cast
iron will be a better choice if cam is operated at higher rpm.
References :
1. Norton R L, Cam Design and Manufacturing Handbook, Industrial Press Inc., 2009.