Special Warfare

The Professional Bulletin of the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School

PB 80992

Spring 1999

Vol. 12, No. 2

From the Commandant

Special Warfare

As the special-operations forces of the

United States adapt to an ever-changing
environment, some of their activities and
operations must also change. The articles
in this issue of Special Warfare discuss the
directions, or azimuths, that some of those
changes are taking.
But even in time of change, some things
should remain the same. In developing a
force for the future, we must find bedrock
on which to build. For the U.S. Army, that
bedrock is a set of seven values:
Loyalty Bear true faith and allegiance
to the U.S. Constitution, the Army,
your unit, and other soldiers;
Duty Fulfill your obligations;
Respect Treat people as they should be
treated;
Selfless Service Put the welfare of the
nation, the Army, and your subordinates before your own;
Honor Live up to all the Army values;
Integrity Do whats right, legally and
morally;
Personal Courage Face fear, danger, or
adversity (physical or moral).
These values are essential, but they
must be learned. As trainers, we must discuss the values with our soldiers so that
they will understand them. As leaders and
mentors, we must exemplify the values so
that our soldiers will believe in them.
In this issue, we are publishing the first
of a series of articles that illustrate the
Army values as practiced by members of
SOF. The articles will show that the Army
values are more than words values, too,
are azimuths, and they can guide us in difficult, dangerous and uncertain situations.
To initiate the series, I have chosen
Roger Donlon, the first Special Forces soldier to win the Medal of Honor. His story is
particularly appropriate because it demonstrates moral courage and the trust and
respect among members of Special Forces
teams.

At the Special Warfare Center and School,

we are working to establish the core purpose and the core values of Special Forces.
This is a vital endeavor that must be accomplished if we are to remain a relevant force
in the future. The SF core values will reinforce, not replace, the Army values. The fact
that SOF operate in isolation, far from traditional command and control, only makes
it more imperative that we embrace the
Army values.
SOF soldiers have always exemplified
the best qualities of the service, and we
must ensure that they will exemplify the
values we consider essential for success. In
the years ahead, special operations may
involve traditional SOF missions, separating warring factions and restoring order,
evacuating civilians, delivering humanitarian assistance or fighting battles. These
operations will require soldiers who have
the same character, moral courage and
firm will as those who have distinguished
themselves in the past.

Major General Kenneth R. Bowra

Contents

PB 80992
Spring 1999

Special Warfare

Commander & Commandant

Major General Kenneth R. Bowra
Editor
Jerry D. Steelman
Associate Editor
Sylvia W. McCarley
Graphics & Design
Bruce S. Barfield
Automation Clerk
Gloria H. Sawyer

VE R

IT

AS

ET

LI B

ER

TAS

Special Warfare is an authorized, official quarterly of the

United States Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare
Center and School, Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Its mission
is to promote the professional development of specialoperations forces by providing a forum for the examination
of established doctrine and new ideas.
Views expressed herein are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect official Army position. This
publication does not supersede any information presented
in other official Army publications.
Articles, photos, artwork and letters are invited and
should be addressed to Editor, Special Warfare,
USAJFKSWCS, Fort Bragg, NC 28307-5000. Telephone:
DSN 239-5703, commercial (910) 432-5703, fax -3147.
Special Warfare reserves the right to edit all material.
Published works may be reprinted, except where
copyrighted, provided credit is given to Special Warfare
and the authors.
Official distribution is limited to active and reserve
special-operations units. Individuals desiring private
subscriptions should forward their requests to:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Special
Warfare is also available on the Worldwide Web
(www.usasoc.soc.mil/swcs/dotd/sw-mag.htm).

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

Dennis J. Reimer
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
Joel B. Hudson
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
05264

Headquarters, Department of the Army

Vol. 12, No. 2

Features
2

Unconventional Assisted Recovery: Providing

the Doctrinal Framework
by Staff Sergeant Michael McCrann

12

Humanitarian Demining Operations: Relieving Human

Suffering Worldwide
by Sergeant First Class Paul Clarke

16

SOF Initiatives in Demining: The Bosnian Entity Army

Training Centers
by Captain Brian S. Petit

22

The Trek: Critical Event in SF Officer Training

by Lieutenant Colonel Charles King

25

Army Values: Personal Courage

26

Scud Hunting: Theater Missile Defense and SOF

by Captain John M. Clearwater

36

Mentoring: Critical Assistance for the SOF Community

by Major General Sidney Shachnow, U.S. Army (ret.)

39

Unconventional Warfare: Refining the Definition

by Chief Warrant Officer 3 Michael J. Ivosevic

40

The Liaison Coordination Element: Force Multiplier

for Coalition Operations
by Captain Chadwick W. Storlie

Departments
47

Letters

48

Officer Career Notes

51

Enlisted Career Notes

52

Foreign SOF

54

Update

56

Book Reviews

Unconventional Assisted Recovery:

Providing the Doctrinal Framework
by Staff Sergeant Michael McCrann

s our countrys military capabilities

are increasingly employed in military operations other than war, or
MOOTW, failure to recover United States
military personnel lost during these operations can have profound consequences on
the political-military situation. Personnel
recovery, or PR, reduces the enemys
exploitation of captured personnel.
The U.S. Special Operations Command,
or USSOCOM, is the only combatant command with responsibility under Title 10,
U.S. Code (Subsection 167, paragraph f),
for recovery operations. With their operational expertise and special equipment,
U.S. special-operations forces, or SOF, can
be used in areas where the enemy air
threat or ground threat prevents conventional recovery, or in situations where
political sensitivities call for clandestine
recovery.
The general concept of using SOF in PR
operations is to link the survivor with a
recovery force as soon as possible and to
move the individual to an area under
friendly control. When properly tasked,
SOF may be able to pre-position a recovery
force in areas where the threat of loss
would be too great for conventional recovery forces.
In 1995, USSOCOMs Strategic Planning
Guidance specifically addressed PR:
The level of effort trend for PR is steady.
Special operations forces (SOF) will have
varying degrees of responsibility across all
2

subtasks. USSOCOM must study the potential role of SOF in the subareas of new PR
definitions, as well as evolving requirements such as PR in urban environments.
In February 1998, the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Manpower and
Reserve Affairs, in coordination with the
Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations
and Plans, designated the Army Special
Operations Agency as the point of contact
for unconventional PR policy issues, and
designated the U.S. Army John F. Kennedy
Special Warfare Center and School, or
USAJFKSWCS, as the proponent for
unconventional PR. USAJFKSWCS Pub
525-5-14, Unconventional Assisted Recovery, from which this article is taken, forms
the basis for understanding the unique
contribution that unconventional assisted
recovery, or UAR, makes to PR. The publication provides a doctrinal framework for
UAR operations as they pertain to the execution of PR. It also describes the role, mission tasks, capabilities, limitations and
UAR employment techniques of U.S. Army
special-operations forces, or ARSOF.
By the year 2003, the U.S. Department of
Defense, or DoD, plans to have a fully integrated PR architecture that is capable of
recovering designated personnel worldwide through military actions. Designated
personnel include U.S., allied and coalition
personnel; friendly military and paramilitary forces; and other personnel, as directed, who are in danger of isolation, beleaSpecial Warfare

guerment, detention or capture as a result

of hostile or nonhostile action. DoDs PR
architecture will also complement the
recovery of personnel through diplomatic
actions or other means.

Background
Recovery of isolated personnel has
always been a DoD priority. Yet prior to
1994, there had been little PR guidance
from the Office of the Secretary of Defense.
Each service conducted its own searchand-rescue operations in accordance with
its assigned functions. The services, as well
as the Coast Guard, were directed to consider each others capabilities and to conduct joint combat-search-and-rescue, or
CSAR, operations when required.
In September 1994, the Deputy Secretary
of Defense tasked the Joint Staff and the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special
Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict, or
ASD-SO/LIC, to review existing PR policies,
requirements and capabilities. Their review
revealed that there was no single proponent
for the PR mission and that unified commanders were often forced to divert personnel and equipment from other missions to
meet their PR requirements.
On May 30, 1996, Congress passed the
Defense Missing Persons Act of 1996. With
the implementation of the act, policy proponency for PR was realigned from ASDSO/LIC to ASD-International Security
Affairs. In this capacity, ASD-ISA coordinates DoDs PR policy with the director of
operations for the Joint Staff and with designated executive agents.
The Defense Planning Guidance, or DPG,
issued by the Secretary of Defense, details
U.S. policy, articulates strategic objectives,
and reflects the national military strategy.
The DPG for fiscal years 2000-2005 contains several references to PR. The most
significant statement reads:
A robust personnel recovery capability
contributes directly to protecting the U.S.
forces. DoD should continue to develop a
fully integrated personnel recovery architecture. To ensure that the DoD meets this
goal, emphasis on PR must continue to
increase throughout the force. DoD must

broaden coordination among its components and establish and enhance cooperative ties with the interagency community
on PR matters. The Services must provide
the commanders in chief (CINCs) sufficient
equipment and trained personnel to conduct PR operations effectively. The CINCs
must include PR in their operational planning and joint training program and
ensure adequate PR-capable personnel and
equipment are available to support contingency plans.
Likewise, the 1997 Contingency Planning Guidance, or CPG, directs combatant
commanders to include personnel recovery planning in all operations and contingency plans. The CPG is the principal
source document for the Joint Strategic
Capabilities Plan, or JSCP. With its coverage of PR, the CPG ensured the incorporation of PR into the JSCP. The latest Strategic Intelligence Review for Support to Military Operations, or SIRSMO, also addresses PR. Inclusion of PR in this document
indicates that the intelligence community
will resource PR with a high priority. The
discussion of PR in all four documents bolsters efforts to develop and staff a DoD
Personnel recovery is an
umbrella term that includes all military and
civilian efforts to recover
captured, missing or isolated personnel.

Coast Guard photo

Spring 1999

A Navy MH-53 helicopter

hovers over the wreckage of the aircraft that
crashed carrying Commerce Secretary Ron
Brown, near Dubrovnick,
Croatia, in 1996.
Photo by Kyle Davis

vision for PR and provides justification to

combatant commands to ensure either that
sufficient PR-dedicated and PR-capable
assets are present in-theater or that they
will be immediately available.

Personnel recovery
Personnel recovery is an umbrella term
that encompasses all military, civilian and
political efforts to recover captured, missing or isolated personnel from hostile or
denied territory. PR efforts include search
and rescue; CSAR; survival, evasion,
resistance and escape, or SERE; evasion
and escape, or E&E; and the coordination
of negotiated or forcible recovery. PR also
includes attempts to communicate with
isolated persons and to build up their
morale during captivity. PR occurs primarily through military actions; however, nongovernmental actions and diplomatic
actions can also play an important role. In
some cases, a combination of all three
actions will be used.
Five specific tasks must be performed
4

during each PR incident: reporting, locating,

supporting, recovering, and repatriating.
Reporting. Actions performed to report
all incidents, using required PR report formats; preparing additional reports as
directed by the joint search-and-rescue
center, or JSRC, and by the joint-force commander, or JFC; and recording all information received about a given incident.
Locating. Actions performed to locate an
isolated person and to pass information to
the appropriate organizations for coordination and action.
Supporting. Actions performed once the
isolated person has been located, and
actions performed to support the isolated
persons family during a PR incident.
Recovering. Coordinating all efforts to
recover the isolated person. Recovery efforts
may employ any of the capabilities available
and acceptable to the National Command
Authorities, or NCA. Recovery operations
are classified as either assisted or unassisted. In an assisted recovery, assistance is provided by an outside source.
Special Warfare

Repatriating. Efforts to return recovered

persons to their previous way of life or to
return their remains to the next of kin.
The five PR tasks represent the core of
DoD support and recovery of isolated persons. They are critical to the success of PR
operations, but three other factors individual training, support agencies and
recovery methods are also relevant.
Individual training. Individuals who are
at risk of becoming isolated must have adequate preparation to support their own
recovery. Preparation includes training on
policy, on force structure, and on operational concepts.
Support agencies. Support agencies provide functional expertise specifically related to the support and recovery of isolated
persons. Agencies supporting PR include
the Central Intelligence Agency; Defense
Intelligence Agency; National Security
Agency; National Reconnaissance Office;
National Imagery and Mapping Agency;
Department of State, or DoS; and Department of Transportation.
Recovery methods. Peacetime recovery
methods include search and rescue, or
SAR; diplomatic solutions worked out by
DoS, U.S. embassies, and host nations; and
the employment of UAR in uncertain or
nonpermissive environments. During war,
conventional CSAR is normally employed
when the enemy air-defense threat is at
the medium level or below. UAR supporting U.S. operations may involve SOF, other
government agencies, indigenous personnel or other foreign nationals. It may also
make use of various combinations of those
groups. SOF resources can be used for UAR
when the threat is above the medium level.
However, the use of SOF requires deliberate planning and preparation, and planners should decide carefully where and
when to employ SOFs specialized recovery
capability.
Planners should also remember that the
greater the risk, the more time it will take
to prepare for the recovery operation. Normally, PR decisions are reached as expeditiously as possible. It is extremely important that the SOF component of a joint
force provide the theater special-operations commands UAR options to the JSRC
Spring 1999

in a timely manner. The SOF component

continuously coordinates with the JSRC to
ensure the correct employment of SOF in
the UAR role. Because many aspects of
UAR are sensitive in nature or involve
compartmented information, they may
require direct coordination with the JSRC
director or deputy director. SOF representatives at the JSRC work for the commander of the special-operations command, or SOC. The SOC rescue-coordination center, or RCC, facilitates the coordi-

SOF resources can be used for UAR when the

threat is above the medium level. However, the
use of SOF requires deliberate planning and
preparation, and planners should decide carefully where and when to employ SOFs specialized recovery capability.
nation and exchange of information
between the JSRC and SOF recovery
forces, as appropriate, to prevent duplication of the PR effort.

Terminology
The following definitions clarify common
PR terminology:
Evasion and escape: The procedures and
operations that enable military personnel
and other selected individuals to emerge
from enemy-held or hostile areas to areas
under friendly control. E&E is an integral
component of unconventional warfare, or
UW. UW organizations, tactics, techniques
and procedures are essential in developing
a manned recovery mechanism.
Evasion and escape net: The organization within an enemy-held or hostile area
that receives, moves and/or exfiltrates military personnel or selected individuals.
E&E nets have a cellular structure; they
move personnel by clandestine means
through enemy-held or hostile areas to
areas under friendly control. When developing an E&E net, a Special Forces team
creates preplanned evasion-and-escape
routes that will allow the operational ele-

ment to depart the area undetected.

Evasion and recovery, or E&R: The full
spectrum of coordinated actions carried out
by evaders, recovery forces and operational
recovery planners to return isolated personnel to friendly control. E&R can be conducted with or without assistance, as the
result of planned operations, as the result
of evader or escapee actions, or by conventional or unconventional recovery forces.
Recovery mechanisms, or RMs: DoD Instruction 2310.3, Personnel Recovery
Response Cell, defines an RM as that entity, group of entities, or infrastructure in
enemy-held or hostile areas that is
designed to receive, support, move, and/or

Unconventional recovery operations may be

covert or clandestine. The primary intent of
a covert operation is to conceal the identity
of the sponsoring country, whereas the primary intent of a clandestine operation is to
conceal the operation itself.
exfiltrate military or other designated personnel to friendly control. The RM infrastructure consists of personnel, specialized
equipment and facilities. RMs may be
established by SOF, other government
agencies, UW forces, insurgent groups or
clandestine organizations.

Recovery operations
Recovery operations fall into two categories: conventional and unconventional.
Recovery planning should evaluate available assets and projected conditions to
determine the most effective operation to
use.
Conventional recovery operations. Conventional recovery operations, which use
conventional aerial, surface and subsurface military forces, may be of three types:
Search and rescue (available on-scene).
Conventional recovery assets can be drawn
from appropriately equipped air, ground or
naval forces that happen to be on-scene,
even though they may not be trained in

combat recovery. In some cases, recovery

tasking can originate at the lowest organizational level that is aware of the situation
and that can react quickly. In all cases, the
recovery effort should be coordinated with
the JSRC that monitors ongoing and
planned recovery operations.
Combat search and rescue. CSAR is a
specific task to recover distressed personnel during wartime or during MOOTW.
Joint Publication 3-50.2; JP 3-50.21, Combat Search and Rescue Procedures; and AR
525-90, Combat Search and Rescue Procedures, describe doctrine and procedures for
joint CSAR operations. According to the
1998 SOF Posture Statement, SOF are
equipped and manned to perform CSAR in
support of SOF missions only. SOF perform
CSAR in support of conventional forces on
a case-by-case basis not to interfere with
the readiness or operations of core SOF
missions.
Unassisted recovery. In an unassisted
recovery, the evader makes his way back to
friendly control independently or travels
toward a point where he can make contact
with a manned recovery mechanism or a
CSAR force. Success depends largely on
the evaders will and ability, personal background, physical condition and previous
training in SERE. Air-delivered or prepositioned survival equipment significantly improves the evaders potential for success. An evasion plan of action should
always address the possibility of an
extended unassisted recovery.
Unconventional recovery operations.
Unconventional recovery operations use
specially trained SOF, clandestine organizations, indigenous forces, or third-country
nationals that have specialized equipment
to assist an evader in returning to friendly
control. Unconventional recovery operations may be covert or clandestine. The primary intent of a covert operation is to conceal the identity of the sponsoring country,
whereas the primary intent of a clandestine operation is to conceal the operation
itself. SOF activities related to unconventional recovery include the following:
Direct action, or DA, is a combat operation conducted primarily by SOF in hostile or denied territory that is beyond the
Special Warfare

Recent Personnel Recovery Incidents

INCIDENT

CONFLICT CLASSIFICATION

RECOVERY METHOD PR MISSION

CWO Hall North North OOTW (peacekeeping)

North Korea

Diplomacy

Diplomatic

CWO Durant Somalia OOTW (humanitarian

Somalia
assistance/peacekeeping)

Diplomacy

Diplomatic

LT Goodman
Lebanon/Syria

Contingency operation (retaliation for the

bombing of the Marine barracks)

Diplomatic/civil

NGO/diplomatic

CPT OGrady
Bosnia/Herzegovina

OOTW (peacekeeping)

Marine TRAP

CSAR

Desert Storm
Kuwait/Iraq

War

SOF Avn and SF

SOF CSAR

Compromised Intel ntel OOTW (intel activities)

Activities Haiti

SOF and TF 160

Theater SAR

Just Cause Panama st Contingency operation

Panama

SOF and TF 160

Force recovery

Sec Brown Bosnia Sec OOTW (peacekeeping)

Bosnia

SOF Avn and SF

SAR

operational capabilities of tactical

weapons systems and conventional military forces. DA operations are normally
limited in scope and duration they seek
to achieve specific, well-defined, and often
sensitive results of strategic or operational significance. DA missions may be
conducted in high-priority operations to
locate and recover persons who are isolated, threatened, or held captive in sensitive, denied or contested areas. DA missions may also be used to rescue personnel who are being detained by a hostile
power, such as political prisoners and
prisoners of war, or POWs; or to locate,
identify and recover other personnel who
wish to be placed under U.S. control, such
as downed aircrews and political or military leaders.
DA operations to recover isolated personnel take one of two distinctive forms. In
the first form, the evaders general location
is known, and the SF detachment conducts
a contact reconnaissance. In the second
form, the SF detachment deploys to a designated area of recovery prior to the start
Spring 1999

of an air campaign so that it can be prepared to provide a recovery capability during operations.
Special reconnaissance, or SR, encompasses a range of intelligence-collection
activities, including reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition. Like DA
operations, SR operations are normally
unilateral in nature and are limited in
scope and duration. SR supports PR efforts
by locating and surveilling the detention
facilities of hostages, POWs or political
prisoners. Operational elements conducting SR can also be redirected to recover isolated personnel.
Special activities are highly compartmented and centrally managed and controlled. The theater SOC plans and directs
all E&E activities in-theater. When supporting or conducting a special activity,
SOF may perform any of their primary
wartime missions, subject to the limitations imposed by the NCA. When conducting special activities, SOF may be
required to coordinate with other government agencies. In some cases, those agen7

cies have the authority to oversee or control SOF. If an SF team is conducting special activities, an area specialist team,
normally assigned at the group level, supports the teams missions.
Combating terrorism, or CT, includes
all offensive measures taken by the U.S.
government to prevent, deter or respond to
terrorism. (Note: CT does not necessarily
involve a PR incident.) In CT, SOF apply
their specialized capabilities to preclude,
pre-empt or resolve terrorist incidents
abroad, including hostage situations.
Psychological operations, or PSYOP,
can significantly influence the target
audience. Psychological preparation of

SF possess several capabilities required for

UAR: an understanding of UW theory and
insurgent tactics; language proficiency;
area and cultural orientation; small-unit tactical skills; advanced medical skills; knowledge of clandestine operations; and communication skills.
both the PR and the UAR area of operation is essential in establishing the conditions for recovery mechanisms. Specifically, PSYOP forces can persuade the populace to provide assistance to escaping and
evading personnel; they can warn the populace of retribution if evading personnel
are mistreated or captured; they can
reduce the interference of noncombatants
and minimize the resistance of combatants; and they can facilitate the concealment of the timing and the method of
PR/UAR operations. PSYOP forces can
also assist in negotiations through multidisciplined public diplomacy and information campaigns; they can conduct an
assessment of how the indigenous populace will deal with isolated individuals
who are in captivity or who are in the
process of escaping; and they can develop
pointy-talkies, which can be used by isolated personnel to communicate with the
indigenous population.
8

Civil Affairs, or CA, operations are

valuable because of their direct access to
nongovernment organizations, private voluntary organizations, and diplomatic channels. CA soldiers have an inherent role in
early PR planning and intelligence analysis. During the SOF mission-planning
process and during the development of a
PR contingency plan, CA soldiers are an
essential information source. CA units
have valuable resources that can assist
SOF recovery teams and RMs. CA subjectmatter experts who have been in the target
area can provide details on the infrastructure. Should negotiations become necessary, CA teams can provide negotiators
with key information acquired through an
analysis of both the situation and the operational environment. As planners identify
possible intermediate staging bases, CA
teams can bring all players together in the
civil-military operations center to centralize resources and to provide the greatest
unity of effort toward the PR mission.
Army Special Operations Aviation, or
ARSOA, is an integral part of special
operations. ARSOA units provide the
ground commander a means by which to
infiltrate, resupply and extract SOF
engaged in all core missions and collateral activities. Personnel recovery is inherent in the development of ARSOA operational and contingency plans. ARSOA can
be tasked to provide aircraft for the JSRC
and to provide a liaison officer to coordinate ARSOA assets allocated to the JSRC
force. ARSOA may be tasked to conduct
CSAR if it is the only asset in the theater
that can perform the mission. However,
because CSAR is not a primary ARSOA
mission, the aircraft and the aircraft
crews should be released to their supported unit as soon as possible to perform special-operations missions.
Ranger personnel-recovery operations
are specialized raids used to recover designated personnel and to return them to
friendly control. Ranger operations
include CSAR to recover and extract
downed aircrews, and noncombatantevacuation operations to recover American citizens or designated foreign nationals. PR operations often require that the
Special Warfare

Soldiers from the 10th

SF Group discuss a
search-and-rescue exercise to be conducted as
part of U.S. operations to
enforce a no-fly zone on
Iraq.
Photo by Gudrun Cook

Ranger force be augmented with nonRanger personnel who possess special

skills or abilities medical personnel,
technical experts, or translators, for
example. The Ranger PR mission usually
ends in close combat during darkness or
limited visibility. Recovery operations
may employ any method or combination of
methods of insertion and extraction,
including ground, helicopter, or fixed-wing
transport. The Ranger PR mission normally requires close planning and coordination with both ARSOA and Air Force
special-operations aviation for delivery
and evacuation.
Submarine operations are normally
tasked by the theater Navy-component
commander. Attack submarines and submarines equipped with dry-deck shelters
are the most effective platforms for establishing submarine pickup points. Attack
submarines are capable of inserting SOF
PR teams clandestinely to conduct overland PR missions in coastal areas. The
principal advantage of using the attack
submarine in the recovery role is its capability to clandestinely position itself close
to the enemy coastline.
UW encompasses a broad spectrum of
military and paramilitary operations conSpring 1999

ducted in enemy-held, enemy-controlled, or

politically sensitive territory. UW includes
E&E performed by military personnel and
other individuals who are attempting to
emerge from an enemy-held or hostile area
to an area under friendly control.

Unconventional recovery
The military aspect of UAR is classic
UW, for which U.S. Army SF are specifically trained, organized and equipped. In fact,
SF are the only DoD forces with the primary mission of planning and conducting
UW. SF possess several capabilities
required for UAR: an understanding of UW
theory and insurgent tactics; language proficiency; area and cultural orientation;
small-unit tactical skills; advanced medical
skills; knowledge of clandestine operations;
and communication skills.
During unconventional recovery, ARSOF
normally operate in a selected area for evasion, or SAFE, or in a designated area of
recovery, or DAR. The distinguishing factor
between a DAR and a SAFE is that a DAR
supports short-term evasion, whereas a
SAFE supports long-term evasion.
ARSOF may conduct or support two types
of assisted recovery: planned and unplanned.

Planned assisted recovery. In most SF

missions, E&R is an implied task that
requires the same planning, preparation
and support as the primary tasks. Deliberate recovery planning includes a follow-on
SOF mission, recovery forces, and RMs
that can be operated by indigenous forces
and by other clandestine organizations.
If ARSOF are conducting short-term
operations, such as SR or DA, and the JFC
directs them to conduct an assisted recovery, ARSOF must assess the risk to the
evader and to themselves:
Should the evader be recovered immediately?
What is the impact of diverting ARSOF
from their primary mission?

Responsible authorities must carefully consider the sensitivity of RMs and the potential
consequences for the SOF who perform them.
If a hostile power detains or exposes UAR participants within politically denied areas, that
power may consider the activity of the participants illegal, and thereby deny them protection under international conventions.
Can the evader be recovered after
ARSOFs primary mission has been
completed?
Can other assets recover the evader?
Any SOF operation may involve PR, and
planning for a recovery force is becoming
an implied primary task for SOF. If tasked
to include potential recovery actions in
their initial planning, SOF teams operating in or near an evaders known location
could move to the area to contact, authenticate and recover the evader. When the
enemy situation permits and when adequate planning has been conducted, resupply operations can reconstitute the team
before it contacts the evader.

Recovery mechanisms
RMs support E&R operations, particularly in situations where U.S. unconventional
forces or allied personnel support or direct

10

the RMs activities. An RM or its elements

may recover personnel through different
operational areas and environments.
Depending on its size and range, an RM can
vary the nature of its actions from overt to
covert to clandestine.
Indigenous forces or third-country
nationals may serve as an RM, and SOF
may also be directed to assist or operate
with insurgent groups. These insurgent
groups will normally be classified as either
sponsored or unsponsored.
Sponsored insurgent groups may be
supported, led or advised by U.S. or allied
SF elements. These groups may be recruited and trained by friendly forces, or they
may be dependent on allied countries.
Unsponsored insurgent groups may
include mercenaries, dissidents and outlaws. These groups may provide assistance to evaders if they perceive that
doing so is in their best interests, or if
they anticipate a reward. The use of
unsponsored insurgent groups presents
certain problems. Limitations in communication between friendly forces and
insurgent groups can increase the difficulty in arranging the recovery of
evaders, thereby extending the evasion
period. Under certain conditions, an
insurgent group may attempt to use the
evader to augment its forces. This situation could create legal problems for the
evader if the insurgent group conducts
operations in violation of U.S. policy or
international law. Such groups may also
want to retain an evader for use as a bargaining chip.
Because independent insurgent groups
may perceive the evader as a de facto representative of the U.S. government, the
evader should conduct himself with the
utmost discretion. While in an RM, the
evader should:
Project a favorable image of the U.S. and
its values.
Avoid acts that violate international law
or that discredit the U.S.
Avoid expressing any ideas that could be
misconstrued as official U.S. policy.
Refrain from making any agreements
contrary to the interests of the U.S.
Demonstrate high moral character.
Special Warfare

Unplanned assisted recovery. Unplanned

assisted recovery may occur when members of the general population in an
enemy-held area assist an evader in
returning to friendly control. These people
may be classified as follows:
Opportunists. Individuals or groups may
assist an evader with the expectation of
monetary gain, materials, or political
recognition for the evaders safe return.
Accidental contacts. Individuals may
help an evader for personal reasons or
because they anticipate a reward.
Good Samaritans. Individuals who perform acts out of mercy or sympathy.

Legal considerations
SOF missions frequently involve complex issues. Federal laws and executive
orders, federal-agency publications and
directives, and theater rules of engagement may affect mission execution. The
guidelines become especially critical during sensitive peacetime operations, when
international and domestic laws, treaty
provisions, and political agreements affect
the planning and execution of the mission
and of post-conflict activities. Responsible
authorities must carefully consider the
sensitivity of RMs and the potential consequences for the SOF who perform them.
If a hostile power detains or exposes UAR
participants within politically denied
areas, that power may consider the activity of the participants illegal, and thereby
deny them protection under international
conventions.
Planners must appreciate the distinction between an evader and an escapee.
Under international law, an evader is a
lawful combatant until captured. An
individual who has escaped from an
enemy confinement facility is legally an
escapee (a noncombatant). However,
evaders and escapees use the same tactical skills to evade and avoid capture. The
difference between an evader and an
escapee becomes significant when the
individual emerges in a neutral state:
The neutral power will likely detain the
evader until the cessation of hostilities,
and it will allow the escapee to remain at

Spring 1999

liberty. Thus, the isolated persons legal

status can directly affect his course of
travel.

Conclusion
Because they offer the NCA several
options for recovering isolated personnel,
SOF are invaluable in dealing with military and civilian PR issues. One of the
greatest strengths of SOF, in addition to
their cross-cultural training and language
skills, is their ability to respond immediately to a wide range of conflict situations
with a only minimal preparation. SOF
must be prepared to act pre-emptively to
protect U.S. national interests. Whenever a
crisis develops within a region, SOF will be
ready to respond. Once they have been
introduced into a country, SOF can establish on-the-ground contacts and develop a
network infrastructure that can sustain
and protect the recovery mechanism.
While many functions (legal affairs,
casualty and mortuary affairs, public
affairs and operational support) are integral to the preparation and execution of a
PR mission, ARSOF are the principal
developers and users (and in many cases
the sole providers) of RMs that support
UW missions. ARSOF must be prepared to
plan, support and execute UARs in peace
and in war.

Staff Sergeant Michael McCrann is a

doctrine writer assigned to the Special
Forces Training and Doctrine Division,
Directorate of Training and Doctrine, JFK
Special Warfare Center and School.

11

Humanitarian Demining Operations:

Relieving Human Suffering Worldwide
by Sergeant First Class Paul Clarke

he United States Humanitarian

Demining Program, or HDP, is
designed to relieve human suffering
by helping selected countries develop their
own indigenous demining capability.
The HDP concentrates on two elements:
the research and development of technology for identifying and eliminating the
threat posed by land mines, and programs
designed to assist designated countries in
eliminating their uncleared mines. A key
objective of the HDP is to ensure that

cadres of the host-nations, or HNs, are

capable of training their countries personnel and of establishing a self-sustaining
infrastructure that can conduct independent demining operations.
Since 1993, the U.S. has provided more
than $246 million in humanitarian demining, or HD, assistance to mine-affected
countries. DoD has spent more than $28
million in research and development, and
has transferred nearly $10 million worth of
equipment directly to host-nation national

The threat from anti-personnel mines is a growing concern worldwide.

In 1998, the U.S. provided nearly $92 million in
demining assistance to
21 countries.

DoD photo

12

Special Warfare

demining organizations. In 1997 alone,

some 300 U.S. military and civilian personnel trained more than 1,200 indigenous
deminers to conduct mine-clearance operations, to provide emergency medical care,
to establish national mine-action centers,
and to train others to conduct mine-awareness campaigns. In 1998, the U.S. provided
nearly $92 million in HD assistance to 21
countries in Asia, Africa, Central America
and eastern Europe.
U.S. Army special-operations forces, or
ARSOF, play a major role in supporting the
HDP. They are responsible for organizing,
equipping and training demining elements
ranging from battalion to company size.
Although worldwide interest in humanitarian demining is relatively new, ARSOF
have supported the demining programs of
the United Nations for several years. During fiscal year 1995, ARSOF supported
demining operations in Namibia, Rwanda,
Cambodia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Honduras. During FYs 1996 and 1997, ARSOF
supported demining operations in Mozambique, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Laos, Costa
Rica and Nicaragua. Listed below are the
specific demining activities of ARSOF:
Special Forces conduct limited mineawareness operations as required, but they
are primarily responsible for training personnel of the national demining headquarters and mine-clearance organizations to
plan, organize and execute demining operations. One of SFs key objectives is to
assist host-nation cadres in developing
their capabilities so that they can train
forces over the long term.
Cadre training includes basic skills and
individual tasks officer and NCO professional development, leadership, communications, emergency medical techniques,
instructor training, land navigation, and
engineer and demining techniques. Cadre
training also covers collective and team
skills, from the team or squad level
through the company level, including
demining mission planning. The SF element supervises the HN cadre responsible
for training operational platoons, then it
monitors the operational platoons in the
conduct of their day-to-day operations.
Civil Affairs assets also provide trainSpring 1999

A U.S. Special Forces

sergeant helps a student
during a land-navigation
practical exercise conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina during Operation
Joint Endeavor.

Photo by Justin D. Pyle

ing to the national demining headquarters

and conduct liaison activities with the HN
infrastructure, the U.N., and international
or local nongovernment organizations. CA
personnel teach leadership skills, management techniques, and staff procedures
required for the headquarters to maintain
command, control and communication with
its subordinate organizations.
PSYOP forces educate the HN national government, local governments and the
HN population in the proper procedures of
reducing the hazards caused by mine contamination. PSYOP personnel also teach
HN forces to develop and execute mineawareness campaigns, to conduct mineawareness training programs, and to
develop and disseminate mine-awareness
products.
The Special Operations Support Command contributes to the demining effort
through its forward-deployed, special-operations theater-support elements. SOSCOM
can assist ARSOF forces in planning and
obtaining logistics resources from within the
theater or from the HN support systems.
The Army Engineer Center and School,
Fort Leonard Wood, Mo., is the proponent
for the U.S. Armys military countermine
operations. The schools Humanitarian
Demining Training Center conducts a two13

A U.S. PSYOP soldier

distributes mine-awareness comic books to
children in BosniaHerzegovina.

Photo by Donte Robinson

week Humanitarian Demining Course. The

course prepares SF A-detachments to conduct humanitarian-demining programs. A
new publication, TC 31-34, Humanitarian
Demining Operations Handbook, prepared
by the JFK Special Warfare Center and
School, sets the standard for humanitarian-demining training and is the primary
reference source used in the course. The
demining training center also conducts a
one-week, theater-oriented course for liaison officers, or LNOs, who may be required
to assist in humanitarian-demining operations, or HDOs.
U.S. HD efforts are implemented
through four theater commands: U.S. European Command, or EUCOM; U.S. Central
Command, or CENTCOM; U.S. Pacific
Command, or PACOM; and U.S. Southern
Command, or SOUTHCOM. The U.S.
Atlantic Command, whose area of responsibility is the U.S. and the Atlantic Ocean,
does not participate in an HD program.
The theater commands conduct HDOs
within their specific areas of responsibility. Each theater command requires a
national demining organization, or NDO,
established in accordance with the
requirements of the theater commander
in chief, or CINC. Each command uses a
different approach in organizing and running its NDO:
14

In EUCOM, the J3 of Special Operations

Command-Europe is the executive agent
for HDO and has established a demining
cell that is supported by LNOs both from
ARSOF and from explosive-ordnance disposal units. EUCOMs HDP has increased
from two countries in 1995 to seven in
1998. EUCOM expects to add six more
countries to its program before the end of
FY 2000.
In CENTCOM, the Special Operations
Command-Central, or SOCCENT, passed
executive-agent responsibility to the CINC
in FY 1996. While the CINC relies on his
component commands and on a civilian
contractor to manage the HDP, the SOCCENT provides the training force. CENTCOMs HDP has increased from two countries in 1995 to five in 1998. CENTCOM
expects to add three more countries to its
program before the end of FY 2000.
In PACOM, Special Operations Command-Pacific, the executive agent for HDO,
has two active-duty soldiers to manage the
demining program. The PACOM program
provides training and resource support to
regional mine-action centers, or MACs.
MACs are responsible for in-country operations, which includes organizing, equipping and training host-nation demining
elements. The number of countries that the
PACOM program supports has increased
Special Warfare

from one in 1995 to two in 1997. PACOM

expects to add another country to its program before the end of FY 2000.
In SOUTHCOM, the Organization of
American States/Inter-American Defense
Board controls the HDP. The CINC provides training and resource support to a
regional demining training center in Danli,
Honduras. The center is responsible for
organizing, equipping, training and coordinating operations throughout the theater.
The Special Operations Command-South
plans to transfer executive-agent responsibility for HD to Joint Task Force Bravo
during FY 1999. The number of countries
that SOUTHCOMs HDP supports has
increased from one in 1995 to five in 1998.
SOUTHCOM expects to add five more
countries to its program before the end of
FY 2000.
Differences in cultures and in regional
requirements, as well as variations in
HDOs, make it difficult to standardize
demining efforts. In an effort to develop an
effective HD program and to reach the ultimate goal of eradicating all land mines, the
SWCS and USASOC are working with the
Army Engineer School, the United
Nations, and international HDOs to standardize the recording and reporting of HD
efforts.
In May 1996, President Clinton
announced a major land-mine policy that
would expand research-and-development
efforts for HD technology and that would
strengthen the U.S.s HD program. At the
same time, the U.S. stopped using non-selfdestructing anti-personnel land mines, or
APLs, except in marked and monitored
minefields in Korea. The U.S. also
announced that it would seek alternatives
to APLs and have them ready for use in
Korea by 2006. In 1997, more than 120
countries signed the Ottawa Convention,
banning the use, production, stockpiling,
and transfer of APLs. The U.S. plans to
sign the Ottawa Convention as well, if it
succeeds in identifying and fielding suitable alternatives to APLs by 2006. Regardless of whether we sign the convention, the
U.S. is committed to eradicating the landmine threat by 2010.
For more information about the HumanSpring 1999

itarian Demining Course, telephone the

Engineer School at (573) 563-5518. Questions or input regarding TC 31-34 should
be directed to SFC Paul Clarke, SF Training and Doctrine Division, Directorate of
Training and Doctrine, JFKSWCS, at DSN
239-9802/7690 or commercial (910) 4329802/7690.

Sergeant First Class Paul Clarke is a

doctrine writer assigned to the Special
Forces Doctrine Division, Directorate of
Training and Doctrine, JFK Special Warfare Center and School.

15

SOF Initiatives in Demining: The Bosnian

Entity Army Training Centers
by Captain Brian S. Petit

oncerned over the worldwide proliferation of land mines and the suffering
those mines produce, the United
States has pledged to lead the world in global humanitarian-demining assistance.1
During 1996 and 1997, the U.S. government funded more than 14 demining missions worldwide,2 and U.S. Army specialoperations forces were involved in nearly
every one of those missions. It is probable
that Special Forces groups will increasingly participate in demining missions
over the next three to five years. Not surprisingly, the operational tempo of the
demining missions is outpacing their published doctrine.
This article examines a unique demining
mission the establishment of demining
training centers for each of the entity
armies in Bosnia-Herzegovina performed by the 10th SF Group. The principles of that pilot demining program may
serve as a model for future special-operations teams deploying in similar foreigninternal-defense or humanitarian-assistance roles.

Mine problem in Bosnia

An estimated 750,000 land mines
remain in Bosnia-Herzegovina. There are
19,000 recorded minefields, and the locations of approximately 350,000 mines have
been identified.3 Large sections of former
confrontation lines are heavily laden with
16

mines laid in random patterns for which no

mine-emplacement records exist. Even in
areas where records do exist, confrontation
lines shifted throughout the war, causing
many minefields to become over-seeded.
Time and weather adversely affect
mines. Overgrowing vegetation conceals
minefield indicators such as tripwires,
demolition spools, small craters and animal carcasses. Erosion displaces lightweight plastic mines, often washing them
into previously safe areas. Heavy rains
increase the weight of the covering earth,
thus sensitizing buried, pressure-fused
mines.
In many instances, local civilians emplaced
mines in the areas surrounding their homes.
The lack of records pertaining to these minefields impedes the resettlement of displaced
persons and refugees. To further complicate
the demining problem, Bosnian soil has a
high metallic content that reduces the reliability of mine detectors.
According to estimates, each month Bosnia suffers 50 mine-related incidents that
result in injury or death.4 The mine-recovery efforts of both the international community and the local government are hindered by the real and psychological threat
of mines.
Unfortunately, the extent of the mine
problem was unknown to the authors of
the Dayton Peace Agreement. The demining clause mandated the total clearance of
the zone of separation (1,075 km long and
Special Warfare

Soldiers from the 10th SF

Group attend the opening
ceremony of a demining
training center at Travnik,
Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Photo by Carl Fountain

4 km wide) within 30 days, with an additional 30 days allocated for clearing mines
from roads and areas necessary to the
duties of the implementation force, or
IFOR.5 This stipulation grossly underestimated the ground truth. At the current
rate of mine removal, it will take 34 years
to clear the country by mine-lifting operations (the removal of mines with the aid of
mine-emplacement records) or 150 years
to clear the country by mine-clearing
operations (removal by mine detection).6
To further complicate the situation,
the demining efforts conducted by the
former warring factions in 1996 were
wholly unsatisfactory. In 1997, the commander of the stabilization force, or
SFOR, adopted a more coercive approach
toward mine-clearance operations by
establishing specific manpower and manhour requirements for teams from the
entity armed forces, or EAF.7
Overall, the mine situation remained
bleak: indigenous mine-removal efforts
were sluggish; mine-removal operations
were highly dangerous and costly; and
all aspects of entity-army demining operations became a compliance issue, resulting in SFOR-enforced sanctions against
entity armies that did not meet the stated requirements.8 The countrys demining picture further deteriorated when
dozens of private and commercial organizations attempted to conduct demining
operations without any centralized direcSpring 1999

tion or oversight. During 1996 and 1997,

no unity of effort existed for the BosniaHerzegovina demining operations.

Feasibility assessment
To assist the EAF in building their
demining programs, Company C, 2nd Battalion, 10th SF Group, deployed to Bosnia
in December 1997 to plan a standard train
the trainer mission.
Prior to its deployment, Company C had
received technical mine-clearance training

At the current rate of mine removal, it will take 34

years to clear the country by mine-lifting operations (the removal of mines with the aid of mineemplacement records) or 150 years to clear the
country by mine-clearing operations (removal by
mine detection).
at Fort Carson, Colo., and at Fort Leonard
Wood, Mo. The training complied with the
international standards for demining
developed by the United Nations. SF engineers became experts in the family of
Yugoslavian mines, as well as in the regulations governing internationally recognized mine-clearing operations.
When Company C arrived in Bosnia,
SFOR engineers were already conducting the

17

second and third iterations of basic demining

courses for the EAF. The 10th Group representatives therefore proposed the idea of
establishing entity-army training centers
throughout Bosnia-Herzegovina.
These permanent school sites would
house a fixed cadre and staff, train all entity-army demining teams, and ultimately
serve as the EAF proponent for demining
operations. Company Cs long-term vision
included the concept that the training centers would develop and operate militaryoccupational-specialty qualifying courses in
accordance with the standards of the U.S.
Army NCO Education Schools, or NCOES.
The concept was approved in January 1998,
and Company C began establishing the first
EAF demining training centers.

Training center concept

In formulating the core of the trainingcenter model, Company C used Army
Training and Doctrine Command Regulations 351-1, 361-1-R, 351-17, 350-24,
Army Regulation 351-1, materials from
the Special Warfare Center and Schools

Instructor Training Course, and knowledge gained from visits to various NCO
academies. Company C planned its mission using the principles outlined in the
FID ARTEP Manual. Next, Company C
formulated the objectives and concept for
the training centers.
Given the magnitude of the mine situation and the political and cultural considerations in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the
SFOR determined that three separate
entity armed-force training centers would
need to be established. This would give
each center the best chance for success
without undue ethnic or political disruption. Each entity army (Bosnian-Croat,
Bosnian-Muslim and Bosnian-Serb)
agreed to the establishment of a training
center on its existing military base. Each
center would be chartered by an SF Adetachment.

Equipping the school

The 10th Group soldiers initially assessed
a pool of entity officers and NCOs to man
each training center. The candidates were

Demining School Cadre Organization

School
Commandant

Chief of Training
Senior Instructor

Medical
Instructors

Demining/Demolitions
Instructors

Assistant
Commandant

Operations
Officer

Supply
Officer

Administrative
Officer

18

Special Warfare

tested in map reading, demolitions, demining, first-aid and basic troop-leading procedures. The best-qualified candidates were
selected to serve as instructors and as
school staff members. Each school operated
under a commandant, with a training section and a staff section. Cadre training was
conducted over four weeks. All staff members and instructors received common
instruction in small-group leader techniques, mentoring and teaching techniques,
and school disciplinary measures. The
trainees then split into three groups: demining and demolition instructors, medical
instructors and school staff.
The demining and demolition instructors
were required to demonstrate all aspects of
mine-clearing operations, including the
destruction, in place, of land mines. The SF
engineers reinforced the safety measures
required for compliance with international
standards of mine clearing. The demining
and demolitions final exam covered all the
technical mine data, demining-site setup,
mine-detecting and -marking, U.N. regulations and demolition operations.
The EAF medical instructors received
training in first aid, in primary and secondary survey, and in cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation. All EAF medical instructors
were soldiers or army nurses with previous
medical experience. This proved to be especially helpful to the SF medics, because
they were able to teach the advanced medical skills necessary in treating severely
injured mine victims. The medical final
examination consisted of a written portion
and a minefield-evacuation-trauma scenario involving multiple casualties.
The staff training focused on techniques
for effectively organizing and operating a
training center. SF soldiers taught the
school staff the duties of the S1, S3, S4
and commandant, in accordance with U.S.
Army staff-operations doctrine. Automation training constituted a large portion of
the staff training. Staff members learned
computer basics, database management
and hardware maintenance. Each school
staff created a similar training-center
database designed to codify the training
centers operational and administrative
requirements.
Spring 1999

Photo by Brian Petit

Cadre training culminated in a one-week

training exercise that tested all of the
instruction presented.
Following their four weeks of training,
the entity cadre began a two-week
rehearsal: They assumed responsibility for
all the instruction, logistics and planning
of the demining course. During this period,
instructors received their class assignments and rehearsed their class presentation under the tutelage of the SF instructors. The staff planned the inprocessing,
billeting, meals, training schedule and
logistics requirements. The SF advisers
ensured that the curriculum presentation
was accurate, professional and organized.

A Special Forces soldier

gives instruction to Bosnian demining-instructor
trainees.Training covered
all aspects of mine-clearing operations.

19

During this period, local contractors

and entity-army soldiers renovated the
facilities to create a functioning academic and training environment. Each
school received more than $175,000
worth of equipment, including protective gear, training aids, copiers, and a
full complement of computer hardware
and software.

First basic deminers course

In June 1998, each of the three training
centers began its first Basic Deminers
Course. The four-week course trained
three nine-man demining teams at each

The concept of the entity-army training centers was to make the host nation responsible
for clearing mines, and at the same time, to
provide the host nation with the expertise,
confidence and organization it would need to
conduct mine-clearance operations.
training center. All of the personnel
trained were either active or reserve military members. The centers goal was for
each demining team to graduate, receive
equipment, and begin conducting demining operations as part of the summer 1998
campaign.9
Each center conducted its course with
a high level of professionalism and intensity. In addition to the SF advisers who

served as monitors, there were SFOR

monitors; monitors from the United
Nations Mine Action Center; and representatives from various private agencies
interested in the indigenous programs.
Altogether, the three training centers
produced 73 entity-army deminers,
medics and team leaders who were qualified to conduct demining operations to
the internationally recognized standard.
Encouraged by the progress of the entity
army programs, the Canadian and Norwegian governments soon thereafter announced a plan to insure EAF deminers
through 2001 against the loss of life or
limb while conducting humanitarian
mine-clearing operations.

Course sustainment
SFOR mandated that the training centers would conduct a minimum of three
courses per year, with the option of conducting refresher courses as necessary.
SFOR assigned full-time monitors to the
training centers to ensure that the curriculum and training remained to standard.
The overall responsibility of sustaining
and maintaining the training centers fell
to their respective entity army and government. Failure to provide an adequate operating budget or failure to conduct courses
according to schedule would result in
training and movement bans being
imposed on the offending army.
Essential to the effective sustainment of
the training centers was the integration of
each training site into the national demin-

Soldiers from the 10th SF

Group meet with Bosnian
and Serbian military leaders and officials of the
U.N., to discuss demining
training plans.
Photo by Justin D. Pyle

20

Special Warfare

ing program. In a textbook example of

facilitating interagency activities, Company C brought entity-army representatives
into discussions with civilian demining
agencies and members of U.N.-sponsored
programs.
To ensure that the training centers
became the focal points for all countrywide demining training, technology and
expansion, Company C leaders aligned
the groups and presented a vision of sustaining a low-cost, indigenous training
program in each of the training centers.
This effort resulted in project plans for
civilian demining teams to work with the
training centers in a mutually beneficial
relationship. SF involvement in the
establishment and operation of the training centers greatly contributed to the
legitimacy and credibility of the indigenous demining programs, and it helped
to reduce much of the reluctance of private organizations to invest in the EAF
program.
The 10th SF Group has demonstrated its
commitment to the centers by sending SF
engineers on periodic inspections of the
schools. SFOR continues to monitor all
entity-army activities, including the operation of the three training centers. The programs long-term success will be measured
by the continued operation of the centers,
and by the safe but aggressive efforts of the
EAF demining teams to clear the Bosnian
countryside of mines.

indigenous populations in implementing

demining programs similar to the one in
Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Captain Brian S. Petit is a detachment

commander in Company C, 2nd Battalion,
10th SF Group. His detachment established
one of the three entity-army demining
training centers in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Notes:
1 Associated Press, U.S. to lead effort to clear world
of land mines by 2010, The Gazette (Colorado
Springs, Colo.), 1 November 1997.
2 Interagency Working Group report on demining, 28
June 1997.
3 Mine Information Coordination Cell database as of
1 May 1998, Tito Barracks, Sarajevo.
4 Mine Information Coordination Cell database as of
1 May 1998, Tito Barracks, Sarajevo.
5 Dayton Peace Agreement, Annex 1-A, Article
IV.2(3)(d).
6 Peter Aldwinckle, Background Brief Bosnia
Demining, 1997.
7 London Peace Implementation Conference, Chapter 8, Commander, SFOR, Instructions to the Parties,
December 1996.
8 Ibid. Training and movement bans were placed on
entity armies who did not achieve effective effort
levels for the prior months mine-removal operations.
9 The delayed arrival of donated demining equipment prevented an immediate transition to live
demining operations.

Conclusion
The proliferation of land mines and unexploded ordnance impedes the restoration of
peace, the restructuring of war-torn
economies, and the normalization of life.
The concept of the entity-army training
centers was to make the host nation responsible for clearing mines, and at the same time,
to provide the host nation with the expertise,
confidence and organization it would need to
conduct mine-clearance operations.
With their ability to build, to teach and
to operate in situations polarized by ethnic and political issues, SOF are ideally
suited for humanitarian-demining activities. They will likely continue to assist

Spring 1999

21

The Trek: Critical Event in SF Officer

Training
by Lieutenant Colonel Charles King

he Special Forces Detachment Officer

Qualification Course, or SFDOQC,
offers an individual training exercise
known simply as Trek. Over the years Trek
has had various names; it has been scheduled at various points throughout the program of instruction; and it has been conducted under a variety of conditions. However,
two things about Trek have remained constant: It has always centered around a solo
land-navigation event of several days duration, and it has always been a critical event
in the training of Special Forces officers.
Trek is contentious. To some, Trek is the
holy grail of officer training; to others, Trek
is an example of outdated tab protection;
and to still others, Trek is simply a gut
check that belongs in Special Forces
Assessment and Selection, or SFAS. And
yet, all student officers, in class after class,
consider Trek to be the defining moment of
the SFDOQC. Trek and Robin Sage (the
final FTX in the SF Qualification Course,
or SFQC) are often mentioned as the two
most memorable events of SF training.
Admittedly, however, the purpose of Trek is
not self-evident, and bears some definition.
First of all, I submit that Trek is the

In this article, the author shares his ideas

on the value of Trek and describes Treks
role in the training of SF officers. From
1995 to 1997, the author served as commander of the battalion responsible for conducting the SFDOQC. Editor
22

most critical event in the development of

SF officers. It shapes the unique brand of
leadership that we need for our future.
Although the training objective of Trek is
somewhat counter-intuitive, and the standards for the event are certainly open for
debate and change, the existence of Trek in
the broad scheme of training events that
make up SF qualification is critical.
Second, allow me to propose two assumptions from which to begin:
SFAS is not perfect.
Officers who have reached the midpoint
of the SFDOQC should be able to complete Trek.
Given these assumptions, it follows that
although the training objective of Trek
should be attained by most, it may not be
attained by all. The training objective can
be stated as follows:
Task: Make independent decisions.
Condition: Alone, with basic issue equipment, under stress and fatigue, accomplish a task that you have been trained
to do.
Standard: Accomplish the given task to
the prescribed standard.
The primary purpose of Trek is to evaluate the decision-making capabilities of our
student officers. Trek is a test to ensure
that capable, independent decision-makers
have been trained. It is not an assessment
tool; at least it is no more of an assessment
tool than any other test is. It cannot be conducted during SFAS because Trek presupSpecial Warfare

While Trek is centered

around a land-navigation
exercise, its primary purpose is to examine the
decision-making capabilities of student officers.

File photo

poses a high level of training and conditioning. That first precondition is, by definition, missing during SFAS.
The second purpose of Trek is to provide
the student officers with an experience
that will serve as an inoculation against
the very challenges that can cripple their
decision-making in the future: fatigue,
uncertainty, stress, and lack of counsel. In
this sense, Trek is similar to the resistance-training-lab, or RTL, phase of the
Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape
Course, or SERE, in that part of the point
of the event is the experience itself. Again,
just as the RTL phase is not conducted
until the SERE students have received
training, Trek is not conducted until the
student officers have been trained.
The third purpose of Trek is to present
the student officers with challenges (both
physical and mental). These challenges, in
turn, produce two benefits. First, they
instill confidence and pride, which simply
amplifies the inoculation mentioned above.
Second, they reinforce the credibility of the
student officers training. Trek is not
offered to the NCO students in the SFQC.
It cannot be said that their leaders have
not been adequately tested and challenged.
Trek further illuminates the difference
between the end state of the enlisted SFQC
(which is designed to produce journeymen SF soldiers who are qualified at the
entry level for service on an ODA) and the
end state of the SFDOQC (which by necesSpring 1999

sity must produce officers who are capable

of commanding detachments). Unlike the
NCOs, officers must be (at least in the
sense of being prepared to command) fully
qualified upon graduation.
Last, as long as SFAS remains an imperfect tool, Trek will provide those students
who want out of the SFDOQC an opportunity to leave voluntarily. Even though
those students represent only a small percentage of the officers who enter SF training, if Trek causes them to quit, then its
value is significant.
It is also important to note what Trek is
not. Trek is not a test of land navigation
land navigation is trained and evaluated in
Phase I. Trek requires students to demonstrate the skills and the knowledge that
they acquired earlier in the course. In fact,
every task required by Trek will already
have been accomplished by the students.
Seldom indeed does a student officer fail
Trek because he cant navigate or because
he doesnt know the material being tested.
Land navigation is used merely as a vehicle for the decision-making exercise. Given
our resources and the nature of SF, land
navigation is an appropriate vehicle, but it
is not the only vehicle.
Trek is not an assessment or a test of
endurance, although it is physically
demanding. Physically, Trek is conducted
at a pace that should be achievable, given
the other physical standards that the students have met prior to that point. If stu23

dent officers fail Trek at an unacceptable

rate, the cause could be traced back to
SFAS. The problem is not that Trek is an
extension of SFAS. The problem may be
that SFAS is not adequately assessing the
student officers, or the problem may be
that the officers selected for the SFDOQC
are not properly preparing themselves.
Trek is an important and valuable tool
for training and preparing unconventional
warfare leaders for the future. My experience with eight iterations of Trek leads me
to conclude that failure can largely be
attributed to the students inability to
make appropriate and timely decisions, or
to the students inability to trust his own
skills and knowledge. Students who have
been overcome by the stress of solitude and
fatigue have also failed Trek. Implicit here,
just as it is in SERE, is the realization that
a response to stress can be learned that
we can inoculate ourselves against certain
eventualities. The goal of decision-making
education is unsupervised predictability.1
The experience of Trek tests to that end.
Is there a need for Trek? Surely, the SF
Branch has a justified requirement to train
its officers to be both capable and ready to
make independent decisions. Indeed, this
requirement is unique in degree among the
other branches. The requirement to be
independent is such an overwhelming part
of what we expect from our officers that it
lends itself to being considered a core value
of our branch. Army Research Institute
studies conducted on SF candidates during
SFAS show that the vast majority of the
candidates have never been alone for a significant period of time. For the rest of the
Army population, being alone is atypical
and is avoided. Yet our officers must be
consummate decision-makers and selfreliant to the highest degree. Maybe they
wont be completely alone; perhaps their
team will be with them. But they will be
alone in the sense that they will be making
fundamental decisions without any supervision. Trek is a critical building block in
the development of our officers, and it is
directly focused at preparing them for an
uncertain and ambiguous future.

24

Lieutenant Colonel Charles

King is chief of the SF Officer
Branch, Officer Professional
Management Division, U.S.
Total Army Personnel Command. His previous Special
Forces assignments include
commander, 1st Battalion, 1st Special Warfare Training Group, JFK Special Warfare
Center and School; company commander,
operations officer and group executive officer, 10th SF Group; detachment commander, 5th SF Group; and branch assignments
officer, SF Branch, U.S. Total Army Personnel Command.
Notes:
Major Peter Dillon, Ethical Decision Making on
the Battlefield, MMAS Thesis, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kan., 1992.
1

Special Warfare

Army Values

Personal Courage
Roger Donlon
In July 1964, Captain Roger Donlon was commander of Special Forces detachment A-726, stationed at Camp Nam
Dong, Republic of Vietnam. In the early-morning darkness of July 6, a reinforced Viet Cong battalion launched an
attack on the camp. During the five-hour battle that followed, Donlon, under intense fire from small arms and mortars, directed the defensive operations of the camp,
personally recovered weapons and ammunition and
moved them where they would be more effective, rescued wounded soldiers, and administered first aid.
Despite his own wounds in the stomach, face, shoulder and leg, he moved around the camp perimeter,
directing firing operations, hurling hand grenades
back at the enemy, and encouraging his soldiers to
fight on. For his actions, Donlon was awarded the
Medal of Honor, the first given during the Vietnam
War and the first given to a Special Forces soldier.
Reflecting on his actions and those of his team,
Donlon said, When you read the award citation, you
think of physical courage. Thats only one dimension
of it. There is a greater courage that feeds physical
courage: moral courage a kind of mental toughness. That was the core that allowed us to do
things beyond what we thought wed be capable of.
When we saw what the other members of the team
were doing, we gained more strength.
Donlon retired from the Army in 1988 as a
colonel. He is executive director of the Westmoreland Scholar Foundation, a nonprofit educational
foundation dedicated to supporting academic scholarships and exchange programs that will foster reconciliation and harmony between the people of the
United States and the people of Vietnam. He is
donating all proceeds from the first edition of his
1998 book, Beyond Nam Dong, to the foundation.
Beyond Nam Dong is available through the Special
Warfare Museum Gift Shop (910-436-2366) or directly
from R&N Publishers (913-772-5480). Editor

Spring 1999

Captain Roger Donlon, the first Special Forces soldier

to win the Medal of Honor.

25

Scud Hunting: Theater Missile Defense

and SOF
by Captain John M. Clearwater

ne of the most significant trends in

21st-century warfare has been the
rapid proliferation of offensive missile systems. Theater missiles, or TMs,
which include theater ballistic missiles, or
TBMs; cruise missiles; and air-to-surface
missiles, pose a great threat to world stability and can diminish our nations future
ability to conduct force projection and to
resolve regional conflicts.
Worldwide, a buying spree is under way
for advanced missile systems. Affordable in
comparison to other weapon systems, such
as combat aircraft and warships, missiles
offer countries with small budgets a chance
to get the most bang for their weapons
buck. As TMs make leaps in range, accuracy and lethality, developing militaries will
view them as strategic equalizers.
The TM threat is diverse: South Korea
and the Japanese mainland are now within range of North Koreas latest Nodong
missile. And Iran is building two new missile systems based on the Nodong design.
Both of Irans systems will be equipped
with 2,200-pound warheads, and both will
be capable of hitting targets as far away as
central Europe.1 Israeli intelligence
reports that Iran has a goal of an even
longer range 6,000 miles that would
allow Iran to hit targets in the eastern
United States.2
As weapons of terror, missiles present a
formidable threat to U.S. forces, population
centers, and critical assets. This threat

26

becomes even greater when the missiles

are combined with chemical weapons and
other weapons of mass destruction, or
WMD. In July 1997, the highest ranking
official ever to defect from North Korea testified that North Korea prides itself on its
chemical-warfare capabilities, and that if
the U.S. should attempt to intervene in an
invasion of South Korea, North Korea
plans to annihilate Japan with a massive
wave of missiles armed with chemical warheads.3 In September 1997, Alexander
Lebben, former Russian Minister of
Defense, announced that possibly 100 or
more suitcase-sized, one-kiloton nuclear
bombs were missing from the Russian
inventory. Presumably, they had been sold
or were on the black market.4 The potential of converting such devices into missile
warheads emphasizes the importance of
refining our tactics, techniques and procedures necessary in combating the theatermissile threat.

Importance of SOF
One of the core functions at all levels of
command is force protection. With their
increased accuracy and versatility of
launch, TBMs will most likely demonstrate
their effectiveness at the very outset of a
conflict. Suitable as weapons for longrange surprise attacks against U.S. forces,
TBMs are a priority of the theater commanders in chief, or CINCs.

Special Warfare

Special-operations forces, or SOF, will

perform crucial roles in the theater-missile-defense plans of the CINCs. Joint Pub
3-01.5, Doctrine for Joint Theater Missile
Defense, states that locating and targeting
the launchers and support structure before
launch is the most effective method of combating the TBM threat.5
Defensive measures aimed at disrupting
the enemys attack preparations and
momentum would draw SOF into the earliest stages of a conflict, and could lead to
short-notice SOF mission taskings. Such
was the case during the Gulf War, when
elements of the British Special Air Service
found themselves rushed from England
and quickly inserted into Iraq.6

Background
The Gulf War remains our only experience with ballistic missile defense. It still
influences our thinking on theater-missile
defense, or TMD, and shows the value of
SOF in TMD operations.

From 1982 to 1988, Iraq and Iran

exchanged more than 500 Scud missiles
during the infamous War Between the
Cities. Iran subsequently claimed to have
killed more than 3,000 civilians in a single
week.7 While the Iraqi and Iranian Scud
campaigns accomplished little militarily,
they did allow Iraq to begin the Gulf War
with a pool of experienced rocket teams and
engineers. Saddam Hussein was hopeful of
using Scud attacks against Israel to prompt
an Israeli response and to draw Israel into
the Gulf War.
To avoid the political consequences of
such a situation, the coalition began a massive air campaign to destroy the Iraqi Scud
infrastructure. The objective was to eliminate missile manufacture, storage facilities
and fueling installations. The coalitions
attacks against the fixed infrastructure
were very effective, but locating the highly
mobile MAZ-543 transporter, erector,
launcher, or TEL, was remarkably difficult
even in a desert environment. The TELs
proved to be surprisingly elusive and surDuring the Gulf War, the
U.S. deployed Patriot
missiles such as these
to help defend Israel
against Iraqi Scud missile attacks.

Photo by Bill Thompson

Spring 1999

27

vivable, despite the intense efforts to find

and destroy them.
The Soviet Scud missile and the MAZ543 launcher were designed for mobility.
Thirteen meters in length, the MAZ-543
launcher is an extremely powerful, 560horsepower, rough-terrain vehicle. Power,
ground clearance and a central tire-pressurization system allow the vehicle to
negotiate rough terrain while transporting
a 12-meter, 15,000-pound missile.
At the start of the Gulf War, intelligence
services estimated that Iraq had 18
launchers. When coalition aircraft
destroyed 16 in the first nights strikes, the
threat seemed to have been eliminated.
Unfortunately, the initial estimate had
been wrong, and the intelligence services
revised their figures to reflect 15 Scud battalions and as many as 225 launchers.8
In 43 days, the coalition carried out more
than 1,500 strikes against Iraqi missile
targets ranging from suspected hiding
places to Scud support facilities. Only 215
strikes were reported against TELs. Coalition aircrews reported destroying 80 TELs,
mostly by A-10s.9 (It now appears that
many of these TELs were either decoys or
vehicles unfortunate enough to have had
Scud-like infrared and radar signatures.
However, as the air campaign intensified,
Scud launches, which had averaged five
per day for the first 10 days, dropped to
only one per day for the last 33 days of the
war.10

On Feb. 25, 1991, a SOF element operating in western Iraq reported a force of
approximately 20 Scud launchers. Saddam
Hussein may have planned to use the
Scuds in a massive saturation strike to
overwhelm Patriot batteries defending
Israel and to trigger an Israeli intervention. During the six hours following the
SOF report, A-10s, guided in by SOF,
destroyed all of the mobile launchers.
Then-Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney,
who later met with members of the SOF
element, reportedly told them, Thanks for
keeping Israel out of the war.11
During the Gulf War, Iraqi forces fired 93
Scuds: 42 at Israel, 48 at Saudi Arabia, and
three at Bahrain.12 The worst tragedy,
however, occurred when a Scud missile hit
a barracks in which American soldiers
were being housed. In all, 97 were wounded, and 28 were killed 36 percent of the
U.S. Army deaths from enemy action during the war.

Missile unit procedures

Missile units undergo rigorous training,
and they are often noted for their high level
of discipline and morale. Independently
employed and sustained from remote locations, missile units have a support infrastructure that is streamlined and flexible.
Iraqi and North Korean Scud missile
brigades consist of three battalions, each
with nine TELs, for a total of 27 TELs per

An Iraqi Scud missile hit

this barracks in which
U.S. soldiers were being
housed, killing 28 and
wounding nearly 100.
Photo by Lee F. Corkran

28

Special Warfare

The MAZ-543 transporter, erector, launcher is a

mobile, powerful rough-terrain vehicle.

File photo

brigade. North Korean surface-to-surface

missile forces consist of two or more
brigades of Nodong launchers. Brigades also
maintain headquarters companies, as well
as signal, engineer, weather, decontamination, and technical-maintenance companies.
The missile battalions survival depends
upon speed of execution; preplanned hide
sites, launch sites and reload sites; and
some form of cover and concealment. When
conflict appears imminent, the missile
brigades and all support vehicles disperse
from garrison locations and move to separate battalion forward operating bases, or
FOBs.
The FOB may comprise 30-50 vehicles:
command-and-control vehicles, cranes, fuel
trucks, a pressure-test vehicle, oxidizer
trucks, electrical-system-test vehicles, and
missile-warhead-transport vehicles. The
battalion also has two or more resupply
missile transporters, each of which carries
1-3 spare missiles. The missile battalions
Achilles heel is its size. Such a large collection of vehicles may cover an area of 500
square meters. The FOB will have indicators pointing to it from two directions: supply routes and traffic to and from higher
echelons, and support routes and traffic to
and from the TELs.
Among the most critical of the missile
battalions assets is the crane vehicle, and
Spring 1999

File photo

a battalion may have two or more. The

crane is used to lift a missile off the missile-transport vehicle and onto the TEL, a
process that takes about 20 minutes. Warheads can be switched out in less than an
hour.13 For sustained operations, a brigade
may be allocated as many as 50 missiles.
Resupply sites are generally located near
the brigade headquarters, but their location varies depending upon the terrain and
the roads.
Prior to operations, battalion commanders will very likely have selected TEL hide
sites, launch sites and reload sites. Hide
sites, in particular, are chosen for their natural cover and for their ability to reduce
detection by electro-optical, infrared, and
radar sensors. Some countries, such as
North Korea, use an extensive network of
hardened underground facilities, often
designed with multiple camouflaged exits
and entrances spread over a wide area. In
time of war, the TELs emerge briefly, move
a short distance, launch, and return to the
safety of the hardened facility to reload.
Decoys are a significant part of each missile battalion. Decoys and real TELs are
nearly indistinguishable when observed by
the naked eye, daylight video, or video
imaging. Only subtle differences can be
distinguished by infrared and radar sensors.14 U.N. observers who oversaw the
29

destruction of Iraqi launchers after the

Gulf War reported that it was impossible to
visually distinguish a decoy from a real
launcher at a distance of more than of 25
yards.15
Targeting decisions are normally made
at the strategic level and are then passed
to the missile battalion for execution. The
battery commander receives targeting data
and launch-site locations, and designates
the TELs to fire. Launch plans pass down
the chain of command from the brigade
commander approximately 12 hours in
advance. To preserve electronic silence, the
battalions transmit execution orders by
land line or courier.
Missile launches are conducted under
the direct supervision of an officer or a
senior NCO. This person carries with him
the vital target and launch data as he
moves about the assigned missile-operations area in a command-and-control vehicle. In order to launch, the MAZ-543
requires virtually level ground, and its
operators can level the vehicle as much as
two degrees left-to-right, and three degrees
front-to-rear. Locating level ground can be
a major constraint in establishing new,
unsurveyed launch sites. However, even in
rough terrain it is still possible to find
small level spots.16 Immediately after
launch, as the missile is still climbing, the
crew readies the vehicle to move out of the
area to a preplanned hide site. U.S. Army
tests of the MAZ-543 have demonstrated a
move-out time of less than two minutes
after launch.
Prior to the Gulf War, researchers who
studied Soviet missile exercises and Iraqi
launches during the Iran-Iraq war theorized that there might be enough
prelaunch signature to give patrolling aircraft time to attack the launchers before
they fired. But during the Gulf War, the
Iraqis executed 80 percent of their launches at night; they drastically reduced their
prelaunch set-up times; they avoided
prelaunch electromagnetic emissions; and
they seeded their launch areas with
decoys. Even F-15Es orbiting in the vicinity of the launches experienced great difficulty spotting the TELs. For these reasons,
searching for the TELs is considered a los30

ing effort, and TMD planning and analysis

cells focus on locating and destroying the
FOBs, instead.
The missile units strengths lie in skilled
and motivated crews using well-designed
equipment; preplanned operations deep
behind the border; and the effective use of
decoys. The missile units vulnerabilities
include large vehicles; a sizable supportvehicle signature; and the dependence upon
a road network. The TEL itself requires a
virtually level surface for launching. After
each launch, the TEL must expose itself in
order to link up with a missile transporter
and a crane for reloading.

Attack operations
With the proliferation of the missile
threat, TMD has become a major battlefield challenge and a major research-anddevelopment challenge. TMD involves
locating and destroying missiles before
launch (attack operations), shooting down
missiles in flight (active defense), and
alerting soldiers at predicted points of
impact (passive defense).
Considering the immense challenge of
intercepting inbound missiles (essentially
hitting one bullet in flight with another),
and the consequences of missing, U.S. doctrine stresses the urgency of locating and
destroying the missiles before they can be
launched.17 Attack operations are designed
to prevent launches by attacking and eliminating each element of the overall system
launch platforms, command-and-control
nodes, support vehicles, missile stocks and
infrastructure. The more effective the
attack operations, the less active our
defense will have to be in contending with
inbound missiles. Attack operations is an
area for which SOF are particularly wellqualified.
As the TEL launches, the satellite system
of the Defense Support Program picks up
and reports the missiles infrared signature.
With that report, in-theater TMD networks
will, within minutes, plot and distribute the
estimated location of the launch. Attack
assets, such as F-15Es or A-10s, may deploy
to the area, but the TEL will most likely
depart the site before they arrive. During

Special Warfare

the Gulf War, orbiting strike aircraft

observed 42 Scud launches, but on only
eight occasions were they able to acquire
the target long enough to drop ordnance.18
TMD analysts will define a named area of
interest, or NAI, whose boundaries are
based upon the distance the TEL could have
traveled after launching. To aid in a systematic search of the NAI, analysts also identify sensor requirements and availability.
For TMD planning, SOF are usually classified as a sensor asset, along with satellites; unmanned aerial vehicles, or UAVs;
and radar systems. However, SOF provide
additional benefits to the CINC in the critical areas of dependability, attack operations and battle-damage assessment, or
BDA. Effective TMD hinges on accurate
and timely intelligence. SOF surveillance,
with its ability to conduct near-real-time,
eyes-on reporting, is widely considered the
most reliable method of obtaining target
information. SOF reports may initiate a
targeting process that SOF can further
assist in by guiding attack assets toward
the target. SOF can then follow up with

immediate BDA. The importance of BDA is

evident: If the attack fails to destroy the
target, the attack must resume while the
target is still identified and pinpointed.
Once the target has been destroyed, it is
important to call off further attacks to conserve attack assets.
The search for TELs and their support
structure can be enhanced by blending the
human strengths of SOF with emerging
sensor technologies, including remote sensors, thermal imagery, UAVs and the Joint
Surveillance Target Attack Radar System,
or JSTARS.
Remote sensors. SOF can establish a network of various types of remote sensors in
an area, as well as monitor a network of
air-dropped sensors. Remote sensors can
significantly strengthen SOFs ability to
monitor areas when the enemy is most
likely to be active during hours of limited visibility.
Thermal imagery. Thermal imagery
offers the ability to peer through effective
camouflage, and advances in technology
have reduced the size and weight of therWhile satellite communications can provide realtime battle information,
eyes-on reporting by
SOF surveillance is still
considered the most reliable method.

Photo by Lance Cheung

Spring 1999

31

Photo by Larry Aaron

Two JSTARS aircraft wait

on the airfield at RheinMain air base in Germany. The flying radar
stations can track hundreds of targets simultaneously and build databases of enemy activity.

32

mal-imagery equipment to the point that it

can easily be carried by SOF elements.
UAVs. UAVs are making great leaps as a
reconnaissance tool. Their infrared and
thermal imagery can rapidly scan selected
road networks, and they are particularly
effective when used in conjunction with
SOF. For the near term, UAVs remain in
short supply, and they are limited in range
and staying power when used for hunting
deep targets like TELs.
JSTARS. The JSTARS is a flying radar
station designed to locate and target
ground forces. With its powerful, deep-looking radar, JSTARS can track hundreds of
potential ground targets, especially vehicles. It can also build a database of enemy
activity. Its radar, however, cannot determine the kind of vehicle being observed. As
SOF teams transmit reports detailing
vehicle types, airborne observers can electronically tag and track the vehicles as
they move around on the battlefield. This
scenario shows the value of having eyes on
the ground and detailed reporting.
In the search for the enemy, communications flow is the key to effectiveness. Just
as the intel gathered by SOF is used to
alert intel and analysis cells to TBM activity and to assist sensors in narrowing their
search area, the same intel must be used to
alert SF detachments in isolation and on
the ground. The MI detachment of the SF
FOB maximizes its links to the joint intelligence center and theater analysis and

control elements, normally located at the

corps level. Periodic intel updates to the
SOF element in an NAI or in a joint special-operations area significantly improve
the elements survivability and its ability
to perform the mission.
Effective sensor-to-shooter report flow
requires constant refinement. Hitting
mobile, time-sensitive targets like MAZ543s requires that the sensor-to-shooter
time line be measured in minutes. Army
TMD attack operations are a subset of
deep-attack and precision-strike operations, but while they use the same processes for planning and destroying targets that
deep attack and precision-strike operations use,19 TMD attack operations have a
much faster tempo. TMD operations
planned according to an air tasking order,
which is normally built around a 37-hour
planning process, will probably not be
effective unless their mission is to eliminate fixed support sites.
During TMD operations, the SOF element should report its observations in
accordance with the SALUTE format (size,
activity, location, unit, time and equipment). In addition, the SOF element
should include information regarding its
proximity to the target. With the distanceto-target information, the targeting cell
can determine whether the SOF element is
in the danger close range. The SOF element does not report itself clear for fire
because it may not know the type of aircraft, weapon system or munitions allocated to the strike. Also, if the SOF element is
able to employ a ground-laser designator, it
should report that fact to assist the targeting cell.
To transmit the SALUTE report from
the SR site to the targeteers as rapidly as
possible, a solid theater-level liaison network must exist between joint organizations. Liaison personnel located with the
joint special-operations task force, or
JSOTF, serve as conduits to various groups
such as the Army Air and Missile Defense
Command, or AAMDC; the corps deepoperations coordination cells, or DOCCs;
and the air operations center, or AOC.
The AAMDC represents the Armys
effort to develop a command that focuses
Special Warfare

on analyzing, coordinating and directing

the TBM fight. The AAMDC commander, a
brigadier general, is the TMD special staff
officer for the joint forces land-component
commander, or JFLCC. The AAMDC serves
as both principal adviser and operational
integrator for TMD, and it coordinates on
behalf of the JFLCC and the JSOTF.
The 5th Special Forces Group, whose
area of operations (southwest Asia and
North Africa) is home to a number of rogue
nations and potential adversaries with
TBM and WMD capability, has placed particular emphasis on training for the TMD
fight. During Exercise Roving Sands 1997,
held at Fort Bliss, Texas, the 5th Groups
desert-mobility teams, whose mounted
capability gives them critical mission
endurance and flexibility, demonstrated
their potential.
During the week-long exercise, two
mounted SF detachments infiltrated into
NAIs and established SR sites from which
to observe remote road networks in New
Mexico. The detachments sent back more
than 60 SALUTE reports detailing enemy
missile activities. According to the AAMDC
commander, these reports were an absolute
success,20 The reports were sent back to a
special-operations command-and-control
element and a forward element of Special
Operations Command-Central that was acting as the JSOTF. An AAMDC liaison officer
copied the SALUTE report as it came in and
flashed it to the AAMDCs analysis and targeting cells. If the SALUTE report presented an opportunity for an immediate strike
(such as a TEL erecting for launch) it was

passed to both the corps DOCC and the battle-coordination element of the AOC as a
target nomination. Attack responsiveness
then became a matter of asset availability.
Three TMD-related exercises in 199721
revealed the need for further refinement in
communication with the inserted SOF element, principally in regard to notifying the
element of impending strikes, and in repositioning SOF to observe areas in which
other sensors have reported possible TBM
activity. Although the SOF element may
have to be repositioned in response to a
developing intel picture, SOF personnel do
risk exposure during movement. Restricted-fire areas, or RFAs, must also move as
the SOF element relocates. During the
Gulf War, a SOF element that had moved
outside its RFA was spotted by patrolling
A-10s. The elements vehicles, hidden in a
wadi and parked end-to-end under camo
nets, appeared on infrared sensors as a
TEL. Fortunately, the pilot missed the element with his first shot, and before he
could fire again, he was alerted to the SOF
presence.22
Combat air patrols, or CAPs, are often
conducted as near as possible to the
potential location of Scud launchers in an
effort to minimize fighter-response times.
SOF elements may find themselves guiding in Air Force or Navy CAPs via lasertarget designators. TBMs, however, are
often protected by an integrated airdefense network because of their strategic
value. Once these enemy air-defense systems assume a wartime full alert, they
may check the free employment of air

The mounted capability of

SF desert-mobility teams
gives them flexibility and
mission endurance that
are important in TMD
operations.
Photo by John Clearwater

Spring 1999

33

This Iraqi Scud was shot

down during Desert
Storm by a Patriot missile. Although missiles
are thin-skinned, highly
volatile targets, targeting
the missile support structure is more effective than
targeting the missiles
themselves.

DoD photo

assets, and the risks associated with aerial insertion may be prohibitive. Necessity
may require a CINC to ask the National
Command Authorities for cross-border
authority in order to insert SOF prior to
the actual outbreak of hostilities.
It appears unlikely that an SR element
would be asked to jeopardize itself and its
mission by attempting to engage and
destroy the missile and the launcher. Such a
direct-action mission would depend upon
the criticality of the target (for example, the
known or potential launches of WMD), the
availability of other attack assets, and the
proximity of the SOF element to the target.
In these kinds of circumstances, surprise,
speed, and shock effect, particularly at
night, are likely to accomplish the goal of
destroying or disabling the missile and the
launcher. All the vehicles associated with
the missile battalion are thin-skinned, and
their night-vision capabilities are limited.
The ground defense of the TEL may be limited to a crew equipped only with small
arms, and the defense may have to rely
upon assistance from a reaction element.
The missile itself is an especially easy
target. Because missiles must be capable of
operating at high speeds and at high altitudes, even the smallest puncture from
small-arms fire can render them inoperable for launch or incapable of reaching
their target. Considering the amount of
highly volatile liquid propellant carried
within the missile, tracer rounds might
34

very likely detonate the propellant and

destroy the TEL. Stand-off weapons with
night optics, such as the .50-caliber Barrett
or the M-24 sniper system, are ideal for
that purpose. Assaulting the TEL itself
would be necessary only for gathering critical intel, such as maps and targeting data,
or for destroying the warhead.
Even though a TEL may appear to be a
great target of opportunity, the more valuable objective will almost always be to
locate and destroy the support structure
the FOB. In the larger perspective, skillful
SR and timely, accurate reporting will have
the greatest impact on the enemys ability
to conduct missile operations.

Conclusion
While there is no magic formula for conducting TMD, solid intelligence-gathering,
rapid communications and close cooperation are the keys to success. Attack operations require a close working relationship
between the SOF team on the ground and
the quick-reaction strike assets. Effectiveness comes only from extensive coordination all along the chain of command
from the theaters joint forces commander
to the SOF team in a hide site.
During Roving Sands 1997, the sensorto-shooter communication time line was
measured in minutes. After-action comments concentrated on the need to bring
response times down to seconds. Advances

Special Warfare

in communications and data-processing

equipment will continue to shorten the
time line, as will liaison links and the commitment to refine organizational tactics,
techniques and procedures.
As the range, accuracy and payloads of
TBMs continue to evolve, the influence of
TBMs will increase dramatically. These
weapons could pose a potential threat to
U.S. forces employed in force projection,
intervention or peacekeeping. They could
also generate significant political and military pressure. Chinas missile demonstrations off the coast of Taiwan in March 1997
sent a clear signal to the Taiwanese people
as they prepared to hold elections.
The successful use of tactical ballistic
missiles and land-attack cruise missiles
during the Gulf War indicate a major shift
in the nature of future warfare.
Cheap in comparison to their catastrophic results, missiles will allow states with
otherwise limited power-projection capabilities to exert regional or global influence. Because missiles and unmanned
attack vehicles will have a forceful impact
on virtually every aspect of 21st-century
warfare, TMD will most certainly be
included in a theater CINCs priority intelligence requirements. SOF will be a crucial
asset for the CINC in prosecuting the missile battle through timely reconnaissance,
attack operations and BDA.

Captain John M. Clearwater

is the public affairs officer for
the 1st Infantry Division. In
his previous assignment, he
was the special-operations
planning officer for the U.S.
Army Air and Missile Defense Command. A Special Forces officer, he
has served in the 12th SF Group as a
detachment commander; and in the 5th SF
Group as the S5, 3rd Battalion, and as
commander of a long-range desert mobility
detachment. Captain Clearwater is a graduate of the Psychological Operations
Course, the Civil Affairs Officer Course, the
Public Affairs Officer Course and the
Armor Officer Advanced Course.

Spring 1999

Notes:
Bill Gertz, Russia, China Aid Irans Missile Program, Washington Times, 10 September 1997.
2 Steve Rodan, Secret Israeli Data, Defense News,
6-12 October 1997.
3 Reuters News Service; Seoul, 22 April 1997.
4 CBS News, 60 Minutes, Interview with Alexander
Leben, 14 September 1997.
5 Joint Pub 3-01.5, Doctrine for Joint Theater Missile
Defense, 22 February 1996, p. xi.
6 Authors interview with SAS member captured in
Iraq; Fort Campbell, Ky., 21 July 1994.
7 Anthony H. Cordesman and Abraham R. Wagner,
The Lessons of Modern War, The Iran-Iraq War (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), p. 525.
8 Richard Hallion, Storm Over Iraq, Air Power and
the Gulf War (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), p. 179.
9 Thomas A. Keaney and Eliot A. Cohen, Revolution
in Warfare?: Air Power in the Persian Gulf (Annapolis,
Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1995), p. 73.
10 Hallion, p. 183.
11 Ibid., p. 184.
12 Ibid., p. 185.
13 Briefing by Joint Theater Missile Defense-Joint
Test Force; Republic of Korea, August 1997.
14 Army Air & Missile Defense Command Handbook,
January 1997, p. 21.
15 Hallion, p. 75.
16 Briefing by Joint Theater Missile Defense-Joint
Test Force; Republic of Korea, August 1997.
17 Joint Pub 3-01.5, Doctrine for Joint Theater Missile
Defense, March 30, 1994.
18 Keaney and Cohen, p. 76.
19 FM 100-12, Army Theater Missile Defense Operations, September 1996.
20 BG Dennis Cavin, commander, AAMDC, during
after-action review of Roving Sands 1997, describing
SF participation in the exercise.
21 Authors notes from Roving Sands 1997, Fort Bliss,
Texas; Coherent Defense 1997, U.S. Atlantic Command, Norfolk, Va.; Ulchi Focus Lens 1997, Republic
of Korea.
22 Authors notes from discussion of Scud-hunting in
Iraq with one of the participants. Fort Campbell, Ky.,
June 1996.
1

35

Mentoring: Critical Assistance

for the SOF Community
by Major General Sidney Shachnow, U.S. Army (ret.)

hroughout most of history, the conventional mentoring paradigm has

defined mentors as those who
impart wisdom, advice and guidance to
their protgs.
The word mentoring is taken from the
Odyssey. Odysseus is getting ready to fight
the Trojan War and realizes that he must
leave behind his heir, Telemachus.
Odysseus recognizes that he wont be
around for several years, and that someone
will need to coach and teach Telemachus.

It is doubtful, in spite of all the zeal and idealism surrounding mentoring, that the Army or
the SOF community will establish a formalized mentoring program. Mentoring is critical, but it is not urgent. And, as we all know,
most of our time and energy are spent on
urgent stuff that is not critical.
Odysseus must find someone to complete
Telemachus education. He chooses a trusted family member named Mentor to be the
tutor. Mentor possesses wisdom and sensitivity both of which are important ingredients in any mentoring situation, even
today.
The form of mentoring, as many envision, has as its aim to increase the ability
36

of key personnel to achieve organizational

goals while at the same time inspiring
them to more easily realize their own
wants and needs. As a result of this process, protgs will have gained improved
performance, increased satisfaction and
greater knowledge. The context is therefore
different from counseling, which focuses on
the evaluation of an individuals performance, from an organizational perspective,
by someone within the individuals chain of
command. Counseling is hardly a situation
in which an open, wide-ranging, and frank
discussion can take place.
The problem with mentoring in the SOF
community is that it just happens spontaneously or naturally its a matter of
being in the right place at the right time to
be noticed by the right person who provides the right kind of help. This is not the
systematic assistance that key personnel
need in order to enrich themselves and add
value to their organization. Too many people fall through the cracks and do not get
the mentoring they require when it is most
needed.
It is doubtful, in spite of all the zeal and
idealism surrounding mentoring, that the
Army or the SOF community will establish
a formalized mentoring program. The reason is simple: Mentoring is critical, but it is
not urgent. And, as we all know, most of our
time and energy are spent on urgent stuff
that is not critical. However, although it is
spotty, mentoring does occur in our comSpecial Warfare

Pick em up, dust em off

In one of my assignments as a young infantry officer, I was sent to the 48th
Infantry near Frankfurt, Germany. In those days our prize weapon was a huge 280mm atomic cannon. Guarded by infantry platoons, these guns were hauled around
the forests on trucks to keep the Soviets from guessing their location. One day Captain Tom Miller assigned my platoon to guard a 280. I alerted my men, loaded my .45caliber pistol and jumped into my jeep. I had not gone far when I realized that my
.45 was gone.
I was petrified. In the Army, losing a weapon is serious business. I had no choice
but to radio Captain Miller and tell him. You what? he said in disbelief. He paused
a few seconds, then added, All right, continue the mission. When I returned,
uneasily contemplating my fate, Miller called me over. Ive got something for you,
he said, handing me the pistol. Some kids in the village found it where it fell out of
your holster.
Kids found it? I felt a cold chill.
Yeah, he said. Luckily they only got off one round before we heard the shot and
took the gun away. The disastrous possibilities left me limp. For Gods sake, son,
dont let that happen again.
He drove off. I checked the magazine and found it was full. The gun had not been
fired. Later I learned that I had dropped it in my tent before I ever got started. Miller
had fabricated the scene about the kids to give me a good scare.
Today the Army might hold an investigation, call in lawyers and likely enter a bad
mark on my record. Miller gave me the chance to learn from my mistake. His example of intelligent leadership was not lost on me. Nobody ever got to the top without
slipping up. When someone stumbles, I dont believe in stomping on him. My philosophy is Pick em up, dust em off and get em moving again.
General Colin Powell, U.S. Army (ret.)
From My American Journey, by Colin Powell (New York: Random House, 1995).
Copyright 1995. Used with the authors permission.

munity. For an individual who is contemplating becoming a mentor, a good start is

to keep in mind the six universal desires
that motivate people to work, volunteer,
join and affiliate:
1. The desire for recognition, which causes a person to seek experiences that bring
social approval, commendation or prestige,
and to avoid experiences that result in
ridicule, scorn or disapproval.
2. The desire for affection, which causes
a person to seek experiences involving
appreciation, understanding, intimacy or
support, and to avoid situations in which
there is a lack of appreciation or support.
3. The desire for power, which causes a
person to seek experiences that promise
achievement, success, self-determination

Spring 1999

or mastery; and to avoid situations that

promise frustration or a sense of failure.
4. The desire for new experiences, which
causes a person to seek novelty, adventure,
thrill, excitement or change; and to avoid
dullness, monotony or boredom.
5. The desire for security, which causes a
person to seek experiences that give a
sense of protection, belonging or confidence, and to avoid situations involving
disloyalty, abandonment, insecurity or fear.
6. The desire for friends, which causes a
person to seek experiences that involve
meeting and interacting with people who
share some common values.
If one has an appreciation of what motivates people, knowledge to impart, and a
willingness to give his or her time and

37

effort to help an individual, one is ready to

be a much-needed mentor. At the same
time, the mentor will enjoy a rewarding
and satisfying experience.
For mentoring to be successful, there
must be a good relationship between the
mentor and the protg. The relationship
should be based on trust and confidence, so
that effective communication can take

For mentoring to be successful, there must be

a good relationship between the mentor and
the protg. The relationship should be based
on trust and confidence, so that effective
communication can take place. Mentoring is
not lecturing. The protg may seek information, propose or exchange ideas, express feelings, solve a problem or pursue opportunities.
place. Mentoring is not lecturing. The protg may seek information, propose or
exchange ideas, express feelings, solve a
problem or pursue opportunities. This is
not a complete list, but merely a sampling
of topical exchanges. The mentors role, on
the other hand, is to coach, nurture, collaborate, advise and support.
At the individual level, the benefits of
having been mentored will vary widely,
depending on the protgs particular
needs, aspirations and situation. One
may:
Have the confidence not simply to tag
along with organizational changes but
to lead the organization and to champion the new culture.
Have improved leadership and management skills.
Have improved listening, challenging,
and empathizing skills.
Have the confidence to set and achieve
performance goals.
Have someone with whom you can
speak freely and candidly.
Be more ordered and reflective, rather
than rushing into things.
Have a wider perspective on the
impact of his or her leadership and
38

management style.
Be less ruled by feelings and more able
to cope with difficult situations.
Have the courage to be more bold and to
sell ones ideas more strongly, thereby
opening up additional ways of thinking.
Be more mindful of the need to be compassionate and understanding, and be
able to deal with the underlying problems,
not just the symptoms, of subordinates.
Needless to say, the list could be much
longer. Mentoring is one of those rare activities that makes everyone a winner the protg, the mentor and the organization.

Major General Sidney

Shachnows commissioned
service spanned more than 30
years, during which he served
as either a commander or a
staff officer with Infantry,
Mechanized Infantry, airmobile, airborne, and Special Forces units. He
served as commanding general of the JFK
Special Warfare Center and School, of the
Army Special Forces Command, and of U.S.
Army-Berlin. Shachnow holds a bachelors
degree from the University of Nebraska and
a masters degree from Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, Pa. He retired from
the Army in August 1994.

Special Warfare

Unconventional
Warfare:
Refining the
Definition
by Chief Warrant Officer 3
Michael J. Ivosevic

Unconventional warfare, or UW,

is a popular topic of discussion
among Special Forces operators
and commanders. Around the
world, there seems to be a great
deal of interest in everything
implied under the heading of UW.
According to Joint Pub 1-02,
Department of Defense Dictionary
of Military and Associated Terms (7
December 1998), UW is A broad
spectrum of military and paramilitary operations, normally of long
duration, predominantly conducted
by indigenous or surrogate forces
who are organized, trained,
equipped, supported, and directed
in varying degrees by an external
source. It includes guerrilla warfare and other direct offensive, low
visibility, covert, or clandestine
operations, as well as the indirect
activities of subversion, sabotage,
intelligence activities, and evasion
and escape.
One school of thought in the UW
discussion questions whether the
term unconventional warfare
should be replaced by the term
unconventional operations, or
Spring 1999

UO, and proposes the following definition for UO:

The conduct of missions and
operations through, with, or by
indigenous or surrogate elements
throughout the operational continuum. Unconventional operations
include, but are not limited to, a
broad spectrum of operations that
can be of long duration. UO are
conducted by elements that are
organized, trained, equipped, supported, or directed in varying
degrees by external sources. UO are
characterized by their joint and
interagency complexion and are
either overt, covert, or clandestine.
Examples of UO include stability
operations; guerrilla warfare; subversion; sabotage; information and
intelligence activities; evasion and
escape; special reconnaissance;
underground operations; auxiliary
operations; establishing support
systems; establishing commandand-control systems; and direct
action conducted by indigenous or
surrogate elements.
It has been argued for some time
that our definition of UW refers
more to an environment than to a
mission, and that the UO definition
does provide greater detail in defining the nature of operations to be
conducted. But while our definition
of UW does have room for improvement, the validity of the term
unconventional warfare is in no
way negated. In fact, there are good
reasons for preserving it.
Army FM 100-5, Operations,
speaks of principles of war as they
apply to wartime operations. It
does not speak of principles of
operations. A second reason for
preserving the term is to maintain
the focus on our war-fighter capabilities. Our task as soldiers is to
fight our nations wars and to win
them. It is imperative that all soldiers, SF in particular, preserve
and nurture the war-fighter outlook. SF were designed to conduct

unconventional warfare, and they

have developed the capabilities to
combat insurgencies and their
effects around the globe.
FM 31-20-2, Unconventional Warfare, Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Special Forces, is currently undergoing revision at the JFK
Special Warfare Center and School,
and the initial draft is scheduled for
publication in the near future. Now
is the time for SF soldiers to
address and discuss the UW issue.
With further discussion and comments from the field, we hope to
clarify the definition of UW and to
bring clarity to our doctrine.
In 1962, John F. Kennedy stated,
There is another type of warfare
new in its intensity, ancient in its
origin war by guerrillas, subversives, insurgents, assassins; war by
ambush instead of by combat, by
infiltration instead of aggression,
seeking victory by eroding and
exhausting the enemy instead of
engaging him ... It preys on
unrest. He also said, Our forces,
therefore, must fulfill a broader
role, as a complement to our diplomacy, as an army of our diplomacy,
as a deterrent to our adversaries,
and as a symbol to our allies of our
determination to support them.
UW was the original premise of
Special Forces. We owe it to ourselves
and to our nation to maintain a capability for unconventional warfare and
to preserve the war-fighter outlook in
Special Forces.
Debate or comments may be submitted to Special Warfare or to CW3
Michael J. Ivosevic, DSN 239-9802;
commercial (910) 432-9802; fax -5341;
or e-mail [email protected]. Editor

Chief Warrant Officer 3 Michael

J. Ivosevic is chief of the Doctrine
Branch, SF Doctrine Division, in
the SWCS Directorate of Training
and Doctrine.
39

The Liaison Coordination Element: Force

Multiplier for Coalition Operations
by Captain Chadwick W. Storlie

oalition forces assemble to conduct a

variety of operations, from combat to
operations other than war. But
whatever their mission, all coalition forces
face similar challenges: differences in their
language, military perspectives, training,
doctrine, command-and-control architecture, and support relationships. To minimize these challenges and to maximize the
coalitions power, theater commanders may
employ a flexible, effective, economy-offorce option: liaison-coordination elements,
or LCEs.
When employed, LCEs are attached to
units of the coalition to help those units
achieve seamless integration into the overall force. LCEs do not duplicate the elements or the missions of the supported
unit, nor do they provide additional combat-maneuver elements. Instead, LCEs
provide or enhance the battlefield operating systems that the supported unit must
have in order to accomplish its mission.
LCE activities are designed to be transparent, so that the presence of the LCE
does not overshadow the supported units
accomplishments. The LCE mission is
truly a task for quiet professionals. And the
skills of U.S. Army Special Forces in
training, planning, executing independent
operations, operating in varied environments, language and intercultural communication form the foundation for successful LCE employment.
In recent years, there have been several

40

successful LCE operations: During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm,
LCEs (referred to as coalition-support
teams, or CSTs) provided liaison, communications integration and close air support,
or CAS, to the various coalition countries.
During Operation Uphold Democracy in
Haiti, CSTs provided communications connectivity and liaison support that
strengthened the operational proficiency of
coalition units.
During Operation Joint Endeavor and
Operation Joint Guard in Bosnia-Herzegovina, LCEs were employed initially
with units of the United Nations Protection Force. LCEs assisted in the redeployment of those units or in integrating them into the lead peace-implementation force, or IFOR, of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization. In the
later stages of IFOR and in the eventual stabilization force, or SFOR, LCEs
were attached to the Hungarian Engineer Battalion, or HUBAT; to the
Romanian Engineer Battalion, or
ROBAT; and to the Independent Russian Airborne Brigade, or RUSBDE.
There are five LCE supporting tasks:
provide communications connectivity;
provide intelligence connectivity; provide
close-air support, or CAS, capability; provide liaison support; and provide medicalevacuation, or MEDEVAC, capability.
LCE mission-essential tasks focus on the
supporting tasks. The LCE mission-essenSpecial Warfare

tial task list, or METL, is shown below:1

Deploy.
Build rapport.
Provide command, control, communications and intelligence, or C3I.
Conduct terminal-guidance operations.
Maintain mobility.
Redeploy/recover.
LCE individual tasks, collective tasks,
and cross-training tasks vary according to
the detachment training levels and the
specifics of the mission.

Task organization
Depending on the requirements of the
operation, the LCE employs from four to
12 personnel. A solid mission analysis
that examines detachment manning, theater-specific movement policies, and individual soldier strengths will determine
the most effective task organization and
positioning.
There are two types of LCEs: the staticposition and the multiple-position. The static-position LCE is appropriate when the
supported unit has adequate tactical skills
but requires additional support in command-and-control functions at the battalion level and higher. A four-man element
located in the supported units headquarters can conduct a static-position LCE,

through coordination with an established

higher headquarters. The LCE that was
initially attached to the RUSBDE during
Operation Joint Endeavor was the staticposition-type.
The multiple-position LCE is appropriate when the supported unit requires
assistance at the tactical level and at the
battalion-headquarters level or higher.
Consisting of a base station and one or
more mobile teams, the multiple-position
LCE may require a 12-man detachment.
During Operation Joint Endeavor and
Operation Joint Guard, the LCEs that
were attached to the HUBAT and ROBAT,
as well as the LCE that was attached to
the RUSBDE during the latter half of
Joint Endeavor, were of the multiple-position type.
The LCEs that were attached to the
HUBAT and the ROBAT performed liaison
and coordination with other engineer
units, supporting forces, adjacent IFOR
units, and higher headquarters; and their
mobile teams provided protection for work
crews. The RUSBDE LCEs mobile teams
accompanied area patrols and weaponsstorage-site inspection teams.
The special-operations terminal attack
controller, or SOTAC, a highly trained combat-control team of the U.S. Air Force, provides the LCE with CAS capability, and

Types of Liaison Coordination Elements

STATIC-POSITION LCE

MULTIPLE-POSITION LCE

BASE STATION

BASE STATION

TEAM 2 MOBILE

18A
180A/18Z
18E
18D
SOTAC

18A
18F
18E
18E

18Z
18C
18B
18D

Commander
Asst det commander
Communications
Medical

Tm 2 commander
Asst Tm 2 commander
Weapons
Medical

TEAM 1 MOBILE
180A
18B
18C
18D
SOTAC

Spring 1999

Commander
Ops & intel sgt
Sr communications
Jr communications

Tm 1 commander
Asst Tm 1 commander
Engineer
Medical

41

Phases of a Liaison Coordination Element Operation

PHASE

DEFINITION

ASSOCIATED TASKS

BEGINNING

ENDING

PREDEPLOYMENT

Training and planning

that the LCE conducts
prior to entry into the
theater of operations

Order preparation; weapons qualification; cross

training of mission-essential skills; and immunizations

Upon receipt of the

warning order or initial
notification of the mission

Upon takeoff of the departure aircraft

DEPLOYMENT

Movement of the LCE

Equipment shipping and Upon takeoff of the departure aircraft
from home station into personnel movement
the theater of operations

EMPLOYMENT

Initial assessment; transition; and execution of

the specific subtasks of
the LCE mission

REDEPLOYMENT

Return of the LCE from Property accountability;

the theater of operations equipment maintenance;
and movement of perto home station
sonnel and equipment

Providing CAS and fire- Upon arrival at the initial

support capability; ME- point of contact with the
supported unit
DEVAC; liaison; intelligence and communications connectivity

trains LCE members in the proper procedures for requesting emergency CAS.
LCE operations consist of four phases:
predeployment, deployment, employment,
and redeployment.

Predeployment
The predeployment phase is the time
during which the LCE prepares for its
entry into the theater of operations. The
predeployment phase consists of three subphases: mission planning, training on mission-essential tasks, and individual and
unit administrative preparations.
Mission planning. Mission planning
begins with a thorough mission analysis,
in accordance with the guidelines of the
tactical decision-making process, or
TDMP. TDMP is the military decision
making process that includes a systematic approach to decision making, which fosters effective analysis by enhancing application of professional knowledge, logic,
and judgment. It must consist of the estimate of the situation and one of the three

42

Upon completion of the

operation; relief by
another unit; or change
of mission

Upon arrival at the initial

point of contact and linkup with the supported unit
Upon completion of the
operation; relief by
another unit; or change
of mission
Upon redeployment of all
personnel and equipment
to home station and
completion of mission
recovery and maintenance

methods of decision making (deliberate,

combat or quick).2
The TDMP cannot ensure that the mission plan will be flawless. Creativity, critical thought and shrewd analysis must be
exercised throughout each step of mission
planning.
Training on mission-essential tasks. The
second subphase of the predeployment
phase is the period during which the
detachment trains on individual and collective mission-essential tasks. These tasks
are derived through the detachments mission analysis, and are incorporated into
training schedules, situational-training
exercises, and other events used in preparing the detachment for the LCE operation.
Pre-mission training, or PMT, should
include mounted and dismounted immediate-action drills, or IADs. IADs should be
simple and tactically sound. Any member
of the detachment must be able to lead
the drills and be able to execute them during day or night. IADs should include
standard deployment configurations for
daily patrol operations as well as special
Special Warfare

employment configurations for CAS and

MEDEVAC operations.
The detachment should use information
gathered through the intelligence preparation of the battlefield, or IPB, in developing
or modifying IADs. An IPB analysis of the
use of mines in the heavily mined areas of
Bosnia-Herzegovina, as well as an analysis
of the activities in those areas, led to the
formulation of the IAD titled React to a
Mine Detonation. Existing IADs, such as
React to Indirect Fire, were modified to
restrict their activities to routes and areas
that have been cleared of mines. Ideally,
IADs should be formulated in two sets: one
for heavily mined areas and one for areas
clear of mines.
A solid area orientation should include
the history of the region, local courtesies
and customs, survival language phrases,
and information about hostile and nonhostile military forces in the area. Collectively,
the IADs, IPB, standard mission configurations, and area orientation provide soldiers
with a comprehensive understanding of
what they are likely to encounter and what
their reaction should be.

Individual and unit administrative

preparations. Individual and unit administrative preparations encompass the final
step in the predeployment phase. Individual preparations include required immunizations; counseling; preparation of wills
and powers of attorney; and the initiation
or the deletion of additional pay allowances. Unit administrative preparations
include coordination of departure aircraft;
equipment packing and palletization; declaration and labeling of hazardous cargo;
and family-support-group meetings.

Deployment
The deployment phase is the period during which the LCE and its equipment are
moved from the home station into the theater of operations. Although this phase is
relatively simple, it does include some
important considerations.
Civilian airlines or military aircraft, or a
combination of the two, can be used for
transporting the LCE and its equipment.
Although civilian airlines offer the greatest
flexibility and responsiveness, their policies

Individual and Collective Tasks

LCE SUPPORTING TASKS

INDIVIDUAL TASKS

Provide communications connectivity

Operate an LST-5C SATCOM radio system

COLLECTIVE TASKS

Operate an MST-20 SATCOM radio system

Provide intelligence connectivity

Perform an area orientation

Provide CAS capability

Call for NATO CAS strike

Operate an AN/PRC-113 radio

Provide liaison support

Conduct refresher training in the target

language

Provide MEDEVAC capability

Call for a nine-line MEDEVAC request

Incorporate language skills into STX lanes

Initiate an IV
Treat for shock
Spring 1999

43

pertaining to the transporting of weapons,

equipment and hazardous materials are
inflexible.
Military aircraft offer the best deployment option. Equipment can be either palletized in footlockers or placed in shipping
containers. The footlocker method (with
detailed packing lists for both civilian and
military aircraft) allows the greatest flexibility. Footlockers are also easy to transport inside both U.S. and foreign vehicles.
Weapons, sensitive items and hazardous
cargo can be shipped in accordance with
existing military transportation regulations and systems.

Employment
The employment phase encompasses all
activities necessary to accomplish the LCE
supporting tasks. There are three subphases in the employment phase: the initial
assessment or transition; the execution of
the LCE supporting tasks; and the transition or end of mission.
Initial assessment. To determine the
scope of its duties, the LCE conducts an
assessment of the supported unit. During
the assessment, the LCE should meet with
the commander, the chief of staff, each staff
section, and other significant personnel,
such as subunit commanders and liaison
officers. The assessment should reflect the
supported units strengths, areas that need
improving, and recommendations for
improvement.
The LCE should not attempt to force the
supported unit to function exactly as a U.S.
unit does. Instead, the LCE should encourage the supported unit to integrate with
other coalition units. Eventually, the supported unit should view the improvements
in its operational methods as being its own
accomplishments. The LCE should accompany the supported unit on patrols,
observe checkpoint operations, and visit
work sites in order to learn about the terrain, to interact with the local population
and civic leaders, and to understand the
supported unit as much as possible.
A smooth transition between the incoming LCE and the outgoing LCE is critical. If
the outgoing LCE fails to properly advise

44

the incoming LCE of the task at hand, the

incoming detachment could be misinformed,
leading to a lack of mission support, loss of
capabilities, and degradation of force protection. Once the transition is complete, the
incoming detachment should assess the
supported unit in order to revalidate its
needs. Throughout the mission, periodic
assessments will help to ensure that the
supported units needs are being met.
Execution of the five supporting tasks.
During the second subphase of the employment phase, the LCE executes the supporting tasks in order to improve the supported units combat power, flexibility and
coalition cohesiveness. The LCEs capabilities supplement, but do not replace, the
supported units capabilities.
The LCE provides communications
connectivity horizontally (with the supported unit) and vertically (with higher
headquarters). LCEs should develop primary, alternate, contingency and emergency communication plans to ensure connectivity during all operations. Primary
and alternate communication systems
should offer real-time, long-range, consistent and secure communications, such as
that offered by satellite radio systems.
Older capabilities, such as high-frequency
radios and Morse-code skills, should be
maintained in order to supplement the
communication plan and to reduce traffic
on high-traffic communication nets.
The LCE provides intelligence connectivity by giving the supported unit access
to U.S. and NATO intelligence products. To
accomplish this, the LCE may give intelligence reports to the supported unit, or the
LCE may become involved in the supported units IPB process. The LCEs IPB
analysis can serve as an excellent supplement to the supported units intelligence
system. Intelligence connectivity also helps
to ensure that the supported unit provides
timely intelligence, SALUTE reports (size,
activity, location, unit, time and equipment), and other intelligence products to
support cohesive intelligence operations.
By providing CAS and MEDEVAC capabilities, the LCE can give the supported unit
significant improvements in non-organic
firepower and ensure timely access to medSpecial Warfare

ical facilities. MEDEVAC and CAS requests

can occur at any time. Each member of the
LCE should carry a laminated 3-by-5 card
with the CAS and MEDEVAC formats, frequencies and code words printed on it.
In Bosnia-Herzegovina, CAS presence
missions coordinated by the RUSBDE LCE
were a significant factor in the de-escalation of potentially explosive situations and
were instrumental in demonstrating the
resolve of IFOR and SFOR soldiers. In July
1996, a ROBAT soldier was injured by a
mine while clearing a railroad line in a
heavily mined area of Maglaj, along the
zone of separation. Members of the ROBAT
LCE stabilized the patient and evacuated
him to a U.S./Norwegian hospital for treatment. MEDEVAC became a major point of
validation for the continued presence of
LCEs with the Romanian and Hungarian
engineer battalions. The LCEs ability to
conduct CAS and MEDEVAC operations
improved the morale among the personnel
in the supported units and strengthened
their units mission focus.
Providing liaison support is vital in
creating rapport with the supported unit.
Without strong rapport, the LCE will not
be able to create a significant impression
upon the supported unit. Liaison tasks
range from advising the supported unit
commander to emulating the customs and
military courtesies of the supported unit.
Simple acts, such as setting a positive
example or treating the supported units
soldiers as equals, facilitates the process of
building and maintaining rapport. Mutual
training events, such as weapons-firing
and vehicle-driving instruction, provide
excellent opportunities for establishing
and maintaining rapport.
In Bosnia-Herzegovina, SF soldiers
immediately established credibility with
supported-unit soldiers when they demonstrated their tactical and technical proficiency. Russian and Romanian soldiers
were impressed when SF weapons
sergeants expertly disassembled and
assembled Russian and Romanian
weapons. Cross-training skills also yielded
tremendous dividends when SF NCOs
demonstrated their proficiency in executing each others MOS tasks.
Spring 1999

It is important that LCEs build and

maintain rapport with units of the U.S.,
NATO, and other coalition forces. In Bosnia, the ROBAT was a subordinate element
of the Multinational Combat Support Elements, or MCSE, and the RUSBDE was a
subordinate element of the Multinational
Division-North, or MND-N. For both the
ROBAT LCE and the RUSBDE LCE, it
was vital to develop professional relationships with the commanders, staff and liaison officers of the MCSE and the MND-N
to ensure unity of effort and exactness of
purpose in their operations.
To adequately assist the supported unit
in its command-and-control functions and
in the execution of its operations plans, the
LCE needs a centralized operations center,
or OPCEN, that can track, record and

The LCE should not attempt to force the supported unit to function exactly as a U.S. unit
does. Instead, the LCE should encourage the
supported unit to integrate with other coalition
units. Eventually, the supported unit should
view the improvements in its operational methods as being its own accomplishments.
report the operations of the LCE and the
supported unit. The OPCEN should be
manned by two personnel during the duty
day, usually from 0600 to 2200, and it
should be capable of conducting limited 24hour operations. OPCEN personnel are
responsible for the daily base-station operations, including monitoring communication nets; reporting; coordinating with
LNOs, the supported unit, and adjacent
units; performing routine area maintenance; assisting mobile teams in mission
preparation; planning missions; and monitoring special projects.
Force protection should be an overriding
concern for all operations, but force-protection methods will vary depending on the
mission. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, LCE personnel traveled with all their equipment;
and when outside their vehicles, they
45

dressed according to the threat conditions.

Maintenance is a vital aspect of force
protection. During operations, an LCE
must perform proper maintenance on all
its assigned equipment. All vehicles should
receive preventive-maintenance checks
and services, or PMCS, at least once a
week. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, LCE vehicle
drivers performed the required PMCS.
Other detachment equipment (night-vision
devices, radios, etc.) was checked once a
week. Any inoperable equipment was
immediately sent to supporting maintenance units.
Transition or end of mission. The final
subphase of the employment phase encompasses the transition of a newly arriving
LCE or the conclusion of the mission. A
supported unit will not always require the
continued employment of an LCE. In conducting its mission, the LCE may augment
the supported unit with systems that will
reduce the need for the LCEs contribution.
In turn, as the coalition performs or
changes its assigned missions, a supported
unit may outgrow its need for an LCE,
while another unit may develop a need for
LCE support.

Redeployment
During the final phase, redeployment,
the LCE returns from the theater of operations to its home station. Once again,
equipment maintenance, inspections and
equipment-packing become key concerns.
Redeployment requires an after-action
review, or AAR. The AAR should include
the following:
Purpose of the mission.
Detachment mission statement.
Task organization through all phases of
the operation.
Concept of the operation.
Equipment employed.
Sequence of events.
Issues (in issue-discussion-recommendation format).
Listing of daily detachment missions
throughout the deployment.
Photo log of major missions.
The AAR provides a detailed record of
the LCE mission. Detachment briefing

46

slides, operations orders, results of the

TDMP, photos, and an AAR provide commanders, staffs and future LCEs an excellent record of plans, coordinations and
lessons-learned.

Summary
LCEs are vital to the coalition commander in improving and sustaining effective operations. LCEs foster excellent
team-building between U.S. and coalition
forces. These team relationships can often
help the supported unit overcome the
sometimes high learning curve encountered during the initial periods of coalition
operations. With their unique qualifications and special competence, LCEs are an
ideal option for enabling countries to integrate into coalition operations and to execute their required missions to NATO
standards.

Captain Chadwick W.
Storlie is the S4 for the 2nd
Battalion, 10th Special
Forces Group, Fort Carson,
Colo. As the commander of
SFOD-A 045 (maritime operations), he served one rotation during Operation Joint Endeavor with
the Romanian Engineering Battalion LCE
and one rotation during Operation Joint
Guard with the Independent Russian Airborne Brigade LCE. He is a 1989 graduate
of Northwestern University.
Notes:
1 2nd Battalion, 10th Special Forces Group, Mission
Guidance, November 1996, Fort Carson, Colo.
2 Joint Readiness Training Center, Isolation AAR
(slide presentation), Fort Polk, La., 1996.

Special Warfare

Letters
Special Warfare

SO/LIC program has

appropriate focus
Although I agree with the central
message of retired Navy Captain
Paul Shemellas article Academic
Preparation: Sharpening the Tip of
the MOOTW Spear (Fall 1998) that
higher education is essential for SOF
personnel, the rest of his argument
contains some misperceptions and
fallacies about the Naval Postgraduate Schools Special Operations and
Low-Intensity Conflict program. As a
SO/LIC graduate, I would like to
respond to two of his points.
First, Captain Shemella thinks
that a SO/LIC student does most of
his or her critical thinking in the language of mathematics. This is incorrect. Of the more than 20 classes I
took to earn my degree, only four were
math-oriented. Furthermore, these
classes were far from irrelevant for
my military professional development. They gave me the skills necessary to thoughtfully analyze and critically question the math-based models and simulations that are so prevalent in todays military.
Second, Captain Shemella argues
that the SO/LIC program lacks classes pertaining to area studies and government and results in a master of
science (his emphasis) in defense
analysis. But when you consider more
that just the name of the SO/LIC
degree, you may find that the program is actually an innovative interdisciplinary curriculum that gives
students a broad understanding of
the world around them and allows
them to focus on their area of interest.
My transcript, for instance, shows
classes in international-relations theory, military history, ethnic conflict,
Spring 1999

and information warfare.

In conclusion, instead of being a
narrowly focused program with limited relevance to the SOF community, the NPSs SO/LIC program is
especially appropriate for SOF officers of all services. Students in the
program learn a mix of skills and
produce a thesis focused on their
chosen regional or operational area
of interest. To get a full appreciation
of the value of this program, I suggest one go beyond Captain Shemellas or my opinions, and look at the
theses produced by SOF students.
The broad range of topics covered
and the insights within reveal the
full story of the SO/LIC program.
Captain Michael R. Lwin
Army student
Defense Language Institute

Review failed to give

books author credit
J.H. Crerars review of Night of the
Silver Stars (Fall 1998) fails to give
the books author the credit he
deserves.
Bill Phillips went to great lengths to
capture the lack of unity of command in
the northwest I Corps area of South
Vietnam. One of the books theses was
that there was no healthy relationship
between the various commands and
that this contributed greatly to the fall of
Special Forces Camp A-101,or Lang Vei.
The Marines did not respond to
Westmoreland; C Company, 5th SF,
did not respond to the Marines;
SOGs CCN did not respond to C
Company; and because the A-camp
was trying to protect its CIDG from
the I Corps Mike Force soldiers,

there was even some bad blood

between the commanders of the Ateam and the Mike Force.
If Phillips erred, he erred on the side
of attention to detail. He consulted too
many people, gathered too much information and captured the heart of the
problem: A-101 was hung out to dry.
Through lengthy interviews with
the A-101 commanders, ops
sergeant, members of the rescue
team from CCN, and the Mike Force
commander sent to do the camps
long-range patrolling, the author
had the total picture and relayed it
very clearly in the book.
The one area that I found humorous in the review was the implication
that there were no distinct differences between the camp strike-force
members and the I Corps Mike Force
members. To help the uninformed
understand: Mike Force soldiers
were paid and retained based on
their performance. They were offensive in nature, commanded by U.S.
SF, airborne-qualified, and they left
their families to seek out the enemy.
CIDG soldiers had the job of protecting their women and children.
They were legs, and conducted limited defensive patrolling in the vicinity of their village or the A-camp site.
Is Night of the Silver Stars perfect? No. Does it belong in every SF
soldiers library? Yes. Even if my picture werent on the front cover, I
would still recommend it.
Paul Longgrear
Pine Mountain, Ga.

47

Officer Career Notes

Special Warfare

48

SF Branch leads Army

in O6 selection rate

The 1998 Army colonel promotion-selection board considered 32 SF officers in the primary zone and selected 20. The SF selection rate was 62.5
percent higher than that of any other branch, and 12.9 percent higher
than the Armys overall selection rate. The promotion rate reflects the high
file quality of year group 1977: 11 of the selectees are former battalion
commanders. Board statistics were as follows:
Cons.
Sel.
% sel.
Army (AZ)
868
29
3.3
SF Branch (AZ)
32
0
0
Army (PZ)
806
341
42.3
SF Branch (PZ)
32
20
62.5
Army (BZ)
1990
30
1.5
SF Branch (BZ)
70
0
0

Selections announced
for NPS SO/LIC program

Selections have been made for this years Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict program at the Naval Postgraduate School. The program
is sponsored by the U.S. Special Operations Command as a means of training joint SOF officers. It features a rigorous academic curriculum designed
to help students meet the future requirements of special operations.
Although various concentrations are available within the program, all graduates receive a master of arts in national-security affairs. Utilization is
expected within joint or Army SOF billets. Officers selected this year are:
MAJ Franco, SF; CPT Bendewald, SF; CPT Amato, SF; CPT Orman, SF;
CPT Tester, SF (USMA, SF representative); CPT James, AV; CPT Mingus,
CM; CPT Bottiglieri, IN; CPT Stebbins, MI; CPT Gardner, FA 39; and CPT
Zacheral, FA 39. Applications for FY 2000 are now being solicited. Contact
your branch manager at PERSCOM or phone CPT Les Brown at the Special
Forces Branch, DSN 221-3178 or commercial (703) 325-3178.

Board selects 4 FA 39
officers for O6

The 1998 Army colonel promotion-selection board considered seven FA 39 officers in the primary zone and selected four. The FA 39 PZ selection rate was
57.1 percent, vs. 42.3 percent for DA. Two FA 39Bs and two FA 39Cs were
selected for promotion. Two of the selectees are former battalion commanders,
and one is scheduled to attend senior service college. The increase in the number of FA 39C officers who were considered and selected for promotion indicates the functional areas improving health. Board statistics were as follows:
Cons.
Sel.
% sel.
Army (AZ)
868
29
3.3
FA 39 (AZ)
10
0
0
Army (PZ)
806
341
42.3
FA 39 (PZ)
7
4
57.1
Army (BZ)
1990
30
1.5
FA 39 (BZ)
15
0
0

Special Warfare

RC SF, CA selections for O6

below Army average

The 1998 Army Reserve colonel promotion-selection board considered

3,379 officers and selected 405. Board statistics were as follows:
Cons.
Sel.
% sel.
Qual.
CA Branch
159
13
8.1
152
SF Branch
29
1
3.4
29
Army
3379
405
11.9
3254
The number of SF officers selected was nearly 9 percent below the Armys average, which is unusual, because SF officers have exceeded the Armys average for
the past six years. Civil Affairs officers finished 4 percent below the Armys average. Of the 13 CA selectees, seven of the nine troop-program-unit officers were current or former battalion commanders. Self-development was another factor in the
selection process: Six of the selectees had earned a masters degree, and two were
Army War College graduates or enrollees. Although manner of performance is the
most important criterion that distinguishes an officer for promotion, Army
Reserve and National Guard officers should seek self-development courses to maximize their chances for promotion. Officers should follow guidance in the revised
DA PAM 600-3, Commissioned Officer Development and Career Management
(http://books.army.mil:80/cgi-bin/bookmgr/books/p600_3/ccontents), to enhance
and sustain their military competencies. For more information, telephone
MAJ Jim Berenz, Civil Affairs Branch Manager, Special Operations Proponency Office, at DSN 239-6406, commercial (910) 432-6406, or
e-mail [email protected].

Acquisition Corps
to conduct accession board

The Army Acquisition Corps will conduct its annual accession board in October 1999. Year group 1993 will be the target for this years board. Officers
from prior year groups may still apply. Officers interested in the Army
Acquisition Corps can telephone Rick Yager at DSN 221-3127 or commercial
(703) 325-3127, or contact the SF Branch for more information.

46 FA 39 officers
selected for CSC

The 1998 Army command-and-staff-college selection board considered 250

FA 39 officers and selected 46 a selection rate of 18.4 percent, vs. the DA
selection rate of 16.7 percent. Results by year group were as follows:
FA 39
FA 39
FA 39
Avg sel. %
Cons.
Sel.
% sel.
(other FAs)
YG
YG
YG
YG

Officers may volunteer

for recall to active duty

Spring 1999

1985
1986
1987
1988

38
49
68
95

3
5
21
17

7.9
10.2
30.9
17.9

5.6
10.3
21.6
21.5

In March 1998, the Army initiated a voluntary recall to active duty for prior
active-duty officers. This is a recall to active duty, not a call to active duty, so
officers who have never served on active duty (other than for training) are not
eligible. There is no requirement for the officer applicant to be branch-qualified. Officers who wish to be recalled to serve in SF do not have to be previously qualified in SF, but they must complete SF qualification in order to
remain on active duty. Officers must meet the following eligibility criteria:
Captains must have a date of rank of 941002 or later.
Applicants must have served at least four years of active commissioned service.
Applicants must be medically qualified.
Applicants must meet all prerequisites for SF training as outlined in
DA Pam 600-3, paragraph 15-7b(1).
49

A volunteer statement for SF duty must accompany the officers application for SF training and branch transfer. Officers interested in the recall
program should contact the SF branch at DSN 221-3178 or commercial
(703) 325-3178. Officers interested in being recalled to service in other
areas of ARSOF should contact the manager of their basic branch.

41 SF officers selected
for CSC

The 1998 Army command-and-staff-college selection board considered 222

SF officers and selected 41. The selection rate was 18.5 percent 1.8 percent higher than the Armys overall rate of 16.7 percent. This years
results, by year group, were:
Cons.
Sel.
% sel.
YG 85
29
1
3.4
YG 86
31
4
12.9
YG 87
58
14
24.1
YG 88
104
22
21.1

YGs 81, 87, 90 slated

for CFD in FY 2000

Officers in year groups 81, 87 and 90 will receive their career-field designation, or CFD, next fiscal year. YGs 81 and 87 will go before their CFD board
Oct. 5-29, 1999; YG 90 will go before the board June 1-15, 2000. Officers
career-field preferences will be gathered electronically through PERSCOMs
new CFD internet site (at the PERSCOM web site under career field designation.) Officers should ensure that their current mailing address is on file
with the branch manager and annotated on their officer record brief. Officers should also ensure their branch has their e-mail address so that the
branch can contact them electronically. The CFD time line is shown below:
CFD mail-out
Suspense for CFD preference
YG 81 and YG 87 CFD
YG 81 and YG 87 CFD results
YG 90 CFD
YG 90 CFD results

SF recruiters commended
for outstanding work
Selection boards to meet
in summer of 1999

50

April or May 1999

5 September 1999
5-29 October 1999
December 1999
1-15 June 2000
August-October 2000

SF accessions from year groups 92, 93 and 94 are on track, according to the
SF Branch. The Branch acknowledges the outstanding job performance of
the SF recruiters in accessing officers for SF training.
The following boards are scheduled for the summer of 1999:
Board
Dates
Captain (Army)
1 Jun 99-2 Jul 99
Joint specialty officer
15-21 Jun 99
Colonel (Army)
3-23 Aug 99
CGSC (Army)
24 Aug-24 Sep 99
MILPER messages concerning the boards will be available at http://wwwperscom.army.mil/tagd/msg/1999.htm upon release.

Special Warfare

Enlisted Career Notes

Special Warfare

PSYOP soldiers can request

regimental affiliation

Soldiers in CMF 37F, Psychological Operations, may now request affiliation

with the PSYOP Regiment, which will have its home base at the JFK Special
Warfare Center and School. Soldiers must complete a DA 4187 in accordance
with AR 600-82, Chapter 7, paragraph 7-2, and forward it to Commander; Attn:
TAPC-EPK-S; Alexandria, VA 22332. For more information, telephone MSG
Julius C. Storch III at DSN 239-6406 or commercial (910) 432-6406.

MOSs 18D, 18E eligible

for BEAR

MOSs 18D and 18E are now in the Bonus Extension and Re-enlistment, or
BEAR, program. Soldiers in MOSs 18B and 18C may reclassify into 18D and
18E and receive a bonus. Contact your unit retention NCO for further details.

Raters reminded of NCO-ER

pointers

MILPER Message 98-044 contains significant changes to AR 623-205, including the deletion of paragraph 6-136 (3). The bullet comment within body-fat
standards of AR 600-9 is no longer authorized when yes is entered in the
height and weight data in IVc. Yes now indicates that the NCO is in compliance with AR 600-9s body-fat standards. Raters are also reminded that when
counseling dates are omitted from the NCO-ER, the senior rater will state in
part Ve why counseling was not accomplished.

32 SF MSGs chosen
for promotion to SGM

The 1998 sergeant-major selection board chose 32 CMF 18 master sergeants for
promotion a selection rate of 11.8 percent, vs. the Army average of 22.1 percent.
Twenty-five selectees were in the primary zone; seven were in the secondary zone.
Time-in-service and time-in-grade statistics are as follows:
CMF 18 (PZ)
Army (PZ)
CMF18 (SZ)
Army (SZ)

TIS

TIG

Education

Age

19.2
20.4
16.0
19.9

4.5
3.9
2.7
3.5

13.7
14.4
13.6
14.1

39.2
40.4
36.7
40.0

The following comments were extracted from the boards review and analysis:
Excellence ratings were frequently not supported by quantifiable data. Raters
routinely did not address Areas of Special Emphasis. Across the board, senior
raters discussed potential and failed to address performance and competence.
The majority of senior-rater ratings were 1 in performance and potential, but
they were often accompanied by comments such as promote with peers or
promote after additional assignments in demanding positions.
NCO-ERs that gave marginal ratings for misconduct did not always reflect the
soldiers potential for future service, making it difficult for the panel to evaluate
the soldier for possible action under the Qualitative Management Program.
Raters are not listing three positions in which the NCO can best serve
the Army. Instead, they are listing general positions that sometimes do
not show a line of progression to the next higher grade.

Spring 1999

51

Foreign SOF
Special Warfare

52

Ecuador employs military

in anti-crime role

Rising levels of crime and violence in Ecuador particularly in the capital city of Quito and in the major port of Guayaquil have prompted the
government to make wider use of army troops in anti-crime patrols.
Ecuadors President Mahaud declared a state of emergency in early 1999
and ordered the army to more intensively support law enforcement. By
February 1999, the Ecuadoran armed-forces chief reported that more than
8,000 soldiers were assisting the police in dealing with criminality. Ongoing troop-patrol efforts in rural areas and along the coast are intended to
free police for demanding urban law-enforcement duties. The army is also
engaged in border-protection duties aimed at halting the flow of drugs and
illegal immigrants, as well as maintaining what Ecuador considers a requisite presence opposite Peru. The armed forces have controlled customs
since 1996 a move undertaken to reduce corruption and inefficiency. The
military claims that customs receipts have increased by 40 percent during
the armed forces tenure in this role. However, customs is scheduled to
return to civilian control in 1999.

Exercise highlights
Chinese SOF

A Hong Kong publication reportedly with close ties to the Chinese military establishment has recently described the structure, roles and missions of special-operations units of the Peoples Liberation Army, or PLA.
Attention focused on an exercise in northern China in which a newly
organized special-operations unit from the Beijing Military Region surprised opposing forces in an assault conducted thick fog. The unit parachuted in, using steerable powered parachutes, and was followed by additional forces rappelling from a helicopter. The mission of blowing up the
targeted command post and other objectives was supposedly completed in
three minutes, after which the special-operations unit departed by helicopter. According to the publication, China began to organize its modern
version of special-operations units in the late 1980s, selecting personnel
from the best PLA units. Dropout rates for selected recruits are reportedly 50-90 percent, and the training is described as analogous to that
received by other special-operations forces around the world.

Russia reorganizes
antiterrorist groups

Despite the proliferation of and the continued reorganization of counterterrorist and other special-operations forces in Russia in recent years, the
topic of restructuring and coordinating these various military and security units preoccupies Russian planners. In February, Russian Federation
Prime Minister Yevgeniy Primakov endorsed the idea of creating a
nationwide system for antiterrorist action in light of the continuing violence in a number of regions and the threat of intensified Chechen terrorist acts. Among the organizations expected to take part in this system are
the Antiterrorist Center of the Federal Security Service, or FSB, and the
Antiterrorist Centers principal arms, the Department for Combating Terrorism, the Directorate for Special Operations (that was formerly called
Special Warfare

Vympel), and the Alfa counterterrorist unit. The Ministry of Internal

Affairs Militia Detachments of Special Designation, stationed in areas
around the country, constitute another major contribution. The FSBs
Directorate for Counterintelligence Operations is also present in all of
Russias major cities. While it is not clear how these organizations would
be reorganized, the intent is to make the antiterrorism system in Russia
flexible, controlled from a single center, well-equipped, and capable of
inflicting pre-emptive strikes. Drug trafficking is also a concern for special-purpose police units. A heroin shipment of 220 kg was seized in
Astrakhan in January 1999 one of the largest shipments ever for Russian law enforcement. On a different terrorism front, the FSB has also
established a new organization, the Information/Computer Security Directorate. Its aim is to protect Russian information systems from foreign special services and from other attacks and penetrations.

Colombian special-ops unit

fights urban crime

Colombias Urban Antiterrorist Special Forces Group, or AFEAU) with

approximately 70 officers and men is intended to fight violent crime and
to combat a range of terrorist activities. The unit is composed of specialists
drawn from the armed forces and police who are skilled in hostage rescue,
urban-assault operations, and sharpshooting. A special team from the
AFEAU recently deployed to Cali to combat the activities of the guerrillas, narcotraffickers, and common criminals at the request of Calis mayor.
The city has experienced rising murder rates and heightened activity by
armed groups and gangs throughout the area.

Chinese express strategic

Internet-security concerns

A recent article in a publication of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army,

or PLA, highlighted Internet security as a critically important strategic
issue. In defining the problem confronting the PLA, the article cited hacker efforts to attack or access U.S. military computers and noted what is
characterized as a high success rate (65 percent) and a low detection rate
(only one detection in 150 attempts). Attention also focused on U.S. countermeasures, including the formation of special groups intended to counter
information attacks and penetrations. After establishing a wide range of
measures that the PLA must undertake to increase the security of its
Internet and other information systems, the article summed up its message: We need to be highly responsible to our country, drawing up Internet attack and counterattack countermeasures, and ensuring the security
of our computer systems, to ensure that our armed forces win future information wars! In fact, in another recent PLA publication, an article
authored by a recognized Chinese information-warfare specialist called for
the Chinese establishment of information protection troops to guard the
national information boundary, just as navies guard maritime borders
and air forces protect air space. Such information troops, in the authors
view, should include military, police, scientists, and information specialists
who would be prepared not only to protect systems, but to counterattack
against countries, groups or individuals.

Articles in this section are written by Dr. Graham H. Turbiville Jr. of the U.S. Armys Foreign Military Studies
Office, Fort Leavenworth, Kan. All information is unclassified.
Spring 1999

53

Update
Special Warfare

SOSCOM welcomes
new commander
Colonel Yves J. Fontaine
assumed command of the U.S.
Army Special Operations Support
Command from Colonel Brian I.
Geehan Jan. 8.
Fontaine, a native of La Louviere, Belgium, moved to the
United States and became a U.S.
citizen in 1973. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the
Army Ordnance Corps in 1975.
During Operations Desert Shield
and Desert Storm, Fontaine served
as chief of plans for the 24th Infantry
Division and as liaison officer to the
6th French Light Infantry Division.
He was previously assigned to the
82nd Airborne Division as a logistics
officer.
Geehans new assignment is
chief of the Deployments Division,
Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

New manual to reflect

changing SF activities
The Special Warfare Center and
School is revising FM 31-20, Doctrine for Army Special Forces, to
reflect changing SF mission
requirements and to address the
full scope of SF activities.
To give greater emphasis to
unconventional warfare, foreigninternal defense, direct action, and
special reconnaissance, the subject
matter in the current FM 31-20
that pertains to those SF missions
has been expanded and published
as separate manuals: FM 31-20-2,
Unconventional Warfare; FM 3120-3, Foreign Internal Defense; FM
31-20-4 Direct Action; FM 31-20-5,
Special Reconnaissance. To reduce
54

redundancy, these missions will be

addressed briefly in a single chapter of the revised FM 31-20.
The revised manual will address
two new SF missions: information
operations, and counterproliferation of weapons of mass destruction. It will also address several
modifications to existing SF missions:
Counterterrorism
will
remain a mission, but only as a
subunit of the combatting-terrorism mission. The definition of
direct action has been modified to
include close-quarters battle.
The revised FM 31-20 will also
list countermine activities as a new
SF collateral activity. Countermine
activities are measures taken to
reduce or eliminate the threat to
noncombatants and friendly military forces posed by mines, booby
traps and other explosive devices.
These activities include providing
instruction in demining and mineawareness to host-nation personnel. TC 31-34, Humanitarian
Demining Handbook, contains the
details of how SF conduct humanitarian demining operations.
Another SF collateral activity,
personnel recovery, or PR, has been
modified to include the former collateral activity of search and rescue.
PR describes the entire spectrum of
activities to locate, recover and
restore to friendly control selected
persons or material isolated and
threatened in sensitive, denied or
contested areas. The full scope of
SFs role in PR is addressed in
SWCS Pub 525-5-14, Unconventional Assisted Recovery.
Some liaison and command-andcontrol activities not previously
unaddressed in doctrine, or

addressed only in handbooks, have

been included as appendices to FM
31-20: the special-operations coordination element, the special-operations command-and-control element, and the SF liaison element.
The draft of the revised FM 31-20
is available on the Army Special
Operations Command homepage
(http://asociweb.soc.mil/
swcs/dotd) and on the Army Training and Doctrine Command homepage (www-tradoc.army.mil). To
access the draft on the TRADOC
homepage, users must first obtain a
user identification and a password
from the SWCS SF Doctrine Division. For passwords or for additional information, contact Major Gregory McMillan, DSN 239-5333 or
commercial (910) 432-5333; fax
-5341; e-mail [email protected].

Pub outlines current

PSYOP characteristics
A new publication from the JFK
Special Warfare Center and School
outlines current characteristics,
organization and command and
control of U.S. psychological-operations forces.
USAJFKSWCS Pub 525-5-15,
Psychological Operations: Capabilities and Employment, incorporates
the recommendations of a processaction team chartered at SWCS in
1998 to examine Army psychological-operations issues. The PAT recommended a PSYOP force that
leverages technology and achieves
flexibility through centralized planning and decentralized execution.
The PSYOP organizational
structure depicted in the new pub
reflects the current task-organizaSpecial Warfare

tion of the 4th PSYOP Group.

Regional battalions are taskorganized into PSYOP development centers, and tactical battalions are task-organized into smaller elements that allow more flexible and responsive support to commanders at all levels. The publication also addresses PSYOP equipment, as well as changes in
approval authority that result from
the organizational changes.
SWCS Pub 525-5-15 will be
superseded later this year by the
revised FM 33-1, Psychological
Operations.
SWCS Pub 525-5-15 is available
from the SWCS PSYOP Training and
Doctrine Division on the ASOC internal web (http://asociweb/swcs/dotd/
PSYpage.htm). The site lists missions, projects, and points of contact
for the PSYOP Division, and it contains examples of recent PSYOP
products and recommended PSYOP
readings.

SWCS 3rd Battalion

has web site
A new web site on the ASOC
internal web offers a variety of
information for students in Civil
Affairs and Psychological Operations training.
The site, which belongs to the 3rd
Battalion of the JFK Special Warfare
Center and Schools 1st Special Warfare Training Group, caters to students in courses taught by the 3rd
Battalion: CA and PSYOP courses,
special-operations language training, Functional Area 39 training, and
Special Forces warrant-officer basic
and advanced courses.
Students can visit the web site to
obtain welcome letters, school area
maps, class schedules, policy letters, course descriptions and doctrinal reference materials.
Researchers can read and download Army, joint, and Department
of Defense publications. The site
contains various CA and PSYOP
publications, including a complete
Spring 1999

set of CA special texts not available

elsewhere. The site also features
an extensive listing of links to military and strategy-related sites.
The web site address is http:
//asociweb/swcs/tng/3/.

Manuals geared toward

ARSOF CS, CSS
The Special Warfare Center and
School is developing or revising
five field manuals oriented toward
combat support and combat service
support for ARSOF operations.
Produced by the Directorate of
Training and Doctrine, the manuals
will supplement the ARSOF capstone manual, FM 100-25, Doctrine
for Army Special Operations Forces.
FM 1-108, ARSOF Aviation, is a
revision of FM 1-108, Army Special
Operations Aviation Forces, dated
1993. The manual describes command and control, employment,
combat support, and combat service support for ARSOF aviation
operations. The manual is in finaldraft editing and will be forwarded
to TRADOC for approval. The project officer is Mr. Funk at DSN 2394427; e-mail: [email protected].
FM 8-43, Combat Health Support for ARSOF, is a new publication that establishes doctrine for
the provision of combat health support to ARSOF. Designed for use by
command surgeons and their staffs
and by personnel planning CHS
operations in support of ARSOF
missions, the manual discusses
ARSOF organic capabilities and the
conventional support required from
theater or CHS elements of the
Army service-component command.
The project officer is CW2 Malone,
at DSN 239-5393/8689; e-mail: [email protected].
FM 24-31, C4 for ARSOF, is a
new publication that will cover
command, control, communications
and computers for all ARSOF
units. The manual describes the
architecture of command-and-control, or C2, in operational com-

mands and the information flow

from ARSOF operational units to
SOC, theater and national C2 systems. The project officer is Captain
Glynn, at DSN 239-5393/8689; email: [email protected].
FM 34-31, Intelligence Support
for ARSOF, is a revision of FM 3436, SOF Intelligence and Electronic
Warfare Operations, dated 1991.
The manual describes the organization and the capabilities of intelligence elements within ARSOF
units. The manual also describes
the intelligence structures of theater SOCs, joint intelligence centers, and higher-level agencies, and
their connectivity with ARSOF
operational units. The initial draft
will be available for review in April
1999. The project officer is Captain
Glynn, at DSN 239-5393/8689;
e-mail: [email protected].
FM 63-31, Combat Service Support for ARSOF, is a revision of FM
63-24, Special Operations Support
Battalion, dated 1995. It will provide a base document for determining future CSS doctrine and procedures. The revised manual
addresses ARSOF CSS structure,
capabilities, and support requirements and provides users with a
single publication that will assist
in operational planning and in educating personnel. The project officer is Captain Glynn, at DSN 2395393/8689; e-mail: [email protected].
A unique aspect of all these manuals is that their development and
proponency are being shared with
their respective TRADOC service
institutions. Drafts of the manuals
will be posted on the DOTD web site
(http://asociweb.soc.mil/swcs/dotd)
and on the Automated Systems
Approach to Training.

55

Book Reviews
Special Warfare

Psychological Operations: Principles and Case Studies. Edited

by Colonel Frank L. Goldstein,
USAF, and Colonel Benjamin F.
Findley Jr., USAR. Maxwell Air
Force Base, Ala.: Air University
Press, 1996. 364 pages. $21.
The inherent strength of Psychological Operations: Principles and
Case Studies lies in the expertise
and experience of its editors and contributors, most of whom participated
in the Cold Wars war of ideas during their service in academic, government and military positions.
As with any edited volume, some of
the essays contained in this book are
better than the others. Specifically,
the case studies are not as strong as
the articles dealing with principles.
The four-part volume begins with a
block of essays that provide a foundation for the understanding of psychological warfare. This section includes
not only a strong introduction to the
nature and the elements of PSYOP
(by Goldstein and Colonel Daniel
Jacobowitz) but perhaps the bestwritten essay of the volume: A study
of U.S. military psychological operations, by Colonel Alfred H. Paddock Jr.
Part II of the work focuses on
PSYOP planning at the national
level and includes an exceptional
essay by Dr. Carnes Lord, who
writes about the historical influences that have shaped U.S. psychological-operations strategy. Part III
includes several assessments of
Soviet PSYOP activities during the
latter stages of the Cold War, as well
as short pieces on the role of the
U.S. Information Agency, PSYOP
during the Hukbalahap insurgency
in the Philippines, and intelligence
56

activities related to PSYOP. Part IV

contains traditional case studies,
including an analysis of U.S. and
Viet Cong psychological warfare in
Southeast Asia, one of the few
unclassified assessments of PSYOP
in Operation Just Cause, and case
studies on both Iraqi and U.S. psychological-warfare activities during
Desert Shield/Storm. The highlight
of the final two sections is General
Stilwells classic study of PSYOP
and counterinsurgency, a solid
examination of the psychological
dimension of conflict within the
American way of war.
Despite the strengths of the volume, it contains a few deficiencies.
The volume has suffered at the
hands of time: It was conceived
almost a decade ago, and several of
its essays are notably dated. Major
James Keifers essay does not
assess PSYOP support to counterdrug operations in recent years,
while Lloyd Frees piece on public

opinion written almost 30 years

ago cannot take into account the
effect that satellite news has had on
public opinion and on the making of
foreign policy. Additionally, the reader is forced to examine case studies
developed largely within the framework of the Cold War. Though the
volume is fortunately not filled with
gratuitous homages to IW and the
information revolution, there are
almost no references to the profound
technological advances and political
revolutions that have already affected the nature of PSYOP as a tool of
diplomacy and as a weapon of war.
An additional shortcoming lies
in what the volume omits. One of
the strengths of earlier PSYOP
casebooks was the use of several
dozen case studies to illustrate
particular points addressed in the
casebook. In this volume, however,
the inclusion of some of the case
studies can be questioned, because
they do not sufficiently address
either the critical organizational
and conceptual issues, or the problematic areas such as target-audience analysis and success criteria
for PSYOP. Furthermore, the reader will notice the absence of case
studies on U.S. PSYOP support to
humanitarian and peacekeeping
operations (Northern Iraq, Somalia, Haiti) and assessments of
peacetime PSYOP programs, such
as mine-awareness campaigns.
While the volume accomplishes
the editors goal of bringing together a number of articles that might
otherwise have gone unread, it may
not prove as useful a tool to practitioners and policy-makers as it will
to historians. If the volume as a
whole could have explored the sigSpecial Warfare

nificant and unsettled issues facing

PSYOP today and expanded its conceptualizations beyond those of the
Cold War, it might have proven
more instructive regarding future
directions in PSYOP.
Mark R. Jacobson
Office of the Secretary of Defense
Washington, D.C.
Crippled Eagle: A Historical
Perspective of U. S. Special
Operations 1976-1996. By Rod
Lenahan. Charleston, S.C.: Narwhal Press, 1998. ISBN 1-88639123-8 (paper). 272 pages. $19.95.
In the Japanese classic movie,
Rashomon, a number of observers
tell the story of the same event, but
with markedly different views. If
one were to gather and condense
the accounts of the 1980 American
effort to rescue the hostages in
Iran, one could readily create a
modern military Rashomon.
Chronologically first was the
report of the Halloway Board,
which analyzed the operation and
gave its opinions of why the effort
failed. The conclusions were not
heartily accepted by all of those
who had participated in the rescue
effort. Next was Colonel Charlie
Beckwiths book, Delta Force (Harcourt, Bruce and Jovanovich,
1983), which told the story from
the ground commanders not necessarily unbiased viewpoint.
Colonel Jim Kyle, the senior air
planner, wrote The Guts to Try
(Crown, 1990), which gave outstanding descriptions of the aircraft and
weather aspects. Now, Colonel Rod
Lenahan, the J2 of the joint task force
that was created to plan and conduct
the operation, has added Crippled
Eagle, which brings a joint-staff view
of this intriguing subject.
Crippled Eagle is an outstanding
addition to the list of accounts. In its
buildup to the rescue effort, the book
provides an understanding of how
gaunt the special-operations forces of
Spring 1999

the United States had become since

the end of the Vietnam War, and it
describes the nations first stumbling
steps in the attempt to create a counterterrorism capability.
Those familiar with the modern
standing joint task forces and with
the theater SOCs as joint task forces
in-waiting will probably find the
assembling of Joint Task Force 1-79
quaint. While many assigned to the
task force were having their first
taste of the heady elixir of special
operations, the task forces nucleus
was a couple dozen experienced special operators who were pulled in
from all over the world. These were
members of the small, all-services fraternity who by their dedication and
determination had kept the coals of
special operations glowing despite
numerous efforts to stamp them out.
In conjunction with the air- and
ground-force commanders, the JTF
planned an operation of great daring
in order to overcome the problems of
enormous distances, limited targetarea intelligence, aircraft that were
inadequate in numbers and in capability, and aircrews that were inexperienced in long-range operations. For
its daring, dedication and willingness
to attempt the near-impossible, the

JTF deserved success, but even a surfeit of those sterling values could not
overcome equipment inadequacy. An
aircraft accident that occurred after
the decision to withdraw the force
short of the target added tragedy to
the already acute disappointment
and frustration.
As the J2 of the joint task force,
then-Lieutenant Colonel Rod Lenahan had probably the best position of
all the participants for observing the
development and the execution of the
operation. The nature of his job
ensured that he knew all the problems, all the plans, and what was
known and unknown. He has augmented his on-the-spot knowledge
with materials that have been declassified in recent years. He tells his
story well: His style is comfortable,
informative and, where necessary,
sufficiently explanatory for most nonmilitary readers. The reader, however,
is cautioned to keep track of the
abbreviations, or he may lose his way.
Unfortunately, this excellent presentation is undermined by publication faults. The book suffers from
lack of a good index, from a minimal glossary, and from numerous
misspelled words and names. But
while they are annoying, these
faults are considered petty in an
otherwise highly competent presentation that deserves the attention of professional special operators. The modern operator who has
much greater resources at his disposal should be spared JTF 1-79s
pains, but he might find it interesting to read how a rescue effort was
attempted in the bad old days of
shortage, make-do and dedication.
COL J.H. Crerar
U.S. Army (ret)
Vienna, Va.

57

Special Warfare

This publication is approved for public release; distribution is unlimited Headquarters, Department of the Army

Department of the Army

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