USDA Soil Quality Test Guide

United States
Department of
Agriculture
Agricultural
Research Service
Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Soil Quality Institute
July 2001
Soil Quality
Test Kit Guide
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Table of Contents
Page
Preface ..........................................................................................................................
iii
Section I - Test Procedures:

Measuring Soil Quality - discusses sampling and site
characterization ......................................................................................................
2. Soil Respiration Test - indicates the soil's biological

activity.....................................................................................................................
3. Infiltration Test - measures the soil's ability

to take in water through the soil surface .................................................................
4. Bulk Density Test - measures the soil's compaction

or pore space.............................................................................................................
5. Electrical Conductivity (EC) Test - measures the salt

concentration in the soil...........................................................................................
14
6. pH Test - measures the soil's acidity or alkalinity..................................................
15
7. Soil Nitrate Test - measures the soil's

nitrate levels ...........................................................................................................
16
Aggregate Stability Test - measures the amount of

water stable aggregates............................................................................................
18
Slake Test - estimates the stability of soil

fragments in water .................................................................................................
20
1.
8.
9.
10. Earthworm Test - measures the number of earthworms

in the soil .................................................................................................................
11.
12.
22
Soil Physical Observations and Estimations - shows how

to observe soil structure and root patterns and how to estimate topsoil
depth, penetration resistance, and soil texture in the soil profile..........................
23
Water Quality Tests estimates salinity and

nitrate/nitrite levels in water...................................................................................
28
Appendix:
Page
A. References...............................................................................................................
30
B. Soil Respiration (alternative method)..................................................................
31
C. EC and pH Meter Maintenance and Calibration..................................................
33
D. Building a Soil Quality Test Kit ..............................................................................
35
E. Site Description Data Sheet.....................................................................................
41
F. Soil Quality Data Worksheets.................................................................................
43
Section II - Background & Interpretive Guide for Individual Tests:

Introduction ..................................................................................................................
51
1.
Soil Respiration .....................................................................................................
52
2.
Infiltration ............................................................................................................
55
3.
Bulk Density ...........................................................................................................
57
4.
Electrical Conductivity (EC) ...............................................................................
59
5.
Soil pH ....................................................................................................................
63
6.
Soil Nitrate ...........................................................................................................
67
7.
Aggregate Stability ...............................................................................................
69
8.
Soil Slaking ............................................................................................................
72
9.
Earthworms............................................................................................................
73
10. Soil Physical Observations and Estimations ......................................................
75
11. Water Quality .......................................................................................................

Salinity of water
Nitrate/nitrite levels in water
79
ii
PREFACE
Soil quality is simply defined as the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function. It is generally assessed by measuring a minimum data set of soil properties to evaluate the soils ability to
perform basic functions (i.e., maintaining productivity, regulating and partitioning of water and
solute flow, filtering and buffering against pollutants, and storing and cycling nutrients). This guide
describes a kit of selected field procedures to evaluate or indicate the level of one or more soil
functions.
When measuring soil quality, it is important to evaluate the physical, chemical, and biological
properties of the soil. Physical properties addressed by the kit include bulk density, water content,
infiltration rate, aggregate stability, slaking, and morphological estimations. Biological properties
measured include soil respiration and earthworms. Soil chemical properties measured include pH,
electrical conductivity (EC), and soil nitrate levels. The chemical tests are also useful to evaluate
water quality of well-water, tile drainage waters, and other water bodies related to farm activities.
Section I of this guide provides a list of supplies and instructions for conducting a number of onfarm tests to assess soil quality. Section II provides background and interpretive information for
each test described in Section I. These tests, or indicators, are designed as a screening tool to provide immediate results for comparing management systems, monitoring changes in soil quality over
time, and for diagnosing possible soil health problems due to land use and management.
These tests can be easily conducted on the farm by NRCS field personnel or by landowners
themselves to assess the quality of their soil. Use of the kit allows NRCS staff to be an active participant with the landowner in the assessment of soil health. The assessment will provide the opportunity to discuss management options when the need arises.
The kit was developed by John Doran and associates, Agricultural Research Service, Lincoln,
NE. The Soil Quality Institute has continued the development, enhancement and testing of the kit
(with NRCS field staff) by adding tests, modifying the manual, and writing an interpretations guide.
The NRCS Soil Quality Team in Akron, CO (Manuel Rosales, Josh Saunders, and Mike Sucik) were
instrumental in the field testing of the test kit and this guide. The Soil Quality Test Kit Guide is a
dynamic document. The Institute welcomes suggestions for additional tests and interpretive information to incorporate in future versions of the guide.
The Institute gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following individuals: John
Doran, USDA-ARS, Lincoln, NE, for the development of the original soil quality test kit from which
this guide is based. Bob Grossman, USDA-NRCS, NSSC, Lincoln, NE, for the development of the
soil structure index and penetration resistance tests. Jeff Herrick, USDA-ARS, Las Cruces, NM, for
the development of the soil slake test procedure and aggregate stability test design. Dennis Linden,
USDA-ARS, St. Paul, MN, for the development of the earthworm procedure. Bob Hanafin, Auburn
University, for the development of the design and layout of this guide. Cathy Seybold and Lee
Norfleet, USDA-NRCS, Soil Quality Institute, for the development of this guide and testing of kit
procedures.
The mission of the Soil Quality Institute is to cooperate with partners in the development, acquisition, and dissemination of soil quality information and technology to help people conserve and
sustain our natural resources and the environment.
For more information about the Soil Quality Institute and its products and services, visit our
website at http://www.statlab.iastate.edu/survey/SQI/.
Soil Quality Institute Staff
iii
1. Measuring Soil Quality

Soil quality integrates the physical, chemical, and biological components of soil and their interactions. Therefore, to capture the holistic nature of soil quality or health, all of the parameters in the
kit should be measured. However, not all parameters have equal relevance to all soils and situations. For example, the EC test for salinity may not be useful in the eastern part of the U.S. where
salinity is not a problem. A minimum data set of soil properties, or indicators, from each of the
three soil components are selected based on their ability to indicate the capacity of the soil to
function for a specific land use, climate, and soil type. Indicators in the soil quality kit are selected
primarily for agricultural soil quality assessments. The kit should be used as a screening tool to
give the general trend or direction of soil quality--whether current management systems are maintaining, enhancing, or degrading the soil. Proper use of the kit and interpretation of results depends
on how well the indicators are understood with respect to the land use and environmental goals.
There are two fundamental ways to assess soil quality:
take measurements periodically over time to monitor changes or trends in soil quality;
compare measured values to a standard or reference soil condition.
By making use of the two ways of assessing soil quality, the kit can be used to:
make side-by-side comparisons of different soil management systems to determine their
relative effects on soil quality;
take measurements on the same field over time to monitor trends in soil quality as affected
by soil use and management;
compare problem areas in a field to the non-problem areas;
compare measured values to a reference soil condition or to the natural ecosystem.
Field or Site Characterization

It is important to gain as much information about the area and soils as possible. Indicators of soil
quality must be evaluated within the context of site and climatic characteristics. A "Soil Quality
Site Description" recording sheet, located in the appendix, should be completed during the soil
quality assessment. The following are items that should be considered when making an on-farm
soil quality assessment:
Soil series - The soil series name can be found in the county soil survey.
Signs of erosion - Signs of erosion include gullies, rills, development of pedestals, exposed
areas of subsoil, damage to plants caused by wind blown materials, etc.
Management history - This item includes a description of past and present land and crop
management; kind, amount, and method of fertilization; prior tillage; and land leveling.
Slope and topographical features of the field - Record percent slope at the sampling sites
within the field, and note any hills, knolls, ridges, potholes, depressions, etc.
Location of the field and sampling areas - Record longitude and latitude (if GPS unit is
available), a description of the location (feet from landmarks), and a drawing of the field
showing sampling areas.
Climatic information - This item includes precipitation and high and low average tempera1
tures for each month (data from a county or watershed level will often be sufficient).
Location of environmentally sensitive areas - This item includes location of ponds, creeks,
wetlands, or other environmentally fragile sites adjacent to the field.
Sampling Guidelines
Important: When, where, and how deep to sample and how many samples to take is primarily
dependent on the questions being asked or problems being addressed by the farm or land manager.
When to sample?
Timing of sampling is important, because soil properties vary within a season and with management operations, such as tillage. In general, for the overall assessment of soil quality, an annual
sampling of the field is recommended. Sampling once a year will allow for the detection of longterm changes in soil quality. A good time of year to sample is when the climate is most stable and
there have been no recent disturbances, such as after harvest or the end of the growing season.
Where to sample?
An important consideration in determining where to sample in a field is the variability of the area.
Soil properties naturally vary across a field and even within the same soil type. Soil variability
across a field is also affected by management operations. General field characteristics to consider
are:
row versus inter-row areas,

differences in soil type,
differences in management,
wheel versus non-wheel tracked areas,
differences in crop growth,
salt affected versus non-salt affected
areas,
eroded versus non-eroded areas,
differences in slope, and
wet versus non-wet areas (drainage).
Some general guidelines on selecting sampling sites are as follows:

(1) For a general assessment of soil quality,
select sample sites within a field that
are representative of the field. Refer to
soil maps of the area (Soil Survey) to
identify soil type differences and variations within the map unit
Figure 1.1
2
(Figure 1.1). A hand auger can be used

to make a number of borings to establish locations of the most representative
areas of the field.
Trouble spots
(2) For assessment of trouble spots within a

field, sample areas that are representative of the trouble spots (Figure 1.2).
(3) When comparing management systems,
make sure sites selected for comparison
have the same soil type and are located
on the same topographical features in
both fields. For example, if sites are
measured in the wheel tracks in one
field, wheel tracks sites should be
selected in the comparison field.
Figure 1.2
(4) When monitoring changes in soil

quality over time, make sure the same
sites within the field are measured at
each sampling time. Also, try to take
measurements at the same soil moisture
conditions at each sampling time to
reduce variability.
Soil type gradient

Sampling points
In some cases it might be helpful to compare

sampling points if the field is sampled at
different points across gradients of soil type,
soil moisture, slope, or other factors rather
than just at a fixed point (Figure 1.3).
How many samples?
Soil types
The number of samples or measurements to

Figure 1.3
take will depend on the variability of the field.
It is recommended that a minimum of three samples or measurements be collected on any one soil
type and management combination. In general, the greater the variability of the field, the greater the
number of measurements are needed to get a representative value at the field scale. When measuring
EC, pH, and soil nitrates at the field scale, eight or nine sample cores from across the field could be
bulked and mixed, and two subsamples from the mixed cores could be analyzed. When taking cores
from across the field, stay away from areas that are distinctly different and are not representative of
the field, such as farm lanes and field borders, fertilizer bands, areas within 150 feet of a gravel road,
potholes, eroded spots, etc.
2. Soil Respiration Test

For efficient sampling, the soil respiration test is performed first, followed by the infiltration test
(Chapter 3) without removing the 6-inch diameter ring. The best time to run the soil respiration
test is when soil moisture is at field capacity (the amount of water the soil can hold after drainage).
Otherwise, soil respiration should be measured before and after the infiltration measurement or
soil wetting (6 to 24 hours after wetting).
Materials needed to measure respiration:
Did You Know?

Soil breathes! Soil respiration is an indicator
of biological activity (i.e., microbial and
root), or soil life. This activity is as important to the soil ecosystem as healthy lungs are
to us. However, more activity is not always
better; it may indicate an unstable system
(i.e., after tillage).
6-inch diameter ring

lid with rubber stoppers
hand sledge and wood block
soil thermometer
two sections of plastic tubing
2 needles
Draeger tubes
140 cc syringe
stopwatch or timer
Considerations: Microbial activity is greatest when the soil is moist (at or near field capacity).
If the soil is dry, a second respiration measurement should be made at a minimum of six hours
(preferably 16 to 24 hours later) after the infiltration test or wetting of the soil. If the soil is
saturated, soil respiration is inhibited, and this test should not be run.
Drive Ring into Soil
Clear the sampling area of surface residue, etc. If the

site is covered with vegetation, trim it as close to the
soil surface as possible.
Using the hand sledge and block of wood, drive the 6inch diameter ring, beveled edge down, to a depth of
three inches (line marked on outside of ring) Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
If the soil contains rock fragments, and the ring can not be inserted to depth, gently
push the ring into the soil until it hits a rock fragment. Measure the height from the soil
surface to the top of the ring in centimeters (cm). [See note below]
NOTE: For a more accurate measurement of soil respiration, the chamber head-space should
be measured. Inside the ring, take four measurements (evenly spaced) of the height from the
soil surface to the top of the ring, and calculate the average. Record average on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Cover Ring with Lid and Wait
Cover the ring with the lid as depicted in

Figure 2.2 and note the time.
Wait exactly 30 minutes* (to allow CO2 to

accumulate in the chamber).
[If this is the SECOND respiration measurement,

briefly remove the lid and replace it before timing
to allow the release of gases that have built up
over the 6-24 hour waiting period. Proceed with Step 3.]
Figure 2.2
*NOTE: During the 30-minute wait, other tests such as Bulk Density (Chapter 4) can be run.
Insert Soil Thermometer
Insert the soil thermometer into the soil adjacent to the ring with lid (about one inch
away from ring and one inch deep). If the thermometer can easily be inserted into the
rubber stoppers, insert it into one of them to a 1-inch depth into the soil.
Assemble Draeger Tube Apparatus
Assemble the Draeger tube apparatus just before

the end of the 30-minute wait.
Connect a needle to one of the sections of

tubing.
Break open both ends of a CO2 Draeger tube,

either by using the hole at the end of the syringe
handle as depicted in Figure 2.3, or by clipping
the tube ends with a finger nail clipper.
Figure 2.3
Connect the Draeger tube to the other end of the

needles tubing. The arrow on the side of the
Draeger tube should point away from the needle.
With the second piece of tubing, connect the

Draeger tube to the syringe as shown in Figure
2.4
Figure 2.4
5
Insert Apparatus Needle into Stopper

After 30 minutes, insert the Draeger tube apparatus
needle into a stopper as shown in Figure 2.5. Insert
a second needle into one of the other stoppers on
the lid to allow air flow into the head space during
the gas sampling. The second needle should be
inserted just before the head space is sampled.
Draw Head Space Sample
Figure 2.5
Over a 15-second span, draw the syringe handle back to the 100 cc reading (1 cc = 1 mL) as
shown in Figure 2.5. [If the reading is less than 0.5%, take four additional 100 cc samples
of the head space through the same Draeger tube. To do this, disconnect the tube from the
syringe to remove the air, and reconnect the tube to the syringe. Take another 100 cc
sample. Repeat.]
Record Soil Temperature and % CO2

On the Soil Data worksheet, record the temperature in Celsius at the
time of sampling. On the Draeger tube, read the "n=1" column if 100
cc was sampled or the "n=5" column if 500 cc was sampled. The %
CO2 reading should be an estimate of the highest point that the
purple color can be easily detected. Enter this reading on the Soil
Data worksheet. In the example in Figure 2.6, the reading would be
approximately 0.75%.
Figure 2.6
Remove Lid
Remove the thermometer, Draeger
apparatus needle, air flow needle, and
the lid from the ring.
If this is the first respiration measurement,
leave the ring in the soil for the infiltration
measurement (Chapter 3).
Maintenance Tips: Seal any holes in the

chamber lid that may
cause leakage. Also to
prevent leaks, replace the
stoppers in the lid if they
become worn or loose.
CALCULATIONS:
Soil Respiration (lb CO2-C/acre/day) = PF x TF x (%CO2 - 0.035) x 22.91 x H
PF = pressure factor = 1
TF = temperature factor = (soil temperature in Celsius + 273) 273
H = inside height of ring = 5.08 cm (2 inches)
6
3. Infiltration Test
The infiltration test is generally performed after the first respiration measurement. The same 6inch diameter ring left in place from the soil respiration test can be used for the infiltration test. If
soil respiration was not determined, follow the instructions in Step 1 of the soil respiration procedure (Chapter 2) for inserting the 6-inch diameter ring.
Materials needed to measure infiltration:
6-inch diameter ring (left in soil from respiration test)

plastic wrap
500 mL plastic bottle or
Did You Know?
graduated cylinder
Infiltration rate is a measure of how fast
distilled water
water enters the soil. Water entering too
stopwatch or timer
slowly may lead to ponding on level fields or
to erosion from surface runoff on sloping
fields.
Considerations: If the soil is saturated, infiltration will not occur. Wait for one or two days to
allow for some drying. Also, if the respiration test is not performed, make sure the sampling area
is free of residue and weeds or that vegetation is trimmed to the soil surface before inserting the
ring.
Firm Soil
With the 6-inch diameter ring in place, use your finger to gently firm the soil surface only
around the inside edges of the ring to prevent extra seepage. Minimize disturbance to the
rest of the soil surface inside the ring.
Line Ring with Plastic Wrap

Line the soil surface inside the ring with a sheet of
plastic wrap to completely cover the soil and ring as
shown in Figure 3.1. This procedure prevents
disturbance to the soil surface when adding water.
Add Water
Fill the plastic bottle or graduated cylinder to

the 444 mL mark with distilled water.
Pour the 444 mL of water (1" of water) into the ring

lined with plastic wrap as shown in Figure 3.1.
7
Figure 3.1
Remove Wrap and Record Time
Remove the plastic wrap by gently pulling it

out, leaving the water in the ring (Figure 3.2).
Note the time.
Record the amount of time (in minutes) it takes

for the 1" of water to infiltrate the soil. Stop
timing when the surface is just glistening.
If the soil surface is uneven inside the ring,

count the time until half of the surface is exposed and just glistening (Figure 3.3).
Enter the amount of time in minutes on the Soil

Data worksheet.
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Repeat Infiltration Test
In the same ring, perform Steps 2, 3, & 4 with a second inch of water. On the Soil Data
worksheet, enter the number of minutes elapsed for the second infiltration measurement. If
soil moisture is at or near field capacity, the second test is not necessary.
[The moisture content of the soil will affect the rate of infiltration; therefore, two
infiltration tests are usually performed (if soil is dry). The first inch of water wets the
soil, and the second inch gives a better estimate of the infiltration rate of the soil.]
Replace Lid
If a second respiration measurement will be performed, set the lid loosely on the ring and
leave it covered for preferably 16 to 24 hours (6-hour minimum) before beginning the
second test (Chapter 2). (Remove lid and replace it before beginning the second soil respiration measurement).
Reminder: If you still need to perform the second

respiration measurement, remember to loosely place
the lid back on the ring before leaving the field.
4. Bulk Density Test

The bulk density measurement should be performed at the soil surface and/or in a compacted zone
(plow pan, etc.) if one is present . Measure bulk density near (between 1 and 2 feet) the site of the
respiration and infiltration tests. To get a more representative bulk density measurement of the
area, additional samples may be taken.
Materials needed to measure bulk density:
Did You Know?

Bulk density is the weight
of soil for a given volume. It is used to measure compaction. In
general, the greater the
density, the less pore
space for water movement, root growth and
penetration, and seedling
germination.
3-inch diameter ring

hand sledge
wood block
garden trowel
flat-bladed knife
sealable bags and marker pen
scale (0.1 g precision)
1/8 cup (30 mL) measuring scoop
paper cups
18-inch metal rod
access to a microwave oven
Considerations: For rocky or gravelly soils, use the alternate procedure on page 11.
1
Drive Ring into Soil
Using the hand sledge and block of wood, drive

the 3-inch diameter ring, beveled edge down, to a
depth of 3 inches (Figure 4.1).
The exact depth of the ring must be determined

for accurate measurement of soil volume. To do
this, the height of the ring above the soil should be
measured. Take four measurements (evenly
spaced) of the height from the soil surface to the
top of the ring and calculate the average. Record
the average on the Soil Data worksheet.
Figure 4.1
NOTE: Use the metal rod to probe the soil for depth to a compacted zone. If one is found, dig
down to the top of this zone and make a level surface. Proceed with Step 1.
2
Remove 3-inch Ring

Dig around the ring and with the trowel underneath it, carefully lift it out to prevent any
loss of soil.
9
Remove Excess Soil

Remove excess soil from the sample with a flatbladed knife. The bottom of the sample should be flat
and even with the edges of the ring (see Figure 4.2).
Place Sample in Bag and Label

Touch the sample as little as possible. Using the flatbladed knife, push out the sample into a plastic
sealable bag. Make sure the entire sample is placed in the
plastic bag. Seal and label the bag.
Figure 4.2
NOTE: Steps 5-7 can be done in a lab or office if a scale is not available in the field. Step 8
requires access to a microwave.
Weigh and Record Sample
Weigh the soil sample in its bag. [If the sample is too heavy for the scale, transfer about
half of the sample to another plastic bag. The weights of the two sample bags will need
to be added together. Enter the weight (sum of two bags, if applicable) on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Weigh an empty plastic bag to account for the weight of the bag. Enter the weight (sum
of two bags, if applicable) on the Soil Data worksheet.
Extract Subsample to Determine Water Content and Dry Soil Weight
Mix sample thoroughly in the bag by kneading it with your fingers.
Take a 1/8-cup level scoop subsample of loose soil (not packed down) from the plastic
bag and place it in a paper cup (a glass or ceramic cup may be used).
Weigh and Record Subsample
Weigh the soil subsample in its paper cup. Enter the weight on the Soil Data worksheet.
Weigh an empty paper cup to account for its weight. Enter the weight on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Dry Subsample
Place the paper cup containing the subsample in a microwave and dry for two or more fourminute cycles at full power. Open the microwave door for one minute between cycles to
allow venting. Weigh the dry subsample in its paper cup and enter the weight on the Soil
Data worksheet.
10
NOTE: To determine if the soil is dry, weigh the sample and record its weight after each 4minute cycle. When its weight does not change after a drying cycle, then it is dry.
CALCULATIONS (See page 13)
Bulk Density Test for Gravelly and Rocky Soils

This method is to be used when rocks or gravels prevent sampling bulk density by the core method
described in the first part of this Chapter. This excavation method will require the user to sieve out
the coarse material greater than 2 mm in size.
Materials needed to measure bulk density:
Plastic wrap
140-cc syringe
water
garden trowel
sealable bags and marker pen
2-mm sieve
1/8-cup (30 mL) measuring scoop
paper cup or bowl
access to a microwave oven
Considerations: Choose a spot that is as level as possible to allow water to fill the hole evenly.
If the soil is too wet to sieve, ignore the part in Step 2 about replacing rocks, and proceed to Step 3.
Soil will have to be dried and sieved later. The volume of gravel will need to be determined and
subtracted from the total volume of the soil sample taken in the field.
1
Dig Hole
Dig a bowl shaped hole three inches deep and

approximately five inches in diameter using the
trowel (Figure 4.3). Avoid compacting the soil in
the hole while digging. Place all of the soil and
gravel removed from the hole in a plastic bag.
Using the 2-mm sieve, sieve the soil in the plastic

bag to separate the gravel. Collect the soil in a
plastic sealable bag. Put the gravel aside to be
used in Step 2. Seal and label the plastic bag.
[Note: See Considerations above if soil is wet.]
11
Figure 4.3
Line the Hole

Line the hole with plastic wrap as shown in Figure
4.4. Leave some excess plastic wrap around the edge
of the hole. Place the sieved rocks and gravel carefully in the center of the hole on top of the plastic
wrap. Assure that the pile of rocks do not protrude
above the level of the soil surface.
Figure 4.4
Add Water to Hole
Use the 140 cc syringe to keep track of how much water is needed to fill the lined hole.
The level of the water should be even with the soil surface.
The amount of water represents the volume of soil removed. Record the total amount of
water in cubic centimeters (1 cc = 1 cm3) on the Soil Data worksheet.
NOTE: Steps 4-6 can be done in a lab or office if a scale is not available in the field. Step 7
requires access to a microwave.
4
Weigh and Record Sample
Weigh the soil sample in its bag. [If the sample is too heavy for the scale, transfer about
half of the sample to another plastic bag. The weights of the two sample bags will need
to be added together. Enter the weight (sum of two bags, if applicable) on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Weigh an empty plastic bag to account for the weight of the bag. Enter the weight (sum
of two bags, if applicable) on the Soil Data worksheet.
Extract Subsample to Determine Water Content and Dry Soil Weight
Mix sample thoroughly in the bag by kneading it with your fingers.
Take a 1/8-cup level scoop subsample of loose soil (not packed down) from the plastic
bag and place it in a paper cup (a glass or ceramic cup may be used).
Weigh and Record Subsample
Weigh the soil subsample in its paper cup. Enter the weight on the Soil Data worksheet.
Weigh an empty paper cup to account for its weight. Enter the weight on the Soil Data
worksheet.
12
Dry Subsample
Place the paper cup containing the subsample in a microwave and dry for two or more fourminute cycles at full power. Open the microwave door for one minute between cycles to
allow venting. Weigh the dry subsample in its paper cup and enter the weight on the Soil
Data worksheet.
NOTE: To determine if the soil is dry, weigh the sample and record its weight after each 4minute cycle. When its weight does not change after a drying cycle, then it is dry.
CALCULATIONS (for both bulk density methods):

Soil water content (g/g) = (weight of moist soil - weight of oven dry soil)
weight of oven dry soil
Soil bulk density (g/cm3) = oven dry weight of soil
volume of soil
Soil water-filled pore space (%) = volumetric water content x 100

soil porosity
Volumetric water content (g/cm3) = soil water content (g/g) x bulk density (g/cm3)
Soil porosity (%) = 1 - soil bulk density

2.65
Volume of Rocks (cm3) = Fill 1/3 of a graduated cylinder with water, and record the amount.
Add the rocks to the cylinder and record the change in the water level. The difference is the
volume of rocks (1 mL = 1 cm3).
Volume of Soil (cm3) = Total soil volume - volume of rocks
13
5. Electrical Conductivity Test

Soil samples for the electrical conductivity (EC) test are taken from the 0- to 3-inch depth. Bulked
soil samples from across the field can be collected, and two subsamples can be taken for analysis
(See Chapter 1, Sampling Guidelines). Electrical conductivity, pH, and soil nitrate are all
measured from the same soil subsample.
Materials needed to measure electrical conductivity (EC):

120-mL plastic containers with lid
EC pocket meter (blue with black cap)
squirt bottle
calibration solution (0.01 M KCl)
distilled water
Did You Know?

Excess salts in soil can be a
detriment to plant health. Salts
can also hamper water movement into the soil and increase
the occurrence of surface compaction.
Extract Subsample
The soil sample should be thoroughly mixed before taking a subsample. Measure a 1/8-cup
level scoop subsample of soil and place it in the plastic container. If soil nitrates will be
measured on this subsample (Chapter 7), weigh the subsample for a more accurate estimate
of soil nitrates. Enter the subsample weight on the Soil Data worksheet.
Add Water to Subsample and Mix
Calibration Tip: Make sure the EC

meter is calibrated before
making a measurement.
See Appendix C for calibration instructions.
Measure and Record EC (See Calibration Tip)
Add 1/8-cup (30 mL) of distilled water to

the container with the subsample. The
resulting soil/water mixture equates to a
1:1 soil to water ratio on a volume basis.
Put the lid on the container and shake
vigorously about 25 times.
Open the container and insert the EC pocket meter into the soil-water mixture. Take the
reading while the soil particles are still suspended in solution. To keep the soil particles
from settling, stir gently with the EC pocket meter. Do not immerse the meter above
the immersion level (See Appendix C, Figure 1c). Allow the reading to stabilize (stays
the same for about 10 seconds).
Enter the EC reading on the Soil Data worksheet in decisiemens per meter (dS/m). The
DiST WP 4 meter gives readings directly in dS/m. For the Microsensor 4 meter, divide
the reading by 10, and for the Microsensor 3 meter, divide the reading by 100 to get
readings in dS/m.
Save the soil-water mixture for the pH measurement (Chapter 6).
Turn the meter off. Thoroughly rinse meter with distilled water and replace cap.
14
6. Soil pH Test
Use the same soil-water mixture prepared in the EC test to conduct the pH Test. If you are starting with a fresh soil sample, read the introduction and follow Steps 1-3 in the EC Test Chapter
on preparing the sample.
Materials needed to measure pH:

plastic specimen bottle
calibration buffer solutions
squirt bottle
pH pocket meter (red with black cap)
distilled water
Did You Know?

Soil acidification can also be an
indication of excessive N fertilizer
applications and N leaching loss.
Considerations: If the soil sample is saturated or very wet, a 1:1 ratio, on a volume basis, of soil
to water will not be obtained in the soil-water mixture (See Step 2, Chapter 5). Let the soil dry
before proceeding with Step 1 in Chapter 5. Also, a small amount of salts diffuse out of the pocket
pH meter; therefore, EC measurements should always be taken first when measuring both EC
and pH on the same sample.
Measure and Record pH
Make sure to periodically calibrate your pH meter (See Appendix C for instructions). If
the meter has not been used in a while, place the meter in tap water for about 5 minutes
before calibrating or taking a reading.
Wait about 10 to 15 minutes after the EC measurement before measuring the pH. This
gives the soil particles time to settle. Insert the pH pocket meter into the topmost
portion of the solution and turn the meter on. Wait until the reading stabilizes (0-30
seconds), and record the digital reading on the Soil Data worksheet.
Rinse Pocket Meter
Thoroughly rinse the electrode with distilled water.
Store the electrode with a few drops of the pH 7 buffer solution and replace the cap.
(See Appendix C on storage of pH meter)
Maintenance Tips: Check the batteries
and calibrate the EC and
pH meters periodically.
Be sure to clean the
meters thoroughly to keep
them working properly.
15
7. Soil Nitrate Test (NO3-)

Use the same sample prepared for the EC and pH tests to measure soil nitrates. If you are starting
with a fresh soil sample, read the introduction and follow Steps 1-3 in the EC Test Chapter on
preparing the sample.
Materials needed to measure soil nitrate:
filter paper
120-mL plastic container with lid
eye dropper
nitrate/nitrite test strips
stopwatch or timer
distilled water
Did You Know?

Soil nitrates are good measures of
plant-available nitrogen, but they
can be readily lost from the soil by
leaching and volatilization.
Fold Filter
Fold the filter paper in half (into a semicircle).
Fold it again, but not quite into a quarter-circle.
Leave the edges a little uneven as in Figure 7.1
(A black line is drawn for demonstration purposes.)
Insert Filter Paper into Subsample

Open the filter paper into the shape of a cone and push
it (pointed part first) quickly into the jar with the
soil/water mixture until it touches the bottom of the
jar (Figure 7.2). Wait until about an eye dropperfull of the solution has seeped through to the inside
of the filter paper. (Note: Inserting the filter
paper quickly prevents it from wetting up and
tearing as it is inserted.)
Figure 7.1
[For Steps 3 & 4, it would be helpful to first

familiarize yourself with the directions on the
side of the bottle of nitrate strips.]
Figure 7.2
Place Drops on Nitrate Strips

Using the eye dropper and one nitrate/nitrite test strip, place 1 or 2 drops of the filtered
solution on each of the strip's two pads. Note the time.
NOTE: One pad measures the amount of nitrite, and the other measures the amount of
nitrite and nitrate combined. Nitrite rarely occurs in measurable amounts in soils, so nitrite
readings from the test strips are not recorded.
16
Measure and Record Nitrate
Align the nitrate/nitrite test strip with the bottom of the bottle with your thumb corresponding to the diagram on the bottle.
After 60 seconds, compare the first pad (furthest from your thumb) along the nitrate scale
as shown in Figure 7.3. Estimate the nitrate
amount according to the degree of color change.
Enter the value from the nitrate scale on the Soil
Data worksheet in ppm. This value is an estimate of nitrate-N concentration in the extract.
NOTE: The nitrate test strips have a shelf-life.

Check the expiration date on the bottle.
Figure 7.3
CALCULATIONS:
Estimated (lb NO3-N/acre) =
(ppm extract NO3-N) x (depth of soil sampled in cm) x bulk density x 0.89
10
Exact (lb NO3-N/acre) =
(ppm NO3-N) x (volume water used) x (depth of soil sampled, cm) x bulk density x 0.89
(dry weight of soil) x 10
Volume water used = 30.0 mL + [dry weight of soil x soil water content (g/g)]
Note: The maximum nitrate-N reading on the nitrate/nitrite test strip container is 50 ppm. If the
sample reading falls into the 50 ppm category, the sample can be diluted to get a better estimate of
the actual amount over 50 ppm. To dilute the sample, fill the eye dropper with filtered solution and
place five drops in a plastic container. Add five drops of distilled water; mix gently by swirling the
container. Take a reading with a new test strip as stated in Step 4. Multiply the estimated nitrate-N
in ppm by 2 before using the calculations. If the nitrate reading falls into the category of 50 ppm
again, repeat the dilution steps, and multiply the estimated nitrate-N in ppm by 4.
Did You Know?

Water samples may be taken from drinking water, well water, tile drainage, drainage
ditches, and ponds. Dip a nitrate/nitrite test strip into the water and estimate the nitrate or
nitrite concentration from the color chart on the test strip bottle. This test can give you an
idea of how much N fertilizer is lost from the soil. (See Chapter 12).
17
8. Aggregate Stability
Aggregate stability measures the amount of stable aggregates against flowing water. It is recommended that aggregate stability be determined on the top three inches of surface soil. The soil
sample should be air-dried before determining aggregate stability.
Materials needed to measure aggregate stability:
2-mm sieve (3-inch diameter)

0.25-mm sieves (2.5-inch diameter)
terry cloths
400-watt hair dryer and drying chamber
calgon solution (about 2 tbsp of calgon
per 1/2 gallon of tap water)
bucket or pan
distilled water
Did You Know?

Soil aggregates protect organic
matter within their structure
from microbial attack. Formation and preservation of aggregates allows organic matter to
be preserved in the soil.
Considerations: If the soil is moist, air-dry a sample before determining aggregate stability.
When taking a soil sample, care should taken not to disrupt the soil aggregates.
Sieve the Soil Sample

Transfer about a 1/4 cup of air-dried soil to the 2mm sieve. Shake the sieve gently and collect the
soil passing through the sieve. Try to pass all of the
soil through the sieve by gently pressing the soil
through with your thumb (Figure 8.1).
Weigh Sieved Soil Sample

Weigh the 0.25-mm sieve, and record its weight on
the Soil Data worksheet. Weigh out about 10 g of
the sieved soil from Step 1 (make sure the soil is
mixed well before taking a subsample). Record the
exact weight on the Soil Data worksheet.
Figure 8.1
Terry cloth
Slowly Wet the Soil Sample in Sieve

Saturate one of the terry cloth sheets with distilled
water and lay it flat. Place the 0.25-mm sieve
containing the soil on the wet cloth, allowing the
soil to wet up slowly (Figure 8.2). Wet the soil for five minutes.
Sieves
Figure 8.2
NOTE: A container (bucket or pan) of distilled water is needed for Step 4. The water temperature should be at or near the temperature of the soil.
18
Wet Sieve the Soil
Place the 0.25-mm sieve with soil in the container filled with distilled water, so that the
water surface is just above the soil sample.
Move the sieve up and down in the water through a vertical distance of 1.5 cm at the
rate of 30 oscillations per minute (one oscillation is an up and down stroke of 1.5 cm in
length) for three minutes. Important: Make
sure the aggregates remain immersed in
water on the upstroke.
seives
Dry Aggregates
After wet sieving, set the sieve with aggregates on a
dry piece of terry cloth, which will absorb the
excess water from the aggregates in the sieve. Then
place the sieve containing the aggregates on the
drying apparatus (Figure 8.3). Allow the samples
to dry using the low power setting.
drying chamber
Figure 8.3
NOTE: Be careful when drying the soil to prevent particles from blowing out of the sieves. It
may be necessary to put a cover over the top of the sieves to keep aggregates in place.
Weigh Aggregates
After drying, allow the aggregates and sieve to cool for five minutes. Weigh the sieve
containing the aggregates. Record the weight of the sieve plus aggregates on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Disperse Aggregates in Calgon Solution
Prepare calgon solution. Immerse the sieve containing the dried aggregates in the
calgon solution (do not completely immerse the sieve). Allow the aggregates in the
sieve to soak for five minutes, moving the sieve up and down periodically. Only sand
particles should remain on the sieve.
Rinse the sand on the sieve in clean water by immersing the sieve in a bucket of water
or by running water through the sieve.
Dry and Weigh Sand
Remove excess water by first placing the sieve containing the sand on the dry terry
cloth, then placing it on the drying apparatus. Allow sand to dry.
After drying, allow the sand and sieve to cool for five minutes. Weigh the sieve containing the sand. Record the weight of the sieve plus sand on the Soil Data worksheet.
CALCULATIONS:
Water Stable Aggregates (% of soil > 0.25mm) = (weight of dry aggregates - sand) x 100
(weight of dry soil - sand)
19
9. Slake Test
The slake test measures the stability of soil when exposed to rapid wetting. This test is qualitative
and should be measured on air-dried soil fragments or aggregates.
Materials needed to measure slaking:
complete soil stability kit

sampling scoop
distilled water (1 L)
Did You Know?

Soil stability serves as a qualitative indicator of soil biological
activity, energy flow, and nutrient cycling. Binding of soil
particles must constantly be
renewed by biological processes.
Considerations: The soil should be air-dry when performing this test. If the soil is not dry,
collect surface fragments as described in Step 1 and allow them to dry. Be careful not to destroy
the soil fragments while sampling.
Collect Surface Fragments
Carefully remove soil fragments or aggregates

from the soil surface. If there is a surface crust,
carefully sample pieces of it. Use the flat end
(handle) of the scoop to lift out surface and
subsurface fragments. If the soil has been
tilled, collect some aggregates (about 1 cm in
size). Be careful not to shatter the soil fragments or aggregates while sampling.
Collect 16 separate soil fragments. If there is a

surface crust, collect eight fragments of the
crust and eight fragments from below the crust.
Figure 9.1
Fill Box with Water
Remove all sieve baskets from the stability kit.
Fill the compartments in the box with water.

The water should be 2 cm deep and at approximately the same temperature as the soil.
Test Soil Fragments

Figure 9.2
Place soil fragments in the sieve baskets

(Figure 9.1).
Lower one of the sieves into a box compartment filled with water (Figure 9.2).
20
Observe Fragments
Observe the soil fragment for five minutes. Refer to the stability class table below to
determine classes 1 and 2.
After five minutes, raise the basket out of the water, then lower it to the bottom. It
should take one second for the basket to clear the surface and one second to return to the
bottom.
Repeat immersion four times (total of five immersions). Refer to the stability class
table below to determine classes 3 through 6.
Record Ratings
Soil stability is rated according to the time required for the fragment to disintegrate
during the five-minute immersion and the proportion of the soil fragment remaining on
the mesh after the five extraction-immersion cycles. [See table below.]
Record the stability ratings for all 16 soil fragments or aggregates on the Soil Data
worksheet.
Stability class
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Criteria for assignment to stability class (for Standard Characterization)

Soil too unstable to sample (falls through sieve).
50 % of structural integrity lost within 5 seconds of insertion in water.
50 % of structural integrity lost 5 - 30 seconds after insertion.
50 % of structural integrity lost 30 - 300 seconds after insertion or < 10 % of
soil remains on the sieve after 5 dipping cycles.
10 - 25% of soil remaining on sieve after 5 dipping cycles.
21
10. Earthworms
Earthworms are most active during the spring and fall, which are the best times to observe their
activity.
Materials needed to measure the number of earthworms:
tap water (2 L)
hand trowel or shovel
large jar or container for worm collection
and cleaning
mustard solution (2 tablespoons mustard
powder in 2 liters of tap water)
Did You Know?

Earthworm burrowing improves
infiltration and their casts
improve aggregation. Earthworms also break down larger
bits of residue for use by other
soil organisms.
Considerations: When examining the soil for earthworms, avoid places where their populations
might be affected, such as near mulch or compost piles. The abundance of earthworms is usually
patchy within a field and varies with season. Therefore, count earthworms several times during a
season and use the average to gauge changes from year to year.
Dig Plot
Measure a square-foot plot and dig down 12 inches
with the hand trowel or shovel (Figure 10.1). Try
to minimize the number of cuts with the shovel to
avoid damage to the earthworms. Dig the hole
first, then sort for earthworms.
Count the Number of Earthworms

Sort the soil samples against a pale-colored background to help locate the earthworms. Separate
and count the number of earthworms.
Add Mustard Solution (optional)

To facilitate extraction of deep burrowing earthworms, add two liters of mustard solution to the
hole. First, make sure the bottom of the hole is
level. The deep burrowing worms should appear
within five minutes (Figure 10.2). Count the
number of worms.
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Record Total Number of Earthworms

Record the total number of earthworms (those found in the hole and after adding the mustard solution) on the Soil Data worksheet. [The mustard solution should not harm the
worms. Rinse them in water before returning them to the soil.]
22
11. Soil Physical Observations and Estimations

Materials needed in observing the soil physical properties:
tape measure
sharpshooter spade or shovel
18-inch metal rod
tap water
Dig hole
Dig a hole to a depth of 1 foot. Make it wide enough to cut out a slice of soil.
Cut Slice of Soil
Soil surface
Using the shovel, cut a slice of soil from a wall of the hole and
lay it on the ground.
Topsoil

Measure Depth of Topsoil
Measure the depth of the topsoil. Look for color changes

from the soil surface downward through the soil profile.
The topsoil is usually distinguished by a darker color than
the underlying material (See Figure 11.1).
Record the depth of topsoil on the Soil Data worksheet.

Figure 11.1
Observe Plant Roots
Observe plant roots in the hole and the slice of soil. To get a better look at the roots, dig
down along a plant stem. The roots should be well branched with lots of fine root hairs.
Things to look for are balled up roots or roots growing sideways. A lack of fine root
hairs indicates oxygen deprivation in the root zone. Lateral root growth indicates a
hardpan, or compacted layer.
Determine Resistance
Use the metal rod to probe one of the side walls,

starting from the soil surface to the bottom of
the hole. Determine changes or differences in
penetration resistance as you probe the side wall
(See Figure 11.2).
Look for compacted layers that may restrict

root growth and water movement.
23
Figure 11.2
Examine Soil Structure

Observe soil structure in the slice of soil to a depth of about 12 inches. Measure and mark,
starting at the surface and moving downward; depth increments of 0 to 4 inches, 4 to 8
inches, and 8 to 12 inches. Note and record the type, size, and grade of the soil structural
units or aggregates for each depth increment.
Note: Soil structure is how particles of soil are grouped together in stable collections or
aggregates.
6a
Note the type of soil structure at each of the three depth increments.
The three general types of soil structure are granular (Figure 11.3), blocky (Figure
11.4), and platy (Figure 11.5).
Figure 11.3 Granular:

imperfect spheres, usually
sand-size.
Figure 11.4 Blocky:

imperfect cubes with
angular or rounded edges.
If there are no noticeable aggregates or peds, the soil has no structure. It is either single
grained (Figure 11.6) or massive (Figure 11.7).
Figure 11.6 Single grain:

unconsolidated mass such
as loose sand.
Figure 11.5 Platy:

a flattened or compressed
appearance.
Figure 11.7 Massive:

cohesive mass.
Record on the Soil Data worksheet the type of structure observed for each depth increment.
24
6b
Note the size of the aggregates or peds at the different depths.
Estimate the general size of the aggregates or peds. If the structure is granular, choose
from fine (Figure 11.8), medium (Figure 11.9) and coarse (Figure 11.10) granule sizes.
Figure 11.8
Fine: < 2 mm.
Figure 11.12
Fine: 5 to 10 mm.
Figure 11.13
Medium: 10 to 20 mm.
If structure is platy, choose from thin (Figure 11.14), medium (Figure 11.15), and thick
(Figure 11.16) plate sizes.
Figure 11.14
Thin: < 2 mm.
Figure 11.10
Coarse: 5 to 10 mm.
If the structure is blocky, choose from very fine (Figure 11.11), fine (Figure 11.12),
and medium (Figure 11.13) block sizes.
Figure 11.11
Very fine: < 5 mm.
Figure 11.9
Medium: 2 to 5 mm.
Figure 11.15
Medium: 2 to 5 mm.
Figure 11.16
Thick: 5 to 10 mm.
Record on the Soil Data worksheet the size of the aggregates or peds observed for each
depth increment.
25
6c
Note the distinctness (grade) of the aggregates in place and when removed from the
slice of soil.
The distinctness of the aggregates is either weak, moderate, or strong.
Weak structure:
Aggregates or peds are barely observable in

place in moist soil.
When removed, the structure breaks into a few

observable aggregates or peds (Figure 11.17).
Moderate structure:
Figure 11.17
Aggregates or peds are moderately well-formed

and distinct in place.
When removed, many well-formed aggregates

are observable (Figure 11.18).
Strong structure:
Aggregates or peds are well-formed and very

evident in place.
Figure 11.18
When disturbed, the structure breaks into quite

evident aggregates or peds (Figure 11.19).
Record on the Soil Data worksheet the grade of the

aggregates or peds observed for each depth increment.
Figure 11.19
Determine soil textural class
Perform the Texture by Feel procedure (See page 27) on the top three inches of soil.
Record on the Soil Data worksheet the soil textural class.

26
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12. Water Quality Tests

A. Estimation of Water Nitrate and Nitrite levels
Materials needed to determine water nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) levels:
filter paper
120-mL plastic containers with lids
eye dropper
nitrate/nitrite test strips
stopwatch or timer
Considerations: Water samples may be taken from drinking water, well water, tile drainage,
drainage ditches, and ponds. Sample surface runoff from fields, which may be a contributing
source of contaminates.
Filter Water Sample (if cloudy)
Collect water sample in the plastic container. Fill to about 1/3 full.
Fold a piece of filter paper as described in Chapter 7--Soil Nitrate Test. Insert filter
paper into the jar and allow the water to seep through the filter paper to the inside. [If
the water sample is clear (no cloudiness or suspended particles), the sample does
not need to be filtered.]
Place Drops on Nitrate and Nitrite Strips

Using the eye dropper, collect a sample of the filtered water. Place 1 or 2 drops of the
filtered solution on each of the strip's two pads. Note the time.
[One pad measures the amount of nitrite and the other measures the amount of nitrite
and nitrate combined.]
Measure and Record Nitrate and Nitrite.
After 30 seconds, measure and record nitrite.

Estimate the nitrite amount according to the degree of color change. Enter the value on
the Soil Data worksheet in ppm from the nitrite scale on the bottle.
After 60 seconds, measure and record nitrate.

Estimate the nitrate amount according to the degree of color change. Enter the value on
the Soil Data worksheet in ppm from the nitrate scale on the bottle.
[Note: Estimate results if colors on test pads fall between two color patches.]
28
B. Estimated Water Salinity Levels

Materials needed to estimate water salinity levels:
EC pocket meter
120-mL plastic containers and lids
distilled water
Considerations: Water samples may be taken from drinking water, well water, tile drainage,
ditches, irrigation water, and ponds.
Collect Sample
Collect water sample in plastic container. Fill to about 1/3 full.
Measure Electrical Conductivity
Insert the EC pocket meter into the water sample. Allow the reading to stabilize (stays
the same for about 10 seconds). Note the digital reading.
Enter the EC reading on the Soil Data worksheet in decisiemens per meter (dS/m). The
DiST WP 4 meter gives readings directly in dS/m. For the Microsensor 4 meter, divide
the reading by 10, and for the Microsensor 3 meter, divide the reading by 100 to get
readings in dS/m. Insert the EC pocket meter into the water sample until the reading
stabilizes (stays the same for about 10 seconds). Note digital reading.
Rinse Pocket Meter

Turn off the meter. Thoroughly rinse the meter with distilled water, and replace cap.
Did You Know?

Healthy soil not only improves crop
performance, it also cleans and stores
water; and prevents runoff and erosion;
and uses nutrients more efficiently,
reducing the need for pesticides.
29
A. References
Arshad, M.A., B. Lowery, and B. Grossman. 1996. Physical tests for monitoring soil quality. p.123142. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. SSSA Spec.
Publ. 49. Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Dick, R.P., D.R. Thomas, and J.J. Halvorson. 1996. Standardized methods, sampling, and sample
pretreatment. p.107-122. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil
quality. SSSA Spec. Publ. 49. Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin,
USA.
Gershuny, G. and J. Smillie. 1995. The soul of soil: A guide to ecological soil management. 3rd ed.
agAccess, Davis, California, USA.
Herrick, J.E., W.G. Whitford, A.G. de Soyza, J.W. Van Zee, K.M. Havstad, C.A. Seybold, M.
Walton. 2001. Soil aggregate stability kit for field-based soil quality and rangeland health
evaluations. Catena 44(1):27-35.
Parkin, T.B. and J.W. Doran. 1996. Field and laboratory tests of soil respiration. p.231-246. In: J.W.
Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. SSSA Spec. Publ. 49. Soil
Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Powell, D. and J. Pratley. 1991. Sustainability kit manual. Centre for Conservation Farming.
Charles Sturt University-Riverina, PO Box 588, Wagga Wagga 2650, Australia.
Rowell, D.L. 1994. Soil science: methods and applications. Longman Scientific & Technical,
Singapore.
Sarantonio, M., J.W. Doran, M.A. Liebig, and J.J. Halvorson. 1996. On-farm assessment of soil
quality and health. p.83-106. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil
quality. SSSA Spec. Publ. 49. Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin,
USA.
Seybold, C.A. and J.E. Herrick. 2001. Aggregate stability kit for soil quality assessments. Catena
44(1):37-45.
Smith, J.L. and J.W. Doran. 1996. Measurement and use of pH and electrical conductivity. p.169186. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. SSSA Spec.
Publ. 49. Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
30
B. Soil Respiration (Alternative Method)

This alternative method uses a kit produced by Woods End 1 known as the Solvita Soil Life Kit1.
Instead of the Draeger tube apparatus, this procedure uses "paddles" inserted into a plastic container with the soil sample (See procedure on page 32). The use of this method eliminates the need
for the Draeger tube (carbon dioxide adsorption tube), needle, and syringe. With the Solvita kits,
results are given in 24 hours instead of 30 minutes with the Draeger method. The color change of
the paddles may also be easier to distinguish than reading the color change off the Draeger tubes.
The Solvita kit also requires the soil to be disturbed and will falsely stimulate microbial activity
similar to the action of tillage. However, when used to compare sites, both soils are disturbed and
the relative differences are noted. This procedure also reduces the effects of root respiration.
Picking out as many roots from the sample as possible will further eliminate their CO 2 contribution. The Solvita kit may be preferred if immediate results are not necessary and the microbial
activity differences without the influence of plant roots are desired.
The Solvita kit comes with well written and user friendly instructions and interpretations. There is
also a trouble shooting guide to help the user. The kit consists of four parts: the sample jar to hold
the correct volume of soil for the test (Figure 1b); a foil-pack containing a special color gel paddle
(Figure 2b); instruction manual; and a color key for reading results (Figure 2b).
Solvita Soil Life kits can be obtained from Woods End Research, Mt. Vernon, ME;
[email protected].
Paddle
Figure 1b
Figure 2b
Trade names are used solely to provide specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee of the
product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture nor does it imply endorsement by the Department or the Natural Resources
Conservation Service over comparable products that are not named.
1
31
The following is part of the instructions from the SOLVITA SOIL LIFE KIT 1:
1
32
C. EC and pH Meter Maintenance and Calibration

EC meter maintenance:
Do not immerse the EC meter above the immersion
level (Figure 1c). Under no circumstances should the
meter be immersed above the display level.
When not in use, switch off the meter and replace the
protective cap.
Immersion
Level
To improve performance, clean the stainless steel

electrodes periodically by rinsing them in alcohol for a
few minutes.
Figure 1c.
Replace all four batteries if the display becomes faint

or disappears or if the readings are unstable or constant.
To change batteries for DiST WP1 models, unscrew the
Batteries
Calibration
Trimmer
top with a coin and replace the batteries (Figure 2c).
EC meter calibration:
Immerse the meter into the calibration solution (1.41
dS/m).
Figure 2c.
Allow the reading to stabilize. Using a small screwdriver, turn the Calibration Trimmer to match the
solution value, 1.41 dS/m (normally at 25 C).
pH meter maintenance:
Crystals
Crystals may appear around the cap (Figure 3c). This

condition is normal. The crystals will dissolve when
rinsed with water.
After use, rinse the electrode with water to

minimize contamination.
Figure 3c.
Store the electrode with a few drops of storage solution (HI 70300L) or pH 7 solution in the
protective cap. DO NOT STORE IN DISTILLED OR DEIONIZED WATER.
Always replace the protective cap after use.

33
Large differences in pH readings ( 0.5 pH) could be

due to lack of calibration, dry electrode, or rundown
batteries.
If the pH meter cannot be switched on or if the display

fades, unscrew the battery compartment and replace all
four batteries, paying attention to their polarity (Figure
4c).
Battery
compartment
Immersion
level
pH meter calibration (pHep 31):

Figure 4c.
Prepare buffer solutions. Only 2 buffers are needed, pH 7 and 4 or 10, depending on the pH
range of your soils (see Figure 5c).
Switch the unit on by pressing the ON/OFF button.

With the meter on, press and hold the ON/OFF button for about three seconds. The display will
start blinking "7.0o" to confirm that you have entered the calibration mode.
Immerse the pH meter in the pH 7 buffer solution. Stir gently and wait approximately 20
seconds.
If "Ec" appears on the display, the pH 7 solution is not fresh, or the electrode is not conditioned.
The pHep 31 meter automatically confirms the pH 7 calibration after the meter is adjusted. The
display will blink "4.0o". After a few seconds, it will display "Ec" to prompt you to use a
second buffer solution.
Rinse the electrode with water and immerse in pH 4 for acidic samples or pH 10 for alkaline
samples. Allow approximately 20 seconds for the meter to auto-confirm the reading. Once the
display stops blinking, the meter is calibrated and ready to use. ALWAYS USE FRESH BUFFERS FOR CALIBRATION.
Figure 5c.
1
34
D. Building a Soil Quality Test Kit

Kit Inventory:
3-inch tube
____ Two 6-inch diameter infiltration rings, 5 inches tall;

cut from 1/8-inch thick aluminum irrigation pipe;
beveled edge on one side (Figure 1d). Mark a line
around the outside of the ring, 2 inches from the top.
____ 12-inch wide roll of plastic wrap.
____ Two 500-mL plastic graduated cylinders. As a substitute, 500-mL plastic bottles or 16 oz. plastic soft
6-inch ring
drink containers can be used (Figure 2d). Mark a
Figure 1d
line around the bottle at the 444 mL level.
____ 2-lb hand sledge or rubber mallet (Figure 3d).
____ 7 3/4-inch long wood block, 2" by 4" (Figure 3d).
____ Two 6-inch lids with septa (stoppers) for respiration
chamber; 6-inch diameter stove-top caps can be used
(Figure 4d). As an alternative, the bottoms from a
#10 can (coffee can) can be cut (1 inch lip) and used
(Figure 5d). The lids should be white or silver to
reduce absorption of heat. Three holes fitted with red
rubber stoppers, for serum or vaccine bottles, are
drilled through the top of the lid to allow for gas
Figure 2d
sampling.
____ Two 6-inch long latex tubing (3/16" x 1/16").
____ Three 18- to 22-guage, 1.5-inch hypodermic needles.
____ 140-cc (mL) plastic syringe (Figure 6d). A 2-mm
hole can be drilled at the end of the syringe handle.
____ Pack of 10 Draeger tubes (0.1% CO2 detection tubes)
[Figure 6d].
____ Soil thermometer (Celsius).
____ Two 3-inch diameter sampling tubes, 5 inches tall;
cut from 1/8-inch thick aluminum irrigation pipe;
Figure 3d
beveled edge on one side (Figure 1d). Mark a line
around the outside of the ring, 2 inches from the top.
____ Flat-bladed knife.
____ Garden trowel (heavy duty) [Figure 7d].
____ 1-qt sealable plastic storage bags.
____ 18-inch long metal rod, 1/8-inch in diameter. As a
substitution, a straightened coat hanger can be used.
____ Calibrated scoop, 30.0 mL (1/8 cup) [Figure 7d].
____ Squirt bottle.
____ Four 120-mL plastic containers with lids (Figure 7d).
As an alternative, any container with lid of similar
Figure 4d
size can be used; e.g., baby food jars.
____ Electrical conductivity meter (0.01-19.99 mS range) [Figure 8d].
35
Stoppers
____ EC calibration standard, 1.41 dS/m (0.01 M KCl).

____ Small screw driver (for EC meter).
____ pH meter (model pHep31) [Figure 8d].
____ Packets of 4, 7 and 10 pH buffers (Figure 9d).
____ Bottle of 25 AquaChek1 nitrate/nitrite test strips
(Figure 10d).
____ Box of filter paper, 12.5-cm diameter, Grade 2 - 5 can
be used (Figure 11d).
____Three standard plastic eyedroppers.
____Tape measure; 6-foot (metric and English units).
____ Small calculator
____ Permanent marker pen
____ 400-watt hair dryer (Figure 12d).
____ 2-mm sieve, 3-inch diameter (Figure 13d).
____ Two 0.25-mm sieves, 2-inch diameter (Figure 14d).
____ Drying chamber, holds two 2-inch sieves (Fig. 15d).
____ Two 6" x 6" sheets of terry cloth.
____ Calgon1 (crystal form).
____ Soil stability kit (18 section tackle box with 18 1.5mm sieve baskets) [Figure 16d].
____ Stopwatch or timer.
____ Finger nail clipper.
____ Paper cups.
Other items needed:
____ Bucket or pan.
____ Mustard powder (optional).
____ Sharpshooter spade or shovel
____ Distilled water.
Syringe
Latex
tubing
Draeger
tubes
Needle
Figure 6d
Garden
trowel
Plastic vial
Scoop
Figure 7d
EC
pH
The kit requires the use of a scale with 0.1 g precision.

Figure 8d
Figure 5d
Figure 9d
1
36
The list on the previous pages describes all the equipment

necessary for building a kit. The following are some listed
items that can be easily constructed.
Construction of 2-mm sieves
1. The 2-mm-opening sieve can be made from No. 10
screens (2-mm openings) cut into discs approximately
75 mm in diameter.
2. The disc periphery is soldered with acid-core solder
and mounted on the lip of 3-inch diameter PVC bushings.
3. A section of PVC (sleeve), dimensions 75 mm in
diameter by 38 mm high (280 lb per inch rating), is
made.
4. PVC cement is placed on the outside wall of the PVC
sleeve, and on the inside wall of the PVC bushing. The
PVC sleeve is pushed down firmly in to the PVC
bushing, so they are cemented together (Figure 13d).
Figure 10d
Construction of 0.25-mm sieves

Figure 11d
The 0.25-mm opening sieves can be made from No. 60
screens (hardware store) cut and mounted on the bottom of
2-inch diameter PVC joints (hardware or plumbing supply
stores) using PVC cement, epoxy, or other thick glue
(Figure14d).
Construction of drying chamber
1. Any plastic container can be used. The container used
here is a 4" x 6" plastic container with lid (Figure 15d).
2. Drill two 2-inch holes in the bottom of the container
(for insertion of 2-inch sieves).
3. Drill four -inch holes in each side of the container,
and a 1-inch hole on one side for insertion of the hair
dryer. A 1-inch rubber grommet can be used to line the
1-inch hole to create a good seal when the hair dryer is
inserted (See Figure 15d).
Figure 12d
To accommodate the drying of more sieves (efficient for a

large number of samples), a bigger container can be used
with more 2-inch holes (Figure 18d). The container
pictured in Figure 18d is a small, trunk-style tackle box
(13.5 x 8 x 6 inches). The inside tray was removed.
Figure 13d
37
Construction of Soil Stability Kit

Construction of Box
1. Obtain a parts or tackle box with a lid; 18 cells,
each cell at least 1" x 1" x 1" deep (Figure 16d).
[sporting goods or hardware store].
2. Seal individual cells in the box with a small bead of
silicone glue or caulk.
Construction of Sieve Baskets (Figure 17d)
Materials:
PVC, 1-inch in diameter, thin wall, about 2 feet long.
Aluminum window screen (1.5-mm openings), 4" x 8"
piece (hardware store).
Adhesive (epoxy or thick glue) [grocery or hardware
store].
Instructions:
1. Beginning at left end of the PVC pipe, make marks at
1-inch intervals; 20 marks are needed.
2. Make a smaller mark to 3/8 inches to the left of all
the first marks.
3. Beginning at left end, cut of the way through the tube
at the first small mark using a hacksaw or bandsaw.
4. Beginning at the left end, use tin snips to make two
lengthwise cuts through the tube, leaving a " diameter
tab (See Figure 17d).
5. Using tin snips or hacksaw, cut through the tube at the
first large (1 inch) interval mark.
6. Repeat steps 6-8 for each of the 20 sieves.
7. Cut 20 1" x 1" squares of aluminum window screen.
8. Glue a window screen square to the bottom of each
sieve.
9. After allowing glue to dry, carefully trim screen to
edge of sieves.
Figure 14d
Figure 15d
Figure 16d
Figure 17d
Figure 18d
38
Outlet for kit items include:

Items Supplied1
Supplier1
Soil quality test kits (standard and deluxe kits)
Murray, Iowa FFA (515) 447-2517
http://www.geocities.com/murray_ffa/
Gempler's Inc.
100 Countryside Dr.
P.O. Box 270
Belleville, WI 53508
(608) 424-1544 or (800) 382-8473
http://www.gemplers.com
A soil quality test kit as described in this manual.

All kit items.
Fisher Scientific
Pittsburgh, PA
Ph. (800) 766-7000
Draeger tubes
Filter paper, pH and EC meters, scales, graduated cylinders,
500-mL bottles, plastic containers, latex tubing, hypodermic needles
Scientific Industries
2207 Blue Bell Ave.
Boulder, CO 80302
Ph. (303) 443-7087
Draeger tubes
Spectrum Technologies
23839 W. Andrew Rd.
Plainfield, IL 60544
Ph. (800) 248-8873
AquaChek nitrate/nitrite test strips

pH and EC meters
scales
Markson Labsales Inc.

P.O. Box 377
Wayne, New Jersey 07474
Ph. (800) 528-5114
EC standard solution (500-mL bottle, 1413 microsiemens)

pH buffer capsules (pH 4, 7 and 10)
Filter paper, pH and EC meters, scales
graduated cylinders, 500-mL bottles, plastic containers
Walgreens
400-watt hair dryer
Forestry Suppliers, Inc.

PO Box 8397
Jackson, MS 39284
Ph. (800) 647-5368
Sieves, scales
ATM Test Sieves

West Allis, WI
Ph. (800) 511-2096
0.25 mm screen (60 mesh)

2.0 mm screen (10 mesh)
Veterinary or medical supply
140-cc syringe
Hardware store
Grocery or discount stores
2-lb hand sledges, tape measures, hand trowels, small screw drivers
Plastic-wrap, 1-qt. sealable bags, 30-mL calibrated scoop
1
39
40
Soil Quality Evaluation Site Description

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such as ponds, creeks, wetlands, and other fragile sites adjacent to the field.
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Soil Quality Test Kit

SECTION II
Background & Interpretive Guide

for Individual Tests
49
Section II
Page
Introduction ..........................................................................................................
51
Background & Interpretive Guides:

1.
Soil Respiration .....................................................................................................
52
2.
Infiltration ............................................................................................................
55
3.
Bulk Density ...........................................................................................................
57
4.
Electrical Conductivity (EC) ...............................................................................
59
5.
Soil pH ....................................................................................................................
63
6.
Soil Nitrate ...........................................................................................................
67
7.
Aggregate Stability ...............................................................................................
69
8.
Soil Slaking ............................................................................................................
72
9.
Earthworms............................................................................................................
73
10. Soil Physical Observations and Estimations ......................................................
75
11. Water Quality .......................................................................................................

Salinity of water
Nitrate/nitrite levels in water
79
50
INTRODUCTION
Soil quality assessment or interpretation should be considered a process through
which soil resources are evaluated on the basis of soil function (what the soil does)
and change in soil function in response to a specific natural or introduced stress, or
management practice. Five vital soil functions have been proposed. They are: (1)
sustaining biological activity, diversity, and productivity; (2) regulating and partitioning of water and solute flow; (3) filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and
detoxifying organic and inorganic materials, including industrial and municipal byproducts and atmospheric deposition; (4) storing and cycling of nutrients and other
elements within the Earths biosphere; and (5) providing support of socioeconomic
structures and protection for archeological treasures associated with human habitation
(Karlen et al., 1997).
It is also important to emphasize that soil quality evaluations must consider
biological, chemical, and physical properties and processes. For interpretation, the
measurements must be evaluated with respect to their long-term trends or signs of
sustainability. A general sequence of how to evaluate soil quality is to (1) define the
soil functions of concern, (2) identify specific soil processes associated with those
functions, and (3) identify soil properties and indicators that are sensitive enough to
detect changes in the functions or soil processes of concern (Carter et al., 1997).
Soil Functions
Indicators
Soil Processes
Section II provides background and interpretive information for each test described in Section I. Each test is considered to be an indication of the level of functioning. However, indicator data is not meaningful unless a baseline or some reference condition is available for comparison or unless relative comparisons between
management systems are made.
References
Carter, M.R., E.G. Gregorich, D.W. Anderson, J.W. Doran, H.H. Janzen, and F.J. Pierce.
1997. Concepts of soil quality and their significance. p. 1-20. In: E.G. Gregorich
and M.R. Carter. (eds.) Soil quality for crop production and ecosystem health.
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.
Karlen, D.L., M.J. Mausbach, J.W. Doran, R.G. Cline, R.F. Harris, and G.E. Schuman.
1997. Soil quality: A concept, definition, and framework for evaluation. Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 61:4-10.
51
1. Soil Respiration
Introduction
Soil respiration is the production of carbon dioxide (CO2) as a result of biological activity in the
soil by microorganisms, live roots, and macroorganisms such as earthworms, nematodes, and insects
(Parkin et al., 1996). Carbon dioxide emitted from soil is a colorless and odorless gas that enters the
atmosphere and annually exceeds the amount emitted by all human activities (Volk, 1994). The activity
of organisms in the soil is considered to be a positive attribute for soil quality.
Soil respiration is highly variable both spatially and seasonally, and is strongly affected by
moisture and temperature conditions. Because this variability can complicate interpretations, certain
sampling precautions must be taken.
Knowing the history of the sampling site and characteristics of nearby soils becomes very
important when evaluating respiration. Soil color may provide some assistance when interpreting
respiration rates. A light colored soil with a high respiration rate may be indicative of a soil being
depleted of organic matter. A relatively darker soil with the same rate could be considered healthy.
The dark color indicates the presence of organic matter. Tillage or cultivation can result in loss of
soil carbon (C) and increases in the amount of CO2 released. The soil is loosened, which creates
better accessibility of oxygen necessary for organic matter decomposition and respiration, resulting in CO2 release (Reicosky and Lindstrom, 1995).
Interpretations
When comparing soil respiration rates from different sites or from the same site at different times,
differences in soil temperature and soil water content must be taken into account. Soil temperature
corrections can be performed using the general rule that biological activity increases by a factor of 2
with each 10EC increase in temperature (Parkin et al., 1996). The following equation can be used to
standardize (to 25EC) for differences in soil temperatures that are between 15 and 35EC:
Standardized soil respiration rate = soil respiration rate x 2[(25-T)10]
For soil temperatures between 0 and 15EC, the following equation is used:
Standardized soil respiration rate = soil respiration x 4[(25-T)10]
For example, if you had a soil respiration rate of 15 CO2-C lbs/a/d and soil temperature of 22EC,
the first equation listed above would be used, and the standardized soil respiration rate would be
calculated as follows:
1.
[(25 - 22) 10] = 0.3
2.
20.3 = 1.2
3.
(15 CO2-C lbs/a/d) x 1.2 = 18 CO2-C lb/a/d (standardized respiration rate at 25EC)
Standardization for differences in soil water content must also be taken into account. Maximum
52
microbial activity generally occurs when 60% of the soil pores are filled with water (Parkin et
al., 1996). The amount of water in the pore space is referred to as water-filled pore space (WFPS),
and gives an indication of how well aerated the soil is at the time of sampling.
Water-filled pore space (%) = (volumetric water content x 100) [1 - (soil bulk density 2.65)]
Soil respiration can be adjusted to equivalent values at 60% WFPS through the following equation for
WFPS values between 30 and 60% (Parkin et al., 1996):
Soil respiration60 = soil respiration rate x (60 measured %WFPS)
For WFPS values between 60 and 80%, the following equation is used:
Soil respiration60 = soil respiration rate [(80 - %WFPS) x 0.03] + 0.4
When the soil water content or WFPS exceeds 80%, soil respiration may be restricted by the wet
conditions and should not be measured. The relationship between WFPS and soil respiration has been
evaluated primarily in the laboratory and remains to be tested in the field (Parkin et al., 1996).
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53
A high soil respiration rate, indicative of high biological activity, can be a good sign of rapid
decomposition of organic residues into nutrients available for plant growth. However, decomposition
of the stable organic matter is detrimental to many physical and chemical processes such as aggregation, cation exchange, and water holding capacity. Also, immediately following a tillage operation,
CO2 evolution can rise dramatically due to exposure of organic matter to organisms and oxygen. Also,
soil respiration can rise dramatically after rainfall (Rochette et al., 1991). The rise in soil respiration
is affected by the length of time the soil is dry before the rainfall event.
Under dry conditions, soil respiration tends to be higher in the crop row than in the interrow
(Rochette et al., 1991). The higher respiration rates are attributed to the contribution from plant roots.
Under wet conditions, there tends to be no difference in respiration between the row and interrow.
When the soil interrow is compacted (wheel track) and the soil is wet, soil respiration tends to be
lower than in the row. The lower soil porosity accounts for the lower respiration rate under compacted conditions.
Biological activity is a direct reflection of the degradation of organic matter in the soil. This
degradation indicates that two processes are occurring: (1) loss of soil carbon and (2) turnover of
nutrients (Parkin et al., 1996). Some optimum soil respiration rate, that balances the long-term detrimental aspects of soil carbon loss and soil nutrient turnover, must be defined .
Conversions
kg CO2-C/ha/d = lbs CO2-C/a/d x 1.12
g CO2-C/m2/d = lbs CO2-C/a/d 11.2
kg CO2-C/ha/d = g CO2-C/m2/d x 10
References
Doran, J.W., T. Kettler, M. Liebig, and M. Tsivou. 1997. Solvita soil test evaluation, personal
communication.
Parkin, T.B, J.W. Doran, and E. Franco-Vizcaino. 1996. Field and laboratory tests of soil respiration. p.231-246. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil
Sci.Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Prochette, P., R.L. Desjardins, and E. Pattey. 1991. Spatial and temporal variability of soil respiration in agricultural fields. Can. J. Soil Sci. 71:189-196.
Volk, T. 1994. The soils breath. Natural History November/94.
Woods End Research. 1997. Guide to solvita testing and managing your soil. Woods End Research
Laboratory, Inc., Mt. Vernon, ME.
54
2. Infiltration
Introduction
Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil. The rate at which water enters the soil is the
infiltration rate, which is dependent on the soil type; soil structure, or amount of aggregation; and the
soil water content (Lowery et al., 1996). The initial soil water content at time of measurement affects
the ability of the soil to pull additional water into the soil. Therefore, the infiltration rate will be
higher when the soil is dry than when it is wet. This factor is important when comparing infiltration
measurements of different soils. The soils should have similar moisture content when taking the
measurements.
Tillage will affect the infiltration rate. Immediately after tillage, improved infiltration may occur
due to the loosening of surface crusts or compacted areas. Tillage fluffs up the soil. However, tillage
further disrupts aggregates and soil structure, creating the potential for compaction, surface crusting,
and loss of continuous surface connected pores. Compacted soils will have less pore space, resulting
in lower infiltration rates. Soils that tend to form surface crusts, which seal the soil surface, can have
severely reduced infiltration rates.
Interpretations
Since infiltration is affected by the initial water content at the time of measurement, it is important
that the soil water content be similar when comparing infiltration rates from different sites. The
infiltration test in the soil quality kit requires two 1-inch depths of water to be applied consecutively.
Application of the first inch of water is used to wet the soil, and the second inch of water determines
the infiltration rate. This procedure is an attempt to standardize the soils for differences in initial
water content. Infiltration rates are best determined when the soil is at or near field capacity, usually
12 to 48 hours after the soil has been thoroughly wetted (i.e., soaking rain or irrigation).
The infiltration rate is sensitive to near-surface conditions and is subject to significant change
with soil use, management, and time. It is affected by the development of plant roots, earthworm
burrows, soil aggregation, and by overall increases in stable organic matter (Sarrantonio et al., 1996).
Infiltration is rapid into large continuous pores in the surface. Infiltration is decreased when the size
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55
or amount of pore space is reduced from conditions such as structure breakdown, pore clogging
by lodged particles, or slower movement of deeper water as it reaches denser subsoils (Donahue et
al., 1977).
Texture, or the percentage of sand, silt, and clay will affect the infiltration rate. Usually sandy
soils will have rapid infiltration rates. Some typical values for steady infiltration rates (After long
continuous wetting, the rate of infiltration becomes steady.) for general soil texture groups are shown
in Table 2. However, the values in Table 2 can be considerably higher in well aggregated or cracked
soils and during initial stages of wetting; these values can be lower if surface crusting occurs (Hillel,
1982). Soil structure greatly influences the movement of water into the soil.
Table 3 shows the infiltration rate in minutes per inch and inches per hour and the associated
infiltration class. These classes are the soil permeability classes historically used in Soil Survey.
Classes are estimated from soil properties and indicate a steady infiltration rate.
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References
Donahue, R.L., R.W. Miller, J.C. Shickluna. 1977. Soils: An introduction to soils and plant growth.
Prentice Hill, Englewood, New Jersey.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to soil physics. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Lowery, B., M.A. Arshad, R. Lal, and W.J. Hickey. 1996. Soil water parameters and soil quality.
p.143-157. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
56
3. Bulk Density
Introduction
Bulk density is defined as the ratio of oven-dried soil (mass) to its bulk volume, which includes
the volume of particles and the pore space between the particles. It is dependent on the densities of
the soil particles (sand, silt, clay, and organic matter) and their packing arrangement. Mineral particle
densities usually range from 2.5 to 2.8 g/cm3, while organic particles are usually less than 1.0 g/cm3.
Bulk density is a dynamic property that varies with the structural condition of the soil. This condition
can be altered by cultivation; trampling by animals; agricultural machinery; and weather; i.e., raindrop
impact (Arshad et al., 1996). Compacted soil layers have high bulk densities, restrict root growth, and
inhibit the movement of air and water through the soil.
Interpretations
Soil bulk density can serve as an indicator of compaction and relative restrictions to root growth
(See Table 4). Typical soil bulk densities range from 1.0 to 1.7 g/cm3, and generally increase with
depth in the soil profile (Arshad et al., 1996). In soils containing high amounts of swelling clays, bulk
densities will vary with the water content, which should be measured at the time of sampling.
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Comments
Bulk density values are also required for converting soil water content in percent by weight (gravimetric) to percent by volume (volumetric):
Volumetric water content (g/cm3) = soil water content (g/g) x bulk density (g/cm3)
and to calculate porosity, which is the amount of pore space in the soil:
soil porosity (%) = 1 - (soil bulk density 2.65).
References
Arshad, M.A., B. Lowery, and B. Grossman. 1996. Physical tests for monitoring soil quality. p.123142. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
58
4. Electrical Conductivity
Introduction
The electrical conductivity (EC) of soil-water mixtures indicates the amount of salts present in
the soil. All soils contain some salts, which are essential for plant growth. However, excess salts
will hinder plant growth by affecting the soil-water balance. Soils containing excess salts occur
both naturally and as a result of soil use and management. Salt-affected soils are largely found in
the western arid and semiarid areas of the country, where the annual rainfall is low, allowing salts
to accumulate in the soil profile. The electrical conductivity measurement detects the amount of
cations or anions (salts) in solution; the greater the amount of anions or cations, the greater the
electrical conductivity reading. The ions generally associated with salinity are Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+,
H+ (cations), or NO3-, SO4-, Cl-, HCO3-, OH- (anions).
Interpretations
In general, EC1:1 values between 0 and 0.8 dS/m are acceptable for general crop growth. Site
specific interpretations for soil quality will depend on specific land use and crop tolerance. Table 5
shows the soil salinity class and general crop and microbial responses for each class.
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59
Table 6 provides general salt tolerance ratings for selected crops. These ratings apply to soils
in which chloride (Cl ) is the predominant anion. The EC of soils containing gypsum will tolerate
1 dS/m higher than those listed in this table (Tanji, 1990). Consult a local Soil Survey to determine
if gypsum is present in the soil of interest.
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balance in the plant; (3) interfering with nutrient uptake; e.g., blossom-end rot of tomatoes due to
high salt interference with calcium uptake; and (4) reducing the availability of water by lowering
the osmotic potential (Fitter and Hay, 1987). Excess sodium (Na+), often expressed as exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), can deteriorate soil structure by dispersing soil clays.
Considerations
The electrical conductivity of a solution is affected by temperature. Generally the electrical
conductivity of a solution increases with temperature at a rate of approximately 1.9% per 1EC
increase (Rhoades, 1993). The conductivities in Table 5 are standardized at 25EC. Most EC meters
adjust for deviations from 25EC within a specific temperature range. Therefore, conductivity
measurements must be taken within this temperature range (Refer to instructions packaged with
the meter.) to avoid under- or overestimating the electrical conductivity.
Generally, the effects of soil moisture on the EC measurement will be negligible when soil
water content is at or below field capacity. If water content is above field capacity, adjustments
should be made to maintain a 1:1 ratio of soil to water. Another approach would be to air-dry the
soil if it is too wet.
61
When distilled water is not available, tap or rain water can be used. Measure the conductivity of the water source, and subtract the water source EC value from the sample EC value.
The relationship between electrical conductivity and salt concentration is only approximate.
General relationships that have been established are (Rhoades, 1996):
1) Total cation (or anion) concentration: meq/L 10 x EC (dS/m).
2) Total dissolved solids: mg/L 640 x EC (dS/m).
3) Osmotic pressure: kPa (at 25EC) 36 x EC (dS/m).
Where NO3- is the predominant ion in the soil solution, a very useful relationship has been
established between the EC (in 1:1 soil to water mixture) readings and soil nitrate (NO3-) concentrations (Smith and Doran, 1996).
EC (dS/m) x 140 mg NO3--N/kg of soil
This relationship assumes the complete extractability of NO3- in water and that NO3- is the major
anion in the soil solution.
Conversions
1 dS/m (decisiemens per meter) = 1 mmhos/cm (millimhos per centimeter)
1 dS/m (decisiemens per meter) = 1000 FS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter)
1000 FS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter) = mS/cm (millisiemens per centimeter)
References
Fitter, A.H. and R.K.M. Hay. 1987. Environmental physiology of plants. Academic Press, London.
Hogg, T.J. and J.L. Henry. 1984. Comparison of 1:1 suspensions and extracts with the saturation
extract in estimating salinity in Saskatchewan soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 64:699-704.
Janzen, H.H. 1993. Soluble salts. p. 161-166. In: M.R. Carter (ed.) Soil sampling and methods of
analysis. Canadian Society of Soil Science. Lewis Publ., Boca Raton.
Rhoades, J.D. 1993. Electrical conductivity methods for measuring and mapping soil salinity. p.
201-251. In: D.L. Sparks (eds.) Advances in agronomy, Vol. 49. Academic Press, Inc., San
Diego, CA.
Rhoades, J.D. 1996. Salinity: Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids. p.417-435. In: D.L.
Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis: Part. 3-chemical methods. Book Series no. 5. SSSA
and ASA, Madison, WI.
Smith, J.L. and J.W. Doran. 1996. Measurement and use of pH and electrical conductivity for soil
quality analysis. p. 169-185. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil
quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Soil Survey Staff. 1993. Soil survey manual. United States Department of Agriculture. Hnbk no.
18. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Tanji, K.K. (ed.). 1990. Agricultural salinity assessment and management (Manual No. 71). Prepared by Subcommittee on Salinity Manual of the Committee on Water Quality of the Irrigation and Drainage Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers. American Society of
Civil Engineers, New York.
62
5. Soil pH
Introduction
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil, which affects the availability of plant
nutrients, activity of microorganisms, and the solubility of soil minerals. Major factors affecting
soil pH are temperature and rainfall, which control the intensity of leaching and soil mineral
weathering. Acidity is generally associated with leached soils; alkalinity generally occurs in drier
regions. However, agricultural practices, such as liming or addition of ammonium fertilizers, can
alter soil pH. The pH measurement is actually measuring the hydrogen ion activity [H+] in the soil
solution.
Interpretations
In general, pH values between 6 and 7.5 are optimum for general crop growth. Site specific
interpretations for soil quality will depend on specific land use and crop tolerance.
Figure 1. Soil pH, ranges for pH classes, and associated soil conditions. Adapted from the National
Soil Survey Manual (1993) and Troeh and Thompson (1993).
63
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Nutrient Availability
Soil pH affects the availability of nutrients
to plants or crops (Figure 2). Nutrient
availability is affected by changes in the
solubility of soil minerals. Most minerals
are more soluble in acid soils than in
neutral or slightly basic soils. The greatest
availability for most nutrients is between
pH 6 and 7 (Figure 2). Where nutrients are
shown interlocking in Figure 2, those
nutrients at that pH combine to form
insoluble compounds, reducing their
availability. Soil pH also affects the
activity of beneficial microorganisms,
which affects nutrient availability. In
general, fungi function at a wide pH range,
but bacteria and actinomycetes function
better at intermediate and higher pH.
Comments
The presence of salts affects soil pH
by decreasing the reading by 0.2 to 0.3 pH
units (Thomas, 1996). To mask the effects
of salts, a 0.01 M CaCl2 solution has been
commonly used instead of distilled water.
Declining pH is a sign of inefficient N
use where ammonia based fertilizers are
used (see Smith and Doran, 1996).
Figure 2. Nutrient availability based on pH of

mineral soils (Soils Handbook, Kentucky Agr. Exp.
Stn. Misc. 383, 1970, p.28).
References
Brady, N.C. 1990. The nature and properties of soils. 10th ed. Macmillan Publ., New York.
Smith, J.L. and J.W. Doran. 1996. Measurement and use of pH and electrical conductivity for soil
quality analysis. p. 169-185. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil
quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Soil Survey Staff. 1993. Soil survey manual. United States Department of Agriculture. Hnbk no.
18. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Thomas, G.W. 1996. Soil pH and soil acidity. p.475-489. In: D.L. Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil
analysis: Part 3-chemical methods. Book Series no. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI.
Treoh, F.R. and L.M. Thompson. 1993. Soils and soil fertility. 5th ed. Oxford Univ. Press, New
York.
Whittaker, C.W., M.S. Anderson, and R.F. Reitemeier. 1959. Liming soils, an aid to better farming.
USDA Farmers Bul. 2124.
66
6. Soil Nitrate
Introduction
Soil nitrate (NO3-) is a form of inorganic nitrogen (N) that is available for use by plants. It
forms from the mineralization (by microorganisms) of organic forms of N (i.e., soil organic matter,
crop residue, and manure) in the soil. The rate of N mineralization is dependent on the amount of
soil organic N, water content, temperature, pH, and aeration. Crop needs are met by soil-derived
mineral-N and by fertilizer-N. Efficient management of soil N requires knowledge of crop needs
for N and the amount of soil-derived N. Nitrate is mobile in soil, so it can be leached with percolating water below the root zone. All soils lose a small amount of nitrate to groundwater, including
soils under natural vegetation. When amounts leach that are greater than what occurs naturally, we
need to be concerned. Nitrate is not a contaminant until it leaches below the root zone or is transported off-site in surface runoff. When leached to groundwater, there is a human and animal health
risk. In surface water systems, nitrate can contribute to euthrophication.
Interpretations
The amount of residual nitrate-N in the soil at any one time is a function of the rate at which
microorganisms decompose soil organic matter (Figure 3). This rate is dependent on temperature,
moisture, aeration, type of organic residues, pH, and other factors (Dahnke and Johnson, 1990).
Also, once soil nitrate has formed, it is subject to leaching, fixation, denitrification, and plant
uptake (Figure 3). Therefore, it is difficult to interpret the nitrate-N content in terms of how much
and when N will be available to meet crop needs. However, residual nitrate-N tests can be useful in
determining fertilizer-N needs of crops in certain regions during specific times of the year and at
specific crop growth stages (Dahnke and Johnson, 1996). For interpretations of residual nitrateN tests for crop needs, consult local or regional calibrations.
Any amount of nitrate in the soil that is not used by the crop may potentially be leached from
the root zone and become an environmental liability. Nitrate is not adsorbed on to soil particles
unless they have a positive charge. Therefore, nitrate can readily move with percolating water out
of the root zone and into groundwater or into surface waters through subsurface flow (Figure 3).
Acidic soils of the humid tropics contain a significant amount of positively charged soil particles
which can hold nitrate and keep it from leaching.
Nitrogen Cycling
In general, soil nitrate levels will change significantly during the course of the year and from
week to week. Soil nitrogen is continuously cycling, moving from one form to another (Figure 3).
It is derived primarily from atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2). Soil microorganisms fix N2 to produce
organic nitrogen, which becomes part of the soil organic matter. The decomposition of organic
matter converts some organic nitrogen into mineral nitrogen (mineralization). Ammonium (NH4+)
produced by mineralization (an intermediate step) can be converted to nitrate by specific microorganisms (nitrification). The nitrate formed is then available for uptake by plants or microorganisms and is converted to organic forms of nitrogen (immobilization). Under water logged or
anaerobic conditions, nitrate may be substituted for oxygen and ultimately released to the atmo
67
sphere as elemental nitrogen or nitrous oxide gas (N2 or N2O) [denitrification]. Each N transformation depends on the activity and abundance of a specific population of microorganisms that
require different sets of optimal environmental conditions.
Primary sources of nitrates:
addition of fertilizers
containing nitrate,
microbial conversion of
ammonium fertilizers to
nitrate-N,
microbial conversion of
organic N (i.e., soil
organic matter and
manures) to nitrate-N.
Primary fates of nitrates:
utilization by microorganisms or
Figure 3. Generalized soil nitrogen cycle.
plant roots (immobilization)
leached below the root zone
moved off-site in surface runoff
microbial conversion of nitrate-N to nitrogen gas
Comments
The nitrate/nitrite test strips can determine both nitrate and nitrite concentrations (two test
pads on each test strip). Nitrite levels in soils are usually not detectable (in a transition state);
therefore, its measurement is not warranted. The nitrate test pad on the test strip measures the sum
of both nitrate-N and nitrite-N present in the sample. If nitrite is detected in the sample, the
amount can be subtracted from the nitrate reading to get the actual amount of nitrate-N in the
sample.
Spring soil nitrate-N tests can be used to assess the effectiveness of soil and cropping management practices in providing sufficient N for optimal crop yields. For example, for corn in the
Midwest, values of 20-25 ppm nitrate-N in top foot (30 cm) of soil are needed (14-16 ppm is the
threshold for soils receiving manure or having alfalfa or soybeans as the previous crop) [Allan et
al., 1996; page 196].
References
Allan, D.L. and R. Killorn. 1996. Assessing soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for crop
nutrition and environmental risk. p.187-201. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for
assessing soil quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Dahnke, W.C. and G.V. Johnson. 1990. Testing soils for available nitrogen. p.127-139. In: R.L.
Westerman (ed.) Soil testing and plant analysis. 3rd ed. SSSA Book Series 3. SSSA, Madison,
WI.
68
7. Aggregate Stability
Introduction
Aggregate stability is a measure of the vulnerability of soil aggregates to external destructive
forces (Hillel, 1982). An aggregate consists of several soil particles bound together. The destructive force in this test is flowing water. Aggregates that stand up to the forces of water are called
water stable aggregates (WSA). In general, the greater the percentage of stable aggregates, the less
erodible the soil will be. Soil aggregates are a product of the soil microbial community, the soil
organic and mineral components, the nature of the above-ground plant community, and ecosystem
history. They are important in the movement and storage of soil water and in soil aeration, erosion,
root development, and microbial community activity (Tate, 1995). Breakdown of aggregates is the
first step to crust development and surface sealing, which impedes water infiltration and increases
erosion. Soil aggregation can change over a period of time, such as in a season or year. Aggregates
can form, disintegrate, and reform periodically (Hillel, 1982).
Interpretations
The percentage of water stable aggregates indicates the amount resistant to disturbance by flowing
water. In general, greater amounts of stable aggregates are better for soil quality.
Aggregates improve soil quality by:
protecting soil organic matter entrapped in the aggregates from exposure to air and microbial
decomposition,
decreasing soil erodibility,
improving water and air movement (Aggregates increase the amount of large pore spaces.),
improving the physical environment for root growth,
improving soil organism habitat.
Aggregate stability is affected by the amount and type of the following soil constituents (Kemper,
1966):
Soil Organic Matter content:
Aggregate stability generally increases with organic matter content (Table 1). The effect is
more pronounced in soils containing small amounts of clay. Generally, increases in organic
matter above 2% do not increase aggregate stability appreciably.
Soil Clay content:
Aggregate stability is affected by the amount and type of clay in the soil and generally
increases with clay content (Table 1). This effect decreases at higher clay contents (Table
1). In general, high surface-area clays (i.e., montmorillonite) tend to cause greater aggregation than low surface-area clays (i.e., kaolinite).
Aluminum and Iron Oxide content:
Aggregate stability generally increases with free iron oxide content. In general, free aluminum oxides do not appreciably increase aggregate stability.
Calcium Carbonate content:
The calcium carbonate content generally does not appreciably affect aggregate stability.
69
Exchangeable Sodium content:

Aggregate stability decreases with increasing amounts of exchangeable sodium. In general,
water stable aggregates are nonexistent in soils with greater than 20% exchangeable Na+.
Table 8 contains suitable values for aggregate stability based on soil organic matter and clay
content. A suitable range of values could be developed for a soil using the aggregate stability
values for the organic matter content and clay content as end members to the range. For example,
for a soil with 2% organic matter and 10% clay, the suitable aggregate stability range (taken from
Table 8) would be 65 to 75% water stable aggregates.
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Soil aggregates are divided into two general groups based on aggregate size (diameter):
Microaggregates (less than 250 Fm) consist of primary soil particles and smaller
microaggregates bound together. Binding agents include:
humified organic matter (organic polymers)
polyvalent metals or cations
roots and fungal hyphae
polysaccharides
plant and microbial debris (encrusted)
iron and aluminum amorphous oxides
Macroaggregates (> 250 Fm) consist of microaggregates bound together. Major binding
agents are:
fungal hyphae
fibrous roots
polysaccharides
70
iron and aluminum oxides (soils that contain more than 10% iron and aluminum oxides)
The size of the water stable aggregates measured in the soil quality kit are macroaggregates.
Macroaggregates form readily under the following conditins:
under pasture or forage grasses (dense, fibrous root mass),
where organic residues have been added,
where large amounts of microaggregates (< 250 Fm diameter) are present.
Differences between micro- and macroaggregates include the following:
Macroaggregates are more sensitive to changes in management than microaggregates and thus,
are considered a better indicator of changes in soil quality. Macroaggregate stability depends
on management because of the transient nature of the binding agents.
Macroaggregates form more rapidly than microaggregates.
Carbon is more stable in microaggregates than in macroaggregates.
Microaggregates are more water stable than macroaggregates.
When the proportion of macro- to microaggregates increases, soil quality increases.
Considerations and Comments
The temperature of the water used to sieve the soils should be maintained within the range of
22 to 25EC (71.5 to 77EF). At higher water temperatures, aggregate stability tends to decrease.
To make observational estimations of aggregate stability or relative comparisons, weighing
and drying of the aggregates are not necessary.
When dry aggregates are wetted up too quickly at atmospheric pressure, disintegration and
slaking can result. Upon rapid wetting, capillary water entering the pores causes air entrapped
inside the aggregate pores to increase in pressure causing them to rupture (Kemper and Rosenau,
1986).
References
Angers, D.A. and G.R. Mehuys. 1993. Aggregate stability to water. p. 651-658. In: M.R. Carter
(ed.) Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Canadian Soc. Soil Sci., Lewis Publ., Boca
Raton.
Arshad, M.A., B. Lowery, and B. Grossman. 1996. Physical tests for monitoring soil quality. p.123142. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to soil physics. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Kemper, W.D. 1966. Aggregate stability of soils from western United States and Canada. USDA
Tech. Bull. no. 1355. U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D.C.
Kemper, W.D. and R.C. Rosenau. 1986. Aggregate stability and size distribution. p. 425-442. In: A.
Klute (ed.) Methods of soil analysis: Part I, physical and mineralogical methods. American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Tate, R.L. 1995. Soil microbiology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Tisdall, J.M. and J.M. Oades. 1982. Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci.
33:141-163.
71
8. Soil Slaking
Introduction
Slaking is the process of fragmentation that occurs when aggregates are suddenly immersed in
water (Chan and Mullins, 1994). Slaking occurs because the aggregates are not strong enough to
withstand the stresses of rapid water uptake. At fast rates of wetting, internal stresses arise from
differential swelling and air entrapment in the soil aggregate (Kay, 1998). These stresses may be
released through the creation of an increasingly extensive network of failure zones in the soil
fragments or aggregates. The differences between tests of aggregate stability and slaking are the
type of stress applied and the size of aggregates or soil fragments used. The slake test is a qualitative and simpler test to perform. The two tests may not necessarily yield the same results.
Interpretations
The slake test in the kit yields a stability rating of 0 to 6 (Herrick, 1998). Soil fragments or
aggregates which fall into classes 0 to 3 are relatively unstable. Class 4 indicates some stability, but
very little strength. Classes 5 and 6 represent relatively stable soil fragments or aggregates. Soil
strength relates to the ability of the soil to resist loss of its structure.
Stability ratings of soil surface crust fragments are interpreted differently. Soil crust formation in
agricultural systems reduces the capacity of the soil to function (i.e., soil crusts can reduce air and
water movement into the soil and can inhibit seedling germination). In general, weakly formed or
unstable crusts are better than very strong or stable crusts, which have a greater potential to lower soil
quality. The subsurface fragments or aggregates directly beneath the crust are tested to provide an
indication of the potential for future slaking and crusting of the soil (potential of crust formation).
Slaking is affected by:
the soil water content,
rate of wetting,
texture,
clay mineralogy, and
organic matter content.
Slaking is more severe when the soil is initially dry than when it is moist. For loamy soils, the
pressure of entrapped air has been shown to be more important. For clayey soils, differential swelling
was shown as the more important process (Chan and Mullins, 1994). In general, organic matter can
influence both the rate of wetting and the resistance to stress generated during wetting (Kay, 1998).
The stability of aggregates is strongly dependant on the rate of wetting; therefore, aggregate stability
declines as the rate of wetting increases.
References
Chan, K.Y. and C.E. Mullins. 1994. Slaking characteristics of some Australian and British soils.
European J. of Soil Sci. 45:273-283.
Herrick, J.E. 1998. Manual for monitoring and assessing rangeland health. USDA-ARS.
Kay, B.D. 1998. Soil structure and organic carbon: A review. p.169-197. In: R. Lal, J.M. Kimble, R.F.
Follett, and B.A. Stewart (ed.) Soil processes and the carbon cycle. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
72
9. Earthworms
Introduction
Earthworm populations may vary with site characteristics (food availability and soil conditions), season, and species. Populations are highly variable in space and time, which can range
from less than 10 to greater than 10,000 individuals per square meter (Curry, 1998). However, not
all areas or soils support earthworms. Either they were not introduced, or environmental conditions are not favorable. Earthworms generally increase soil microbial activity and soil chemical
fertility and enhance soil physical properties.
Interpretations
2
About 10 earthworms per square foot of soil (100 worms/m ) is generally considered a good
population in agricultural
systems. Populations generally do not exceed 20 per square foot of soil
2
(200 worms/m ) in cultivated systems (Edwards, 1983). In grassland systems, populations can
2
generally range up to about 50 per square foot of soil (500 worms/m ) [Edwards, 1983]. The hand
digging method does not capture certain deep-burrowing or fast moving earthworm species. However, hand digging is one of the best methods available.
Earthworms improve soil quality by:
increasing the availability of nutrients. (Available plant nutrients (N, P, & K) tend to be higher
in fresh earthworm casts than in the bulk soil.) [Edwards et al., 1995];
accelerating the decomposition of organic matter by incorporating litter into the soil and
activating both mineralization and humification processes;
improving soil physical properties, such as aggregation and soil porosity;
suppressing certain pests or disease organisms; and
enhancing beneficial microorganisms.
Earthworms and soil aggregation processes:
Fresh earthworm casts are often highly dispersed, nearly saturated masses of soil, which are
unstable and susceptible to erosion (Edwards et al., 1995). As earthworm casts age, they can
become more stable. The organic matter content, wet-dry cycles, and fungal hyphae and other
microbial products help to stabilize casts over time and improve the aggregation of soil.
In general, the more sensitive the soil is to physical disturbance, the more effective casting is
for stable aggregation but less effective for tensile strength (Schrader and Zhang, 1997).
Factors affecting earthworm populations include the following (Curry, 1998):
Tillage
Tillage generally kills about 25% of the earthworm population. The indirect effects of
tillage affects the remaining population. These indirect effects include increases in surface
temperature, decreased soil moisture regimes, reduced litter input, and more rapid oxidation (decomposition) of crop residues.
Earthworm populations are often greater under no-till than under conventional tillage.
Large populations of both surface-dwelling and deep-burrowing earthworms are often
73
associated with improved soil physical conditions. Higher infiltration rates often occur in notill than in conventional tillage systems due to (in part) the large number of macropores
from earthworm activity.
Temperature
The optimum temperature range for earthworms is between 10 and 20EC. The upper lethal
range is 25 to 35EC. Few species can tolerate temperatures below 0EC. Many species have
behavioral and/or physiological adaptations that enable them to survive unfavorable conditions.
Soil Properties
Medium textured soils are more favorable for earthworms than sandy or clayey soils.
Depth of aeration in soils affects the deep-burrowing species.
Soil pH affects earthworm populations. Earthworms are usually absent in soils with pH
less than 3.5 and are scarce in soils with pH between 3.5 and 4.5. The majority of the
earthworms live in soils with pH between 5.0 and 7.4.
Quality and amount of food (organic matter) affect earthworm distribution and abundance.
Food Source
Litter, or organic, residue on the soil surface is the primary food source for earthworms in most
ecosystems. However, dead roots and root exudates can also be important food sources. If the
physical and chemical environments are not limiting, the quality and quantity of litter input
frequently determines earthworm abundance.
Soil Disturbance
Earthworm populations are generally higher in undisturbed soil systems.
Population size depends on the severity and frequency of soil disturbance.
If the soil disturbance is not repeated, earthworm populations can recover fairly rapidly
(within a few years).
Soil Moisture
Soil moisture restrictions generally determine earthworm distributions and their activity.
Agrochemicals
Pesticides, especially insecticides, can affect earthworm populations. The majority of
triazine herbicides (i.e., atrazine, simazine, and cyanizine) are slightly toxic. Carbamatebased fungicides (i.e., carbendazim, benomyl, and thiophanate-methyl) are very toxic.
Organophosphates (i.e., phorate, isozophos, chlorpyrifos, and ethoprophos) and most of the
carbamate-based insecticides (i.e., carbaryl, carbofuran, methomy, and methiocarb) are
toxic. Most of the nematicides (i.e., D-D, metham-sodium, and methyl bromide) have been
reported to be toxic to earthworms (Edwards et al., 1995).
Regular use of ammonium sulfate and anhydrous ammonia and sulfate coated urea has been
shown to decrease earthworm populations (Edwards et al., 1995).
References
Curry, J.P. 1998. Factors affecting earthworm abundance in soils. p.37-64. In: C.A. Edwards (ed.)
Earthworm ecology. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Edwards, C.A. 1983. Earthworm ecology in cultivated systems. p.123-137. In: J.E. Satchell (ed.)
Earthworm ecology: From Darwin to vermiculture. Chapman and Hill, London.
Edwards, C.A., P.J. Bohlen, D.R. Linden, and S. Subler. 1995. Earthworms in agroecosystems.
p.185-206. In: P.F. Hendrix (ed.) Earthworm ecology and biogeography. Lewis, Boca Raton.
Schrader, S. and J. Zhang. 1997. Earthworm casting: stabilization or destabilization of soil structure. Soil Biol. Biochem. 29:469-475.
74
10. Soil Physical Observations and Estimations

Topsoil Depth
Topsoil depth is important for water storage and nutrient supply for plant growth. Generally,
removal of the topsoil will result in loss of soil fertility, water-holding capacity, soil organic
carbon content, and productivity. Measurements of topsoil depth over time provide a good estimate of soil loss (erosion).
Interpretations
Change in topsoil thickness is usually a result of wind erosion, water erosion, deposition of
material, or land leveling. Eroded soils will commonly have a reduced Ap horizon (plow layer) or
topsoil thickness. Natural erosion occurs in the absence of human disturbances. However, it is the
accelerated erosion caused by plowing, burning, overgrazing, and other management practices that
remove the protective vegetative cover and results in loss of soil quality.
Root Growth
Depth of soil to a layer that would restrict root growth strongly affects crop production. Factors that influence rooting depth include high salt content and depth to bedrock, stone layer, hard
pan, frozen layer, and water table (Arshad et al., 1996).
When continuous pores are present in the soil, roots will grow through these pores as a result
of the low mechanical impedance. The distribution of roots in the soil profile is a function of soil
depth, thickness, and mechanical resistance of the root-impeding soil layers (Bennie, 1996).
Interpretations
Roots growing through restrictive soil layers undergo morphological changes, particularly
root stunting and thickening (Bennie, 1996). Impeded roots are generally shorter, thicker, and
more irregularly shaped. The shorter root system will exploit a smaller soil volume for plant
nutrients and water, causing the plant to maintain a higher than normal uptake rate of nutrients and
water per unit of root length. Also, more photosynthetic energy is needed to sustain root length
increases that do occur. All of these factors can result in plant stress, which may eventually result
in reduced crop growth and productivity.
Penetration Resistance
Penetration resistance is a measure of the ease with which an object can be pushed into the soil
(Bradford, 1986). It gives an indication of root-impeding layers in the soil and can be used in
comparing relative strengths among similar soil types. It can also be used for determining hardpans, zones of compaction, or dense soil layers.
Interpretations
Soil compaction that results in severely restricted root growth is caused mainly by trampling
of animals, use of farm and tillage equipment, and vehicular traffic. The type of root system will
75
determine the ability of a root to penetrate the soil. Figure 4 shows typical locations of compaction zones in cultivated soils.
1
CULTIVATED
LAYER
(9 inches)
2
3
4
SUBSOIL
Zone 1: Surface crusting, which may impede seedling

emergence and water infiltration.
Zone 2: Low impedance zone for roots; loosened by
tillage.
Zone 3: Plowed or deeply loosened cultivated soil
that has been recompacted by vehicular traffic.
Zone 4: Subsoil compaction by wheel traffic and
tillage implement-soil interactions during tillage.
Zone 5: May contain high mechanical impedance due
to inherent factors, such as duripans, fragipans,
ortstein layers, petrocalcic layers, etc., which may
occur near the surface if topsoil is not present.
Figure 4. General position of soil compaction zones in cultivated systems (Bennie,

1996)
Penetration resistance depends strongly on the soil water content: the dryer the soil, the greater
the resistance to penetration. Therefore, the water content of the soil should be noted when taking
a measurement. Penetration resistance is best determined when the soil is at field capacity, which
is a uniform condition that can be reproduced from season to season.
Soil Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of particles in the soil. It is strongly affected by changes in climate, biological activity, and soil management practices. Soil structure
affects the retention and transmission of water and air in the soil as well as the mechanical properties of the soil. Observing and describing soil structure in the field is subjective and qualitative.
Interpretations
For plant growth it is desirable to have a physical condition in which the soil is an optimally
loose, friable, and porous assemblage of aggregates permitting free movement of water and air,
easy cultivation and planting, and unobstructed germination and root growth (Hillel, 1982). The
soil structure index is a general quality placement that indicates the closeness to the condition
described above. In general, the higher the index value the better the soil's capacity to transmit
water and air and to promote root growth and development.
Soil processes involved in the development of soil structure are as follows (Rowell, 1994):
drying and wetting, which cause shrinking and swelling, creating cracks and channels;
freezing and thawing, which creates spaces as ice is formed;
the action of roots (removal of water, release of exudates (organic materials), and formation of
root channels);
the action of soil animals (moving soil material around, creating burrows, and bringing soil
76
mineral and organic materials into close association); and

the action of microorganisms (breaking down plant and animal residues and creating soil
organic matter and humus as a binding material).
Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the distribution of sand, silt, and clay sized mineral particles in the soil.
Texture is one of the most stable attributes of the soil, being modified only slightly by cultivation
and other practices that cause mixing of the different soil layers.
Interpretations
This test is routinely used by soil scientists and provides reliable estimates of soil texture.
The textural class places the soil in one area of the triangular diagram based on the distribution of
sand, silt and clay in the soil (Figure 5). Texture is an important characteristic, because it influences fertility and helps determine water intake rates, water storage in the soil, ease of tillage, and
amounts of aeration. For example, clay soils will retain more water and nutrients than a sandy soil.
Figure 5. Soil textural triangle showing the percentages of clay, silt, and sand in the textural classes.
Mineral Particles Soil is composed of mineral particles that vary in size. There are three general
classifications (or soil separates) of mineral particles:
sand particles - 2.0 mm (very coarse) to .05 mm (very fine);
silt particles - .05 mm to .002 mm;
clay particles - smaller than .002 mm.
77
Twelve Soil Textural Classes. Definitions of the 12 textural classes are based on the relative
proportion, or weight, of these three particle classifications. Sandy soil, for example, has a greater
proportion of sand particles than silt or clay. In reading the textural triangle (Figure 5), any two
particle size percentages will locate the textural class. For example, a soil containing 20% clay
and 40% sand is located in the loam textural class (Figure 5).
References
Arshad, M.A., B. Lowery, and B. Grossman. 1996. Physical tests for monitoring soil quality. p.123142. In: J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones (eds.) Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Spec. Publ. 49. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Bennie, A.T.P. 1996. Growth and mechanical impedance. p.453-470. In: Y. Waisel, A. Eshel, and U.
Kafkafi (eds.) Plant roots: The hidden half. 2nd ed. Mercel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Bradford, J.M. 1986. Penetrability. p.463-478. In: A. Klute (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1
Physical and mineralogical methods. Agronomy No. 9. Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, WI.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to soil physics. 2nd ed. Academic Press, London.
Rowell, D.L. 1994. Soil science: Methods & applications. Longman Scientific & Technical,
Singapore.
78
11. Water Quality

The quality of water is relative to the purpose for which the water is used; therefore, specific
use conditions will determine the suitability of a water body (James et al., 1982).
Water Electrical Conductivity
Introduction
Water salinity levels, as measured by electrical conductivity, can be used to assess irrigation
water quality. Other water quality concerns about saline waters include possible physiological
effects on humans and animals and mineral taste. Also, high concentrations of certain mineral
salts can cause corrosion damage in water systems. The measurement of electrical conductivity is
an indicator of the total dissolved solids (TDS) in water. The relationship of EC to TDS will vary
depending upon the distribution of major constituent elements present in the water.
Interpretations
Tables 9 and 10 contain safe salinity limits for human and livestock drinking water. Table 11
contains general guidelines for salinity in irrigation waters. For aquatic plant growth, salinity
levels should be kept as close to natural conditions as possible (US EPA, 1973).
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80
Water Nitrate and Nitrite Levels

Introduction
Nitrate in water is of concern in regards to human and animal health and to environmental
quality of ground and surface waters. Nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia
(blue baby syndrome) in infants under six months of age and can have toxic effects in livestock
and poultry. The toxicity occurs with the conversion of nitrate to nitrite after it has been consumed. Nitrite has a more rapid and pronounced toxicity effect than nitrate in drinking water.
Fortunately, nitrite concentrations in water sources are usually very low. Nitrate in surface waters
can cause accelerated growth of algae and aquatic plants, causing depletion of dissolved oxygen
and general degradation of the water body (eutrophication). Eutrophication jeopardizes the use of
water for recreation, sport and commercial fishing, agriculture, industry, and municipal supply.
Also, nitrates can adversely impact aquatic ecosystems. Nitrate entering surface and groundwater
is from non-point sources; both urban and agricultural runoff and leachate are recognized as contributors.
Interpretations
The levels of N required to induce eutrophication will vary depending on the nitrogen to
phosphorous ratio. Excesses of either or both N and P can lead to eutrophication. Excessive
growth of algae has been shown to occur when total phosphorus (mostly phosphate) levels exceed
0.10 ppm. Table 12 shows commonly used values for total nitrogen (mostly nitrate or ammonia).
Eutrophication is defined as an increase in the nutrient status of natural waters that causes accelerated growth of algae or water plants, depletion of dissolved oxygen, increased turbidity, and general degradation of water quality (Pierzynski et al., 1994).
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Comments
The nitrate/nitrite test strips can determine both nitrate and nitrite concentrations (two test
pads on each test strip). The nitrate test pad on the test strip measures the sum of both nitrate-N
and nitrite-N present in the sample. If nitrite is detected in the sample, the amount can be subtracted from the nitrate reading to get the actual amount of nitrate-N in the sample. However,
nitrite is rarely found in drinking waters at levels above 0.1 mg L-1 (Manahan, 1993).
1 ppm (parts per million) = 1 mg L-1 (milligram per liter)
References
James, D.W., R.J. Hanks, and J.J. Jurinak. 1982. Modern irrigated soils. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Manahan, S.E. 1993. Fundamentals of environmental chemistry. Lewis Publ., Ann Arbor, MI.
Pierzynski, G.M., J.T. Sims, and G.F. Vance. 1994. Soils and environmental quality. Lewis Publ.,
Boca Raton, FL.
US EPA. 1973. Water quality criteria 1972. PB-236 199/6BE. National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineers. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
82

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Section I - Test Procedures:

2. Soil Respiration Test - indicates the soil's biological

3. Infiltration Test - measures the soil's ability

4. Bulk Density Test - measures the soil's compaction

5. Electrical Conductivity (EC) Test - measures the salt

6. pH Test - measures the soil's acidity or alkalinity..................................................

7. Soil Nitrate Test - measures the soil's

Aggregate Stability Test - measures the amount of

Slake Test - estimates the stability of soil

10. Earthworm Test - measures the number of earthworms

Soil Physical Observations and Estimations - shows how

Water Quality Tests estimates salinity and

B. Soil Respiration (alternative method)..................................................................

C. EC and pH Meter Maintenance and Calibration..................................................

D. Building a Soil Quality Test Kit ..............................................................................

E. Site Description Data Sheet.....................................................................................

F. Soil Quality Data Worksheets.................................................................................

Section II - Background & Interpretive Guide for Individual Tests:

Soil Respiration .....................................................................................................

Bulk Density ...........................................................................................................

Electrical Conductivity (EC) ...............................................................................

Soil Nitrate ...........................................................................................................

Aggregate Stability ...............................................................................................

Soil Slaking ............................................................................................................

10. Soil Physical Observations and Estimations ......................................................

11. Water Quality .......................................................................................................

1. Measuring Soil Quality

Field or Site Characterization

row versus inter-row areas,

Some general guidelines on selecting sampling sites are as follows:

(Figure 1.1). A hand auger can be used

(2) For assessment of trouble spots within a

(4) When monitoring changes in soil

Soil type gradient

In some cases it might be helpful to compare

How many samples?

The number of samples or measurements to

2. Soil Respiration Test

Did You Know?

6-inch diameter ring

Drive Ring into Soil

Clear the sampling area of surface residue, etc. If the

Cover Ring with Lid and Wait

Cover the ring with the lid as depicted in

Wait exactly 30 minutes* (to allow CO2 to

[If this is the SECOND respiration measurement,

Insert Soil Thermometer

Assemble Draeger Tube Apparatus

Assemble the Draeger tube apparatus just before

Connect a needle to one of the sections of

Break open both ends of a CO2 Draeger tube,

Connect the Draeger tube to the other end of the

With the second piece of tubing, connect the

Insert Apparatus Needle into Stopper

Draw Head Space Sample

Record Soil Temperature and % CO2

Maintenance Tips: Seal any holes in the

6-inch diameter ring (left in soil from respiration test)