PROJECT REPORT

Examination of blood

Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Dr. Ajay Ranga
Kumar Julka
41/11

Semester IX

Forensic Science
INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGMENT...........................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................
PRINCIPLE......................................................................................
DYING DECLARATION IN ENGLAND AND INDIA....................................................
SECTTION 32(1).............................................................................................................
DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE...............................................................
MANNER

OF RECORDING DYING DECLARATION.....................................................

PROCEEDDURE AND FEATURES OF DYING DECLARATION...........................................

CONDTITIONS OF ADMISIBILTY....................................................................................
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY..

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank our honorable teacher Mr. Ajay Ranga for without his valuable
guidance, constant encouragement and detailed approach would not have made it possible for
me to make a proper research for the topic Examination of blood. His prcised examples,
detailed descriptions and enthusiastic approach made my efforts to flourish in a right
direction.
The work contained herein is an amalgamation of the remarkable work of various authors and
I am thankful to them for their publications that have helped me prepare this research paper to
the best of my abilities.

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antiserum (anti-human) is placed in a small tube and a portion of the (human) bloodstain
extract is carefully layered over the denser antiserum, dissolved antigens and antibodies from
the respective layers will begin to diffuse into the other layer. The result will be a fine line of
precipitate at the interface of the two solutions. In cases where the bloodstain extract is not
human, no reaction will occur.
ii. Antiglobulin consumption test (Hemagglutination inhibition test): When human globulin is
mixed with antihuman globulin serum, the latter is absorbed and is no longer capable of
agglutinating Rh positive red cells sensitized with incomplete anti-D. This detects globulins.
iii. Gel diffusion: Wells are punched in an agar plate and antiserum and antigen are placed in
adjacent wells. Diffusion occurs and precipitin bands develop between wells containing
corresponding antigen and antiserum.
iv. Latex test: A saline extract of bloodstain is mixed with dilute suspension of latex particles
sensitized with antiserum. A positive reaction is shown by agglutination of the particles into
clumps.
Other Methods
Nonserum Protein Analysis: Antihuman hemoglobin serum: Such an antiserum would
potentially be very effective in any of the systems described above.
Isoenzyme Methods: These are based on the electrophoretic demonstration of the existence of
enzymes in blood of the same species in multiple molecular forms known as isoenzymes.
These methods (commonly used methods are LDH and Px) are relatively less sensitive than
immunological methods.
Once human origin of bloodstain is confirmed their grouping is attempted.
Genetic Markers in Blood
Antigen-based Markers: Blood Groups
ABO system: The first and best known blood grouping is the ABO system discovered by Karl
Landsteiner in 1900. The types A, B, O, and AB refer to the antigens on the surface of the red
blood cells. The corresponding antibodies (agglutinins), anti-A (-A) and anti-B (-B) are
present in plasma.
A person of blood group A will have -B in his plasma and if that plasma is mixed with group
B cells, the two are said to be homologous, and agglutination is the result. The characteristics
of the person with group O blood present a different picture. There are no antibodies in
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humans for red cell H antigens. However, certain seed extracts called lectins are capable of
achieving agglutination with blood cells and a lectin preparation from the seeds of Ulex
europaeus (gorse, a spiny evergreen shrub) exhibits anti-H activity.
Forensic testing for the ABO system in dried bloodstains centres on identifying the antigens
and antibodies present. Different methods have been devised, but the most commonly used
technique is absorption elution.
This technique involves the exposure of a portion of the stain bearing the blood (and antigen)
to absorb the homologous antibody. Unreacted antibody is then washed away and the
absorbed antibody is eluted and mixed with a known cell suspension to be identified.
Example, a group A stain exposed to -A, -B, and -H lectin in separate containers, will
absorb the -A and not the -B or -H. After allowing sufficient time for absorption, the
unreacted antibodies (and lectin) are washed away and gentle heating is applied to release
(elute) the absorbed -A. This -A is detected by addition of group A cells which
agglutinates and can be viewed microscopically. The other two containers exhibit no reaction
as no antibody or lectin was absorbed and eluted to read with the B and O cells added.
Secretors
Some individuals secrete their ABO antigenic characteristics (A, B, and H blood group
substances) into body fluids, such as saliva, semen, gastric juice and vaginal fluid in a high
concentration and in a low concentration in sweat, tears and urine. Such individuals are called
secretors and represent about 80% of the general population. The remaining 20% of the
population are nonsecretors. The secretor phenomenon is intimately related to the Lewis
blood group antigens. It is of great value in medico-legal studies when bloodstains are not
available.
Lewis system: Their primary importance to the serologist is that they provide secretor
status indicator in the blood. Testing a known blood sample for ABO and Lewis
groups usually allows a conclusion with regards to ABO group and secretor status
(whether an individual's ABH blood group substances should be found in evidential
body fluids).
Rhesus (Rh) system: The Rh system has proven valuable in forensic work in spite of
the larger quantity of sample required for dried stain analysis and the degree of
sophistication of available techniques. The method used in grouping dried stains is an
absorption elution technique. In cases of disputed paternity, five anti-Rh reagents are
used, each defining different Rh specificity: anti-D, anti-C, anti-E, anti-c and anti-e.
Gm and Km systems: The Gm and Km systems present distinct advantages to the
forensic serologist, because of stability of the antigens and the variety of types
possible (especially with Gm). The antigens are stable at moderate heat, may be stored
at room temperature for extended periods, and can be frozen for years.
Medico-legal Aspects of Blood Groups

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The application of blood groupings to medico-legal problems is based on the following
principles:
A blood group antigen cannot appear in a child, unless present in one or the other
parent.
If an individual is homozygous for a blood group factor, it must appear in the blood of
all his children.
If a Child is homozygous for a blood group factor, the gene for the same must have
been inherited by him/her from each of his/her parents.
The blood group characters are characteristic to the individual and are unchanged
throughout life.
Many cases can be solved by means of the blood groups of the parent and the child. However,
the tests have their limitations. They may exclude a certain person as the possible father of
the child, but they cannot definitely establish paternity. They can only indicate its possibility.
For example, a child with the blood type AB whose mother is type A could not have a father
whose blood type is A or 0. The father must have blood type B.
Exclusion of Paternity
First-order exclusion: Where the child has a blood group gene that is absent in both the
mother and the alleged father.
Second order exclusion: Where the alleged father is homozygous for a blood group gene, but
the gene is not present in the child.
The ABO system can exclude paternity in 1/6th of all cases. Addition of the MN system can
exclude paternity in about 44% of all cases. Addition of Rh subgroups can clear about 60% of
wrongly accused men. The addition of blood protein and red cell enzyme variants, such as
phosphoglucomutase can raise 'non-father' exclusion to about 90%. The HLA system alone
can exclude non-paternity in 90% of cases, but in combination with other grouping systems,
it can achieve exclusion rate upto 98%. DNA fingerprinting provides absolute certainty,
rather than a probable exclusion as in other systems.

Medico legal Application of Blood

Identification of blood and blood stains has importance in both civil and criminal fields of
investigation.
Civil Cases

Disputed Paternity: The question of disputed paternity arises in the following cases.
Adultery and Divorce: When the child is born is lawful marriage but the
husband denies that he is the father of the child.

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Blackmail: when the child is born out of a lawful marriage, and the mother
accuses a certain man to be the father of the child, while the man denies the
accusation.
Maintenance Claims: Under Sec. 125 CrPC, an individual must adopt his
illegitimate child or support him up to certain age. A first class Magistrate can
order a monthly allowance for this pupose.
Share of property: When a woman pretends pregnancy and delivery, and
obtains a child claiming him/her as her own, in order to obtain a share in her
husband's property.
Disputed Maternity: The question of disputed maternity arises in the following
circumstances:
When the same child is claimed by two women.
When there has been an allegation of interchange of a child with another in the
maternity hospital, either purposely or accidentally.
In case of a kidnapped child, when the woman who has kidnapped the child,
claims to be the mother.
In case of a suppositious child, when a woman pretends pregnancy and
delivery, and brings forth a child to pass it off as her own.
Inheritance claims: The question of legitimacy arises, since a legitimate child only
can inherit the parent's property.
Divorce and nullity of marriage cases, for example: question of intersex and some
forbidden diseases.
Civil negligence cases arising in hospital or medical practices, e.g.:
incompatible blood transfusion.
Neglect of expiry dates, leading to transfusion reaction from leakage of
electrolytes from damaged red cells.
Presence of pathogenic organisms, such as malaria, syphilis, hepatitis B and
AIDS-virus in the transfused blood.

Criminal Cases

Identification of victim or offenders of crime in circumstances, such as, murder,

wounding, rape and vehicular accidents.
Bloodstains may be found on the clothing and person of the suspect. If the character
of these stains is similar to that of blood of the victim, it establishes association.
Bloodstain present under the fingernails of assailant in a case of throttling.
If there has been a struggle, bloodstains derived from the accused may be found under
the fingernails of the victim due to scratching.
Vehicles which have caused injury can be identified when they show bloodstains
resembling that of the victim.
Stains due to body fluids: The blood group antigens can be demonstrated in stains on
clothes due to semen, sweat, or saliva ('secretors'). This may be a corroborative
evidence of the accused.

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Cases of malingering: The specificity of various blood group combinations is like

that of the, fingerprints When an individual has some rare blood group, he can be
identified with certainty.
Cause of death, e.g. detection of poison in the blood.
Time since death can be estimated by use of different chemical or biochemical tests.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Justice K Kannan, A textbook of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, 24th Edition,
Butterworths, 2012.
Vij, Krishan, A textbook on Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 5th edition, Elsevier,
2011.

Articles and Journals

Internet Sites

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