INTRODUCTION TO

ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
ALANDRA KAHL

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2016.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
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First published by Momentum Press, LLC
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ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-707-0 (print)
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Momentum Press Environmental Engineering Collection
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Collection ISSN: 2375-3633 (electronic)
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Printed in the United States of America

Abstract
Key topics in environmental engineering are discussed in sufficient
detail as to provide a concise and useful overview for the graduate or
professional student. Subjects approached herein include water and

wastewater

treatment systems, hazardous materials, and alternative

energy. The intent of this volume is to provide a repository of general
information for c onsultation and reference of the user.

KEYWORDS
contaminant, energy, regulation, remediation, sustainability, wastewater,
water

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Foreword
Acknowledgments
1Historic and Legal Basis of and for Environmental
Regulation

ix
xi
xiii
xv
1

1.1Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899

1.2 Water Pollution Regulatory History

1.3 Wastewater Disposal Regulatory History

1.4 Solid Waste Disposal Regulatory History

1.5 Air Pollution Control Management Regulatory History

1.6 Wildlife and Habitat Protection Regulatory History

1.7 Ionization Radiation Regulatory History

2Ecology of Natural Resources

2.1Introduction

2.2 Environmental Value or Ecosystem Value

2.3 Anthropogenic Impacts on Ecosystems

15

2.4 Land Management

17

3Ecosystem Concepts

19

3.1Introduction

19

3.2 Water and Nutrient Cycles

19

3.3 Population Dynamics

21

4Pollution Control Management

29

4.1 Water Treatment

29

4.2 Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

30

viii Contents

4.3 Solid Waste Management

34

4.4 Air Pollution Control

36

4.5 Hazardous Material Management

40

4.6 Ionization Radiation

42

4.7 Noise Pollution

45

4.8 Mining Wastes

46

5Environmental Systems Overview

49

5.1Introduction

49

5.2 Environmental Management Systems in Common Use

49

6Fundamental Concepts

53

6.1Hydrology

53

6.2 Soil Resources

57

6.3 Water Resources Identification and Classification

60

6.4Energy Resources

61

6.5 Sustainability Concepts

73

7Resource Management

77

7.1Water Quality Management

77

7.2 Water Availability

87

8Concepts of Long-Term Environmental Sustainability

89

8.1Introduction

89

8.2 Resource Management

90

8.3 Practical Applications

94

8.4 Long-Term Concerns

100

Glossary

105

Soil Taxonomies

107

Bibliography

111

Index

121

List of Figures
Figure 4.1. Slow sand filter.
Figure 4.2. Modern landfill construction.
Figure 6.1. (a) Anticline trap and (b) fault trap.
Figure 6.2. Salt domes.
Figure 6.3. (a) Unconformity and (b) lens trap.
Figure 6.4. Wind turbine diagram.
Figure 6.5. Typical hydroelectric dam.
Figure 6.6. Biomass combined heat and power plant.
Figure 7.1. BOD change over time.
Figure 8.1. World map of water scarcity.
Figure 8.2. Sustainable forest life cycle.

30
37
63
64
64
71
72
73
84
92
94

List of Tables
Table 6.1. Typical composition of natural gas

66

Foreword
This volume is intended to serve as a general introduction to environmental
engineering for a senior-level student or graduate student. The reader is
expected to have a background in basic engineering concepts and design;
only topics specific to the discipline will be discussed herein. It is not
intended to be a comprehensive authority on each subject, but rather
to serve as a reference and concept review for the upper-level reader.
Environmental engineering is defined as the branch of engineering
concerned with the protection of the environment and the human population
from adverse effect resulting from the environment. Topics encompassed
in environmental engineering include treatment of water and wastewater,
mitigation of environmental hazards, and sustainable practice.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Franics
JerryHopcroft for editing, Dr. Bob Arnold and Dr. Matt Fisher for
mentoring, and her family for support.

CHAPTER 1

Historic and Legal Basis

of and for Environmental
Regulation
1.1 RIVERS AND HARBORS ACT OF 1899
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 is the oldest environmental law in
the United States. It was signed into law by President William M
cKinley
on March 3, 1899. This act makes it illegal to discharge refuse into any
water body of the United States without a permit, and is also known as
the Refuse Act. It also made it illegal to create a dam in a navigable
stream without a permit or perform any act of excavation or course
alternation without appropriate documentation. Any such construction
is overseen by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers and cannot proceed
without approval of the Chief Engineer. The law has been recently used
in a case in Washington State, in which the U.S. government won a decision against a set of coastal homeowners who had constructed bulkheads
along the beach to protect their property, citing the Rivers and Harbors
Act for obstruction of navigable waters (South Carolina Legislative
Services Agency 2015).

1.2 WATER POLLUTION REGULATORY HISTORY

Water pollution regulatory history can be said to begin with the Clean
Water Act of 1972. This act evolved from the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, and created the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES). This requires all point source dischargers
to obtain a permit to act. In tandem with the NPDES, this legislation mandated creation of technology-based water quality regulations to govern
issued permits, and extended water quality regulations to i nterstate waters.

2 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 governs all potable waters
served to the public and provides regulation regarding those utilities.
These regulations covered both chemical and microbial contaminants and
were the first binding federal standards. The SDWA has been amended
or reauthorized several times since its inception, most recently in 1996.
Amendments are in response to new technology and ability to produce
cleaner water, but can also be in response to incidences of contamination, as in 1996. In 1993, the drinking water of the city of Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, was contaminated with Cryptosporidium, sickening thousands
(Lawrence and Altman 1993). Cryptosporidium was not regulated at the
time, and was added to the SDWA after the incident.

1.3WASTEWATER DISPOSAL REGULATORY

HISTORY
Wastewater regulation was at first derived from clean water legislation,
before evolving into its own unique set of laws. One of the first enacted was
the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for c omprehensive
planning, research, and enforcement. The act was amended in 1952 and
became permanent legislation in 1965. It was from this original legislation
that the Clean Water Act derived. Wastewater regulatory history has largely
evolved from not only the Clean Water Act, but also the Water Quality Act
of 1987, which gave teeth to the disposal of toxic substances in sewage
sludge. Where early regulations focused on aesthetic and human health
concerns, such as removal of pathogenic organisms and elimination of
floatable material, more modern regulations focus on environmental and
long-term health concerns. In the early 1990s, additional regulations were
put in place to regulate disposal of biosolids, as well as regulation of metals and vector contamination. Protection of ambient water quality did not
take place until 2002, with the passage of the total maximal daily load
rule, which requires states to develop priority lists of polluted or threatened water bodies and determine the maximum daily amount of pollutant a
water body can receive and still meet water quality standards.

1.4SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL REGULATORY

HISTORY
Solid waste disposal regulation lagged behind that of water and w
astewater
rather significantly. It was not until 1965, when the Solid Waste Disposal

HISTORIC AND LEGAL BASIS3

Act was passed, that solid waste was officially regulated. The SWDA was
the first framework for solid waste management; until that time, no state
had legislation specifically written for the transport, disposal, and control
of solid waste. While the SWDA laid the groundwork for solid waste management, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA)
greatly expanded the legislative oversight for solid waste, and remains the
most powerful legislation in the area, comparable to the Clean Water Act
for solid waste. The control of solid waste is additionally administered by
the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, which regulates the use and
disposal of chemicals, particularly polychlorinated biphenyls. Clean up
of contaminated solid waste sites, particularly those containing h azardous
waste, is governed by CERCLA, or the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. This Act is also known
as Superfund. Hazardous waste management was added to RCRA in 1984,
under the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendment. This addition enacted
tough new requirements for hazardous waste disposal and added additional
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversight for those wastes.

1.5AIR POLLUTION CONTROL MANAGEMENT

REGULATORY HISTORY
Control of pollutants in the air was first managed on a city and state
basis; however, due to worsening air quality, laws were enacted at the
federal level. Of the early state laws, a 1947 Los Angeles, California,
law is n otable as it coined the term smog (Air Resources Board 2015).
The first federal regulation to govern air quality was the Air Pollution
Control Act of 1955, which placed the primary responsibility on the states
to protect human health. The Act was amended in 1960 to account for
vehicle emissions and lead to the Clean Air Act of 1963. The Clean Air Act
provided federal monitoring of air emissions as well as developing initial
air quality criteria. The Act was amended in 1970 to establish National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for protection of human health indoors and
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for industry
discharges. The Act was further amended in 1977 to establish air quality
regions for evaluation. There are three classes of regions. Region I encompasses pristine environments, including national parks; Region II applies
to developing industrial areas; and Region III covers existing industry.
The Act was once again amended in 1990 to include six priority pollutant
emissions; that of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total
particulate matter, hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants.

4 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.6WILDLIFE AND HABITAT PROTECTION

REGULATORY HISTORY
Regulation regarding wildlife and habitat protection includes some of the
earliest federal laws with environmental aspects. The Lacey Act of 1900
made the interstate transportation of wildlife taken illegally under state
law a federal offence. Other regulations followed, including the Game
and Birds Preserve Act of 1905, which established numerous refuges and
preserves, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which regulated the
taking of migratory birds except under federal regulations. Further refuges
were established in 1928 under the Migratory Bird Conservation Act. The
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, established in 1934 and amended in
1946 and 1958, allowed coordination with the Fish and Wildlife Service
for conservation and management of wildlife on federal lands. Another
early act, the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act, also
known as the Duck Stamp Act, is the first act to provide funding for wildlife conservation efforts. Through this act, hunters purchase a stamp to
affix to a hunting license for taking of waterfowl and monies from these
purchases are used to acquire wildlife habitat. The Fish and Wildlife Act
of 1956 was the first comprehensive legislation to cover fish and wildlife
revitalization. Ten years later in 1966, the National Wildlife Refuge

System brought together earlier provisions to better govern refuges and

preserves. In 1969, the Endangered Species Conservation Act was passed.
This was strengthening of the earlier Act of 1966, and the first law to protect and preserve those animals on the endangered species list. It was later
replaced by the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

1.7IONIZATION RADIATION REGULATORY

HISTORY
Ionizing radiation refers to energetic radiation that has sufficient energy
to break molecular bonds or remove electrons from atoms. Ionizing
radiation regulations aim to protect public health by regulating the use and
possession of radioactive materials and radiation-producing machines.
Regulations regarding ionization radiation were first promulgated in 1934,
when the U.S. Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium protection
proposed a limit of 0.1 roentgens per day per individual. The Atomic
Energy Act of 1946 created the first nuclear regulations for the protection
of public health. This was later amended in 1954 to allow commercial
power generation from nuclear means.

HISTORIC AND LEGAL BASIS5

Authority for regulation of radiation-producing machines was also

granted to the Food and Drug Administration in 1968 with the Radiation
Control for Health and Safety Act. Workers are protected by regulations
from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, with the
Ionization Radiation Protection Standards of 1971 that govern exposure
and handling of radioactive materials and machines, such as X-rays,
setting a limit of 5 rems per year. A rem was derived from the phrase
Roentgen Equivalent Man, and is now defined as the dosage in rads that
will cause the same amount of biological injury as one rad of X-rays or
gamma rays. A rad comes from Radiation Absorbed Dose, or the amount
of energy absorbed from ionizing radiation.
These regulations were quickly followed by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, which established the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) that focuses on nuclear regulation and safety. In 1976, the
EPA established the Interim Drinking Water Standards for Radionuclides,
which were the first regulations regarding radioactive substances in water.
This was followed by Air Emission Standards in 1985. The NRC governs
radioactive waste streams and land disposal of radioactive substances,
via the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985,
which directs the commission to determine which wastes pose a sufficient
health risk to require a specially constructed landfill and which can be
disposed of in ordinary fashion. It also oversees these repositories. The
most recent EPA rule regarding environmental exposure was promulgated
in 1993 with Federal Guidance Report No. 12; External Exposure to
Radionuclides in Air, Water and Soil.

Index
A
Air Pollution Control Act of 1955,
3
air pollution, 3640
control management, 3
ecological impacts and
mitigation, 3940
pollutant reaction with
chemicals, 3839
sources of, 3638
anthropogenic impacts
on ecosystem value, 1517
anticline structural traps, 63
Atomic Energy Act of 1946, 4

Clean Water Act of 1972, 1

coal, 6566
COD test, 83
combustion and energy recovery,
3536
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act of 1980, 3
contaminant, i, 55
cool roofs, 70
Cryptosporidium, 2

B
biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) test, 8283
biomass, 72
biomass energy, 62
bio-oil, 33
biowaste energy, 96. See also
biomass
Birds Preserve Act of 1905, 4
BOD test. See biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) test
bordering vegetative wetland
values, 810
bottomland hardwoods, 910

E
economic water scarcity, 91
ecology
anthropogenic impacts on, 1517
ecosystem value, 715
land management, 1718
noise pollution, 46
ecosystem concepts, 1928
nutrient cycle, 1921
carbon, 20
nitrogen, 2021
phosphorus, 21
population dynamics, 2128
insect and animal
populations, 2428
microbial populations, 2324
water cycle, 1921
ecosystem values, 715

C
carbon, 20
Clean Air Act of 1963, 3

D
Duck Stamp Act, 4

122 Index

bordering vegetative wetland

values, 810
upland resource values, 78
wetland values, 810
electronic waste (E-waste),
102103
EMS. See environmental
management system
Endangered Species Act of 1973, 4
Endangered Species Conservation
Act of 1969, 4
energy, i
biomass, 62, 96
chemical, 33
chemical heat, 32
conservation, 3334
geothermal, 96
heat, 32
nuclear, 62
recovering, 35
resources, 6173
solar, 6970, 95
wind, 9596
energy conservation, 3334
Energy Reorganization Act of
1974, 5
energy resources, 6173
environmental management
system (EMS), 4951
continual improvement of, 51
monitoring in, 50
reviewing progress, 51
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), 3, 50
environmental values, 715
EPA. See Environmental
Protection Agency
European Photovoltaic Industry
Association, 69
F
Federal Water Pollution Control
Act of 1948, 1
fault traps, 63
forestry management, 9394
fossil fuels, 6162

G
geothermal energy, 96
global warming, 68
green roofs, 70
groundwater, 5556, 7981
H
Hazardous and Solid Waste
Amendment, 3
hazardous material management,
4042
minimization, 4041
sustainable waste disposal, 42
waste exchanges, 41
heat energy recovery from, 3233
humans
noise pollution effects on, 45
radiation effects on, 43
health risks, mitigation of,
98100
hydroelectric dams, 7172
hydroelectric power, 71, 95
hydrology, 5376
energy resources, 6173
groundwater, 5556
overview, 5354
social resources, 5760
surface water, 5455
sustainability, 7376
water resources identification
and classification, 6061
I
lens trap, 64
long-term environmental
sustainability
applications, 94100
overview, 8990
resource management, 9094
water scarcity, 9092
inland wetlands, 1011
insect and animal populations,
2428
Ionization Radiation Protection
Standards of 1971, 5
ionization radiation, 45, 4245

Index 123

effects on humans, 43
radiation control, 4445
K
Keeling, Charles, 16
L
lagoons, 47
land management, 1718
landfill disposal, 36
Low-Level Radioactive Waste
Policy Amendments Act of
1985, 5
M
management
environmental, 4951
forestry, 9394
hazardous material, 4042
land, 1718
resource, 7787, 9094
solid waste management, 3436
tailings disposal and, 48
water quality, 7787
membrane filter test, 85
methane hydrates, 68
microbial populations, 2324
Migratory Bird Conservation Act
of 1928, 4
Migratory Bird Hunting and
Conservation Stamp Act, 4
Migratory Bird Treaty Act of
1918, 4
minimization, 4041
mining wastes, 4648
lagoons and ponds, 47
tailings disposal and, 48
mitigation
of human health risks, 98100
most probable number (MPN) test,
85
N
National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES),
1

National Wildlife Refuge System,

4
natural gas, 6669, 9293
methane hydrates, 68
shale gas, 67
tight gas, 6768
natural organic matter (NOM),
5859
classification of, 5960
new waste streams, 103104
nitrogen, 2021
noise pollution, 4546
control of, 46
effects on humans, 45
ecologic impacts, 46
NOM. See natural organic matter
(NOM)
nonTidal wetlands, 11
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC), 5
nutrient cycle, 1921
carbon, 20
nitrogen, 2021
phosphorus, 21
nutrient-rich hardwood forests, 9
O
oil, 62, 9293
oil traps, 6364
ozone, 3940
P
petroleum, 65
phosphorus, 21
photovoltaic effect, 69
physical water scarcity, 91
pollution control management,
2948
air pollution, 3640
ecological impacts and
mitigation, 3940
pollutant reaction with
chemicals, 3839
sources, 3638
hazardous material management,
4042

124 Index

minimization, 4041
reuse-repurpose-recycle,
4142
sustainable waste disposal, 42
waste exchanges, 41
ionization radiation, 4245
ecologic impacts, 44
effects on humans, 43
radiation control, 4445
mining wastes, 4648
lagoons and ponds, 47
tailings disposal and, 48
noise pollution, 4546
control of, 46
ecologic impacts, 46
effects on humans, 45
solid waste management, 3436
combustion and energy
recovery, 3536
landfill disposal, 36
recycling-repurposingreusing, 3435
wastewater treatment
energy conservation at, 3334
heat energy recovery from,
3233
wastewater treatment, 3034
reclamation, 3132
water treatment, 2930
ponds, 47
population dynamics, 2128
insect and animal populations,
2428
microbial populations, 2324
pyrolysis, 33
R
radiation control, 4445
radiation effects on humans, 43
radioactive waste, 100102
radiant barriers, 70
recycling-repurposing-reusing,
3435, 4142
reflection as sustainable
development strategy, 75

research as sustainable
development strategy, 7475
resource management, 7787,
9094
water availability, 87
water quality, 7787
groundwater, 7981
reclamation and reuse, 8687
surface quality, 7779
wastewater, 8186
restoration of mined lands, 9698
regulation, i
air pollution control
management, 3
ionization radiation, 45
solid waste disposal, 23
wastewater disposal, 2
water pollution, 12
wildlife and habitat protection
and regulation, 4
remediation, i
resources
energy, 6173
ground water, 61
soil, 5760
water, 6061
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA),
3
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, 1
S
The Safe Drinking Water Act
(SDWA) of 1974, 2
salt domes, 63
seismic waves, 6465
shale gas, 67
shrub wetlands, 12
soil resources, 5760
solar energy, 6970, 95
solid waste disposal regulation,
23
solid waste management, 3436
combustion and energy recovery,
3536

Index 125

landfill disposal, 36
recycling-repurposing-reusing,
3435
stabilization of, 100
sources of air pollution, 3638
stakeholders, sustainable
development strategy and, 74
stratigraphic traps, 6364
surface quality, 7779
surface water, 5455
sustainability, i, 7376
energy generation, 9496
pillars of, 74
problem objective, 74
reflection and, 75
research and, 7475
stakeholders and, 74
synthesis and, 75
waste disposal, 42
sustainable development strategy,
7476
synthesis as sustainable
development strategy, 75
T
tight gas, 6768
Toxic Substances Control Act of
1976, 3
triple bottom line, 74
U
United States Geological Survey
(USGS), 54
upland resource values, 78
V
vernal pool, 1314
W
waste exchanges, 41

waste mining, 4648

wastewater regulation, 2
wastewater treatment, i, 186,
3034
BOD test, 8283
COD test, 83
dissolved oxygen test, 82
energy conservation at, 3334
heat energy recovery from,
3233
membrane filter test, 85
MPN test, 85
reclamation, 3132
Winkler test, 82
water, i
water cycle, 1921
Water Pollution Control Act of
1948, 2
water pollution regulatory history,
12
water quality management, 14,
7787
water resources, identification and
classification, 6061
water scarcity, 9092
economic, 91
physical, 91
Water Quality Act of 1987, 2
water treatment, 2930
wetland
inland, 1011
nonTidal wetlands, 11
shrub, 12
types of, 11
water quality, 14
wetland values, 1015
wildlife and habitat protection and
regulation, 4
wind energy, 9596
Winkler test, 82