Film and Comic Books

FILM AND COMIC BOOKS
EDITED BY
IAN GORDON
MARK JANCOVICH
M A T T H E W P. M C A L L I S T E R
FILM and
UNIVERSITY PRESS OF MISSISSIPPI / JACKSON
COMIC BOOKS
www.upress.state.ms.us
The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the
Association of American University Presses.
Copyright 2007 by University Press of Mississippi
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First edition 2007
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Film and comic books / edited by Ian Gordon, Mark Jancovich, and Matthew P. McAllister.
1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-57806-977-4 (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-57806-977-7 (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-1-57806-978-1 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-57806-978-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Comic strip characters in motion pictures.
I. Gordon, Ian, 1954 II. Jancovich, Mark. III. McAllister, Matthew P.
PN1995.9.C36F55 2007
791.43657dc22
2006032675
British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available
CONTENTS
[ VII ]
INTRODUCTION
[ 1 ]
INCOMPATIBLE VISUAL ONTOLOGIES?

T H E P R O B L E M AT I C A D A P TAT I O N O F D R AW N I M A G E S
PA S C A L L E F V R E
[ 13 ]
DICK TRACY
IN PURSUIT OF A COMIC BOOK AESTHETIC
MICHAEL COHEN
[ 37 ]
TRANSLATION CREATIVITY AND ALIEN ECON(C)OMICS

F R O M H O L LY W O O D B L O C K B U S T E R T O D A R K H O R S E C O M I C B O O K
KERRY GOUGH
[ 64 ]
WILL THE REAL WOLVERINE PLEASE STAND UP?

M A R V E L S M U T A T I O N F R O M M O N T H L I E S T O M O V I E S
DEREK JOHNSON
[ 86 ]
WHEN GEN-X MET THE X-MEN

RETEXTUALIZING COMIC BOOK FILM RECEPTION
N E I L R A E A N D J O N A T H A N G R AY
[ 101 ]
WHAM! BAM! THE X-MEN ARE HERE

THE BRITISH BROADSHEET PRESS AND THE X-MEN FILMS AND COMIC
MEL GIBSON
[ 116 ]
UNBREAKABLE AND THE LIMITS OF TRANSGRESSION

ALDO J. REGALADO
[137 ]
TEEN TRAJECTORIES IN SPIDER-MAN AND GHOST WORLD

MARTIN FLANAGAN
[ 160 ]
ITS A BIRD! ITS A PLANE! NO, ITS DVD!

S U P E R M A N , S M A L LV I L L E , A N D T H E P R O D U C T I O N ( O F ) M E L O D R A M A
R AY N A D E N I S O N
[ 180 ]
AMERICAN SPLENDOR
T R A N S L AT I N G C O M I C A U T O B I O G R A P H Y I N T O D R A M A - D O C U M E N TA RY
CRAIG HIGHT
[ 199 ]
EL SANTO
T H E C A S E O F A M E X I C A N M U LT I M E D I A H E R O
D AV I D W I LT
[ 221 ]
FROM BLOCKBUSTER TO FLOP?

T H E A P PA R E N T FA I L U R E ( O R P O S S I B L E T R A N S C E N D E N C E ) O F R A L F K N I G S
Q U E E R C O M I C S A E S T H E T I C I N M AY B E . . . M AY B E N O T A N D K I L L E R C O N D O M
PA U L M . M A L O N E
[ 246 ]
OLD MALAY HEROES NEVER DIE

THE STORY OF HANG TUAH IN FILMS AND COMICS
J A N V A N D E R P U T T E N A N D T I M O T H Y P. B A R N A R D
[ 268 ]
ENKI BILALS INTERMEDIAL FANTASIES

F R O M C O M I C B O O K N I K O P O L T R I L O G Y T O F I L M I M M O RTA L S ( A D V I TA M )
S O P H I E G E O F F R O Y- M E N O U X
[ vi ]
[ 285 ]
NOTES
[ 297 ]
REFERENCES
[ 317 ]
CONTRIBUTORS
[ 321 ]
INDEX
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Films based on comics are not a new or recent phenomenon. The
association of lm and comics dates back to the early years of both as
forms of mass-distributed media. As early as 1906, Edwin S. Porter created a live-action adaptation of Winsor McCays comic strip Dreams of
the Rarebit Fiend and later McCay himself became a key innovator in lm
animation. In 1914 Charles H. France directed a short live-action lm entitled Buster Brown on the Care and Treatment of Goats based on the comic
strip character. Comic book characters such as Superman and Batman appeared in B movies and lm serials long before the blockbuster adaptations
of the 1970s and 1980s. Likewise Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, and the
Hulk featured in low production value television series from the 1950s to
the 1970s. The relationship between lm and comics may also work in the
other direction. Films have served as content fodder for comics since the
silent-lm era, including the creation of comic-strip or comic book versions of such movie icons as Charlie Chaplin, Fatty Arbuckle, Hopalong
Cassidy, and Bob Hope.
In recent years lmmakers have adapted a plethora of comic books
for the screen including Marvels the X-Men, Spider-Man, Blade, and the
Hulk, and from DC new lm versions of Batman and Superman. Many of
these have been wildly successful at the box ofce and are held up as the
ideal model for the Hollywood blockbuster. In June 2006, the magazine
Entertainment Weekly choose X-Mens Wolverine as Hollywoods most
dominant franchise character, over others such as James Bond and Harry
Potter; Spider-Man was third (Stack, 2006). Producers have also tapped alternative comics such as From Hell, American Splendor, and Ghost World
[ vii ]
for cinemagraphic treatments. Production deals for comic book character

based movies have multiplied rapidly. It seems that more is at stake than
a shift from low budget/status productions to blockbusters. Critical acclaim has owed for many of the recent efforts, and respected directors
such as Sam Mendes and Ang Lee have lent their talents to lms based
on comic books. At the same time, particularly since the success of Maus,
comic books have gained increased critical respectability even attaining
the dizzy heights of favorable reviews in the New York Times and the New
York Review of Books, albeit accompanied by discussions of what constitutes a comic book and nely delineated distinctions between genuine artistic merit and dross.
In the modern blockbuster lm era, which roughly dates from
Superman (1978), and which forms a prime focus of this work, motion
picture creative personnel use comic book texts and comic book authorial
intention in an attempt to add authenticity to comic book lms. Christian Bale, the actor who played Batman in the darker, more adult 2005
lm Batman Begins, argued that his interpretation of Batman: is what
Bob Kane intended when he rst created the character . . . I spoke with
his wife, and she said that he was appalled when the (1960s) TV series
spoofed what he had intended. But then you had the great revivals in the
comic books (Strauss U6). Movie studios may even court the approval of
comic book superstars for endorsements, which, depending on the superstar, could be a tricky proposition. Rather than the Hollywood actors or
best-selling novelists copping an attitude, it may be the comics creators
who become offended. Both Entertainment Weekly and the New York Times
covered the feud between Alan Moore, the creator of the graphic novel V
for Vendetta, and Warner Brothers, the studio behind the 2005 lm version
of the story. Moore apparently wanted to distance himself from the lm
version of V and was angry when a press conference about the lm mentionedor, from Moores perspective, misrepresentedhis excitement for
the project (Itzkoff B1; Russo 26). And in perhaps the strongest signal of
the symbiosis between lm and comics to date, Sin City (2005) was co-directed by the creator of the comic book, Frank Miller, and the lmmakers
designed the lm to duplicate the specic look of the stylized comic, as
close to a frame-by-frame, panel-by-panel visual recreation of the comics as you could imagine . . . [t]he composition of the frames is the same;
[ viii ]
INTRODUCTION
the camera angles the same; and every line of dialogue, to the word, comes
from the comics. (Leith ART4).
Comic book fans are often courted by the studios. Short rough-cut
previews of lms debut at comics conventions in an attempt to generate
early buzz, such as an eighteen-minute version of Constantine at the 2004
San Diego Comic-Con International (in fact, seventeen other comics-related
lms were teased there) (Holson C2). The ap over the casting of Michael
Keaton as Bruce Wayne/Batman for the 1989 Tim Burton-directed Batman
underscored the importance of comic book fans to the success of lms
based on comics. In November 1988 the Wall Street Journal reported that
fans were less than pleased about the casting, and fan publications such as
the Comics Buyers Guide had receiving hundreds of protest letters. Fans
booed Warner representatives who attended comic conventions to promote
the project (Hughes 1). In an interview with Newsweek in 1989 Jon Peters,
Batmans producer, recalled that the Wall Street Journal article had worried
the nancial community and a response became necessary.
Months ahead of schedule, the lmmakers cut a trailer and persuaded Warners to screen it in Los Angeles. It was a hit, even
among 300 Bat-fans who showed up for the late show. That, the
lmmakers agree now, is what turned things around. When the
trailer went into general release at Christmas, word of mouth
spread among the fans and beyond. Retailers began to sense a
bump in interest. Licensing Corp. of America, Warners in-house
merchandising arm, began to sprinkle just enough new movielicensed goods into the marketplaceapparel, hats and pens
to freshen buyers interest. By the start of the year, says Rob
Friedman, Warners president of worldwide advertising and publicity, there was a feeding frenzy that we took advantage of, and
to a certain extent fueled (Barol 70)
The following year Walt Disney Pictures made sure to preview its lm Dick
Tracy to comic fans at the San Diego comic conference ( Dick Tracy Is
Arresting Interest, 1989). As the Newsweek article attests the key to fans
involvement in comics-based lms is the word of mouth they can generate and the resulting merchandising deals such word of mouth can generINTRODUCTION
[ ix ]
ate, although in Dick Tracys case even positive fan reaction did not result
in hefty prots from merchandising (Fabrikant D23).
Marvel and DC, the two major American comic book companies, have
both spun off lm adaptations of their characters, but each took a different approach. As part of Time Warner, DCs characters appeared in Warner
Bros. lms although not always under in-house production deals. Because
of its corporate position outside a major media conglomerate, Marvel originally licensed its characters to a variety of studios. Gordon Hodge, a media
analyst at Thomas Weisel Partners noted that this strategy involved not
much risk, but also not much opportunity for signicant rewards. He
added: If you own the movie and handle the distribution all the way, soup
to nuts, to home video and cable television, theres a lot better money to
be made (Gustines 8). But in April 2005 Marvel announced that it would
start producing its own lms. Harry Berkowitz noted in Newsday that the
venture opens up more opportunities not just for initial lms, but also for
the sequels, toys, video games, cartoons, clothing, and other merchandise
that inevitably follow. Marvel and Paramount Pictures cut a deal in which
Paramount will distribute the movies on a distribution fee basis resulting
in Marvel not having to share merchandising revenue with the studio. According to Paramount chairman Brad Grey, the attraction of Marvel was
that it had become a marquee entertainment brand and as Berkowitz
implied would help Paramount attract a more youthful audience (Berkowitz A57).
Before the release of Batman Begins in 2005 DCs major comic book
characters had been noticeable absent from the big screen since 1997s disastrous Batman and Robin. In 2003 the movie industry paper Variety reported that Thomas Weisel Partners had carried out an analysis of Warners and highlighted DC as a hidden asset whose value was waiting to be
unlocked (Brodesser 7). Dennis ONeill, a long time DC editor, in a clear
expression of that value, called comics the R & D division of the entertainment industry. Noting this comment the media scholar Henry Jenkins
suggested, Comic publishers are doing everything rightexpanding creative rights for artists, tapping new global markets, reworking old genres to
keep franchises alive and vital (Jenkins Will the Web Save Comics?).
Marvels Bill Jemas took an opposing view stating that Marvel produced
comic books for readers not in the hope of a director turning them into
[ x ]
INTRODUCTION
a lm (Hanson 1E). Clearly though media corporations have increasingly

created synergies between comics and lms based on the concept of superhero characters as product to be sold across different media and merchandising forms.
Comics and lms though are more than just product to be sold. As
visual media both have aesthetic qualities and formal properties, such
as frames and panels, which have important visual resemblance. Even in
mainstream blockbuster movies, these visual parallels may lead to interesting aesthetic experiments, such as the comics-look attempted by such
lms as Dick Tracy and Hulk. In addition, both comics and lms also t
within a certain type of narrative tradition, a point made by John Fell over
thirty years ago. But these similarities are also accompanied by some distinct differences. Comics and lms both have audiences, but comics have
core audiences of fans that engage with characters over longer periods of
time, and as noted above, these fans have distinct opinions on how characters should be adapted for lm. Moreover different fans of the same
comic character will have different views, and with a character such as
Superman, who has been through numerous incarnations, competing expectations of different fans will further complicate the problems of adaptation. Fans then can be an asset to a lm adapted from a comic, but also a
liability particularly when taken for granted.
When comics are thought of as a product to be sold, generally comics are being dened as American superhero type comics. But the range
of the form is greater than superheroes and always has been. Charles Hatelds book Alternative Comics traces the development of a different sort
of comic form in the United States from the undergrounds of the 1960s
to the graphic novel. It is fair to say that many of these alternative comics
deal with similar themes as superhero comics albeit with different storylines. Alienation and angst are particular favorites and of course the same
could be said of novels, which lends support to Hatelds argument for
treating comics as literature. American alternative comics are but part of
the range of the art form which in the United States alone also includes
comic strips, and a range of comic books such as Archie, the Golden Key,
Dell, and Harvey lines. The sustained presence of alternative comics and
graphic novels have often combined with the indie lm movement or
modestly budgeted studio lms to serve as an innovative counterbalance to
INTRODUCTION
[ xi ]
the blockbuster superhero movie, offering aesthetically sophisticated critical reections on such issues as youth alienation (Ghost World), violence
(A History of Violence), or the nature of representation itself (American
Splendor). In addition, comic art both as its own medium and as an inuence on other media has a long history in other countries, and in this
volume we offer some analysis of the relationship between comics and
lms in countries such as France, Germany, and Mexico and in the Malayspeaking areas and nations of Southeast Asia.
The rst section of this volume examines problems of adaptation.
Pascal Lefvre argues that although lms and comics are essentially visual
media, both media differ signicantly, not only in their material shape,
but also in the way they are experienced and received by the public. For instance the visual ontology of a drawing creates problems for an adaptation
from a comic book to a live-action movie. Every drawing is in its style a
visual interpretation of the world. A photographic image has a completely
different visual ontology. The more stylized or caricatured the drawing,
the more likely the director of a movie will experience problems in nding a way to capture such a representation on lm. The presence of sound
in lms also disturbs the mental world created by comic readers who ll
in the silence with imagined aspects such as the sound of a characters
voice. Michael Cohen pursues this line of enquiry through an analysis of
Warren Beattys Dick Tracy. Cohen explains that Beatty and his crew created an aesthetic of artice that visually approached a replication of the
comic form on lm. Cohen argues that four aspects helped give Dick Tracy
its distinct visual feel: production design, framing choices, the use of prosthetic makeup, and the combination of choices that placed Tracy as the
heroic epicenter of the lm, just as he is in the comic strip. The problems
of adaptation of a comic into a lm also hold true in reverse, an adaptation of a lm into a comic. Kerry Gough reviews the processes through
which Dark Horse Comics adapted the Alien(s) series of lms to a successful comic book series. Just as with lm adaptations the comic book producers had to make aesthetic choices and develop framing techniques to
convey a sense of the original cultural artifact. Likewise they needed to
be attuned to fan sensibilities. Gough also shows that movie studios are as
anxious as major comic book companies to nd ways to reap all nancial
dividends available to them through licensing their characters as a prod[ xii ]
INTRODUCTION
uct. Treating characters as products, or as brands and subbrands, creates

problems of keeping brand identity through a unity of form and content
across different incarnations. Derek Johnson explores these issues through
a study of Marvels management of its X-Men franchise with a particular
focus on the role and position of Wolverine. Johnson offers an account of
Marvels varying success in establishing a coherence for Wolverine while at
the same time allowing for differentiation to attract different market segments, or audiences, such as adult and child readers.
The second section examines audience expectations, reception, and
reaction to comic book lms. If fans are important in shaping the production choices of moviemakers then the question arises about the manner in which comics fans view comic-based lms, particularly in comparison with non-fans. Neil Rae and Jonathan Gray set out to answer this
question through an ethnographical study of readers and non-readers and
their responses to lms. Mel Gibson traces the British presss response to
the two X-Men lms. She notes that the rst lm resulted in a wave of
comments reminiscent of British cultural anxieties about Americanization in the 1950s and the essentially crass, low-class nature of comics, and
by extension things American, in the eyes of the British middle class. The
second lm though saw a shift in tone that Gibson ties to a refusal of lm
critics to engage with comics at all and rather a preference to deal with the
lm as a summer blockbuster. The critics then refused to engage with the
lm outside their self-imposed genre constraints. Such a response echoed
some comic book fans, and indeed even comics scholars, response to the
M. Night Shyamalan lm Unbreakable, which created some genre anxiety.
Aldo J. Regalado unpacks the lm and situates it rmly within the superhero genre and the fan culture that grew alongside such comic books. He
suggests that Unbreakable is best understood by viewing it in conjunction
with a reading of the 1933 science ction short story Reign of the SuperMan by Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster.
The third and fourth sections of the volume look at specic themes
and locales of lm adaptations of comics. Martin Flanagan traces the teenage rite of passage to adulthood, a common comic book narrative theme, in
Spider-Man and Ghost World. Despite their vastly different genres (superhero and alternative comics) and economics of production (blockbuster
and art-house lms), the lms offered markedly similar coming-of-age
INTRODUCTION
[ xiii ]
narrative arcs marked by high-school graduations. Both lms appealed to

nostalgic memories: in Spider-Mans case through a design aesthetic that
evoked the 1960s or at least the original Spider-Man comic book artist Steve
Ditkos representation of the 1960s, and in Ghost World through a satire of
condescending adult attitudes to teenagers, which as Flanagan suggests has
innite appeal to aging baby boomers still living, or reliving, their own rebellion against their parents as some sort of halcyon age. Of all characters
from comics Superman has surely appeared in more incarnations across
different media forms and as licensed product. Rayna Denison takes two
major instances of the Superman intertext, Superman: The Movie and the
Smallville television series, as the subject for her study of genre in the comic
book movie. She points to the reunication of action and melodrama as
a single genre and the growing importance of production discourses, particularly through their increasing availability on DVD, to the construction
of comic characters as cultural artifacts and product. If Spider-Man and
Superman are the quintessential superheroes then Harvey Pekar is surely
the comic book hero of everyday life. Pekars self-referential comic book
series American Splendor has documented the life of a character named
Harvey Pekar, an ordinary Joe from Cleveland, for over twenty-ve years.
Craig Hight argues that in transforming this comic into a lm, through a
drama-documentary style, the lmmakers have produced a rich commentary on both forms of media and a statement of sorts on representations
of reality in popular media.
Too often comics are associated with American comics, and comicsbased lms with Hollywood blockbusters. Filmmakers in many countries have drawn on comics for inspiration. For instance, the Australian
director Bruce Beresfords rst lm was the 1972 production of The Adventures of Barry McKenzie based on the comic strip of the same name,
which satirized beer-swilling Australians in London, and appeared in the
British magazine Private Eye. David Wilt offers an account of one such
character, El Santo, a superhero-wrestler whose career spanned forty-eight
years in the ring, fty lms, and twenty-nine years as a comic book character. He was a unique example of synergy between professional sports,
comic book publishing, and the motion picture industry. The combination of these three elds of endeavor made El Santo a national idol in his
native Mexico, and an immensely popular and immediately recognizable
[ xiv ]
INTRODUCTION
gure around the world; for example in 2005 one of his lms was included
at a retrospective of comics lms in Melbourne at the Australian Centre
for the Moving Image. Paul Malone explores the complications of attempting to reach a popular German audience when translating, and by necessity transforming, a cartoony comic-book stylized frank depiction of both
gay and straight sexuality for lm. He studies the varying success of two
movies based on Ralf Knigs popular graphic novels, Der bewegte Mann
(Maybe . . . Maybe Not) and Kondom des Grauens (Killer Condom). Malone
also reviews Knigs position on this transformation, as he himself, while
making few concessions to self-censorship in the production of his comics,
seems to have accepted constraints in lm. Jan van der Putten and Timothy
P. Barnard trace the transformation of Hang Tuah, a legendary gure from
the fteenth-century Melaka trading empire in Southeast Asia, in twentiethcentury comics and lms. The original tales, which focus on a brave warrior who served the sultan of Melaka without question, were presented
to the community in an attempt to infuse loyalty towards the ruling dynasty. In the process these tales became the most famous pieces of oral (and
written) literature in the region, thus making Hang Tuah the prototypical
Malay hero. Interpretations and consciousness about these tales began to
shift, however, following the rise of colonial rule and in particular when
the prospects of independence swept through Malaya in the 1950s. This
shift occurred as the story was reproduced and transmitted through newly
developing media such as radio, lm and comics, since these new idioms
were in juxtaposition to the original narrative. Van der Putten and Barnards analysis reveals the role of comics and lm in shaping Malay identity in the process of decolonization. Finally, Sophie Geoffroy-Menoux offers a semiotic take on Enki Bilals lm Immortel. She argues that the lm
deconstructs the comics on which it is based. Bilals view that globalization,
eugenics, a cynical approach to money, a morbid fear of aging, the quest for
eternal youth and sex have fueled progressive manipulations of all kinds,
including the manipulation of visual images and their viewers; this argument nds form in the movie through Bilals own manipulation of images.
Reality is the key narrative theme in the lm, which is ironically revealed
by the very unreal, surreal, virtual aspect of the lm.
Looking forward, with changes in industry structures, new digital production technologies and audience interactive venues (such as continued
INTRODUCTION
[ xv ]
growth of the blogosphere), the relationship of lm to comics is a dynamic

and promising area for future research.
As noted earlier, Marvel, following in the footsteps of comics companies such as Dark Horse, will take a much more active role in the lm
productions involving its characters. Much of this activity would involve
blockbuster-level theatrical production, but also include exploiting other
media. Marvels 2006 DVD animated release Ultimate Avengers, designed
to keep the companys name in front of the public between blockbuster releases, is one such example. Such trends indicate a potentially fundamental
change in industry identity and priorities. As comic-book companies see
themselves more as lm companies, to what extent does the cart drive the
horse, with perhaps the development of comic-book readership, new characters and new talent being neglected.
The role of comics in the blockbuster lm may also continue to affect
the lm industry, by placing more emphasis on digital special effects and
costly production. Spider-Man 3 (2007) is purported to have a production
bill approaching $300 million (Kelly & Marr, 2006). Such gures reect
the economics of modern Hollywood given the spectacle element needed
by superhero comics and the pressure to up the visual ante, siphoning resources to fewer and fewer lms, and making the trend worthy of continued study.
Also worth tracking is other comics-related inuences on lm, especially with the long-term viability of more adult-oriented graphic novels
that lend themselves to quieter, more thoughtful (and less-expensive) productions. Although Art School Condential (2006), based upon a graphic
novel story by Daniel Clowes, generated a modest U.S. box ofce, its relatively inexpensive production costs and potential after-market life on
cable and DVD may offer its own economic benets. The publicity generated by smaller-budgeted efforts may have benecial effects on the sales
and fandom of graphic novels, given the smaller numbers needed for a
print title to be an economic success.
With digital graphics software and the distribution capabilities of
the internet, the blurring of production and consumption will likely continue with all media, including comics. Graphics software make creation
of graphic novels more viable, and websites make distribution more widespread for new talent. Fan communities via chat rooms and blogs make au[ xvi ]
INTRODUCTION
dience identity, feedback, and buzz a part of both the mainstream industry and labor-of-love efforts, and such trends may continue to inuence
production, marketing, and audience experiences.
It is hoped that the following chapters in this book will contribute to a
foundation of future studies that chart the changing nature and social, cultural, and ideological implications of these two institutions.
The editors wish to thank Kevin Hagopian, Joanne Chia, and Kelvin Lawrence for advice and assistance with parts of this volume. Walter Biggins
and Seetha Srinivasan at the University Press of Mississippi have supported this work from the outset and our thanks to them and the anonymous reviewer for expediting the initial review process. We also thank the
contributors to the volume who have been uniformly good-natured, and
quick to respond to us on all the matters that crop up in putting such a collection together. Ian Gordons work on this volume has been helped by a
research grant from the Faculty of Arts and Social Science at the National
University of Singapore.
IAN GORDON
MARK JANCOVICH
M AT T H E W P. M C A L L I S T E R
INTRODUCTION
[ xvii ]
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FILM AND COMIC BOOKS
INCOMPATIBLE VISUAL ONTOLOGIES?

Till today I havent seen a cinematographic adaptation of a comic, which seems

to add something to the original work, they have always been rehashes.1
The prominent French director Alain Resnais (Thomas 247) uttered this quite negative view on lmic adaptations of comics in 1990. Adaptations from comics seldom gain canonical recognition and they rarely
gure in lists of best lms of all times.2 Not only do these adaptations seldom please the critics,3 they seem to have little automatic appeal for comics readers.4 Cinema critics and comics fans seem to agree that it is hard to
make a good movie of a comic. The movie-going audience is less severe.
Moreover, some adaptations from comics were real blockbusters including
Richard Donners Superman (1978), Tim Burtons Batman (1989), Barry
Sonnenfelds Men in Black (1997) and Sam Raimis Spider-Man (2002).5
That the comics the movies were based on were already a success does not
explain completely the success of the lmic adaptations; the movies must
have attracted viewers that rarely read comics. Moreover all these adaptations generated an offspring of sequels.
Adaptations of comics seem to be popular as well as controversial.
While some analysts (Peeters6) recognize creative aspects of some adaptations, other critics (Fremion 166) state bluntly that adaptation is preferred
by mediocre talents. Some comic artists are even opposed to the idea of a
lmic adaptation. For instance, Art Spiegelman does not want to see his
[ 1 ]
Maus adapted as a live action movie, because he considers the metaphoric

style of his storytelling essential and impossible to adapt outside the comics medium.7
Nevertheless it has been pointed out various times that there is a closer
link between cinema and comics than between cinema and other visual arts
(Christiansen 107, Costa 24). Films and comics are both media which tell
stories by series of images: the spectator sees people actwhile in a novel
the actions must be verbally told. Showing is already narrating in cinema
and comics, but while classical cinematic narratives situate the spectator
at the centre of the diegetic space, comics on the other hand are rooted in
a parodic tradition (Christiansen 118). Since the nineteenth century a majority of comics have used deformation, often caricatured, to various degrees as a major characteristic. Also the confrontation of texts and pictures
and the fact that pictures are drawn reminds the reader of their articial
status. Moreover lm and comics differ signicantly not only in the way
they are experienced and received by the public, but also in their material
shape. This poses many problems for an adaptation from a comic to a liveaction movie. In particular the visual ontology of a drawing seems to be
a central issue, as will be developed in this essay. But in addition there is
the problem of primacy: usually people prefer the rst version of a story
they encounter. When you read rst a novel, you form a personal mental
image of the ctive world and when you rst read a comic, you have a kinetic visual idea as well. Any lmic adaptation has to deal with these rst
personal interpretations and images: it is extremely hard to exorcise those
rst impressions.8
In this article the term adaptation is used in a broad sense, including
also lms directly inspired by a certain comic or comic series.9 Adaptations
in animation format are not discussed. Animated adaptations deserve a
proper analysis of their own, but most problems of live action adaptations
will haunt animated version as well.
In contrast to the single and original artworks of painting and sculpture,
only copies of lms and comics are distributed and consumed.10 Art philosopher Walter Benjamin argued that the aura of the work of art withered in the age of mechanical reproduction, because the reproduced object
is detached from the domain of tradition.11 Though they share a funda[ 2 ]
mental similarity (mass consumption) movies and comics still have some
differences regarding their reception or consuming mode. The two main
differences are the material shape of the images and the social aspects of
reception. The difference in reception or consuming mode is individual
activity (comic) versus group experience (cinema). While reading a comic
is a solitary action, viewing a lm in a theatre is largely a group experience: people gather in lm theaters at precise moments to watch a lm together.12 A lot of moviegoers share emotions at the same time: they laugh
and cry together. Reactions of other viewers may facilitate such emotional
responses during a showing. Reading a comic, on the contrary, involves no
direct emotional sharing with others. Only when the reading is completed,
a comic reader can exchange his emotions with others. A lm showing
demands attention from the viewer, since the place is dark with only the
screen light and often music plays loudly to lend aural atmosphere and to
keep viewers attuned to the screen action. Reading a comic book, on the
other hand, does not necessarily take place in such an undisturbed environment. Nevertheless a reader can seclude himself physically and mentally.
Not only does the reception of a comic and a lm differ, but also their
production. By necessity the production of a lm implies a bigger organization and budget than the production of a comic. The creative part in lm
is done by a group of people (writer, photographer, director, actor, editor
and the like), whereas drawing and writing a comic can be done by a small
team or just one person. This essay, though, focuses on the visual differences of the two media. Despite their seeming concordanceat least when
comparing lms to novelsjuxtapositioning their inherent visual ontologies highlights reasons why comics fans may literally see lm adaptations
as often unfaithful and even disrespectful.
There are four main problems in the adaptation of comics into lm and
three of them are related to the characteristics of the comics medium itself: panels are arranged on a page, panels are static drawings and a comic
does not make noise or sound. Film is quite different. First, there is a screen
frame, second, the lm images are moving and photographic, third, lm
has a soundtrack. These characteristic differences of the two media become enacted as the four adaptation problems of (1) the deletion/addition
[ 3 ]
process that occurs with rewriting primary comics texts for lm; (2) the
unique characteristics of page layout and lm screen; and (3) the dilemmas of translating drawings to photography; and (4) the importance of
sound in lm compared to the silence of comics. Given these problems,
perhaps the central question about lmic adaptation of comics is not, how
faithful/respectful to the comic the lm will be, but rather, how least dissimilar to the comic can the lm be?
The starting point for most adaptations is whether or not the scriptwriters
will follow the storyline as presented in the comic itself, or will they take
the existing material just as an interesting starting point to write a new
story with a lot of new additions. Few adaptations respect meticulously
the storyline of a particular comic. Every real artisan of cinema knows
that this medium has its own laws and rules. A direct adaptation is seldom
a good choice: some elements may work wonderfully in a comic, but cannot function in the context of a lm. Usually a script writer for a movie
has to leave out scenes, has to add others, and has to write out some principal characters or introduce new ones. For instance, the two police ofcers
in the comic From Hell (Moore and Campbell) are combined in the lm
into one character. The necessity of such changes in large part is simply
due to the different narrative-length norms of the two media. Since the
comic book version of From Hell consists of hundreds of pages, not all the
drawn sequences were shot. Thus, the original text is inevitably altered.
From Hells creator Alan Moore (Mouchart 30) explains that he does not
care too much about adaptations: I force myself not to have an opinion
[on the adaptations]. Those feature lms do not resemble my books. If
they are good lms, its the merit of the directors. It has nothing to do with
me. Likewise if the lms are mediocre. It interests me to see them, but since
I dont like to work for Hollywood and cinema isnt one of my preferred
media, I do not feel very implicated in those projects.13
Most comic creators (like Daniel Clowes, Stan Lee, Enki Bilal) understand that a lm usually needs changes to the original material. Enki Bilal
stresses that Immortel is not an adaptation of his Nikopol trilogy, but a rewriting (rcriture). He explains in an interview that it was important
amongst other thingsto include some of the burning issues of today and
forget about some other aspects (Bernire 12).
[ 4 ]
By contrast to the artists themselves, diehard fans of the original work

rarely applaud such rewritings. For instance, the changes in costumes and
the character motivations in the X-Men lms dissatised some fans (Lee
2000). The organic webshooters of Spider-Man in the Sam Raimi lm
seem to pose a problem for some fans, because in the original comic book
version the webshooters were a technological invention of the young scientist Peter Parker. When Kenneth Plume asked Stan Lee, the creator of Spider-Man, about this matter, he said that it worked out: Maybe some purists who know the comics might feel, Oh, they didnt do it the way it was
in the comics, but the average person watching it would have no problem
with the webs coming out of his hands that way (Lee 2000). Some comics fans tend to consecrate the original work and scrutinize a lmic adaptation for so called errors or misinterpretations. Almost every attempt of
adaptation becomes in their eyes some kind of betrayal. Moreover such
lmic adaptations give superheroes fans a unique opportunity to show off
their almost autistic-savant knowledge of a particular superhero comic
book series. In the eyes of the large public and in particular of the cultural
elite those superheroes fans do not have a high status: reading superheroes
comic books is generally associated with childish behavior.
The dilemma is, then, that a lm that too faithfully follows a comic
will seldom be a good lm. Since it is another medium with other characteristics and rules, the director has to modify the original work. Just as in
a historical movie, there is no way to render the situations exactly as they
were; it is therefore much more important to try to be truthful to the spirit
of the original work. Of course, every decision is open to discussion, and
not all the decisions of a director are necessarily good decisions.
The second problem relates to the transition from page layout to the image on a single screen. Whilst the images of a comic are mostly printed on
paper, the images of a lm are projected on a screen, typically wide screen
in a lm theatre or a television screen at home. The difference is important
because the pages of a comic are in a closer range than the projected images of a lm. It is the readers who have to leaf through a comic and they
can choose their own reading speed. They can linger on a panel, scan the
complete plate, and return to panels or whole sequences at free will. A lm,
though, obliges the viewer to follow the rhythm of the sequences. 14 In lm
[ 5 ]
the shots are put on a linear-time sequence; in comics the panels are not
only placed in a linear sequence but also on a larger space, namely the page.
In this sense comics are a more spatial medium than lm. In cinema, lming and montage are two quite separate phases. In comics, the drawing of
the panels and the combination of the panels on a page cannot be that
easily separated: choices in one domain have consequences in the other domain (Groensteen, Du 7e au 9e art 28).15
In addition, the interplay of the various panels (their relative dimensions and their location) is a constitutive aspect of the comics medium.
Cinema with its moving images and standardized screen formats is not
well equipped to imitate the page layouts of comics, although attempts
are made. Sometimes lm directors use multiple-frame imagery or splitscreens imagery; two or more different images, each with its own frame
dimensions and shape, appear within the larger frame (Bordwell & Thompson 125). This device is used in various comics adaptations. The Hulk DVD
contains a bonus feature in which editor Tim Squyres and ILM compositor
Mark Casey explain they did not want to imitate a comic book page layout
because it would not work in lm, but they wanted to come up with some
cinematic devices inspired by those dynamic pages. Since using multipleframe imagery is still quite unusual16especially when the split-screens
themselves are moving on the screen as in Hulkit tends to surprise the
viewer and to make him or her more aware of the lmic code of framing. It
then functions as a self-referential technique. Though multiple-frame imagery is closer to comics, it breaks the usual cinematographic illusion.
A third issue is the difference between drawn forms and photographic
forms. Although both lm and comics make use of at images and similar
shots (long, medium, and close-up),17 it is evident that the differences between the two media are more striking. A crucial and striking difference is
that lm functions with moving images,18 while comics use static images.19
This difference between moving and still images is of paramount importance. By and large normal moving images will give a greater impression
of realism. A viewer of a still image will always be reminded of the fragmented and frozen time. Nevertheless such an unmoving picture can also
look realistic and credible, especially when it is of photographical nature.
Cinema is foremost a photographic medium: a camera registers what is in
[ 6 ]
front of the lense.20 The photographic material xates the bundles of light
rays. As in daily life the brain of a spectator in a movie theater has to interpret the pattern of light intensities provided by a photographic picture
in order to extract features such as edges. Therefore the British psychologist John Willats (128) calls it an optical denotation system: the picture elements denote features of the array of light reaching the eye or the camera,
rather than physical features of the scene such as edges and contours.
By contrast to a photographic image a drawn panel from a comic usually offers clear edges. Generally the artist uses clear contour lines to denote the various objects in his pictures. Although such outlines in drawn
pictures may be less analogous to the external world, they are not necessarily inferior in their capacity for grasping the essential aspects of a
scene. Moreover, as art historian Philip Rawson (1979, 810) states, a welldeveloped language of marks can convey far more about what it represents
than any mere copy of appearances. Good drawing always goes beyond appearances. A good portrait does not necessarily need a perfect imitation of
all the individual traits, but rather the depiction of the essential aspects.
Gestalt psychologist Rudolf Arnheim (149) claims that the better picture is
one that leaves out unnecessary detail and chooses telling characteristics,
but also that the relevant facts must be unambiguously conveyed to the
eye. This outcome can be obtained by picture elements such as simplicity
of shape, orderly grouping, distinction gure and ground, use of lighting
and perspective and distortions.21
In addition a drawing offers many possibilities. A drawn image can
more easily show impossible views (e.g. Escher) or combine various views
(as in cubist art), and an artist will not be limited by budgets. Comic artists can choose their cast at will, imagine complete new worlds or civilizations; only their imagination and artistic skills pose restrictions on the
creative act. The most fantastic scenes can simply be drawn in comics:
people can y in the air; whole cities can be destroyed and so on. In the
past it was quite complicated and difcult to lm such scenes, but with the
coming of digital techniques special effects entered a new age. Thanks to
the combination of computer animation with live-action lming the most
fantastic and credible scenes can be created: ordinary looking people transform uently into horrible monsters (e.g. Hulk), characters and objects y
in the sky (e.g. The Matrix), deformations and exaggerations are possible
[ 7 ]
(e.g. The Mask). Such imaginings, though, while now possible in cinema,
can still be a point of criticism in comics lms when such effects do not
live up to viewer/critic expectations of realism (such as, for example, criticism of the effects in early Hulk teaser trailers as cheesy). Also, of course,
such effects remain quite expensive to do in that medium, especially when
compared to the cost of a pencil as the necessary special effects tool for
comic art.
Arnheim suggests that every successful work of art, no matter how
stylized and remote from mechanical correctness it may be, conveys the
full natural avor of the object it represents. Rawson (1987, 78) tries to explain the richness of drawings: Without precision in formulating the elements there can be no true variety; for it is only possible to recognize variety and variation if distinctions between the forms are made quite clear.
And there can only be variety within an ordered structure, or else differences are simply chaos and not variation. Variation implies a substratum of norm-units which are varied. The language of the form creates
its own reality and has a personal touch. In contrast to an average photographic image, a drawing is literally and guratively signed (Groensteen,
Du 7e au 9e art 23). The structure of the artists visual thought is what
matters; and somehow or other it must be true, i.e. have a functional relationship to what artist and spectator accept as truth. (Rawson, 1987, 23). A
successful artistic solution is so compelling that it looks like the only possible realization of the subject (Arnheim 144). Hochberg and Brooks (382)
even claim that comics approximate the ways in which people think of the
visual world, which would be an explanation for their popularity.
An artist not only depicts something, but s/he expresses at the same
time a philosophy, a visionbut one rather difcult to verbalize. Every
drawing is by its style a visual interpretation of the world, in that it foregrounds the presence of an enunciator (Christiansen 115). The form of the
drawing inuences the manner the viewer will experience and interpret
the drawing. A drawn image offers a specic view on reality and the creators subjectivity of this reality is built into the work, and a fairly obvious
part of this work. The viewer is obliged to share this guratively view of
the maker, and can not look at the object-in-picture from another visual
point of view than the one the picture offers. The viewer, says lm scholar
Jan-Marie Peters (14), is invited to share the makers mode of seeing, not
[ 8 ]
only in the literal, but also in the gurative sense. Nevertheless the reader
is not just a passive agent: he or she looks at images with prior knowledge
and activates the images. The perspective and style of the particular artist also may foregroundas a mediumthe human-constructedness of
images in comics, even for realistic drawing styles. This may perhaps encourage speculation from readers and polysemic meanings. And, of course,
the individual context is thus also of considerable importance in introducing variability in reader interpretation. So every drawing style implies a
certain interpretation of the reality in visual terms, a particular visual ontology (Rawson, 1987:19).
A photographic image has, by its optic nature alone, a quite different
visual ontology. Viewers do not react in the same way to a drawing as to
a photographic image. Although photos can also be manipulated by using
special software such as Photoshop, generally the viewer still accords more
realism to a photo than to a stylized drawing. For instance, stylized drawings do not deliver a successful trompe loeuil, whereas an optic image can
easily fool the eye and the mind of the viewer. That explains why a viewer
more likely accepts violence in a drawn medium than in a photographic
medium. If the violence of the Tom and Jerry animation series was not
cartoonesque, but lmed with real-life cats and mice, the violence would
probably seem much more difcult to digest. Viewers tend to accept more
from a stylized medium than from a photographic medium.
The different visual ontology may also be the reason why it is extremely
difcult to adapt a strongly stylized or caricatured drawing in a photographic image. The failure of the various lmic adaptations of Hergs Tintin is exemplary, according to French writer and comics theorist Benot
Peeters: Ambiguity is probably constitutive, because the work of Herg
balances between realism and caricature. The style of the artistthe famous clear lineis the unifying element of the work that guarantees its
coherence; when this is lost, confusion and incredulousness surface. On
the whole, the Tintin-adaptations are an indirect demonstration of how
strongly the qualities of Hergs work are linked with the formal language
of the comics medium.22
Also the Italian lm scholar Antonio Costa (25) stresses the importance of the comics gurative fascination: Cinema can try to substitute this by complex operations of selection and stylization of its own
[ 9 ]
expressive means.23 As successful examples Costa mentions the art direction and photography of Tim Burtons Batman (1989) and Warren Beattys
Dick Tracy (1992). Elsewhere in this book Michael Cohen analyses in more
detail what he calls Dick Tracys aesthetic of artice in production design,
framing, prosthetic makeup and other techniques. Sin City (2005, Robert
Rodriguez and Frank Miller) and Immortel24 (2004, Enki Bilal) are rare examples of comic artists as crafty (co)directors of lms (see further in this
book the analysis of Immortels). The mise-en-scene and the art direction
are thus of paramount importance, because not only the characters, but
also the decors are being dened by the visual style of the drawing. Real
locations often look too ordinary and are not adjusted to the ctive and
graphic world of a comic book.
Most lmic adaptations however do not succeed in grasping the stylization or mood of the original work as was achieved in Sin City or Immortel. If a lm director does not nd a way to transpose the visual style into
photographic images, s/he can also develop an alternative, such as in Annie
and From Hell. The deliberate choice for a clearly articial, but credible
world seems to work well.
When a comic is rendered in a more realistic style or in various styles,
cinematographic adaptations seem to be less insuperable (e.g. Superman,
Spider-Men, X-Men). Usually long-running comic book series do not have
a unique dening style: such series can be drawn and told in very different ways, costumes and looks can change in time. Series like Batman or
Superman were not only written by different scriptwriters, but also drawn
by scores of artists. One cannot confuse the angular Dick Sprang Batman
(from the 1940s and 50s) with the stylish Neal Adams Batman (of the early
1970s) or, the minimalistic and chunky Frank Miller Batman (of 1986) or,
the photorealist painted Dave McKean Batman (of 1989)these are only
some of the scores of artists who worked on Batman since 1939. Because
Batman is multifaced a reader of a certain period can have a particular idea
about Batman that is not necessarily shared by readers from others periods,
or even another contemporary reader. Moreover, as Bennett and Woollacott (1987:59) have demonstrated in their study of James Bond, there is no
stable meaning of such a popular gure. Bond or Batman can not be abstracted from the shifting orders of intertextuality through which their actual functioning has been organized and reorganized. This is also the case
[ 10 ]
for so called graphic novels. The various graphic treatments of the Harvey
Pekar stories of American Splendor (since 1976) make a movie just another
interpretation that t in well with that series visual eclecticism.
Finally the use of sound in lms adds another layer of difference to the issue of adaptation. There was a time that the movies were more like comics. During the rst decades of cinema the actors and the narrator only
received a voice through written texts on intertitles. But the introduction of sound in the late 1920s changed the nature of cinema drastically.
All lms became talkiesexcept for some experimental lms. Sound is
a powerful lm technique, because sound engages a distinct sense mode
and sound can actively shape how the spectator perceives and interprets
the image (Bordwell & Thompson 29192).
Comics do not have a sound track: music, voices and noises can only
be suggested by stilled and visible signs (text, ideograms, balloons . . . )
printed on paper. It is possible to use similar techniques in lm, but they do
not function as well. Except for tongue-in-cheek approaches as in the Batman television series (196668), onomatopoeia in a cinematographic context looks rather strange.
The change from silent to talkie is fundamental. As in novels in
comics a reader can never hear the sound of the characters voices.25 Of
course, the written text can inform the reader about that aspect. Moreover
in comics the visible appearance of the character and other ideograms can
suggest the sound of a voice, but it remains largely an interpretation by the
reader. It seems that at least some readers who imagine a particular sound
of the characters voices are shocked by the way an actor speaks when playing that character.
Not only the sound of a voice is different but also the way the characters speak. The texts in speech balloons are generally not suited for lm
dialogue and they need some rewriting. Superhero comics, for example,
often use very stylistic and bombastic dialogue; a literal screen translation
may emphasize such dialogues articial nature to the point of unintentional camp. Stan Lee (2000) explains how Ken Johnson changed the texts
in The Incredible Hulk television series (19781982): He changed it quite
a bit from the comic book, but every change he made, made sense. In the
comics, when the Hulk talkedhed go, Me Hulk! Me smash! Hulk kill!
[ 11 ]
That type of thing. Well, that would have been corny as hell on the screen.
He left that out . . . He didnt have the Hulk talk at all.
So the change from a silent medium to a sound medium poses also
a lot of problems for the adaptation.
The starting point of this article was the debate on the value of lmic adaptations of comics. Such lms may be popular, but they remain controversial, especially in the eyes of the cultural elite and the diehard comics
fans. Although there are many similarities, the differences are still considerable. After a short look at the different reception and the production
modes, four main problems were described at the creative level: rst, to
what extent has a scriptwriter for lm to rewrite the story, second, how
to go from page layout to a single, unchangeable screen frame, third, how
to translate static drawings into moving and photographic images, and
fourth, how to give the silent world an audible sound? These seem to
be the crucial problems of lmic adaptations of comics. Although new
computer technology facilitates the recreation of the comics fantastic allures, cinematographic adaptations remain problematic; not the least because the reader of a comic constructs a mental image of the ctive world.
Moreover, the reader adds elements that are not necessarily explicit in the
comic, for instance the sound of the voices of the various characters. When
an actor interprets a character from a comic, his/her voice does not always
match the imagined voice by the reader.
Given these differences, perhaps we should not be too purist concerning adaptations and accept that a work may inspire a creator in another medium. If we look at an adaptation, we should forgetfor a momentabout the original work and evaluate the newly created work on
its own merits. Films such as Annie, Dick Tracy, Batman, Ghost World, Hulk,
American Splendor, Immortel or Sin City should be judged as movies and
not as successful or unsuccessful adaptations of comics. After all, Western spectators who watched and enjoyed the Korean lm Old Boy (ChanWuk, 2004) usually did so without having read or even knowing about the
original manga.
[ 12 ]
DICK TRACY
IN PURSUIT OF A COMIC BOOK AESTHETIC
MICHAEL COHEN
Reality was not our goal on this picture.

Wa r r e n B e a t t y ( B o n i f e r, D i c k Tr a c y : T h e M a k i n g o f t h e M o v i e 1 2 )
When Warren Beattys Dick Tracy arrived in 1990, it was the most
meticulous effort to capture the aesthetic of a comic in a live-action lm,
and paved the way for the exploration of the visual correlations lying dormant between cinema and comics. Although there are ontological differences between cinema and comics, and it is not possible for a live-action
lm to replicate the formal properties of comics, Dick Tracy demonstrates
how the cinema can adapt the conventions and characteristics of a comic.
Dick Tracy is a fascinating lm for boldly tackling the differences between
these two media, and in doing so deploys a combination of an aesthetic of
artice, cartooning, framing of the hero, and paneling, to create a cinematic comic aesthetic. The result is a lm with eye-popping colors, a blatantly articial diegesis, a bizarre mlange of villains, and a stalwart hero
wearing a yellow hat and trench coat.
Comics do not possess a singular style, or a nite set of visual attributes, which are either inherent to the medium or historically stable. In his
article, Shaping The Maxx, Greg Smith explains that adapting material
from different media is necessarily a process of translation, since one cannot merely import forms from one medium to another (32). Smith makes
[ 13 ]
the point that characters, story, and iconography are easily transferred
between media because they appear to be the properties of a diegetic
world and not characteristics distinct to a medium (33). Chester Goulds
Dick Tracy originated as a comic strip in 1931, and in the late thirties
lmed serials were produced, as well as a number of lms in the forties, either starring Ralph Byrd or Morgan Conway as the titular crime ghter. All
it took to transfer these actors into the famed detective was a suit and a hat,
and the basic iconography of the profession: a gun and badge. The comic
aesthetic, which distinguishes this latest version of Dick Tracy from many
previous lms based on comics, is the transference of the characters and
their iconography from comics into cinema together with the adaptation
of the conventions and characteristics of the comic medium.
There are four different aspects of Dick Tracy that combine to form a
cohesive aesthetic: the fabrication of Tracy Town (Bonifer 42); the cartooning of props, characters, and behavior so they are excessive and implausible; the framing of Tracy (Warren Beatty); and nally, cinematic
panels. It is the incorporation of multiple elements that generates this
comic aesthetic, as Jon Landau, the production manager of Dick Tracy,
explains: Its not a building with green windows that makes a comic book.
Its that same building with a Flattop character walking out of it, getting
into the biggest, bluest limousine youve ever seen, and driving off on a red
street into a matte painting. Thats a comic book! (Bonifer 12).
A number of exaggerated formal properties are associated with American
crime ghter and superhero comics, and these are the visual tropes engaged by Beatty to depict Tracy Town as the world of a comic. As Scott
McCloud explains in Understanding Comics, the garish coloring is the result of the four-color printing process that became the standard in comic
book production (187), and to stand out from the competition, costumed
heroes were clad in bright, primary colors and fought in a bright primary
world (188). Crime ghting comic heroes belong on colored streets, chasing villains in a blur of motion lines. Such is Dick Tracy, with his chiseled features, wearing his yellow coat and hat, battling against Big Boy (Al
Pacino), Flattop (William Forsythe), and the Brow (Chuck Hicks).
Warren Beatty and his lm crew used the production design of Dick
Tracy to turn a recognizable twentieth-century city into Tracy Town. The
[ 14 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
spectators attention is drawn to the overt artice of Tracys milieu through

the use of studio sets, backlots, painted backdrops, and matte paintings in
the production design. These are all old techniques, found in all genres of
lm, and are still prevalent in this age of digital technology. Used in combination with colored lighting reecting off rain-soaked streets and primary colors painted directly onto Dick Tracys sets, Tracy Town is an implausible city proudly displaying the artice of its fabrication.
The artice of a comics creation, consisting of hand-drawn images
printed on paper, is an integral feature of its aesthetic, and affects the way
the comic is received by the reader. Details such as backgrounds and facial
features are difcult in comics as it is a very time-consuming process. Alan
McKenzie notes, in How to Draw and Sell Comic Strips for Newspapers and
Comic Books!, that too much detail often detracts from the story as many
readers do not absorb dense visual material (80). Rather than challenge
these facts, the trend in superhero comics has been towards exaggeration
and not verisimilitude: artice describes both the ontology of the media
and the style of the genre. Cinema on the other hand is, potentially, an extremely realistic medium because the photographic process produces an
accurate analogue of what is placed before it, and this grants the cinematographic image a level of plausibility not found in comics. Improvements in
the quality and volume of special effects, particularly digital effects, contained in Hollywood features cast more doubt upon the validity of photographic reproductions. However, it remains that live-action Hollywood
lms contain recordings of real people in real spaces, and this ontology informs how photography is perceived and accepted. As Andr Bazin states:
The objective nature of photography confers on it a quality of credibility
absent from all other picture-making (What Is Cinema, Vol. 1, 13).
In their book, Sets in Motion: Art Direction and Film Narrative, Charles
and Mirella Affron describe ve different levels of production design, the
fourth of which is relevant here: articial sets. According to the Affrons,
these sets privilege their own articiality. Prominently featured, consciously
foregrounded, the set as artice calls attention to itself as a consistently
opaque object in pursuit of the ction effect. Design is rendered specic
and legible through the invention of the patently unreal (39). The Affrons
refer to a distinction between the reality effect and the ction effect
(113), which is important for distinguishing between cinematic worlds
D I C K T R A C Y: I N P U R S U I T O F A C O M I C B O O K A E S T H E T I C
[ 15 ]
that are plausible and Dick Tracys Tracy Town which is implausible. The
reality effect keeps a lm grounded in a world that is plausible beyond
the ction, whereas the ction effect of the articial production design
does not. By increasing the level of fabrication in a lms diegesis, reality is
left behind and the ction of the artice becomes a primary focus of the
narrative, challenging the force of plot and character (Affron 39). However, the comic aesthetic does not challenge the plot and characters in
Dick Tracy: because of their origin in a comic strip they are supported and
enhanced by the aesthetic of artice.
The methods of fabricating a lms diegesis are often incorporated inconspicuously during lm production so there is verisimilitude between
the image and its referent. Verisimilitude and plausibility go hand in hand,
and when these techniques are deployed in lms, whether in genres such
as westerns, lm noir, and war lms, or in comedies and melodrama, the
effect is usually transparent so the fabrication of the diegesis is not deliberately brought to the spectators attention. When deployed in fantastic or
futuristic lms, the methods of diegetic fabrication are still usually transparent even though the spectators attention is drawn to the unfamiliarity
of the diegesis.
The fully articial production design in Dick Tracy, which eschews the
plausibility of the reality effect, enables this denition of a comic aesthetic. Tracy Town is implausible because the ction effect created by
the opaque deployment of the production design is stylistically linked to
the narrative focus on a comic character. The gritty urban settings of the
claustrophobic city, bustling streets, and darkened alleys in Dick Tracy engages the milieu of the lm noir and crime thriller genres as its narrative
foundation, and it is the level of artice subsequently applied to this generic trope that creates the implausible comic-style world policed by the
crime ghter.
To effectively fabricate a city such as Tracy Town lmmakers need
to control the environment, and this requires studio sets and backlots. The
diegetic foundation of the city is never fully obscured; on the contrary, it
is integral to creating a comic aesthetic. Richard Sylbert, the production
designer for Dick Tracy, explains: If youre going to do Dick Tracy theres
only one way to do it, and thats with icons, where a car is just a car and a
building is just a building. A backlot is nothing but a series of iconsof a
[ 16 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 1. The production design is sparse

and clean, devoid of realistic minutiae, to
mimic the limitations of the comic strip,
which cannot reproduce realistic details in
a single panel.
city or a village or a town (Bonifer 80). Dick Tracy illustrates how removing details in the set decoration and leaving only the necessary xtures of
a particular referent creates an uncluttered look to each environment (Bonifer 86). As Sylbert explains: If it [the set design] became too realistic, too
atmospheric, it wouldnt work. We started out with atmosphere, but we
took it out. You couldnt have clouds and fog (Bonifer 86). Because a realistic level of detail is not possible in a comic, particularly a small panel
in a daily strip of Dick Tracy, it creates a form of artice in the medium,
which the lmmakers of Dick Tracy have translated into the production
design. The exteriors are noticeably clean and do not display the deterioration expected in a real environment, and the mise-en-scne of the interiors is also devoid of surplus details and decoration beyond the denotation
of the basic set dressing.
[ 17 ]
Dick Tracy was shot on a studio backlot, and many exterior shots use
matte paintings to extend the image or to replace conventional sets. The
opening sequence of the lm introduces this approach as the style for the
rest of the lm. As Harrison Ellenshaw, the visual effects supervisor on
Dick Tracy, states: The reason it was decided to make the rst scene in
the movie a matte shot was to get us immediately into Tracys environment . . . Were in a comic book. Boom. Youre into the characters and the
story, and it all meshes perfectly with that rst thirty-second shot (Bonifer 43). Traditionally, most shots involving matte paintings are unsophisticated and do not use camera movement. The matte painting used during
the opening of Dick Tracy is more sophisticated in its integration of celanimation, as well as its incorporation of complicated camera movements.
This matte painting connects the opening shot of Tracy getting ready for
work to another scene in an alley on the other side of town, which introduces the Kid (Charlie Korsmo), the young orphan who will become
Tracys sidekick.1 A camera movement tracking up the outside of Tracys
apartment to the top of the building reveals the expanse of the city depicted in the matte painting. The camera then tracks left revealing more
of the city in the distance as well as in foreground elements. The artice
of this shot is unmistakable: the setting sun casts a yellow-orange hue over
the city of purple buildings, and the cel-animated elements, such as smoke
stacks and trains, resemble cartoons. At the end of the lm, Tracy drives
off into the sunset heading into another matte painting as The End appears. As Ellenshaw claims: In this movie the matte paintings are the reality (Bonifer 43).
The combination of set design and matte paintings is elaborately enhanced by the use of colored lighting, as well as the application of colors
directly on the sets. In some instances it is the choice of coloring that
changes the set or a prop from being plausible to being completely unrealistic. In cinema and photography, objects and characters are made visible
by the light shone on them. This lighting also shapes and denes their presence, and varieties of common lighting patterns are often used. Characters
and objects in comics are not enabled and shaped by the reection of light;
therefore, parts of an image can be as dark or light as required, without affecting other areas. Black outlines dene most graphic material on a page
and within the panel, and the effect of lighting is actually determined by
[ 18 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 2. The lm is book-ended by matte

paintings, creating an unmistakable
cartoon-style opening and closing.
the lightness or darkness between demarcated elds of solid color, or black

and white. This is enhanced with shape lines to give denition and volume
to characters and objects. Solid color elds are a common stylistic feature
of comics and are often used instead of drawing backgrounds in detail,
which saves time, and heightens the dramatic context of the foreground.
In Dick Tracy colored lighting reected off wet streets, particularly
during night sequences, emulates the solid color elds of a comic. Single
primary colors are used for costumes, sets, cars, and props. In some scenes
the background coloring is strongly demarcated from the silhouette of a
character in the foreground. To create the impression of solid color elds in
the windows of buildings colored gels were used. However, the effect of creating colored elds similar to a comic is complicated by the variations that
occur between the color, the material, and the lighting. A limited number
[ 19 ]
of colors were used in the production design and costuming for Dick Tracy
in an attempt to capture the limitation of the four-color printing process
found in traditional comics. When discussing the limited number of colors
used, the lms costume designer, Milena Canonero, explains, with the
way materials react to color and light, it may seem that there are nuances,
but in fact there are just those ten [colors]. No browns, no midtones, no
grays (Bonifer 63). The loss of color on one object is usually made up
for with the saturation of color on another object. For example, the colored lighting on the set causes Tracys raincoat to lose the brightness of
its yellow.
Sets, backlots, mattes, and models are actually unsophisticated staples
of cinema, and improvements in technology are usually aimed at making
them more transparent. However, Dick Tracy eschews the reality effect
which comes so easily to cinema, and pursues a ction effect through
the opaque deployment of the common cinematic techniques outlined.
The artice of its diegetic fabrication does not make Tracy Town any less
recognizable as a twentieth-century city; instead, it challenges its plausibility. The Affrons state: All constructed movie sets are articial, of
course. . . . We reserve artice and articial for those that refuse to let us
forget it (114), and in Dick Tracy the articial set refuses to let the spectator forget this lm is based on a comic.
A strategy of cartooning in Dick Tracy makes the choreography of character actions and behavior implausible, and complements the aesthetic
of artice in the production design. Whether it is exaggerated lming effects, such as sped up footage, or the outrageous behavior of the characters
themselves, cartooning transcends the communication of the story: the
narrative referent becomes abstracted into a stylistic representation. Cartooning also includes the design of the villains using prosthetic makeup,
and the design of their props and weapons, so that they all resemble the
caricatures found in the pages of comics. Deployed in combination with
an articial production design, the result is a comic-style diegesis populated by outrageous characters, wielding farfetched weapons, whom look
and behave as cartoons.
Comics are the product of the relationship between hand and page
and are inherently articial. However, superhero comics are not only dis[ 20 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
tinguished by the artice of the graphic process. Typically, comics are excessive and amboyant in their use of color, character proportion, and the
choreography and depiction of action. To translate this artice and excess
into a cinematic form Warren Beatty and his creative team used a number
of stylistic strategies that can be described as cartooning, which is another way of elevating the aesthetic of artice in Dick Tracy.
At rst glance, any relationship between cartooning and live-action
cinema is problematic, since cartoons are hand-drawn caricatures. In his
article, Delirious Inventions, Mike Atkinson states, the relationship of
both cartoons and comics to actuality has always been antagonistic (12).
Cartoon is also a common term for cel-animation of hand-drawn caricatures. As John Geipel explains in The Cartoon: A Short History of Graphic
Comedy and Satire, the popular use of the term cartoon as a synonym
of animated lm is long-established and probably indelible . . . later reinforced by the universal popularity of Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny, Popeye
and other celluloid heroes (150). This simplied explication of cartooning as being less than serious fails to take into account that many comics
and animated cartoons can be humorous, dramatic, or horric. However,
the denition of cartooning applied to Dick Tracy mirrors both the continuing perception that comics and superheroes are childish or juvenile,
and the stylistic approach of Beatty.
Will Eisner explains that the cartoon is the result of exaggeration
and simplication. Realism is adherence to most of the detail. The elimination of some of the detail in an image makes it easier to digest and
adds to humor. Retention of detail begets believability because it is closest to what the reader actually sees (Comics and Sequential Art 151). In
Dick Tracy cartooning is used to preclude the plausibility of characters
and their actions by either removing or countering the realistic detail recorded by the camera. Such strategies include speeding up footage and
other techniques to draw attention to the fabrication of cinematic production. As Scott McCloud states: By stripping down an image to its essential meaning, an artist can amplify that meaning in a way that realistic
art cant (Understanding Comics 30). In this sense, cartooning is not necessarily a move closer to the ontology of comics; it is a move away from
the potential realism of cinema, and towards abstraction and excess. By
de-emphasizing the appearance of the physical world in favor of the idea
[ 21 ]
of form, the cartoon places itself in the world of concepts (McCloud,

Understanding Comics 41). The more abstracted the image becomes the
more it represents concepts and ideas, and the less it represents its referent
in the real world. McCloud claims, when we abstract an image through
cartooning, were not so much eliminating details as we are focusing on
specic details (Understanding Comics 30).
In Dick Tracy, the use of bright and unrealistic coloring on sets and
props emphasizes the concept or idea of the referent by exaggerating
and simplifying it. The design of props in Dick Tracy operates similarly
to the way the production design uses excessive artice to add to the ction effect. Whether it is the exaggeration of proportions, or the application of coloring, the characters in Dick Tracy wield and handle an array of
weapons and props that are farfetched and implausible. The villains themselves are covered in prosthetic makeup: a literal and metaphorical layer
of artice upon the actors. This denition of cartooning extends beyond Eisner and McCloud, to include the choreography of actions and behavior of characters, which is self-consciously goofy and incongruous
with plausibility; it is embellished and enhanced beyond narrative justication.
Cartooning is established from the start of Dick Tracy when Flattop
uses his Tommy gun to write the words EAT LEAD TRACY on the back
wall of the garage, clearly linking the lm with the animated television
series, The Dick Tracy Show (1961), where characters would do the same.
However, writing on a wall with a machine gun is not something in the
original comic strip, and this is therefore an example of explicit cartooning, rather than a reference to the comic strip.
When Tracy ghts and arrests Steve the Tramp, he swings his arms
around wide amplifying the motion of his punches. The lm is sped up to
further exaggerate the effect of the ght. This cartooning is carried over
into a shot outside of the shack rocking back and forth, emphasizing the
force of Tracys attack on the thug. When Tracy utters the line, maybe we
should step outside, he punches the Tramp right through the side of the
shack and onto the ground. This sequence is a demonstration of cartooning because Tracy does not have superpowers that would narratively explain the exaggerated depiction of the action.
[ 22 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 3. EAT LEAD TRACY on the back

wall of the garage links the lm with
the animated television series from the
1960s, and Tracys exaggerated punches
turn the action into a live action cartoon.
Dick Tracy has two montage sequences that demonstrate the artice
of cartooning in the depiction of action. In both sequences Breathless
Mahoney, played by Madonna, sings songs describing narrative developments: Sooner or Later (I always get my man) and Back in Business. In
the rst sequence, Tracy is able to foil Big Boys crime operations by being
on the scene in time to nab the criminals in the act. In the second sequence,
Big Boy and his men launch a crime spree after Tracy has been framed and
imprisoned. In both sequences, the action is abstracted from literal to cartoon representations. In one shot, Tracy punches out seven gangsters advancing on him with one punch, and in another shot he sends a gangster
ying backwards through the air. During the crime spree the gangsters
[ 23 ]
Fig. 4. Two montage sequences

demonstrate the artice of cartooning
in the exaggerated depiction of action,
such as Tracys knockout punches and the
gangsters looting and shakedowns.
throw their victims out of windows, and two gangsters literally shake a victim upside down causing coins fall out of his pockets onto the ground.
The functionality and plausibility of props in Dick Tracy is deemphasized using design and coloring, so they are abstracted into the denotation
of their referents. Although lm sets and props are often nonfunctioning
they are usually designed to be perceived as functional. The spectators suspension of disbelief is contingent upon the perception of a props functionality that is easily achieved using recognizable real-world designs. In
Dick Tracy, the functionality and believability of the props is strictly limited to the denotation of the referent, and their implausible appearance
is contingent and justied by the lms relationship with the comics. The
design of these props has a cumulative effect with the fabrication of the articial diegesis, as well as with the narrative context, which forms the aes[ 24 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
thetic of artice. In Tracy Town, the outrageous props are only believable when in the hands of its crime ghter and its villains.
A sequence involving a boiler room in Dick Tracy demonstrates how
the use of color lends implausibility to the props. The boiler is painted
bright yellow with red pipes and handles to emphasize its artice. Itchy
(Ed ORoss), one of Big Boys henchmen, also wields a wrench in this scene
which is painted bright red. As the boiler gets closer and closer to explosion, it begins to rock furiously and shake on its foundations, steam bursts
from various pipe seams, and whistles blare. The cartooning of these
props complements the outrageousness of Big Boys plan to kill Tracy with
the exploding boiler.
The abstraction of props extends to the use of generic labels so that
the products, such as a can of chili Dick Tracy eats from, do not have the
[ 25 ]
Fig. 5. The abstraction of props extends

to the use of generic labels, such
EXTRA and Daily Paper to identify
newspapers.
complicated design patterns that are usually found on commercial products, and they are colored in single primary colors. In addition, generic labels, such as EXTRA and Daily Paper, identify newspapers.
In Dick Tracy, the transference of the villains and gangsters from the
panels of the comic strip required complicated makeup and prosthetics,
which abstracts and exaggerates a particular feature of each character. In
this way literal names describe the characters facial features: Flattop has a
at head; The Brow has a strangely bulbous forehead; and so on with Little
Face (Lawrence Steven Meyers), The Rodent (Neil Summers), and others.
There is no exploration of the psychology or background of each villain
because the prosthetic design creates the phrenology of a criminal. By abstracting the design of the villains the lmmakers amplify the evil nature of these caricatures, which places them in the world of concepts
(McCloud, Understanding Comics 41).
Warren Beatty uses the design of props and characters, and the choreography of their actions and their behavior, to bridge the ontological
gap between live action cinema and comics, albeit at a supercial level. As
Atkinson explains, [w]hen using actors and real settings . . . what results
is perilously entangled in formal incongruities (12). These incongruities,
these tropes of exaggeration are cartooning, which is how Beatty has
translated the aesthetic of cartoons into a live-action lm. Taken in isolation these elements of cartooning might be considered aberrant. The
suspension of disbelief required to accept the embellished behavior and
[ 26 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 6. Complicated makeup and

prosthetics abstract and exaggerate a
particular feature of each character, such
as Flattop and The Brow.
actions and the bizarre collection of villains is contingent upon accepting

their implausibility as a cinematic translation of a comic aesthetic.
Dick Tracy goes beyond simply transferring the character from the comic
pages to the screen using elaborate costuming; the lm illustrates the heros
iconic specicity through conspicuous framing and lighting. Tracy is introduced in shots that allow the spectator to fully contemplate the visual
design of the character. The hero does not just pose for the camera, he
pauses for a length of time which transcends the narrative moment, fullling the role of the graphic center of narrative focus (The Aesthetics
of the Comic Strip 650) in comic panels, described by Robert Harvey.
The most popular comic book crime ghters and superheroes have
[ 27 ]
entered into popular culture with an enormous impact. Their origins and
their eternal battles with a gallery of arch nemeses are endlessly replayed
across decades of comics, as well as cinema and television. The plot of
Dick Tracy is inevitably a distillation of story elements from the characters comic history across different eras, to create a contemporary version.
In The Superhero with a Thousand Faces: Visual Narratives on Film and
Paper, Luca Somigli claims, [t]he development of comic book narratives
over time can be characterized as sameness with difference, as a reshufing of a number of narrative elements into new patterns (289). This is
how the most popular of characters remain fresh over their lifespan, even
though some comic characters are more than half a century old. As Somigli states, a comic book character is always already a remake (286). This is
true, yet wherever they go, wherever they are remade, they carry with them
essential dening attributes and iconic designs for which they are famous,
and this allows them to be instantly recognizable across various media.
Born of a visual medium, the most prominent feature of comic heroes
is their appearance, and it is not surprising that lms based on comics trade
so heavily on the visual appearance of their characters. In Dick Tracy the
iconic features of the heros costume are a yellow hat and coat he wore in
the colored Sunday comic strips. Despite slight alterations in the depiction
of his facial features, Tracy has always had the same general visage, which
conveniently suits the casting of Warren Beatty. Beattys features are not
quite as chiseled as Chester Goulds depiction; however, the costume is
the primary icon dening the character. The opening shot of Dick Tracy
is of Tracys famous two-way watch-radio, his badge, and his gun all arranged neatly on the dresser. Tracy picks up these three icons of his profession, before the camera pans upwards to reveal the bright yellow hat hanging on a hook on the wall, which completes the character.
Comic characters do not move on the page: they are locked into the
postures and poses selected for each panel. The frozen posture is the event
of the panel, and often depicts an entire continuity of action. The depiction of motion by conventions in the artwork is complemented by the
static nature of the image, which imbues it with a contemplative potential:
even though the image might suggest or be part of a continuous motion,
it can be scrutinized and savored in a way cinematic images cannot. When
Tracy is leaving his apartment he pauses in the doorway, framed and lit in
[ 28 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
silhouette, to check his watch-radio. This is not the narrative act of a character establishing the time, but a posture to establish the hero based on the
icons of his representation, his watch-radio, hat, and coat, which are very
specic to the historical character of Dick Tracy. When Tracy does stop
and pose the spectator can focus on the characters visual attributes and
contemplate his presence within the frame.
During the Sooner or Later (I always get my man) montage, Tracy
walks toward the camera ring his Tommy gun. The strong backlighting
from a single source forms a halo of light around the character. The effect
is the reverse of a comic image, where the background would be a light
color or white and the character bordered by an outline of black. The outline of light in the lm performs a similar function to a drawn border: it
separates Tracy from his background. An important distinction between
this shot and a comic is that the light simultaneously casts a shadow over
Tracys features, diminishing the detail of his face.
Fig. 7. Strong backlighting forms a halo

of light around the character, which is
the reverse of a comic image, where
the background would be a light color or
white and the character bordered by an
outline of black
The stylistic deployment of Dick Tracy is an integral element of this

denition of a comic aesthetic because it translates the privileged posturing and appearance of the hero upon the comic page. The very nature of
a comic in the hands of a reader grants it the potential for contemplation
at the readers discretion. The page does not need to be turned and the next
panel can wait while the reader appreciates the visual design of the character. Drawn in postures to accentuate the explosive potential and implications of an action, the comic character is a dynamic gure caught frozen
[ 29 ]
upon the page. Freezing a character upon the screen for a lengthy period
would be a dubious strategy: certainly possible, but narratively awkward as
it has the potential to disrupt spectator engagement. Without freezing the
image, the Tracy poses and the camera unobtrusively records him, whilst
the spectator contemplates the heroic poise of the crime ghter during this
narrative pause.
Describing a relationship between the mechanisms of cinema and comics
is a more complicated proposition than attaining an ornate and colorful
mise-en-scne, or costume design, or similarly developing a cartooning
effect. Although cinema and comics use images in sequence, both utilize
different mechanisms of narrative communication. Paneling is the use
of framing and editing to adapt the paradigmatic arrangement of panels
in a strip into a cinematic form and is the most complex of the strategies
deployed in the creation of a comic aesthetic in Dick Tracy. It is possible
to compare the functional and aesthetic equivalencies between Dick Tracy
and the original comics, to determine the extent to which the paneling
transcends the ontological differences between the media.
Francis Lacassin contends in his article, The Comic Strip and Film
Language, that the language of comics was developed before its equivalent in cinema, despite the intellectual and critical preference consistently
granted to the cinema. As he develops his argument, Lacassin makes two
bold claims: The comic-strip page demonstrably corresponds to the lm
sequence, and [t]he daily comic strip of three or four images is comparable to the cinematic scene (11). These claims do not stand up to rigorous
scrutiny because Lacassin simplies the mechanism of both cinema and
comics, and he does not provide a denition of either a lm sequence or a
cinematic scene. As with all narrative media, the boundaries determining
the sequence or the scene are often arbitrary, whereas a page in a comic
book or a tier in a comic strip are nite spaces. However, the goal in this article is not to reconcile the mechanistic differences between the two media,
but rather to explain how the deployment of cinematographic frames and
shots, in isolation and juxtaposition, can be compared with the aesthetic
of panels in comics.
Both cinema and comics use images in sequence, yet the nature of
the sequence is different: each successive frame of a movie is projected
[ 30 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
on exactly the same spacethe screenwhile each frame of comics must

occupy a different space (McCloud, Understanding Comics 7). As Robert
Harvey states, panels are always present with each other upon the page, and
layout is a function in a comic for which there is no equivalent in cinema:
Only in the comics does layout assist in storytelling (Art of the Comic
Book 162). For this reason, Will Eisner explains there is a necessary level of
cooperation on the part of the reader, that they will follow the narrative
sequence instead of skipping ahead (Comics and Sequential Art 40). Control is taken out of the hands of the spectator in cinema, but is literally held
in the hands of the comic book reader. As Greg Smith describes the process, the comics readers rst see the page as a whole before they then parse
through the individual frames in narrative succession. The comics page is
rst understood as a unit, and then the reader ts the component frames
into that overall structure (44).
Even with the control afforded by video and DVD, cinema spectators
cannot control and experience the juxtaposition of images in the same way
they can with a comic. Although readers are guided by the traditional reading sequence and the artwork in a comic, they are able to read and reread
the sequence in and out of order, and experience the spatial proximity of
the panels as they read. As Harvey explains: Simply by being chosen, [the
piece of action] is captured and thus destined for longer contemplation
than is possible for an equivalent action in a lm (The Art of the Comic
Book 178). Striking and dramatic poses in comics are designed with this
contemplation in mind. However, in Comic Art: Characteristics and Potentialities of a Narrative Medium, Lawrence Abbott explains, [s]everal
minutes of picture contemplation would be out of the question because
the story continuity would be broken. Each drawing on the comic strip/
book page has its allotted reading time, without which narrative continuity would be severely hindered (162).
The rst place to begin a comparison of cinematic frames with comic
panels is with the aspect ratios. In the original Dick Tracy comic strips
there is consistency in the shapes and sizes of the panels due to the traditional comic strip layout established in newspaper publishing. In a daily
strip, there are usually four panels with an aspect ratio of approximately
0.8:1, and in the Sunday color pages there are typically three tiers divided
into four panels each with aspect ratios varying from 1.1:1 to 1.3:1,2 which
[ 31 ]
is very close to the original Academy ratio of 1.37:1.3 These aspect ratios
are all close to being square. In Dick Tracy the choice to use the narrower
aspect ratio of 1.85:1 was made with direct reference to the panels of the
original comic strip: It was nally determined that a tighter frame, a standard aspect ratio of 1.85:1 . . . would come closer to duplicating the presentation of the original comic strip (Bonifer 5455). However, the choice of
one frame ratio over the other in a lm does not equate to the ontology
of a comic. The 1.85:1 ratio does not resemble the size and shape of panels,
and a cinematographic frame does not resemble the hand-drawn art, so a
protable comparison between cinema and comics requires more than a
side-by-side inspection.
Individual panels are often called upon to be more than a single link
in a sequence, and are used to depict the continuity of an action. Eisner
refers to this as encapsulation (Comics and Sequential Art 39), where a
single panel represents the before and after of an action. The panel does
not freeze a moment in time; instead it has what Lacassin calls dynamic
time, which represents the time span necessary for the unfolding of an
action (17). The panels pictorial content embodies the preceding action
and suggests the subsequent action through a number of conventional devices, such as character posture, motion lines, multiple images, as well as
dialogue and narration. It is therefore a part of a temporal sequence of narrative: In a panel selected from a series, the frozen posture tells its story
giving information about the before and after of the event (Eisner, Comics
and Sequential Art 105). Unlike cinema, the comic artist has to distill hundreds of movements comprising a simple gesture into one tableau: The
comic strip abbreviates movement, or rather relieves it of certain phases
and contracts the time necessary for its execution (Lacassin 18). This tableau has to support dialogue, story, emotion, and action.
In Dick Tracy, Warren Beatty chose to keep the action within stationary frames to encapsulate each narrative unit without moving the camera or relying on editing. According to cinematographer Vittorio Storaro,
we were trying to use elements from the original Chester Gould drawings.
One of the elements is that the story is usually told in vignette. So what
we tried to do is never move the camera at all. Never. Try to make everything work in the frame . . . Camera movement is normally your grammar
[ 32 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 8. These shots encapsulate the

action of the two characters running
and are functionally equivalent to comic
panels and stylistically conspicuous.
in telling the story. In this case we were trying to use a camera that was
steady all the time (Bonifer 54).
This is certainly not the case throughout the whole lm, as the camera
does move frequently, with particularly elaborate shots incorporating matte
paintings. However, there is a strategy to keep the camera motionless at
very conspicuous moments where a moving, panning, or tracking shot
would have been the norm.
When Tracy chases the Kid through the streets, the shots are framed
in medium long shot, and the camera does not move. Each shot is framed
to provide an image of great depth, which is compositionally reinforced
by the use of perspective lines in the architecture, such as the side of a
warehouse receding into the background. The action within each frame
[ 33 ]
alternates between the characters running towards the camera and away
from it, which makes the sequence dynamic without relying on camera
movement or montage. The duration of the shots, and the deliberate lack
of editing, except to depict transitions from location to location, draws attention to the deployment of these shots to encapsulate the action of the
two characters running. These shots from Dick Tracy are both functionally equivalent to comic panels, and they are stylistically conspicuous. The
supercial resemblance in the function of shots and panels does not translate into the same style of a comic, and adapting the cinematic form into
panels requires more than recognizing the equation between shots and
panels.
A conspicuous technique in Dick Tracy that produces a visual strategy
of paneling within the frame is the repeated use of a diopter lens. Usually quite rare, this lens is used at least ten times during the lm. The diopter lens allows the foreground and background characters and objects to be
displayed in sharp focus, presenting a striking juxtaposition that dees the
reality of their spatial position, and heightens their compositional proximity. The shortcoming of a diopter lens is a distinct blurred line down the
center of the image, which divides the two focal planes.
In Dick Tracy, the diopter lens is used three times involving the Kid.
In the rst, he is in the background staring at Tracys two-way wrist radio,
which is in the extreme foreground. In the second, the Kid is about to escape out of a window in the background, and he stops to look back at
Tracys wallet, which is in the foreground. In the third, the woman from
the orphanage has come to collect him and is walking up the corridor in
the background, juxtaposed sharply beside the look of fear on the Kids
face in the foreground. The division between the focal planes is particularly evident in the rst and second examples, as the line of blurred focus
is not as well hidden as it is in the third example. In each shot, the juxtaposition within the frame heightens the relationship between the Kid and
his situation or the props: the technology of the wrist radio fascinates him,
the wallet tempts him, and he dreads the orphanage.
Warren Beattys choice to use the diopter lens in Dick Tracy is the
choice to move away from the language of cinema towards the language of
comics in which the spatial arrangement articulates the narrative. Instead
of using editing, camera movement, or rack focusing to create the juxtapo[ 34 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
Fig. 9. The diopter lens is a move away

from the language of cinema towards
the language of comics in which the
narrative dynamic unfolds within the
single composition.
sition between subject and object in these scenes, which would therefore be
syntagmatic and linear, the use of the diopter lens allows the narrative dynamic to unfold within the single composition. This is a simplistic summation of the mechanism of both cinema and comics, and overlooks the
fact that the use of static framing and the diopter lens are privileged moments in a lm that still relies on typical continuity editing. However, the
conspicuousness of these cinematographic choices indicates the development of a style that explicitly alludes to comics through the paradigmatic
juxtaposition of images.
The comic aesthetic in Dick Tracy is motivated by the presence of the
hero. Costumed crime ghters and superheroes are natives of the comic
medium, and this inuences their formal appearance in a number of lms:
[ 35 ]
they do not exist in a real world, they have extraordinary powers and
abilities, they wear outrageous costumes, and they ght maniacal villains
and foil their preposterous plots. The relationship between the comic medium and the heroes and villains that battle across its pages creates an aesthetic contingent upon their mutual artice and implausibility. This distinct quality has guided the movement of Dick Tracy from the comic strips
to the cinema screen.
According to Greg Smith, [p]roducers adapting works from other
media make choices about how to translate formal elements into their
functional equivalents in the other medium (32). The comic aesthetic
in Dick Tracy does not transcend the ontology of cinema; it is an aesthetic
translation of the characteristics and conventions from the comic medium by using the stylistic and functional equivalents in cinema. As Smith
claims, [w]hen a medium borrows an effect from other existing media,
the borrowing medium often evolves and gains expressivity (32).
The development of a comic aesthetic in Dick Tracy, through the
adaptation of the conventions and characteristics of comics, has given
cinema a new expressivity. However, the comic aesthetic is contingent
upon the hero himself: Dick Tracys origin in comic strips motivates the
combination of the aesthetic of artice,cartooning,paneling, and the
heroic posturing of the crime ghter. There would be no comic aesthetic
without Dick Tracy, and therefore the crime ghter is both the impetus and
the limitation of the comic aesthetic as a unique cinematic style.
[ 36 ]
MICHAEL COHEN
TRANSLATION CREATIVITY
AND ALIEN ECON(C)OMICS
F R O M H O L LY W O O D B L O C K B U S T E R
TO DARK HORSE COMIC BOOK1
KERRY GOUGH
Although the relationship between lm and the comic book has

had a long history (McAllister et. al.; Gordon, Comic Strips 84; Barker; Reitberger and Fuchs; Gifford; Waugh), the intermedia opportunities of comic
book properties have been excessively plundered in recent years through
the reciprocal relationship between Warner Bros. and DC, and Marvels
later synergistic relationships with Columbia Pictures and Twentieth Century Fox (Reitberger and Fuchs 156; Perry and Aldridge 242). As such the
Hollywood comic book blockbuster movie has become a central and complementary part of both the comic book and the Hollywood lm industries, in which the revenue generated can be staggering. At the beginning
of 2006 Spider-Man was the most successful comic book movie, having
earned a U.S. domestic box ofce of over $403 million and worldwide sales
of over $821 million (Gordon, Comic Strips; Meehan 4765; McAllister,
All-Time Domestic Blockbusters).
However, not only do the Hollywood studios take successful comic
book characters and translate them into cinematic money-spinners, but
those studios also seek to exploit existing, if apparently exhausted Hollywood successes, through their licensed translations into comic book properties. By branching out into alternative ancillary areas and markets, in effect these already existing and proven products go large in an effort to
[ 37 ]
further maximize prot potential, as they break into the already established and lucrative market of the comic book (Barker, News Reviews;
Bierbaum 24; Thompson, The Spider Stratagem).
This chapter explores one such especially telling and successful comic
book adaptation, that of the Aliens series by Dark Horse Comics. This series illustrates not only the economic potential of such activities, but also
the creative possibilities that such adaptations facilitate. While economics have long been a factor in the production of cultural products, Eileen
Meehan has identied how the commercial intertext itself is in fact a response to economic conditions and the expansionist rise of multimedia
conglomerates (Meehan 47). However, in the particular case of the Alien
lm saga, we have the development of a conglomerate-produced cinematic
product that did not originate in comics. Rather, Dark Horse Comics, in an
effort to break into a previously untapped area of the comic book market,
repackaged the Hollywood blockbuster action of the Alien lm series as a
branded, but still unique, pleasure for a comic book and fan audience. The
lm series, appropriately enough, in itself was also inuenced by the visual
arts, and built upon the branding of the Aliens franchise with the highly
stylized artwork of H. R. Giger (Wyatt; Grainge 34462). In this process of
translation creativity, thena process that culminated in both a striking
visual style and extension of the original narrative worldsthis particular
lm property lent itself readily to the transformation process across into
the comic book format.
Aliens adaptation into comic book art also denoted the relatively small
Dark Horse Comics elevated position as a direct challenger to its larger
Marvel and DC competitors, including the cultivation of synergistic relationships between the less-well-known Dark Horse and the giant Twentieth Century Fox conglomerate. As a result, this project, through the creative nuances that it afforded, also breathed further longevity and nancial
incentive into the Alien franchise as a whole, thus beneting the studio,
the comics company, and the fans alike. In effect the nexus of productivity functioned around questions of innovation and re-creation, translation creativity, and franchisation, within a context of the growing strength
of the multimedia conglomerates and multinational power (Wasko, How
Hollywood Works; Hesmondhalgh).
[ 38 ]
KERRY GOUGH
In 1987, a full two years ahead of the release and crossover phenomenon
of Batman, Dark Horses Aliens series was a forerunner in a reverse of the
by-now conventionalized process of translating comic books into lms.
The translation business itself was not new to Dark Horse at this point,
and it became essential to its genesis and development as comic book publishers, as one Dark Horse Press release reveals, At Dark Horse, weve been
marrying movies to comics ever since our 1987 Godzilla Special, and weve
never tried to justify the existence of one by its ties to the other. Instead we
try to take whats best in movies and television shows and adapt them to
achieve the same ends in comics (such as in the case of Star Wars, Aliens,
Godzilla, etc.), or take comics that would work well as motion pictures (like
The Mask, Time Cop, and . . . Barb Wire) and bring them to the screen
(Press Release).
The primary function of the press release is self-serving, self-advertising rhetoric, but it does demonstrate Dark Horses vision of itself as a
home for creative lm and comic book exchanges. Marvel Comics and DC
Comics are frequently cited as the forefathers of the synergesis between the
comic book and the contemporary comic book action movie; as McAllister argues, The archetype of synergy in the comic book industry has traditionally been DC comics, whose parent company, Time Warner, is the
largest communications conglomerate in the world. Its many holdings illustrate how a licensein this case a superhero charactercan be moved
across various media industries (McAllister, Ownership Concentration
27). However Dark Horses t within the symbiosis of the comic book and
the Hollywood lm industries demonstrates the process of creative exchange that takes place within and across the industry, and particularly
the potential connections that can be established between Hollywood and
smaller comic book publishers.
Cofounded in 1986 by Mike Richardson and Randy Stradley, Dark Horse
Comics, as a major independent comic book producer, went on to control
6 percent of the comic book market by 1997, outsold in direct market sales,
to comic book shops and independent subscription services, by the comic
book market leaders Marvel Comics at 33 percent and DC Comics with 28
percent (McAllister, Ownership Concentration 19; Henderson, February
A L I E N E C O N ( C ) O M I C S : F R O M H O L LY W O O D B L O C K B U S T E R T O C O M I C B O O K
[ 39 ]
2005 Market Share). This gure has remained comparatively constant and
as of February 2005 Dark Horses market share stood at 6.2 percent compared to 37.4 percent for Marvel and DC at 30.6 percent (2004 Year in
Review). During this period Dark Horses increased distribution gures
have also nudged the company into third place ahead of Image Comics
4.70 percent market share. However while Dark Horses ranked position
and market share has increased, in terms of reorders, or the rate at which
older successful titles are reordered and stocked by comics retailers, by
2004 the margin between Dark Horse and the duopoly of Marvel and DC
narrowed considerably with Dark Horse once more in third place at a signicantly higher 9.9 percent compared to the relative stability of DC with
34.4 percent and Marvels 23.1 percent (2004 Year in Review). Here Image Comics, Dark Horses main competitor from the independent sector,
had dropped back to fth place behind both Tokyo Pop and Viz Llc, with
Dark Horse building signicantly upon sales of its back catalogue (2004
Comics, Graphic Novel; Henderson).
As a relatively independent comic book producer, Dark Horse Comics represents a successful example of how smaller competitors represent a
challenge to the dominance of the major industry players. However, Dark
Horse was not the rst to develop a comic book series from a lm franchise. Marvel had already produced the Star Wars comic series a decade
before, producing 107 issues between 1977 and 1986. However, this series
started out as a direct translation of the original Star Wars (1977) lm, and
while it did progress to explore and expand upon the original lm, this expansion was largely restricted to the development of existing characters
and storylines contained within that narrative arc, due to Lucass protection of that property. During this period Marvel also went on to develop
a four-part direct translation of Return of the Jedi (1983) in January 1985.
However it was largely by 1992after Dark Horses purchase of the Star
Wars license and publication of Classic Star Wars #1that the comics narratives were developed to encompass new and original storylines (2004
Year in Review). Dark Horse Comics position as a relatively small, privately owned company granted it a degree of autonomy and freedom not
ordinarily afforded within the ranks and hierarchies of Marvel and DC.
Dark Horses position, as a company less embedded in large-conglomerate
[ 40 ]
KERRY GOUGH
power circles, permitted freedom in the process of that translation creativity.

Dark Horses success is manifest not only in terms of its increasing
market share as a comics, graphic novel, and magazine publisher, but also
in the strength of its back catalogue, which represents the extensive outreach and longevity of its product when compared to other comic book
publishers. Although comparatively small in relation to the Big Two, Dark
Horse represents an important industry mainstay, and has had a signicant number of lms based upon its original comic book properties, such
as The Mask (1994), Barbwire (1996), Spawn (1997), Hellboy (2004), Aliens
vs. Predator (2004), Sin City (2005), as well as the scheduled development
of Concrete (forthcoming) (Comic Book Adaptation Figures).
Dark Horse, then, specialized in the development of these licenses, either in licensing its original products to other media, or in the cultivation
of licensed comic books. In the mid-1980s, Dark Horse had begun the process of acquiring comic book licensing rights not only for Aliens, but also
for Flash Gordon, Godzilla, Tarzan, Terminator, and Star Wars (2004 Year
in Review). At the time of the release of the original six-part Aliens comic
series, The Terminator comics series was the companys best selling title,
however Aliens outsold The Terminator by thousands, with Aliens #1 returning to press six times (Stradley, Interview: Licensing the Franchise).
Licensing established products, of course, not only serves to generate
revenue for the studio through the license itself, but simultaneously serves
as an intertextual advertisement for other afliated products (Meehan 56
57). Yet in the mid-1980s this concept was still underdeveloped as an industrial strategy. Randy Stradley, Senior Editor for Dark Horse Comics, and
Editor of the original Aliens comic books, suggests that in 1988 studios
hadnt yet tumbled to the amount of money that could be made licensing their lms. When we started, the licensing department at Twentieth
Century Fox consisted of two people, so we had an easy relationship with
them (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter; 2004 Year in Review). Mike
Richardson later reafrmed this sentiment in an interview (Richardson,
Interview: Licensing the Franchise). Getting in on the ground oor of
such activities helped to establish and secure Dark Horses position as an
industry, even global, leader in the publication of licensed comics, and to
[ 41 ]
attain their current ranking as the third largest U.S. comic book publisher
(2004 Year in Review; Dark Horse Comics Licenses; Company Overview; Dark Horse Services).
As fans of the Alien lms themselves, and after the box-ofce success of
both Alien (1979) and Aliens (1986), the editors of Dark Horse Comics approached Twentieth Century Fox with a view to purchasing the comics licensing rights to the Aliens property (Comic Book Adaptation Figures).
The imperative was simultaneously to entertain the established adult fans
of the lms and to attract new audiences to the comic book series by developing the property. Recollecting the initial thought process surrounding the conception of the comic books, Randy Stradley said: Well the lms
were the lms, and everybody had already seen them. Who would want
to read the same adventure over and over? We wanted to do the sequels to
the lmsto see how an encounter with the Aliens might affect different
groups of characters in different settings and situations (Stradley, Re:
Comic Book Chapter).
A central problem faced by Dark Horse in transferring and translating
these cinematic products into a comic book language lay in establishing a
unique vision while maintaining an accurate portrayalstriving for a
degree of product differentiation, in an effort to generate newness and a
degree of originality, while demonstrating an afnity with the series. Dark
Horse had to negotiate an afnity of coherence across both an already established product and its readymade fan base.
Having secured the licensing rights to the Alien series, and with the
necessity for coherence in mind, Dark Horse cofounders Stradley and
Richardson approached the writer Mark Verheiden. They were already familiar with his work on The American in 1987, and, as will be argued, his
style tted neatly with the treatment they had in mind for the comic book
series.
With such a visually striking property and given the visual emphasis
of the comics medium, creating an effective look was central. Dark Horse
sought to marry the visual tone of the accompanying comic book art with
that of the original lm product, which drew heavily on the artwork of
H. R. Giger, the original creator of the Alien lifeform (Giger). These biochemical, neuro-gynological, post-terrestrial creations of Gigers original
[ 42 ]
KERRY GOUGH
art for the lm, as Timothy Leary described them, acted as the impetus
and guiding inspiration for Dark Horses progeny in the face of such an
organic and sinuous, metallographic creation (Leary 4). In Gigers art,
the alien xenomorph featured the contradictory enmeshing of the natural
and the organic with the technological, of sinew and artice with surface
sheen, and the blending of contorted limbs with alien elegance. Gigers
aliens both fascinate and disgust in their binaristic reductionism, and this
was something that Dark Horse set out to emulate in its translation (see
gure 1) (Haraway, 14981). Armed with the bio-mechanical creations of
Gigers art, Dark Horses translation of the lm into the comic book format aimed to build on the bio-mechanoidal origins of the lm product,
to create a new and original extension of the Alien lm world through the
comic books.
At the time of the publication of the original Aliens six-part comic
book series in 1989, only Ridley Scotts Alien (1979) and James Camerons
Aliens (1986) had been released. With the already established visual sensi-
Fig. 1. H. R. Giger, Alien Monster IV,

140 x 140 cm.
[ 43 ]
bilities of the rst two Alien lms created, the artwork of Mark A. Nelson
seemed an obvious selection for the translation of the lms visual style
into comic book art. For editor Randy Stradley, it was Nelsons demonstration of a real afnity for all things creepy and biological that isolated
him as the hands-down choice (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter).
Nelsons art work for the comics mirrored and embellished Gigers original
conception of the aliens world and the alien xenomorph itself, in a complementary manner that extended the original premise and conceptualization of the rst two lms (see gures 14 for an illustrative comparison of
Giger and Nelsons artwork).
With the creative personnel in placepublisher Mike Richardson, editor Randy Stradley, artist Mark Nelson and scriptwriter Mark Verheiden
the crew teamed together to produce the stories of the original series of
six Aliens comic book issues (Brooker 26061). In an effort to develop new
and innovative storylines, the Aliens comic book series is set ten years after
the events of the lm Aliens, and focuses on the interplay of three (nonxenomorph) main characters. Two of these characters are from the Cameron lm: Newt, who is now a young woman, and Corporal Hicks, injured
and hideously scarred by acid at the end of the lm, who is now recovered from his life-threatening injuries, but still physiologically scarred. The
other central character is an original development within the comic series,
Butler, an articial being with whom Newt becomes attracted.
As an adaptation, the Aliens comic book series moved in two distinct,
but ultimately complementary directions. Developing an innovative visual
approach that demonstrated how comics can be faithful to a coherent but
complex lmic style functioned as an important factor, not only in its attraction of fans of the lm series, but also in its alleviation of the potential
licensing concerns of Fox. As Pearson and Uricchio have identied elsewhere, it is this maintenance of a uniformity of iconographic and narrative depictions . . . [that] prevents dilution of the trademark (Pearson and
Urichio 193). In tandem with this faithfulness and coherence to the visual
style of the lms, the narrative of the series signicantly expanded the
characterization and thematic possibilities, and as such pushed the boundaries of the original framework of the series. It was through this development of the original six-part Aliens #1#6 comics, that Dark Horse was successful in both its afnity with the Hollywood narrative and its extension
[ 44 ]
KERRY GOUGH
of it beyond the connes of that set up by the lm. The following sections
detail the employment of these two adaptation strategies as they play out
within the comic book extensions.
When it came to the translation of the Aliens lm property into the comic
book format, editor Stradley recognized the difculties in the translation
process, especially in visually capturing a lm series that, at the time, existed as two separate texts:
The problem, I thinkat least from the lm to comics end of
the operation, stems from the fact that the people working on
the comics forget that comics arent lm. When we began Aliens,
it was decided (by Verheiden and Nelson) that the comic would
have to rely more on the tension and mood of the rst lm
rather than the full-tilt action of the sequel. Now dont get me
wrong, James Camerons lm was, in my opinion, a brilliant sequel (and a perfect counterpoint) to the rst lm. But theres
no way a black and white comic can capture the sound, or pacing, or movement that made Aliens (the movie) so exciting
and still t a story into six 24-page issues. A conscious decision
was made to utilize, and build the comic story around, devices
and conventions of the comics medium (such as the ability to
get inside characters thoughts) instead of forcing a square peg
into a round hole by trying to adapt lm techniques to comics
(Stradley, Bug Hunt 26)
Establishing a resonant visual mood, then, was crucial to the comic series
and the concordance and compatibility of the two media was created and
established through the visual unity of mood and atmosphere of Nelsons
pencils. As Stradley maintains, With our rst series, we simply thought
that Mark Nelsons art was so stunning in black and white (and t so perfectly with the relatively subdued color schemes used in the rst two lms)
that we felt it didnt require coloring (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter). The use of black and white thus became a stylistic choice that enabled a visual unity across the two media, and this coupled with the bricolage of visual contributions from the lms themselves enabled an afnity
[ 45 ]
between the comic book and lmic incarnations. Nelsons focus on atmosphere, mood, and tension replicated and melded together the tensions of
the rst lms suspense and the pace and freneticism of the second, through
his ability to pencil in ne detailboth stillness and simplicityand his
simultaneous emphasis on the gritty realism of frantic action. The excerpt
from Aliens #1 (gure 2) highlights Nelsons attention to detail through the
high key precision of his penciling, which echoes Scotts building of sus-
Fig. 2. Aliens #1, March 1989. Dark Horse

Comics, p. 10.
[ 46 ]
KERRY GOUGH
pense and impending sense of doom, as the xenomorph is only partially revealed to us. In addition, Nelson develops the claustrophobic framing devices in the tightness of the cramped cells, as employed by both Scott and
Cameron. In addition to his emulation of the suspense and tension created by Scott, Nelson also utilizes Camerons dramatization and detailing
of the alien. Here Nelson re-envisions Camerons excessive use of violence
in the graphic representation of cinematic spectacle, through the detailed
and complex articulations of the xenomorph that served to gel with both
Gigers origination of the alien, and Camerons preference to reveal the
xenomorph in all its metallographic beauty.
Echoes of the atmospheric intent and claustrophobia of the lms can
be found throughout these comic book translations (Barker, Comics: Ideology; Waugh). Within the splash panel of the alien xenomorph (gure 3),
we have the coiled gure of the alien, looming in the foreground, lling the
cramped cell and dwarng the murky blackness of the ship, yet still retaining the high gloss of the xenomorphs exoskeleton (Brooker 26061). Similarly, as the alien stalks the Duttons crew, we have a match upon the claustrophobic framing utilized in the lmic representations within that of the
comic book frames themselves. The dripping gore of the xenomorphs approach is in high key as the crew recoil into the gloom, emulating Scotts
cinematic tension and Camerons alien detailing, while the cramped, restrictive cells and stylized violent excess are evocative of both Alien and
Aliens respectively (gures 24).
Throughout the Aliens comic book series, Nelson plays heavily upon
the tight framing device within the comic strip, frequently positioning
both the alien and the characters within the same cramped cell. This action not only relays the story in the minimum number of frames, which
is necessary for the translation into the comic book format, but also adds
to the momentum and tense pace of the narrative, through the condensed
nature of that portrayal as evidenced in gures 24. The claustrophobia
of the framing utilized by Nelson thus grants the comic translation of the
lm series an authenticity and legitimacy which stylistically is faithful to
the tone and mood of the original lms. Nelsons acute attention to detailing in the black and white pencils of the xenomorph itself permits an articulate and accurate translation of the alien in all its majesty, in which
[ 47 ]

Comics, p. 11.
every undulation is carved out in a manner that relays and maintains the
dripping gloss and mechanized gore of the creature of the original lm series, along with the dank murk from which it emerges.
Nelson further demonstrates a continuity from the lm property to
the comic book through the suggestion of action and movement in his detailing of the violence within the narrative. While the comic book format
does not lend itself easily to the suggestion of motion, Nelsons art conveys
[ 48 ]
KERRY GOUGH
a sense of the freneticism of the lm series by his amorphous penciling of

that movement, in the form of an ephemeral trace and a visually echoed
disturbance of the action that is taking place. With the comic book representations in gures 24, we can see how that motion is expressed through
character gesture, billowing disturbance, fracture and light within the explosion sequence, as well as the travel trajectory of the aliens drool as a
causative factor in the visually turbulent excessive violence that it motivates. Through this suggestion of action and the attention to violent detail, the directional blood spatter of the wounded bodies is emphasized,
and the sense of the frenzied violence of the aliens attack is maintained
in the translation to comic book art. Regardless of the comic books nature as a static form, motion is acutely highlighted and further reected
through the visual distortions, as implied through the ow patterns of hair
and clothing.
Foreshadowing a later argument, while the translation into the comic
book does provide us with a visual elaboration of the lmic, atmospheric
stylization, the comic book representation also goes beyond the original
conception of the lm series. It does this through an elaboration upon the
character development, which allows for a greater intimacy with the characters of the comic book narrative and enables Dark Horse to take the series in new directions. This feature is emphasized visually through the persistent use of close detailing and detours into the emotional state of the
characters. The use of dialogue and narration allows detailed characterization and close attention to the mindset of the characters, with the comic
strip frames themselves becoming a distorted reection of the psychology
surrounding character action and motivation. As such the comic book narrative form itself mirrors character psychology and motivation (Brooker
27071).
In the case of Aliens #1 we have a visual distortion or breaking of the
actual comic strip frame featuring two key characters from the Aliens lm,
Corporal Hicks and Newt. Corporal Hicks recounts his horric initial encounter with the aliens on LV-426 to another character, Doctor Orona, and
again we have the fracturing of the comic cells, as we are guided through
Newts nightmare sequence. As Brooker notes, for the most part layout
and page design is neutral, designed not to be noticed; our eyes ick easily
from frame to frame, taking in the panels content rather than its form.
[ 49 ]
Deviations from this strict grid . . . [where] the artwork escapes the panel
borders, therefore help to convey a lack of order and reason through the
very abnormality of the page design (Brooker 27071).
Nelsons artwork thus acts as a cohering force in the translation of
the sensibilities of the lm series into the comic book format, one which
provided a close action match to the narrative and character psychology
provided by Mark Verheiden. So for example where Verheiden writes of
how Sand and dust danced around the ship like some mocking, ethereal
smoke, Nelsons art mimics the poetic imagery that Verheidens words conjure, in a manner which afrms the narrational line (Verheiden and Nelson
19). Through Verheidens scripts, the story is built upon detailed exposition
and a careful layering of action to provide a strong narrative arc, with the
slow building of tension and a gradual thickening of suspense. Verheiden
envelopes either end with moments of complete stillness and frenetic action, both of which are reinforced visually through Nelsons art.
In much the same way as Nelson employs the fractured frame as a
means of access to character psychology, the dialogue created by Verheiden
and lettered by Willie Schubert also on occasion deviates from the conventionalized format of rounded speech bubbles to suggest the torment,
anguish, and pain of characters through the jarred edges of the speech
bubble and the application of stressed lettering (see gure 4). As such the
art of Nelson, the script of Verheiden, and lettering of Schubert combine
to provide a seamless intervention into the Aliens world. While Stradley reminds us of the difculties of translating lm sources into the comic book
format, these problems are diminished through Nelsons mirroring of the
subdued styles of the lms, in his translation of them.
As a part of Dark Horses development, this aspiration towards strong
visuals became increasingly prevalent and featured as a part of the appeal
in the translation of cinematic and comic book properties (Warner). These
innovative visuals of the series were in turn complemented by a script in
which Verheiden remains faithful and congruous to the origins of the series while developing it in new ways, both maintaining an afnity with the
origins of the property, but also extending that property for new audiences
(Parsons; Spigel and Jenkins; Rozanski; Gordon, Superman on the Set).
Having established a strong visual style employed in the translation of the
[ 50 ]
KERRY GOUGH

Comics, p. 12.
Aliens lm property, the next section discusses the narrative development

of the comic series that expanded the ctional world, and storytelling possibilities, of Aliens.
Commenting upon the translation of the lm series into the comic book
format, Stradley maintains that the series, once developed, t like a glove.
[ 51 ]
I dont recall any problems we had. One of the great aspects of the rst
two Alien lms is that they dont reveal anything more about the world
in which they take place than is necessary for the understanding of their
stories. Theres an old adage in writing science ction that says, The more
you dene, the more you conne, and its absolutely true. We had a wide
open eld when we startedunlike, say Star Wars, where every writer has
felt compelled to establish yet another fact about the galaxy or the characters in it, until you can hardly say anything without contradicting something that has come before (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter).
However, while Dark Horse was permitted a degree of creative control in its extension of the Aliens narrative, it was denied access to one of
the most well-dened elements from the Alien lmsthat of Ripley herself (Stradley, A Conversation; Richardson, Stradley, and Gulacy). The
terms of the initial licensing agreement of the Alien series with Twentieth Century Fox prevented Dark Horse from using the gure of Lt. Ellen
Ripley in the comic book series. With the initial crossover, Fox was immensely protective of the Aliens property, ensuring that Ripley, as the most
valuable aspect of that property, was protected and preserved as the domain of Twentieth Century Fox. As Stradley recollects, The only specic
restriction . . . was that we werent allowed to use Ripley. But even that
changed eventually . . . As long as we didnt interfere with the events from
the lms, we were free to explorewithin the bounds of good taste, of
course (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter).
So with the initial transferal of 1988, and with the only direct demand
made of Dark Horse being the omission of Ripleys character, Dark Horse
was granted a degree of creative reign and little by way of restriction in
terms of narrative content and character development. With the original
Aliens six-part comic series, Dark Horse Comics sought to extend the lm
properties through an increased focus upon the characterization of Corporal Hicks and Newt as a young woman. So in denying Dark Horse the
right to use Ripley in the initial series, as a result of their protection of the
franchise, Twentieth Century Fox actually facilitated an enhanced creative drive on the part of Dark Horse, since without the heroic icon of the
series, the team at Dark Horse was forced to work especially creatively to
keep both Twentieth Century Fox and the fans happy with this next extension of the Aliens narrative. Verheidens script succeeded on both counts,
[ 52 ]
KERRY GOUGH
in extending Twentieth Century Foxs vision, but also in the widening of

that world for fansboth with an expansion of the backstories of familiar
characters, but also embellishing upon the original story enough for newcomers to the Aliens series to be able to engage with it as well.
In the narrative world of the original Aliens comics series, the story
arc builds upon that of the lms. Opening with the Bionational Corporations captivity of an Alien Queen on Earth, Newt conned to a psychiatric ward, and Corporal Hicks incarcerated in a military cell on a drunk and
disorderly charge, the comic book narrative essentially picks up where the
Aliens lm left off. Hicks, once freed from his cell for a mission to resolve
a recent alien outbreak, rescues Newt, and the two become the main protagonists within the comic book extension.
On this return mission to Acheron Newt and Hicks are outrun by
alien xenomorphs, and when Bionationals own marines jump the planet,
Newt and Hicks are left for dead. However, just as all hope of survival appears to be lost, the other arrives. This creature (not unlike an elephantine version of the Predator), is explained, through the action, to be an arch
enemy of the xenomorph, and as such serves to explain the existence of
the original and mysterious corpse and vessel for the xenomorph in the
rst lm. Within this comic book extension, the other has come to claim
its revenge upon the aliens, and in the process inadvertently saves Newt,
Hicks, and Butler.
In the meantime back on Earth, a cult group has discovered Bionational Corporations captivity of the Alien Queen, and break into the
Bionational Headquarters in order to offer themselves up as incubus for
the alien spawn. Newt, Hicks, and Butler then arrive back on Earth to nd
the alien seed has spread across the globe, and just in time to nd the Bionational evacuating Earth, leaving the planet to the xenomorphs. They hijack a ride on one of the companys automated supply ships, heading out
for deep space on a cargo ship laden with livestock. So, rather than a simple
repetition and stagnation of the Aliens property, here we have renewed
creative drive and initiative, which expands the Aliens universe for fans,
whilst simultaneously expanding the prot margins.
While the original Aliens comic series expands upon the lm characters, Newt and Hicks, the successful development of the comic series on
Earth and the investigation of other communities such as the cult and the
[ 53 ]
other become an extension of the original property through Dark Horses

treatment of adult content. Further to this, in maintaining a commitment
to the Aliens pursuit narrative format, Verheiden embellishes a sensitivity
in the development of both Newts and Hickss character psychology. Hicks
is physically scarred by his encounter with the aliens with his acid burnt
face, while Newts scars are mental. This sensitivity is pursued further as
Newt falls in love and becomes sexually involved with Butler, and here a
strange triangle ensues in which the relationship between Newt and Hicks
is tested, as he tries to keep her away from Butler. However, what at once
seems to be jealous possessiveness is later revealed to be the warmth of paternal protection as we learn, along with Newt, that the marines on board
The Benedict, Butler included, were synthetically produced for the mission.
It is not until Butler becomes severed at the waist and learns of his own articiality, however, that Newt follows her heart and the two are reunited.
Through this development of Newt and Hickss relationship and the introduction of the new character, Butler, Dark Horse were able to address
more adult content and be thematically persistent with the themes of protection and parenthood in the Cameron lm (Bierbaum 24). Other adultorientated themes within this series included extreme violence, alcoholism, and prostitution. It was in this position as an independent comic book
publisher that Dark Horse was granted this degree of creative license in its
development of the Aliens narrative.
In addition to the legitimating presence of Hicks and Newt, their extended characterization and narrativization, coupled with the increasingly
adult-themed content of the series, another narrative development that
Verheiden pursues is the presence of the aliens on Earth (Jenkins, Textual
Poachers). Verheidens translation enabled a successful extension of Dan
OBannons original lm story, maintained an afnity with the original
lm property, yet also recognized the fans desires for the exploration of
new alien narratives and worlds and the arrival of the aliens on Earth.
As well as expanding the Aliens universe, Verheidens narrative also performs an illustrational function for those aspects that were left unexplained
within the initial lmic versions of Alien and Aliens.
It is in these extensions of the original property that Dark Horse is at
its most creative as comic book producers. Verheidens narrative has Hicks,
Newt, and Butler trapped aboard The Benedict, which is being outrun by
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KERRY GOUGH
the alien xenomorphs. It is through the arrival of another life form which
intercepts, killing the aliens, and thus freeing Newt and Hicks to destroy
the alien hive on Acheron, that Verheiden not only provides explanation
for the existence of the original alien corpse aboard the derelict ship in
the lm Alien, but in addition develops the backstory of the other entity.
Through Verheidens narrative, we learn that this is not an entirely benevolent action, as the Other reveals in a vision to Newt the intentions of its
species to later colonize the Earth as its own.
Developments within the series include Alien adventures on other worlds,
with the introduction of further characters and through encounters with
alternative established comic book properties in the numerous crossovers
that developed. For example Aliens: Book II extends the rst Aliens comic
series, with Newt and Hicks discovering that the organic cargo they are
carrying is that of the xenomorphs themselves, as they arrive on an isolated military installation under the command of General Spears who attempts to train a xenomorph army in vain, resulting in the death of numerous terraformers. Aliens narratives have also been set on a space station
in Earths orbit (Tribes), at the site of a toxic waste dump (Colonial Marines), the Pluto moon, Charon (Rogue), Celeste, the pleasure planet (Kidnapped), a cargo ship (Salvation), 1950s small town America (Earth Angel),
atop an active volcano (Mondo Heat), and on a planet of religious fundamentalists (Alchemy). Stalker travels back in time to have the Viking warrior Rainulf hunt the alien in a narrative that is not unsimilar to that of
the Alien v. Predator (2004) lm. Besides the numerous narratives in which
crazy scientists and military leaders inadvertently, or deliberately, release
alien hell, Labyrinth examines questions of animal vivisection, incest and
bestiality, and Colonial Marines traces the companys plan to interbreed
humans with the xenomorph. The Berserker narrative examines the defensive strategy against the xenomorph in the form of Max, a Mobile Assault eXo-warrior which contains a human host, while in Pig, pirates send
a nuclear-loaded piglet into an alien hive in order to raid a crashed spaceship. Kidnapped traces the impregnation of a media star and the development of an alien airborne virus, and in Survival we have the bizarre twist
of humans bursting from the chests of aliens. As such the breadth and
scale of the Dark Horse Aliens comics series as a whole is far-reaching in aims
and outlook, with the two-part Alien Resurrection comic book released in
[ 55 ]
1997 to coincide with the release of the lm, and providing the only direct
cinematic translation of the series.
In addition a number of crossovers have also ensued, including those
integrating another lm series species, the predators; Alien vs. Predator
(198990), Aliens vs. Predator: Eternal (1998), AVP: Xenogenesis (199900),
AVP: Deadliest of the Species (199395), AVP: Duel (1995), and AVP: War
(1995), as well as a number of crossovers with other properties including Superman vs. Aliens (1995), Batman vs. Aliens (1997), Aliens vs. Predator vs. Terminator (2000), Green Lantern vs. Aliens (2000), Witchblade vs.
Aliens vs. Darkness vs. Predator: Mindhunter (200001), Superman vs. Aliens:
Godwar (2002), and Judge Dredd vs. Aliens: Incubus (2003). Dark Horses
ownership of the comic book licenses for Aliens, Alien vs. Predator, Terminator, and Judge Dredd made for easy negotiation, while the others were
the result of comic book industry crossover productions. To date there are
now in excess of two hundred Alien-afliated comic book properties in the
Dark Horse catalogue (and still counting), and as such the longevity of
the Aliens comics is impressive for a series that originated outside of comics (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter; Stradley, Interview: Licensing
the Franchise).
While ultimately answerable to the licensor of the comic book rights,
Dark Horse was permitted a degree of creative reign, freed from the stiing constraints of the major comic producers and their need to regulate
output. Dark Horse Comics relationship with Twentieth Century Fox was
a seemingly comfortable one, in which once it had proved its mettle and
faithfulness to the Aliens franchise, the studio granted a degree of creative
control, albeit one which was bound up in the cultural-legal hold of the
licensing agreement, in which Twentieth Century Fox had ultimate veto
control.
For fans it was the coherence across the lm properties, the comic book narrative, and the accompanying art work that served as a marker of authenticity and ensured the comic books place as a worthy product in the continuation of the series (Hunt; Jenkins, Textual Poachers; Lovell). Part of this
authenticity could arguably be seen as a direct result of the more creator
driven projects that were emphasized at this time, with the Aliens comic
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KERRY GOUGH
book series itself being produced by members of that very same group that
consumed them, the fans (Brooker 249308; Jones & Jacobs 63). At the same
time, the Aliens comics success could be seen as a result of its emergence
within a period in which the institutional shifts in the comic book industry had moved towards direct sales, whereby the emphasis upon specialist comic book dealers and outlets facilitated in the more speedy distribution of comic book titles and carved out a cultural space in which comic
book fans could congregate and share in their fandom (Biochel 16; Brooker
26061). The increased development of fan communities and participation created a space in which comic book creators and industry workers
were increasingly becoming recognized for their role in the artistic creation of those fan products. As such they were rewarded through the move
towards royalty payments, whereby works that were valued would in turn
have higher sales and generate higher royalty payments for the creators of
the more successful titles (Biochel 6; Brooker 26061).
Within the letters pages of these comics, fan discourse surrounding
the Aliens lm property circulated around the merits of the work, and
here artistic creation was frequently the topic of debate. Letter writer Kevin
Mathews praised the team for their translation of the Aliens property:
Mark Verheiden has actually improved on the basic premise supplied by
the two lms. Thought-provoking and nerve-tingling, his vision of Dan
OBannons creations is sheer blinding brilliance . . . Mark A. Nelsons art
words fail me! He has brought a new dimension to the black and white
art. The aliens never looked better (Matthews). So, at least for this one
fan, the real afnity and compatibility then, is one through which the elements specic to the original lm series were successfully transgured to
its comic book incarnation.
Frequently fans identied Mark Nelsons art as a key binding force in
the translation of the lm into comic book. However not only were fans
particularly protective of the comic book manifestation of the Aliens series, but they also demonstrated a particular desire to recognize and maintain its origins as a lm property. For fan, John De la Cruz, it is through
this afnity that the Aliens comic marks out its space as a viable extension
of the lm series: At rst I thought this was the comic book adaptation
of the lm . . . Then I realized this story actually carried on from where
[ 57 ]
Aliens (the movie) ended. Now, I think Aliens is one of the best sequels Ive
ever seen. Although it had a different director, it remained faithful to the
characters and events in the rst lm and developed its themes in a different but believable way. Usually sequels are just a moneymaking rehash of
the original. Now Aliens (the comic) has continued with the good work
(De la Cruz).
For Cruz, it was this ability to maintain an afnity with the original
product that marked out its success from a fan perspective. It is important
to recognize the instrumental part that fan discourse and debate played
in the genesis of the comic book narrativization and one that is acknowledged by Stradley as a key factor in Dark Horses devising these adaptations (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter). Fan discourse surrounding the Aliens lm property was erce, centering on plot anomalies, the
original lms liberal borrowing from other texts, its selective use of science ction and horror formats, and unexplained phenomenon occurring
within the lms. Dark Horse made a knowing bid to build upon these fan
mediations, acknowledging their desires in order to create original stories
and conceptions that would be both palatable and welcomed in the convergence of Alien lm fans and comic book audiences alike (Jenkins, Textual Poachers; Hunt).
Notwithstanding Dark Horses creative impetus, the decision to publish an
Aliens comic book series had an economic motive and one that paid dividends. Stradley notes that Aliens #1 sold in excess of 250,000 copies and was
reprinted on six occasions, while Mike Richardson conrms that the series
in its entirety sold millions of copies, and at the time of its release outsold
all the Marvel and DC Comics lines that were running (Stradley, Interview: Licensing the Franchise; Henderson). The Aliens comic series thus
proved to be an extremely lucrative conception which not only continues
to generate revenue through the reorder market, but has an extended life
through the recent release of a new Alien vs. Predator comic book on the
back of the lm release.
For Twentieth Century Fox, on the other hand, the development of yet
another Aliens product represented not only a direct increase in revenue in
the form of the license fee paid by Dark Horse, but also an advertisement
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KERRY GOUGH
for other Aliens properties and ancillary products. However, while Dark
Horse was granted a generous degree of autonomy in its development of
the Aliens license, this is not to say that licenses were granted capriciously
by Twentieth Century Fox. Rather, Fox was ercely protective of the Aliens
license. During the creative process, the Twentieth Century Fox licensing department reviewed the comic book scripts, art work, and completed
pages in order to ensure that the franchise would not be unduly damaged by the licensed products created by Dark Horse. Stradley maintains
that Twentieth Century Fox acted Just like any licensor would, . . . mainly
looking to make sure we didnt do anything disrespectful or stupid with
the characters, and that we didnt step over any lines which would result in
the studio receiving bad press, etc. (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter).
However, as a whole, the licensing process surrounding Aliens worked to
the mutual benet of both Twentieth Century Fox and Dark Horse Comics. Twentieth Century Fox beneted through Dark Horses resurrection
and innovative extension of the Aliens franchise, which in turn developed
further awareness of Foxs other Aliens properties, ancillary products, and
licenses, as well as the additional revenue generated in terms of the license
itself, with Dark Horse paying a royalty on every comic issue sold (Brooker
27071; Henderson). Further to this, the comics released by Dark Horse
throughout the eighties and nineties have also served to regenerate interest
in future installments of the later lm releases of the franchise.
For Dark Horse Comics, the purchase of the Aliens comics license allowed it to pick up the already proven and successful lm franchise, develop this in new ways, and build upon an already established market of
lm fans. That fandom also extended to include the comic book format, simultaneously functioning to attract the already established comic book audience and its willingness to buy into other similar series. Indeed Stradley
contends that in Dark Horses initial foray into the Aliens series, its intent
was to attract Anybody who liked the lms whilst simultaneously recognizing that There have been very few lms whose characters and subject
matter can make the jump to comics and still hold their original audience
(Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter). Indeed the repetitious and bastardizing nature of the comic book action movie has often been cited and lamented in the press, as John Sutherland writing in The Guardian main-
[ 59 ]
tains: Like the comic books that inspire them, Action Comic Book Movies
are, by nature, series. They repeat themselves with small variations until
the well runs dry (Sutherland).
However it is important to recognize here that Dark Horses comic
book series, in its revisualization of an original lm property, rather than a
narratively reductive rehashing of comic book storylines for the big screen,
represented an innovative approach to the recycling of materials. Largely
through the result of a media-savvy maneuver in the buying up of comic
book licensing rights, Dark Horse Comics has secured its place in the development of the adult comic book narrativization of the comic book action movie. In this way Dark Horse Comics posed, and continues to pose,
a direct challenge, albeit small, to the duopoly of DC and Marvel.
Dark Horse has been credited with the successful translation of the Aliens
franchise into the comic book format and can arguably be regarded as having marked out something of a precursor for the current revisiting of presumably exhausted lm properties, in an economically inspired effort to
squeeze additional revenue and longevity from the archives. The original
six-part series concluded in 1989; however as a result of its success, numerous spinoff projects resulted. As Stradley maintains, through the economic regeneration of the original Aliens comics series, Dark Horse made
a tidy sum off of Aliensespecially the early issues, which we kept reprinting and reprinting every time theyd sell out. At the time we ceased publication of the Aliens comics, it was clear that the situations and characters were getting tired, and that it was time for them to ride off into the
sunset (Stradley, Re: Comic Book Chapter).
However while Dark Horse was instrumental in its realization of the
potential for the conversion of archive materials into comic book projects and began the process of buying up the licensing rights and translating successful lms into comic books, Fox has since realized the commercial viability of such ventures. On the reverse of this, Fox has concentrated
its efforts further upon the multidisciplinary, multimarket, and multiplatformed approach to selling these franchises, with each new retail
avenue building upon the successes of those that have gone before. With
the cinematic release of Alien vs. Predator (2004), there was a decidedly
[ 60 ]
KERRY GOUGH
marked shift in terms of how, and indeed which, audiences were targeted
with the PG-13 lm classication in the U.S. and 15 in the U.K. respectively
(Anderson 23). So while Twentieth Century Fox released the lm, this was
at the expense of the deep-layered stylization that fans had come to expect.
Fans felt let down by the cinematic release of AVP, and although they had
enjoyed the comic book variants of the Aliens vs. Predator narrative, the
Fox lm release was received with suspicion. Instead fans complained of
its manufactured, factory-made articiality, tiring of Hollywood pandering to the lowest common denominator and taking advantage of the
die-hard fans (Ron; Clegg).
In effect Hollywood had repackaged a particularly successful fan product in an effort to regenerate it as a mainstream Hollywood blockbuster.
Much of this suspicion and dissatisfaction on the newsgroups and message boards circulated around the lms recutting and reclassication as a
PG-13 (Anderson 23). Elsewhere Brooker has raised issue with the ways in
which fan product is frequently given over to those with an investment in
that product, in an effort to ensure commercial success in the attraction
of non-fans (Brooker 280, 28889). In the case of AVP, this reclassication could be seen as a direct result of the studios desire to keep that audience as wide as possible, rather than restricting access to the adult market
alone (Anderson 23). It is this exploitation of the commercial market that
transcends the concerns of fandom instead to appeal to the larger nonfan potential audience, and it is at these points of disjuncture that conict
between fans and the multinational conglomerates surfaces in the everincreasing necessity to make a prot (Brooker 38586). What Dark Horse
did, then, is function as a bridge and mediator between the fans and mainstream commercial Hollywood, providing an innovative, reenergized reworking of an already established cinematic success, from its relatively autonomous position as an independent comic book producer. As such Dark
Horse operates in such a way that enables it to pose a direct challenge to
DC and Marvel, albeit a small one, in its ownership and extension of these
licensed properties.
While Dark Horse may have begun the plundering of the archives for
the purposes of regenerating the franchise for a fan audience, Twentieth
Century Fox, in the face of this success, has since taken a very specic and
[ 61 ]
instructive move towards the licensing of the comics which extended beyond the success of the initial 198889 Aliens series. This is also reected
in the current range of materials in circulation on multiple platforms surrounding the most recent intervention into the franchise, with the lm release of AVP: Alien vs. Predator in 2004.
With the release of AVP: Alien vs. Predator, grossing over $80 million
in the U.S. and 5 million in the U.K., the licensing spiral continues with
the two latest AVP comic book releases and a whole new range of Todd
McFarlane collectible gures, plush characters, and toys available to collect
(Alien Vs Predator Snatches $38.3 Million; Box Ofce Figures, Variety;
Dawson). As well as the usual range of DVD, VHS, and soundtrack releases, there are also Alien and Predator busts and statues, plush gures of
the various incarnations of the Alien and Predator, AVP collectors plates,
Alien Egg and Predator cookie jars, Alien and Predator bookends and trading cards, as well as a Collectors Alien vs. Predator Battle Chess Set.
Through this process of regeneration and recycling, and building upon
the original Aliens vs. Predator (1989) comic book series, which came off
the presses only four months after the concluding issue of the successful
Aliens six comic series, Dark Horse Comics in association with Twentieth
Century Fox, later rereleased the comic book series as a Classic Reprint in
February 1997 prior to the release of Alien Resurrection lm (1997). This
coupled with the release of the Alien vs. Predator computer game in 1999
functioned not only to reenergize interest in the comic books once more,
but also served to stir up interest for a cinematic release of the venture off
the back of its success, with the cinematic version of AVP later entering
production in September 2003 (McIntee, Prepare for Battle).
Through its partnership with Twentieth Century Fox, Dark Horse was
able to compete with the leading comic book publishers. Through the translation of Hollywood blockbusters into the comic book format it carved a
niche in the market. In an increasingly conglomerate-dominated market
Dark Horse Comics is a glimmering light for the independent comic book
sector. Dark Horse Comics seeks to meet its competitors on their own
ground through multimedia presentations of licensed products. Herein
lies the problem between innovation and re-creation, translation creativity
and franchization.
While the tangential and reciprocal undercurrent relationship between
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KERRY GOUGH
creativity and economics can be identied through the synergistic relationship between Dark Horse Comics and Twentieth Century Fox, what
becomes apparent is how Hollywood, having discovered the innite transferability of comic book heroes and villains, is now turning its attention to
archived properties in order to squeeze every last ounce of revenue from
its established products. Why go to the lengths of marketing and promoting a new product, when you can repackage an old one at a fraction of the
cost? New and improved, and cheap at half the price.
[ 63 ]
WILL THE REAL WOLVERINE

PLEASE STAND UP?
M A R V E L S M U T A T I O N F R O M
MONTHLIES TO MOVIES
DEREK JOHNSON
While media conventions of any sort tend to foster crossover interest in genre and media form, the dominance of Hollywood lm and
television projects at the 2003 San Diego Comic-Con, a convention purportedly designed to promote the comic book form, is still surprising. The
San Diego Comic-Con is the most prestigious and important of such annual summits devoted to comic book culture, yet even its ofcial website
acknowledges the dearth of content actually devoted to the comic book. To
introduce the 2003 event, the site hoped to legitimize the comic convention amid an onslaught of tertiary or otherwise tangential content, claiming that with 287 programs in the daytime hours of Comic-Con, comic
fans can count on 167 of them having something to do with the comics medium.1 But while 167 of these panel discussions did focus on comic books
in some way, this number did not take into account the numerous panels
among them in which comics were only a secondary consideration, merely
the source material for a feature lm, television, or video game adaptation.
Individual Comic-Con panels in 2003 explored the role of Hollywood in
bringing a comic title to the big screen, offered seminars in designing characters with lm in mind, and explicated the license negotiation process.
As cultural critic Matthew Pustz has argued, the interactions between
fans and industry personnel at these conventions create distinct bound[ 64 ]
aries that construct a specic comic book culture and the reading communities within it (158, 205). In the case of the 2003 San Diego convention, the
program offerings worked to construct comic book culture as one that cannot be conceived of separate from tie-in synergies with lm, television, and
video games. While the Comic-Con does putatively enlarge the boundaries
of comic book culture, it does so at the expense of the comic book itself.
In the Comic-Con discussions and programming, the comic book appears
to have somehow been lost, unable to stand alone, replaced in comic book
culture by the tie-in adaptation.
This dissolution here of the comic books autonomy as a cultural text,
however, may stem at least in part from the economic realities of the comic
book industryespecially in relation to those of the lm industry. While
comic book publishing seems to have recovered from the overspeculation,
sales busts, and bankruptcies of the mid-1990s,2 it still has not regained
and may not everthe same sales strength that it enjoyed prior. While
comic book publishing pulled in sales of $850 million at its peak in 1993,
that number dropped to only $425 million in 1997 (McAllister 17). Finding accurate data for the industrys more recent annual performances is
more difcult, but the industry has slowly begun to improve; dealer orders
from Diamond Comics, the monopolistic distributor for both Marvel and
DC Comics, increased by 7 percent in 2002 from the previous year.3 However, this growth has been both small and slow, spread out amongst a total
North American readership that has been estimated to be made up of only
500,000 regular comic book readers (McCloud 97). While this estimate
seems shockingly small, it seems to be authenticated by recent sales gures; Batman, the top selling comic in July 2003, sold only 146,601 issues.4
Moreover, in March 2001, that months top selling comic, Ultimate X-Men,
sold a mere 97,985 copiescalling the validity of the comic book form as
popular culture into serious question.5
The comic books inability to reach a mainstream audience has not,
however, been duplicated by lm and television shows based upon these
same properties. The most successful publisher of comic books in 2003,
Marvel Enterprises (ne Marvel Comics) appeared poised that year to become an important Hollywood player. In particular, lms based upon
Marvel propertiesincluding X-Men, Daredevil, Hulk, and Spider-Man
have together been enormously protable for both Marvel and the studios
W O L V E R I N E : M A R V E L S M U T A T I O N F R O M M O N T H L I E S T O M O V I E S
[ 65 ]
distributing the lms. While none of the multiple X-Men comic books
published in 2003, including Uncanny X-Men, New X-Men, X-Treme XMen, and Ultimate X-Men, regularly sold signicantly more than 100,000
issues a month, the X2 lm that same year made $85.6 million at the box
ofce in its rst weekend alone, the fourth-highest opening weekend gross
at that point in history. X2 would ultimately go on to make over $213 million in its rst ten weeks. Even though the Hulk lm was less enthusiastically received, it made over $129.5 million in ticket sales that same summer
2003 season. Of course, neither of these lms comes close to matching the
success of Spider-Man in 2002. Still holding in 2005 the record for the best
opening weekend box ofce gross in history, Spider-Man started its run
with $114.8 million before ultimately earning $403.7 million, making it the
sixth highest domestic grossing lm of all time. The sequel, Spider-Man 2,
performed similarly in 2004 with a domestic gross of $373.5 million.6
As popular texts, a clear discrepancy exists between the cultural status of comic books and their lmic counterparts, one that certainly contributes to the subordination of the former at the industrial level. On one
hand, it makes sense that Marvel would choose to emphasize its lmic efforts to lmgoers at an event like the San Diego Comic-Con, rather than
limiting its marketing efforts to the much smaller audience of comic book
readers. At another level, however, the subordination of the comic book to
more protable media raises questions about the role of a corporate entity like Marvel Enterprises in setting the boundaries of comic book culture. This study will explore those discrepancies by focusing on Marvel
and its recent attempts to rebrand itself not as a comic book publisher, but
as a repository of licensable superhero characters with synergistic potential in other media. Because these industrial practices determine to a certain extent the eld in which the comic book and its surrounding culture
can function, central to this study will be an examination of the relationship between the comic book and its adapted counterparts that explores
the ways in which the boundaries and relational hierarchies between texts
are shifted and blurred. This chapter will argue that these overlapping and
amorphous boundaries between comic books and their adaptations problematize their textual coherences and continutiesboth as a brand and as
a basis for comic book culture. I will suggest that Marvels attempts beginning in 2000 to rebrand itself through a new focus on the adaptation
[ 66 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
of comic books into other media rst required the elimination of difference between the comic and audiovisual versions of its character properties. At the same time, however, the need for clarity between the subbrands
in each media created a second tension between exigencies of standardization and product differentiation. It is this tension that Marvel struggled
(and continues to struggle) with in its rebranding efforts, resulting in the
fragmentation of individual comic book texts, lms, and the larger continuities between them.
This study will tackle these issues in three parts. First, I will situate my
analysis of Marvel Comics by looking at the ways that previous scholarship
has considered the comic book in relation to industrial strategies. Second,
through the examination of primary documents and trade sources, this
paper aims to demarcate the strategies of Marvel within the contemporary comic book industry, contrasting them to past strategies and likening them to other attempts to establish character-based licensing brands.
Finally, this study will track these strategies through the texts themselves,
examining their boundaries and the implications for one Marvel character
brand. By looking at X-Mens Wolverine and tracing his function between
2000 and 2004 within Marvels synergistic strategies as a comic book, a
lm franchise, and a video game license, this paper will illustrate the ways
in which the reorganization of characters into brands and subbrands has
erased and rebuilt the boundaries among and between comic book and
comic book-derived texts. It should be emphasized, however, that my study
applies only to the dominant superhero genre in mainstream comics, and
not to the independent titles that are affected by these phenomena in different ways. In the end, the goal will be to provide a theoretical basis with
which to consider and question these comic books as cohesive texts in relation to their adaptations in audiovisual media.
While Thomas Inge has argued that lm and comic books have historically followed mutually supportive paths of development in America
(142), many scholars have since questioned the tenuous relationship between comic books and audiovisual media. Matthew McAllister sees the
comic book as a microcosm of the effects of concentration and conglomeration on culture industries. He focuses on both Marvel and DC comics,
the Big Two comic publishers, comparing and contrasting their ability
as corporations to capitalize on licensing and synergy. Unlike Marvel,
[ 67 ]
DC Comics benets from horizontal integration with the Warner Brothers lm studio owned by the parent company of both, Time Warner. Marvel, on the other hand, has no built-in lm outlet for their intellectual
property, and thus cannot duplicate the successes of DCs synergies by utilizing the same strategies. McAllister writes that actual comic book publishing has become less crucial to Marvel as a business as more licensing
deals are made that extend its properties into other media (29). This perceived transition from publishing to multimedia is viewed optimistically
by comic author, artist, and theorist Scott McCloud, who explains this
growing connection between comics and audiovisual media by suggesting that the latter are a more suitable venue for the power fantasies of the
superhero genre so dominant in the comic world (118). Suggesting that digital media forms outmatch the superhero-saturated mainstream comic industry, McCloud offers an economic rationale for the translation of oncesuccessful comic properties into lmic or televisual formats, welcoming
the adaptation and potential exodus of superhero characters into audiovisual media as a means of making room in comics for experimentation
in new styles and genres. Roger Sabin disagrees with McClouds prognosis,
questioning the technological determinism that assumes new media to be
the next natural step in the evolution of comics (54). But McCloud is not
alone in attributing change to the power of new media; Glen Norcliffe and
Olivero Rendace share this trust, writing that through digital technology,
comic production has been decentralized and given way to new geographies of cultural work. Norcliffe and Rendace see a vertically disintegrated,
diverse comics industry that is no longer sales driven, but focused on niche
marketing, driven by new technologies that enable new modes of production to replace older forms of the comic medium (24344). If, as these authors suggest, the superhero comic may be phased out by the economics of
new media and by competition from the power fantasies of superhero lms
and video games, what will become of a mainstream comic book industry and a mainstream comic culture dependent on such texts? Dan Ravivs
journalistic inquiry into Marvels recovery from bankruptcy suggests that
the comic book publisher perceives exactly such a threat to its superherobased business. To survive, Marvel believes it essential to transition its
comic book characters into lm, television, and other media. While prebankruptcy Marvel may have seen lm production as a potential liability,
[ 68 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
as too risky an investment, Raviv characterizes the reborn comics company

as one deeply committed to lm production, believed to be the best way to
promote superheroes (8). The work of Dan Raviv is also important as the
only work to focus solely on the industrial culture of Marvel Comics, offering another starting point with which to consider Marvel.
Many of these authors have suggested that Marvels main strategy for
negotiating these threats to its publishing interests has been an attempt to
rebrand itself not as a comic book publisher, but as a licensor of characters. Thus, it becomes crucial to understand the logic behind the branding strategies that Marvel has employedespecially if we want to understand the effect that rebranding will have on comics both as a business
and in their reception. Laurence Vincent offers a how-to for the advertising executive, describing the ways in which a troubled brand like Marvel might redene itself by nurturing the cultures surrounding its brands
(18889). Similarly, David Aaker provides a basis for us to understand the
relationship between Marvel, its comic characters, and their incarnations
in multiple product lines across varying media. Aaker posits a relationship
between corporate brands, product brands, and subbrands, showing how
each of these works together as a brand system that provides a clarity of
product offerings (24142). As we will see, this need for a clear, consistent brand identity informs many of Marvels industrial strategiesmany
of which are identical to those used by corporate megaconglomerates like
Disney. In equating the success of the Disney brand to its self-contained
universe which presents consistently recognizable values through recurring characters and repetitive, familiar themes, Janet Wasko, like Aaker,
argues that successful leveraging of a brand depends upon its cohesiveness as a carefully controlled and constructed set of texts (3). Thus, while
Disney and Marvel occupy very different positions of power in the entertainment industry, Waskos look at the Disney phenomenon and its manufacture as a brand will provide an interesting point of comparison with
Marvels attempts to brand its own characters.
Pustz too suggests that comic books are themselves becoming less
important to the publishing companies. Today, Marvel and DC can make
more money from the licensing of their characters than they can from the
apparently nite number of comic books they can sell (16). In his study of
the cultures surrounding comic texts, Pustz nds that the niche market of
[ 69 ]
comic book readers is being replaced by a larger, mainstream blockbuster

audience. Ultimately, Pustz argues that the boundaries of comic book culture have isolated the comic book from mainstream American popular culture (209). As those boundaries change, this study will ask whether this
isolation persists, whether it is eliminated by the mainstream acceptance
of comic book heroes, or if it is made irrelevant by the dissolution of the
comic book as a discrete entity.
The last decade of the twentieth century was certainly a time of great
transition for Marvel Comics. After purchasing Marvel in 1989, corporate
raider and junk bond king Ron Perelman set upon the dream of turning Marvel into a major conglomerate. Buoyed by a speculators market
in comic book publishing, the increasingly protable and powerful Marvel diversied its holdings in order to capitalize on the popularity of its
comics and extend that into other media. The companys stock price quadrupled in this early 1990s boom period, and its market share of the comic
book publishing industry reached 70 percent (Croal 50; Lauro 34). Encouraged by this success, Marvel bought up companies like Topps and
Fleer to begin moving its comic characters into the trading card business.
The goal of Perelmans Marvel, in transitioning (and overextending) itself
into the role of the conglomerate, was to become a kind of mini-Disney
(Lott 68; Raviv 40). Marvels strategy in the 1990s was one of duplication,
of trying to restructure the corporation along the lines of a conglomerate like Disney, or of rival comic book publisher DC Comics. Because DC
was part of the Time Warner media conglomerate, its comic book characters boasted a potential for synergy and prot-making that Marvels could
not match. With a single character or property, Time Warner could release
a comic book through DC, a lm through Warner Brothers, a novelization
through Warner Books, or a television program through the WB network.
As McAllister has shown, this synergistic strategy cuts down on development time (one license can provide content for several subsidiaries), allows
internal control of licensing use, and maximizes potential prots from licenses (27).
By 1996, however, the speculation that fueled Marvels publishing fortunes came to an end; along with boycotts by fans who perceived a decrease in the quality of Marvel titles, these industrial changes resulted in
[ 70 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
Marvels market share dropping to 25 percent, down by almost two-thirds

from just years earlier (Raviv 71). In 1996, Marvel declared bankruptcy,
and in 1998, it came under the control of Toy Biz, a toy-making company
that had been dependent in large part on its licensing deals with Marvel.
The old Marvels attempts to duplicate strategies of conglomeration and
synergy had faltered, so a new strategy was needed to facilitate the comic
book publishers recovery. But while expansion strategies had failed, the
fact remained that in the perception of Marvel and the industry as a whole,
comic books had become . . . the outmoded buggy whip of entertainment (54). Marvel found itself in a position where it could not expand yet
its primary outputcomic booksoffered little hope for a recovery. Not
only was the company in danger, but the comic industry as a whole also
seemed to be in need of translation into a new media.
Writing at the end of the speculation boom, scholar Jeffrey Brown argued that the comic book industry and [t]he future of comic culture is almost assuredly destined to focus around the talents of individual creators
rather than anonymously produced characters (26). While an emphasis
on auteurism might have been a means by which Marvel could have attempted to rebrand itself, the reborn company ended up taking the route
least suspected by Brown. In the new Marvel strategy of the twenty-rst
century, every emphasis was placed on character. Although individual creators like Grant Morrison and Joe Casey were signed to Marvel titles like
New X-Men and Uncanny X-Men and given highly publicized debuts, these
marketing strategies were subordinate to the larger emphasis on character
that guided editorial decisions and lasted after these individual creators
had nished their runs. In fact, while its overly ambitious 1990s strategies
failed to duplicate the corporate structure of Disney or Time Warner, Marvels new approach settled for the creative structure of a mini-Disney. As
Wasko has argued, Disneys synergistic strategies are based upon its characters; each character is a wheel whose spokes each represent a product revolving around that brand (71). Marvel, while no longer pursuing the conglomerate dimension of the Disney model, began to refocus its efforts to
mirror the character-centeredness of the worlds most powerful licensing
force (49). In a 2002 radio interview, Bill Jemas, then-President of Marvel
publishing, articulated the companys approach without making reference
to Disney, but by describing an identical model. Each character is sort of
[ 71 ]
the center of a wheel, Jemas explained as if he had just come from a Disney strategy seminar, so Spider-Man will show up as a T-shirt, as comic
books, as electronic games, as movies, and soon, as a television show. So the
heart of Marvel is the characters (All Things). Marvel thus transitioned
from the production of comic books to the creation of characters; its primary product was no longer printed volumes of superhero adventures, but
the intellectual property of the superhero itself.
The conscious remaking of Marvel into an intellectual property production company was well documented by both trade and popular sources
(Lauro 34). Journalists also noted that this new emphasis on creating characters, rather than the products derived from them, enabled licensing agreements that spared Marvel from having to risk massive capital investments
of its ownthe very kinds of ventures that left Marvel overextended after
the bottom fell out of the 1990s speculation market (Brownstein 25; Croal
50). In a business model based in licensing, prots had to be split, with the
distributors that licensed Marvel characters receiving the lions share. At
the same time, however, Marvel earned a new lease on life by extending its
characters out of the perceived-to-be-doomed comic book industry and
into a popular culture that was a little more popularlm. While it did
not own its lms outright, the licensing fees alone proved quite protable
for Marvel. Over 26 percent of the companys 2002 revenue came from licensing deals in nonprint media (Lauro 34). Moreover, Marvel developed
a strategy to use its past licensing successes to demand increasingly larger
sums from its licensees. While Marvel sold the rights to the rst X-Men
lm to Twentieth Century Fox for only a few hundred thousand dollars,
Avi Arad (the former Toy Biz executive whose role in the new Marvel organization was to oversee all lm and television licenses) hoped to parlay
the success of Marvels rst lms into better deals in future negotiations
(Raviv 57, 257). This strategy paid off, as Sony Pictures gave Marvel a $10
million down payment for the rights to make the rst Spider-Man lm in
addition to agreeing to a rst-dollar participation deal (271). This means
that Marvel received a certain percentage of each ticket sold to the licensed
lmregardless of how much the studio spent to produce the movie and
whether or not the lm actually earned a prot.
Clearly then, while Marvels licensing model does lack the neat conglomerate synergy of Disney or DC under Time Warner, this kind of
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DEREK JOHNSON
character-based licensing synergy does have its advantages. In fact, in the

20002004 motion picture market for comic book characters, DC could
arguably have been held at a disadvantage. Exploiting the full potential of
synergistic tie-ins demanded that Time Warner make every lm and television show based on its comics in-house. Whereas Marvel could solicit its
licenses to any Hollywood studio or production company, DC tended to
funnel all of its properties solely through Warner Brothers and its subsidiaries to maximize prots. In the rare cases when some of DCs properties,
like League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, were farmed out to lm studios
like Fox, the potential for corporate synergies was dampened. Time Warner
was understandably reluctant to let go of its properties, so some remained
hidden assets buried within the bureaucracy of the conglomerate; farming out its licenses, Marvel could therefore release more comic book lms
than its competitor DC (Brodesser 7). In an industry based in trends and
fads, Time Warner was largely on its own, forced to work quickly before
superhero lms became pass. Additionally, Warner subsidiary New Line
Cinema also developed several Marvel products (the Blade trilogy, for example), helping to keep aoat DCs main competitor in the comic publishing industry. At the same time, however, the conglomerate nature of
Time Warner did insulate and protect DC in a way unknown to the more
independent Marvel. While Time Warner hurried to take advantage of a
synergistic opportunity, Marvels nancial security depended upon these
lms as key spokes in the wheels of its character-based and revenue-sustaining brands.
This dependency on other studios may have been partially responsible for Marvels continued interest in purchasing its own motion picture production company. While this endeavor seemed to be a throwback
to its conglomeration strategy in the 1990s, Marvel consciously adapted
its strategies to avoid similar failures. Instead of duplicating the organizational structure of Time Warner, Marvel pursued potential means to supplement its licensing model while slowly allowing it to bring in greater
prots. While Marvel did try in the 1990s to become a corporate titan
that could nance its own movies, in the early 2000s it toyed with the
idea of purchasing a small studio, like Artisan, that would allow Marvel
to take on the production responsibilities for bringing smaller properties
to the screen and tighten its grasp on box ofce and home video revenues
[ 73 ]
(Moreels 7/2/03). While licensing deals remained lucrative, Marvel would

not have minded a larger ownership stake in its licensed products. Nevertheless, it also understood the risk of lm production, and sought a studio like Artisan so that it could capitalize on the projects that require the
least investment and the smallest budgetwhile leaving the major studios
to put up the big money and take the big risks. Moreover, industry analysts
also suggested that Marvel would have been glad to become a horizontally
integrated arm of another larger conglomerate (Raviv 278).
Thus, Marvels plan involved not just character licensing, but also taking advantage of the synergy between licenseseven if it did not prot
from product ownership like the horizontally integrated Time Warner. Moreover, while Marvel extended itself beyond the weakened comic book publishing industry, its approach did reserve a place for comics as a key spoke
in the character wheel. While Marvels licensing revenues continued to increase, so too did its publishing income, still accounting for 21 percent of
its 2002 revenues. Still far from its peak in the early 1990s, Marvels market share of the comic book publishing industry also steadily increased to
43 percent by 2003 (Lauro 34). Both Marvel and industry analysts credited the success of the companys comic book movies with sparking the
renewed popularity of its comic books (Krantz B.1; Flores D.16). Marvel
Studios chief Avi Arad stressed the licensing synergy at work here when
he described the lms as a signicant product to support our core businesses, comic book publishing and toy making (Moreels 11/13/03). To make
these synergies as strong as possible, however, Marvel used its new character-based strategy not just to create a brand for itself at the movies, but
to rebrand itself in publishing as well.
Marvels twenty-rst-century strategies shifted focus away from direct sales in order to target new audiences, widening the customer base
away from the insulated comic book shop and more towards the general
audience that sees its lms. One initiative undertaken by Marvel in its publishing operations was a shift in publishing emphasis to trade paperback
and hardcover bookscompilations and anthologies of previously released
materialrather than emphasizing the monthly periodicals (Wolk 32).
Crucially, Marvel stepped up its paperback release schedule, aiming to
have the same comic stories released in book format only several weeks
after a storyline has been completed in the traditional periodical format.
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DEREK JOHNSON
Marvel also expanded its distribution of these books into general bookstores like Barnes and Noble (to whom Marvel has provided a number of
exclusive editions) where they could reach new audiences. In fact, general
bookstores like these were estimated to account for almost half$50 million of a total projected market of $120 millionof all trade paperback
and hardcover sales of comics in 2003. These nonspecialty stores had become the fastest-growing retail venues for book-format comics (Wolk
and Reid 27). Cross promotion and synergy with the lms, however, can
be seen in the kinds of books emphasized in these general bookstore sales.
The most successful paperbacks were those that shared tie-in connections
with the lms. According to one trade source in 2003, [m]ovie tie-ins are
denitely driving Marvels sales in the bookstore market (MacDonald 30).
Marvel chose to publicize and release those books that could both promote
and benet from the concurrent run of one of its licensed lms.
These new models allowed Marvel to make available to a general audience the recent reimaginings, restructurings, and relaunches of its comic
book titles. Of the major changes and overhauls to the Marvel line of comic
books, the rst and arguably largest restructuring of the Marvel Universe
came in 2001, some months after the rst X-Men lms successful run in
2000. Spearheaded by Marvel executive Bill Jemas, the relaunch in concert with the development of lms and tie-in merchandise, was intended
to reposition the franchises. The program increased publishing revenue
and consumer awareness of Marvels characters (Brownstein 25). One
major adjustment to Marvels titles came in the addition of a new, parallel
Ultimate universe to exist alongside the familiar, forty-year-old classic
universe.7 The titles that comprised the Ultimate line were most like the
movies, rolling back the characters to their origins and attempting to tell
their old stories in a new way; they were designed specically as starting
points for new readers and promoted through a program of free samples
(Wolk 28, 6/17/02). At the same time, the old continuity of the classic
Marvel universe was revamped, with many titles either scrapped or redesigned. As my examination of a single character brand will show, the revamped classic Marvel universe featured more mature, adult storylines,
while the Ultimate line targeted younger, teen and preteen audiences. This
bifurcation served Marvels goal of appealing to a younger audience of intelligent twelve-year-olds while at the same time keeping the continuity
[ 75 ]
of the texts older fans had grown to love more-or-less intact (Morning
Edition). Marvels 2001 publishing relaunch mirrored the logic by which
many of its lms were targeting audiences. Comic book lms were tentpole picturesthat big summer release aimed primarily at kids, but with
hopes that adults will go see it too (Ramin 16). Because the older fans were
no longer Marvels primary target audience, Bill Jemass restructuring of
the Marvel universe emphasized the new directions of the Ultimate line,
the product line most congruent with its motion picture analogue.
Interestingly enough, Bill Jemas was pulled from his role as President
of Publishing in 2003 and assigned a less prominent role in the organizational structure of Marvel. Some reports have suggested that the reason
for Jemass removal was that Marvel Studios head Avi Arad had considered some of the initiatives spearheaded by Jemas as an obstacle when it
came to marketing [Marvel] properties in Hollywood (Moreels 9/9/03).
This move seems contradictory at rst, as we have seen how Jemass relaunch efforts were instrumental in allowing Marvel to take advantage of
the synergy between the multiple product lines encircling each of its character wheels. At the same time, looking more closely at the way in which all
of these strategies of licensing and synergy functioned to establish Marvel
and its characters as brands will demonstrate the way in which Jemass efforts may have been insufcient to maximize and capitalize upon the corporate and character identities being constructed.
Like Disney, a company that revived its character brands in the 70s by
harkening back to traditional Disney while simultaneously modernizing
them (Wasko 34), Marvel the mini-Disney recalled the origins of its
superhero characters while at the same time reworking them for modern
youth audiences. Like Disney, Marvel too had to be conscious of the need
to maintain a particular degree of control over a brand. Aaker argues that
brands depend both upon a constant, core identity, as well as an extended
identity that includes brand identity elements, organized into cohesive
and meaningful groupings that provide texture and completeness (6869).
A brand must therefore maintain a consistency of meaning and message
over time in order to succeed as a cohesive identity for a corporation or its
products. Aaker writes that the goal of a brand system is to clarify a range
of product offerings, making clear distinctions between corporate brands,
range brands, and subbrands (241). Thus, the problem that arose for Mar[ 76 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
vel in its own rebranding emerged from the lack of cohesiveness found
in its character wheel. Unlike Disney, Marvels postbankruptcy characters
did not have a standard cohesiveness that lent them to immediate product
differentiation and identication. A range brand like the Spider-Man character had toys, comics, and television shows all based upon it, but if each
synergistic aspect of the character presented Peter Parker/Spider-Man in a
different way, there was no way for Spider-Man as a brand to cohere into
any one single identity. Because a subbrand character like Ultimate SpiderMans Peter Parker, a teenager, existed alongside the Peter Parker from the
classic continuitythen a divorced school teacherSpider-Man as a
(range) brand remained discontinuous and nebulous. Thus, to prot most
readily from the licensed synergies within its stable of over 4,700 characters and transform them into more viable brands, Marvel found it necessary to eliminate the inconsistencies and contradictions between incarnations of its characters. Keeping this argument in mind, we now turn
to a single Marvel characterone of its brandsand look at the way in
which its rebranding impacted its coherence both as a brand and as a cultural text.
A fast-healing, clawed mutant with an adamantium-laced skeleton, Wolverine (a.k.a. James Logan, a.k.a. Weapon X) has become one of Marvels
most popular and protable character brands, second perhaps only to
Spider-Man. While Spider-Man may have been more recognizable (and
apparently, more protable at the box ofce), as a member of Professor
Charles Xaviers X-Men, Wolverine was perhaps the most prolic brand
in the Marvel stable of characters between 2000 and 2004. In the classic Marvel Universe continuity in 2003, Wolverine starred in New X-Men
and made regular appearances in X-Treme X-Men, Uncanny X-Men, and
X-Force/X-Statix. In the parallel Ultimate universe, Wolverine also lead
the cast of Ultimate X-Men. Add to that his very own solo series, Wolverine, and one can see that this character was anything but underexposed in
the comic worldand that is not even counting miniseries, discontinued
titles, or past guest spots in other books. Expanding into lmed entertainment, Wolverine added to his earlier 1990s appearances in the animated
X-Men and Spider-Man television series a starring role in the X-Men: Evolution cartoon. Moreover, the 2000 and 2003 live action X-Men features not
[ 77 ]
just included Wolverine, but also gave him the lead role. Add to this several
video games, including X2: Wolverines Revenge and X-Men Legends and
one can see that Wolverine had built a sizable mutant resume for himself
as one of Marvels most important brands.
But, as I have already suggested, these brands were heterogeneous and
disharmonious ones. While each of the above texts indeed focused on Wolverine, it is impossible to say that any one of them featured the real Wolverine. Moreover, the exact number of Wolverines lling the above roles is
unclear. Some Wolverines were constructed unlike any other, while some
appeared to be hybrid composites of several competing interpretations.
The point is that Wolverine as a Marvel brand, unlike the carefully constructed and controlled Mickey Mouse for Disney, seemed untenable for
supporting an overall brand identity, lacking coordination across organizational units, media, and markets (Aaker 340). But with the rebranding,
restructuring, and relaunching strategies employed by Marvel in this period, the hope was that this could change.
As the overall tendencies of Marvels licensing and synergy strategies
might suggest, the Wolverine given priority by Marvel was the Wolverine
of the motion picture franchise, the Wolverine portrayed by actor Hugh
Jackman. This Wolverine was different from the comic book character that
came before in many ways, particularly at the level of appearanceand not
just because he was not pencil and inked. While focusing on the appearance of Wolverine seems like a shallow level at which to examine the characters major differences, I situate my analysis of the character brand in
this way for three reasons. First, because comics are a visual medium, the
appearance of the character, rather than his manner of speaking, acting,
or moving, assumes a particular primacy. Second, because brands perform
the iconic role of immediately conveying a meaningful product identity,
the characters appearance can be considered in the same way a logo might
be. Third, I focus on these surface details because they are very important
to the cultures surrounding such a character, both in terms of locating the
character within particular continuities and identifying the artist behind
the image. At the same time, the following arguments must be tempered
by the fact that in the production of mainstream series like Marvels, a
single title sees frequent turnover between new artists and new writers. So,
while Jackmans Wolverine represented a departure, it cannot be said that
[ 78 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
the two-dimensional depictions of Wolverine that had come beforeeven

throughout a single comic book titlehad been consistent.
Still, even accounting for artist variation, certain generalizations can
be made. Unlike the comic book Wolverine of the classic continuity, consistently drawn as short, stocky, scruffy, and ugly (or at least unattractive),
Jackmans Wolverine was tall, trim (but muscular), and handsome. In the
lms, Wolverines body was objectied and idealized. Jackman was frequently shown bare-chested, whether ghting in a cage match, lying on
an exam table, or walking around Professor Xaviers mansion. Jackmans
toned, relatively hairless body stood in contrast to the way in which the
frequently shirtless Wolverine of the comics was often drawn as hairy and
animal-like, muscular but bulky. But most shocking to some fans were the
costumes chosen for Wolverine and the rest of the movie X-Men: black
leather uniforms rather than the colorful, individual costumes each character wore in the comics. Of course, none of these changes alone should
have been surprising or particularly noteworthy, as no adaptation can be
expected to translate its source material to a new medium without bringing in new elements or interpretations.
Nevertheless, what is noteworthy is the way that this new Jackman
Wolverine became a template for the construction of brand identity during
the relaunch of 2001not solely in the new Ultimate line, but more subtly in the classic continuity. At the visual level, the retitled and revamped
New X-Men #114 saw the end of the individual heros costume. Gone was
Wolverines signature yellow and blue cowl; instead each member of the
X-Men sported matching black leather uniforms. While they were not
identical to those worn in the lms, the design was certainly reminiscent.
In addition, the title inherited a roster of characters that paralleled the
casting of the rst X-Men lm. Of the ve X-Men featured prominently
in the lm, Wolverine, Cyclops, Jean Grey, and Professor Xavier were all
kept together in New X-Men, while Storm was made leader of the new
X-Treme X-Men team. Due to his popularity, Wolverine also played a starring role in the concurrent relaunch of Uncanny X-Men, bringing with
him in issue #394 the same standardized uniforms. Also injected into this
issue was a romantic subplot suggestive of the X-Men lm that heightened
the sexual tension between Wolverine and Jean Grey. While Wolverine had
always pined for Jean in the comics, his love remained an unrequited one;
[ 79 ]
despite knowledge of Wolverines feelings, Jean remained faithful to her

anc/husband, Cyclops, prior to 2001. The lm continuity, on the other
hand, left open and endorsed the romantic possibilities between Jean and
Jackmans handsome Wolverine.8 That the cover of Uncanny X-Men #394
(the rst issue of this classic title after the relaunch) featured the two
passionately kissing, with Wolverine groping Jean as she wraps her body
around his, suggests two things. First, narrative threads suggested by the
rst lm were now also being explored (or at the least, exploited as marketing ploys) by the comics. Second, the issues sexual tone suggests that
the aforementioned bifurcation of Marvel into classic Marvel and Ultimate universes had truly rendered the former a more mature, less kidfriendly place.9
While it is possible that some these visual and narrative changes to the
comics may have been coincidental, and not a specic corporate response
to the success of the Wolverine character in the rst X-Men lm, further
evidence suggests that in the interim before X2 in 2003, Marvel did indeed
work editorially to blend all the various Wolverines into a single, uniform
entity more like the Hugh Jackman Wolverine. Darick Robertson, artist
on the revamped Wolverine comic book timed to debut with the release
of X2, stated on his website that he was given a directive from Marvel to
bring [Wolverine] more in line with his big screen counterpart (quoted in
Moreels 6/2/03). This directive applied not just to the characters solo title,
but across the entire X-Men line. Although Robertson later revealed that
Marvel was not looking for the character to appear spot on Jackman, he
admitted that he was required to make him less short and ugly. Robertson
later framed this directive as a corporate miscommunication, but the requested change still served to cultivate a generalized all-purpose Wolverine, rather than relying on individual artist interpretation, to strengthen
the characters potential as a brand.
This new, generalized conception of Wolverine across the range of
Marvel comics and products was what Aaker might call a silver bullet,
a subbrand that is used to either change or support the image of a parent
brand (261). In being close to Jackman, but not spot on, the made-over
Wolverine of the solo comic series became similar enough that it could
support a parent branda cohesive, general conception of Wolverine as
a characterthat in turn could logically contain both a comic book Wol[ 80 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
verine and a cinematic Wolverine. Simply put, the differences between the
two characters were minimized and the similarities emphasized so that
both could be thought of as subbrands of the same overarching brand
identity. Because Marvels rebranding focused on character, the subbrands
all had to work together for that character to have a single discernible identity. Wolverine could not be tall and handsome, short and ugly. So Marvel choose the most protable Wolverinethe one involved in increased
licensing revenues and trade paperback salesand tried to make him the
model for its silver bullet.
The drive for a streamlined Wolverine also emerged in but was complicated by Marvels subsequent spring cleaning practices. Before the opening
of X2 in 2003, Editor-in-Chief of Marvel Comics Joe Quesada believed it
might be time once again for another restructuring, similar to the one that
accompanied the relaunch of 2001. Sending several more titles to the chopping block, Quesada believed, would trim down the X-Men line in order to
clarify the denitions and differences between the various titles (Moreels
9/9/02). While Jackmans Wolverine and Robertsons Wolverine had to be
similar as subbrands of Wolverine the brand/character, paradoxically
here they also had to be differentiated from one another in a way that allowed for distinctions between the two subbrands. Thus, it was imperative
to give each Wolverine in the X-Men line of comicsclassic, Ultimate,
and lm adaptationsa clear, dened identity as a separate subbrand subordinate to the overall Wolverine character/range brand. Nevertheless, this
model of product differentiation may only have been a stop-gap measure
in the overall Marvel rebranding process. Quesada admits that Marvel
has also strived to [combine] the various [Wolverine] designs into a single
one to appease licensees . . . When it comes to your commercial icons like
Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Hulk, you need consistency. So working with
the animators and [Ultimate X-Men artist] Andy Kubert, we came up with
a look that was similar across all elds (Moreels 10/21/02). Thus, a plan
was in play, and the adjustments made to Wolverine(s) can indeed be attributed to the need to conceive of the character as a singular brand.
However, while my aim here is to set out Marvels strategies in negotiating the tension between brand consistency and differentiation, the success with which the company met its goals is another matter. Though Marvel had worked to construct a denitive Wolverine, by early 2003 it did not
[ 81 ]
yet appear that they had been successful in doing so, even at the level of
appearance. Due to the sheer number of titles in which the character appeared and the number of artists working on themartists accustomed
to bringing their own interpretations to the characterMarvels rebranding of Wolverine necessitated a slow, gradual, embattled process of bringing the character under control. A comparison of the covers of X-Treme
X-Men #27, Uncanny X-Men #423, and Ultimate X-Men #33all released
during the same summer as X2gives us a glimpse of the progress being
made nevertheless at the level of icon and brand image. While the artists designing the pages inside still offered their own interpretations of the
character, cover designs across continuities took on a much more homogeneous look. While the Wolverine on each of these covers did not match
his appearances within the issues, they did match across the character
brandeven though they were each drawn by a different artist and represented characters in separate continuities. This singular Wolverine wore an
unmasked uniform similar to that worn previously in the Ultimate series
that nevertheless had yellow tiger stripes and a red X logo like the costume worn in the classic continuity during the 1980s and 1990s. Simultaneously, he was much leaner, much taller, and less hulking than previous
incarnations, more like the Wolverine of the lm franchise. This new iteration of the character hoped to encompass and amalgamate all the Wolverines of the present and past. Thus, while the brand had not solidied,
progress was being made, if only initially at the level of the cover. This
seems like a logical place to have started, since it was the cover that could
attract new readers recognizing the Wolverine brand across product lines.
In addition to comic book covers, this iconic, free oating Wolverine logo,
unattached to any one continuity, could be found on lunch boxes, candy,
and other X-Men-themed products, and would shortly be adopted as the
new character design for the Ultimate comic series and the X-Men: Evolution cartoon. But at the same time as this amalgam emerged, alternate iterations persisted, including the uniquely suave and satirical Wolverine
envisioned by Mike Allred and Peter Milligan in their contemporaneous
X-Statix crossover issues.
The 2003 video game, X2: Wolverines Revenge evidenced the challenges of bringing such a polysemous character under tighter brand control. Rather than a testament to Marvels successful solidication of Wol[ 82 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
verine into a cohesive character brand, its patchwork union of a variety

of incompatible would-be subbrands instead revealed the difculties that
Marvel faced in its character branding strategies. The video game presented a mlange of different Wolverines and narrative elements from several of the Marvel universes. Released to coincide with X2, the game sold
itself rst as an adaptation of the lm, bearing no markers of the Wolverine amalgam brand being deployed simultaneously. Sitting on the retailers shelf, Revenge boasted both the signature bluish-silver X2 logo as well
as a glamour shot of Hugh Jackman in the lm uniform. Once the player
entered the virtual space of the game, however, the cinematic Wolverine
used to market the game vanished. At the players control was not Jackman,
but a Wolverine much more akin to the classic comic book incarnation:
bulky, hunched over, animalistic. Yet instead of settling into the role of the
comic book Wolverine and attributing the games cover art to sneaky promotional tactics, the player encountered the voice of Patrick Stewart, the
actor who portrays Professor Xavier in the feature lms. So while the Jackman Wolverine was notably absent, the conventions and iconography of X2
did make their presence known in the game. Disorienting the brand identity even further, the uniform worn by the video game avatar was not a singular, distinct one; it was neither the lm uniform featured on the cover,
nor a general, amalgamated one, nor a new generic one created especially
for the game. Instead, as the player progressed through the game, he or she
could unlock and choose from the various costumes of several incarnations of Wolverine: from the black leather to the blue and yellow spandex.
As a whole then, the Wolverine presented by Wolverines Revenge was
not one with a cohesive, singular brand identity. The producers of the game
acknowledged the competing incarnations, but instead of creating or reinforcing a unique subbrand, they illustrated the character/brands lack
of cohesion and blurred differentiation between subbrands. Nevertheless,
the game did represent an attempt by Marvel, if an unsuccessful one, to
square away the inconsistencies and posit each of the Wolverine subbrands
as compatible facets of the overall character brand. Comparing Wolverines Revenge to 2004s hit X-Men Legends, one sees that Marvel had made
greater progress in creating a cohesive brand identity for its video game incarnations of Wolverine. The latter game faced similar challenges and impediments to brand cohesion, trying to incorporate the youthful design
[ 83 ]
of the Ultimate X-Men characters while making references to past events

within the classic X-Men comic continuity and once again bringing back
the lms Patrick Stewart to voice Xavier. But instead of presenting an unorganized mix of X-Men elements, Legends subsumed each of the narrative elements it borrowed under a new continuity, marked off by the same
brand-aware character designs that began unifying Marvel comic covers
and ancillary products in 2003. Instead of fragmenting continuities, Legends offered a new continuity that encompassed each of the subbrands
within the range brand, incorporating advantageous elements from each
of Wolverine and the rest of the X-Mens multiple pasts. Thus, the Wolverine that appeared in this game hailed not from the Ultimate, classic, or
lmic universes, but from the marketing universe.
In the 2001 relaunch of the classic Marvel universe, the new narratives introduced the idea of a secondary mutationgenetic growth spurts that
would grant new superpowers to the same old mutant characters. While
these new abilities made comprehensible the new looks the writers wanted
to give some of the characters, no secondary mutation was ascribed to
Wolverine.10 Yet, in the revisions and reimaginings of Marvels rebranding strategies between 2001 and 2004, the Wolverine character continued
to mutate. His efcacy as a brand uctuated somewhere in between the
cohesion necessary for overall brand identity and the distinct multiplicity
needed for product differentiation among subbrands. The many iterations
of Wolverinenot just the multiple comic book characters, but also the
lm, television, and video game versionswere at once disjointed but inseparable. The character had been differentiated in some ways and homogenized in others, resulting in a fragmentation that made the boundaries between Wolverines and between texts impossible to tack down. As a
brand, Wolverine was emblematic not of the unbridled success with which
Marvel has pursued its rebranding strategies, but rather of the contradictions and struggles that it faced in the process. As the company continued
to transition itself from publisher of comic books to licensor of transmedia characters, Marvels characters continued to be reshaped and molded
into new congurations. In the end, Wolverine will continue mutating
until he provides the clarity of product offerings so crucial to Marvels
brand strategies (Aaker 14142).
[ 84 ]
DEREK JOHNSON
While future research will need to track Marvels progression towards

its goals, the licensors more recent moves indicate that the company will
continue to grapple with the fragmentations and contradictions in its branding strategies. Another relaunch occured in May 2004, this time entitled
Marvel ReLoad, once again revamping X-Men titles, and to the delight
of many fans, bringing back individual character costumes. But with television writer Joss Whedon committed to a twelve-issue run on the new
Astonishing X-Men title, and Bryan Singer, director of the rst two X-Men
lms, at one time signed to take over production duties on Ultimate X-Men,
Marvels continuing plan to groom these characters for a transmediated
marketplace proceeded uninterrupted in this ReLoad.11 Today Marvel
maintains the pursuit of an audiovisual foundation on which its characters can be rebuilt as brands and subbrands for the exploitation of licenses.
In further attempts to realign comics to corporate strategies (like 2005s
continuity-altering House of M crossover miniseries), Marvel characters
may likely be reimagined in ways that further obfuscate the continuities
between texts. However, as Matt Hills argues, fan cultures and the reading
formations they contain depend on the unity, coherence, and ontological
security of texts (138). While further research needs to be done to determine the continued impact Marvels emphasis on licensing will have on
comic culture, it is unlikely that its fragmentary effects on characters like
Wolverine will reinforce its cohesiveness. Pustz reminds us that boundaries
have helped to create comic book culture and the specic reading communities within it (205). As these boundaries are redrawn, comic book
culture is redrawn with it; as these boundaries are eliminated, the clarity
with which readers make sense and make use of a character like Wolverine will be similarly confused.
[ 85 ]
WHEN GEN-X MET THE X-MEN

RETEXTUALIZING COMIC BOOK FILM RECEPTION
N E I L R A E A N D J O N AT H A N G R AY
While comic book adaptations such as Spider-Man and X-Men

have grossed up to $820 million, and attracted millions of viewers worldwide, it is unusual for the global sales of the most popular American superhero comic books to rise above 150,000. At the time of writing, for instance,
according to listed trade sales, Superman/Batman #12 was the number one
selling comic for September 2004, having sold in 139,516 units to comics
retailers (Comics Economics 54). If we are to examine adaptations and
their audiences, therefore, we must realize that although comic book readers are the most knowledgeable of audiences, they are very much a minority within the total number of viewers for comic book movies. Consequently, this chapter seeks to answer a question that is often overlooked in
reception studies focusing solely on fans: how do viewers read and make
sense of comic book movies differently when they have and have not read
the original material being adapted? Through analyzing qualitative audience research conducted with both comic readers and non-readers, we
argue that comic book movie reception requires all viewers to struggle
somewhat with intertextual networks of knowledge and precedence, ultimately creating two very different textualities for the lm, with signicant
tension between the two types. As a result, while comic readers and nonreaders may well see the same lm, they experience two starkly different
modes of textuality.
To inquire into the reception of lm adaptations of comic books is,
[ 86 ]
fundamentally, to inquire into the machinations of contemporary media

intertextuality. An adaptation is, by its very nature, an intertextual outgrowth or extension of the comic book, and so we could understandably
expect an audiences reaction to and interpretation of the lm to be in part
precoded and inected, if not largely predetermined, by that audiences reaction to and interpretation of the comic book. Certainly, Camille BaconSmith with Tyrone Yarboroughs and Martin Barker and Kate Brookss respective studies of the reception of Tim Burtons Batman and of Judge
Dredd, both conrm this hypothesis, as do related studies by Bertha Chin
and Johnathan Gray into the reception of the Lord of the Rings lms, and
by Will Brooker into original Star Wars fans reaction to the recent prequel
trilogy. To begin with, all of these studies chart signicant fear, on behalf
of fans of the original text preparing to see the lm, of how bad the lm
might be. Thus, for instance, Barker and Brooks write that one of the recurrent features of very many of our interviews was, if you like, getting
ready to be disappointed, and yet, Nowhere was this stronger than among
the 2000AD readers (59). Similarly, a woman in Bacon-Smith with Yarboroughs study expected the movie to be terrible (99), while a Tolkien fan in
Chin and Grays study wrote of the lm that, I cant help but feel that its
going to be screwed up and wrong. And be a total veggie effort (n.p). In all
these instances, the fear is clearly of symbolic violence being perpetrated
on the beloved story and its characters by a botched, Hollywood-ized
translation. To be scared of this outcome, then, is to have a sense of what
the text should be and should look like before watching it, based largely on
ones experience of the original material.
The viewers in these studies talk of tactically lowering their expectations (Barker and Brooks 59), and they even go to considerable lengths to
explain away the perceived violence perpetrated against their beloved story
before it occurs. For instance, Chin and Gray found Tolkien fans understanding that no lm could fairly be expected to capture all the nuances
of plot, history, and thematics in Tolkiens writing. Brookers Star Wars
fans discuss the eyes of a child defense, which states that cynical viewers
of the contemporary trilogy have lost the ability to watch the lms more
silly and juvenile moments as a child, as they once did in the seventies and
eighties. Bacon-Smith with Yarborough notes that When the product falls
short of fullling the fans need, viewers make use of an extreme form of
X-MEN: RETEXTUALIZING COMIC BOOK FILM RECEPTION
[ 87 ]
traditional ll-in-the-blanks interpretation, so as to impute to the creators of the lm conscious motivations for the unsatisfying direction of the
lm (105). However, for an audience member even to try to recoup a lm,
or to go into the theater actively trying to like it, reects a heightened degree of attachment. This attachment is afforded by the love for the original
text. Much, then, as we might show greater kindness to a family member
or a close friend, whether out of a belief in common genetics or merely
to honor our relationship with the friend, these studies suggest that viewers of adapted material frequently allow similar degrees of leniency to the
adapted lm.
When we treat a lm as a family member of a favorite text, though,
we ascribe to it certain qualities of another text; or, if we merely show it
kindness out of faith to another text, once again we are engaged in an intricately intertextual process of decoding. Rather than take the lm as a solitary text, and at face value, we come to it prepared for certain readings,
looking out for others, and even hypersensitive to yet other meanings. In
short, we have subjugated its textuality to another texts, becoming, as Chin
and Gray argue, viewers between texts, anticipating one with the other, already reaching to one by way of the other (n.p, original emphasis). Whereas
most models of mediated communication somewhat commmonsensically
look for reactions to a text only following textual consumption, through
intertextuality, the semiotics of adaptation allow for and frequently encourage us to start decoding the new text before we have even purchased a
ticket and bought our popcorn. Effectively, the lm becomes part of a series, not a full text in and of itself.
A useful analogy here is to the textuality of episodic television programs. Such texts must be pieced together over time, and thus any one episode will be made sense of in light of previous episodes. Indeed, as will be
elaborated upon later, this is also the textuality of comic books: SpiderMan cannot be found, per se, in one comic book, since he exists across
multiple texts. As Tony Bennett notes of Batman, and of James Bond (Bennett and Woollacott), texts that exist in such series, or in episodic form,
present the hero, the text, and other characters more broadly, as shifting
signiers, that are subject to a constant process of denition (viii). At
one level, all texts are constantly open to redenition and redecoding (see
[ 88 ]
Bakhtin, Kuhn), but episodic texts never rest, and thus whereas, at any one
point in time, most viewers will treat a non-episodic text (such as most
lms or books) as a text, episodic texts rarely experience such comfortable
stasis. Meanwhile, as has been illustrated by Henry Jenkins in particular,
not all episodes are created equal. Fans often dispute moves by creators, and
both individually and communally will decide upon various hierarchies of
authenticity, whereby some episodes are rendered canonic, while others are spurned and rejected. Jenkins focuses his work more prominently
on television fans, but Brooker sees an active discussion and debate over a
Star Wars canon, and Bacon-Smith with Yarborough concludes that many
Batman comic readers refuse to consider the lm a part of Batmans ongoing macrotext (112).
This means that the viewers experience of a lm that has been adapted
from a favorite comic book will involve, and rely upon, signicantly more
intertextual ties and connections here to that comic, and to its own phenomenological existence for the viewer than it would for a non-comicbook-reader, who is more likely to approach the text as an individual text,
not as a number in a series. Admittedly, some non-comic-book-readers will
episodize the lm in other ways, so that, for instance, Spider-Man viewers may construct or work with intertextual networks of Tobey Maguire
fandom, or so forth. Our stark division here between comic book readers
as experiencing an episodic text and non-readers experiencing a more hermetically sealed text should thus be regarded as a discursive move alone,
designed to hold certain variables in place. However, accepting this division, herein lies the dilemma for understanding the reception of comic
book movies. One group of viewers, it would appear, are intertextually
rich, yet likely a minority in a theater audience, while another group are
intertextually poor, yet likely the majority, and hence the dominant viewing group who have the ability to determine the dominant reading and interpretation.
To further analyze this apparent division, and to inquire into differences in
reception, in the summer of 2004, we interviewed fteen individuals about
their experiences with and interpretations of comic book lms. All but one
of the interviewees were in their twenties or early thirties (the exception
[ 89 ]
being forty), middle class, and living in Los Angeles or Berkeley, California,
where the interviews took place. While seven subjects were interviewed
alone, the rest were interviewed in pairs, one comprised of two comic
book readers, and three with one reader and one non-reader. By no means
could this group be considered representative, but our interest lay not in
exhausting the possibilities of reception or in nding common practices,
but in hearing a sample of how both comic readers and non-readers talk
of adaptations. Furthermore, given the size of our sample, any attempt to
correlate responses to interview setting (two readers, mixed, or individual)
would be perilous, and thus we structured interviews this way solely to
provide opportunities for different types of discussion to emerge. All interviewee pairs knew each other beforehand and were solicited through
a snowball approach (Hermes). In the interests of disclosure, it should
also be noted that both interviewers fall into the same age and class demographic as the interviewees, and one read comics as a teen, and the other
remains an avid reader.
Discussion with and amongst the comic readers followed many of the
patterns observed by Bacon-Smith with Yarborough, Barker and Brooks,
Chin and Gray, and Brooker. More often than not, prior knowledge of the
comic translated into great hopes, mixed with a realistic-cum-pessimistic
sense of fear that these hopes would be dashed by numerous changes to
characters, their motivations, and plotlines seen as unnecessary or nonsensical. Kristof,1 for instance, noted that I always hope for the best but
expect the worst; Ethan stated that You just need to prepare for it to
suck. . . . That way, if you see Catwoman, so what? But when you get X-Men
or Spider-Man 2, youre rewarded, unexpectedly; and Clarence observed,
I have to see these lms, you know, but Im never expecting to see something great. Why these movies suck often had to do centrally with being poor adaptations, or even poorly conceived adaptations. Of the latter,
for example, Rory noted that Tank Girl was really bad because it shouldnt
have been a movie. It was just a comic book that didnt lend itself to adaptation. They tried to force a story into something that wasnt there. Meanwhile, though, Adam voiced a common comic reader complaint, that Unnecessary changes bother me. Or, offering a more detailed discussion of
poor translation and unnecessary and ill-conceived changes, Richard
stated of Daredevil:
[ 90 ]
One of my big issues with it was, in order to, they tried to make
some character growth for the movie, they take this character
who, [in the comics,] as Matt Murdock and as Daredevil, believes in the law. Granted, as Daredevil hes got more latitude,
but he never, like, what Im familiar with as far as Daredevil,
theres never a case where suddenly, hes going to go breaking the
laws, as far as like killing people or, you know, doing things that,
that are, you know, way outside of the [law], he believes in the
system, but its, its, I guess it needs some extra help, is my impression of it. . . . In the movie they make him somebody whos
killing people, as I recall, in the movie he lets several people die,
or kills them himself, then, when he meets the most irredeemable character of all, Bullseye, No, I think I should let him live.
What!? [ . . . ] I thought it was just dumb.
Knowledge of the comics clearly formed an essential part of the evaluation process for comic readers when viewing or discussing these lms, and
the lms were often dreaded in advance, then watched, and later derided,
for careless deviation from the comic, and for enacting what Jenkinss Star
Trek fans call character rape (Textual Poachers), a term that in itself shows
the degree of symbolic violence some fans feel is perpetrated when characters and plots are messed with. As Rory insisted, the character should be
the character from the comic, it should have the same, you know, issues and
problems. . . . Not just some guy in a suit, you know, doing whatever some
screenwriter wants him to do, that doesnt know the character. However,
to say that the readers expected absolute fealty to the comics would be incorrect. After all, if the lms were to be evaluated solely based on whether
they met up to comic standards, viewing would equate to little more than
policing a character or plot. Rather, amidst expressions of fear and despair,
most readers were actively excited by the prospects of a lm, as is evident
in Bobs conicted commentary that, I have such low expectations when
a movie comes out. [Adam laughs] I really do! Its not like Im expecting
them, its going to be very different than the comic book. [But,] I just think
its cool that theyve depicted it on lm, even if its a bad movie, its got
good moments. Fealty, then, wasnt wholly required. As Kristof noted, I
do care about keeping it true, but to a point. Like I said, you dont have to
[ 91 ]
throw it all in there to make it successful. Similarly, Richard stated that, I

do care if it [the movie] is true to the comic, but I dont think it has to be a
slave to the comic, and Peter agreed that Comic books arent, its not like
theyre holy texts, theyre not. Theyre not sacred books.
Certainly, some of the readers comments, taken out of context, could
sound as if they had attributed holiness to the comics. Hence, for instance,
a common concern was that no lmmaker could seemingly replicate the
comics tone. As Bob noted, You say, well, they have the source material,
why did they change it? But then, you expect it to be changed. You know
its not going to be the comic book. Just like you knew that the Lord of the
Rings movie isnt going to be the book. But leeway was given not (only) because the comic was seen as unreplicatable, but because readers realized a
difference in medium required shifts in characterization, look, and style.
Readers understood that lms and comics are, as Brian offered, such different mediums, and that the production and format are not the same.
This became most apparent in discussing the question of how a comic
book movie should look. The general response from comic readers was
that the movie should not look like the comic. The process of accepting
the interpretation of the characters and stories as portrayed in the movie
adaptation is not a simple translation of reading pleasure from one medium (comics in this instance) to another for readers of both formats, but
a question of negotiating the differences between the texts, taking into account the expressive rules and potential of the new medium.
Many comic readers enjoy and appreciate lm as much as comics, and
value and critique both media equally. Or, as Clarence noted, Okay, so
youve got a movie that copies the comic exactly. So what? Who gives a
damn, if its a crappy ick. When asked if he was concerned about loyalty to the comic, he continued: Well . . . I withhold the right to say they
butchered the story or killed my favorite characters or parts, but a good
movie offers the characters and the story more than a bad one does, and
perhaps you, uh, need to make some changes, and each directors got his
own vision, right? So, make a super lm, and it honors the character. Heck,
it may even get people interested in reading the comics.
Changes were allowable, as such, particularly when the lack of change
would cause a clunky translation. As Peter noted of a lms look, for instance, it has to adhere to, you know, the logic of lm, I mean it has to be
[ 92 ]
somewhat . . . rooted in the real world, unless youre doing something animated or CGI. Or, likewise, a change generally accepted by fans was the
decision to use alternative costumes for the characters in the X-Men movie.
As Kristof noted about the costume change for Wolverine, thats all acceptable because you cant be running around in yellow spandex.
Comic readers have a repertoire of knowledge about specic characters and plots that is drawn on in interpreting the movie text itself, but this
competency and experience of reading comics also translates to a familiarity with the different expressive limits of each medium. Adam stated,
for example, that, I think comics are a unique medium in that I think
there are comic book stories that you couldnt tell on the big screen, but I
dont think theres any big screen story that you couldnt do in comic book
form, whereas Rory asserted that, A static visual doesnt always translate
to a moving visual. This does not necessarily translate to mean comics are
better than lms, but shows a belief in the power of the comic medium to
display the unbelievable or intangible in a way that can prove difcult on
screen through the bounds of movie-believability.
Nevertheless, if comics could offer favorite characters something
that lms could not, the lms were also seen as carrying great potential
to offer the characters something themselves. When a lm got it right, it
could humanize the characters and give them esh and a third dimension.
Kristof stated, What Spider-Man and what X-Men did was they actually
made the characters human, and not larger than life; you actually knew
they had faults and that they were vulnerable as people, even though they
were, they had all these, you know, fantastic powers, and things like that.
Moreover, a common critique of poorly made lms was that they had no
vision, but in saying this, the readers displayed an active interest in lms
and lmmakers who could add something to a character or story, and
could approach the character from an interesting angle. Thus, while Adam
criticized Joel Schumachers directorial leadership of Batman and Robin,
saying, I dont think his vision was very well dened apart from butt shots
and nipple costumes, Peter offered that, If youre going to be a lmmaker
and youre going to adapt something, I think in a lot of ways it has to be
your vision, it has to be true to the original, but it has to be . . . it also has
to be true to you as a lmmaker.
Gary, in particular, elaborated upon this idea, suggesting that really
[ 93 ]
good comic book lms, with substantial vision, could reinterpret characters and plots, and thus add to his understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of a character. Some lms blow, he noted, because theyre bad
lms, some blow because they focus on what I think is a stupid part of the
character, [but] some make me think about them in new ways. Not much,
but enough. He also added:
Lets be clearmany of these characters exist in hundreds,
maybe even thousands of comics. I think some of them are
really dumb. Take Spidey, for instance: [. . . .] Some Spidey fans
hate some of the titles. And then you get the graphic novels,
which might give a nice edge to the story, or might do something totally retarded with it. I guess my point is that comics
arent novelsyou dont just get one person creating the character. The character is used in different ways across time, and by
writers with different attitudes and interests.
Therefore, while Gary felt that many comic book lms were bad, he
linked this evaluation to the episodic nature of comics, posing that while
comic readers get really pissed at bad movies, the way I look at it is that the
same people get just as pissed at bad comics with their favorite characters.
Gary saw each comic book as either adding to or failing to add to his understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of a character, and any lm was
regarded in the same light. Effectively, to Gary and to the other comic readers, a comic book lm could be in some ways like a new episode or graphic
novel of the comic, in that it might be poorly done and add little if anything to the mythos of the character, it might even butcher a character,
or it might add to the macrotext.
However, fundamental differences between a new comic and a lm existed in the readers relative levels of trust in the creative personnel behind
them, and in the degree to which they felt as though lmmakers were actually addressing them at all. Although compelled to see these movies, comic
readers occupy the position of oating voters, as dened by Tulloch
and Jenkins, with regard to the movie-going experience. That is to say, although they have the greatest amount of textual knowledge invested in the
property developed for the big screen, they are powerless to affect the way
[ 94 ]
it is reinterpreted. Ethan stated, for instance, that, producers try to convince fans theyre making it for you, but theyre not. So if something that
means a lot to you doesnt to them, and if their industry savvy tells them
to dump it, they will. So dont expect much. Kristof similarly voiced that,
I um, just blame it on the directors and the producers because, you know,
theyve either got too much pressure from someone above whos putting
the money down, or the director never read it a day in his life, and didnt
care about the characters and had no idea what he was doing. To examine
further how audiences are invited to participate in, and how they interpret
comic adaptations, we will therefore shortly turn to those who comic readers felt were being addressed: the everyday, non-readers.
First, though, and before crossing the divide between readers and
non-readers, a word should be said about the division. After all, in the interview process, we asked respondents if they were readers or not, and their
self-identication as belonging to one or the other category is worth interrogation. Some readers of a few issues, for instance, may have felt free
to call themselves either readers or non-readers, and it seems particularly
likely that some readers may claim the title so as to give themselves and
their opinions an air of authority. In one way, such a ploy would highlight
how meaningful and how value-loaded the division can prove to lm viewers, and would illustrate that, as alienated from the Hollywood-ication
process as readers feel, the very position of being an intertextually wellequipped viewer is still regarded by some as discursively more authoritative. That said, we heard little evidence of position fudging in our respondents. Besides, as we will now discuss, the irony of such a ploy would
be that the non-readers we talked to showed themselves to be fairly indifferent to intertextual equipment. Instead, they were an equally competent
viewing group who had developed their own equally involved and complex
viewing strategy, albeit one that brought them into contact with a starkly
different mode of textuality.
While the readers clearly saw the lm as a link in an intertextual chain, and
often as a potentially weak link at that, non-readers often saw no chain, or
resented the remnants or suggestions of one. As we will discuss later, some
non-readers were interested in readers interpretations and viewing experiences, but only after the fact. At the point of viewing, and in evaluating
[ 95 ]
the lm, they cared solely of the lm as a structural whole. Without the
same repertoire of comic knowledge to draw on, non-comic-readers could
not place the movie into the same intertextual eld as comic readers when
viewing and discussing these movies. In other words, they are forced to
take the movies at face value in reading and evaluating them as texts. As
such, back story was almost irrelevant, as was any notion of delity or
fealty to an original. Clarisse, for instance, felt that way too much emphasis is being put on tracing back the roots, showing where these people
came from, noting further that, I dont have to know how it is that he
[the supervillain] became who he is, what he is today. Have him do some
really crazy stuff and well have the superhero guy stop him, and have it
be done in a really creative, fun kind of way and Im happy. As such, she
continued, Ive never read a Superman comic, [so] if you told me that no,
no, no, what happened in the rst Christopher Reeve movie isnt what happened at all, I wouldnt know otherwise and I certainly wouldnt have been
offended, because that, to me, was the story. Or, as Roderick spelt out, For
me, what matters rst, foremost, only is the strength of the thing as a lm.
Does it look good? Is the acting good? Do I care about the people in it? Is
it fun to watch?
With both Clarisse and Roderick, we see not only an insistence that
lms be judged on their merits as lms alone, but both clearly resent the
idea that a back story should matter. Meanwhile, Naomi spoke of feeling
clueless while watching some adaptations, an experience that clearly detracted from her enjoyment. Not being privy to the back story, non-readers
would of course be regarded as clueless, decient, or ill-equipped viewers if intertextual history mattered, and certainly, fans can and will often
look down upon non-fans as lesser, even more facile viewers of intertextual
outgrowths of beloved material (see Barker and Brooks, Chin and Gray).
Thus, Clarisse and Roderick in particular had to assert their legitimacy
as viewers by pronouncing the near irrelevance of intertextuality and the
primacyrst, foremost, onlyof the text at hand.
While stated with less vehemence than either of these two viewers, all
of the non-readers echoed in other ways Clarisse and Rodericks rejection
of the comics as highly pertinent. For instance, while being interviewed
with Richard, a reader, Kirk noted of Daredevil, I think it was just awful.
I mean from a movie standpoint, I wouldnt base that comic book wise, but
[ 96 ]
from a movie point of view, it was just awful. I couldnt get through it. He
and Richard then discussed numerous aws of the lm before he declared
simply, I just thought it did completely not work. Again, then, after framing his viewing as based solely from a movie point of view, he was able to
assert that it did completely not work, a judgment that, while perhaps rhetorically overemphasized, still declares the absolute importance of a lm
working from a movie point of view. Similarly, although reasoned very
differently, Naomi drew on her experiences as an editor who adapts comics and novels from Japanese to English, to state that all the fans want it
to be authentic, and true to its original form, but you have to understand,
like, especially with novels, that you cant, you cant do exactly what was in
the original, it can not just be a translation, like it has to be its own thing
in order for it to work, you know? Here, then, Naomi discussed the process
of production to declare that true adaptation can never work anyway, the
suggestion therefore being that viewers should, or at least could, abandon
hopes of intertextuality, and learn to take the new text as its own thing.
Another key difference between readers and non-readers became evident in how they discussed reality. To the readers, good adaptations were
usually those that performed an adept intertextual feat by transferring the
humanity of the characters to the screen, and realityin the form of psychological integrity and coherencewas seen to already exist in the comics. For non-readers, by comparison, both a good movie and reality were
achieved when a lmmaker handled the effects well and made superpowers
seem believable. Kirk, for example, commented that he liked the second
X-Men movie better than the rst Spider-Man movie because the CGI in
Spider-Man looked computer generated, not real, whereas, with the opening scene with Nightcrawler in X2, its not even that believable that somebody disappears like that, but it worked, you know, . . . I mean obviously
you know its from fantasy, someone disappearing like that, but they made
it believable, and thats what I loved about it. Or Seth noted that comic
book lms seem to be getting better, since lmmakers are nally adding
more realism. As he stated, with the current lms, you get a real sense of
what moves them and how they must feel. They seem very realistic, in a
bizarre way. When asked how they were bizarre, he responded, Bizarre
because its totally outrageousthese things dont happen, unless youve
taken over your daily ll of drugs. But the movies pull you in, make you
[ 97 ]
believe. Smart stuff. Interestingly, then, non-readers seemed to see realism

as something that good lmmakers added to the stories, almost working
against the inherent unbelievability of totally outrageous comicsin
which its not that believable that somebody disappears like thatand
breaking from the movies intertextual baggage so as to, as Roderick stated,
really esh out the psychology and to add to the tale (emphasis added).
As we have quoted them so far, the non-readers may appear to be quite
hostile to comics, but this was by no means the case. None appeared to
stigmatize either comics or their readers as lesser beings. Nor did they feel
comics or readers were wholly irrelevant to their own consumption, as most
spoke of being interested in discussing the comic with readers after viewing the lm. Even Bob, a reader, noted that people who arent fans, I nd
that they always want to know what it was like in the original. You know,
not that they ever, most of the time theyll never pick up the original, but
theyll want to know how its been changed. Roderick, in particular, insisted that, Im really interested to hear from comic fans about how true
the thing is to the comic, and I love talking with people who can tell me.
When asked why, he commented: I think its cause I love knowing about
lms. You know, what other lms an actor has done, what the director was
trying to doI absolutely love directors commentaries. And, so, knowing what the comic was all about adds into that: its more info, more background. Not background Ill ever read myself: I wont buy the comic or anything, but it kind of makes the lm more, lets me appreciate other parts
of it.
At rst sight, this might seem to contradict the idea that non-readers
resent back story, but Roderick is only saying he wants back story outside of
the lm, not in the lm itself. The lm must be able to stand on its own, in
other words, but he will then explore background information. Effectively,
to him, the comics are little more than interesting sidebars, and having
read them is akin to knowing what other lms an actor has done. He was
also adamant that comic readers readings wouldnt replace his, and he insisted, Im never going to change my mind about liking a scene or thinking its dumb just because thats not what happened in episode 34, page 13.
Rather, it seems that information gained from readers is a way to deepen
the postviewing experience. If the comic is still conceived as part of the
lms intertextual chain, it is wholly subjugated to the lm in both impor[ 98 ]
tance and status. After all, if non-readers truly cared about the lm as an
episodic entity, they would most likely be moved by good lms to buy and
read the comics, yet all showed little to no interest in doing so.
In asking comic readers and non-readers about their experiences with adaptations, we were inquiring into their experiences with textuality, and
we found two disparate experiences. Non-readers could watch the lms as
lms, and largely as distinct texts. They occasionally had to work at excluding the lms intertextual history, or, rather, at welcoming it only on their
terms, but they therefore reduced it to the status of cast biography: interesting, yet peripheral background. By contrast, readers, predictably, looked
at any adaptation as part of an episodic text. If the lm failed to contribute
to their vision of that macrotext, it could be brushed off and/or denigrated
as an unworthy link in the intertextual chain, but even if it succeeded, it became no more than another link. Thus, our research suggests the existence
of complex hierarchies of intertextuality that will differ from interpretive
community to interpretive community. Furthermore, though, while interpretive community theory (Fish, Lindlof ) and much recent theory on reception suggests that different audiences may interpret a text differently,
our research suggests that they may even be interacting with an entirely
different textuality. What is a fairly static text to one group may be an intertext and an episode to another. Thus, while signicant work has been
conducted into the differences between media (Ellis, Levinson, McLuhan,
Meyrowitz), the case of the reception of adaptations adds the complexity
of the growing pains of adapting textuality itself.
These growing pains are also felt by some viewers more than others,
as we saw. The comic readers in our research struggled with the conversion
of their favorite characters and episodic texts into lmic texts, and felt excluded by the whole production process, and by the Hollywood-ication
that they believed offered the text to non-readers more than it did to them.
Indeed, it is noteworthy that many of the readers favorite comic lms were
those, such as Spider-Man and X-Men, that announced themselves as sequel hungry from the outset, or in other words, those that were more episodic by nature. It is also interesting to note that the sales of Spider-Man
comic series have not been greatly increased by the release of the second
movie. According to Comics International (Comics Economics 54), the
[ 99 ]
highest placing Spider-Man title in the top 100 among the comics retail
trade for September 2004 was Ultimate Spider-Man #65, with just under
100,000 issues sold two months after the release of the movie Spider-Man
2. In other words, non-comics-readers have generally not found the need to
engage with the lm text in its regular serialized comic book format.
Meanwhile, despite comic readers frustrations at being shut out of the
retextualization process, and their feelings of being turned into lesser viewers, our research also points to an interesting link between a texts textuality and how much it welcomes fans. Episodic texts, after all, encourage
fan involvement: in the spaces between episodes. Fans keep the texts alive
through play, discussion, creative fan practices (Jenkins, Textual Poachers),
and so forth. Fans may even feel more able to communicate desires and
dislikes to producers, through letter writing, petitions, or purchase decisions. Episodic texts promise fans a certain degree of agency. By contrast,
non-episodic texts offer less crevices for fans to inhabit, and the glossy veneer of a solitary text can leave little if any traction for fans to grapple onto
(Hills 134). While our research shows that comic book readers still found
or made space for themselves within this new textual environment, it is ultimately the shift in textuality more than the mere retelling of a story, that
renders certain audience behavior and certain practices of textual interaction more difcult.
[ 100 ]
WHAM! BAM! THE X-MEN ARE HERE

THE BRITISH BROADSHEET PRESS AND
THE X-MEN FILMS AND COMIC
MEL GIBSON
In July and August 2000 the rst X-Men lm opened in Britain

and America to considerable press attention. In analyzing a range of articles on the lm, I was struck in particular by the way in which those in
the British press, and especially broadsheets1 such as the Times, Telegraph,
Independent, Guardian, and their Sunday equivalents including the Independent on Sunday and the Observer (as well as the electronic versions of
these papers) often articulated concerns, indeed, fears, about comics. The
writers in the broadsheets often discussed the comics, rather than the lm,
and in doing so made clear the historical perceptions and underlying tensions around comics in general in Britain, in addition, often articulating
emotional responses to comics in a way untypical of broadsheet articles.
These articles demonstrate a history of middle-class fears about the popular. These reviews and articles then continue the largely negative assumptions about comics that have dogged the medium almost constantly since
it began. Moreover they represent a culturally specic British perspective
on comics. In comparison, articles about X-Men 2 (2003) primarily focus
on the lm, suggesting that the discussion of comics that emerged in articles about the rst lm may have had a cathartic function in relation to
discussions of the comic as medium in Britain.
My focus is on articles that went beyond simple reviews of the lms. In
relation to the rst lm, the vast majority of items in British newspapers,
[ 101 ]
whether broadsheet or tabloid, concentrated on plot outline and star rating, rather than giving any commentary. The brevity of these items was in
itself indicative of a rather dismissive attitude towards the lm. This situation may have arisen because the lm was not only based on a comic, but
also seen as a lm for younger viewers and part of a genre deemed a minority interest. In contrast, more extensive attention was given to Bridget
Joness Diary (2001). In addition, the differences between the two lms in
terms of press attention could be partly due to the source of Bridget Joness
Diary being considered respectable literature rather than disreputable
comics. Further, the overwhelming interest in the lm of Bridget Joness
Diary in Britain was based on its British source material, something that
suggests a cultural nationalism that also underpinned some of the articles
about X-Men.
In what ways then, was the rst lm discussed? The most important
aspect of the articles, as I suggest above, was that the lm was often only
relevant to them in a minor way. The articles and reviews consistently hearkened back to the comics, considering the lm primarily as an extension
of them, which, whilst perfectly valid, shifted discussion away from lm
and onto the comic medium.2 The educational and class background of
the writer and assumptions about the social class to which the readers belonged were also woven into these articles and linked to assumed perceptions of comics. The newspaper audience, as seen through the articles, was
middle class, predominantly male, educated via grammar or public school
and saw the medium as trivial or dangerous. In addition, these middle-class
writers addressing a middle-class audience perceived the readers values as
including a dismissal of popular culture (even when the writers themselves
espoused it). Further, the overall political perspectives that the papers espoused also had an impact on the tone of the articles. In general, the traditionally more liberal and leftist Guardian contained more sympathetic
readings of the lm and comics whilst the more conservative Telegraph
took a debased mass culture viewpoint. The Guardian chose to emphasize the complexity and depth of comics. For instance, Xan Brooks in the
Guardian Unlimited of 18 August 2000 said that the lm . . . doesnt take
big liberties with the Marvel Comics material and went on to argue that
Marvel has always offered darker, more complex tales than your standard
cartoon fodder. In conclusion, Brooks stated, Singers lm evolves into a
[ 102 ]
MEL GIBSON
rich and unusual oddity: a blockbuster that dreamed it was an indie angst
movie. In the end, its a bit of a mutant itself. In contrast, the Telegraph
tended to take a tone that was trivializing or scathing, depending on the
writers understanding of comics. Thus, whilst these texts were nominally
about the lm they were much more revealing about middle-class perspectives on comics (as refracted through left or right wing discourses) at the
turn of the twenty-rst century.
As I suggest above, there was often an apologetic tone from writers
who took the rst lm, or the comics, seriously.3 For instance, writing in
the Independent of 14 July 2000 (a newspaper that can be characterized as
left leaning and liberal and so has some common ground with the Guardian), David Thompson ended his article by saying, David Thompson is a
freelance writer who has spent far too much time reading comics (12). It
is also possible, for instance, to read the jokey tone in Peter Bradshaws
article in the Guardian of 18 August as a distancing technique masking
genuine engagement. Bradshaws article can be read in this way because,
although maintaining a light tone, he identies the lm as, in part, a social commentary. This use of distancing techniques and apologetic tones
suggests that the writers believe their positive viewpoint to be somehow
improper and culturally unacceptable. The writers seem to anticipate
that their readers will respond to the lm and the comic in a properly
middle-class manner: that being to treat them as fun or largely dismiss
them. In contrast, the writers reveal themselves to be serious about comics, and so, potentially, to be labeled as fans, or as childish, or not properly
middle class, and thus vulnerable to all of the value judgments that such
labels might bring.4 Where articles were complimentary, then (largely in
left wing papers), they were hedged with qualications, emphasizing both
writers fears about their own status as adults and professionals, and the
low position that comics hold in the journalists imagined British hierarchy of arts.
The emotional, engaged, and personal nature of some of the rst set
of articles went beyond the need for a journalistic peg on which to hang
a piece. This aspect of the articles could also be seen as very different from
the emotional context for a typical broadsheet item. In effect, the more
measured and depersonalized discourse about the lm as lm, central to
the second set of articles, is a more normal tone in relation to broadsheet
BRITISH BROADSHEET PRESS AND THE X-MEN FILMS AND COMIC
[ 103 ]
writing. The contrast between the two emphasizes that the rst set of articles offer both an untypical discourse within broadsheets, which is then
hidden, removed, and denied, in a discursive shift to more distanced discourses about class and culture. That there is a preexisting history of comics that have become lms and have been reviewed suggests that the emotional and comic-based response in this set of articles is not related to
comics becoming lms in general. Rather, I would argue that it means that
the focus on comics in the reviews of the rst lm is about a specic generation of comic readers, predominantly in their thirties and forties and
Marvel readers as children, if no longer, acknowledging themselves as having been comics readers and recognizing the emotional role of comics in
their lives for the rst time.
In contrast to those articles that took comics seriously, a very different
and culturally dominant set of denition of comics in Britain emerged in
other articles, suggesting that all the articles were engaged with questions
of dening the medium. This exercise can be characterized by the frequent
use of the term fun and reminders that the basis of the lm was only a
comic. For instance, Matthew Bonds article in the Telegraph of 18 August
2000 was entitled Fun Was Never Such Work. Further, the headline was
followed by an assertion that the lm takes itself too seriously for its own
good arguing that a lm of the comic should know its place and not aspire to be serious. Bonds perception of the lm was entirely based on his
value judgment of comics. He felt the lm was enjoyable when it was about
good versus bad mutants but not otherwise (8). Bond, therefore, only
celebrates those parts of the lm that reect his denition of comics.
The denition of comics as fun is tied to British understandings
of comics as primarily a vehicle for humor. Such a perception of comics derives from classic British titles such as The Beano, which resemble
more the American comic strips of the early twentieth century than say
comic books. As a result of this cultural construction of the comic, the rst
X-Men lm was read as a failure in not being funny. For instance, in Philip
Frenchs review in the Observer of 20 August 2000 he states that X-Men
lacks the humor that made the similar, but more ambiguous, Men in Black
[1997] such a delight (13). With regard to tone, that of Bradshaws article
in the 18 August Guardian showed the impact of this denition of comics, even for a comic fan, in being largely jokey and using slang. For ex[ 104 ]
MEL GIBSON
ample, Bradshaw describes Cyclopss powers as . . . a bit rubbish, really

if he loses his Ray-Bans behind the sofa, he is stuffed (4).
This denition of the comic as centered on humor was also typically
related to an assumption that the comic as a medium solely addresses children (thus linking constructions of the comic and of the child). Given that
classic British comic The Beano consists of short gag-based, often slapstick, stories and is targeted at a child audience under ten years old, the
assumption that texts like X-Men are only of interest to children is not
a wholly surprising one. Further, that the rst lm gained an age twelve
exhibition certicate was used to reinforce perceptions in a number of
articles that comics were solely for children. This cultural positioning of
comics in Britain is tied to The Children & Young Persons Harmful Publications Act (1955) which banned importation of American crime and horror comics.5 The very title of the act shows how comics were dened in
terms of assumptions about their audience. The campaign that led to the
act, organized by the Comics Campaign Council (CCC), constantly reiterated that these were texts for children, or at the very least, texts that children were attracted to and could access. The articles on the X-Men, then, in
the slippage between comic and lm partly reect the inheritance of perspectives on comics generated in Britain in the 1950s.
Another of the major themes in the articles linked to this culturally
dominant denition of comics as for children and containing humor concerned the opening scenes of the rst lm. Bond, for instance, argued that,
The best we can say about this sequence is that it is over quickly . . . [t]he
worst is that exploiting this universally recognized image of real horror to
make some cheap point about a fantasy world where all-in wrestlers have
knuckles that sprout razor-sharp knives and shape-shifting women cover
their bits with old tyre treads is grotesque. And before the comic-buffs
write, I neither know nor care whether this is faithful to the original. Its
still crass (8).
This attitude dismisses any attempts to take on serious issues or discuss morality in such texts. It also demonstrates the continued slippage
between the comics and the rst lm. Bond refuses to accept that comics may explore, or reect, social issues, insisting that they are fantasy and
that fantasy is, in effect, exploitative, or an insult to the real. In labeling
the comic trivial, fantastical, and parasitical, the high ground, as it were, is
[ 105 ]
maintained as an arena for other forms of more acceptable cultural engagement.

Bradshaw, in contrast, describes the opening sequence rather differently, seeing it as a moment of sheer audacity, which if managed with
any less deadpan bravado would certainly be offensive. And even as it is, it
is right out there on an edge of provocation undreamt of by other mainstream Hollywood movies. He then links that sequence with the Ellis Island nale in a reading of the lm as a toweringly sarcastic denunciation
of the US as a cradle of pluralism and tolerance (4). This article emerges
as one of only a few which sees the text as worthy of serious consideration, and, further, is one of even fewer to locate the lm and comics in a
culturally specic context. Responses to the introduction of the lm, then,
depended on the writers perceptions of comics. For some, the dominant
denition of comics as fun and for children meant that the opening sequence was unacceptable. When arguing that the lm belittled real events,
denitions of comics were invariably the means through which the writers judged the lm.
Comments about the acting in the lm, and the dialogue, also reected denitions of comics. For instance, Bond argued that at times the
dialogue is a little too close to the comic-book original (8) implying that
all comic book dialogue is inherently simplistic and crude. In terms of
acting, comic-book remained shorthand for wooden or shallow performances. The female performers, in particular, were described in this way,
or as secondary or silly. Sean Macaulay in the 17 July 2000 Times for instance, states that [Berry plays] uber-weather girl Storm with all the swirling fury of a light mist. Cleavage would have been a more suitable sobriquet (24). In addition, most of the reviews assumed that the lack of female
characters (and where they did appear, the emphasis on their cleavage, as
described above) was also derived from comics. Hence, the clich of the
female character in comics informed how the lm was interpreted, even
when, as is the case with the X-Men, such comics, have been known for depictions of strong female characters that take central roles.
The tensions in the articles created by the various denitions of comics were often further exacerbated by the choice of title. Sensitive or serious writing was frequently undermined by humorous or sound effectbased titles. Such was the case with the 6 August 2000 Independent on
[ 106 ]
MEL GIBSON
Sunday article Wham! Bam! The X-Men Are Here, which prefaced an article in which Ekow Eshun described his experience of being a black British child in the 1970s. Eshun addressed what the X-Men comics had meant
to him as a child and in so doing produced an article supposedly about the
lm but, once more, dominated by comics. In addition, he contextualizes
an American text in relation to a British readership. Eshun stated, I used
to read The X-Men as escapism. But often the world felt more real than the
world around me. Here were outsiders, mistrusted by a bigoted majority,
who had learnt early about the capricious unkindness of life. It all seemed
achingly familiar (1). In this article, the writer shows that an American
comic may be a tool that can be used to address issues about British identity, class, race, and childhood. Although readers may be tied to culturally specic ways of understanding any given text (rather than being free
to make any meanings they choose), Eshuns article suggests how readers
might make meanings that are personally relevant. Where the text originates from is less important here than how it is used. As Eshun concludes:
And I actually felt a rush of nostalgia [when watching the lm]. Not for
my actual childhood. But for how, through reading The X-Men, I imagined it might be (1).
Both this article and Bonds shared a reection on childhood experiences
of comics.6 Whilst Eshuns reading was both lyrical and emotional, Bond
took a dismissive approach, stating, I did, I confess, have a brief Marvel
comics period. They were excellent boyhood reading on long train journeys, had the considerable bonus of earning strong parental disapproval
(but theyre American, darling), and only came to an end when I discovered something more interesting. Girls or horses, I forget which (8).
In this case where the comic came from had a distinct impact upon
how it was understood and used, in direct contrast with Eshuns reading,
which acknowledges cultural specicity but sees certain themes as crossing
cultures. In Bonds article, the denition of the comic in Britain is shown
as one that developed in the late twentieth century in relation to other
comics and one that has, at its heart, a nationalistic element. This sentiment too had an impact upon the responses to the rst lm.
Working with a model of American comics as offensive (and so useful
as a tool for his child self in suggesting rebellion against parental values),
[ 107 ]
Bond ags an historical fear of American culture in Britain and the equally
historical perceived need for reinforcing British culture (here through an
insistence on the British denition of the comic). He identies American
comics as having, in the past, represented an alien, and threatening, other,
particularly to middle-class adults. Such attitudes were a factor in the approach of the Comics Campaign Council (CCC) in the 1950s. As Martin
Barker (Haunt of Fears) explains, the CCC was initially marked by antiAmericanism. This took several forms, ranging from seeing comics in a
highly political way as part of a policy of cultural imperialism by America,
to a generalized feeling about maintaining a specically British culture.
Barker says that this anti-Americanism was replaced, as the campaign developed, by a moralised, depoliticised version of the old theme (29) that
described the comics as degrading. An undercurrent of anti-Americanism
remained in British attitudes to comics after the campaign ended. This is
exemplied in the use of the term American-type, in George H. Pumphreys 1964 What Children Think of Their Comics, to describe what he
considered the very worst kind of comics. It is this undercurrent, although
representing middle-class unease rather than outright hostility, which, I
believe, was revealed in the articles about the X-Men lm.
The articles suggest a continuing correlation in Britain between American culture, cultural imperialism, the popular, and dumbing down. This
notion of the lm of the comic as representing cultural threat appeared in
various guises. For instance, there were notions of a completed cultural invasion in the headline The X-Men Are Here (Eshun). This opinion could
also be seen in the differences between the rst round of reviews in British broadsheets, usually in response to the U.S. opening, which were fairly
positive about the lm, and the more ambiguous reviews that accompanied British openings. Films from comics then were an acceptable text in
an American context, but less so in a British one. Such a response suggests
that the comic book culture the lm represented, a culture seen as specically American, was one that could only be dealt with by British commentators through their having a literal, physical distance on it as well as distancing it mentally.
Such perceptions of the lm of the comic as a representative of American culture and as alien to Britain also found a space in other articles.
Some, for instance, identied the entire project (which was seen as other[ 108 ]
MEL GIBSON
wise irredeemable) as being saved by the involvement of the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) trained Sir Ian McKellen and Patrick Stewart.7 In
these articles what was specically American about the lm was marked
as lesser. What such articles simultaneously did was claim that the success
of the lm was entirely due to this British input (implied to be inherently
superior) and therefore the lm itself was seen as a British success, revealing that the ip side of rejection was appropriation.8 Hence, Hiscock in
the 4 August 2000 Telegraph offered the headline Cartoon MutantsRSC
Trained (8). The insistence on seeing the lm through the British contribution was also apparent when searching for the term X-Men on British
search engines. Such searches offered very little, whilst searches on McKellen and Stewart immediately led to X-Men reviews. I see this as a clear indication of how the British connection became an attempt at appropriating the text.
The tensions around the X-Men lm and its parent comic book text
in all of these articles can, then, be explained as a reection of the way
that the comic remains, for many of these writers, part of what could be
described as a specically British middle-class mass culture discourse.
These perspectives on the part of some critics, then, remain as a fallback
position when faced with what they identify as problematic culture. A
high/low culture perspective remains rmly in place (despite the supposed
encroachment of postmodernism) as part of a naturalized and commonsense approach to the comic medium. Thus, it is possible to extend David
Lusteds (1998) argument about television, to comics. Lusted suggests that
anti-Americanism is not merely an elite fear with regard to the Americanization of popular culture, but also reective of a hostility to its populism and its adoption by the non-elite in Britain (178). The tension around
America, comics, and popular culture in these articles is, then, a tension
around class in Britain.
The views expressed about both the X-Men lm and comic could be
seen as an echo of the culture and civilization tradition as initiated by
Matthew Arnold.9 The way that these articles interpret popular culture can
be traced back to Arnold, through the inuence of Cambridge academic F.
R. Leavis on education in Britain.10 Leaviss impact upon the educational
curriculum in English in general, from the 1930s and onward, was immense. Leavis proposed direct intervention in schools to develop students
[ 109 ]
critical skills in ways that would ensure that they resisted mass culture.
Such critical skills would, of course, also value and maintain what was considered high culture and particularly that in the keeping of British cultural
authority. Bonds article demonstrates this sensibility of being part of a
cultural elite that acts as a barrier or resistance to mass culture, implying a
cultural or national stronghold under attack from without.
The intervention Leavis proposed took the form of forceful educational politics represented in a range of texts including the 1933 practical
handbook Culture and Environment written by Leavis with Denys Thompson, and Thompsons journal for English teachers, The Use of English.
Leavisism was in turn a considerable inuence upon pupils, particularly
through teachers use of the practical exercises for students offered in these
texts.11 In addition, the seductive notion of being a member of a discriminating elite may also have played a part. The appeal to the reader of the
middle-class medium of the broadsheet newspaper in Britain, then, is very
much along these lines. The way that the reader is positioned (through
the way that the paper positions itself ) is as part of an elite, with the
paper (and by extension the reader) protecting an elite culture within its
pages.12 Hence, such newspapers report on some forms of popular culture,
especially those that the X-Men lm represents, through a lter of mass
culture discourse.
Such concern about comics and mass culture is not limited to a conservative middle class. These articles also echo the threat felt by Richard
Hoggart, one of the founding fathers of British Cultural Studies, from
American culture. Hoggart both shared and challenged some the assumptions of Leavis13 (once more emphasizing the importance of Leavis in the
mediation of mass media texts in Britain). Whilst Hoggart rarely touched
on American comics, he does mention them in his 1957 work The Uses of
Literacy. In particular, Hoggart described the popularity of comics as dangerous, depicting that danger in sexual and educational terms. He stated:
for page after page big-thighed and big-bosomed girls from Mars step
out of their space-machines, and gangsters molls scream away in high
powered sedans. Anyone who sees something of Servicemens reading, of
the popularity of American and English comics (with the cruder English
boys comics serving their turn where the supply of hotter material runs
out), knows something of all this. The process continues, for a substantial
[ 110 ]
MEL GIBSON
number of adolescents especially; a passive visual taking-on of bad massart geared to a very low mental age (201).
Hoggart also links the comic with fragmentation, passive consumption, and what he saw as purely American commercialism, all of which
he felt undermined British working-class culture (something typically not
agged up in other accounts of the comic) and particularly the young, revealing concerns about the developing popular teenage culture. Here too,
concerns about the suitability of these texts for a child audience, echoed in
the way that the articles on the X-Men lm focus on fun and humor as
part of a denition of the comic book medium, may also have their roots.
The broadsheet presss response to the rst lm reveals a continuance
of the hostility and ambiguity that has traditionally marked middle-class,
and particularly educational, discourses about comics in Britain. Ignoring
the lm in pursuit of making points about the parent texts implies that
comics continue to be an uncomfortable medium within that culture. In
particular, the perspectives on mass culture and education, developed by
Leavis and others in the 1930s and onwards, mediated perceptions of comics over several generations, as commentators understandings of the medium ltered through to parents and teachers.
The culturally specic, Leavisite educational position on popular culture, then, continues to have an impact on British cultural attitudes, particularly those of the middle classes. The ideological construction of the
commonsense approach to understanding popular culture retains its
mass culture overtones. For all that educationalists and media critics,
both of whom are involved with the analysis of these texts, might insist
that popular culture is no longer considered in this light, the articles on the
rst X-Men lm suggest otherwise. This approach remains a British cultural default setting, as it were. Such middle-class attitudes continue to
have an impact not only on specic texts like the rst X-Men lm, and not
only on specic media, such as the comic book, but on British understandings of most popular culture.
There are, then, some interesting shifts revealed in relation to the responses in the broadsheets to X-Men 2 (X2) (2003) in that the tone in the
majority of the articles and reviews is much more subdued and even. The
extremes of opinion and the deep-lying attitudes revealed in responses in
2000 to the rst lm are no longer there, even among the same authors.
[ 111 ]
This development suggests that the rst lm provided, perhaps, a cathartic moment in which British cultural assumptions about popular culture
erupted, before being either moved beyond or, more likely, reburied. It also
suggests that lm franchises based on comic books are no longer a cultural ashpoint.
What are notable, in the articles about X-Men 2, are the absences. One
such absence is the emphasis on fun in the language used to discuss the
lm, although there is an underlying theme that still ties the comic book
form (and so the lm) to childhood. For instance, an article by Charlotte
OSullivan in the 2 May 2003 Independent mentions that, children stand
around in playgrounds, trying to decide which superhero theyd most like
to be. This, however, is a dim echo of the constant infantalization of the
medium with regard to the rst X-Men lm.
There are also other dramatic shifts, in that the comic book and
memories of comics are rarely present. Thus, the articles on the second
lm are much less personal, and much less part of a criticism of a medium, or an articulation of class. There are no apologies about having enjoyed comics, and neither are there justications of the medium as an art
or an inspiration. Again, this could be seen as emphasizing a new respectability with regards to the franchise, in part derived on its protability and
also, perhaps, from the higher and largely positive prole of some graphic
novels in the broadsheet press (the Guardian, in particular, periodically reviews graphic novels). In addition, whilst many of the articles and reviews
of the second lm are negative, this negativity is focused on the lm itself.
For instance, Barbara Ellen in the 1 May 2003 Times describes a whiff of
stale franchise in the air (12).
The use of language in the articles is also different. Whilst those addressing the rst lm typically had titles that instantly referred the reader
back to the comics, these titles, for instance, X Misses the Spot, tend to
avoid such a focus. Indeed, the comics are rarely mentioned in the body of
the articles, whilst it was central to most pieces in the case of the rst lm.
Of the few that do ag that this is a franchise based on comics, such as the
article by OSullivan in the Independent, most do so as a side issue, or to set
the scene using only a brief descriptive sentence. The articles and reviews
for the rst lm spent much more time on emphasizing its comic roots.
This development could suggest an assumption on the part of the writers
[ 112 ]
MEL GIBSON
that the narrative and the medium need little introduction, showing how
lm franchises based on comics are more in the foreground, an accepted
part of the cultural landscape rather than a blot upon it, or could reect a
ight away from discussing what proved, in the previous case, to be a very
emotive discussion of a medium.
Fandom remains a problematic area, however, although with a change
of emphasis. For instance, OSullivan argues that X-Men 2 is a snobby
creature, geared to fans who know X-Men backwards and are already dizzy
with excitement about X-Men 3. Here, the appeal of X-Men 2 is seen as to
insiders, following the notion of the fanboy. However, the statement is
applied only to knowledge of the lms, not the comics. Again, it is an emphasis on silence around comics that dominates the articles. This could be
seen as a dead issue, but the tone of some of the articles, notably that by
OSullivan, do retain an edge, belittling the lm for being both too simplistic and too confusing, too much summer blockbuster and too conformist
(with the emphasis on Nightcrawlers faith being a key factor). The hostility remains, then, but has shifted into a more medium-specic form,
whilst still being indirectly critical of the underlying comics.
There is generally a relocation of the X-Men lms in these articles
away from superhero comics as a genre, another key absence. Overall, these
articles analyze the lm more as a lm, rather than as a representative
from another medium. As a consequence, X-Men 2 is compared, not even
to other lms based on comics, but to lms seen as blockbusters, or special
effects lms, or lms for younger audiences. In addition, it is also relocated
as science ction. For example, Ellen (2003) describes the costumes worn
by the female characters as having come from a Star Trek garage sale (12)
thus neatly trading one set of clichs for another, but clearly indicating a
change of perception of the franchise.
Further, the reviewers also see it as a lm that slips across genres,
rather than being seen as representing a hybrid genre. Nicholas Barber in
the 4 May 2003 Independent for instance, sees the failure of the lm as centered on the lack of action scenes, in its emphasis on character, seeing it as
a lm that does not stay in genre as a blockbuster (one of the few writers
to address both lms, Barber still retains an enthusiasm for the franchise).
There is, then, a problem for these writers in locating and labeling X-Men
2. In effect, the reviewers are either unsure about how to explain the lm
[ 113 ]
or inconsistent in placing it in any specic genre. In doing so, they reveal

an ambivalence in their reviews that corresponds with their reluctance, or
condence, about the necessity to mention comics. However, the frequency
of these gaps suggests a continued tension around the medium, a reluctance to reopen the debates that the rst did.
Of all the articles mentioned here, only two locate X-Men 2 as comic
book based. That by Barber compares X-Men 2 to other comic-based lm
franchises (and, in addition, also partly shifts the franchise across genre by
mentioning Star Wars) only indirectly referring to comics. Here again, we
see a distancing from the original medium. That the references are to other
lms is telling, showing how a body of work, either the X-Men lms themselves, or a group of lms inspired by comics, exists that can be considered with reference to each other, rather than with reference to the original
texts, reecting the growth of this type of lm, but also moves the writers
away from discussing comics altogether.
The only variation on this use (or lack of use) of comics comes from
Cosmo Landesman in the 4 May 2003 Sunday Times, who uses the history
of the comics, or more specically, a perception of their roots in 1960s civil
rights movements, as a way of interrogating the notion of tolerance, which
he says lies at the heart of the lm, and which he sees as a dated concept
(C8). From there, he too refocuses on the lm franchise, comparing it to
Star Wars, again, shifting it across genre.
In contrast to Landesman, most of the articles refer to the sociopolitical themes with a degree of enthusiasm, although OSullivan argues
that the philosophy and so the plot, is too muddled and criticizes the notion of the X-Men as representing any oppressed minority. In contrast, Tim
Robey, in the Telegraph argues that Singer, lest we forget, managed to conjure an illusion of sense out of The Usual Suspects, and has no real problems icking back and forth here between plot, counterplot, and other related bits of business. In addition, he sees the theme of oppression as well
handled with some deftly written scenes.
However, whilst the focus on comics is generally minimal, the power
of comics is occasionally acknowledged. OSullivan argues that Singer
knows how potent comic book allegories can beX-Men, which hurled us
straight into scenes from a Nazi concentration camp, left a real bruise. His
take on paranoid, postSeptember 11 America has none of the same poke.
[ 114 ]
MEL GIBSON
So, whilst seeing the lm as a failure, OSullivan also sees, in retrospect, the
rst lm as signicant and comics as a medium which can engage with serious themes. Note however, that the lm and comic are collapsed together
here, but that it is the lm that is the dominant form.
So, one can conclude that the construction of comics has shifted, in
this second set of articles, to one which is both profoundly visible through
the lms and yet almost invisible. The absence of the comic, on the one
hand, shows the lms being seen as capable of standing alone. On the other
hand, this could be seen as a refusal to engage with the comic.
There is a sharp contrast between the two sets of articles in that there
is little revelation about class or perceptions of culture in the second. This
may indicate the way that comics can be seen as a ashpoint around taste,
and that by avoiding them, one may avoid that discussion. However, the
tensions around the notion of the summer blockbuster, itself a term that
can be seen as critical, and some of the more pejorative comments about
the plot do suggest the continuing hierarchy within culture.
Whilst it was possible to see the judgments about culture and class in
relation to the former lm very clearly, these later articles are much more
guarded. The writers offer no scope for that, effectively shutting down the
debates and revelations about medium and genre that the rst opened up,
simply by refusing to engage with the comic at all. Instead there is a desire to relabel the franchise as belonging to another genre, and, alongside
that this set of absences that are all connected with the comic book medium itself.
[ 115 ]
UNBREAKABLE AND THE LIMITS

OF TRANSGRESSION
ALDO J. REGALADO
In the year 2000, lmmaker M. Night Shyamalan followed up

his highly acclaimed and commercially successful The Sixth Sense with
Unbreakable, a misleadingly marketed lm that presented unsuspecting
American moviegoers with a story about comic books and superheroes. In
this story, the seemingly ordinary and unfullled central character (David
Dunne, played by Bruce Willis) gradually comes to believe that he is in
fact a superhero. His conviction is simultaneously triggered by a horric
train accident and the insistence of another character (Elijah Price, played
by Samuel L. Jackson), who, as it turns out, has purposefully arranged the
accidentand othersin attempting to uncover a real-world manifestation of superhero ction. Although in one sense Unbreakable boils down
to a typical superhero tale, Shyamalan tells this story in an atypical fashion, largely stripping the genre of spandex, capes, death rays, over-the-top
action scenes, and the rest of its more amboyant conventions. Focusing
instead on psychologically realistic issues related to marriage, work, childrearing, illness, racism, and social identity, Shyamalan challenges his audience to take superhero ction seriously.
Although by no means a failure, mixed reviews and relatively modest box ofce returns indicate that audiences found Shyamalans treatment
only partially convincing. Musing on the fact that Unbreakable grossed
less than a third of The Sixth Senses take, Shyamalan notes that the lm
[ 116 ]
seemed to split audiences into two camps, one that considers Unbreakable his best lm, and another that wonders what happened to him?
(Shyamalan, Question; Shyamalan, Chair; Shyamalan, Vision). Although Shyamalan expresses surprise and disappointment when interviewers ask about the lms reception, perhaps no other response was possible
from American moviegoers (Question; Chair; Vision). The lm itself
suggests as much. More than just a superhero origin story, Unbreakable is
about the American public and the various ways in which it interacts with
the idea of the superhero. By placing this cultural conversation about superheroes at the center of his narrative Shyamalan deals with societal tensions that exist in the appreciation of superhero comic books. These tensions revolve around the marginal status that superheroes, comic books,
and their fans hold in America. Showcasing the way in which superhero
and non-superhero fans speak to one another, however, Shyamalan also reveals how this marginality moves beyond geek culture to address the atomizing dislocations of American modernity more broadly, as well as the
ways in which popular culture might serve to resist the oppressive nature
of modern systems. Examining Unbreakable with an eye towards exploring the nature of these comic book centered cultural conversations, therefore, offers us a promising avenue for understanding the deeper cultural
and historical meanings of the superhero in American culture.
In exploring the nature of these conversations as they appear in the lm,
however, one should be mindful of the fact that these conversations are
rooted in actual comic book related discourse. Indeed, the critical dialogue
surrounding Unbreakable reveals this fact and underscores the marginality
of superheroes in America. This is especially evident in the negative criticism of the lm. Many of those who disliked Unbreakable walked away
from the lm disappointed, grumbling that the plot was silly and not as
plausible as that of a young boy who can see dead people. For them, superheroes are patently ridiculous, and notions that such ctional characters possess a link to ancient hieroglyphs or embody a near-Shakespearean encapsulation of the human condition are farfetched, ponderous,
boneheaded, fanciful and laughable at best (Butler; Rea; Radford).
One such critic complained of both Unbreakable and Tim Burtons 1989
[ 117 ]
Batman that When pop culture broods, it just looks sillyit loses the
immediacy, that jolt of energy, which is its only advantage over the other
kind (Mars-Jones).
Some superhero fans, along with many mainstream audience members, agreed with this comment, nding the movie dull when compared to
more action-oriented superhero lms. Others, however, rejected the lm
due to their fears that the character of Elijah vilied comic book subculture. One fan, for instance, expressed that he was extremely worried
that the general public, after watching this movie, would conclude that
people who like comics all wear bright purple suits! Recalling psychologist Frederic Werthams 1950s anti-comics crusade, he also expressed concern over the political consequences of the lm, adding, Its Seduction
of the Innocent all over again!!! Help! (Boyd). Other fans voiced similar
concerns in less alarmist tones, arguing that Unbreakable perpetuated the
masses stereotype that comics are for geeks and only contain superhero
stories (Dan). Some academics reject the lm on similar grounds, arguing that the commercial linkage of sequential art to superheroes and lm
undermines appreciation and acceptance of the medium. Exemplifying
this point of view, one scholar recently shared his wish that movie makers would stay the hell away from comics, since movies derived from comics dont do comics any good whatsoever. I also think, he continued,
that since now movies can use CGI, there is no need for comics to have
superheroes in them (Brooks, Re: Shyamalan).
Most superhero fans, however, seemed to enjoy the lm, appreciating
what they perceived as Shyamalans attempts to ground superheroes in the
real world and hence grant them legitimacy (Ramirez). One fan typically
commented that Unbreakable was a realistic, human approach to superheroes, that couldnt have touched him more (Gondek). Another stated
that Donnie Darko and Unbreakable are the only superhero movies that
can be dened as great that arent tacky or silly (Andrew). Likewise, many
scholars respond to their less enthusiastic peers by citing the ways in which
Unbreakable engages various important cultural and structural issues, including Shyamalans exploration of the myth of the hero, his construction
of the nemesis, and his attempts to translate the conventions of sequential
art onto lm (Robbins; Pellitteri; Tondro).
Whatever his intentions were, Shyamalan tapped into this rich cul[ 118 ]
ALDO J. REGALADO
tural debate about comic books, making it central to his narrative. Like
audience members, the characters in the lm all engage superhero comics
from various critical perspectives. By dismissing, embracing, appropriating, or aggressively rejecting the concept of the superhero, the characters
in Unbreakable nd meaning for themselves and uncover roads for navigating the world around them, articulating deeply held notions steeped in
the realities of race, class, and gender in modern (or postmodern) America
along the way. Considered in this fashion, the previously described critical
responses to the lm, along with the cultural politics they embody, become
the subject, rather than merely the product, of the movie. Indeed, by artistically recreating cultural conversations about superheroes and then placing these conversations at the center of his story without privileging one
over the other, Shyamalan perhaps unwittingly employed what Mikhail
Bakhtin referred to as the dialogic imagination. Specically, Shyamalan
seems to accept the notion that social and cultural meaning is not discovered in isolation, but rather depends on the interaction between speech
and response. The truth about superheroes in both the real world and in
Unbreakable, for instance, is not objectively evident or individually discerned, but rather depends upon and emerges from the interaction of multiple perspectives and the cultural or even psychological responses these
interactions elicit. Furthermore, Bakhtin posits that words and images
capture and preserve the voices of those who shaped their meanings, transmitting them through space and time to new audiences who continue the
cultural conversation (Dialogic Imagination; Rabelais and His World). As
an active listener of these cultural conversations as they pertain to superhero comic books, Shyamalan successfully uncovered the historical forces
that led to their creation, forces dealing with the potentially oppressive realities of modern systems and with the human need to nds strategies for
transgressing these realities in attempts to reafrm human existence. Analyzing Unbreakable, therefore, provides us with an opportunity to examine
the origins and continued cultural signicance of superheroes, as well as
the broader dynamics of American popular culture.
If one accepts Bakhtins notion of words and images preserving historical voices, then understanding Unbreakable benets from examining
the historical meanings of superhero ction that served as Shyamalans
[ 119 ]
inspiration for the lm. No character is more evocative of those meanings and hence more worthy of study than Jerry Siegel and Joe Shusters
Superman. Indeed, not only did Superman propel the comic book industry to new heights of market success when DC Comics published his rst
adventure in 1938, but he also established the superhero genre, setting examples and themes that creators aped and continue to ape in comics, radio,
advertising, television, and lm. Superman, therefore, embodies the essence of superhero ction, and Shyamalan mined it in his own unique exploration of the genre and the society from which it sprung.
Superman, however, seems somewhat at odds with the world and characters that Shyamalan presents in Unbreakable. Despite his superpowers
Shyamalans superhero, David Dunne, is rmly chained by daily routines,
systems, and societal expectations that govern his choices and render his
life unsatisfying. Superman is, by contrast, otherworldly. Born on the
planet Krypton, his parents rocketed him to Earth in a spacecraft, saving
him from the planetary disaster that left him both an orphan and his home
worlds last surviving son. Possessed of an advanced physical structure he
manifested super powers as a child, and upon reaching maturity he discovered that he could easily leap one eight of a mile; hurdle a twentystory building . . . raise tremendous weights . . . run faster than an express
train . . . and that nothing less than a bursting shell could penetrate his
skin (Siegel and Shuster, Archives 1). Thus prepared, he made the easy decision to turn his titanic strength into channels that would benet mankind (Siegel and Shuster, Archives 1). Calling himself Superman he became the champion of the oppressed, the physical marvel who had sworn
to devote his existence to helping those in need! (Siegel and Shuster, Archives 1). Triumphal, ebullient, optimistic, and self-assured, the brightly
clad caped crusader seems to share little with Shyamalans sullen, despairing Dunne, yet Shyamalan imagined Dunne by tapping into the deepseeded social and historical meanings of superhero ction, thus creating a
character that illuminates the darker, anxious realities that gave impetus to
Superman and the countless superheroes inspired by his market success.
With regards to the superhero, these darker realities date back to the
Great Depression of the 1930s, when markets crashed and misery reigned.
Initially it seemed that the cold nancial realities of the business world
[ 120 ]
ALDO J. REGALADO
mattered more than human suffering. State and federal governments, following the example and policy set by President Herbert Hoovers administration, failed to curb human suffering, believing that business should
regulate itself, and that people had a moral responsibility to lift themselves up from economic ruin through character, pluck, and determination
(Gartner 290). As documented in Studs Terkels Hard Times and elsewhere,
many felt trapped in a world beyond their control and searched frantically
for ways of breaking the chains of their despair.
Such was the case for Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, whose hometown of Cleveland, Ohio, suffered major losses in business
and industry even before the stock market crash of 1929. By 1931 Clevelands unemployment rate rose to 35.1 percent, and the social framework of
the city collapsed into chaos (Gartner 290). As Jews living in an ethnically
segregated neighborhood with less access to already limited relief monies,
Siegel and Shuster, along with the rest of their community, suffered the privations of the Great Depression even more intensely (Gartner 29093). So
it was that Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster experienced a world where breadlines, homelessness, violence, political upheaval, hopelessness, and despair
were commonplace, and where their own possibilities for partaking in the
American Dream were curtailed by both ethnic prejudice and the systemic limitations of an apparently failing capitalism. Creatively responding to their condition, Siegel and Shuster created the rst incarnation of
the Man of Steelone with lineaments unfamiliar to most casual readers
of the now iconic character. Glossed over by most fan historians, this version of the character is nevertheless vitally important to understanding the
cultural and social roots of the superhero, capturing as it does the voices
of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster before they were reshaped by the dictates of
the marketplace.
Written by Siegel and illustrated by Shuster, this version of Superman appeared in Reign of the Super-Man, a piece of short ction produced in January of 1933 for Siegels self-published fanzine, Science Fiction.1 The storys rst line grounds the tale in its Great Depression roots.
The bread-line, it begins, Its row of downcast, disillusioned men; unlucky creatures who have found that life holds nothing but bitterness for
them. The bread-line! Last resort of the starving vagrant (Shuster, Reign
[ 121 ]
1). Here, among this row of wretched unfortunates we meet Bill Dunn,
the raggedly-dressed person that becomes the storys Super-Man (Shuster, Reign 1).
Dunn, however, does not possess the wherewithal to master his environment or his life. Instead, he is propelled into his super-activity through
the actions of a chemist identied only as Professor Smalley. Siegel heavy
handedly establishes Smalley as a member of the wealthy elite, describing
him as one who had come of rich parents and had never been forced to
face the rigors of life (Shuster, Reign 1). To Smalley, as well as to more
than a few policymakers insensitive to the plight of those who suffered
during the Great Depression, the miserableness of those in the breadlines seemed deserved, especially since if they had the slightest ambition at all they could easily lift themselves from their terrible rut (Shuster,
Reign 1). Driven by a worldview that understands poverty as stemming
from an innate moral inferiority, as well as by the dictates of a scientic
mind that quests for power over the natural and human worlds through
empirical observation and rational calculation, Smalley hatches a nefarious scheme apropos of the genre of pulp science ction. Possessed of an
unidentied meteoric substance, he designs to explore its properties by selecting a test subject from the jobless masses and then exposing this person
to the strange mineral. Barely stopping to consider the crowd of potential
victims, Smalley randomly selects Bill Dunn.
Initially suspicious, Bill Dunns hunger and despair win over and he
accepts Smalleys vaguely articulated business proposal. Later, while supping at the Professors home, he unknowingly ingests the powdered fragments of Smalleys meteoric ore. Although initially collapsing from its effects, Dunn manages to escape his captors clutches and disappears into
the city. A short while later, he nds himself possessed of both a sharpened mind and the preternatural ability to hear thoughts. Using his newfound powers, he penetrates the hidden life of the city and deciphers its secrets. Prying into the private dramas of those around him, he experiences
the fear, hatred, anger, and cruelty of his fellow man. More importantly,
he comes to understand how these forces are arrayed against him, and this
knowledge allows him to navigate around the otherwise insurmountable
systems of modern life. Further developing the abilities of mind control
and future sight, the once vagrant Bill Dunn appropriates the power once
[ 122 ]
ALDO J. REGALADO
possessed by the wealthy Smalley, and employs it to penetrate and survive

in the modern urban city.
Although Siegel and Shuster seem to delight in exploring the transgressive possibilities of Dunns newfound abilities, this rst incarnation
Super-Man was not a superhero. Overcome by a sense of class hatred fueled by envy and a desire for power, Dunn uses his powers for personal
and material gain, cheating at the racetrack, investing in the stock market,
and coercing wealthy individuals to sign over their money to him (Shuster, Reign 34).
Ultimately, Dunns lust for wealth and power escalates to the point
where he dreams of global and even cosmic domination. After returning
to and killing Smalley, who planned on becoming a second Super-Man by
ingesting what remained of the meteoric substance, Dunn turns his attentions to the International Conciliatory Council, a ctional gathering of all
the worlds nations that had resulted in peace accords promising to join
all races into one tremendous, everlasting fraternity (Shuster, Reign 8).
Using his vast mental powers, Dunn disrupts this peace accord by projecting feelings of intense hatred into the minds of the diplomats in attendance. Then, summoning a newspaper reporter to bear witness to the
nal stages of his plot, he prepares to send the armies of the world to total
annihilation against each other (Shuster, Reign 9). However, before he
can do so, Dunn receives a vision of his immediate future. He sees himself
sleeping in the park once more, the effects of the meteor fragments having worn off. Dejected and disillusioned, he turns to the captive reporter,
sharing his nal regrets in the following passage. I see, now, how wrong I
was. If I had worked for the good of humanity, my name would have gone
down in history with a blessinginstead of a curse. . . . In fteen minutes
you will be automatically released and I he grinned wryly, I shall be
back in the bread-line! (Shuster, Reign 9).
By thus developing the character of Bill Dunn, Siegel and Shuster
revealed their middle-class sensibilities. While they clearly sympathized
with the plight of those abandoned and preyed upon by the immorality of
laissez-faire capitalism, they also worried about the more drastic alternatives that manifested in the class struggles of the late 1920s and early 1930s.
Caught between the vested political and economic power of American big
business on one side, and the potential for revolutionary politics champiUNBREAKABLE AND THE LIMITS OF TRANSGRESSION
[ 123 ]
oned by communists, socialists, and millions of increasingly disaffected

Americans on the other, Siegel and Shuster took a middle ground, warning
that power corrupts, regardless of the victor, and hinting at the catastrophic
social implications of continued class conict. Despite their vague musings on the desirability of peace between nations and races and their more
emphatic acknowledgement of the social inequities inherent in modern
urban systems, Siegel and Shuster refrain from offering concrete solutions
to the problems of the modern world. Instead, the story seems paralyzed,
ill at ease with self-serving ambition and the privations caused by established power, and yet equally uncomfortable with the notion of dismantling established social systems and surrendering power to an angry working class. These were logical sensibilities for two young men who, despite
the hardships of the Great Depression, maintained optimistic hopes of
successfully engaging American professional life as entrepreneurs.
This youthful optimism, combined with an innate understanding of
what was marketable in America, led Siegel and Shuster to willfully recast
the Super-Man with the hopes that he might succeed in the then nascent
and somewhat disreputable comic book industry. Reminiscing about their
decision to refashion their protagonist, Siegel commented: Obviously, having him a hero would be innitely more commercial than having him a
villain. I understand that the comic strip Dr. Fu Manchu ran into all sorts
of difculties because the main character was a villain. And with the example before us of Tarzan and other action heroes of ction who were very
successful, mainly because people admired them and looked up to them,
it seemed the sensible thing to do to make The Superman a hero (Siegel,
Shuster, and Siegel, Of Superman and Kids).
And so it was that Siegel and Shuster obscured the more despairing
motivations behind their character, choosing instead to craft a more ebullient gure who afrmed the possibility that the American Dream could
somehow be maintained, a character who would tweak the inequities of
an inhumane system, ensuring that it worked for the people, rather than
against them. Leaping over menacing skylines, tearing through barriers,
and ignoring police, politicians, and other representatives of ofcial authority, Superman redistributed wealth, reformed city and federal govern-
[ 124 ]
ALDO J. REGALADO
ments, effected urban reform, protected small businesses, and otherwise

promoted a more equitable America.
Superman also transgressed traditional denitions of race in America,
thus helping Siegel and Shuster overcome the psychologically limiting realities they faced as Jews. Although the nature of this transgression might
not seem evident to twenty-rst-century Americans who perceive whiteness as a relatively broad category that includes a diversity of ethnic and
national groups, nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century notions of race
in America were more rigid and hinged on Anglo-Saxon genetic purity.
Non-Anglo-Saxons were marginalized regardless of their skin color. This
was true even in popular heroic ction, where explicitly Anglo-Saxon heroes, like Edgar Rice Burroughss Tarzan, served as the preeminent heroic
paradigms for generations of Americans. Siegel and Shusters Superman
is, by contrast, a culturally white hero that is not genetically Anglo-Saxon.
Hence, Superman ctively and subtly broadened denitions of American
whiteness, basing them more on color than on blood and suggesting that
the foreign born could become white and hence be included in the promise
of America (Regalado 115). Clad in patriotic colors, this metaphor for the
New Immigrant dismissed the limitations of modern America, joyfully
afrming for his readers that the nation offered boundless possibilities
rather than hopelessness, that the essence of American liberal capitalism
was good and worth ghting for.
And yet the social alienation that originally produced Superman and
launched the genre of superhero ction never truly disappeared, a fact
that accounts, perhaps, for the continued resonance of the superhero in
American culture. The privations of the Great Depression did give way
to suburban afuence in the years after World War II, but the move to
suburbia resulted in abandoned city centers throughout the nation, leaving nonwhite communities to fend for themselves against rising levels of
unemployment and poverty. Furthermore, as Elaine Tyler May argues in
Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era, suburbanites
had to face the realities of Cold War America, with its own unique ways of
trapping individuals into rigid patterns and systems of behavior. Linked
concerns over nuclear annihilation and domestic subversion by Soviet inspired deviants led to an increasingly conformist culture that stymied
[ 125 ]
personal expression by reifying the nuclear family, narrowing the denition of gender roles, and upholding the role of government and business
over that of the individual. Confronted with these cultural imperatives
Americans were expected to conform or face the consequences.
Those consequences proved harsh for Siegel and Shuster. Upon returning from serving his country in World War II, Jerry Siegel found that
DC Comics had, in his estimation, all but hijacked Superman as well as
several other characters and concepts. Joined by a reluctant Shuster, whose
deteriorating eyesight was making it increasingly difcult for him to make
a living as an artist, Siegel sued DC Comics for control over the character.
Legally and nancially outgunned by the company, Siegel and Shuster lost
their court battle, which meant that they would never capitalize on the
millions of dollars generated by their creation and that they would eventually fade into obscurity. Although Superman embodied his creators desire to transform (or perhaps deny) the uncaring and dehumanizing aspects of capitalistic business and nance, the realities of these systems
ultimately caught up with them and destroyed their careers. Both would
have died as penniless nonentities if not for the efforts of fellow creators
and fans who organized more than thirty years later, pressuring DC Comics to grant them recognition and a modest stipend to carry them through
their nal years.
Most readers of superhero comic books, however, experienced the dislocations of American modernity more subtly that Siegel and Shuster. Mostly
suburban male youths, these readers felt stied by the conformity of Cold
War America. Many of them found the unwavering insistence on productivity and professionalism morally and spiritually unsatisfying, the rigidity
of the nuclear family oppressive, the high culture of educational institutions
stagnant, and much of the mass culture bombarding them through television mind-numbing. Superhero fanzine writers from the period evidence
this fact, often railing against what they refer to as the normal, typical,
All-American moron mentality and express concerns about a tired, weary
world of grown-ups, rife with ulcer-ridden businessmen and terrifying
news about war casualties, or the testing of more powerful annihilation
weapons (Gambaccini Listen; Kyle; Decklinger). One fan articulated
these sentiments most strikingly when he wrote that his know-it-all
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ALDO J. REGALADO
parents, created a world for him to revolt against (Glassman). Consequently, fans such as these searched the world around them for alternate
avenues for self-expression and they found one through comics. More accurately, they used superhero comic books as a vehicle for reinventing both
community and the self.
Comic book fandom stands as the most extreme expression of these
acts of reinvention. Starting in the mid-1960s readers of superhero comic
books began talking with one another through the letter columns that
appeared as regular features of their favorite superhero magazines, and
since comic book publishers included return addresses for their respondents, many fans began corresponding directly with one another. These
initially unorganized relationships rapidly grew into full-blown fan communities. These fan communities pulled together largely male audiences
of varying ages without regard for the physical and cultural boundaries of
the suburban family. Collectively, these fans produced a great deal of material, including artwork, ction, historical articles, and biography, most
of which appeared in self-published fanzines, which were then circulated
to the community more broadly. They created ofcer-led fan associations,
staged their own conventions, instituted their own awards ceremonies,
and otherwise honed their professional, creative, and interpersonal skills.
Comic book fans, therefore, had a work ethic, but organized as they were
around the amboyant, fantastic, and nonsensical characters appearing in
so-called four-color comics, their productive activities presented playful
challenges to an ofcial culture that looked askew at both homosocial interaction and unproductive leisure activity. Even Frederic Wertham, the selfproclaimed leader of the 1950s anti-comics crusade, observed in his The
World of Fanzines: A Special Forum of Communication that fanzines were
a vivid and vital medium for the interchange of thoughts and opinions
and that they showed a combination of independence and responsibility
not easily found elsewhere in our culture. Fanzines, he continued, carried
the potential to counter the noise and haste of modern society, which
had the tendency to reduce people to statistics, and which made for
the slipshod, the shallow and the mechanical.
The triumph of fandom over Americas ofcial culture, however,
was about as partial as Supermans victory over the oppressive power of
modern systems. Despite their sometimes deant tone, fan publications
[ 127 ]
also reveal the marginality and loneliness that often results from the outright rejection of mainstream values. Aware that most Americans were either condescending or just plain mean when it came to characterizing
fandom, many fans began to internalize mainstream perceptions (Gambaccini Listen). One fanzine writer felt the need to assert that while he
collected comic books, he still had a regular life, which included golf, a
genuine-type Italian-grandmother and a love for pizza, lasagna, and spaghetti, as well as riding his bicycle, reading respectable literature, and listening to music, violin concertos, piano, Ferrante, Teicher, Roy Orbison,
Peter-Paul-and-Mary, Leonard Bernstein, the Beatles, and the Staples High
School Choir (Gambaccini Teenage). Another fan admitted to his fellows his belief that comics are childish insults to the intelligence, the
majority of which are written for a mental age of fourteen and under,
while another stated that the main thing wrong with comics is that they
are a mass media, and hence subject to the same faults that plague television, radio, movies, popular books, and popular music. That is, they
do not call upon the reader/listener/viewers intelligence, but rather on
a persons ability to sit in front of the television watching Gilligans Island (Kuhfeld; Weingroff ). However, rather than abandon fandom and
the genre that spawned it, most of these fans remained participants, thus
contending with the lonely reality that their pastime, and to some extent
their values and their sense of self, were somehow marginal and shameful
as far as mainstream America was concerned.
Most superhero movies ignore these fundamental elements of loneliness and despair, which serve as important cornerstones for both the superhero genre and superhero fandom. Instead, their makers understandably
choose to perpetuate the escapist fantasies and optimistic mythologies of
American heroic individualism, which continue to generate millions for
the business interests traditionally involved in producing superhero ction. M. Night Shyamalan, however, put the more despairing undercurrents
of fandom and superhero ction at the center of Unbreakable, which becomes evident upon considering the similarities between Shyamalans lm
and the Shuster and Siegels original Reign of the Super-Man.
Although Shyamalan has never, to my knowledge, specically cited Reign
of the Super-Man as a source, the parallels are striking enough to suggest
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ALDO J. REGALADO
that he read and was directly inspired by the short story. Most of the similarities lie in the general lineaments of Shyamalans main characters, protagonist David Dunne and antagonist Elijah Price, as well as in the general
tone of the movie. David Dunne, of course, carries a surname strikingly
close to that of Siegels Bill Dunn. He also bears a striking physical resemblance to Siegels character, as Bruce Williss shaved pate and shambling demeanor in the movie compare pretty closely to the more serene
portrayals of Bill Dunn that Shuster provided for Siegels original narrative. Mostly, however, David Dunne is, like his 1930s counterpart, trapped
by modern systems that keep him from achieving personal spiritual fulllment.
These systems are, however, different for David Dunne than they are
for Bill Dunn. Whereas Bill Dunn is trapped by the privations caused by
capitalism in the throes of possible collapse, David Dunne is trapped by
the realities of a stable modern capitalism, with social mores rmly locked
in place. In this sense, David Dunnes angst is far more akin to the angst
faced by the rst generation of organized comic book fans than by the rst
generation of comic book creators. Indeed, David Dunn is doing everything that baby boomers were told to do in order to secure happiness for
themselves and their families. A hard worker, David dutifully engages his
9-to-5 job as a security ofcer at a local sports stadium in an attempt to
provide for his wife and child. Hardly a maverick, he observes the rules of
the workplace and of the home, suppressing any acts that might transgress
social or domestic norms. For David, this suppression appears to be highly
gendered, manifesting as a crisis in masculinity.
This is most evident through his relationship with his wife, Audrey,
and his son, Joseph. Audrey, a physical therapist by profession, presents a
consistent indictment against aggressive, violent, and competitive acts, including sports, schoolyard ghts, and other activities that many would
consider typical of masculine behavior. She reveals as much while serving
as Elijah Prices physical therapist. My husband was a star athlete in college, she tells the antagonist. Our car ipped on an icy road, and we were
both injured, and he couldnt play football anymore. If that hadnt happened, she continues: we wouldnt have been together. I couldnt spend
my life with someone who played football, its pretty much that simple.
I dont hate the game. I admire the amount of skill it involved and, like
[ 129 ]
everyone else, I was in awe of the way he played it, but football in many
ways is the opposite of what I do. Youre rewarded the more you punish
your opponent, its too much about violence, and I dont want violence in
my life.
Davids relationship with Audrey, therefore, is based on Davids apparent inability to perform the type of masculine activity that is typically
celebrated in American culture. Furthermore, Audrey maintains a vigilant
eye on the ways in which this violent culture might intrude on her sons
life. She chastises David when Joseph, following his fathers advice, physically confronts bullies at school. She frowns upon her son playing sports
with his friends, and she adamantly forbids any further contact between
her son and Elijah Price when her son starts taking seriously the latters
talk of his father being a real-world manifestation of comic book superheroes. The fact that Joseph desperately yearns for his father to fulll societal denitions of heroic masculinity makes matters worse, and seems to
add strain to the stability of the Dunne family. Indeed, when we rst meet
them Audrey and David are on the verge of divorce.
The system that connes David Dunne, however, is far broader than
marriage or the traditional family. Indeed, towards the end of the lm it
is revealed through a ashback that due to his super powers David is more
than capable of pursuing his former career as a football star. Although he
and Audrey did suffer a car accident before their marriage, David emerged
from the wreckage unscathed. Rather than suffering a life-altering injury
he chose to feign one as a means of building a new life with Audrey. We
could explain this decision away as one motivated by true love, but such
a clichd answer does not play well when dealing with Shyamalans subtle,
nuanced, and well-conceived narratives. If such was the case, David could
have easily reafrmed his natural talents once his relationship with Audrey
began to wear thin.
A more plausible explanation is that David felt trapped even before he
met Audrey. Although highly successful, he too felt unfullled by the competitive lifestyle of professional sports. He remains true to this throughout
the movie. When his son insists that David could lick an up and coming football player who happens to be tossing the ball around with the
neighborhood kids, David appears genuinely uninterested. Entering into
a relationship with Audrey, therefore, was a willful turning away from the
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ALDO J. REGALADO
values of competitive aggression celebrated by professional sports. Given

his talents and the realities of the sports industry in America, Davids rejection of professional sports is also a rejection of great wealth, fame, and
material success. By rejecting sports, therefore, David turns away from the
type of success valued in Americas capitalist consumer culture, choosing
instead to live a simpler life, with a spouse who shares values similar to his
own. More comfortable with protecting than punishing his neighbor, he
enters into his modest career as a security guard.
Denying his natural talents, however, is not at all satisfying for David,
and we meet him at the beginning of the movie as a lost soul. In the moments before the train accident that reveals his powers of invulnerability,
we nd out that he is searching for a new job away from Philadelphia, and
that he is willing to consider marital indelity. As directed by Shyamalan
and acted by Bruce Willis, however, all of these options are contemplated
with a quiet desperation that seems to rule out self-fulllment of any sort.
Like Bill Dunn, therefore, David Dunne is rst seen by the audience stumbling through life, trying to escape the social and cultural forces that bind
him, blindly searching for viable avenues towards self-fulllment.
Whereas Bill Dunn nds his answers through the actions of the unscrupulous Professor Smalley, David Dunne is shepherded towards his answer by the equally unscrupulous, though far more thoughtfully developed, Elijah Price. Like Smalley, Elijah purports to be a man of science,
but while Smalley is a physical scientist, Elijah claims to be a social scientist, albeit an unorthodox one. Specically, Elijah is a successful collector of comic book art, who owns a gallery in the city where David lives.
For Elijah, however, superhero comic books are far more than a hobby, or
even an art form. Instead, he believes, that superhero comic books are a
last link to an ancient way of passing on history. The Egyptians drew on
walls. Countries all over the world still pass on knowledge through pictorial forms. I believe comics are a form of history that someone, somewhere
felt, or experienced. Then of course those experiences and that history got
chewed up by the commercial machine, got jazzed up, made titillating,
cartooned for the sale rack.
Superhero comic books for Elijah, therefore, are windows pointing towards historical wisdom and forgotten truths, and like Smalley he is ruthless in his search for a real world super-man. Reasoning that such a being
[ 131 ]
would be blessed with physical invulnerability, he arranges for a series of

catastrophic accidents resulting in the deaths of hundreds, hoping to
eventually nd that one survivor that would prove his theories correct.
Once he nds this being in David, he manipulates him into fullling the
role of the comic book hero.
Elijah, however, is not driven by mere scientic curiosity. Like Professor Smalley, his passion is fueled by a very personal need, albeit a more
psychologically nuanced one. Whereas Smalley craves absolute power and
world domination, Elijahs passion seems fueled by a desperate need to
establish legitimacy for the art form that helped him overcome his prodigious physical and social handicaps. Although Shyamalan never dwells
overtly on Elijahs ethnicity, the fact that he is an African American of
modest urban origins serves to underscore Elijahs marginal status. More
importantly, however, Elijah suffers from osteogenesis imperfecta, a genetic condition that renders his bones painfully fragile and subject to fracture at the slightest jostle or bump. As such, Elijah spent his early years terried of the outside world, and unwilling to leave the connes of his home.
His mother, however, helps him to overcome his fear by leaving a brightly
gift-wrapped box on a park bench across the street from their apartment.
Drawn to the gift, Elijah makes his way to the package and opens it to nd
a superhero comic book waiting for him. Noting his pleasure and wonderment, his mother promises him a continual supply of comics as long as he
continues to venture outside the home. And so it is that Elijah nds the
courage to survive, a marginal individual turning to a marginal subculture
as a means of navigating the contours of the world he faces.
In many ways it is Elijahs particular engagement with superhero comic
books, rather than the superhero story itself, that is the subject of Unbreakable. If Reign of the Super-Man imbues a mysterious meteoric substance with the potential to grant individuals with power enough to transgress oppressive systems and ideologies, Unbreakable does the same with
comic books. True, David Dunnes superpowers exist independently from
Elijahs comic books. In addition to physical invulnerability and an undetermined measure of enhanced physical strength, David is possessed of an
extrasensory perception that allows him to sense acts of evil, both past and
present, upon touching a guilty individual. Despite possessing these powers, however, David is paralyzed about what to do with them, and comics
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ALDO J. REGALADO
provide him with a satisfying framework for focusing his talents and needs
into action. Guided by Elijahs insanity, he dons the guise of a costumed
superhero and steps outside the connes of the systems and expectations
that so carefully order his life, saving two children from the clutches of a
serial murderer who has already killed the childrens parents. By doing so,
David employs his masculine prowess towards seless ends, driven by compassion and a desire to help and protect, rather than by competitive aggression. Only by doing so does David nd deeper spiritual fulllment, a fact
demonstrated in the last scene with the Dunne family, which shows them
happier and their relationships on the mend.
It should be noted, however, that Davids choice to become a real world
manifestation of the superhero does not prove Elijah right in any objective sense. Beyond existing, Davids powers are never convincingly tied to
any historical manifestation of the superhero by any empirical evidence.
Rather, Elijah seems to tailor his theories to the reality of Davids powers in order to make them work. When David nds that he is susceptible
to drowning, for instance, Elijah deftly employs the genre convention of a
Kryptonite susceptibility or an Achilles Heel to explain away this wrinkle
in his theory. Furthermore, David explores other plausible resources that
might have explained or focused his abilities just as easily. One such resource appears in a scene not shown in theaters, but included in the lms
DVD release. In this scene, David turns to a priest, searching for a divine
explanation for the miracle of his surviving the train wreck. Overcome
with his own crisis in faith, however, the priest responds negatively, thus
shutting off the possibility of David nding direction through the more
mainstream avenue of religion. Left without further recourse, David ultimately accepts the explanation offered by Elijah, and patterns himself accordingly.
Unbreakable, therefore, argues that superhero comic books (and, by
implication, mass media more broadly) are cultural productions that do
more than merely entertain audiences or reect cultural realities. Instead,
they are dynamic forms of cultural expression that individuals actively
employ to shape and give meaning to individual as well as social existence. Despite their presence on the sales rack they can serve the function of a temple, as they do for ultimate fans like Elijah. Their rendition
of masculinity can similarly serve to inspire lost souls such as David, who
[ 133 ]
searches for direction and transgression, or Joseph, who yearns for a male
role model. Furthermore, the lm suggests that the work performed by
comics is as varied as the truths that individuals imbue them with.
One critical mode evidenced by several of the characters in the lm
can be characterized by an attitude of dismissal, exemplied in the character of a nameless customer, who attempts to purchase an original piece
of artwork from Elijahs gallery. After patiently listening with passive disinterest to one of Elijahs lectures on the aesthetics of superhero comics,
the customer unintentionally offends Elijah by revealing that he hopes
to make a gift of the masterpiece to his four-year-old son. By relegating
superheroes to the realm of mere childrens ction, he allows them to y
under his critical radar and hence fails to even consider that they might be
culturally and socially signicant. By reducing Elijahs treasure to the level
of crass commercialism, the nameless customer also embodies the worldview that celebrates ownership and material possession over deeper spiritual signicance.
If the unnamed customer is critically dismissive of superhero ction,
there is evidence to suggest that Audrey might bear the genre some measure
of active hostility. Although she never addresses the issue directly and allows her son to play with superhero action gures, her feelings about violence are probably strong enough that she would reject superhero comics
were she to give them a moment of serious thought. This inference about
her probable inability to accept the superhero in concept is further reinforced by Davids decision to keep his heroic deeds a secret from her, despite the renewed intimacy of their relationship.
Shyamalan, therefore, allows that comic books legitimately serve all of
the above functions. As cartoons, they serve as juvenile ction, as collectibles; they enable conspicuous consumption. As violent adventure stories,
they make legitimate targets for all who reject such modes of behavior.
Overwhelmingly, however, Shyamalan is concerned with the ways in which
comic books enable individuals who desire to use them as a means of
transgressing the conning, oppressive, and atomizing aspects of modern
American society. Comic books in Unbreakable, therefore, emerge as cultural tools that present audiences with new alternatives, allowing them to
shape and reshape otherwise unsatisfying realities. In short, comic books
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ALDO J. REGALADO
are presented as one of many possible sets of building blocks for constructing or reconstructing identity.
Shyamalan, however, complicates his pro-comic-book argument in the
last scene of Unbreakable, when the now mended and purposeful David
Dunne shakes Elijah Prices hand, thus making physical contact with him
for the rst time in the lm. Triggering David Dunnes extrasensory powers, this act reveals Elijahs insane machinations and true motivations to
both David and the movie audience. Like David, Elijah too is questing for
his own place in the world, but the superhero comic books that shape his
worldview also tell him that he is ill suited to fulll the role of superhero.
With a skeletal structure as fragile as Davids is invulnerable, Elijah fails to
match up to the masculine physicality celebrated on the four-color page. It
stands to reason, therefore, that Elijah is the natural opposite of the superherothe supervillain. Finding David, therefore, is an act of rounding out
his own identity and nding his place in the world.
This last scene also asks us to consider other ways in which Elijah might
feel marginalized by superhero ction. Whether by accident or by design,
Shyamalans casting African American Samuel L. Jackson as Elijah Price
forces us to reect on the role that race might play in the lm, in real-world
superhero ction, in the minds of audiences, and in society more broadly.
Indeed, when creating the optimistic and exuberant character of Superman,
Siegel and Shuster were addressing the problems of race in America. Faced
with the realities of anti-Semitism, they created a new type of superhero
a non-Anglo-Saxon immigrant that transgressed the strict racial classications of late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century America to create
a more inclusive denition of whiteness based more strictly on phenotype
and allegiance to country, and less on biological or genetic purity. This new
white hero, however, still excluded Asians, Native Americans, and African
Americans, who were phenotypically precluded from passing for white,
and were often rendered as endishly monstrous villains by early comic
book artists.
While Shyamalan presents superhero ction as a potential vehicle for
social transgression, however, he does not present it as an all-terrain vehicle, capable of breaking all boundaries. Comic books themselves are
molded and shaped by the systems that produce them, in this case racially
[ 135 ]
constructed notions of American masculinity. The white heroes on the

comic book page offer the physically able and Caucasian David Dunn an
avenue for channeling his own life in constructive ways. While they also
channel Elijah Prices, they do so by telling him that he is marginal. Black,
disabled, fragile, intellectual, he is relegated to the level of the monstrous,
the evil, and the Other. For all their transgressive potential, therefore,
comic books in Unbreakable perpetuate the social, cultural, and psychological chains of race and gender inequities in America.
Given its intricacies and nuances Shyamalans Unbreakable is perhaps the
most clever and artful treatment of superheroes and comic books. Using
the medium of lm, Shyamalan is able to distance the iconic gure of the
superhero from the more familiar environs of the comic book page, and
through this distance explore and rediscover the essence of anxiety and despair for modern systems that created both the superhero and the fan culture that evolved around it. His lmic treatment simultaneously places the
superhero in both the realms of fantasy and the real world, examining the
connections between the two and the utility of ction to construct identity, to order social and cultural life, and to navigate modernity. Perhaps
more signicantly, however, he leaves us with questions regarding the possibilities and limitations of transgression through popular culture. While
entertaining the notion that despairing souls might always nd unlikely
avenues towards self-fulllment, the lms last moments poignantly deem
the cultural and social systems that limit our potential for transgression as
truly unbreakable.
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ALDO J. REGALADO
TEEN TRAJECTORIES IN
SPIDER-MAN AND GHOST WORLD
MARTIN FLANAGAN
The core ideological business of the teen coming of age narrative is to present spectators with a ction that hinges on a promise of transformation, the move from adolescent abjection to adult agency, as John
Stephens puts it (124). Reecting views that maturity is rst and foremost a social phenomenon and only secondarily a biological one (Hine
46), genres and subgenres representing or aimed at teen audiences are implicated in this social construction of maturity and the passage into adulthood. Many genres and texts play their part in the process by which young
consumers are placed within a limited range of options which have already been incorporated into the cultural hegemony (Brooks 2). Yet, many
contemporary teen texts formally incorporate discourses of critical, playful contempt for this project, blurring or qualifying their own complicity
in the production of normal adult identities and satirizing their own
cooptation within dominant, corporate worldviews. This heavily ironicized and self-reexive approach to the depiction of adolescent development seems to be disproportionately applied to the representation of teen
girls, with exemplary texts including Clueless (Amy Heckerling, 1995), The
Opposite of Sex (Don Roos, 1998) and Mean Girls (Mark S. Waters, 2004).
Male adolescent trajectories tend to be approached in a more formulaic
way, and are more easily resolved in the populist vein of teen movie culture that encompasses sports, college, and sex comedies such as Varsity
Blues (Brian Robbins, 1999), American Pie (Paul Weitz, 1999) and Road Trip
[ 137 ]
(Todd Phillips, 2000). Teen horror lms may represent a more radical and
complex case, although it is widely recognized that the development and
assertion of young female sexuality prompts societal anxiety in that particular genre (Clover; Linda Williams).
Recently, U.S. box ofce charts have been dominated by another subgenre that is centrally concerned with how the (usually male) adolescent
ego develops into a exible, mature, and socially viable adult identity:
the superhero narrative. Following a classic arc within American culture
where the attainment of agency is linked to the assumption of power, selfmastery, and the acceptance of a singular heroic destiny (most evocatively
seen in the Western genre), contemporary superhero lms view the process
of maturation as an emotionally and physically complex and dangerous
phase, yet one that must be surmounted if the heroes are to quell their own
chronic doubts about their place in the world, or resolve a diffuse identity. Texts in the recent cycle of comic adaptations, including Spider-Man
(Sam Raimi, 2002) and its sequel (2004), X-Men (Bryan Singer, 2000), X2
(Singer, 2003), Daredevil (Mark Steven Johnson, 2003), and on television,
Smallville (2001 ), as well as the Summer 2005 features Fantastic Four (Tim
Story, 2005) and Batman Begins (Chris Nolan, 2005), tend to skew towards
youth in one or both of two ways: rstly, via the provision of numerous
points of identication for teen viewers of both genders; and secondly,
in their marketing and demographic orientation. For example, the prominent inclusion in Daredevil of a song by the goth rock act Evanescence,
cross-marketed with the lm, helped to build the career of the band in
the U.K. While in the realm of comics fandom, age groups are demonstrably becoming more splintered and stratied, 1 the diverse audience sought
by comic book movies would seem to stretch from the very young to the
adult audiences apparently courted by Ang Lees self-consciously arty Hulk
(2003) and the R-rated Punisher (Jonathan Hensleigh, 2004). Most lms in
the cycle deliberately try not to exclude any sectors, if at all possible, which
obviously has implications for the degree to which violence, so integral a
part of the superhero world, can be graphically presented.
The narrative of growth and development embodied in the recent
wave of lms stands in contrast to the established adult hero archetype
featured in the popular texts of the previous wave of comic adaptations
Superman (Richard Donner, 1978), Batman (Tim Burton, 1989) and ABC-TVs
[ 138 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
Wonder Woman (197679)with the new lms appropriating the adolescent experience as a central symbolic motif. Even recent comic-inspired
narratives that do not explicitly feature teen characters are recognizably
preoccupied with issues of identity, belonging and ascension to the symbolic order or negotiation of Oedipal problems of succession, as in Hulk,
Daredevil, and Blade (Stephen Norrington, 1998). This chapter will examine the incorporation of the teen rite of passage narrative in SpiderMan, exploring its implications for the lms overall rhetoric of power and
destiny. As an instructive companion piece to this activity in the superhero subgenre I will consider the version of female adolescent passage presented in Ghost World (Terry Zwigoff, 2001). This lm, derived from a nonsuperhero underground comic by Daniel Clowes, and relatable in cinematic style to the culturally critical, postmodern slant of independent lmmakers like David Lynch, Richard Linklater, and Todd Solondz, bridges the
gap between the comic adaptation movie and the straight teen genre,
parodying and ironically citing the clichs of both the teen lm and the
more general narrative of heroic destiny found in mainstream Hollywood
productions and the modes of identication which they exploit. Although
markedly different in terms of approach, style and subgenre (Spider-Man
the blockbuster superhero adaptation, Ghost World the indie adaptation
of an underground comic), the two lms explored here each demonstrate
the intimate connection between comic narratives and the trajectory from
teenage to adulthood.
Both lms privilege their heroes nascent struggles with their own subjectivity and feature high school graduation as a key marker. Ultimately,
Peter Parker (Tobey Maguire) accepts his unique identity and destiny
and integrates into society as its servant and protector; conversely, Ghost
Worlds narrative sees Enid Coleslaw (Thora Birch) painfully recognize her
own lack of uniqueness and choose to leave society rather than conform
like her friends Seymour (Steve Buscemi) and Rebecca (Scarlett Johansson). Spider-Man thus appears to sincerely replay the popular comic trope
of the origin story, while Ghost World indicts the coming-of-age process, as familiarly shaped by movie and comic book wisdom, as yet another
form of interpellation within late capitalist commodity culture. Louis
Althussers concept of interpellationthe moment in which culture hails
us and, acting on our recognition as the subject of the hailing, inserts us
[ 139 ]
into its symbolic designwill be used intermittently throughout this essay in support of the notion (prevalent in Ghost World) that cultural choice
is illusory and that processes like growing up take place within ideological
bounds, despite societal attempts to camouage them as purely spiritual or
biological markers (Althusser 299303).
This divergence (Spider-Man as sincere origin tale, Ghost World as
ironic indictment of the typical routes into adulthood posited by pop culture) indicates ideological variations in the narrative and generic agendas of the two lms which the following discussion will seek to bring
out. However, despite emerging from different institutional backgrounds,
both lms operate in relation to received ideas about youth and adulthood that ultimately reinforce a familiar hierarchy of values, with teenage being associated with vulnerability and insecurity but also freedom
from responsibility, and adulthood representing compromise, sacrice of
individuality, and the attainment of deadening bourgeois respectability.
As a result, the way in which values of age and cultural positioning are
mobilized in the lms can appear problematic in relation to the distinction between projected audiences and real ones. Thus, Spider-Man, an early
summer, PG-13 blockbuster sporting tie-ins to burger chains and a ubiquitous line of child-oriented merchandising, nevertheless references the hallowed 1960s in crucial elements like production design, and by incorporating symbols and narrative devices that have become xed as standard
images of the American adolescent experience and which transparently
target their appeal beyond contemporary teens and children (for instance,
Peter appears to have no interest in contemporary fashion or music; although a science geek, he is not associated with computers; and his rival
for the affections of Mary Jane [Kirsten Dunst] is sports car-owning jock
Flash Thompson [Joe Manganiello]). Such elements, coupled with the inbuilt nostalgic popularity of the character across forty years of remediation in various forms of text (comic, syndicated newspaper strip, Saturday morning cartoon, live-action TV show), serve to underline the lms
sense of its own generational appeal, which stretches from the baby boomers (initial consumers of the early 1960s comics) onwards, through many
subsequent waves of fandom. In a similarly complex and perhaps compromised way, Ghost World stakes a position that purports to examine the
emotional turmoil of lower middle-class American females at the thresh[ 140 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
old of high school graduation no earlier than the 1990s, yet the author of
the adapted comic and the director of the lm are both middle-aged men
who would be classically dened as part of the boomer generation, while
the idiom of the text is strictly that of the postmodern arthouse movie familiar since at least the early 1980s.
The two lms, then, are instructive in terms of the contributions they
make to a recent stock of popular images of youth, as will be discussed
later; yet they have to be understood within a cultural context where such
images support an ideology of youthfulness that is a desired (and ruthlessly commodied) quality coveted by much older cultural consumers
and producers. This context, indeed, is synonymous with what Thomas
Frank has identied as the prevailing climate of American capitalism since
the 1960s, the decade when concepts associated with youthfulness came to
structure and dene the lexicon of consumerism, with youth itself transforming into an attractive consuming attitude, not an age (118). Clearly,
American movies are not exempt from such a blurring of age categories;
high concept blockbusters like Spider-Man, as stated above, address diverse audiences with their modular aesthetic (Smith 1213), while independent lm strives to establish itself as hip, clued-up, and irreverent by
appealing to a hierarchy of taste in which its values oppose those of the
blockbuster. In the complex process of what Sarah Thornton refers to as
the cultural organization of youth (5), care must be taken that mediated
versions of youth are recognized as symbolic rather than . . . material,
expressive of a market fantasy . . . rather than accounting for the ways in
which in the real world children still become adults (Frith 382).
Initially, it will be necessary to offer some general comments about the
archetype of the modern comic hero before moving on to look in detail at
the protagonists of the two lms, and at certain specic sequences which
foreground ideas of transformation, interpellation and identity.
A traditional function of American comics has been to express childhood
and teen anxieties, mirroring and processing the experiences of their adolescent readers; this was especially true of the pre-1980s superhero comics
sector, which blurred the lines of address between adult and child readers
far more than the sharply differentiated market of today. Commentators
such as Gerard Jones argue that, in their popular cultural representations
[ 141 ]
of teen traumas and identity issues, comics essay a social function that
works against conservative governmental and educational critiques of
their pernicious inuence (Jones passim). This function has tended to crystalize around issues of identication, leading to the development of heroes
like Bucky (young partner to Captain America) and Robin in the 1940s
and, later, the introduction of the likes of Johnny Storm and Iceman to
the Marvel universe. These teen characters would frequently be paired up
with older mentor gures (Captain America, Batman, Reed Richards, Professor X); others like Spider-Man would be forever dened in later life by
the truncation or disturbance of their Oedipal narratives.
Superheroes, whether in comics or movies, derive much of their power
from the sense of archetypicality that they project. Although there is undoubtedly a degree of variation within the classic DC/Marvel postwar
superhero, the archetype tends to split into two fairly distinct subtypes.
The rst is the all-powerful, omnipresent, invulnerable and often emotionally imperturbable hero (Superman is the iconic gure here, with other
examples including Marvels Thor, Silver Surfer, and The Vision). Like
Superman, orphan of Krypton, such heroes may harbor deep emotional
scars, but refuse to indulge their own losses so that they may better function as instruments of a natural, unquestionable justice. For these heroes,
secret identities are either magically secure (Superman) or unnecessary
(Silver Surfer, the latter day version of Thor); with affairs concerning identity rarely at issue, their stories do not particularly foreground elements of
melodrama or soap opera.
Conversely, tales featuring the second category of hero are often aligned
with those subgenres. This brand of hero, crystalized in Stan Lees 1960s
Marvel work (Spider-Man, Hulk, X-Men, the Thing) but indisputably
foreshadowed decades earlier in Bob Kanes Batman, tends to feature character traits of self-doubt, self-destructiveness, awareness of their own dark
side, and (in the Marvel characters especially) a profound sense of irony
regarding their own powers, or the perception of those gifts as a curse
or unbearable responsibility. Their adventures usually transpire in more
realistic and often squalid surroundings (Gotham City, Hells Kitchen)
and are interlaced with the heros domestic and emotional struggles with
family, relationships, secret identities, and money. They may shade towards
vigilantism and thus sometimes nd themselves ambiguously positioned
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MARTIN FLANAGAN
with regard to the law (Punisher, Batman) or even unjustly pursued by

the police (Spider-Man). Even more frequently, such characters motivations for donning their masked personas (or, in the case of the Hulk, their
expressions of internal rage) stem from traumatic episodes in their pasts:
the deaths of loved ones, whether parents (Daredevil, Batman, Ang Lees
version of the Hulk) or parent surrogates (Spider-Man) gure regularly.
This strand of awed, introspective, and sometimes outright antisocial
hero nds its apotheosis in the post-1980s wave of graphic novels and limited series that deconstruct/reconstruct classic origin tales or form new heroes via ironic reworkings of archetypal myths and characters.2
With heroes such as these, concerns with identity, purpose and the
heros place in the social fabric coalesce around an Oedipal narrative which
is an ubiquitous structural presence in the modern superhero mythos. This
is especially the case with the more neurotically awed outsider heroes
Spider-Man, the Hulk, and Daredevil, who were dened by their creators
within the terms of a continual clash with patriarchal order and authority.3
Foreshadowing the countercultural direction that superhero comics would
take later in the 1960s (for instance, in Dennis ONeil and Neal Adamss famous Green Lantern/Green Arrow run of 197072), this Oedipal trope allegorically worked through the struggle for recognition from a deeply suspicious establishment that the entire comics industry had faced with the
Wertham campaign of the 1950s.4 In their contemporary cinematic makeovers, Spider-Man and Daredevil trace the development of the heroic persona explicitly from their protagonists truncated Oedipal passages (the
death of Uncle Ben for Peter Parker; the death of Jack Murdock for Matt
Murdock). The death scene of Jack Murdock (David Keith) in Daredevil
could hardly make this point any more overtly. As the teenaged Matt stands
numbly by his fathers corpse, Ben Afeck in voiceover as the adult hero
opines: I waited outside the Olympic [theatre] for my father . . . in some
ways, Im still waiting. The sequence ends as the camera tilts up into the
night sky, briey revealing a billboard bearing a slogan that sums up the
symbolic power of this primal scene: What Legends are Made of. A comparable sequence is found in Spider-Man, and the scene occurs yet again, albeit with a matriarchal twist, in Hulk. X2 suspends its heroes in the struggle
for mutant hearts and minds between Charles Xaviers benign, nurturing patriarch and Magnetos rebelliously attractive bad father. Even the
[ 143 ]
vampire hunter Blade (Wesley Snipes), only tangentially superheroic (the

character originated in Marvels 1970s Tomb of Dracula), is marked by the
early disappearance of his mother and later experiences the apparent death
of a surrogate father gure (Blade, 1998).
The assumption of a superheroic destiny is inevitably marked as Oedipal, though it is not necessarily limited to an exclusively masculine trajectory; nevertheless, in recent adaptations only Elektra (Jennifer Garner) in
Daredevil stands out as taking virtually the same route to a heroic identity as her male counterparts. However, the development of the characters of Rogue (Anna Paquin) and Jean Grey (Famke Janssen) in the X-Men
movies strongly foregrounds issues of identity and power; excessively instinctual and powerful abilities that severely test the heroines self-control
are associated with both gures. The X lms themselves notably incorporate soap opera/teen movie dynamics, especially in terms of the emotional triangle that is set up involving Wolverine (Hugh Jackman), Jean
Grey, and Cyclops (James Marsden), and the budding but physically awkward romance between the teenaged pair Rogue and Iceman (Shawn Ashmore). Indeed, although her character falls beyond the scope of the present essay, Rogue stands as a paradigmatic example of the gure of the
scarily powerful and emotional teen that will be discussed shortly. Moreover, in her detachment from (biological) family, profound sense of herself
as a mist, and her opportunistic attraction to Wolverine, an older mentor gure who seems to share her nonconformist worldview, Rogue makes
an interestingly close parallel to Enid in Ghost World. Perhaps Rogue is the
kind of superhero that Enid imagines herself being when she dons a Catwoman-style leather mask, purchased in a local adult store, to amuse and
gross out Rebecca (an episode that is the most explicit reference to superhero culture in Zwigoff s lm).
If superhero comics and their associated lms see the involuntary loss
of ones parents as a singularly traumatic and inuential event, purposeful abandonment by ones parents is also seen to have severe repercussions
on the development of the protagonist. This is the case in the darkly comic
opening scenes of Batman Returns (1992), when a penguin boy is washed
down the Gotham seweran event that justies the malcontent worldview of the Penguin (Danny DeVito), a villainous character nevertheless
seen sympathetically by Tim Burtons lm. Similarly, Enid in Ghost World
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MARTIN FLANAGAN
appears to have lost her mother (although the lm text does not specify
whether this is through death or parental break-up), resulting in a family
unit consisting of Enid and her well-meaning but utterly suburban and
conformist (unnamed) father (Bob Balaban). In the long-running SpiderMan comic mythology, Peters parents Richard and Mary died as secret
agents [ . . . ] in the service of America (Fingeroth 73), although this sensational element of the origin story is usually downplayed to strengthen
the orphan angle (and is completely absent from Raimis lms, perhaps in
deference to the most widely remembered incarnations of the hero from
Saturday morning cartoons and newspaper strips).
Adventure and superhero comics paradigmatically deal with the orientation of the hero towards and within their world; although frequently
displaced by fantasy/genre landscapes, a violent, harsh environment is more
or less a given, especially in the Marvel comics tradition. What is notable
about these worlds is that often, the young defenders of society are simultaneously the victims of some of its blackest deeds and betrayals; the young
hero lls the roles of persecuted, savior, and threat all at once. This tendency explains the longevity of the device of the secret identity and is used
to justify various narratives that deal with the assumption of new identities, new heroic guises, or the temporary rejection of the hero identity; the
latter plot is seen in both Superman II (Richard Lester, 1981) and SpiderMan 2. For the post-1960s breed of superhero, identity is a puzzle, various
mad paternal interlopers block succession, and the society one ghts for
quite often reacts with hostility to displays of power. Comics, like their associated lm subgenres of action-adventure and melodrama, focus the social universes they depict through the prism of the emotional subjectivities
and struggles for self hood of their protagonists. For all its clear generic differences, Ghost World employs this method as much as does the more obviously individualist Spider-Man, to the dismay of commentators like Henry
A. Giroux, who bemoan the former lms resulting lack of historical, political and social perspective (299).
Comics have long had the capacity to harness a powerful repertoire of images around adolescence, growth and the assumption of responsibility in
a form that communicates with and reassures a juvenile readership but
also, crucially, addresses other audience sectors with an investment in how
[ 145 ]
cultural representations of youth and growing up are organized. Clearly

the factor of adult readers problematizses the notion that superhero comics speak in a perpetual present tense to an exclusive audience of the young.
Bradford W. Wright notes that the biggest commercial challenge facing the
comics industry in the 1990s was to secure its traditional youth-focused
role within a glutted [popular cultural] market for adolescent obsessions
(284). Specialist television channels, pop music genres, computer games
and other media had all successfully styled their products around an intimate connection with youth and adolescence. Yet Wrights observation
of the struggle facing comic book publishers (partly allayed by successful
exercises in synergy like the proliferation of superhero movies since the
late 1990s) is merely a symptom of a wider phenomenon whereby notions
equating youthfulness with hip appeal and acceptable taste have become
embedded in the consuming mindset of the American bourgeoisie. This
is a scenario in which apparent moments of youth-driven social upheaval
such as the 1960s counterculture may be more accurately understood as
a stage in the development of the values of the American middle class, a
colorful installment in the twentieth century drama of consumer subjectivity (Frank 29). To understand the broad cultural narrative of American
youth since the 1960sa narrative that is vividly illustrated in superhero
fantasies of dangerous and exhilaratingly powerful young peopleis to
grasp the dissociation of youth as a cultural value from the descriptive
function of youth as a category of human biological development (Frith
38032).
The veneration of youth as a desirable position within culture, identied by Thomas Frank in such loaded moments as Madison Avenues creation of the Pepsi Generation in the 1960s (16883), inevitably impacts
upon studies of the reception of comics and their associated lm adaptations, especially as the latter tend to manipulate their narratives and
marketing around an ambiguous address that knowingly blurs age lines.
Indeed, this wide but stratied appeal is a major catalytic reason for Hollywood studios considerable recent investment in comic book properties;
such knowledge helps studios to develop summer tent-pole releases like
Spider-Man, X-Men, and Fantastic Four that will zone in on desirable audience demographics (those prone to repeat viewings and merchandise
purchase). In the case of Spider-Man, the lms efcient cross-age tar[ 146 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
geting was highlighted by a mini-drama around classication that also

earned the lm free publicity. IMDB reported that concerns were raised
among educationalists that the PG-13-rated lm may trigger anxiety and
stress in younger children, with the expert views cited implicitly connecting the movies New York setting to the reception of images of September
11 (Anon). In the U.K., hesitation around the appropriate classication of
the lm centered on its depiction of physical violence and eventually led
to the introduction of the brand new classication 12A, which permits
youngsters below the age of twelve to view the lm if accompanied by an
adult. Such blurring of audience address across age lines, as witnessed in
the release of Spider-Man, inevitably feeds into superheroic movie narratives themselves, resurfacing via signiers and references that activate
the nostalgic imaginations of different generations at different moments
in the lms reception. For instance, Spider-Man, released in 2002, subtly
downplays references to contemporaneity in its mise-en-scne. Settings
like Peters high school and Aunt Mays home in Queens seem designed to
resemble classic 1960s Steve Ditko artwork (Ditko being one of the visual
stylists to embody the so-called Silver Age of superhero comics).5 This
stylistic choice serves to anchor the narrative in a register of sincerity that
holds at bay more modern ironic tendencies, both in teen lms and their
viewers; yet, at the same time, it undeniably essays a crucial thematic function, situating the present of the narrative some time before the worldchanging events of 9/11, even as the lms discourse of heroism places it
squarely in a post-9/11 world. Furthermore, by depicting Spideys initial
battles with the Green Goblin (and restagingin a less tragic versionthe
classic Gwen Stacy hostage scenario, seen in the comics in 1973), the lm
knowingly circumvents three decades of subsequent comic continuity to
reect a version of the character guaranteed to push the buttons of boomer
audiences, effectively placing Spider-Man squarely in a Silver Age time
capsule.
Turning the clock back in this way plucks Spider-Man out of contemporary social engagement and inevitably dilutes the lms ostensible representation of early twenty-rst-century adolescence, but is undoubtedly
a smart move in terms of cross-generational appeal (and more generally
in supporting Raimis rather quaintly classical design for the lm, which
cuts against certain preconceptions of contemporary spectacle cinema as
[ 147 ]
obsessively courting youth audiences via the oft-noted utilization of an

MTV aesthetic). Despite their various Oedipal wrangles, the principal
teen characters in Spider-Man (Peter, Mary Jane, and Harry Osborn [James
Franco]) conform to their Silver Age and newspaper strip precursors,
and do not display traits of savagely defensive cynicism and highly coded,
ironic inscrutability to adult eyes, much less engage in the kind of sexual
and narcotic activities of recent teen shock lms like Kids (Larry Clark,
1995) and Thirteen (Catherine Hardwicke, 2003). The qualities of despair,
ennui, and resistance (Giroux 291) lacking in Spider-Mans oddly sincere
and stoic teens are precisely those qualities that Ghost World celebrates in
its teen protagonists, Enid and Rebecca.
According to Thomas Hine, American culture encourages individuals
to be heroes of their own lives (55). Implicit in this notion is the forging
of ones own will and destiny, and the ultimate recognition of ones self as
unique and powerful that is so often rehearsed in superhero narratives both
in print and cinema.6 Spider-Man, more than Ghost Worldfor obvious generic reasonsemphasizes the problem of violence in the contemporary
world and posits as its solution the post-9/11 need for seless heroism and
community spirit (both Spidey installments include scenes dedicated to revealing the heros sense of connection to ordinary New Yorkers). The narrative consequently crystalizes around the familiar problem of rising to a heroic destiny, conforming utterly to classic superhero stories. This problem
is presented in terms of the dilemma of identity choice for Peter Parker,
who begins his voiceover with the question, Who am I? The rest of the
lm narrates Peters metamorphosis from this point of confusion until he
answers his own question with his closing statement of unique identity
(Im Spider-Man). Generically, the lm seems restricted to a presentation of teens that leans heavily towards the traditional Hollywood narrative that chronicles teenage rebellion as part of a rite of passage towards a
deeper understanding of what it means to join adult society (Giroux 297).
Hewing closely to the comic book source material (although dropping, as
we have seen, any reference to Peters parents), the movie privileges the idea
of self-creation, of the young hero exploiting his newly acquired powers
towards an end of forming a more powerful identity than the one dealt to
him by everyday life (in an enjoyable montage sequence, we see Peters inherent creativity and imagination infused and activated by his new powers
[ 148 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
as he literally designs the Spider-Man identity through working on ideas

for a costume). Ex-Marvel editor Danny Fingeroth discusses how superhero tales frequently incorporate the magical allure of making ones own
destiny; the orphan status so often conferred as a precondition of superheroic identity has a fantasy glamour all of its own, that of the identity as
tabula rasa (6971). Uncertainty about ones origins can be unsettling but
leaves a loophole free so that the protagonist of the ction may discover
some distinguished secret of their birth later on (the revelation of Supermans earthbound powers, for instance, or the fact that one is predestined
to be the worlds champion vampire slayer as in Buffy or Blade). Peter is
already seen to be withdrawing from the faintly embarrassing presence of
his aging guardians May (Rosemary Harris) and Ben (Cliff Robertson),
as is shown in his disregard for Bens advice during their nal conversation outside the library; Bens death shortly after brings home to Peter that
such fantasies of independence, while a natural part of growing up, hold
the secret to the devastating truth of adult responsibility: that of ones essential moral aloneness.
Although their embedded nostalgia arguably qualies their direct relationship to contemporary society, comic book adaptations like Spider-Man
nevertheless can be seen to develop their discourses on youth in a way that
takes advantage of comics reputation for engaging with debates around
childhood and adolescence in the wider social arena. According to Giroux,
comic-derived narratives at their best can serve as a form of public pedagogy for the airing of political questions to do with teen resistance and
the entrapment of identity-forming processes within a late capitalist, relentlessly privatized model of social experience (293). This intervention of
comic-related material in the public sphere of debate around youth identities and the health of the American body politic explicitly situates both
Ghost World and Spider-Man in relation to several youth-focused obsessions informing cultural discourse since the millennium (Columbine, September 11, pedophilia, the internet, and the rights of children in a globalized world among them).
One strand shared by Spider-Man and Ghost World is the conceit of
the irresponsible adult preying on the vulnerable teenager, although Peter
Parkers battle with the Green Goblin/Norman Osborn (Willem Dafoe) is
[ 149 ]
a rather more clear-cut case than the consensual but somehow sad sexual
encounter between the middle-aged Seymour and Enid (rather than Seymour in particular, it is the adult world/symbolic order in general that
plunges Enid into victim status). Spider-Man more obviously engages with
another powerful theme that resonates with many other recent popular
representations: that of the teen who possesses extraordinary power or
talent, yet lacks the mature capacity to channel and control that power
for the common good (and thus must either achieve agency by conforming to adult values, or remain a mysterious, abject threat). Such a representational trend highlights the child/teenager as a site of great anxiety
within culture, a generalized fear gauged by Giroux in his citation of a
Florida congressmans statement that contemporary youth are the most
dangerous criminals on the face of the earth (McCollum qtd. in Giroux
284). Subtly varied treatments of this trope of the powerful, uncontrollable
teenager can be found in a number of horror or fantasy narratives of the
last two decades, including The Lost Boys (Joel Schumacher, 1987), Akira
(Katsuhiro Otomo, 1988), Edward Scissorhands (Tim Burton, 1991), Battle
Royale (Fukasaku Kinji, 2000), Donnie Darko (Richard Kelly, 2002) and, on
television, Smallville and Buffy the Vampire Slayer (19972003). The same
theme is explicitly articulated as a social problem in more conventional
dramatic genres such as Dangerous Minds (John N. Smith, 1995), Kids, Elephant, (Gus Van Sant, 2003), and elsewhere rendered as comedy, both light
(Sabrina the Teenage Witch, 19962003; Malcolm in the Middle 2000 )
and black in form (Heathers, Michael Lehmann, 1988; Election, Alexander
Payne, 1999). Defying easy generic classication but inhabiting an arthouse
idiom similar to Ghost World is The Virgin Suicides (Soa Coppola, 1999),
a tragic, ironic tale of arrested adolescence, featuring teen icon and SpiderMan co-star, Kirsten Dunst. In Coppolas lm, young female sexuality is a
source of huge power and mystery, but one that is misdirected by parental
interference into another layer of repression.
A symbolic repertoire of teen resistance, adventure, violence, and (frequently) rage that cannot be regulated or completely allied to Girouxs
traditional Hollywood rite of passage narrative can appear as a threat to
conservative norms. What is at stake in contestations of such violent fantasy representations as Buffy, X-Men, and others is their debatable value as
models of empowerment; as Gerard Jones puts it, [e]ducators and cultural
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MARTIN FLANAGAN
commentators have been saying for decades that girls need more media
role models of power and heroism, and those models have nally arrived.
But, as usual, youth culture refuses to follow the patterns that adults wish it
would (152). In many of the above cited texts, the condition of adolescence
(in both genders) is associated with uncommon power, hypersensitivity,
insanity, sociopathic tendencies, violence, or death. Such an ambiguous (at
best) understanding of children and teens in the public imagination has
recently supported the imposition of a kind of martial law (Cassidy qtd.
in Giroux 286) through numerous forms of surveillance on the young. At
a time when American public schools resemble prisons and hysterical discourses about teen (female) gangs, incendiary computer games, hooded
clothing, and Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) preoccupy British
newspapers, the prevalence in popular lm and TV of powerful, alternately
heroic and threatening teens and older children can hardly fail to be noted.
In the U.K., recent governmental policies, such as the introduction of the
Anti-Social Behaviour Bill, respond to a series of popular anxieties around
youth culture; an overview is provided by Casciani. British television has
reected recent anxious discourses on the behavior of children by commissioning several programs, all more or less in reality formats (with the
attendant implications of surveillance that go with such formats), such as
BBCs Little Angels (2003 ) and Who Rules the Roost? (2004 ), and Channel 4s Supernanny (2004 ).
In terms of how this nebulous cultural anxiety has gelled into a representational pattern, a useful critical model has been articulated by John
Stephens, who surveys a number of teen narratives from the late 1990s
in terms of the journeys taken by their protagonists from a state of abjection to one of subjective agency. The overcoming of abjection and social marginalization is clearly the project achieved by a narrative like that
of Spider-Man, which shows Peter Parker developing a sense of subjective
agency that transcends the lesser potentiality of childhood to [achieve]
the greater potentiality of adulthood (Stephens 124). As with related teen
hero texts such as Smallville, this inscription of adolescence adumbrates
the lms presentation of an archetypal narrative that idealistically and
attractively frames youthful insurrection and confusion, while inevitably
straightening these impulses out in due course. In this way, Spider-Man replays the appealing notion of permitted but limited rebellion written into
[ 151 ]
popular cultures post-1960s adoption of the image, if not the substance, of

a youth-led revolution against conformity (Frank 11718). This allows the
powerful teenagers function as a fearful fantasy gure to be kept in balance by its more overt role as a safe point of identication for diverse viewing inclinations and ages.
Unlike Spider-Man, the open-ended, multiply interpretable conclusion of Ghost World signals the intention of that lm to resist either placing its protagonist Enid into a secure, narratively familiar coming of age
trajectory, or to play into a cultural role of reassurance that problem teens
will turn out alright in the end. Indeed, although Rebecca does assimilate in the lm (holding down a job, nding an apartment and buying
into commodity culture), our sympathy seems inarguably directed towards Enid. The trauma of her (ideological) separation from Rebecca, and
the confusing sexual turn of her friendship with Seymour, leave her with
no other option than to simply disappear, an ending that politically may
seem unsatisfying but is consistent with the lms patient and careful development of her character. At the end of the lm, Enid has preserved her
friendship with Rebecca but, on the grounds of censorship, been turned
down for the arts college scholarship that promised her a different future.
Seemingly unable to accept the new life of compromise that Rebecca has
reluctantly embraced, the nal scenes show Enid waiting at an apparently
discontinued bus stop, before the bus mysteriously turns up and takes Enid
away to an unknown destination.
The traditionalism in Spider-Mans narrative is arguably thrown into
relief by the radically de-romanticized ambience of world-weariness (Le
Cain) that permeates Ghost World. Where Spider-Man focuses on the trials of identity choice, Zwigoff s lm presents cultural choice, and the pressure to assimilate within the middle-class mainstream, as the emblematic
obstacle in Enids negotiation of the transition from youth to adult. Her
transformation challenges her idea of herself as a unique arbiter of taste
and opponent of vapid dominant culture. Ghost World purports to look
askew at the impulse within American culture identied above by Thomas
Hine; indeed, Enid builds her personality around her position as a critic of
the kind of ersatz culture that inspires people to see themselves as heroic
(witheringly manifested in her comments about the debilitated graduation
ceremony speaker who delivers a banal homily on high school life: I liked
[ 152 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
her so much better when she was an alcoholic and drug addict). Enids
life is a constant struggle to prove her existence among the inhabitants of
an utterly conventional, blandly middle class world; for instance, in her art
class, her expressive and highly personal cartoons are initially overlooked
by her patronizingly liberal teacher in favor of the facile social commentary of a classmates work. In the incorporeal world of marginality and social invisibility that Rebecca and Enid inhabit, heroes are those whose oddness or seeming insanity trouble suburban, middle-class norms (such as
Norman, the old man who waits doggedly for a discontinued bus service,
or the eccentric wheelchair-bound quiz expert who is a regular at Rebeccas
place of work). Of course, this position of invisibility derives substantially
from the girls age, their in-between state (just out of high school, not yet
committed to college, work, or a stable romantic relationship) conferring a
position of liminality (Hine 4647).
Enid, more so than Rebecca, clearly chooses to haunt the margins; she
is not interested in being hero of her own lifebut the lm nevertheless shows us that she is trapped all the same. That Enid has the wit and
insight to see through the interpellatory structures of contemporary culture is repeatedly afrmed, but in steering our allegiance towards Enid,
the lm enforces a rather predictable hierarchy of value where her cynicism towards the mainstream replicates the lms own distaste for mass
cultures shallow and mechanical cooptation of that which can be intrinsically (and mysteriously) valued about pulp material like comics. This
view is developed in the ironic stance of the aforementioned Catwoman
scene, which nevertheless became one of the most widely reproduced images of Ghost World, thus incorporating the affectation of a position outside banal everyday culture into the lms self-appraisal of its own distinctive qualities.
For all Enids resistance to being positioned within a cultural landscape that she experiences as empty, facile, and, indeed, childlike, ultimately, and poignantly, she is powerless to transcend her own instinctual
attachment to her past and the rareed childhood from which she is taking leave. Signicantly, this dilemma is expressed in the form of Enids reaction to a product of mass culture that uncovers a treasured, and apparently authentic, memory. This is shown in a moving scene where Enid,
preparing to move in with Rebecca and commence her anonymous new
[ 153 ]
job at Computer Station, listens to a record by the 1950s child pop act
Patience and Prudence, obviously a much-loved childhood artifact for her.
The refrain, made more haunting by the childs voice singing, is worth
quoting in full:
A smile is something special
A ribbon something rare
So Ill be special and Ill be rare
With a smile and a ribbon in my hair
To be a girl they notice
Takes more than fancy dress
So Ill be special and Ill be rare
Ill be something beyond compare
Ill be noticed because I wear
A smile and a ribbon in my hair
The interpellatory promise of childhood for young females is adeptly
revealed in the lms teasing out of the underlying ideological message of
the song: to be noticed is to exist. The social order confers identity through
a fantasy of remaining rare and special. Although, in keeping with the
lms postmodern warping of cultural periods and Enids eccentric tastes,
Enid would be far too young to have experienced the success of the record
during its actual time of releasesuggesting that such valued totems of
culture are passed on, perhaps by Enids absent mother. It is notable that
Enid locates and plays the record while preparing for her dreaded new job,
arranged for her by Maxine (Teri Garr), an unwanted maternal interloper
who represents yet another force of normalcy in relation to Enid. Enid is at
once nostalgically, romantically devoted to the records promise and acutely
aware of the sheer emptiness of that promise; the song reiterates her consciousness that high school, which is now behind her, represented the very
last moment where she could entertain a fantasy of her own uniqueness,
through the cultural and verbal amour that she and Rebecca constructed
around themselves. This realization proves to Enid that she cannot hold
down a job at Computer Station and set up house with Rebecca in a totally
average neighborhood without sacricing some part of herself; oblivion,
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MARTIN FLANAGAN
via a bus ride to nowhere, is preferable. Where Peter Parker takes up his
Althusserian hailing by society without question, framed as it is by the
familial and moral exigencies of the superhero, Enid recognizes that to be
herself she must refuse to take up her allotted position; to embrace normality would be no more permanent and true to herself than her eeting
and unsuccessful experimentation with punk style earlier in the lm.
That a dening scene such as this should unfold with Enid alone in
her room is unsurprising; the liminal, threshold status of the bedroom as
a place for experiment and the practicing of adult identities is recurrently
depicted in recent lms that feature teen characters negotiating the process of maturation, especially where the world in question is a middle class
or suburban one.7 In American Beauty (Sam Mendes, 1999), Thora Birch
Ghost Worlds Enidplays Jane Burnham, exploring escape routes from
suburban conformity with her stereotypically drawn sensitive boyfriend
Ricky (Wes Bentley). The Ice Storm (Ang Lee, 1997)a text that explicitly cites superhero comics as a mirror for adolescent experiencestages
scenes of sexual awakening and drug-taking in adolescent bedrooms (with
a cast that includes actors such as Tobey Maguire, Christina Ricci, Elijah
Wood, Katie Holmes, and David Krumholtz, all of whom have featured
prominently in Hollywood teen lms). That lm shares Ghost Worlds taste
for representing America as a oating landscape of peculiar anonymity.
In Ghost World, the only space that does not seem at, empty and grim
(Zwigoff qtd. in Said 22) is Enids sacred bedroom. The colorful, richly
cluttered mise-en-scne employed there[y]ou can almost smell the
mouldering Doc Martens and cheap green hair dye (Said 22)is in stark
contrast to other interior spaces where Enid, Rebecca, and their friend Josh
(Brad Renfro) hang out: diners, convenience stores, and multiplexes, rendered in shallow focus with longer lenses to emphasize atness and rob the
image of texture. This visual regime emphasizes the perverse pull that the
security of childhood and familiarity exerts on Enid; although her ultrasardonic mode of humor and eccentric taste move her away from childhood and into mysterious adult spaces like the sex shop and Seymours
apartment, she pines for the simple pleasures and reassuring uniformity
of youth (God, just think, well never see Dennis again . . . its actually totally depressing, she comments sadly about a marginal schoolmate at the
graduation party).
[ 155 ]
Fig. 1. Teen bedrooms function in the texts as

symbolic spaces for the cultivation of new selves for
Peter Parker in Spider-Man . . .
Bedroom scenes in teen cinema are hugely important in setting up

the notion of the barriers that postpubertal emotional and sexual development erect between teenagers and their families or guardians; bedrooms
are places for cultivating new selves or retreating into comforting old ones.
The key sequence depicting Peter Parkers transformation into Spider-Man
occurs after Peter has returned to the sanctuary of his room, feeling ill and
disorientated after receiving a spider bite on the class eld trip. Mysteriously transpiring offscreen, as Peter succumbs to a bout of fever, his change
is represented in terms of the magical substitution of a strong, healthy
body for his previous unprepossessing physicality. Maguires buff body is
lingered over, and the sudden appearance of his new body in the mirror
surprises and delights Peter, who has to this moment been distrusted by
his conformist peers and dened by them solely in terms of intellect and
his inclination to geekdom. Yet, the ambiguity of Peters changethe fact
that only he can ethically choose how to use his power, and that this emotional maturity comes separately from the physical alterationis underscored by the fact that a parallel transformation (that of Norman Osborn
into the lunatic Green Goblin) is presented to us in place of the details
of Peters mostly offscreen change. Although teasingly presented, Peters
transformation is vitally important in Spider-Man, and in some ways his
true character only originates in this moment; Raimis mise-en-scne supports this. Peters bedroom has been dressed to appear just as cluttered as
Enids, yet the thin, generic quality of Parker as a science-inclined, geeky
male teen is encoded through predictable signiers: posters of Einstein and
alien invasion, models of the space shuttle (references that again conjure
cultural concerns that are evocative for older viewers). Such references lack
the studied cultural specicity of Enids Buzzcocks tapes and H. R. Pufn[ 156 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
Fig. 2. . . . or the retreat into

comforting old ones for Enid in Ghost
World.
stuf paraphernalia, perhaps supporting a reading that Spider-Man is the

dominant half of Peters identity as far as the narrative is concerned.
Although they are places of great physical and emotional change and
sometimes trauma,8 both Enid and Peter seem to feel safe in their bedrooms, a use of space that halts a marked development in 1990s teen movie
culture where the bedroom or parental home frequently becomes a site of
horror, attack, and invasion. Scenes of violence, abduction, or sexual threat
based around (overwhelmingly female) teens in domestic spaces are notable in True Lies (James Cameron, 1994), Fear (James Foley, 1996), Scream
(Wes Craven, 1996), Face/Off (John Woo, 1997), and Wild Things (John
McNaughton, 1998), among many others. Enid and Peter both move on
eventually, but at a certain cost; Peter moves to Manhattan, where a suspicious Norman Osborn almost immediately violates his new apartment,
and Enid leaves town. Ghost World shows us that, in the privacy of her
own room, if nowhere else, Enid feels in control of the play of identities
that characterizes this stage of life (clearly signaled through her grotesque
artistic enhancement of a magazine photograph of a boorish alpha-male
type). Yet, in Clowess original comic, it is Rebecca and not Enid that articulates the fear of change that looms over these texts: I dont want to go
anywhere or do anything . . . I just want it to be like it was in high school
(Clowes 74).
As a structurally simple yet thematically rich form of expression, the comic
book (and its associated movie adaptation) mines a repertoire of motifs
linked to growth, evolution, identity, and the achievement of what Stephens
terms subjective agency. Interestingly, the discourses circling around comic
[ 157 ]
books as a cultural commodity are similarly shot through with the language of change, identity, and development: fans are obsessed with continuity; the industry reviews distribution practices in line with changing
demographics of age;9 the comic format itself is considered by critics to
have achieved sophistication and complexityin other words, to have
come of agewith the emergence of the ostensibly more serious and literary graphic novel in the 1980s (Wright 273). Although, this common line
of argument risks reproducing earlier, conservative discourses used to attack the comic form and which contributed to the paradoxical position
whereby comics (particularly horror titles) were labeled as intellectually
juvenile, yet at the same time (according to opponents like Dr. Wertham),
unt for consumption by children, leaving them with an almost untouchable cultural status. This awkward position is enunciated by Warshow in
his assessment of the notoriously graphic E.C. comics, when he notes, almost with embarrassment, that the comics capacity to shock and appall
is directly equivalent to their ability to provide aesthetic stimulation and
thereby avoid the banality of other mass-circulated entertainments (67).
The overarching metaphor of growth thus pervades comics both as an internal textual theme and as part of a wider interpretive and critical vocabulary and, naturally, emerges as an important issue in relation to the recent
cycle of superhero and other comic adaptations for the cinema.
Like other teen subgenres, recent comic adaptations have addressed
concerns with youth culture and behavior from a perspective sympathetic
to the needs of adolescent viewers; however, a byproduct of this (and of
generic exigencies) has been to represent teens as dangerous, or at least unable to control their own powers and potential, thus feeding into the current anxieties of older generations about the uncontrollability and ruthlessness of modern kids. Within this compromised and ambiguous climate
of representation, and utilizing very different methods, Spider-Man and
Ghost World present alternate, optimistic and pessimistic versions of the
rite of passage that reect a particular crisis of the social (Giroux 290)
in contemporary culture; that is, the problem of forming a society where
a child will be able to nd [their] way in the world without being subject to its most oppressive practices (300). The traditional superhero narrative offers a character arc where the hero can reintegrate with society
and fulll their destiny, even if doubt, emotional turbulence and insecu[ 158 ]
MARTIN FLANAGAN
rity stay with them after they have taken up the hero mantle (which is very
much the case in Spider-Man 2). However, interpellation into the adult
world does not proceed as successfully with protagonists like Enid in Ghost
World, whose ideological condition is to remain outside of the culture that
identies, hails, and celebrates heroes; she maintains a position of criticism
and intransigence that eventually forces her to freeze her personal narrative at the crisis point of adolescence, rather than trade her nonconformist
stance in return for the illusory promise of a full social identity.
However, readings of the two lms under discussion must also acknowledge that the valueshistorical, culturalassociated with their divergent versions of growing up are ultimately qualied by the positions
taken by each text towards their own likely reception and status. In SpiderMans case, the lms mass appeal is designed with several audiences in
mind; those with a nostalgic familiarity with Peter Parkers ageless embodiment of troubled youth are directly addressed, anointing the movie
with a romantic Silver Age grace that nevertheless pulls it back from a
full engagement with contemporary social issues around young people. In
the case of Ghost World, the problematic of coming of age is knowingly
rendered as a cultural choice. Enids dropping out of a stultifying world
of normalcy, and her achievement of a literally impossible heroic journey
to the margins, underscores the lms idealized view of the teenager as
the pure guardian of antagonism towards banal, phony middle-class culture; ironically, this is a stance that itself reproduces the dynamic by which
the concept of an oppositional youth culture was appropriated and sold
back as a consuming attitude to Americans of all ages.
[ 159 ]
ITS A BIRD! ITS A PLANE!

NO, ITS DVD!
S U P E R M A N , S M A L LV I L L E , A N D
THE PRODUCTION (OF) MELODRAMA
Superman enjoys one of the largest intertextual franchises in the

history of popular culture, and is also one of the most insistently multimedia of icons. He is one of the few icons to have appeared in prolonged
radio, television, lm, and print narratives and has been consistently reimagined by almost every generation from the 1930s onwards (Banks,
Grossman, Alyn). Superman, in those various forms, has also proven a subject matter redolent with meaning and ripe for interpretation. This chapter takes as its focus just some of the constellated intertexts that currently
circulate around the Man of Steel and uses them to interrogate the concept
of genre in the comic book movie. The chapter uses a variety of production discourses, from advertising through to press releases and especially
DVD, to rethink the shifting relationship that Supermans stories have to
the genres of action and melodrama.
This approach differs somewhat from previous academic works on
Superman. Umberto Eco in the Myth of Superman analyzed Supermans
comic book narratives, nding him by denition the character whom
nothing can impede who nds himself in the worrisome narrative situation of being a hero without an adversary and therefore without the possibility of any development (110). Skipping forward just two years and one
media adaptation, however, this undeveloping character is viewed by Sarah
[ 160 ]
R. Kozloff quite differently. In Superman as Saviour: Christian Allegory in

the Superman Movies, Kozloff suggests that these movies reect a shift
in public attitude and that in fact these Superman texts connect with the
ideology of fundamental religious groups (82). Jumping forward again to
more recent work on the franchise, Miranda J. Banks reads Clark Kent in
Smallville as a new protagonist for the melodrama genre: beautiful, selfsacricing, yet resilient (Banks 18). Though Ecos points are well taken regarding Superman as a character, when considering Superman as a multimedia franchise, and critical interpretations of him, it would seem that
development and variety have been central to his longevity.
The variety within this academic work is a testament to the changing
roles the Superman icon has played through the decades, to his importance
to the different popular culture currents into which his narratives have
tapped. Moreover, the range of approaches taken to this superhero and his
texts indicates how versatile the Superman concept has been, with new
generations able to map economic, political, religious, mythic, and gender
discourses onto the structures of Superman. This much can be read from
the examples above. However, the mobile generic positioning of Superman
has by and large escaped critical attention,1 despite critical considerations
of him as a modernist hero (Kipniss) and as a male melodrama protagonist (Banks). Superman is usually absent from critical discussions on action adventure and melodrama in lm and television (Tasker, Action and
Adventure Cinema; Tasker, Spectacular Bodies; King).2 This chapter therefore seeks to unravel some of the complex generic codings of the franchise, in particular two of its most prominent recent incarnations. Taking
action and melodrama as touchstones for this argument, this chapter will
seek to uncover how genre has been created and recreated for Superman:
The Movie (1978) (and to a lesser extent its 1980 sequel Superman II) and
the recent media reinvention of Superman in the television series Smallville (2001 ).
The choice of these sets of texts may seem somewhat arbitrary on
the surface, separated as they are by over twenty years, different media,
and the points in Supermans life on which they choose to focus. However, the commonalities greatly outweigh their differences. These range
from the involvement of corporately branded companies (Warner Brothers Films and Warner Brothers Television) to production values (that of
[ 161 ]
the blockbuster lm and what might be termed blockbuster television) to

modes of production (with the rst two lms made back to back in a not
dissimilar fashion to episodic television productions) and through to their
unknown leads, use of past stars and reliance on special effects.3 It is not
difcult, therefore, to nd common ground from which to view these as
connected texts, sharing common traits on deeper levels than subject matter. Especially salient to this discussion is the way each of these sets of texts
has spawned its own intertextual network. Production information, played
out in various print media, abounded around the release of the Superman
lms while Smallville has become the central hub in a web of texts that
includes Internet sites, popular media coverage, and even its own comic
book. The ways in which each of these intertextual webs functions in relation to developing understandings of Supermans genres will form much
of the rst half of this discussion.
To focus on the intertextuality of Superman no longer runs contrary
to genre studies approaches to lm. Reception studies have become closely
linked with genre theory: Compare Barbara Klingers inuential approach
to melodrama (Melodrama and Meaning) with more recent work on genre
by Rick Altman (30). Altmans insistence on going back to industry discourse and examining the traces of the production event tallies closely
with Klingers historically specic contextual analyses of Douglas Sirks
lms. Similar multidiscursive work on television genre has been also advanced by Jason Mittell. Building on this lm and television work, this
chapter will similarly interrogate the construction of genre by focusing not
just on the messages in Superman: The Movie, nor by just looking at episodes of Smallville as self-contained texts. The production discourses will
be thrown wide open here to include media coverage of both sets of texts,
and it will incorporate crossover media like Smallvilles Internetcomic
bookDVD intertext, The Chloe Chronicles (based on the shows teen
investigative reporter, Chloe Sullivan), and the Superman lms repackaging and indeed generic reproduction on DVD in order to complicate notions of how and where genre can be read in relation to lm and television. This is not to confuse the differing meanings of genre to lm and
television, but merely to posit that as these two sets of texts share a central
mythic structure, they provide an instance in which to relationally explore the construction of generic meaning.
[ 162 ]
Casting a wide intertextual net allows for a rereading of the process

of gentrication, not just at a textual, historical or industrial level, but also
at a contextual, media-specic level. DVD plays a central role in this discussion. Making of documentaries and other DVD features, it will be
argued, have important roles to play in terms of genre. For, unlike other
superintending discourses (Klinger, Melodrama and Meaning xvi), such
DVD extras appear in roughly the same temporal and spatial location as
the text and act to add layers of nuance and meaning to it. In The DVD
Revolution, Aaron Barlow claims two important things about the DVD
Special Edition. First, he argues that it is a means of placing movies in
context, both that of the making and reaction after the fact (83). Second,
Barlow discusses how DVD works well with our ways of remembering
lms, and is certainly becoming the physical repository, in a sense, of those
memories (79). In these ways DVD offers us not just the opportunity to
reaccess lm and television post facto, but also to access our memories of
it and to have those memories reinscribed by the materials accompanying the text.
The argument here is therefore broken into two parts: the rst will
examine industry-inected discourses around Superman: The Movie and
Smallville on their initial releases, while the second will seek to show how
those discussions were expanded and altered on the release of DVDs for the
texts. Doing so should help to map shifts in dominant genres within the
superhero genre between the 1970s and contemporary period. This chapter will also seek to expand Barlows notions of the importance of DVD,
seeing it not just as a means of remembering and contextualizing lm and
television, but as a forum in which new narratives can be inserted, and new
meanings created.
Before launching into an assessment of contextual materials, it is important to rethink the way the terms action and melodrama are being
mobilized hereafter. Unlike studies of melodrama that interpret it as the
womans lm or soap opera (Gledhill; Jacobs; Kuhn; Landry), there are alternative theories that see an altogether more action-oriented history for
the genre (Neale, Melo Talk; Altman 7082). What these accounts suggest is that, historically, there was a sympathy shared by the action and
melodrama genres. This sympathy seems to have ruptured around the
rise of 1970s feminism and Reaganite politics in the 1980s. Action lms of
[ 163 ]
this period see the rise of hypermasculine bodies and heroes, with Arnold
Swarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone the most frequently cited actors, and
with female heroism, for example, Wonder Woman (19761979), appearing
mostly on television in narratives where heroic female acts were orchestrated by male characters. These lms and television programs tend to emphasize action-adventure, rather than melodrama, as the cause and effect
of narrative events although academic work has pointed out the lingering
traces of melodrama particularly within the lm texts (Tasker, Spectacular
Bodies). Subsequently, however, the rise of melodramatically motivated
television action series could be seen to auger a new generic shift. In Alias
(20012006), Buffy the Vampire Slayer (19972003), Xena: Warrior Princess
(19952001), The X-Files (19932002), and now Smallville, the feminized
version of melodrama (marked by chance happenings, missed meetings,
sudden conversions, last-minute rescues and revelations, deus ex machina
endings [Neale, Melodrama and Tears 6]) appears built into narrative
structures as the cause of action segments. In these ways, melodrama and
action, in television at least, have become intertwined once more.
The relationship between these melodramatic action lms and television series is especially problematic when the texts are inuenced by
comic books, a medium with connotations that have led industry practitioners to distance themselves from it. When promoting X-Men in 2000,
director Bryan Singer shied away from the category saying, Im making a sci- lm which is based on this comic book. I was not making a
comic book movie (Salisbury 51). With the subsequent massive successes
of numerous comic book movies including X-Men and X2 (2000, 2003),
Spider-Man and its sequel (2002, 2004), and the visibility of lms such
as Blade 2 (2002), The Punisher (2004), and Hulk (2003), the comic book
movie has regained some positive connotations. The renewed popularity of
the comic book movie genre has been compounded in some respects by the
large budget, slickly produced, comic bookderived television series developed in the wake of X-Mens success. Amongst them Smallville is prime (a
Batman derivation serial, Birds of Prey (20022003), and Mutant X (2001
2004) fared less well). Between the release of Superman: The Movie and the
debut of Smallville then, the industry, audiences, and those who mediate
between them have overseen shifts in the genre of the comic book movie.
These appear to range from action (with occasional melodrama) to a more
[ 164 ]
fully integrated form of melodramatic action. Moreover, the genre of the

comic book movie has once more taken on the prestige markers it was associated with after the release of Superman: The Movie. However, the links
between these genres have tended to be assumed, whereas in this chapter,
production discourses will be questioned to see what it is that the comic
book movie and television series mean to the industries that make them.
The origin text for Smallville is probably not the DC comic books starring
Superman, but Superman: The Movie, which starred Marlon Brando, Gene
Hackman, and Christopher Reeve. Reeve, along with co-stars Margot Kidder, Annette OToole (Superman III ), and the voice of Terrence Stamp (replacing Brando as Supermans father Jor-el, after playing the villainous
General Zod in the rst two Superman lms) have all made signicant appearances within the rst three seasons of Smallville. Moreover, the television series was carefully sold by playing with the clichs thrown up by
the original lms. Just as the texts speak to one another in a postmodern
mlange of attractions to audiences, so too do the discourses surrounding
these texts relate to one another. Beyond these knowing allusions, however,
understanding the importance of genre to the superhero narrative requires
an understanding of the sources of genre mediating the text. This study
will embrace the differences between trade, promotional, and critical discourses in order to better view them as part of a dialogue between the relevant industry, its critics, and their potential audiences (Altman 72).
To begin with Superman: The Movie, it is possible to read three layers or expanding circuits of extra-textual genrication. First is an interindustrial layer, involving the trade press and specialist journalism. Second
is a layer of advertising that, though discussed here in relation to the trade
press, saturated mainstream and specialist publications around Superman:
The Movies release. Finally, there is a critical layer, where the lm was assessed by journalists working in the mainstream presses. Within the rst
layer, press releases over the production period for Superman: The Movie
come from numerous industry locations including Shepperton and Pinewood Studios in England (although always signed by Gordon Arnell and
June Broom). Produced in the decade that saw the cultivation of the Bmovie Blockbuster like Jaws (1975) and Star Wars (1977), these documents
introduce two distinct (meta)generic issues: scale and special effects. One,
[ 165 ]
dated 25 March 1977, indicated how important size was by compiling numerical indices for Superman: The Movie: locations (8), weeks of shooting (30), speaking roles (100+), and height of Christopher Reeve (64).
(Arnell and Broom, 1977a) The sheer spectacle of the production itself
is grounded in these numbers, which in their fashion act as indicators of
quality and the epic grandeur of the lm to come. Similarly, a desire to
sell Superman: The Movie on its special effects can be read from this and
other examples. For instance, another release from later in 1977 proclaims
that the production team are now gearing up for a further ve months
of complex post production activity, concentrating on physical, optical,
and ying effects (Arnell and Broom, Superman Touches Down). The
range of activities and their complexity again seem aimed at focusing
discussion of the lm onto its technical elements and its spectacle, away
from issues of genre but perhaps toward measures of industrial legitimacy
(that is, this movie is huge, and will be a blockbuster). However, as the following examples will show, spectacle is now a commonly cited trait of the
comic book movie genre.
The Superman: The Movie advertising campaign placed similar emphasis on the aspects of the lm that could be sold as spectacle. The campaign is perhaps nowhere better recorded that in the pages of Variety.
From May 1977 through January 1979, Superman: The Movie was regularly featured in this trade publication. 11 May 1977, however, was a key
advertising date for Superman: The Movie. Functioning as a teaser campaign, early production images were provided as full-page advertisements
across eight pages of Variety (Superman Advertisements). The full-page
images began with the lms S logo on a black background accompanied by the legend Now Shooting, and the following page previewed one
of the Krypton sets. Here then, the visual brand of Superman: The Movie
is established, centering it on the comic book logo and futuristic, spectacular visuals. These advertisements were then followed by a series of
star headshots drawing attention to the brand qualities of star names and
images, with newcomer Christopher Reeve inserted only after images of
Brando and Hackman. As these progress, stars share pages, with Glenn
Ford (Jonathan Kent) and Ned Beatty (Otis) paired on the page following
Reeve. On simple black backgrounds and sporting the lms logo in the
bottom-right, these advertisements forge links between the text and per[ 166 ]
ceived quality and Method-acting names, big stars and screen legends of
the past. The teaser campaign, aimed at the lm industry, therefore helped
to forge links between the lms origins in comics, the process of adaptation (sets), and the cultural legitimacy of its performers, who included
stars of screen and stage.
However, as well as comprehensive and prestigious advertising campaigns run in May 1977 and January 1979, two other concurrent industry
narratives appear over the period.4 The rst is a series of what might be
called cross-promotional advertisements. For example, Pinewood Studios
put in a full-page article-interview with producer Ilya Salkind and Pierre
Spengler discussing their experiences at the Studio. This cross-promotional
interview seems aimed at promoting Pinewood (including its pub, which
Spengler lovingly recalls, wishing to sneak down there every so often and
have a few pints with the rest of the crew). Spengler is quoted as saying,
because of the very special nature of our picture, we also had to have
the most advanced, up-to-date facilities available (Salkind, Super Studio Superman ). As an advertisement of their facilities to the American
industry, the emphasis on Pinewoods unique and cutting-edge technologies affords Superman: The Movie an air of quality and superiority to lms
made elsewhere.
In a more straightforward example, Dolby Laboratories, Inc. ran a fullpage advertisement on 27 December 1978, just over a week after Superman:
The Movies release. Bearing the lms logo it declared, Superman is the
50th Motion Picture to be released with a Dolby encoded soundtrack
(Dolby Stereo). The relatively new technology is here cyclically sold
through association with Superman: The Movie, while the lm gains another positive experiential association (Sergi). These examples were presumably part of the Salkinds negative pickup deal for Superman: The
Movie in which they and not Warner Bros. became responsible for all production costs. To offset these, much like contemporary cross-promotion,
here specialist companies within the American and British lm industries
likewise help to sell the lm text alongside the benets of their services.
What they add to Supermans generic discourse is a metageneric association with quality, spectacle, and epic grandeur.
Discussions of Superman: The Movies genre are perhaps most clearly
stated in the review articles that accompanied its release. Susan Hellier
[ 167 ]
Anderson, writing for the New York Times in June 1977, did a behind-thescenes article on the lm and its production (Hellier Anderson 15). The article is peppered with generic terminology, particularly with allusive terms
that come directly from Hellier Anderson as well as from the cast and producers. The terms escapist entertainment and humor and fantasy, legend
and sincerity occur illustrating attempts to disperse different textual elements to the various audiences that might incline towards Superman: The
Movie. However, comic book and comic strip are the most insistently
used, appearing three times across the article. The phrases are used in relatively straightforward ways to link the lm back to its origins and the articles visuals pair images from the lm with the cover of Action Comics
number 1 emphasizing the lms status as an adaptation from comic books.
On one occasion Hellier Anderson refers to Superman: The Movie as an
updated version of the comic strip adventure, alluding to the lms origins
but also differentiating it from the other major blockbuster lm attractions
of the period, including Star Wars (1977). Signicantly here comic strip
takes a supporting role to adventure, with Superman: The Movies newness
and comic strip aspects providing contrast through which the lm could
be differentiated from other, similar, adventure lms. Despite industry attempts to construct Superman: The Movie as an A-Picture, then, a major
Hollywood blockbuster, reviews still focused on the mass-culture, comic
book origins of the movie. However, as we will see, later media technologies wrote a new chapter in the generic classication of these movies.
A later Superman to take to screens provides an excellent comparative example of a media conglomerate cross-promoting its wares. Produced
by Time Warner company Warner Bros. Television, based on a property
owned by another of its companies, DC Comics, Smallville was launched
with synergistic verve. Preceding its success Time Warners Entertainment
Weekly magazine discussed Smallville with detailed regularity. The coverage began in the form of a short preview article by Josh Wolk in September 2001 followed by an advertisement, taken out in October, only a
few days prior to Smallvilles premiere on the Warner Bros. television netlet the WB (Banks 20; Wolk, Fall TV Preview 01; Smallville Advertisement 15). The article begins by introducing Clark Kent/Tom Welling and
the teening of Superman for the new series. It then goes on to relate
Smallvilles television and lm lineage, how it contains stars from the pre[ 168 ]
vious Superman lms (Annette OToole, who coincidently played Lana

Lang in Superman III) as well as from popular series like The Dukes of
Hazzard (19791985) and emphasizing Wellings own beginnings in Judging Amy (19992005). These appeals work alongside ones that situate the
new series as an action series and teen soap opera, quoting writer/creator
Alfred Gough as saying, Its puberty with super-powers (Wolk, Fall TV
Preview 01 66).
The advertising image provided some seven weeks later was the central
one of Smallvilles rst season, showing Clark Kent/Tom Welling strung up
Christ-like in a corneld with a red S painted on his naked torso. With
the tagline, Every story has a beginning, the image reworks previous notions of the Man of Steel. Age and the vulnerability of the naked body
(tastefully smeared with mud in the image) are stressed suggesting difference from the previous men of steel. So too does the red Smallville logo,
which shifts attention away from the protagonist. Interestingly the lighting for the image is dramatically different from the previous modernist
interpretations of Superman, particularly as presented in the Superman
lms. For Smallville, Kent/Welling is photographed in heavy shadow, with
a spotlight off to the left of the image picking up his muscled torso and
the golden rope that binds him. This darkness provides a dramatically different visual than the previous poster images discussed for Superman: The
Movie implying a textual shift towards a darker storyline. Difference from
previous incarnations and key genre signiers associated with melodrama
(suffering, vulnerability, and small-town American life) thus became central markers for Smallville.
Subsequently in Entertainment Weekly, short articles recognized a
building interest in Smallville. Lynette Rice for example drooled over Welling following the premiere and another article looked at the teen in the
Superman franchise (Rice 66; From Zeroes to Heroes 102). In November
2001, following two articles in Variety that announced the serials success, Smallville was conferred hit status with a cover image and longer
article in Entertainment Weekly on 23 November 2001 (Adalian 21; Kissell 1). Shows of Strength is the rst to deal with Smallvilles genre in
depth (Jensen).5 The article predominantly uses previously successful television shows as generic shorthand with which to discuss Smallville. Smallville in this article alone is lined up alongside The X-Files, Dawsons Creek
[ 169 ]
(19982003), Twin Peaks (19901991), and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The intention seems to be to tap into two separate markets: one for teen narratives and the other for mystery, tinged by horror. These generic elements
had begun to be brought together in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and Smallvilles comparable genre-mixing formula was emphatically being signposted
to potential crossover viewers in an attempt to cash in on the protable
markets that Buffy had tapped into. Interestingly though, co-developer
and writer Miles Millar comments in the article, Where Buffy the Vampire Slayer embraces camp, we cant and wont do that (Jensen, Shows
of Strength 28). Generic differences became central to the promotion of
Smallville, with the wide range of comparison texts and Gough and Millars distancing techniques illustrating how crowded the marketplace was,
but also how hard the serials producers were trying to appeal to audiences
for multiple genres. Compared to the earlier discourse of Superman: The
Movie, which emphasized its concordance with comic books, Smallville is
clearly framed as non-comic book, whether teen melodrama, horror, or
mystery.
Conglomerate control of the kinds discussed above does not end at
the cinema, or with broadcasting on television. New technologies are making an impact on the ability of conglomerates to exercise longer-lived control over their product. Like laserdisc before it the Digital Versatile Disc
(DVD) is proving just that for conglomerates: versatile. Enabling complete
repackaging of lms, television, music videos, and even comic books, DVD
as a format crisscrosses the media indiscriminately, reproducing them all
in the domestic, televisual environment. Moreover, and particularly for
lm and television on DVD, inclusion of only the original text in question is becoming increasingly unusual. The industry now tends to juxtapose the original text with a variety of extras including advertising materials (trailers and TV spots), promotional texts (interviews, cast and
crew biographies, Making of documentaries), and supplementary, crosspromotional, and trivia texts (for more on categories of extras see: Barlow
7983). The American Widescreen Special Edition DVD of Spider-Man
2 (2004), for example, contains a twelve-part documentary, a video-game
documentary, and an Ock-Umentary about villain Doctor Octopus. It
also has an Art Gallery featuring the work of comic book artist Alex
Ross and a Blooper Reel, a music video, weblinks, and two features de[ 170 ]
lineating the heros past and the women of the Spider-Man franchise. Putting these items together serves two main purposes: rst, virtually every
narrative, generic, and technical aspect of the lm is explained by the lmmakers, and thereby sanctioned and mediated; and, second, these additional features help to sell the DVD to collectors (Klinger, Contemporary
Cinephile).
The increasing usage of Special Edition packaging suggests that audiences want these extra DVD materials, but so far little work has been
done to investigate what uses audiences make of them.6 Moreover, Special Edition is itself a category that can be misleading. For example, it
is heavily associated with lm rather than with music or television DVD
releases. Furthermore, Special Edition can be used to differentiate little
more than packaging. For instance, the U.K. release of Tim Burtons Corpse
Bride (2005) has a Special Edition, wherein the specialness is in the
extra cardboard wrapper, booklet on production, and a series of eight artpostcards, while its disc is the same as the regular release. Taking this into
account, the nature of these extras also needs to be better understood, as
does their relationship with the texts they support. Barbara Klinger has
discussed the role of such materials, and cautions us to remember that
Viewers do not get the unvarnished truth about the production; instead,
they are presented with the promotable facts, behind-the-scenes information that supports and enhances a sense of the movie magic associated
with the Hollywood production machine (Klinger, Contemporary Cinephile 140).
Klingers point about the mediation undertaken in the production of
special features is a pertinent one. As the Spider-Man 2 example shows,
links to the music industry, Internet, and video game industry were all
provided by the lmmakers in order to promote the franchise through
its DVD. DVD in this way acts as a platform that lmmakers can use to
launch or advertise the multimedia nature of contemporary lm and television franchises. However, this does not explain the relationship of these
extratextual materials to the original lm or serial, nor how understanding
of the original text can be changed by viewing them.
Once again, the importance of genre to the promotion of lms and
television, no matter what format they appear in, provides insights into
the processes by which industries try to sell to, and understand, their
[ 171 ]
audiences. In a further trend away from the division of media, the DVD
format is now being used as a hub in which disparate media texts can be
sewn together. One way in which this is being attempted is through the
creation of additional storylines that comment on or feed into the core
lm or television text. A recent example of this can be found in The Matrix
(1999, 2003, 2003) sequels and the animated features and video games created to supplement their narratives. Thus The Animatrix (2003) animated
shorts, available on DVD, become required viewing for full understanding
of the latter Matrix lms.
Smallvilles Season 2 and 3 DVD box sets follow a similar pattern with
a series of episodic short video programs titled The Chloe Chronicles.7
The Chloe Chronicles were brought to life across a range of media initially: begun with short comic book narratives (less than half an issue)
that led into web-posted video shorts that became, by Volume 2, a series
of short episodic narratives shown weekly on the WB (Carpenter, Carpenter and Warshaw, 2001). The DVDs were the rst instance in which these
video clips and comic book narratives were packaged together as a unied whole.
The Chloe Chronicles are high school student-journalist (and friend
to Clark Kent) Chloe Sullivans (Allison Mack) behind-the-scenes investigations of Smallvilles mysteries. It is this aspect of the original series that caused the comparisons to Twin Peaks and The X-Files discussed
previously, as Smallvilles inhabitants are changed by the presence of the
meteor rocks that accompanied Clark Kents arrival in their town. The
Chloe Chronicles pick up from a Season 1 episode titled Jitters in which
a LuthorCorp employee, Earl Jenkins, dies after contracting a meteor rockrelated disease that causes him to shake uncontrollably. The Chloe Chronicles is formulated around a series of interviews recorded on a handheld
camera, sometimes two, conducted by the Chloe Sullivan character as she
interviews minor and new characters. Typically, where these branch off
into sequences that would require special effects, the narrative shifts to the
comic books where these can be produced more cheaply.
The conspiracy-inected detective genre is the driving force behind
this supplementary narrative, with Chloe Sullivan trying to discover those
responsible for the experiments that killed Earl Jenkins. Crucially, this
picks up on one of the least prominent generic elements within Smallville.
[ 172 ]
Gough has described the show as Heart. Hero. Mystery. Family (Jensen,
Shows of Strength 28). Here it is the mystery part of the equation that is
emphasized, whereas the plots of Smallville usually revolve around the romance, melodrama, and action genres represented in the other three terms.
Ostensibly this is because the other three generic components relate directly to protagonist Clark Kent: his family, his relationships, his superpowers form the focus of the series. The mystery plots on the other hand
are usually related to villains and to supporting character Chloe Sullivans
work for student newspaper The Torch (though these too are frequently
related back to Clark Kents secret heroic identity). In providing this secondary mystery narrative on the DVD, The Chloe Chronicles are able to
reinforce the mystery plot lines and appeal to several audiences for Smallville simultaneously: those who became interested by initially browsing
online or reading the comic books and those who view the series for its
mystery elements. The Chloe Chronicles is therefore an example of just
how intermedia such supplementary materials have become. They are able
to draw attention to and supplement generic elements from the core text
while cross-promoting other arms of the intertext circulating around that
core.
If The Chloe Chronicles offers an example of supplementary narrative, then the repackaging of Superman: The Movie and Superman II into a
Special Edition box set in 2001 illustrates how the DVD format can be used
retrospectively to change conceptions of a lms genre. The extras for the
box set feature trailers for both lms, plus three Making of documentaries, a feature-length commentary, and screen tests, deleted scenes, and a
Vintage TV Spot, all for Superman: The Movie. It is the three Making of
documentary features which undertake the translation of Superman: The
Movie from prototypical action blockbuster to epic action melodrama.
Together the three documentaries, Taking Flight: The Development
of Superman, Making Superman: Filming the Legend, and The Magic
Behind the Cape, last almost as long as Superman: The Movie. Charting
the preexhibition life cycle of Superman: The Movie, from preproduction
through to postproduction, these three lms intersperse nished footage
from both Superman: The Movie and Superman II with contemporary and
new interviews and behind-the-scenes footage which together help to reinscribe the lm with an additional and differently genred set of meanings.
[ 173 ]
The Magic Behind the Cape acts as an in-depth explanation of the

Superman special effects, and it reinforces the emphasis on spectacle and
is separated from the joint narratives of the other two documentaries. This
commentary is closely linked to the emphasis on technology and newness
seen in the original production discourses examined earlier. However, instead of focusing on Dolby or even the sets used, it is the Superman lms
use of optical and other visual effects that are accentuated. It is, therefore,
the history of visual effects technologies that are given screen time in The
Magic Behind the Cape, falling somewhere between Barlows categories of
technical information and historical information.
The new genre is unmistakably laid out in Marc McClures (who played
Jimmy Olsen) opening narration for Taking Flight, The efforts of the
lmmakers were of epic proportions, he says, and this is echoed in Making Superman: Superman overcame tremendous obstacles to become the
success we know it as today. Superlative language in both cases (epic,
tremendous) helps to build a narrative for the lming of Superman: The
Movie that is lled with as much angst and difculty as it is action packed.
Director Richard Donners attempt to make both the rst and second
Superman lms back to back is provided in these Making of documentaries as the central and most melodramatic of the box sets narratives. As
is common with commentaries and Making of documentaries, the directors, in this case Donners, is the voice most frequently heard and also
the one to whom the lm is most often attributed (Parker and Parker).
Donner is described by Creative Consultant Tom Mankiewicz in Taking
Flight as almost irresistible when he is pushing. Thereafter Donner is
used to account for most creative decisions made on the Superman lms,
for instance the casting of Christopher Reeve (he was Superman from day
one) and the hiring of big, tall, lanky genius John Barry as Production
Designer. However, in Making Superman the narrative alters from this
one of Donners authorship, to a narrative dealing with Donners melodramatic heroism.
As the postproduction crew discusses the rush to get Superman: The
Movie into cinemas for Christmas 1978, the discussion of the various difculties segues into one of Donners dismissal as director. Narrated in turn
by McClure, Andrew Fogelson (credited as President of Warner Bros. marketing 19781980), Mankiewicz, Donner, Gene Hackman (who played Lex
[ 174 ]
Luthor), and Margot Kidder (Lois Lane), their explanations point to growing costs beyond the budget and poor management by the Salkinds as reasons for Donners dismissal. Donner himself says, It was a lonely period.
It was a long period. It was tiring. It was exhausting, but I had taken on
the project of making Superman and damn it nothing was going to stop
me. Donners dismissal thus signies a different kind of narrative than
that recognized by Klinger. Here, not all aspects of Hollywood lmmaking
are glamorized and, although it is the Salkinds and not Warner Bros. who
take the blame, a new auteur narrative is suggested. Donners authorship
of Superman: The Movie is built around epic difculty, massive project
management, and success in the face of almost unbearable pressure from
production company villains. In essence, Donners story, written over images from the lm (especially ones from the production period that insert
him into the frame with his stars), adds to the lm a new melodramatic
heroic narrative.
Donners melodramatic heroism is carefully juxtaposed on the DVD
placed spatially close to the lm texts and temporally blending archival
and new footage so that its impact is naturalized. It adds a kind of heroic narrative to the 1978 and 1980 versions of Superman that are more
like the hero of Smallville, the television version of Superman circulating
most heavily by the time of the Special Edition DVDs release in 2001. The
multiheroic narratives of Donner and Superman help to maximize appeals
to audiences. They appeal to nostalgic audiences for the original lms, to
collectors for whom trivia is important, and to those audiences for whom
melodramatic heroism is becoming a more natural construct than the action adventure heroism of Reeve in the Superman lms.
Nor is the Superman lm box set the only place in which such new
heroic narratives have been produced. Smallvilles third season box set
contains a special feature titled Producing Smallville: The Heroes Behind
the Camera. Unlike Donners tale of betrayal by the Salkinds, however,
this making of featurette is entirely positive, detailing the working life of
the crew with a special thank you during the end credits to the 250 people
who help bring Smallville to life. Furthermore, the tone of the featurette is
different, detailing the family atmosphere on set, with joking asides (particularly by Michael Rosenbaum who plays Lex Luthor in the series) interspersed with information about lighting, sets, and special effects among
[ 175 ]
other behind-the-scenes roles. These help to maintain the soap opera feel
to the production, likening real off-screen personae to the family orientation of many of Smallvilles story lines.
Two further important short documentaries appear on the Season 2
box set of Smallville, and it is these that most closely replicate the generic
reconditioning undertaken for the Superman lms. The rst, Faster Than
a Speeding Bullet: The Visual Effects of Smallville is set up as a text for
technical information, but actually achieves a secondary goal more efciently. The visual effects are used to showcase the serials action genre status, as a series of stunts are explained for audiences, emphasizing their
importance within the overall Smallville narrative. Newness and experimentation are emphasized in the documentary, as are the heroic efforts
of the effects team, who as Millar explains are always under the gun
when attempting to complete shots on time. The interesting effect of the
heroic narrative is the way it emphasizes the relationship between lm
and televisual visual effects. Multiple references are made throughout the
documentary to the way the effects for Smallville are, on the one hand, creating visual effects for the Superman franchise that have never been accurately produced in the past (especially X-Ray vision, which in Smallville is
shown through CGI effects that replicate an X-Ray type of scan of Clark
Kents environment), while on the other producing effects that are of a
comparable quality to those used in lmmaking.
The second featurette, Christopher Reeve: The Man of Steel, is presented as a documentary about Reeves appearance on Smallville as Dr.
Virgil Swann, a character who tells Clark Kent about Krypton. Crosspromotion for a good cause, the featurette repeats the call for charitable
donations to the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Fund, which rst aired at the
end of Reeves episode (Rosetta). This call extends the narrative about
Reeve passing the torch to Welling. (Greg Beeman, Christopher Reeve:
The Man of Steel) It is in this documentary that Gough states the differences between the two interpretations of Superman: In the lm, Superman
is the character and Clark Kent is the disguise, and you know, in our show
Clark Kent is the character and ultimately, down the road, Superman will
be the disguise . . . its a different take on the same material. Welling and
Reeve also attempt to distinguish between the characters they play, with
Reeve commenting that there are in fact two Clark Kents and that Well[ 176 ]
ings is more like the young version played by Jeff East in Superman: The
Movie than it is like his own dualistic version of Kent/Superman. By separating out the different versions of the Superman story in this way the
makers of Smallville provide an intertextual circuit in which the contemporary version of the story is informed and legitimated by Reeves performances, while rekindling audience memories of the Superman lms and
fostering continued interest in them as source texts for Smallville. Separating the texts also enables a nal denition to be created in the generic
difference between Superman: The Movie and Smallville, between the action (Superman as character) and melodrama (Clark Kent as character).
Genre has always been an inconstant, nebulous concept that refuses absolute, permanent denition. This chapter has attempted to show how genre,
even when linked to a single franchise or character like Superman, needs
to be viewed as historically and contextually dependent. The shift between
production narratives for Superman: The Movie that began by emphasizing
comic book origins, spectacle, and cultural legitimacy through star performers, altered almost beyond recognition by the time the lm came to
DVD. Therein it was the melodrama of the making of Superman that most
informed and augmented the lm text. The advent of DVD technologies
and how they inuence our understanding of lm and television texts implies the importance of considering genre as an intertextually dependent
phenomenon. Although audiences are not forced to view such narratives
as The Chloe Chronicles or the Taking Flight documentary, their presence is advertised in both the DVD packaging and repeatedly stressed in
the DVD menus. As the market for DVDs increases, the special features
they contain will also increase in importance as they reach growing audiences. Indeed, with moves towards more supplementary narratives rather
than advertising or informational extras, DVD special features are being
presented as audience draws alongside original texts. As special features
continue to grow and change, they are becoming more and more useful
as a means for understanding and extending textual enjoyment. As the investigation herein has shown, DVD extras do not simply add to their own
texts, but, like the Christopher Reeve featurette, can be used to reinvigorate
interest in entire franchises, and even charitable institutions.
DVD then encourages generic complexity and hybridity in ways that
[ 177 ]
the popular and trade presses have neither scope nor interest in doing. Unlike Entertainment Weekly, where Smallville shared space with a multiplicity of other lm, television, and music texts, the Internet and DVD
provide dedicated spaces for production discourses, and additional revenue
streams for producers. The WBs site for Smallville has links, for example,
not just to The Chloe Chronicles, but also to The Torch, Smallville Highs
ctional student paper, and to the Smallville Ledger, another ctional
newspaper (http://www2.warnerbros.com/web/smallville/torch and http://
www2.warnerbros.com/web/smallville/ledger). DVD is different from the
Internet, however, because of its artifact status. As objects, DVDs have the
sense of offering up a coherent, complete narrative, the object organizing
its content and demanding recognition of the links between any separate
contained texts. For this reason DVD might be better thought of as presenting not a text and extratextual materials, but as being itself a multitext,
a multitext of layered, competing yet combined narratives, any of which
potentially impacts on and changes the meanings of the others depending
on which features audience members engage with.
This is not to suggest that DVD is better at disseminating generic or
other information about lms. The trade presses like Variety still dominate inter-industry discourses, and popular publications like Entertainment Weekly still serve a broader, more general community than those
purchasing (often expensive) DVD box sets. Rather, DVD, as a format,
with its ability to house disparate media texts, suggests, at a given historical moment, the relationships between not just the texts but the media
themselves. It suggests also which genres are in ascendance at a particular
moment. In the Superman box set, the repackaging of materials suggests
a shift from a dominant action-adventure genre in the 1970s to a melodramatically inected action genre in the present period. With Smallville,
the special features provided give clear instances of the promotion of distinct component genres. Where The Chloe Chronicles showcases mystery, the Season 3 documentary Producing Smallville: The Heroes Behind
the Camera provides another set of melodramatic struggles and Faster
than a Speeding Bullet: The Visual FX of Smallville from Season 2 gives
emphasis to action and spectacle. In each instance the special features
[ 178 ]
are designed to accent, and in some cases actually create, generic codes to
maximize audiences. DVD becomes an opportunity within a texts production life cycle in which the makers can put back or reemphasize missed
or missing genre parts. The multitext DVD through these various means
becomes a kind of supertext, a tting format from which aspects of the
Superman franchise can once again take ight.
[ 179 ]
AMERICAN SPLENDOR
T R A N S L AT I N G C O M I C A U T O B I O G R A P H Y
I N T O D R A M A - D O C U M E N TA RY
CRAIG HIGHT
American Splendor (2003) is a drama-documentary about the life

and art of seminal underground comic artist Harvey Pekar, the creator of
the long-standing autobiographical comic of the same name. All comicto-lm adaptations have proved challenging, but apart from some notable
exceptions such as Ghost World, most have the advantage of characters
and scenarios which offer easy translation to mainstream action-adventure
cinema increasingly geared toward teenage audiences (fantastic superhero
characters, engaged in spectacular action against their enemies). In contrast, American Splendor (the comic) provided some unique challenges for
lmmakers Shari Springer Berman and Bob Pulcini. Pekars idiosyncratic
and innovative comic has been published for over twenty-ve years, it has
focused on mundane everyday details, employed a variety of styles and
featured a main character (Pekar) who has consistently articulated his antagonism toward the mainstream and the popular. The resulting lm is
a hybrid of drama-documentary combining conventional aspects of this
form with elements of the graphic style of comic books. The lms innovative style opens up a space for an exploration of the nature of both autobiographical comic narratives, and drama-documentary codes and conventions.
This chapter discusses the translation of American Splendor into
mainstream lm narrative, focusing upon the distinctive blend of representational strategies employed by the lmmakers, and the variety of levels
[ 180 ]
of commentary that it consequently borrows from both comic books and

drama-documentary. The discussion below briey positions Pekars work
within the wider genre of autobiographic comics, before tracing how the
distinctive aspects of American Splendor the comic are remediated into
audio-visual form.
Although comics are a medium as rich and complex as any other, the study
of comic forms is a comparatively neglected eld within media studies,
with attempts to identify the dening characteristics of comic narratives
and aesthetics still in their infancy.1 A key reason for this academic neglect
lies in the dominance of superhero narratives within the comic market,
and the consequent assumption that comics are just for kids. The medium, however, has consistently featured a variety of other genres, and in
particular there is a long tradition of comic narratives within the overlapping genres of biography, autobiography, journalism, history, and other nonction related formats (Witek 1357). Originating in underground comics,
these more adult oriented narratives have increasingly sought both critical and popular recognition.
There is insufcient space here to fully explore the range of autobiographical comics which contextualizes Pekars work. A key gure within
this genre is Robert Crumb, whose work ranges from autobiographical to
social satire comics (including collaborations with Pekar). The full spectrum of such comics incorporates work as diverse as Julie Doucets My New
York Diary, Joe Saccos Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992
95, and Marjane Satrapis Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood. The breadth
of aesthetic styles and thematics contained within just this highly selective
cross-section of comic narratives demonstrates the broad territory which
nonction comic creators range within.
Each of these works can be seen to draw, in varying degrees, from a
number of specic visual discourses. Many nonction comic artists rely
on the use of photographs as reference points for their drawings, to develop a sense of iconic authenticity in representing social and urban environments and natural landscapes. Within such settings, nonction comics will often move away from iconic representations of people, instead
offering impressions or interpretations of characters. One resulting pattern is a distinctive visual dichotomy between character and setting, which
A M E R I C A N S P L E N D O R : T R A N S L AT I N G C O M I C A U T O B I O G R A P H Y
[ 181 ]
especially characterizes autobiographical comics (such as Pekars). The

most extreme, and widely celebrated and debated, example of this pattern
is Art Spiegelmans two-part Maus (My Father Bleeds History and And Here
My Troubles Began). Maus dispenses with any semblance of iconic representation in the drawing of its characters, in favor of a cat-and-mouse
metaphor to represent the power relations between representatives of the
Nazi regime and European Jews.
Just as with documentary animation,2 the graphic nature of comics
opens up avenues for expression not available to prose writers, documentary lmmakers, or those working in the same genres in different media.
Because most nonction comics are written and drawn by the same individual author/artist, these comics tend to have a highly individual style of
expression. In fact, underlying many of these works is the explicit assumption that these artists drawing styles are much more analogous to handwriting than might be the case for the writing style of prose writers. That
is, that a comic authors style is derived directly from his/her personality
and artistic sensibility rather than something that has been employed for
deliberate effect. Again, a key originator in this regard within the autobiographical comics scene is Robert Crumb. Crumbs rhetorical justication of his work has tended to focus on claims that his art is an uncensored
translation of his consciousness, which it is in some sense unmediated,
and therefore all the more valuable as artistic expression. Obviously, such
a rhetorical stance has not prevented him from exploring a range of stylistic approaches.
Similarly, the content within autobiographical works is often marked
by an apparent commitment to extremely intimate, almost confessional
narratives. Although typically involving a focus on following a character
through everyday events using rst-person narration, the authenticity
of the work is often judged on the apparent honesty of the writing or
the emotional truth of a work. This means a focus on a brutal honesty
in stories together with an often deliberately unattering pattern of selfrepresentation by comic artists. Harvey Pekars work clearly operates within
such broad tendencies within the genre of autobiographical comics.
American Splendor is an autobiography in progress, an account of
Pekars life and work told through a series of vignettes. The title is deliberately ironic, and an indicator of Pekars sardonic and at times bitter
[ 182 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
Fig. 1. The Young Crumb Story, story by

Harvey Pekar, art by Robert Crumb (Pekar,
2003). One of the many retellings of the
beginnings of Pekars comics career.
perspective on his life. The comic was originally self-published by Pekar,

and he did not have a formal relationship with a publisher until the 1990s.3
Pekar considers what he does autobiographical writing,4 simply using graphic
form to contribute to the wider body of this literature form (Pekar, A
Mensch for All Mediums). He focuses particularly on the minutiae of
life: I concentrate, more than I think virtually any comic book artist has
in the past, on the so-called mundane details of every day lifequotidian
life. What happens to a person during a working day, marital relations, and
stuff like that (Pekar, A Mensch for All Mediums).
The Pekar style is to capture the vernacular of language, to be faithful to the rhythms and idiosyncrasies of everyday conversation. American Splendor has an overwhelming reliance on episodic narrative, with
his vignettes rarely having a punchline but usually focused instead on a
turn of phrase or an everyday, often mundane, insight. As Witek notes,
this provides for regular readers a cumulative experience, unlike the selfcontained gag strips in the newspapers (Witek 137). Throughout these
pieces, Pekar maintains both a consistent internal monologue (Witek 124),
[ 183 ]
and an overall focus on the American lower and middle classes. His talent
is in writing short storylines in ways that appear casual, and which resonate with his readers own lives. (This is a style which offers obvious challenges for lmmakers tasked with transforming the comic into lm narrative, as discussed below.)
Pekar has rarely enjoyed popular commercial success, but both himself and his admirers insist that this lack of popularity is in fact a clear
marker of the authenticity of his work. He has been constructed as the
antithesis of the superhero mainstream and championed as a bearer of
the truth, someone who is committed to the integrity of his individual
perspective, despite the personal and artistic sacrices this entails. Here
is Robert Crumb from his preface to American Splendor Presents Bob and
Harvs Comics, speaking of Pekars audience in Cleveland:
And Harvey Pekar is their witness. He is one of them. He reports
the truth of life in Cleveland as he sees it, hears it, feels it in his
manic-depressive nervous system. Theres nobody else to do it.
Who would want to? Theres no money in it. There no money
in telling the truth. People want escape. They want myths. This
slice-of-life stuff, with no spices added, no glamour, no heroes,
its only going to reach a small, select audience, no matter how
eloquent or poetic it is done. [ . . . ] Thats not to say there isnt
entertainment here. Harvey is a great storyteller . . . he brings
this mundane, work-a-day work to life, gives us its poignant
moments, its humor, absurdity, irony . . . and mostly, its absolute
truth. There is no exaggeration in these stories. What you read is
what really happened [emphasis in original]. (Crumb)
At times, Pekars own description of his technique draws closely on the
discourses of documentary: I look at myself sometimes when I do these
shorter pieces like a photographer walking down the street who runs into
things; he sees things and he shoots them (Harvey, Art of the Comic Book
235). The aesthetic style favored by Pekars comics is consistent with this
overall stance, as they eschew the complex, overlapping and visually dynamic layouts of superhero comics in favor of a conventional panel layout
and commitment to eye-level perspective.
[ 184 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
A key point to be made about Pekar is that he stands somewhat outside of much of the autobiographical tradition in comics in that he does
not draw himself but relies totally on collaboration with comic artists.
American Splendor is written by Pekar, but actually illustrated by high-prole artists such as Crumb, Sacco, and Frank Stack. Ironically, in this Pekar
in fact lies closer to the traditions of superhero comic writing, where teams
of writer/artist/letterers are given opportunities to refashion a traditional
superhero character.5 Pekar chooses collaborators for particular stories; he
attempts to match a particular story with an artist whose style he feels is
appropriate for that material (Robinson).
Fig. 2. A Marriage Album, story by Harvey

Pekar and Joyce Brabner, art by Val Mayerik
(Pekar, 2003). Arriving for the rst time in
Cleveland, Joyce tries to imagine which artists
representation of Harvey is the most accurate,
a scene recreated for the lm.
This reliance on collaboration with artists has resulted in a body of

work which incorporates a variety of styles, and many different representations of Pekar himself, as each artist folds his own interpretation of the
writer into the overall body of work that constitutes the comic. A signicant feature of American Splendor is consequently a high degree of reexivity toward representations of individual identity (something recognized
by the lmmakers of American Splendor the lm, as outlined below). Unlike, for example, Crumbs autobiographical work, Pekars narratives are
not conceived initially in terms of images, but focus more on dialogue
and the context of interactions between his characters. In this Pekar, quite
self-consciously, follows more literary traditions of autobiography (Witek
13032).
[ 185 ]
Consistent with other autobiographical comics, however, overall the

portrayals of Pekar himself in both form and content are also quite negative and confessional. And, again, these aspects form part of the effort to
appeal to readers assumptions regarding the authenticity of the comic as a
whole. When questioned on whether he was judging and portraying himself too harshly, Pekar has replied: I dont want to play myself up as a hero,
because it would make me unbelievable. Id rather settle for people thinking that Im a bum, but digging my stories, than liking me and not being
able to believe in my stories (Robinson, 2003).
Standing outside of the American Splendor comic, but consistent with
Pekars overall writing perspective, is Our Cancer Year, which provided the
basis for the latter part of the narrative of the lm itself. Co-written with
wife Joyce Brabner and drawn by Stack, it chronicles Pekars successful
battle against cancer. This story was quite deliberately crafted and conceived by its authors as a singular graphic novel, with the authors selecting key events, and deliberately rearranging their chronological order to
increase its emotional impact with readers. Throughout the book, Stack
varies aspects of his style, using different drawing techniques for specic
situations: sometimes crosshatching, sometimes in stark outline, with differing emphases on areas of black and white depending upon the mood
of a chapter.
Overall, Pekars work articulates some of the central tensions that are
inherent to any effort to represent aspects of reality, and especially those
which mark nonction forms within comics. Pekar is quite conscious of
such tensions, and explicitly addresses them in his work, often directly asking readers to think about the nature of the representations he is offering.
It is interesting to trace how this complexity of issues in regard to representation have been translated by the lm adaptation of his work.
American Splendor the lm was originally produced by HBO, but released
to theatres after it won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival.
The lm project originated from a collaborators connection to independent lm producer Ted Hope, who hired documentary lmmakers Shari
Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini. Pekar and wife Joyce Brabner have
co-writing credits, because parts of the lms narrative are based on Our
Cancer Year. Pekar has claimed, including in the lm itself, that he did not
[ 186 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
actually read the script before lming commenced and did not have real input into the creative production of the lm, although he at least had access
to the script in preproduction. In fact, Pekar has been consistent in voicing his cynicism toward the movie business itself, and the prospect of nding fame so late in his life that it offered him. He has insisted that he was
involved simply as a means to increase the audience for his comics: For
me the movies were basically a one-shot opportunity to make some extra
money (Pekar, 2004).
As noted above, the lm is a drama-documentary, a complex factction form6 which combines the accessibility of mainstream lm and television melodrama with an association with the factual discourse that underpins the documentary genre (Paget 35). A simple denition of dramadocumentary is that it offers dramatized versions of actual events and is a
form often chosen from a motivation to reach a wider audience than the
documentary genre has traditionally attracted. Biographical lms such as
American Splendor tend to be centered on historical, political, or cultural
gures already well known to the public. They are reintroduced to the audience with a suggestion that the lm represents their real story, containing an emotional truth less easily portrayed through the representational
constraints of documentary.
Lipkin talks of drama-documentary as dealing with quasi-indexical
narrative (2). Rather than an indexical representation of the real, the
forms offers iconic representations couched within the narrative forms of
melodrama. The rhetorical logic of an argument that is prioritized within
documentary is present in the text but tends to be articulated more implicitly, at the level of thematics, the overall agenda of the text, and within the
specic nature of its narrative constructions. Although largely reliant on
iconic reconstruction, drama-documentary often directly integrates actual
and re-created material, either in succession or together within a scene.7
Crucially, however, melodramatic and documentary constructions are invariably used in ways that deny any tension or contradictions between
these competing forms. Instead these serve to reinforce each other; any
documentary materials used further authenticate the narrative, while the
narrative works to add emotional weight to the rational discourses underlying a drama-documentary. The balance between these elements is crucial to the persuasive effect of a particular text. As Lipkin notes, the more
[ 187 ]
complex sequences, those that particularly blur the boundaries between

what is real and what is ctionalized, are often the most effective in this
sense.
In terms of melodramatic narrative structure, drama- documentary
typically employs techniques such as the telescoping of complex events
and histories, creating a narrative arc out of an everyday story, and editing out aspects of a story that are repetitive, confusing, or simply extraneous to the main narrative thrust. And there are typically elements of a
realistic dramatic style, such as key lighting, naturalistic sound, continuity
editing, the use of actual locations for settings, (often unknown) actors
that resemble the actual gures they portray, and a low-key or realistic
style of acting. Other codes and conventions which may be used include
some more typically associated with documentary, such as the use of captions to identify dates and locations, archival footage of events or issues,
and voice-overs from actors or a real person featured in the text (Paget
6189). Increasingly there is also the use of special effects within dramadocumentary, but in ways that are consistent with their use within dramatic
reconstruction sequences within documentary, with computer graphic
imaging (CGI) used to reinforce a sense of the iconic authenticity of the
texts version of events.
All of these forms of representation are used to increase the sense of
a texts proximity (Lipkin 5354) to actual social actors and historical
events. In the case of American Splendor, remaining true to Pekars original
artistic vision also meant taking the collaborative nature of Pekars work,
and its consequent stylistic complexity, as a direct inspiration. The resulting lm is a hybrid of different forms of representation. In Pulcinis words:
We thought we had the license to anything we wanted, because the comic
books are so free form (West and West 41). In the lm, Pekar is represented in ve different ways: as played by actor Paul Giamatti within the
lms narrative sequences; as himself in interview footage shot for the lm;
as himself in archival footage from his appearances on American television; in comic form, within graphic and animation sequences derived from
American Splendor the comic; and, briey, played by actor Donal Logue in
a stage play based on the comic. Similarly, Pekars voice, or his perspective, is represented in quite distinct ways through these representations. We
hear him most often in scripted voice-over for the narrative sequences, al[ 188 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
though as noted above, he was not extensively involved in the writing of

the lms script. He is also heard in direct-to-camera interview segments,
within the archival footage, and through aspects of his writing lifted directly from the panels of his American Splendor comic.
With American Splendor the drama-documentary, the key issues become how these various representational strategies operate to support each
other, and whether any tensions between them exist. To some extent, the
distinct modes of representation within the lm serve quite different purposes, although there is an obvious attempt to seamlessly integrate them
into a coherent perspective on Pekars work and life. This stylistic eclecticism is appropriate for the lms subject matter, and it allows the lmmakers to claim a commitment to authenticity in their approach. However, it is
also true that it allowed them to produce a more entertaining and visually
innovative lm than is typically the case for the drama-documentary form
(thus potentially increasing its appeal beyond the limited demographic of
Pekars original comic). This agenda clearly shaped the narrative structure
of the lm, which offers a considerably revised version of the extended and
episodic narrative contained within American Splendor the comic.
The lmmakers were well aware of the challenges Pekars work posed for
adaptation to the screen. Co-director Pulcini observed, Harveys comic
books are not really about traditional narrative structures. Theyre really
just moments in his life, observations. The whole point of the American
Splendor comics is that life doesnt really organize itself well, which is very
daunting for a screenwriter. You want to stay true to the spirit of the books,
but you also want to be able to fashion them into some kind of story
(West and West 41).
The lms revisions include the telescoping of some events, the changing of names to protect peoples identities (Robinson), and the editing out
of core aspects of Pekars biography, including his intellectualism, his pride
for Cleveland, and his long history of published jazz criticism.8 Elsewhere
the lmmakers have more explicitly stated the overall theme of the lm:
an unlikely love story between a man and his medium, which in this case
is a comic book, and how he got a life through comic bookshe found
love, or some version of love, a family, and a creative outlet (West and
West 41).
[ 189 ]
A sense of realism to the lm is partly established through a selection

of cinematographic styles. For the bulk of the lms narrative sequences,
the lmmakers drew upon 1970s lm traditions of realism, using muted
earth tones for a gritty, realistic look (West and West 41). For later sequences, when Pekar is shown to beat cancer, the lms cinematography
subtly brightens. As is consistently the case with drama-documentary,
little-known actors Giamatti and Hope Davis were cast as Pekar and his
wife Joyce Brabner. The middle part of the lm follows the budding romance between these two, with the audience encouraged to warm to two
dysfunctional characters who nd each other. Co-director Berman has
described their performances in ways familiar to the agenda of dramadocumentary. We didnt want Paul, or Hope, or any of the actors to do
at-out imitations of these people. We wanted them to capture something
deeper, the essence of the character (West and West 42).
Fig. 3. Hope Davis and Paul Giamatti play Brabner and Pekar in the
lms narrative sequences.
Pekars voice-over serves multiple purposes during these sequences. In

part he simply repeats the perspective of his comic, at times voicing lines
that he originally wrote for his comic (now part of the lms script). In
this sense, his voice-over both reinforces the authenticity of Giamattis interpretation of Pekar and also excuses any poetic license taken in the dramatic reconstructions of selected events in Pekars life. However, Pekar also
plays the role of commentator on the degree of mediation inherent to these
sequences. In (scripted) voice-over for one early sequence of Giamatti at
work as a clerk, he states: Heres our man. Yeah, alright, heres me, the guy
playing me, though he dont look nothing like me, but whatever . . . This
is a disclaimer that is consistent with the commentary on representation
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CRAIG HIGHT
which is such a distinctive aspect of Pekars comic, but is also an element

of scripted reexivity that is relatively rare for drama-documentary. This
layered perspective continues throughout the lm. For example, after a
scene focused on a theatrical production of American Splendor, with Giamatti and Davis viewing actors Donal Logue and Molly Shannon playing
Pekar and Brabner, we hear Pekars voice-over: If you think that reading
comics about yourself is strange, try watching a play about it. God only
knows how Ill feel when I see this movie.
Coexisting and often directly integrated with the lms narrative sequences
are a variety of documentary sequences, with each strategy of documentary representation performing a specic function. For example, the nal
sequence of the lm consists of handheld shots from Pekars retirement
party,9 with Pekar celebrating with the real-life Joyce and their adopted
daughter Danielle. Stylistically, this sequence stands in contrast to the rest
of the lm and serves to nally break the audience away from the narrative of Pekars life and provide a sense of closure.
Throughout the lm other key documentary elements are more seamlessly incorporated into the narrative. The key example here is the archival
footage of Pekars appearances on the American television program The
Letterman Show. Davis and Giamatti are shown waiting nervously in the
waiting room, and when he is called on-stage, Davis turns her attention
to the television monitor in the room. She scrutinizes archival footage of
Pekars rst appearance on the program, seemingly oblivious to the change
in her husbands appearance (from Giamatti to Pekar). This is typical of
the effort of drama-documentary to erase the boundary between the actors and their real life counterparts, and here the archival footage is used
to reinforce our acceptance of the actors portrayals.
The main documentary sequences within American Splendor, however, operate in a much more complex fashion within the lm. They are
lmed within a studio and provide spaces for the appearance of Pekar himself, where he can expound on aspects of his life experience and comment
on the lm itself. In contrast to the narrative sequences, and the lms
nal observational documentary scenes, these are more obviously constructed by the lmmakers themselves; We wanted a very different style
for the documentary parts of the lm. We decided that would be the place
[ 191 ]
where wed have a very articial look, where wed create a comic book panel
look, with very vibrant colors and just a few well-placed items in the frame
amidst a lot of empty, white space. We thought that if we actually lmed
Harvey in his own environment, the look would compete with the narrative, and we wanted to have a complete break (Pulcini, quoted in West
and West 42).
In the opening of the lm, immediately after the credit sequences, we
view the rst of these studio scenes. The preceding scene has a voice-over
from the real Pekar, as he introduces himself by reading from the script: If
youre the kind of person looking for some romance or escapism or some
fantasy gure to save the day? Guess what? You got the wrong movie. On
the line guess what, there is a wipe to Pekar sitting on a stool, talking into
a large studio microphone, in a bright white studio with some chairs and a
sound recordist monitoring a tape recorder in the background. Pekar nishes his sentence, then comments that they have done enough takes, and
begins a conversation with an off-screen female voice (co-director Berman). She asks him whether he likes the script, and he admits he has barely
read it. During the exchange, we have inserts of closeups of Pekars favorite
drink (orange soda), and sound equipment.
Unlike Pekars voice-over in the narrative sequences, here his unscripted words and on-screen presence are markers of authenticity. The
short interview works as an explicit rupturing of the suspension of disbelief that is central to the narrative, and potentially opens an irreconcilable division between the competing forms of documentary and melodrama. Pekars reading of the script is suddenly associated not with his
perspective, but with the deliberate constructions of the lmmakers. Similarly, the sudden cut from Giamatti (and Davis) to the real Pekar (and Brabner) highlights how comparatively simplistic and two dimensional any actors portrayal can be, when directly confronted with the complexity of the
social actors they are based upon. It is a risky representational strategy and
its success depends upon the audience accepting a creative tension between
the competing meanings of these studio interviews.10 The complexity of
the lm lies in the resulting space which is opened for the audience, a space
which is then available for a critique of the narrative, and the nature of the
representations which are offered by the lm. The lmmakers invite this
[ 192 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
Fig. 4. Joyce Brabner and Harvey

Pekar in one of the lms documentary
sequences.
critique, but still attempt to identify it with a commitment to representing

the idiosyncratic perspective of Pekar.
Interestingly, these interview sequences are also the only space where
Pekars work in the comic medium is critiqued, ironically by his wife. After
a montage of various representations of her by Pekars collaborators, we
cut to Brabner and Pekar being interviewed in the studio. She states that
Harvey tends to push the negative and the sour. He can be very depressed
and therefore very depressing and that he wont put any happy things in
there. Pekar, in response, admits that he does not put in all of the events
which feature her, and that his perspective often tends to be all doom and
gloom. It is the only explicit suggestion in the lm that his art might not
be an absolutely accurate perspective on Pekars experiences, but is in fact
shaped by Pekars negative personality as much as the selective portrayal
of people and events that are central to any storyteller.11
The third key group of representational strategies employed in the
lm are elements of the graphic form of comics. Again, these are intended
to increase the proximity (in Lipkins terminology) of the lm to Pekars
original work. In subsequent interviews, the lmmakers have also worked
to reinforce the authenticity and validity of Pekars original comic agenda,
which also legitimates their own use of his comic panels as forms of evidence. We have a documentary lm background, so we approached the
comic books as if they were raw footage. You have to make connections
between these moments, to nd a way to piece them together, in the same
[ 193 ]
way you do with documentary footage (Pulcini, quoted in West and West
41). And, in fact, there are direct parallels to the ways in which the archival
footage of Pekar on the Letterman Show operates in the lm. When key
collaborator Robert Crumb (played by James Urbaniak) draws Giamatti
while both are sitting in his lounge, the resulting drawing is of the real
Pekar, not of Giamatti. The drawing is authentic to that originally drawn
by Crumb, and the fact that it looks nothing like Giamatti is ignored (just
as Daviss viewing of the real Pekar on a television monitor causes no confusion for her character).
Similarly, the lms more openly graphic constructions are naturalized
within the narrative sequences. Captions, a common convention in dramadocumentary, here replicate the captions of comic panels rather than the
sober style of documentary (they are in boxes on the top or bottom of
the screen, in capitals, black on white, in typeface familiar from comics).
There are also many sections of the lm where we intercut easily between
sequences showing the original American Splendor comic panels and the
lms melodramatic constructions. The lms title sequence, for example,
introduces both Pekar and examples of his art. From the caption Our
story begins, we cut to Giamatti, walking on the streets of Cleveland. He
is framed by a comic strip border around the edge of the frame, then the
camera tracks from one comic panel to the next, as if the viewer is reading a live-action comic book. The tracking mimics a reader following the
layout of a comic book, and in each panel live action featuring the actor is
alternated with actual panels from Pekars American Splendor, with speech
balloons that introduce the lead character. This deliberate blurring of the
line between different forms of representation cues audiences to the expectation that such techniques will be used throughout the lm.
Later in the lm, there is a complex montage sequence which attempts
to represent the scope of Pekars American Splendor over the decades of its
publication. Here dramatizations featuring Giamatti are intercut with the
American Splendor panels that the scenes are directly based on, while this
montage is accompanied by jazz music on the soundtrack. Each live action
scene is played rst, then freezes, and fades into the original comic panel.
The panels selected represent highlights from the years of American Splendor comics, including many of the various key phrases and situations for
which the comic has become known. Giamatti in live action, and the car[ 194 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
Fig. 5. The opening credit sequence from

American Splendor, the lm, showing the
use of live footage contained within the
panels of a conventional comic layout.
toon Pekar, are seen reecting on washing dishes, buying records, riding on
the bus, gluing his coat together, drinking coffee in a caf, and noting his
disappointment at his reection in a mirror.
In one sense, American Splendor here validates comics as simply another means of conveying information about Pekar. However, the inclusion
of comics panels also highlights how difcult it is for audio-visual media
to incorporate examples of Pekars print media. To bridge the gap between
the static print media of the comic and the moving images of lm, the lm
uses a rudimentary form of animation (a comparatively innovative technique for drama-documentary12). The lm takes individual panels from
the comic and animates cutouts of sections of the panel (for example, only
Pekars hands and mouth moving while the rest of the panel stays static).
These animations transform the original comic panels into a more accessible format for moving pictures.
Animation is used most extensively in the inevitable epiphany sequence; the scenes within a drama-documentary which portray a climactic point in the lead character life and/or work. Here we see Giamatti reach
the moment when he realizes the artistic vision that will inspire his alternative approach to comics. Waiting to be served at a supermarket, we see
and hear Giamattis internal dialogue over the frustrations of waiting in
queues. As we freeze on a closeup of Giamatti, a thought balloon appears
next to his head: Picking the right check-out line is an art . . . theres a lots
of things you gotta consider (the writing is in the same cartoon script
used in the lms captions).
[ 195 ]
Fig. 6. One of the scenes featuring

comic aesthetics: the frustrated internal
monologue of Harvey (Giamatti), waiting
in a queue at the supermarket.
As he is forced to wait behind an old Jewish lady engaged in a

lengthy discussion with the stores manager we see a captioned thought
balloon, then a cutout Pekar animation within a thought balloon, then a
full-length cutout animation of Pekar in split-screen, then nally cutout
animations of Pekar pop up each side of Giamattis head. For each of these
animations, Pekars scripted voice-over serves as the soundtrack, as he rants
against the injustice of waiting in supermarket queues. Inspired by the incident, Giamatti works all night, then meets future collaborator Crumb to
articulate his (Pekars) comic philosophy. He explains that while underground comics such as Crumbs are subversive and have opened things up
politically there is still plenty more that could be done to attract an adult
readership, that comics could be more of an art form. Explaining that he
has tried to write some material that is about real life, he states that this
is no idealized shit, no phony bullshit, its the real thing. Ordinary life is
pretty complex stuff. The last sentence is Pekars slogan, appearing on his
comics and his website.
As noted above, the more complex integration of documentary elements within conventional drama-documentary invariably serve to deepen
a texts persuasive effect. In American Splendor, graphic elements and animation are added to the conventional mix of representational techniques,
but here the effect is arguably that a more complicated relationship is established with the lms audience. These combinations do attempt to suggest a seamless ow between different modes of representation, but there is
also the deliberate opening of a space for a commentary on both comic and
[ 196 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
drama-documentary forms. In one key scene, when Brabner (Davis) comes

to Cleveland to rst meet Pekar (Giamatti), animations are used to foreground the slippery nature of comic representation. Waiting at the train
station, she surveys nearby people and imagines what Pekar actually looks
like (having only seen his comics). We see full-size cutout animations of
different cartoon versions of Pekar, in the variety of ways in which artists
over the decades have drawn him (with varying degrees of attractiveness).
She then meets Giamatti in the esh, and the audience has the opportunity to recognize that he is simply another, more naturalistic, representation of Pekar himself.
There are also more explicitly reexive scenes within the lm. The key
such scene occurs after Giamatti has a conversation about life and gourmet
jelly beans with his workmate Toby Radloff (Judah Friedlander). As Giamatti ponders the beans, we cut to a side shot of director Pulcini behind
the camera, directing Giamatti. After Pulcini yells cut, the camera tracks
from Giamatti over to a catering table, laden with food, where the real
Pekar and Toby are conducting a similar conversation. Giamatti and Friedlander leave the table to sit on folding chairs at the rear of the studio. As the
visuals cut to shots of Toby being photographed in the studio for publicity
shots, we hear him interviewed in voice-over talking about loneliness and
his relationship with Pekar. We then cut back to the conversation between
Pekar and Toby, as they agree on strategies to combat loneliness.
There are multiple layers to this scene, arising from the sudden collapse of any boundary between the narrative and documentary sequences.
The conversation between the real Pekar and Toby appears within the
white studio of the documentary segments, but it is scripted. It allows the
lm to directly compare the performances particularly of the real and fake
Tobys. It quite explicitly ruptures not only the fourth wall of the narrative sequences but of the documentary sequences as well, with co-director
Pulcini appearing in frame and Giamatti and Friedlander straying into the
documentary space where we have seen Pekar. These sequences explicitly foreground a key subtext from the previous sections of the lm; that
is, a commentary on the nature of any representation of reality (whether
Pekars comics, documentary or the drama-documentary form of the lm).
All are viewed as legitimate and perhaps equal forms of representing social experience.
[ 197 ]
In part this commentary also subverts the validity of the dramadocumentary form itself, in that it so directly questions its own claims to
an authoritative perspective on Pekar and his work. At another level, this
strategy appears legitimate as a means of representing the overall perspective and agenda of Pekar and his comic books.
American Splendor, the comic, is a deliberate rejection of mainstream (superhero) comic narrative, just as American Splendor the lm disrupts the
audiences expectations of the realist mainstream (Hollywood) dramadocumentary. Pekar has continued his own ruminations on the validity of
strategies of representation in Our Movie Year, which collates his observations of the production, construction and reception of the lm. The manner in which American Splendor the lm incorporates elements of comic
forms adds to this overall agenda; emphasizing the constructed nature of
the lms narrative, expressing an irritation with the lack of representations of real life in popular media, questioning the motives of the lmmakers themselves, and so on. In turn, this constant emphasis on the nature of representation itself offers a commentary on the nature of comics
as a medium. Paul Giamatti playing Pekar within the lm is a mirror of
Robert Crumb drawing Pekar in the comic; simply another means of representing the reality of Pekars life, and just as implicated with issues of
authenticity and distortion that are central to any such representation,
within any medium. In other words, American Splendor the drama-documentary, precisely because it draws so self-consciously from both comic
and lm elements, allows for a foregrounding of a complex commentary
on the distinctive nature of each of these forms of media. In the process
the lm demonstrates a respect for the comic book as an art form that
other comic book adaptations (Spider-Man, Batman, From Hell, and the
like) never even attempt.
[ 198 ]
CRAIG HIGHT
EL SANTO
T H E C A S E O F A M E X I C A N M U LT I M E D I A H E R O
D AV I D W I LT
The relationship between comic strips (and later, comic books)

and motion pictures began relatively early in the history of each medium.
Cartoonist Winsor McKay created the Little Nemo in Slumberland newspaper comic strip in 1905, followed by a 1911 animated version (with J.Stuart
Blackton), while Ham Fishers Mutt and Jeff made their newspaper debut in 1907, and their rst animated cartoon in 1913. These are just two examples: numerous Hollywood feature lms, serials, and animated shorts
of the silent and sound eras were based on comic strips and comic books.
Less frequent but far from unknown were cases in which actual people,
usually movie stars or other celebrities, were honored by the creation of
comics in their image. Charlie Chaplin was the star of live action movies,
a newspaper comic strip, and an animated cartoon. U.S. readers could purchase comic books starring John Wayne, Frank Buck, Roy Rogers, Jerry
Lewis, Bob Hope, and others. For the most part, these comic book characters were merely extensions of the stars public persona. For example,
cowboy actor Roy Rogers appeared in Western adventure stories as if he
were a real cowboy.
In Mexico, media crossovers were also not unknown. At least three ctional charactersEl Monje Loco [The Mad Monk], Kalimn, and Carlos
Lacroixwere featured in comic books, radio series, and motion pictures.
As in the U.S., movie stars like Pedro Infante, Mara Flix, and comedian
Gaspar Henaine Capulina appeared in comic book series utilizing their
[ 199 ]
likenesses. And nearly two dozen live-action feature lms were adapted
from Mexican comic books between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s.
The case of Mexican wrestler El Santo is different. Rodolfo Guzmn
Huerta, the man beneath the silver mask, was a professional athlete whose
life and career were drastically altered by his forays into comic books and
motion pictures. And, unlike Bob Hope or John Wayne, Guzmn Huerta
personally participated in the production of the comic books bearing his
name and image, at least for the rst twenty-ve years or so that the magazine was published.
Guzmns wrestling career lasted nearly fty years, and he continues
to be instantly recognizable (and commercially viable) more than twenty
years after his death. But this fame is not based solely on his exploits as a
professional wrestlerthe comic book and movie careers of El Santo elevated him from the status of a popular athlete (in a sport somewhat less
marginal in Mexico than it is in the U.S.) to that of a national cult idol.
Also signicant is the manner in which comic books and lms changed
Santos public persona: unlike most celebrity tie-ins designed to capitalize
on an individuals existing fame, the Santo comics and movies materially
enhanced and altered his public image from a tough-guy professional wrestler popular chiey with acionados of that sport, to a heroic multimedia
superhero with a much broader fan base.
Although wrestling exhibitions (mostly featuring foreign grapplers) had
been held in Mexico during the rst three decades of the twentieth century, professional wrestlingknown as lucha librereally began in 1933
when Salvador Lutteroth Gonzlez sponsored various matches in Mexico
City and formed the Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL). Originally, most of the participants were imported wrestlers, but Mexicans soon
began to dominate the sport and the public responded positively. One convert was the teenaged Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta, a talented athlete whose
favorite sport to that point had been American football. Since there was no
opportunity for a professional football career in Mexico, Guzmn chose
wrestling instead.
Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta was born in Tulancingo in the Mexican
state of Hidalgo on 23 September 1917, one of seven children (three of Ro-
[ 200 ]
D AV I D W I LT
dolfos brothers would also become professional wrestlers). The Guzmn

family moved to Mexico City in the 1920s. As a teenager, Rodolfo held
various other jobs (painter, carpenter, mechanic) before and after beginning his wrestling career in 1934. In the ring he was rst known as Rudy
Guzmn, then switched to El Hombre Rojo [The Red Man], and later
El Murcilago II [The Bat #2], capitalizing on the fame of another popular wrestler of the day, Jess Murcilago Velzquez. Forced to drop this
identity when the original Bat complained, Guzmn adopted yet another
identity: El Santo, el Enmascarado de Plata [The Saint, the Silver-Masked
One] (Corts and Martnez 6, 8).
The name El Santo and the use of a silver mask were the fruits of a
discussion between Guzmn and wrestling promoter Chucho Lomel during which various potential names were proposed. In later years, Guzmn
said he chose El Santo based on the popularity of the Leslie Charteris
Saint novels and lms; the idea of a silver mask was allegedly inspired by
Alexandre Dumass novel The Man in the Iron Mask.
Guzmn appeared in the ring as El Santo for the rst time in July
1942, losing to El Lobo Negro (wholike Guzmns erstwhile model
Murcilago Velzquezwould later act in numerous movies, including
many Santo lms). From the rst, Santo was a rudo, or tough-guy wrestler
(as opposed to a tcnico, or skilled wrestler). This denomination did not always signify a villainous ring character, but rudos are noted for their brutal
ghting style and occasional dirty tricks.
Guzmns new identity quickly became successful, both in the ring
and with the fans. He won championships in the welterweight, middleweight, and light heavyweight classes in 1943, 1944, 1946, 1953, 1954, 1956,
and 1966 (Wrestling-Titles.com).1 In 1944, El Santo formed a tag team
with Gori Guerrero that was dubbed La Pareja Atmica [The Atomic
Partners]. The Santo comic book which began publication a few years later
was originally subtitled Una Revista Atmica [An Atomic Magazine],
perhaps alluding to this well-known teams nickname.2
By 1950, El Santo was a star in the wrestling world, but relatively little
known outside of the sports acionados. This would soon change. In May
1951, professional wrestling debuted on Mexico Citys XEW-TV; by early
the following year, the sport had become so popular with TV audiences
E L S A N T O : M E X I C A N M U LT I M E D I A H E R O
[ 201 ]
that a special ring was erected in the television studios and a regular Saturday program of matches was initiated.3
Almost overnight, a sport previously accessible only to those who
made the effort to attend matches in person, either in the Arena Mxico
in the capital or in one of countless smaller venues in the provinces, became freely available to anyone with access to a television set. While Mexican television was in its infancy and only a small percentage of the population owned sets, many more could view television in bars, stores, and
other shared settings. Attendance at live wrestling matches was, like boxing, chiey an adult male pastime prior to 1951, but televising the matches
meant anyone who was curious about the sportwomen, children, old,
young, poor, richcould see the event at no cost. This development probably encouraged at least some in the television audience to attend live
events in person, and anecdotal evidence suggests that wrestling crowds
became more heterogeneous in the 1960s and later. At the very least, television gave the sport a much higher prole than it had enjoyed previously.
The sudden surge in wrestlings popularity was not lost on other media.
In 1952 alone, four motion pictures were made about professional wrestling. The comic book industry also responded.
Mexican comic booksknown as historietasevolved from newspaper
comic strips like their counterparts in the U.S. While various newspaper
supplements and magazines containing comic strips were issued in the
early 1930s, the Mexican comic book is generally considered to have begun
with the publication of Adelaido el conquistador [Adelaido the Conqueror].
Adelaido began in 1932, and lasted about one hundred weekly issues. However, the rst long-running and successful comic magazine was Paqun,
which started in 1934. Originally containing only reprints of U.S. newspaper comic strips (the title character was in fact the renamed Henry
comic created by Carl Anderson), Paqun was soon joined by Paquito (1935),
Pepn, and Chamaco (both 1936) (Aurrecoechea and Bartra I 4649, 52). As
the titles suggest, these comics were initially aimed at children, but were
swiftly taken up by adults as well. More Mexican content was included,
and eventually there was a fairly clear demarcation between reprints of
U.S. material and books with most or all Mexican stories. Pepn, arguably
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the most successful of the early anthology comic books, was originally a
weekly comic, went to a thrice-weekly schedule in 1938, and was published
daily after 1940. This title was so popular that the term pepines was often
used generically in Mexico to refer to comic books (Rubenstein 18).
This frantic pace of publicationwith mostly new material, not
reprintswas possible because the comic books were composed of multiple stories by different artists. Each feature ran only a few pages, and was
generally part of a continued story from day to day (or week to week). For
example, Pepn number 1358 (10 Dec. 1942) contains nine separate comic
stories (and a few single-page features) in its sixty-four interior pages,
which measure 5.5 by 7.5 inches and usually have only two or three panels
per page.
One of the artists who contributed to Pepn was Jos G. Cruz, who
became something of a celebrity and received above the title credit on
his series (Rubenstein 23). Jos Guadalupe Cruz was born in the state of
Jalisco in 1917, the same year as Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta; in 1934, the year
Guzmn rst appeared in the wrestling ring, Cruz made his professional
cartooning debut. Although some would later claim Cruz developed the
fotomontaje technique to compensate for his artistic shortcomings, Cruz
had been a successful artist for a number of years before turning to fotomontaje, and in later years would paint many evocative covers for the Santo
comic book.
Cruz was an ambitious young man who branched out into other elds,
including radio and motion pictures. In addition to using his own image as
the hero of some of his comic books, he acted on the radio and appeared in
dramatic roles in a dozen movies between 1947 and 1954. Twenty-two feature lms during the same period were either adapted from his comic book
stories and/or were based on screen stories specially written by Cruz.
In 1948, Cruz left Pepn and started his own publishing company,
Ediciones Jos G. Cruz. Many of Cruzs stories for Pepn and for his own
magazines were urban melodramas with crime elements, but he was also
very successful with the long-running rural adventure strip Adelita y
las guerrillas [Adelita and the Guerrillas] (published in Pepn and other
venues and then as a separate title). However, his most successful publication was undoubtedly Santo, el Enmascarado de Plata.
[ 203 ]
Fig. 1. Santo and his magical girlfriend

Kyra, surrounded by photographs
of wood nymphs (including Rita
Hayworth, behind Santo) taken from
various sources.
Curiously, for a magazine otherwise quite well known and documented,

the date of the rst Santo comic book is unclear. Armando Bartra cites August 1952, but October 1951 is given in other sources. (Bartra 47; Matamoros
Durn 52) Originally a weekly, the comic book went to a thrice-weekly
schedule (Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays) in September 1953. Horacio Robles, employed by Cruz on the magazine for many years, later said
the publisher wanted to publish daily, but was dissuaded by his overworked
staff. (Matamoros Durn, 55) Circulation gures vary widely. Bartra says
a conservative estimate would be 300,000 copies per issue (47), while
550,000 copies (Matamoros Durn 56) and even 900,000 copies three
times a week all over the Spanish-speaking world (Rubenstein 138) have
been cited. Even if the lowest number is used, 900,000 copies of the comic
were sold weekly, and each magazine undoubtedly passed through multiple hands. Armando Bartras research indicates new comic books were
read by an average of ve people andas the used comic was sold, traded,
rented, or read by patrons of barber shops and other places of business
the total reached a dozen readers. (Hinds and Tatum 6) Old issues of Santo
comics were also bound into large compilation volumes of over 250 pages
which increased readership even further.
Santo was distributed widely throughout Latin America. Issues published in Colombia during the 1970s and 1980s are labeled for sale in
Colombia, Venezuela, the U.S.A., Puerto Rico, Ecuador, the Dominican
Republic, Panama, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guate[ 204 ]
D AV I D W I LT
mala. These reprints were published under license from Jos G. Cruz, with
the exception of the nal Colombian series that began in 1986 and which
reprinted some of Santos earliest adventures from the 1950s, although updated with a new image of Santo.
The original version of the Santo comic was like its predecessors, such
as Paqun and Pepn, printed on newsprint (including the covers). Although
the covers were in color, the interiors were printed in sepia tone (sepia or
black-and-white interiors would be consistent throughout the magazines
run), as were most Mexican comic books until at least the 1960s. Later,
glossy covers were added, alternating photographs of El Santo and artwork of him, usually drawings or paintings by Jos G. Cruz. The covers
were usually not directly related to the story inside, instead depicting more
abstract conicts between Santo and the Loch Ness Monster, vampires,
witches, werewolves, aliens, gangsters, spies, and so forth. Proof the Santo
comic had an almost immediate impact is the speed with which movie
company Filmex rushed a motion picture version into production. Shooting started in October 1952 on El Enmascarado de Plata, directed by Ren
Cardona from a story by Cardona and Jos G. Cruz. Oddly enough, the
star of the lm was not Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta El Santo, but another
masked professional wrestler known as El Mdico Asesino [The Killer
Doctor, real name Cesreo Manrquez Gonzlez]. Guzmn wrote a letter
to a contemporary sports magazine stating that the truth was that the
lm [did not suit] my economic interests, and that is what I said . . . at the
same time expressing my regrets for not doing it. To justify the use of the
comic books title for the movie, one of two masked villains was called El
Enmascarado de Plata, but for all other intents and purposes El Mdico
Asesino took the Santo role, and his white mask was close enough to Santos silver mask to satisfy casual fans. El Mdico Asesino adopted the comic
book Santos origin story (he became a crime ghter after his parents
were killed by criminals), has a secret laboratory, is a popular wrestler, and
never reveals his real identity. The lm was released as a multichapter serial
in U.S. Spanish-language theatres, but in Mexico it was shown as a rather
long feature lm.
Meanwhile, the Santo comic book continued its successful run. Jos
G. Cruz wrote the stories (as he did for almost all of the magazines he
published throughout his career), but the artwork was the product of a
[ 205 ]
Fig. 2. Santo and a friend travel back in time

and meet Judas Iscariot at the scene of the
Crucixion. These panels demonstrate the
layered look of early 1950s fotomontaje,
combining multiple photographs and drawn
elements.
team led by Jos Trinidad Romero and his brothers, along with Jess Tovar,
Arturo Dvila, El Brujo Velasco, and Horacio Robles (Matamoros Durn
54). After 1956, Trinidad Romero and his brothers went to work for another
publisher and Robles took over Santo, adding his brothers Hugo and Oliverio
to the team. They produced the book for Cruz until it ceased publication
in 1980 (although some stories in the nal years were revised reprints from
the 1950s). The styles of the Trinidad Romero and Robles teams were rather
different: the early issues are very dark and the fotomontaje is extremely
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D AV I D W I LT
Fig. 3. The image of Santo is a photograph,

while the rest of these panels are drawn art,
a tendency of artist Horacio Robles, who
replaced J. Trinidad Romero on the Santo
magazine after 1956.
layered and intricate, while in later years the visuals are brighter and fewer
elements are combined in each panel, resulting in a simpler look.
Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta also participated in the creation of each issue, posing for photographs that were used as part of the fotomontaje style,
although Horacio Robles admits he sometimes lled in when El Santo was
out of town on a wrestling tour. This made Santo, el Enmascarado de Plata
the only comic book where the protagonist really existed and [participated] in the creation of almost every issue (Matamoros Durn 56). In
the 1970s, Jos G. Cruz and El Santo had a falling out, with mutual lawsuits resulting, but there was no winner and the only ones who received
any money were, as always, the lawyers (Matamoros Durn 57). The bitter
[ 207 ]
dispute resulted in the replacement of Guzmn Huerta as the photographic

model for El Santobodybuilder Hctor Pliego, the new hero, was given a
mask with an S on the forehead. Later reprints of 1950s Santo stories were
touched up so that El Santo wore the new mask, and in some cases photos
of Pliegos body were pasted over the old images of Guzmn Huerta
although the rest of the panels were originalto complete the revision.
The Santo comic ran advertisements promoting the new, rejuvenated, and
modernized Santo!
By the end of the 1970s, circulation of the now weekly comic had
dropped to 100,000 per month (Herner 124). Huracn Ramrez, also featuring a wrestler-superhero,4 was selling twice that, but the most popular comic of this era was Kalimn, another superhero title, which sold two
million copies of each weekly issue (Herner 122). In 1980 Jos G. Cruz
who had become extremely wealthy thanks to his publishing activities
abruptly canceled the title (in the middle of a continued story) and moved
to Los Angeles, where he died later in the decade.
Santos comic book legacy did not completely end with the cessation of the Jos G. Cruz magazine. In 1985, a new comic book starring
El Hijo del Santo (Santos son, himself a professional wrestler and occasional movie star) began publication, although it was a traditional (drawn
artwork) comic rather than in fotomontaje style. This was not immediately successful, nor was a later series. El Santo was featured in at least
one issue (number 425) of the comic Sensacional de Luchas, and in 2001
an English-language Santo comic was planned for U.S. release, but canceled after negotations between El Hijo del Santo (who owns the rights
to his fathers character) and the publishers broke down. However, a new
comicSanto, la Leyenda de Plata [Santo, the Silver Legend]began publication in February 2005 by Carol Ediciones in Mexico. This comic book
(with drawn art) features the ctional adventures of El Hijo del Santo (although in the magazine as well as the ring he is now generally referred to
just El Santo).
A discussion of the formal attributes of the Santo comic is in order. If a
comic book is a magazine composed of drawn comic strips, then Santo
does not qualify, since the artwork was created via a technique known as
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D AV I D W I LT
fotomontaje. This style should not be confused with the fotonovela (photonovel), a format consisting of comic strip-style stories composed solely of
photographs (usually posed specically for the story, although stills from
TV shows or movies are sometimes used for magazine tie-ins). Only
rarely were modications (other than dialogue balloons and the occasional
sound effect) made to these photos. For example, Fotomisterio 182 (3 Jan.
1976) consists of fty pages with at least four panels per page, and only one
panel is not a simple photograph (and that one is merely a pasteup of two
photos). Comic strips consisting of posed photographs date back to the
1920s in Mexico, but the magazine-length fotonovelas were most popular in
the 1960s and 1970s, to some degree replacing the more elaborate fotomontaje process. According to Mexican comic historians Juan Manuel Aurrecoechea and Armando Bartra,
Fotomontaje is something else. It substitutes photos for drawings, maintaining the language of the comic, which signies
overlaying balloons . . . drawing force lines, drawing [sound
effects] and, if necessary, cutting and pasting different photos,
retouching them and, frequently, adding the missing elements
with the pen. The Mexican fotohistorieta of the 1940s isnt the
work of photographers that ventured into the narrative genre,
it is an amplication of the language of the comic, developed
by professional cartoonists who found in photographic collage
a fruitful extension of the pen and pencil. And it is also, and
above all, an effort to introduce the maximum verisimilitude
possible in the comic books, appropriating the proverbial faithfulness to reality of the photographer. (Aurrecoechea and Bartra
II 194)
Fotomontaje emerged in Mexican comic books around 1943, and seems to
have been developed almost simultaneously by Ramn Valdiosera and Jos
G. Cruz. Aurrecoechea writes that even if Cruz didnt invent the technique,
there is no argument that he is its most prolic and creative practitioner
(Aurrecoechea II 195, 197).
The fotomontaje process was arguably more labor intensive than
[ 209 ]
traditional, drawn comic books, requiring not only the original conception of each comic book panel, but a painstaking elaboration of this image by means of photographic and artistic collage (as compared to a comic
book artist simply drawing the images). The choice of fotomontage over
artwork therefore required a decision on the part of the publisher, a philosophical or artistic decision rather than a purely nancial one (at least
in terms of production costs). The realism of fotomontaje was its selling
point: although the images were manipulated, sometimes extensively, they
were still intrinsically more real than a cartoon drawing.
Some publishers, like Jos G. Cruz, committed themselves to fotomontaje for most or all of their titles, while others printed both traditional comic books and titles in fotomontaje, depending upon the genre.
Fotomontaje was not necessarily limited to use in comic books with urban,
contemporary settings. Jos G. Cruz and others published magazines with
cowboy and other rural and period themes, and even humor series were
done in the fotomontaje format. It appears, however, that the most popular and enduring series utilizing fotomontaje were contemporary dramatic genres, including crime stories, adventure books like El Santo, and
urban romantic melodramas such as the anthology series Aydeme Doctora Corazn. Humor comic books (Los Supersabios and La familia Burrn, for example), and titles with exotic settings (Kalimn, Chanoc, Alma
Grande) were more often done in the traditional (drawn) cartoon format.
When used for contemporary urban melodramas, fotomontaje seems
relatively innocuous, although the use of photographed rather than drawn
faces adds an air of verisimilitude to the stories. Various Cruz comics in
this format were adapted to motion pictures, and at least one of his models, Roberto Romaa, actually made the transition from comic book actor to movie actor. But El Enmascarado de Plata was a radical departure
from realistic melodrama: Cruz and Jos Trinidad Romero used the fotomontaje process to create a fantasy world (Bartra 4849). Through the addition and manipulation of photographs and drawingswhether new or
recycled from other publicationsthe real (photographed) Santo faced
vampires, werewolves, and aliens, traveled to Hell, the jungle, tropical islands, ew through the air, and generally behaved like ctional superheroes in other comics.
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D AV I D W I LT
Fig. 4. Santo beheads a giant, a

combination of various photographic and
drawn elements by Horacio Robles.
What effect did the fotomontaje process have on the impact of the
Santo comic books? The use of photographs of a real person (since El
Santo never revealed his face or true identity, he was not perceived as an
actor playing a role) led to an almost subliminal perception of reality
on the part of readers. Horacio Robles says El Santo once complained to
him about the ying ability of the comic book Santo, saying audiences expected him to do the same at personal appearances (Matamoros Durn 56).
It is unlikely that a comic book featuring drawn artwork would have made
such an impression on its readers. An additional touch of verisimilitude occurred whenat least in the early yearsthe comics sometimes contained
topical references suggesting that the stories were happening almost in real
time: Bartra cites a recreation of the famous Santo-Black Shadow wrestling match, and another story set at the Atayde circus, which had just been
playing the Mexico City area (Bartra 54).5
Consequently, although Santos printed adventures soon veered into
the realm of the fantastic, they were still rooted in a photographic pseudoreality. This may have even made Santos transition to motion pictures
smoother. For example, readers of Superman comics may or may not have
been pleased with the way the titular superhero was portrayed on the
screen: perhaps they disliked the actor chosen, or the overall look of the
[ 211 ]
Fig. 5. An example of the existential nature

of Santos early adventures: Santo confronts
Satan himself! (from 1953).
movie. However, Santo comic acionados were seeing the same person in
the same costume, whether they were reading the magazines or watching
the lms.
He began as an almost normal wrestler, who fought on Sundays, defended
good-hearted people, and had his [own] apartment. But later, Jos G. Cruz
began to enjoy himself with his character and had him travel the world,
through strange places and dimensions, meeting fabulous and terrifying
personages such as the Devil himself or the Virgin of Guadalupe (Bartra 56).
Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta in the professional wrestling ring was a rudo,
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D AV I D W I LT
noted for his furious style and often bloody matches. But, as comic book
historian and anthropologist Armando Bartra notes, if Santo, the one in
the ring, was a rudo . . . the Santo of the comic books is an avenging archangel, a warrior of the Lord and the greatest enemy of Satan (53). In creating the comic Santo, el Enmascarado de Plata, Jos G. Cruz borrowed little
more than the physical likeness of Santo and his identity as a wrestler (although the latter trait would later be dispensed with almost entirely, with
Santo becoming a full-time superhero). In fact, the Santo origin story in
the comic books was reminiscent of other comic characters like Batman:
Santos parents were killed by criminals, and he became a crimeghter to
bring the murderers to justice, then decided to help other people with their
problems. None of this was related in any way to the wrestling persona of
El Santo (although at least his name was appropriate for a heroic gure).
The Santo comics over the years featured a wide variety of villains,
from run-of-the-mill gangsters and sinister Communist agents to demons, vampires, aliens, and other fantastic creatures. The latter type of
stories seemed to predominateas they did in Santos movieselevating
the hero to something beyond a simple enforcer of the law. Santo did
not just capture bank robbers, he saved people from horrible supernatural
ends, serving as a representative of Good versus Evil incarnate. Jos G.
Cruzs tales, particularly in the rst decade of publication, helped cement
El Santos larger than life image: the writer took plots from lms, novels,
short stories, legends, truculent stories [told by ones] nanny, police station
gossip, historical events, newspaper articles. Also Greek-Latin mythology . . . some epic poems, and above all the sacred Scriptures (Bartra 28).
The Santo comic book helped broaden the wrestlers fan base. Historietas had become more specialized, beginning in the early 1950s, although
there was a split between adult and childrens titles as early as the 1930s.
But the multistory and multicharacter publications like Pepn began to
disappear as more focused titles emerged: Historietas began to aim themselves at increasingly well-dened segments of their audience, rather than
offering something for everyone . . . consumers could choose among rural
romances and urban humor comics, among comics starring superheroes,
real-life matinee idols, or wrestlers (Rubenstein 33).
While the Santo magazine was read by adults, it also targeted a younger
audience. The youth readership of the comics was specically addressed a
[ 213 ]
Fig. 6. This combination of photographs

with drawn embellishment is typical of
the fotomontaje technique of J. Trinidad
Romero. From Santo no. 54 (30 April
1953).
number of times. For example, the cover of a December 1955 issue shows
Santa Claus and El Santo bringing toys to a sleeping child on Christmas
Eve. A 1958 issue features Santo and a child on the coverhe is saying All
children should be attentive and studious in school and obey their parents! An issue from 1954 depicts Santo handing a little girl a doll, with the
caption Not only is Santo the greatest idol of the public, but he is also the
best friend that children have ever had. Of course, to prove the magazine
was not aimed solely at young readers, these covers alternated with those
showing Santo being strangled by a mummy, punching gangsters, confronting aliens, wrestling vampires and robots, witnessing an atomic explosion, and enjoying the company of various scantily clad women. Nor
were the contents aimed at young children, with gory murders, monsters,
streetwalkers, children in peril, and similar situations frequently appearing in the stories.
Just as television had expanded the audience for professional wrestling, the Santo comic captured a new segment of the public for Rodolfo
Guzmn Huertas character. However, the connection only went so far: the
two worlds of El Santoprofessional wrestling and comic bookswere
only peripherally connected. In the early years of the comic book, some
mention was made of Santos real profession, and a few stories even revolved around wrestling, but as time went by the comic book stories largely
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D AV I D W I LT
ignored Santos career as an athlete, and presented him as a full-time superhero. Similarly, Santo (still a rudo) in the ring generally faced conventional
opponents rather than robots, mummies, werewolves, or vampires. The heroic character, supernatural villains, and exotic settings of the comic book
stories were not at all replicated in the professional wrestling aspect of Santos public life. Motion pictures completed the process of mythmaking and
thus elevated El Santo to the status of a national idol.
The success of professional wrestling on television inspired a brief wave
of wrestling-related lms in 1952. The four major movies made that year
varied in theme. La bestia magnca [The Magnicent Beast] was a sports
melodrama about two best friends who become wrestling rivals. The stars
were real-life wrestler Wolf Ruvinskis and athletic actor Crox Alvarado,
supported by glamorous actress Miroslava and various professional wrestlers. El luchador fenmeno [The Phenomenal Wrestler] was a fantasycomedy starring Adalberto Martnez Resortes. This movie was a sequel to
El beisbolista fenmeno [The Phenomenal Baseball Player] and illustrates
how wrestling had suddenly leaped to national prominence in Mexico: in
the rst lm, Resortes became a famous pitcher thanks to the supernatural
aid of a ghost; in El luchador fenmeno, he originally wants to extend his
prowess to soccer, but a deceased wrestler supplants a ghostly soccer player
and Resortes enters the ring instead. El Enmascarado de Plata, discussed
earlier, was a crime lm with a masked superhero in the lead, an imitation of Hollywood serials and American superhero comics. The fourth and
nal picture in the 1952 quarter was Huracn Ramrez, a wrestling melodrama-comedy about the son (David Silva) of an aging pro wrestler who
wrestles as the title character wearing a mask so his father will not know.
However, this brief wave of wrestling-related movies did not last.
Over the next few years there were some references to wrestling in Mexican cinema, but relatively few movies specically about the sport. Masked
heroes were also present, but not in a wrestling setting. The most popular
of these characters was La Sombra Vengadora [The Avenging Shadow]
played by wrestler Fernando Oss, who had a long career as a stuntman,
actor, screenwriter, producer, and directorwho appeared in a quartet of
1954 movies and occasional lms thereafter. La Sombra eventually made
the leap from screen to ring but was not very successful (as with HuraE L S A N T O : M E X I C A N M U LT I M E D I A H E R O
[ 215 ]
cn Ramrez, a ctional character would later be impersonated in the ring

by various journeymen professional wrestlers, losing the unity of identityand the concomitant link to realitywhich marked Santos career
in various media).
In late 1958 El Santo agreed to appear on the screen. His rst two movieslow-budget efforts shot in Cuba shortly before Fidel Castros rise to
powerare unusual experiments. In the rst picture, Cerebro del mal [Evil
Brain], Santo is not referred to by name at all, is not identied as a professional wrestler, and spends a large portion of the lm brainwashed into
helping the villain. A second masked hero, El Incgnito (played by Fernando Oss) handles most of the heroic action. In the second Santo lm,
Santo vs. hombres infernales [Santo vs. Infernal Men], he plays an agent
of the police but once again shares the heros role, this time with actor
Joaqun Cordero. At the end of the movie he departs to ght evil elsewhere.
Although Santo had no particular personality (and virtually no dialogue)
in either of these lms, the character is closer to the comic book version
than his ring persona, and ads for the lms (released in Mexico several
years after they were shot) clearly ballyhooed him as a superhero in crime
movies, not a wrestler in sports dramas.
Despite their rather poor quality overall, the rst Santo movies proved
popular and Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta signed a contract to make lms in
Mexico. The rst Mexican-made Santo picture, Santo contra los zombies
[Santo vs. the Zombies] went into production in March 1961 (in fact, some
months before the Cuban-lensed pictures had even been shown in Mexico
City). He made three more lms that year, including one (Santo contra el
rey del crimen) which features a Santo origin story (similar to Lee Falks
The Phantomthe Santo identity is passed from father to son, generation after generation). After a brief period in which he was utilized chiey
as a deux ex machinawith the plot being handled by professional actorsSanto was soon entrusted with the full burden of stardom in his
movies, including glimpses of a personal life, such as (varied) girlfriends,
a secret crime-ghting headquarters, and ashy sports cars (usually Santos
real-life personal vehicles).
Unlike the comic book series, Santos identity as a professional wrestler was reinforced in virtually all of Santos movies, which usually included several full-length wrestling matches. Some bouts were integrated
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D AV I D W I LT
into the plots, others inserted strictly to allow Santo to demonstrate the
reason for his fame (much as musical numbers would be included in lms
starring popular singers). However, the inuence of the comics on the
movies was strong. Just about any genre or setting was fair game: there
are straight crime lms, sports crime lms, science ction movies, horror
movies, jungle movies, a Western, rural adventure lms, spy movies, even
an outright comedy. Santos opponents included witches, vampires, werewolves, various iterations of the Frankenstein monster, mummies, Martians, a giant outer space blob, Nazis, neo-Nazis, Communists, and headhunters.
A few representative titles illustrate the tenor of Santos movie adventures: Santo contra las mujeres vampiro [Santo vs. the Vampire Women,
1962], Profanadores de tumbas [Grave Robbers, 1965], Santo el Enmascarado de Plata contra la invasin de los marcianos [Santo the Silver-Masked
Man vs. the Martian Invasion, 1966], Santo y Blue Demon contra los monstruos [Santo and Blue Demon vs. the Monsters, 1968], Santo y Blue Demon contra Drcula y el Hombre Lobo [Santo and Blue Demon vs. Dracula
and the Wolf Man, 1972], Misterio en las Bermudas [Mystery of the Bermuda Triangle, 1976]. Compare these to some of Santos comic book opponents: Rasputin, the Cyclops, the Minotaur, Dr. Death, the Headless Horseman, the Invisible Man, the Wolf Man, Merlin the Magician, the Killer
Dove with the Poisoned Beak, the Zombies, and the Giant Octopus. Thus,
the Santo movies contain aspects of both his wrestling and his comic book
personas (Bartra 52).6
Curiously, it appears El Santo, even when he was working amicably
with Jos G. Cruz, did not make a signicant effort to cross-promote the
various aspects of his career. The Cruz comics did not feature adaptations
of Santo movies, and as noted above, his professional wrestling career was
rarely mentioned in the comic stories after the early years. Nor did Santos
lms include scenes in which his comic books were shown or mentioned.
Some of this can be attributed to legal restrictions: Santo did not own the
comic book nor did he produce his own lms (until the early 1970s), so
the rights to each mediums representation were in the hands of others. It
is also possible he felt no need to help Cruz sell more copies of the comic
book (it is not known if his fee was tied to sales).
While Santo did not promote the comic book in his motion pictures
[ 217 ]
the Santo comic showed up in some non-Santo movies, including El guila

Descalza [The Barefoot Eagle, 1969], a superhero parody (based on a shortlived comic book itself ), and Las cariosas (1978). These attest to the ubiquitous nature of the publication, and depict its adult (albeit working-class)
readership. In El gran perro muerto [The Big Dead Dog, 1978], two dimwitted provincial policemen have an argument about who is the greater
superhero, Superman or El Santo. This latter example illustrates part of
Santos appeal: he was a home-grown, Mexican superhero, not an import from gringolandia. Although popular in other countries, Santo never
reached the status of national idol that he did in Mexico, where he was revered as a Mexican sports idol, movie star, and popular culture icon.
Between 1958 and 1982, El Santo appeared in fty feature lms, shot
in Mexico, the United States (Florida and Texas), Haiti, Ecuador, Spain,
Colombia, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba. These movies were made by various companies, with many different directors, writers, and performers. Sometimes Santo had a crime lab, sometimes not;
sometimes he had a girlfriend, sometimes not (and in any case, never the
same one twice); sometimes he had a sidekick (his real-life manager Carlos
Surez lled this role in various pictures), sometimes not. In many movies
Santo is a freelance superhero, ghting evil wherever he nds it, but in
other movies he works for the police, Interpol, even the FBI. The only consistent facet of the movies was Santo himself.7
After El Santo became a movie star, other masked wrestlers caught the
eye of Mexican movie producers. Blue Demon, a bitter rival of Santo in
the ring, ironically found himself cast as Santos partner in nearly a dozen
lms and also starred in his own series. There were also at least three Blue
Demon comic book seriesa fotomontaje version in the 1950s, a fotonovela
style comic in the late 1960s, and a drawn-art comic in the 1990s. Also cast
as movie superheroes were wrestlers Mil Mscaras, Tinieblas, Octagn, Atlantis, Mscara Sagrada, Vampiro Casanova, and other lesser lights, in addition to created-for-lm masked heroes like Huracn Ramrez and Superzn. But none achieved or even approached the same level of popularity
or lasting fame as El Santo.
Although Santo was a popular gure in the wrestling world during the late
1940s, it took the popularity of televised matches to provide the impetus
[ 218 ]
D AV I D W I LT
for the Santo comic books publication. Similarly, even though the comic
had been in existence for a decade, it was not until Santo became a movie
star that he changed his ring style to complement his ctional persona. On
5 July 1962, Santo made his rst ring appearance as a tcnico, discarding his
previous rudo identity: it was no longer necessary to be the bad and violent one of the story. Santo had achieved fame among children; thanks to
the hallucinogenic comic books of Jos G. Cruz and his rst lms, he was
completely renovated. From then on the Silver One never doubted his heroic identity [as] one chosen by God to do good on Earth (Rivera Caldern 43).
Santos movie career was the nal piece of the puzzle that elevated him
to the status of a major celebrity. Beginning in the 1960s, Santo was more
than just a wrestler, he became a popular idol who toured Mexico, Spain,
Latin America, and the United Statesnot only in wrestling matches, but
appearing on stage, in celebrity bullghts, at political rallies, and other
events. His name and image were ubiquitous: people all over Latin America
could visit their local sports arena and watch El Santo wrestle live; they
could see the matches on TV; they could go to the theatre and view Santo
in the movies; they could read Santo comic books every week, buy Santo
toysincluding action gures and mask-and-cape setsand, if they
were lucky, they might even meet El Santo at a public appearance and get
his autograph.
In 1982 the sixty-ve-year-old Santo retired from wrestling. Or more
accurately, he was forced to retire: after suffering a heart attack in the ring
in 1981 and having a pacemaker implanted, Santo lost his license to wrestle
professionally and made a farewell tour, participating in his nal match in
1982. But Santo was not ready for retirement, and continued to make personal appearances in various venues. In January 1984, he appeared on a TV
talk show with several other wrestlers and surprised everyone by partially
removing his mask, exposing most of his face. Less than two weeks later,
while appearing in a comedy skit at the Blanquita theatre in Mexico City,
El Santo suffered a heart attack and died. Thousands attended his funeral;
Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta was buried wearing the silver mask he had made
famous, and the marker on his tomb also features his masked image.
There is no simple explanation for El Santos enduring fame. His status as a wrestling celebrity was the reason for the creation of the comic
[ 219 ]
book that bore his name and image. The comic books popularityadded
to his sports renownresulted in an offer to make movies. His movie roles
completed the long starmaking process, which stretched from the 1940s
(wrestling) to the 1950s (comic book) and the 1960s (motion pictures).
This was by no means a coordinated campaign to create a multimedia star
(Guzmn Huerta was the only person involved in all of the areas and he
seems to have been more reactive than proactive in terms of new endeavors). However it happened, each aspect of Santos career was an essential
building block for his persona, and the result was that for two decades
the 1960s and 1970sEl Santo was a top professional wrestler and a major
movie star and featured in a comic book selling hundreds of thousands of
copies a month.
Twenty years after his death, El Santo is still an icon of Mexican popular culture. Although the comic book that originally helped propel him to
widespread celebrity is long gone (and eagerly sought by collectors), his
lms are still readily available on tape and DVD (including subtitled versions recently released for the rst time in the U.S.). In 2004, the Cartoon
Network in Mexico aired a new animated series about the Silver-Masked
Man, and in 2005 a new comic book series using his image began publication. While Rodolfo Guzmn Huerta is no longer alive, it appears El Santo
is truly immortal.
[ 220 ]
D AV I D W I LT
FROM BLOCKBUSTER TO FLOP?

T H E A P PA R E N T FA I L U R E ( O R P O S S I B L E T R A N S C E N D E N C E )
OF RALF KNIGS QUEER COMICS AESTHETIC IN
M AY B E . . . M AY B E N O T A N D K I L L E R C O N D O M
Ralf Knig, Germanys best-known comics artist, has been able

to parlay his satirical and often frank tales of the German gay scene into
such a degree of mainstream appeal that their adaptation into lm became
virtually inevitable, though not unproblematic. The rst lm, Der bewegte
Mann (U.S. title: Maybe . . . Maybe Not, 1994), was a huge hit but deeply
unsatisfying for Knig personally, while subsequent lm projects, whether
disappointing or fullling for the artist, have fallen far short of the rst
lms commercial and relative critical success. This failure is all the more
surprising given Knigs own popularity and his willingness to address a
widerthat is, a heterosexualaudience. Knigs negotiation of his own
openly gay identity, and that of his work, with a mainstream sensibility
raises tensions that have prompted Elmar Klages to suggest that his solution to this problem might be described as a coming in (58).
Knigs comicsand their translation into lmsillustrate aspects of
the ideology of gay issues in Germany and its representation in different
media. This chapter explores two of his comics and their respective lm
versions: the more mainstream Der bewegte Mann and the more graphic
and niche-oriented Kondom des Grauens. After discussing the ideological
similarities and differences between the two comics and their cinematic
versions, this chapter will conclude with a consideration of Knigs other
[ 221 ]
lm and television projects, as well as his own position in the context of

gay issues in German lm and comics.
Ralf Knig was born in 1960 in the small Westphalian town of Soest. Although he had always enjoyed drawing, after leaving school he trained as
a carpenter, a trade his parents thought practical (Voigt 35). In 1979, however, he came out as a homosexual; his participation in Homolulu, a weeklong festival in Frankfurt (2329 July 1979) celebrating the German Schwulenemanzipationsbewegung or gay liberation movement, inspired him to
give up the tradesmans life for good (Voigt 3536; Klages 59). He moved
to Dortmund and began publishing short comic strips in local gay newspapers and magazines such as magnus and Siegessule, as well as contributing to straight humor and satire magazines. He also began studying
graphic arts at the State Art Academy in Dsseldorf. In the following ve
years he produced four volumes of short cartoons, compiled under the title
Schwulcomix 14 (Gay Comix).1 During this period he not only honed his
craft as a cartoonist, but also developed what can be called, with some reservations, a queer aesthetic.
The term queer can itself be applied only awkwardly to German
homosexual culture. For one thing, whereas English queer has taken on
connotations of active resistance not only to a heterosexual mainstream
culture but also often to essentializing views of both sex and gender in
general, the word occurs only as a rare and academic loan word in German, lacking the emotional resonance that it has for native English speakers (Kuzniar 67). The German cognate quer, meaning sideways, odd,
lacks any sexual connotation, as does its close synonym schrg (diagonal, off beat). The German word schwul, on the other hand, originated
as a pejorative term for homosexuals but has been appropriated by the
gay community in a manner analogous to queer; however, it lacks the
English terms overtones of general oddness or difference. Depending on
context, schwul can thus be translated roughly equally as queer, gay, or
fag(got) (Wright, From Outsider 105; Kuzniar 67). Not everyone or
everything that is schwul, then, is necessarily queer.
At the same time, it is true that German homosexuals have had to rally
against a basically conservative mainstream culture and the strictures of
Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code (which from 1871 on forbade
[ 222 ]
both lewd acts between men and until 1969, bestiality). Nonetheless, they
have also experienced relative social tolerance, particularly during the days
of the Weimar Republic (19191932) and again in the last few decades. In
the intervening period, the Nazis infamously both broadened and strictly
enforced Paragraph 175 from 1935 on, interning homosexuals in concentration camps. It is less widely known that this interpretation of the law was
not repealed, but rather conrmed, by postwar West German courts. Thus,
well into the 1970s gays in Germany, though no longer herded into camps,
were liable to social persecution, public prosecution, and private blackmail
(Wright, From Outsider 102), leading to thousands of convictions and
countless suicides.
In the loosening social climate from the late 1960s on, however, the
law was mitigated by setting twenty-one as an age of consent for homosexual activity in 1969 (further lowered to eighteen in 1973). These rst
steps were an important factor in the upswing in the German gay liberation movement that culminated in the 1979 Homolulu festival (Wright,
From Outsider 102). However, in contrast to its American counterpart the
German movement lacked a Bill of Rights to which to appeal, the black
civil rights movement as a model (Kuzniar 260), and a set of specic,
achievable goals (Wright, From Outsider 98). Faced with increasing liberalization, after its post-1969 heyday the Schwulenemanzipationsbewegung
largely dissipated into a sense of assimilation and apolitical consumerism
(98). Paragraph 175 was nally abolished altogether in 1994, and the sense
of oppression that continues to fuel aggressively queer cultural strategies in
the Anglo-American sphere has thus ceased to exist in Germany (115). As a
result, by the turn of the twenty-rst century German gay lmmaker Rosa
von Praunheim (n Holger Mischwitzky) could declare, Especially in Germany, gay people seem passive and unpolitical ever since they got a piece of
the cake. They are no better than heterosexuals (Kuzniar 260).
Ralf Knigs comics aesthetic is nonetheless queer insofar as it fulls
Edd Sewells demand: Queer characters must be allowed to live in a queer
world doing queer things with the dominant culture playing a marginalized role (271). From early on, Knigs characters have been a stark contrast to the gay supporting characters Sewell describes in North American
mainstream comic strips. These gures are well integrated into heterosexual society in that they look and act straight before coming out as
RALF KNIGS QUEER COMICS AESTHETIC
[ 223 ]
queer, and they look and act in a manner appropriate to the dominant
heterosexual culture after coming out. . . . They come out and fade back in
rather quickly with no lasting consequences (253).
For the sociohistorical reasons outlined above, the emancipatory narrative of coming out has never played as important a role in German
gay society as in the American scene (Kuzniar 1819). Knigs characters
are thus always already out, whether conservative dressers, transvestites,
or leathermen; Knig is also queer in his refusal to privilege any particular model of (male) homosexuality. This does not mean that gays and
their milieu are idealized: Knig is as merciless in satirizing their pretensions, petty jealousies, and rivalries as he is sympathetic in depicting their
longings for real love, good sex, or both. In either case, the straight world
is marginalized, though hardly antagonized: if represented at all, heterosexuals are often depicted as foolish and pitiably inhibited, but seldom as
a threat. In one of Knigs cartoons, for instance, a gay customer addresses
a waitress: First, were gay [schwul], and second, well have two helpings
of assorted ice cream. The mans partner rolls his eyes at this self-outing,
but the blas waitress only replies, The rst doesnt interest me, and the
second with or without whipped cream? (Knigge 309).
Even more marginalizing, and arguably less queer, is Knigs ambivalent depiction of women, regardless of their sexual orientation. Knigs
1987 adaptation of Aristophanes Lysistrata, for example, portrays the eponymous character almost as the villain: her plan to deny the men of Athens
sexual favors until peace is declared with Sparta is motivated in part by her
own lesbianism and her desire to consort with her Spartan friends. She is
undone, however, when the transvestite Hepatitos (Knigs invention and
the real hero) convinces the Athenian warriors to engage in compulsory
homosexuality. By the end, the men have learned to do without women
in both kitchen and bedroom, and peace with Sparta ensues only because
the battles have become orgies. Lysistrata is shunned, and Zeus himself
threatens to descend and rape her, after which you sure wont be lesbian
any more! (Knig, Lysistrata 125). Is this a satirical critique of patriarchy,
or uncritical reinforcement? Knig has hardly defused criticisms of his attitude to women with his famous rejoinder, Women can no longer simply
be wished off the streets of a big city (Bartholomae, Mal mir mal 43). Accusations of outright misogyny, however, underestimate both the occa[ 224 ]
sional sympathy he shows for women and the jaundiced eye that he often
casts on both gay and straight men in his work. It might nonetheless be
justied to argue that Knig perceives and depicts an essentialand essentializingdifference between men and women far greater than the distance between gay and straight men.
As his condence as an artist increased, Knig was pleased by the relative success of the Schwulcomix volumes, but frustrated by the invisibility
of his gay-themed work on the larger cultural scene: published by the homosexual Verlag Rosa Winkel (literally, Pink Corner Press), the Schwulcomix series was generally relegated to gay bookstores, of which there were
then only four in all of West Germany (Ralf Knig). It is not only due to
the relatively peripheral position of homosexuals in society, however, that
Knigs rst major publications were published in gay magazines or collected in paperback form by gay publishers, rather than appearing as either
mainstream or alternative comics. Germany had never developed an active comics culture comparable to those in other western European countries, in part because the crucial events that marked the comic in its developmentthe adventure comic, the comic book, etc., occurred precisely
during [the Nazi era], and pictorial storytelling in Germany therefore remained stuck in the nineteenth century (Gasser et al. 24). The postwar
inux of American comics had only convinced German parents and authorities that the victors possessed a far more impoverished culture than
the vanquished (Springman 414): comics were regarded as Schmutz und
Schund (smut and trash), accused of fomenting illiteracy and encouraging brutality and pathological behavior. As Germany regained much of
its political autonomy, these criticisms had culminated in the well-known
law against disseminating publications that endanger youth (Gesetz ber
die Verbreitung jugendgefhrdender Schriften) of 1953 (Gasser et al. 25).
This law would eventually be applied against Knig, when his 1992 book
Dicke Ddel I: Bullenklten! (Thick Willies I: Bulls Balls!) was seized and
prosecuted in Bavaria. The presiding court did not uphold the case, nding Knigs work to be art in the sense of Article 5 of the German Basic
Law (Bartholomae, Herr Knig 79).
During the 1950s, only essentially conservative artists such as the popular adventure artist Hansrudi Wscher and the Disney-inspired entrepreneur Rolf Kauka had escaped censure, though without creating a united
[ 225 ]
and viable German comics culture (Dolle-Weinkauff 11725, 15457). In the

1960s, however, the rise of a youth-oriented popular counterculture in reaction to the conservatism of the previous decade had raised the prole of
comics. The German comics industry nonetheless still relied overwhelmingly on licensing translated versions of foreign comics such as Ren Goscinny and Albert Uderzos Astrix and the work of the American underground artist Robert Crumb (Gasser et al. 24, 27). It was such foreign
comics, including Astrix, Crumb, Phillipe Druillet, and Charles Schulzs
Peanuts, that would inspire Ralf Knig and other artists of his generation
later in the early 1980s (Klages 7981). Besides Knig, chief among these
were Walter Moers (1957 ), who was equally capable of writing charming
childrens cartoons such as Kptn Blaubrs Seemansgarn (Capn Bluebears
Seamans Yarn, 1988 ), or of appealing to adults with his imaginatively obscene comics series Der kleine Arschloch (The Little Arsehole, 1990 ); and
Brsel (Rtger Feldmann, 1950 ), creator of a bucktoothed, beer-swilling
slacker motorcyclist named Werner, whose anarchic adventures became a
cult hit, so far lling eleven volumes (1981 ). Although the styles of all
three artists show similarities, it was the sexually transgressive Knig who
was ultimately to become the most popular.
When he nished his art degree in 1986, encouraged by the fact that straight
readers were beginning to take notice of his work and by the increasing acceptance of homosexuality by the left-wing and alternative scenes in Germany, Knig quite deliberately set his sights on a wider audience. At the
prompting of one of Germanys most respected mainstream publishers,
Rowohlt Verlag, he produced his rst book-length comic, introducing a
straight man into a gay milieu. The books title, Der bewegte Mann (1987),
is something of a challenge to translate: here the phrase is a satirical use of
bewegt, which can mean moved in either the physical or emotional sense,
to describe a man who is taking part in the mens movement (Mnnerbewegung) by participating in consciousness-raising support groups and
so on. Thus the German title could be rendered as The New Man or The
Enlightened Man.
The man in question is Axel Feldheim, whom we rst see making a
half hearted suicide attempt after being left by his girlfriend Doro. Doros
shock and remorse become anger and disgust when she goes to the Ds[ 226 ]
seldorf hospital only to discover that he has been discharged; the sleeping tablets he took were too weak and too few even to bother pumping his
stomach. The rst few pages also introduce Norbert Brommer, a gay nebbish who is constantly being taken advantage of by his lovers and mocked
by his effeminate best friend Walter (who prefers to be addressed by the
womans name Waltraud). Waltraud takes part in a straight mens group
in order to explain gay issues to them, but he is also attracted to fellow
member Axel, whom he later invites to a party. Axel accepts in order to
take his mind off Doro, but after getting drunk at the party ends up at
Norberts at, where he confesses to a brief homosexual experience in the
army and Norbert develops a crush on him.
Axel and Norbert end up as part-time roommates, since Axel wants
to avoid his own at with its memories of Doro. During a visit to Axels
place to watch Casablanca on television, however, Norbert begins performing fellatio on Axel; suddenly they are interrupted by Doro, who still has a
key. Axel shoves Norbert into a wardrobe, where the suspicious Doro, expecting to nd a woman, nds him instead. Norbert dresses and escapes
hastily while a shaken Doro reveals that she is pregnant with Axels child.
Axel then breaks off his friendship with Norbert and marries Doro
though the wedding is spoiled somewhat by the uninvited arrival of a teary
Norbert and his friends in drag.
Rowohlt had set Knig certain conditions for Der bewegte Mann: no
explicit sex or erect penises, for example (Klages 67). Knig had willingly
complied, and the book appeared under Rowohlts humor-oriented paperback rororo tomate imprint; in the same year, Rowohlt also published
Knigs Lysistrata. With Rowohlts backing, Der bewegte Mann became an
even greater success than Knig could have dared hope. As a result, only
a year later the sequel, Pretty Baby: Der bewegte Mann 2 (1988), appeared
from the same publisher. Pretty Baby takes up the story only a few months
later, when Norbert has taken up a new relationship with a macho butcher
who prefers football and slasher lms to sex. Meanwhile, Doro is nearing
the end of her pregnancy; Axel nds her condition increasingly unerotic,
and his gaze has begun to wander. His constant excuses for not having sex
cause Doro to worry that Axel may after all be gay. When Axel runs into
old ame Elke, visiting from America, he makes a date with her for the
coming weekend, when Doro will be out of town. Doro, of course, cancels
[ 227 ]
her trip, forcing Axel to run to Norbert and inveigle him into lending Axel
his at for the evening; back home, Doro nds a hastily scribbled telephone
number and suspiciously dials it. When Norbert answers, her worst fears
seem to be conrmed. Axel invents a school reunion in Cologne and goes
off to meet Elke, while Norbert, Waltraud, and the butcher go to the movies to see Viscontis Death in Venice.
From this point, everything goes spectacularly and predictably wrong.
Elke has brought a gift from America: Bull Power, a powerful drug intended for breeding bulls. However, its effect on Axel is anything but aphrodisiac: he is reduced to naked, grunting, crouching catatonia. Meanwhile,
Norbert and friends fall into an altercation at the cinema with a gang of
hooligans; they are forced to return early to Norberts at to clean up the
bloodied Waltraud, where they nd the insensible Axel, and Elke discovers
that Bull Power does indeed have the intended effect on the butcher. Enter
Doro, enraged, who is so upset to discover her husband crouching naked
and surrounded by homosexuals that her contractions begin. Norbert is
forced to drive her to the hospital, while Waltraud brings a recovered Axel
only later. Axel arrives to discover he has missed the birtha traumatized
Norbert took his placeand Doro threatens divorce. The arrival of the
titular pretty baby in a nurses arms, however, reconciles the two, and
Norbert and Waltraud steal away, relieved to have nothing more to do with
the overwrought world of heterosexuality.
The tremendous success of the Rowohlt books solidied Knigs status
as the best-known German comics artist (Knigge 309)notably, not only
as Germanys best-known gay comics artist. Much of this broad appeal can
be attributed to Knigs visual style: like his early inuencesthe Americans Robert Crumb and Vaughn Bod (Cheech Wizard), and the French
artists Albert Uderzo (Astrix) and Claire Bretcher (Les Frustrs)and
much like his German contemporaries Moers and Brsel, Knig draws his
characters in the so-called bigfoot style. The equivalent German term,
which invariably pops up whenever Knigs work is discussed, is Knollennasen (literally, tuber-nosed characters; the alleged Freudian relationship that both feet and noses have in common will not be belabored here).
Knigs cartoony gures can graphically indulge in both gay and straight
sexual antics without much discomfort for a straight or prudish reader
[ 228 ]
though Knigs work for mass-market publishers such as Rowohlt is constrained to be less frank than his books published by gay and alternative
presses. Thus the comics form serves as a distancing device, which has permitted Knig to enjoy a broad readership throughout Europe, based on
the wit of his art and writing and his satirical targeting of homosexuals
and heterosexuals alike. In the years immediately following, Knig would
be awarded several important prizes for his work: in 1990, at the International Comic Salon at Grenoble, he was named Best German-Language
Cartoonist, while two years later in 1992, a jury at the Erlangen Salon
voted him the Max und Moritz Prize as best German-language comics artist. That same year, he was honored outside Germany: the Barcelona International Comic Salon named him Best International Cartoonist. It was
this sudden prominence, in fact, that made it virtually impossible for him
to publish Bullenklten!, his return to a mainly gay audience, without both
disappointing some of his wider readership and attracting the attention of
the Bavarian authorities (Klages 58).
Given Knigs new success and celebrity, it is hardly surprising that
the newly revived popular German cinema soon turned its attention to
his work. Like its comics culture, Germanys far more glorious cinemaproducing career had been tragically interrupted by the Nazi era; then it
had been crippled by postwar conservatism and Hollywood competition
(Hake 10412). Only since 1982, when government subsidies had been transferred from art lms to more commercial projects, had a popular and more
varied domestic lm industry begun to develop in earnest (16871). Knig
was not the only cartoonist to be seen as offering prospective lm material for this revitalized industry: Brsels Werner was turned into a hit animated lm in 1990 (sequels would follow in 1996, 1999, and 2003). Knig,
however, had little interest in seeing his characters spring to life in animated form, arguing that a failed animated lm would hurt me more
than a live one (Ralf Knig). Director Snke Wortmann had wanted
to lm the Der bewegte Mann/Pretty Baby books soon after their publication, but until he had established a reputation with the success of Allein
unter Frauen (Alone Among Women, 1991) and Kleine Haie (Little Sharks,
1992) he was unable to attract either a producer or government subsidies
for such a subject. As a rising star, however, Wortmann was able to draw the
[ 229 ]
attention of Bernd Eichinger, one of Germanys most successful and most

international producers, who had produced Jean-Jacques Annauds 1986
The Name of the Rose, for exampleas well as the 1990 Werner lm.
With Eichingers support, Wortmanns resulting live-action comedy
Der bewegte Mann (Maybe . . . Maybe Not, 1994) was, in the context of the
small German lm industry, a blockbuster. Featuring two of Germanys
most recognizable young stars, Til Schweiger and Katja Riemann, as Axel
and Doro, and hard-working character actor Joachim Krl in the role of
Norbert, the nished lm not only won several national awardsthe prestigious Golden Screen, as well as three German Film Awards, for the picture, Wortmanns direction and Krls performancebut also went on to
become one of the highest grossing German lms of all time, with six and
a half million tickets sold in Germany alone and fteen million worldwide
(Knig mit Geldsorgen).
The lm is remarkably faithful to its source, with much of Wortmanns screenplay following Knigs dialogue in the two books verbatim.
At the same time, however, it is typical of these new situational comedies
labeled New German Comedya trend to which Wortmann would come
to be seen as a major contributor, and which relied on newly established
young stars such as Schweiger and Riemann to provide glamour as well as
commercialization (Coury 356, 363). Sabine Hake, indeed, goes so far as to
label Schweiger and Riemann the German equivalents of Tom Cruise and
Meg Ryan (185). Moreover, if Knig had already deliberately broadened
his appeal by including straight major characters in his stories, Wortmann
went further. He made the heterosexual couple the centre of the lm, thus
underscoring the New German Comedys reliance on traditional elements
of the classic cinema: causality, linear narrative, closure, and the most necessary element of all, a happy end (Coury 356). Both books end with Axel
reconrmed in his heterosexuality, rst as a new husband and then as a
new father, and Norbert isolated, lonely and forced to recognize the futility
of his love for Axel. Wortmann, however, ends his lm with Axel and Doro
still unreconciled; Norbert, however, as the voice of reason, is certain that
Doro will calm down and take Axel back. At this, Axel invites Norbert for
breakfast, and they go off together: In the end [Norbert] is compensated
with Axel as a buddy (Halle 21), while in the book he is consoled only by
the thought that heterosexuals compulsion to reproduce reduces them to
[ 230 ]
mindless slaves (Knig, Pretty Baby 117). Thus Sabine Hakes claim that in
Wortmanns lm, the re-education of the arrogant macho [typical of an
entire strain of the New German Comedy] comes about through his gay
friend, (183) clearly does not apply to Knigs books.
In fact, while Randall Halle has identied the plot of Der bewegte
Mann, like several other examples of New German Comedy, as a temporary-gay narrative, in which a straight leading man loses a relationship and undergoes a sexual identity crisis before being successfully reintegrated into heterosexual relations (12), Wortmanns lm in fact conforms
to this pattern much less than does Knigs original story. In contrast to
Axels attempted suicide in the book, for instance, the lm introduces Axel
cheating on Doro by having sex with a woman customer at the nightclub
where Axel and Doro both work as waitstaff. Catching him in the actwe
later learn that this is not his rst offenceDoro throws him out (in the
lm, again unlike the comic, they are already living together). Thus, from
the very beginning we are reassured that Axel is really heterosexual. So too,
Axels confession to a brief homosexual experience in the army, followed
by his drunken attempt to push Norberts face into his crotch (Knig, Der
bewegte Mann 5152), and his later musings on the possibility of his being
capable of a gay relationship (9192) are completely missing from the lm.
Even the compromising situation in which Doro almost catches Norbert
and Axel (in Axels bachelor place in the book, but in the at that he formerly shared with Doro in the lm) is not taken as far in Wortmanns version as in the original, where Axel obviously allows Norbert to perform fellatio on him, even while imagining a woman who clearly is not Doro (101).
Likewise, for these reasons neither the book nor the lm can really be classied as a coming-out story, or even as a parody of one, as Les Wright attempts to do (From Outsider 11516, Genre Cycle 33235). In both cases
the gay characters are already out in typical Knig fashion, and the heterosexuals are ultimately conrmed in their ways.
While Wortmanns heterosexualization of Knigs story is likely to
have played some part in the lms great success, the appealing cast and
strong performances also helped turn the lm into a major event. In particular, Til Schweiger and Joachim Krl are well cast as Axel and Norbert;
Schweiger succeeds in making Axels irresponsible behavior the result of
boyish emotional immaturity rather than malice, while Krl underplays
[ 231 ]
Norberts angst and infatuation to create a completely credible character.

Rufus Beck also manages both to embody Knigs caricature of Waltraud
as a aming stereotype and to provide sympathetic emotional depth. Only
Katja Riemann, generally the poster girl of the New German Comedy
and perfect embodiment [of the] new female ideal (Hake 183), has little
to play beyond Doros anger and homophobia; her last-minute reconciliation with Norbert during the drive to the hospital is too little and too
late to carry much weight. Of course, Schweigers chiseled good looks and
Riemanns gaminesque beautyand even Krls nondescript featuresare
miles removed from Knigs minimalist Knollennasen; only Becks hawklike prole comes close to the comics original.
The lm was also promoted via a Hollywood-style collateral marketing campaign (Lischke-McNab 403), in which tie-in products served both
to advertise and commemorate the lm. Though minimal by American
(or current German) standards (Tteberg 91), the media blitz accompanying the lms release included as a matter of course a single-volume reissue of Knigs original comics, now advertised as the book of the lm,
and the soundtrack album, which featured rerecordings of German popular songs of the 1920s, 30s and 40s. These songs helped the movie ride a
current wave of nostalgia for the old hits (Lischke-McNab 403, 409); the
use of the songs as witty commentary on events in the lm, however, also
has some precedent in Knigs ironic use of self-composed verse in both
the prologue and epilogue to Pretty Baby (5, 117).
The lms success, thanks to its high technical quality, broad appeal,
and collateral merchandising, further conrmed Ralf Knigs celebrity
status and reputation as an artistagain, no longer merely as a gay artist. As a result, Christian Gasser, writing about a nascent German comics
avant-garde in 1999, could denitively count Knigs work among mainstream comics that had served as inspirations for lms, along with Batman, Spawn, and Astrix (Gasser 18).
In 1995, however, when Wortmanns Der bewegte Mann was exported
to America under the title Maybe . . . Maybe Not, the reaction indicated
that given the cultural differences between the two countries, the lm was
not going to be accepted as mainstream or repeat its German success.
Stephen Holden, in the New York Times, wrote: Who knows why Sonke
[ 232 ]
[sic] Wortmanns mildly entertaining sex farce . . . has become one of the
highest grossing German lms in history. . . . The gay characters are downright creepy. . . . How funny is Maybe . . . Maybe Not? It delivers some
laughs, but they are really titters stored in a junior high school locker of
the mind.
Maybe . . . Maybe Not, whose English title seems to cast a doubt on
Axels heterosexuality that the lm never fully explores, was further disadvantaged by the lack of any collateral merchandising. Knigs name and
work were virtually unknown, and there was certainly no American nostalgia for the 1930s German music used on the soundtrack; hence there were
no ancillary publications or soundtrack albums. Thus, too, the American
poster featured a photograph of Til Schweiger as Axel posed sitting on a
gigantic ladies shoe, rather than the iconic Knig cartoon which has been
a feature of every poster for a Knig lm in Germany. Moreover, the release of the lm in a subtitled versionby far the preference of the relatively few American cinema-goers who are already interested in foreign
lms as art lmswas unlikely to attract the mass audience interested in
light comedy and overcome the traditional postwar prejudice against German lms in particular (Segrave 17479, 16970). Finally while the lm had
been viewable by anyone twelve years old or over in Germany, in the U.S.
Maybe . . . Maybe Not received an R rating, restricting it to viewers over
seventeen unless accompanied by an adult. Ultimately, the lm did respectably well, but failed to approach the American success of Das Boot (The
Boat, 1981) or even of Wim Wenderss comparatively esoteric Der Himmel
ber Berlin (Wings of Desire, 1987), both of which ranked in the fty highest grossing foreign lms in U.S. release up to 2000 (Segrave 21415).
Der bewegte Manns disappointing performance in North America
did not detract from its phenomenal success on the German market. Ralf
Knig found his initial pleasure in the lm adaptations domestic success
quickly soured, however, upon realizing how much his cartoon grotesques
had been adulterated for straight consumption: It wasnt my story any
more. The plot and the dialogue were mine, yes, but the comic is narrated
from the viewpoint of the gay protagonist and the hetero is more the object of desire. In the lm it was turned exactly the other way round. There
the gays were only the comic attractions. It isnt a bad lm and I owe it a
[ 233 ]
lot, of course, but I had the feeling that I really had nothing to do with the
product and it wasnt so hot sitting in chat shows and talking my way out
of it (Wieland; see also Voigt 2931).
However much he owed the lm in terms of publicity, ultimately he
came to feel that the lm sticks to my name as if with Velcro, and it gets
on my nerves (Ralf Knig). Almost immediately afterward, nonetheless, he found himself involved in another lm project of a very different
character.
Shortly after completing the three above-mentioned books for Rowohlt,
Knig had also produced a second, more graphic two-book series, better
suited to a niche publisher. Vogel Verlag, usually a publisher of gay and
S/M porn, thus published Kondom des Grauens (Condom of Horror, 1988)
in a small run of only ve hundred copies: given the macabre subject matter, Knig writes, I didnt gure there would be more than ve hundred
readers (Knig, Tappajakondomi 7). Relegated to gay bookstores, the
volume nonetheless sold steadily, and at Knigs rst comics convention
in Erlangen the tiny Edition Kunst der Comics (Comic Art Press) expressed interest in republishing it for a wider audience. This would provide
Knig with his rst exposure to a primarily comics-oriented readership;
Kunst der Comics brought out both the original Kondom des Grauens (republished 1989) and its sequel Bis auf die Knochen (Down to the Bones,
1990). Both volumes are subtitled Ein Knollennasen-Horrorlm. In these
editions, the books were so successful as to be among Knigs most translated and exported works (Knig, Tappajakondomi 8). They also became
the stepping stone to his long relationship with Germanys most venerable comics publisher, Carlsen Verlag, who began by reprinting selections
from his older Schwulcomix, beginning with Prall aus dem Leben (Drawn
from Life, 1989). Thus, since 1989 Knig has truly served three different
markets, Gay scene, mainstream, and comics ghetto (Klages 5758), publishing largely but not exclusively through one publisher for each: respectively MnnerschwarmSkript, Rowohlt, and Carlsen. The cinema audience,
of course, has come to constitute a fourth market, if only intermittently.
The Kondom des Grauens stories mark Knigs only full-length excursions so far into the realm of horror fantasy, a genre in which he has little
interest for its own sake (Buhre). Here, however, his satirical imagination
[ 234 ]
targets the conventions of Hollywood, particularly those of the lm noir

detective story and the 1950s-style science-ction/horror lm, gleefully inverting their usually conservative and normalizing heterosexual dynamic.
The lmic parody extends to furnishing the comics with English-language
opening and (in the case of Bis auf die Knochen) closing credits (for example, Special kondom-effects [sic] by William Wabbel). The books protagonist is tough-as-nails New York police inspector Luigi Mackeroni, a
Sicilian by birth, who is seldom seen without his trademark trench coat,
dark glasses, cigarette, and permanent ve oclock shadow. Mackeroni is
almost the typical macho loner cop: unbelievably hardboiled, ridiculously
well endowed, and constantly aggravating his superiors by not sticking to
the rulesthough in this case, atypically, his rebellion extends to his being openly and unashamedly gay.
The plot of Kondom des Grauens begins at the disreputable Hotel
Quickie, where the clientele usually rents by the hour. Lately, several customers have been bizarrely and inexplicably emasculated, and Mackeroni
is put on the case. During a tryst with a local leather boy in whom he has
developed an interest, Mackeroni almost falls victim himself: it seems that
one of the prophylactics provided by the management is in reality alive
a voracious, toothed monster that, once employed, severs the users penis.
Mackeroni only loses a testicle to the creature, but of course his superiors
refuse to believe his story. He continues to stake out the hotel, and fails to
prevent it from striking again. Finally, he discovers that the condom has
tracked him to his apartment, since the size of his phallus makes him irresistible to it. Grappling with the thing, Mackeroni falls out of the window
and nds himself dangling from his ngertips on the twenty-fourth storey.
The condom bites one of his ngers off, spits it out, moves to the next . . .
In the nick of time, Mackeronis leather boy arrives, drags the detective back in to safety, and declares his love. Mackeroni hits on an idea to
trap the monster: using his penis as a decoy, he lures the condom into
pouncing. At the last second, he substitutes a hose hooked up to the gas tap
behind the stove; he inates the creature and ties it off like a balloon, then
lets it oat off from the balcony and pulls his gun to blast it out of the sky:
Go to hell, condom! (53).
The sequel, Bis auf die Knochen, takes place three years later. Almost
twice as long as the rst book, the second concerns a grotesque series of
[ 235 ]
murders in which homosexuals are found reduced to picked-clean skeletons. Mackeroni is naturally assigned to the case, and given a straight partner, family man Brian Plumley. The subplots here include a gay porn star,
Billy Bullcock, who becomes the object of Mackeronis affection but also
seems to be implicated in the murders, and Mackeronis rather callous practical jokes on his partner Plumley, who is sent undercover as a leatherman
with a yellow hankie in his back pocket, thus setting him up to be subjected to golden showers. In the end, the monster turns out to be another
articial creature, this time a esh-eating monster named Raoul, whose
phallus-like appendage is actually an elastic mouth that devours gays whole
to digest them with acid and spit out their bones. Mackeroni discovers that
both Raoul and the toothed condom are the creations of Dr. Riffelson, a
radical feminist religious fanatic who is using drugs to control the brilliant
Russian geneticist Professor Smirnoff. Unfortunately, by this point Mackeroni is himself a prisoner, and is about to become a test subject for the new
and improved killer condom when Plumley interrupts. The condom, once
released, emasculates both Smirnoff and Riffelson (who is in fact a schizophrenic transvestite to boot) before biting off Raouls appendage and thus
being dissolved by acid itself. Raoul, in its death throes, sprays acid everywhere, nally destroying Riffelsons face before she can shoot Mackeroni
and Plumley, who has just come out to his partner. In the happy ending,
though Smirnoff and Riffelson have both survived, Mackeroni expresses
his hope that another sequel is not in the ofng; Plumley takes up the gay
scene with a new crewcut (a typically unproblematic Knig coming-out);
and Mackeroni nally takes Billy home with him.
As even a synopsis demonstrates, in contrast to the basically realistic
milieu of Der bewegte Mann, the Kondom des Grauens stories are so queerly
over the top that Knigs deliberately overwrought dialogue in defense of
the joys of anal sex and fairly graphic depictions of fellatio do not stand
out much from the bizarre and conceptually disturbing, if still cartoonish, body-horror violence. Despite the extreme and parodic tone, however, these books emotional core is easily as serious as that of Der bewegte
Mann. Beneath his aggressive exterior, Mackeroni is no less lovelorn than
Norbert Brommer, and instead of Norberts essentially supportive gay milieu, Mackeroni chooses to work among straight colleagues from whom
he constantly has to demand tolerance and acceptance. His job also makes
[ 236 ]
him unusual among Knigs gay characters, incidentally, most of whom

get by with no sign of gainful employment (Klages 74). Moreover, Mackeronis move from nding a lover who loves him for himself, rather than
because of his huge phallus, at the end of the rst book to nding a man
with whom the emotional connection is more important than the sex in
the second volumes conclusionWhen we got to my place we smoked a
little pot . . . and in bed we listened to music by Verdi . . . at some point he
dozed off (Bis auf die Knochen 105)is ultimately both a dramatic and a
romantic development. Hovering over all of this is the killer condom (or
the esh-eating monster) itself, which was originally less a direct reference
to the threat of AIDS than a metaphor for the young Knigs reaction to
the pleasure-inhibiting strictures of safe sex (Knig, Tappajakondomi 6
7). However, in the nished work the monster effectively symbolizes the
anxiety caused by AIDS and the correspondingly intensied homophobia
(Knig would rst deal explicitly with AIDS only in a later book, Superparadies, in 1999).
Notwithstanding his disappointment with his previous lm experience, Knig accepted an offer to adapt these two books to the screen as Kondom des Grauens (Killer Condom, 1996). This time, however, Knig made
a point of co-writing the screenplayhe had already adapted the books
into a successful touring puppet play in 1992 (Knigge 310; Knig, Tappajakondomi 89). The nished screenplay, based on the puppet show and
co-written with director Martin Walz and Mario Kramp, effectively compresses the action of the two books by simply jettisoning the entire second
monster, that is, Raoul and its skeletonized victims. Instead, the number
of deadly condoms is multiplied, and the denouement of the second book
is tacked on to the rst, while certain elements of the second plot are integrated into the resulting structure. Mackeroni gets a straight partner already during the investigation into the Hotel Quickie attacks, for instance,
and his love interest is a young rent boy named Billy, combining the unnamed leather boy of the rst book with the porn star Billy Bullcock.
Notably, in the lm, Mackeronis heterosexual partnernow given the
more macho name Sam Hanks, rather than Brian Plumleydoes not experience a coming out; instead, he learns to be more tolerant of homosexuality, in part because at the storys end Mackeroni saves his life, rather than
the other way around. However, a new character, created for the puppet
[ 237 ]
play but carried over into the lm, is Babette, a transsexual lip-sync artist
at the hotel, who was formerly Mackeronis partner Bob. A one-night stand
with Mackeroni caused Bob to change his gender identity, but he/she still
has an inconvenient crush on the Sicilian and is unable to let go. Babette
too will learn to be independent in the course of the plot. Although Mackeronis role in Bob/Babettes life-changing decision is much more active
than his part in Plumleys coming out, the displacement of the conversion of an apparently straight partner into the past serves to minimize any
potential anxiety such an event might produce in a heterosexual audience.
Interestingly, while in the original text Mackeronis leather boy helps him
kill the condom that nds its way to his at, in the lm it is not the analogous character Billy, but rather Babette, who both inadvertently brings the
condom from the hotel in her handbag and is convinced to help trap and
destroy the creature.
An additional new character is a Croatian womana conation of the
relatively novel presence of eastern Europeans in Germany and the image
of America as melting potwhose nose is attacked by a condom in Central Park. Because she later sees Dr. Rifesons Chinese henchman, who is
also linked to Professor Smirnoff, at the hospital, she is able to lead Hanks
to Rifesons secret laboratory. Billy is brought along, too, since it turns out
that he understands Croatian. Thus they are all captured, so that Mackeroni can rescue all of themas well as Babette and the hotel manager,
Robinson, both of whose capture goes unexplained.
Even with some of the sexual aspects of the books toned down, it
would have been extremely unlikely to nd nancial support for a lm
version of Kondom des Grauens had it not been for the phenomenal domestic success of both Der bewegte Mann and the animated Werner lms.
Given that Ralf Knigs name now appeared to be box-ofce gold in itself,
even Martin Walz, a relatively inexperienced director, was able to gain the
support of producer Ralph S. Dietrich and his Ascot Elite Entertainment
Group. Ascot Elite had been founded by Dietrichs father, the Swiss producer Erwin C. Dietrich, whose career had been even longer than that of
Bernd Eichinger, but much less distinguished. Variously described as the
European Roger Corman (Blatter) or the Trash-Pope (Buttgereit 22), in
the 1960s and 70s the elder Dietrich had produced numerous exploitation
[ 238 ]
lms with titles such as Porno Baby (1969) or Tempting Roommates (1976),
turning later to internationally cast actioners (Code Name: Wild Geese,
1984). Son Ralph had served an apprenticeship of sorts under Joel Silver
in Hollywood before returning to take over Ascot Elite, though his father
still played an active role in the company. Such a background was arguably
not inappropriate for producing a lm that would be advertised as historys
rst condomedy (Kondomdie), but it also did not necessarily promise either a large budget or much sympathy for the subject matter.
The lm was nonetheless fortunate to attract a strong German cast,
including Udo Samel, who bears a passing resemblance to Bob Hoskins,
and who takes the proceedings extremely seriously as Mackeroni. Compared to his model in the books, Samel spends far too much time with
his dark glasses off, but he also establishes Mackeronis absurdly hardboiled persona by smoking almost incessantly, including in the shower; in
one scene, he manages to keep a cigarette in one side of his mouth while
downing a drink with the other. Peter Lohmeyer plays Sam Hanks as uptight and homophobic, but committed enough to his job to aid Mackeroni
despite his misgivings; and Iris Berben, a well-known television actress,
makes the most of her chance to play a villain, taking Dr. Rifeson to the
heights of maniacal scenery-chewing in the lms climax. Babette is played
by Leonard Lansink, an actor usually cast in tough guy and cop roles, but
who had also appeared briey in Der bewegte Mann. In both lms, humor
is derived from the contrast between Lansinks stocky frame and a drag
costume: in the earlier lm, he appears dressed briey as Jeannie from I
Dream of Jeannie, while in Kondom des Grauens he dons a series of glitzy
showgirl outts.
As tribute to Knigs popularity, a number of even bigger stars and
other celebrities appear in walk-on roles in the lm, including such wellknown actors as Otto Sander and his daughter Meret Becker, fellow lm
director Dani Levi, and members of the rock band Einstrzende Neubauten. There were celebrities off camera as well: special effects were supervised by Jrg Buttgereit, whose low-budget and often satirical bodyhorror lms (Nekromantik, 1987; Schramm, 1993) had earned him a cult
following and exercised the German censors on several occasions; while
a consulting role in designing Dr. Rifesons laboratory was played by the
[ 239 ]
famous Swiss artist and eccentric H. R. Giger, whose relatively peripheral

participation in Kondom des Grauens and connection with Ridley Scotts
Alien (1979) were played up in the lms publicity.
In keeping with Knigs use of actual photographs of New York City
as the background of many of the pictures in the comics, director Walz and
a few of the cast and crew ew to New York late in the lming for a week
of exterior shooting. Much of the lms bizarre effect relies on the contrast
between the authentic locations, often strikingly photographed, and the
German dialogue. However, the price of this authenticity is the fact that
the interiors, constructed on a soundstage in Berlin, look all the more like
badly painted ats. Moreoveraccording to the directors commentary on
the American DVD releasethe fatigue of the overseas trip took its toll
on lming the already hectic climactic scenes in the nal week of the production schedule.
Once the actual lming had concluded, problems continued, with
the producers evincing some squeamishness over some of the remaining
overtly homosexual content and a certain amount of the lms gory violence. Although there is no attempt to show frontal male nudity, at one
point the shadow of Mackeronis massive erection is cast upon the hotel
room wall; a later shot was cut, however, in which it is clear, though not explicitly shown, that Billy is being penetrated anally. The Dietrichs had apparently decided late in the game to pitch the lm, like Der bewegte Mann,
at an audience twelve and up; Walz was forced to reedit early scenes that
had already been edited and even scored, resulting in awkward and sudden
cuts. The lms second half, however, also becomes increasingly ragged in
the editing, until the denouement threatens to become totally incoherent.
The nal version was judged suitable for viewers sixteen and over, though
the question of who its intended audience might be remained open. Walz
claimed to have been promised a restored directors cut for the DVD release of the lm (Blatter); but if his claim is true, the lms failure no doubt
put paid to any chance of his being allowed another reedit.
For despite a similar collateral merchandising campaignas with
Der bewegte Mann, the original comics were issued in an omnibus format
(labeled a Doublefeature) and a soundtrack album was released, as well
as two further books about the lm, one published by Alpha Comics and
the other by old standby RowohltKondom des Grauens opped dismally,
[ 240 ]
drawing less than half a million viewers in Germany. Knig disowned it

in even stronger terms than he had Der bewegte Mann: The second lm,
Kondom des Grauens, was a complete disaster. After the success of Der
bewegte Mann they wanted to use my name to make a quick buck, and it
turned into amateur night. During the lming in Berlin I stupidly blabbed
into any microphone in sight that the lm would be great and off beat
because I couldnt imagine that anyone could make such a pitiful mess of
this story. I refused to show up at the premire and to this day I still havent
seen it in a cinema (Ralf Knig).
Knigs bitterness notwithstanding, Kondom des Grauens arguably captured his provocative cartoon sensibility more accurately than Der bewegte
Mann had. Thus it may be a backhanded compliment when Sabine Hake
writes: Whereas a few comedies offered a critique to the upwardly mobile
yuppie culture [of the 1990s] through their deant afrmation of pettybourgeois lifestyles, the vast majority expressed their opposition and resentment through extreme crudeness. . . . Film adaptations of popular cartoons proved particularly effective in satisfying the younger audiences
demand for shock value and vulgarity, whether in the juvenile humour of
Werner Beinhart (1990), based on the books by Brsel, or in the gay humour of Kondom des Grauens (1996, Killer Condom), inspired by the work
of Ralf Knig (Hake 18485). It should be noted, however, that in contrast
to her equation here between popular cartoons and vulgarity, or for
that matter, between vulgarity and gay humor, Hake makes no mention of Knig as the originator of Der bewegte Mann in her generally positive description of that lm (183).
Surprisingly, Kondom des Grauens was in some regards better received
critically upon export to the U.S. than its predecessor had been. In part this
is because it was distributed by Troma, a small independent company with
a twenty-ve-year history of determined resistance to the aesthetics of
the mainstream Hollywood lm industry (Kidnie 102), based on campy
humor, high-threshold sex and violence, and political themes (Taylor 14):
Tromas most famous product is the series of Toxic Avenger lms, chronicling the adventures of a low-rent mutant superhero (1985 ). Retitled
Killer Condom, with the tag line The Rubber that Rubs You Out, a subtitled print of the lm was given a limited theatrical run without an MPAA
rating. New York Times reviewer Lawrence van Gelder found the lm far
[ 241 ]
from perfect, but possessing a level of deadpan humor considerably above

[Tromas] usual adolescent subnorm, and referred to Knigs comics, apparently from rsthand knowledge, as far out and sometimes dead on.
An English translation of the Kondom des Grauens comic, also titled Killer
Condom, had in fact been published in 1991 by comics publisher Catalan
Communications, but was already out of print. Meanwhile, the German
soundtrack album, although it included standards by Etta James and Brenda
Lee, could not have been repackaged for American merchandising because
of copyright issues affecting several of the tracks. Thus there was no possibility of collateral marketing; given the lms already limited release, it
sank without a trace until its release on DVD two years later.
Knig has so far participated directly in only one other lm project, Wie die
Karnickel (Like Bunnies, 2002), for which he wrote the original screenplay (only later adapting his screenplay into a comic book, published rst
by Achterbahn in 2002 and then in an expanded and revised edition by
Rowohlt in 2003). Knig also exercised casting control, with the result
that the actors are far from the stereotypical movie-star good looks of Til
Schweiger and Katja Riemann. Although this lm was also no great success, Knig has declared himself more than satised with the result, which
proved to him that his ideas could be translated to the screen on his own
terms (Wieland, Ralf Knig). Meanwhile, the mixed reviews emphasized
Wie die Karnickels similarity in both form and content to Der bewegte
Mann, to which the later lm is almost explicitly a reply. The major difference is that in Wie die Karnickel, the heterosexual character is meant to be
the protagonist from the beginning. Nonetheless, Knig maintains, this
lm is gayer than Der bewegte Mann, because it shows the gay perspective on heteros. For the gays in my comics heteros are sometimes like unreachable gods, and for a change heres one who cant get anything right
at all (Lippitz). Moreover, the moral of the story is ultimately queer insofar as the straight protagonist nally nds self-fulllment by learning
to act upon his sexual desires like his gay neighbor (and in fact, more successfully).
A further project, with which Knig had almost no connection, was
a Spanish/Catalan lm adaptation of his 1987 comic Lysistrata, directed
and written by Francesc Bellmunt (Lisistrata, 2002). Despite the language
[ 242 ]
barrier, Knig felt that Bellmunts lm was the most faithful translation
yet of his comics work into lm, and went to great effort to have the lm
dubbed for a German release, which nally took place in December 2004
to lackluster reviews. Notably, Bellmunts lm alters the main characters
appearance: while in Knigs original story Lysistrata is a stereotypical
stocky dyke with an anachronistic blond crew cut, the Spanish lm casts
the long-haired, slender, dark and attractive Maribel Verd, turning her
into the equally stereotypical hot lesbian of male heterosexual fantasy.
Knigs reaction is pragmatic: . . . if the gays in the lm are once again
TOO sissy, the straight men unfortunately all too often somewhat too unappetizing, and in contrast the women mainly turned out too young, thin
and beautiful . . . well, sigh . . . thats how it is when heteros do the casting
(Ralf Knig). In a gesture that can be read as either approval or resignation, Knigs design for the German versions poster represents the lms
Lysistratawith allowances for the trademark Knig noserather than
his original.
Knig thus seems to have found himself in a position where the broader
audience required by cinema sometimes constrains him from replicating
the work that brought him fame as a creator of comics. He accepts these
constraints with apparent willingness: [Writing a screenplay] I dont need
anyone at all to tell me, That just wont work. In the dialogue I get away
with a good deal. Thats probably true, but there I know what Im doing,
and I know what will or wont work. I dont have to worry about that in a
comic. In a comic I can get away with an awful lot more, because theyre
little Knollennasen people, and you can even show a gay man with sperm
stuck to his nose. You cant do that easily in a lm (Wie die Karnickel).
Knigs acceptance of this situation may seem particularly ironic given
the strength and vitality of a specically gay and lesbian German cinema
an avenue in which, like animated lm, Knig seems to have little or no active interest, and to which lms such as Der bewegte Mann are indeed held
up as the stereotype-ridden and regressive counterexample (again, with no
mention of Knig himself; Kuzniar 34). Nonetheless, there is still common ground between Knig and queer gures such as Rosa von Praunheim, whose early lm work Les Wright describes as the catalyst for the
post-1969 Schwulenemanzipationsbewegung in the then West Germany
(Genre 311), as Knigs comments on the younger generation of German
[ 243 ]
gays make clear: It must be a completely different kind of gay existence

[Schwulsein] that the kids are living today, at least in a metropolis like Cologne. In our day we still handed out gay political pamphlets against [conservative politician] Franz Josef Strauss when he wanted to become chancellor [in 197980]. Just try telling that to one of these techno-bunnies
jumping around in a kilt at the Lulu. I think that anyone who had to ght
a bit to be gay is bit more conscious of sociopolitical things. Just dancing,
techno, ecstasy is too little. But they have another kind of fun nowadays
God, Im talking like an old man! (Voigt 19).
As a result, it should be noted, Knigs forbearance is not limitless: in
April 2003 a new situation comedy series arrived on Germanys satellite
television network Sat1. Entitled Bewegte Mnner (Enlightened Men),
this shows promotional materials emphasized its basis in Wortmanns successful lm. As with many television series based on feature lms, the premise of Bewegte Mnner relies on undoing the closure of the lm and freezing the situation at an earlier point in the plot. In the series, Doro never
became pregnant; instead, she succeeded in dumping Axel, and though he
still has hopes of reconciliation, she has moved on. However, since in this
version she owns the caf where Axel works, they still see each other constantly. Axel has moved in with Norbert on a permanent basis; Norberts unrequited love for Axel is complicated by the fact that outside a small circle
of friends, he has never come out, especially to his mother Margarethe.
Also sharing the at with Axel and Norbert are Waltraud and his boyfriend Frank (based on a character from Pretty Baby not used in the lm).
In this more family-friendly conguration, all of the featured homosexuals
are thus either monogamous or safely closeted, with Norberts attempts to
keep his sexual orientation a secret from his overbearing mother providing
much of the supposed hilarity. Notably, although the programs opening
credits have a comic strip motif, Ralf Knigs name appears nowhere in any
of the promotional material, and he claims to have been neither consulted
nor compensated by the producers (who include Bernd Eichinger, through
Constantin Film, and Oliver Berben, son of Iris Berben). The artist himself, in general no fan of television to begin with (Buhre), has labeled the
show a piece of shit (Knig mit Geldsorgen) and miserable, lying,
homo- and humor-phobic crap (Ralf Knig). Nonetheless, the series
was popular enough to earn a second season in 2004.
[ 244 ]
Despite such disappointments in his dealings with the entertainment

industry, which have in part contributed to his recent claims of money
problems (Knig mit Geldsorgen), Knig has no qualms about writing
further screenplays (Wie die Karnickel). His primary focus nonetheless
remains the creation of comics. Rowohlt recently published a Knig comic
titled Dschinn Dschinn, inspired by the Thousand and One Nights, and future plans even include a science ction story: Im daring to tackle other
themes, because just laughing at funny queens isnt enough for me (Klink
20). To this extent, the cinema has played a role in transforming not only
his work but the artist himself: in spite of his proudly queer sensibility,
thanks to his exposure via lm he has reached the point where he can be
quite certain that he is no longer addressing only either a comics readership
or a gay audience. As Elmar Klages has observed, since 1989 Ralf Knig
writes for everyone . . . or not at all (58).
[ 245 ]
OLD MALAY HEROES NEVER DIE

Takkan Melayu hilang di dunia (Malays will never vanish from

this world) is a phrase that often appears in speeches throughout the
Malay Peninsula and Sumatra to indicate the resilience of Malay culture.
It is widely believed to have been pronounced by the hero of the Romance
of Hang Tuah (Hikayat Hang Tuah)a classical tale of a fteenth-century
hero who is the epitome of loyalty and service to his sultan, the ruler of
the Malay state of Melakabut it actually cannot be found in any existing
form of the text, as one scholar has frankly admitted (Milner, Invention of
Politics 102, 112). The phrase probably originated in a popular theatre version of the story that was staged during the 192030s,1 which marks the beginning of an era when the tale was revived and popularized through different media such as theater, lm, comics, and songs. The height of this
revival occurred in the 1950s when an inuential lm and numerous comic
books were released with the goal of boosting nationalistic feelings among
Malays who were on the brink of independence, which was nally obtained
from the British in 1957. The tale went through a second revival in the 1980s
when it was used ironically to hold up a mirror to Malay culture and governance as a commentary of how the image of a Malay hero had emerged
and shifted in the previous decades.2
The basic story of Hang Tuah focuses around loyalty to family, friends,
and ruler, and is contained in numerous accounts that are collected in a
number of overlapping tales found in a score of manuscripts over the past
[ 246 ]
four hundred years. The tales usually begin when a young Hang Tuah travels with his four closest friendsJebat, Kasturi, Lekir, and Lekiuto attain mystical knowledge and powers from spiritual teachers. During this
period they manage to defeat pirates from neighboring islands and, upon
their return to the port of Melaka, engage in another brawl with thugs
who plan to murder the bendahara, a chief dignitary in the Malay court.
Hang Tuah and his friends save the bendahara and are taken into service
by the Malay sultan. They distinguish themselves and soon grow into important servants at the court, especially the main protagonist of the story
who, after securing a Javanese bride for the sultan, is appointed Laksamana (Admiral) in charge of the defense of Melaka. This speedy promotion, however, evokes envy among the older servants and, as is common in
Malay stories, results in slander being used to defame the main protagonist, which serves as one of the most important driving forces behind the
plot. The dramatic climax revolves around a duel between Tuah and Jebat,
the protagonists closest friend, who has deed the rulers orders and taken
over the palace. Death was the only possible punishment for this act of
treason, and it is Hang Tuah who must ght, and ultimately kill, his best
friend Jebat.
The tale of Hang Tuah is one of the most popular legends in the Malay
world, leading to it being reinterpreted in a variety of media throughout
the twentieth century. Popularized versions of the tale even continue to appear in the twenty-rst century. Among these new versions is a 2004 lm,
Putri Gunung Ledang (Princess from Mt. Ledang), which once again
shifts the understanding of Hang Tuah in the perception of the Malay audience. Instead of focusing on nationalistic sentiments, the lm portrays
the complex hero as a romantic, martial arts acionado with few political
undertones. It is an attempt, in the words of the lead actress, to rewrite
history.3 In another recent formthe comic strip Eh, Tuah!the heroic
status of Hang Tuah, together with his comrade Hang Jebat, has vanished
as they are portrayed as modern youngsters clad in traditional clothes who
make comments on certain specics from the Hang Tuah tradition or current events in Singapore. In the illustration we nd the above mentioned
phrase being ironically used when Hang Tuah sinks into an anthill. But it
is only temporary, as Jebats comments run: He is in luck. Ravenous ants
will not make Tuah vanish!
[ 247 ]
Fig. 1. Eh, Tuah! by Soffyan A. Halim

(Berita Minggu, 24 October 2004).
In this chapter we will trace the development of Hang Tuahs image in

comics and lm, as well as the original source material, and how these different genres dealt with a contested hero in the 1950s, a period in which
colonialism, loyalty, and individualism were uid values as Malaya was
moving toward independence. During this period, Hang Tuahs loyalty to
the sultana symbol of traditional subserviencebecame controversial,
making his role in comics and lm ambivalent, which subsequently led
to another transformation of this image in the early years of the twentyrst century. In short, representations of Huang Tuah in comics and lms
helped shape a modern Malay identity and our focus in this chapter is the
way in which those forms helped reshape the legend into a usable history.
During the period from 1945 to 1957 no less than 145 new Malay-language
magazine titles were published in Singapore and the Malay Peninsula
(Hamedi Mohd. Adnan). These popular magazines were important for the
regional development of comic strips and comic books, which have received very little attention in academic studies of the Malay world.4 The
magazine Kenchana published the rst Malay comic strip in biweekly/
(bi)monthly installments beginning with its rst issue in January 1947. The
same issue also incorporated an article about the development of an indigenous form of comic art against the background of the Western comic
strips such as Flash Gordon, Mickey Mouse, Tarzan, and Prince Valiant.
The author of the article denes the different comic types as caricature
(gambar sindiran), cartoon-lm (such as Snow White), serialized drawings
(such as Tunggadewa by Achnas; see gure 2) and several other techniques.
He predicts a glorious future for comics as a means of education:
[ 248 ]
In the future comic art (seni kelawak) is going to develop rapidly, because it is not only important for amusement but it can
also be used for education and clear explanations about science
(such as now in America there is Science Comics, which reect
a dynamic and interesting way to understand modern sciences,
such as atomic energy).5 For history, which often is boring for
children, or to inculcate children with goodness, comics may be
the best and clearest instrument. Comic stories from America or
from the West in general are of course not in accordance with
our Eastern soul and feelings. Furthermore, the local conditions,
the characters and their traditions and behavior will often offend our Eastern feelings, which will affect and harm our souls.
We must appreciate the fact that Kenchana from its rst issue
has endeavored to publish a serialized comic about the Golden
Age of our country, which has been written by a young artistic
Indonesian, because with it the Malay nation will also be able to
taste the beautiful owers of the art of comics, especially comics
that are connected to the history of the Malay homeland. ( . . . )
With Tunggadewa by Achnas we begin the history of Malay
comic art and continue Indonesian comic art. We hope that the
respected readers of Kenchana will welcome it with enthusiasm
and happiness. Long live the Malay nation! Independence! Indonesia! (Nazif 13, 21)
From this quotation it becomes clear that for its author comic art was directly connected with the education of children and also adults, believing that it would surely strengthen Malay pride, a necessary precursor for
the coming independence of the Malay nation. The article must be read
in the context of the relationship between the people of the Malay Peninsula with their brothers across the Melaka Straits in the former Dutch
East Indies who were participating in a struggle for independence against
the Dutch in the late 1940s. The Indonesian artist Naz Achnas, who introduced comic art to Malaya, was a refugee who ed his homeland during
the Indonesian Revolution (194549).6 Naz also offered free drawing lessons to the readers of Kenchana who won a competition, as an editorial in
the rst issue stated (Naz 6).
[ 249 ]
The key gure in the development of popular writing during the period between World War Two and independence in Malaya was Harun
Aminurrashid, who was involved in at least fourteen other magazines besides Kenchana, and also wrote the forewords for several of the comic books
that began appearing from 1952 onwards.7 In one of these forewords he
deplores the paucity of Malay comics published since 1947, claiming that
less than ten stories had appeared, whereas developed countries published
them by the thousands, reviving stories such as Tarzan and Superman for
years on end. According to Harun, Malay children could be taught loyalty, kindness, and a desire for self-improvement through the publication
of comics.8 In a foreword to another publication he offered backhanded
compliments about its quality: The two comics published here, if one
counts that they are beginners efforts, are a compliment to their writersdrawers, who have seriously worked to reach their goals. The aws found
in the drawings and the story line I am convinced will be improved by the
publisher Nilam, so that in the near future Nilams publication will reach
a level that may satisfy the readers (Harun Aminurrashid in 15 tahun dahulu 1952 15, quoted in Gallop).
Apparently Haruns criticism did not fall on deaf ears since several
publishers began to venture into the publication of comic books in the
early 1950s, resulting in an increase in both the quality of the drawings and
the printing. The most productive publishers during the 1950s were Geliga
Press in Singapore, The Malay Press in Kuala Pilah (on the Malay Peninsula), and Keluarga-Zawyah Publishing House in Singapore-Johor Baru.
This last mentioned publisher deserves special attention since its comics
reected the vicissitudes of the enthusiastic and amboyant entrepreneur
Sabirin Hj. Mohd. Annie.
In May 1952 Sabirin Hj. Mohd. Annie began publication of a serial
under the title Majalah Comic Melayu (Malay Comics Magazine). Each
issue comprised a single comic story in Latin script, most of which were
drawn and written by Razak Ahmad from Penang. This series of comics replaced the lm magazine Dunia Film (World of Film), another of
Sabirins publications which folded in its fourth year of publication in July
1952.9 Twelve issues of the comic series were advertised and at least eleven
were published, most of them legendary historical tales, such as Meminang
Putri Gunung Ledang (Proposing to the Princess of Mount Ledang) and
[ 250 ]
Karena Roboh Kota Melaka (Because Melaka fell). All of these issues were
introduced with an editorial by the publisher in which he vigorously defended his publications. Sabirin tried to mobilize his readers to look for
subscribers: anyone who managed to round up 10 subscribers to subscribe
to a minimum of 6 issues each would receive 6 issues free; subscribers to
more than 6 issues were promised a numbered badge inscribed Warga
Mujalah Comic Melayu [Member of the Malay Comic Magazine] which
would entitle the owner to discounts from Zawyah Publishing House
(Gallop). Another scheme to boost sales was a rafe on New Years Eve of
1953 in which the winner would receive a bicycle; however, if contenders
would continue to send in ve ten-cent stamps every month, they could
even win a prize of ten dollars each month (Razak).
Sabirins attempts to secure money from his subscribers as well as his
distributors in the Malay Peninsula and several cities in Indonesia, and at
the same time sell other products, continued. Among his schemes were promotions for Zetpiech perfumed oil for smelly armpits (Zetpiech Obat Katiak Hamis), capsules for venereal diseases, ointment for skin ailments, and
his infallible cure for almost anything: Zetpiech Iron Tonic (see gure 2).
In short, Sabirins Zawyah Publishing Home printed his comics and magazines at his Annies Printing Works and distributed them through a network of medicine-book-shoe-shops together with his pills and ointments.
He may have started as early as 1939 with Annies Medical Hall as his rst
imprint,10 continued during the 1940s with nationalistic, entertaining, and
literary magazines, and moved on to comics in the early 1950s. The Majalah Comic Melayu in Latin script seems to be continued in a new series
that surprisingly was published in the old Perso-Arabic script. Sabirin
probably foresaw that Latin script would become more popular as independence, and the modernity it entailed, drew near, and therefore had the
comic series published in that fancy script.11 But he also had his commercial interests to consider, and therefore Sabirin announced in an advertisement in the last known issue of Majalah Comic Melayu that the following
issue would employ the Perso-Arabic script to meet the general demand
from subscribers. It would however take more than two years to start the
new series entitled Penerbitan Keluarga (Family Publication) which comprised the same type of legendary stories featuring one of the most artistically rened versions of the Hang Tuah story that appeared in Malay comic
[ 251 ]
form. It was through this and other popular media that the old tales of
Tuah were further disseminated and reinterpretations made possible.
The rst Malay comic version of the Hang Tuah story did not appear in
the Peninsula but in Indonesia. In 1951 the Dutch-established government
publishing house Balai Pustaka published the story for children, as was explicitly stated on the front cover.12 The comic, drawn and written by Nasjah
Djamin, a painter and writer hailing from North Sumatra but living in
Jakarta at the time, faithfully and in great detail follows Hikayat Hang
Tuah, from the childhood scufe with pirates until the confrontation with
Jebat, a man he considered to be his brother, over the latters treasonous
behavior towards the sultan. The remaining pages describe diplomatic
missions to India and China, and the subjugation of the Malay polity of
Trengganu is dealt with in four frames. The story ends with the message
that after that last episode Melaka only increased its power, for obvious reasons leaving out the fall of the empire to the Portuguese and the alienation
of the hero and his ruler. Balai Pustaka by this time was in the hands of
newly established Indonesian government which tried to boost nationalistic feelings by teaching children about their heroic predecessors, focusing
on their triumphs.
With the 1951 comic publication of the tales of Hang Tuah, Balai
Pustaka dug in its heels against foreign comics that had began to ood the
market in the early 1950s. These comics were translated American stories
or the odd Indonesian version of a Chinese legendary adventure, which
were severely criticized by educators who wanted to erase Western inuences. These critics were silenced when by 1954 comic designers such
as Kosasih and Johnlo developed an indigenous type of comics that explored the Sundanese-Javanese tradition of stories based on the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata (Bonneff 1931). This early Balai Pustaka
publication of a story based on the Malay tradition may have been a oneoff edition that served as a model for the commercial publishers in Bandung and Jakarta, where the indigenous comic industry converged. Nationalistic discourse, however, was to be directed towards the Javanese roots of
the Indonesian nation, rather than traditions in old Malay tales. Thus, further comic tales of Hang Tuah can only be found in British held territories
in Singapore and the Malay Peninsula.
[ 252 ]
By the early 1950s Malay legendary tales were becoming the prerogative of Malay nationalists who were reinterpreting them in an attempt to
write and drawor createa nation in the Peninsula. The story of Hang
Tuah was the one that was most frequently exploited for nationalistic and
commercial purposes. There were at least nine different comic versions of
the story which were published in the Peninsula during the 1950s. One of
the rst appeared as issue 11 of Majalah Comic Melayu entitled Perjuangan Hang Tuah dan Jebat (The ght between Hang Tuah and Jebat, 1953),
drawn and written by Razak Ahmad. In sixteen pages the story from Hang
Tuahs banishment from the court until Jebats death is depicted in large
frames which are rather coarsely drawn but also aptly reect the dynamics
of the confrontation between the two Malay warriors. However, the story is
rather hard to follow if one is not familiar with it because the writer leaves
out certain essential information that links some of the scenes depicted in
different frames. In accordance with the commercial intentions of its publisher, every page except the rst shows an advertisement at the bottom
(see gure 2); the back coverboth inside and outsideis adorned with
page-long notications and advertisements for the publishers medicines.
The other comic versions all employ the Perso-Arabic script and either revolve around Hang Tuahs adventures on the island of Java, where
he defeated the Javanese warrior Taming Sari and received a magically empowered kris (dagger) (Hang Tuah di taman larangan [Hang Tuah in the
forbidden garden], 1955(?) and Taming Sari, 1957), and of course the ght
between the two friends (Jebat Derhaka [Jebats Treason], 1956 and Keris
Hang Tuah, 1957). Saidin Yahya drew a series of ve comics in which he depicted the story of Hang Tuah in two volumes (Saidin), and apparently reserved three volumes for a newly developed story about the brave warrior
Hang Derahman who was acknowledged as Hang Tuahs son (Putra Hang
Tuah 13, 195253) but it is not clear if he published the latter three volumes
(Zainab).13 Interestingly, the publisher of both series was the Malay Teachers Association in Kedah, a Malay state near the Thai border. The chairman of this organization expressed his hope that the publication would be
benecial to Malay writing as well as of use to children who were studying history, writing, reading, drawing and other topics in school. He called
upon readers to help expand the writings on the Malay nation, which he
believed was lagging far behind other nations. Still his organization had
[ 253 ]
Fig. 2. Hang Jebat has taken over the

palace. Note advertisement at the bottom
of the page (Perjuangan Hang Tuah dan
Jebat, p. 6).
difculties in securing funds for future publications of comics and therefore, in a supplement to the chairmans introduction, the caretaker of the
organization inculcated the subscribers to enclose a money order or stamps
with their orders for copies (Saidin). And although the publication was cosponsored by several companies that promoted their services and goods by
way of advertisements, eager readers apparently had to wait for about one
year to be able to read the second part of this series (Saidin).
Apart from a shortage of funding, the comic industry in the Penin-
[ 254 ]
sula was also short of artists who could draw and write a decent comic, although there were a few very accomplished artists active in the eld. This
is clear from the difference between the spectacular drawing on the front
cover of Keris Hang Tuah by Muhammad Ibrahim and the rather simplistic drawings inside by Husin Ahmad, who added his name and address in
the last frame, probably to attract fan mail from girls. This was surely the
intention of the very young Embong Ahmad who added his photograph to
the comic Laksamana Bintan (Admiral of Bintan) in 1954. In the introduction to Hang Tuah di Air Masin (Hang Tuah at Sea) we nd another
example of this phenomenon of young artists seeking recognition. The
young artist K. Bali, who was at school in Southern Thailand, asked for
constructive criticism, and if youngsters wanted to make their acquaintance, and could send newspapers and books, they were welcome to send
him a letter. This appeal to readers was apparently successful, as in one of
his other comics (Raden Mas [a proper name]) he emphasized that his fans
should enclose stamps with their reactions. His efforts at self-promotion
included embellishing his next comic with a large photograph of himself
on the back cover and a smaller one inside. It also contained reactions by
some of his readers, drawings of ower patterns for women and a poem
for close friends. K. Bali published three comic books in total, Pembela
Tanahair (Defender of the Homeland), Hang Tuah di Air Masin, and
Raden Mas I, the sequel to the latter serialized in Hiburan (Bali Dari Tendong ke Borneo 9697). K. Bali based his work on youth literature the comic
publisher sent to him with the request to make them into comic books
(Bali, Hang Tuah di air masin, introduction).
The role of inexperienced young artists in the comic industry of Malaya in the 1950s was similar to developments in the United States at the
same time. It was a new medium that appealed to youth. Unlike the United
States, however, the stories were not original, with superheroes representing anxieties of the times. Instead Malay comic artists tapped into ancient
tales and their heroes, a natural fodder for both the comic and lm industries. The reinterpretation of these tales would reect nationalist ideals and
modernity (in the Malay Peninsula a word that is almost the equivalent of
individuality and anti-feudalism). To understand the role that these traditional heroes, and particularly Hang Tuah, played in the comics and lm,
[ 255 ]
and vice versa, in a time of intense political debate, we rst need to look
at the origins of the tale and presentation in other forms of popular media
during colonial rule.
The genesis of the story of Hang Tuah, and any reality behind it, is still a
mystery. The main text is known as Hikayat Hang Tuah, which exists in
about twenty manuscripts, of which the oldest extant one is from the mideighteenth century. The tales refer to the fteenth-century Malay state of
Melaka, which at that time was a prosperous and powerful polity in insular
Southeast Asia, and relate various adventures of Hang Tuah, a formidable
dignitary at the Melaka court who saves his master time and again from
precarious situations or conicts with powerful adversaries.
These tales may be read and interpreted in many ways, whether as
an allegoric history of the relationship between the Malay polities Johor
and Jambi in the second half of the seventeenth century, the period during which they may have been written down, or as a symbolic story, using
Tuahs youth, adventures, actions, and illness to refer to the Melakas development, decline, and fall (Braginsky). The hikayata Malay term for romance or storycan also be interpreted as a Malay vade-mecum for the
public with advice on how to behave and act in a proper manner (Maier).
The moral lessons that are given in the tales about the loyalty subjects
should observe towards their ruler are linked to the prosperity of the state,
and form another aspect of the tale that has been interpreted in many ways.
Although the tale is divided into many episodes, the central theme is
encapsulated in the conict between Hang Tuah and Jebat. Both characters are equal in many respects and Jebat may be even seen as the alter ego
of Tuah. Jebat is as courageous, handsome, well mannered, and well behaved as Tuah until the moment he is appointed as Tuahs replacement.
Hang Tuah is the ultimate example of a servant who has an almost sickening loyalty to his sultan, while the penalty of disloyalty is clearly shown
in the consequences of Hang Jebats rebellion. Jebat kills all of the female
servants and royal concubines at the palace when he is challenged by Hang
Tuah, and after he is mortally wounded by Tuahs kris, Jebat recovers to kill
thousands of people around the palace before his own demise. The theme
of loyalty is in accordance with the environment in which much classical
[ 256 ]
Malay literature was written, namely the Malay courts where scribes and
authors worked together on the production of books which had a certain
sacral meaning for the courts where they were produced. Such themes are
found throughout premodern Malay writing, although some Malay texts
depict the ruler as a tyrant who alienates many of his subjects through his
unjust rule, thus emphasizing that the ruler also had obligations towards
his subjects. These lessons are almost totally lacking in the Hikayat Hang
Tuah, except for the tale of Jebats rebellion. In that tale Jebat temporarily
becomes ruler of the palace and polity, acting as tyrannical leader who
does nothing but drink, fornicate, and kill the people who are subjected to
his whims and wishes.
The Hikayat Hang Tuah was very much embedded in the literary
traditions of premodern Malay courts. Along with Sulalatus Salatin or
Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals)another text that focuses on precolonial Melaka and contains some truncated versions of Hang Tuahs tales
accounts of Hang Tuah can be classied as typical kerajaan (royal) texts
(Milner, Kerajaan) in that they consolidate and strengthen the position of
the ruling elite, and the manuscripts were highly respected receptacles if
not sacred objects at the courts where they were produced. These texts were
only supposed to be read in public on certain occasions and only before a
limited audience. Outside court circles they were probably only known to
a few Western scholars who studied Malay literature and collected manuscripts, although the populace also knew them in some form through oral
traditions. For colonial scholars both Hikayat Hang Tuah and Sulalatus
Salatin had a certain appeal for they were historical tales without too many
fantastical or mythic legends, which were common and often the focus
of severe criticism by colonial scholars of Malay literary tradition. The
two texts that described the tales of Hang Tuah were also in accordance
with colonial policies that promoted loyalty to the ruler among Malays as a
praiseworthy characteristic since it could be transferred to the new holders
of power in the region, the British. The tales balanced nicely alongside texts
that were highly critical of the Malay elite, the most famous written by the
British supported author Abdullah Munsyi, which were all published by
the British to provide reading materials for their vernacular colonial educational system (Proudfoot 16).
[ 257 ]
Moreover, both the Sulalatus Salatin and Hikayat Hang Tuah are
written in clear and simple Malay not riddled with Arabic loan words,
and therefore in line with nineteenth-century Western ideals of a pure,
original language which was important for Western understandings of a
Malay nation. The lucidity of the language in these texts was considered
important for the development of a standard form of Malay which was to
be used in the colonial education system that European ofcials in British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies established in the latter part of the
nineteenth century. Since the colonial authorities needed texts to develop
a certain pride among Malays for their history and language, which in colonial conceptions were characterized by the domination of the aristocracy
and marred by foreign words, both of these texts were seen as exemplary.
These ofcials, such as R. J. Wilkinson, ensured that the Hikayat Hang
Tuah and Sulalatus Salatin were in the rst batch of texts published. It was
through this publication that the story of Hang Tuah gained a certain familiarity among a larger Malay public. Eventually Hikayat Hang Tuah went
through four editions in the ubiquitous Malay Literature Series, which was
published as part of the colonial educational service in the early twentieth century.
The story of Hang Tuah was further popularized in the early twentieth century through bangsawan, a form of popular Malay opera that developed under the inuence of Indian theatre groups touring Southeast
Asia in the last decades of the nineteenth century. These theatre groups
staged a host of different stories hailing from Indian and Western traditions in one of the Indian languages. The performances were accompanied
by music and dance and were interspersed with comical and musical interludes, which often did not have any connection with the story but received enthusiastic reactions from the audience (Cohen 31517). From the
1890s onwards this type of commercial theatre was imitated in the Malay
world and developed into a form of Malay drama that ourished in the
two decades prior to World War Two. Bangsawan theatre depended upon
ticket sales and therefore was subject to the popular tastes of the viewing
audience (Rahmah Bujang 4648; Tan 16567).
Some of the tales of Hang Tuah were incorporated into the repertoire of bangsawan theatre, quickly becoming a staple of the performances
(Abdul 17). In a list of stories staged by bangsawan troupes between 1914
[ 258 ]
and 1956, there are at least three plays that are directly taken from Hikayat
Hang Tuah: Hang Tuah, Keris Taming Sari, and Cinta di negara Hang
Tuah (Love in the land of Hang Tuah; Rahmah Bujang appendix D).
The latter title is interesting because Hikayat Hang Tuah is almost void of
episodes in which love is the main theme; only the episode in which Hang
Tuah abducts Princess Teja may be classied as such and it may have been
the subject matter of this play.
The socioeconomic and political environment in which the bangsawan theatre developed gradually changed beginning in the 1930s. The Depression made it hard for theatre groups to stage large productions and the
audience found it increasingly difcult to pay the price of the tickets. In
addition, nationalistic groups calling for independence from British colonialism were growing in popularity. Such nationalistic feelings were considered incongruent with plays that contained the message that loyalty of
subjects to their masters was something to be celebratedafter all Hang
Tuah killed his best friend for insulting the ruler. During World War Two
the rst drama staged took the Hang Tuah story as its subject material and
tried to convey a serious message to the audience, but in this case to focus
on how the era of Hang Tuah differed from contemporary times. Japanese
restrictions prevented any new or more explicit interpretation of the story;
thus, the play Hang Tuah Pahlawan Melayu (Hang Tuah the Malay hero)
only reminded Malays of glorious days that had passed (Abdul 2426). The
version presented during the War was important, however. It was the beginning of a reinterpretation of the basic story. In the following decades
the tales of Hang Tuah would give vent to nationalistic feelings, which invariably undermined their position as the sublime champion of those in
power. At the core of these reinterpretations would be the new media of
lm and comics that transformed the subject material.
Malay lm began during the 1930s as theatre owners searched for a product
that would appeal to local audiences. The bangsawan tradition was quite
inuential in the nascent lm industry, as well as the comic strip production that followed in its wake, for it provided the stars as well as the stories
for many of the lms that were made in the decade after the war. It also
provided the industry with an audience that was familiar with and appreciative of the players, stories, and conventions. These early lms were shot
[ 259 ]
on a small stage, with little movement from the actors and the camera, and
no use of close ups. The rarity of seeing Malay language dramas through
the modern medium of lm, however, drew large crowds despite the limited technical quality of the product (Jamil Sulong 1993: 9). World War Two
brought this early era of Malay language lm to a close. Although only a
handful of lms had been produced, and were of limited inuence, they
laid the ground for a vibrant Malay lm industry in the 1950s and early
1960s that was based in Singapore.
The Malay lm industry that ourished in Singapore following World
War Two was centered on two companies: Malay Film Productions (MFP)
and Cathay Keris. MFP was the local branch of Shaw Brothers, a Chinese
theatre and lm production organization that was inuential throughout
Southeast Asia. They were to dominate the Malay lm industry until the
late 1950s, when Run Run Shawthe maverick responsible for much the
organizations successreturned to Hong Kong and a series of labor strikes
that followed crippled production capabilities. Following these developments, Cathay Keris surpassed MFP in terms of productivity and creativity. Like MFP, Cathay Keris was a major Chinese-owned theatre chain
and lm producer, although its founders were based in Singapore (Barnard). At their respective peaks, both studios produced lms about Hang
Tuah, with each reecting the political and social issues of the time, as well
the reasons for the studios popularity.
The main reason for MFPs success in the 1950s was an actor and
singer named P. Ramlee. Although he was not a conventionally attractive
man, being skinny with acne scars on his face, Ramlee was charismatic and
had a musical ability that helped him earn a contract to lead the studio orchestra in the late 1940s. Since practically every Malay lm of the period
featured songs, he often appeared before the cameras either leading the orchestra or singing a musical number in many of the early postwar lms.
Ramlee soon moved away from the orchestra pit and took increasingly
larger speaking roles in lms and by 1950 he was a leading man. For the
next twenty years he dominated all aspects of the Malay lm industry as
an actor, writer, and director. He eventually appeared in forty-three lms,
directing sixteen of them. In addition, Ramlee often wrote the scripts,
while also composing and performing the music that would appear in the
lm. The turning point in his career was the lm Hang Tuah, a drama that
[ 260 ]
was not only inuenced by Malay storytelling traditions but also the new
medium of comic art. The production reected the coming together of a
number of modernizing inuences of the 1950s in Malaya.
Expatriate Indian directors dominated the early lm world in which
P. Ramlee participated since Shaw Brothers felt they could bring an expertise to the industry, as well as be easily controlled since they could be
deported if they caused trouble. While these Indian directors brought a
certain amount of technical knowledge to early Malay lm, there were cultural boundaries that limited their acceptance among the Malay actors and
assistants on the sets. One of the most common complaints in the memoirs and oral histories of participants was the inability of Indian directors
to communicate in Malay and the control the Indian directors had over the
stories told on screen. Scripts and advice to actors usually had to undergo
a laborious process of translation from various Indian languages into English and then into Malay, and back again (Hamzah 8283; Jamil 24, 47,
5051). The result was direct translation of popular Indian lm plots along
with the songs that were a combination of Indian cinema and bangsawan
traditions, performed in Malay.
As MFP productions grew in popularity in the 1950s, Shaw Brothers
executives searched for a story that would appeal to a Malay audience in
the midst of a growing nationalistic movement and be appropriate for their
rst color lm.14 They decided on lming the story of Hang Tuah, as it had
become a popular tale among the populace following the numerous comic
versions. The executives then turned to Phani Majumdar, a newly imported
Indian director, to helm the lm. Shaw Brothers originally hired Majumdar, an activist in the Bengal lm industry, in 1955 to reorganize the studio.
He accomplished this task by promoting Malays who had been working behind the scenes as assistant directors, cameramen, and editors to increasingly important positions, while also supporting new story lines and ideas.
Majumdar wanted to introduce some of the activism he advocated in India
into the Malay lm industry by encouraging innovation, and this provided
opportunities for many young activists who had worked in the publishing
industry. Backed by the increasing popularity and status of P. Ramlee,
Mujamdar directed one of the most important lms ever made in Singapore, and, by returning to the tale of the Melakan warrior, tapped into the
growing popularity of the story as reected in earlier comic versions.
[ 261 ]
Majumdar wrote the screenplay for Hang Tuah with the assistance of
Jamil Sulong, a nationalistic artist, and Mubin Sheppard, a British civil
servant and historian who eventually stayed in Malaya following its independence in 1957. In addition, the director asked for input from Mahmud
Ahmad, Abdullah Hussain, and Haji Buyong Adil, all of whom were leading writers or cultural activists at the time. The input of these activists resulted in the incorporation of traditional sayings (gurindam) and poetry
(pantun) as an integral part of the plot and dialogue. Shaw Brothers high
hopes for the lm pushed Majumdar to complete the lm so that it could
qualify for competition in the Asian Film Festival circuit in 1955. The lming process, which involved ying the lm to London for processing, however, took too long. Shaw Brothers nally released the lm in January 1956,
featuring it in their marquee cinemas in Singapore and Kuala Lumpur,
something they rarely did with Malay lms.15 Hang Tuah went on to win
prizes at lm festivals in Hong Kong and was shown in Indonesia, Thailand, and the Middle East, as well as at the Berlin Film Festival, all rsts in
the Malay lm industry (Ahmad 8081; Jamil 86).
Despite such success, the lm received harsh criticism from the Malay
activist community, becoming a focus of complaints that artists had at the
time toward both MFP and Cathay Keris, as well as British rule in the region. Reecting much of this criticism is an article by Mahmud Ahmad in
the Malay magazine, Majalah Bintang (Star Magazine) that came out the
month after the lm was released. In the piece Mahmud distances himself from much of the production, claiming that he had little input into
the lm since he only attended one or two meetings as well as a ceremony
celebrating the rst day of lming. For his efforts, Mahmud received a few
meals, three shanty drinking sessions, and a pair of complimentary tickets
to a Shaw Brothers cinema. He then claims that Mubin Sheppard had an
inordinate amount of input into the lm. Although Sheppard had published a popular childrens book on Hang Tuah in 1949, such a role was unwelcome during a period in which Malay artists were trying to get their
own versions of such iconic tales before the public. In addition, Mahmud
claims that the only formal meeting he attended was conducted in English,
another point of irritation as it was seen as a tool of colonial oppression.
Finally, he criticizes the costumes that the characters wore claiming that
they were not authentic. This last point may seem fairly petty, but it was a
[ 262 ]
point of contention since an earlier promotional article for the lm made

great efforts to address this issue, claiming it was necessary for the colors
to appear vibrant on screen.16
While the costumes and the participation of Sheppard and Majumdar were the focus of much criticism, activists also questioned the limited number of tales and the inclusion of two songs in the lm. While the
singing Hang Tuah led to charges that the lm was too Indian (Harding
and Ahmad 72), the contempt of many of the activists was directed at a
simplication of a complicated and subtle text since the lm only contained an account of four of the most famous tales. It begins with the tale
of young Tuah and his friends ghting pirates and then receiving instructions in the martial arts at the mysterious Mt. Ledang. The lm then turns
to three of the most common tales: the trip to Majapahit and the gift of the
dagger Taming Sari, the seduction of Teja and Tuahs exile due to slander,
and nally the rebellion of the treasonous Jebat. The lm ends with Hang
Tuahs murder of Jebat. The last shot focuses on P. Ramlee as Hang Tuah,
who states Who was right, me or Jebat?, leaving the audience to question whether Hang Tuahs loyalty to the ruler was justied. The questioning of Tuahs actions in the last lines of the lm, as well as Ramlees status
in the community, did temper some of the criticism, however. This twist
to the tale, which previously had been used as the template for blind loyalty, represented a push in a new direction, opening the story up to an examination of Jebats motivations and perhaps a justication for rebelling
against colonial and traditional authority, to which the popular comics of
the day had also drawn attention. This was clearly seen when the two main
actors, P. Ramlee and Ahmad Mahmud, promoted the lm through traveling theatre presentations during the mid-1950s. During reenactments of
the Tuah-Jebat clash, Jebat always received the greatest amount of applause
(Josselin de Jong 146).
The reassessment of Hang Jebats actions was made in a context of increased social and cultural activism that was related to growing nationalistic feelings. One of the most inuential organizations at that time was
a group of Malay artists and writers, known as the ASAS 50 (an acronym
for Angkatan Sasterawan 50Generation of the Writers of the 1950s), who
promoted the ideal of art for society. While best known for their poems
and short stories, many ASAS 50 members also worked in the lm industry.
[ 263 ]
Many of these artists, such as Jamil Sulong and S. Roomai Noor, originally
came from the publishing industry, where Harun Aminurrashid had acted
as a mentor. Haruns initially employed these future actors and directors
to write for his entertainment magazines, and the nationalism and use of
popular culture that he promoted became inuential in their future positions in the lm industry. One of their common complaints at the time
among these activists was that the lms did not reect the concerns of the
Malay community, for which the Indian directors were harshly criticized.
However, Majumdar provided greater opportunities for Malay input into
the lmmaking process, with Hang Tuah being the rst step. The criticisms of these Malay activists and the development of ASAS-50, however,
were rooted in the earlier developments in the magazine industry, in which
comic strips were a vibrant medium for new ideas.
The interactive inuence of comics and lm became apparent in comics that were published after the release of the lm. Released the same year
as the lm, Muhammad Ibrahims Jebat Derhaka contains drawings that
are quite detailed with many frames on one page, which does tend to cause
problems for reader. While the author decided to insert many quotations
taken directly from the original hikayat, the lm was the inspiration for
the drawings, since they are quite accurate caricatures of P. Ramlee as Tuah
and Ahmad Mahmud as Jebat. Much of this is ironic since P. Ramlee had
not been the rst choice to play Hang Tuah. During the planning stages
for the lm, one of the main Malay advisors, Haji Buyong Adil, insisted
that Hang Tuah must be tall and muscular with light-colored skin, and
thus rejected P. Ramlee for the role. After a few disastrous screen tests with
unknowns, studio executives forced the director to accept the Malay lm
iconthe biggest and most charismatic star of the erafor the part. Distraught at the choice, Haji Buyong Adil insisted that the actor did not t
the part. However, when pressed to prove that Hang Tuah is even described
as such in the original texts and twentieth-century interpretations, he eventually conceded that the character in each medium t the expectations
of the audience, and came to accept P. Ramlee as Hang Tuah, as well as
Ahmad Mahmud as Hang Jebat (Abdullah, Sebuah Perjalanan 600601).
Thus, what had previously been a blank slate with regard to the appearance of Hang Tuah had now become standard. P. Ramlee was Hang Tuah.
In the comic illustrations in Jebat Derhaka, however, there is a aw: For the
[ 264 ]
Fig. 3. P. Ramlee and Ahmad Mahmud as

the models for an illustrated Hang Tuah and
Hang Jebat (Jebat Derhaka 1956, p. 31).
lm the actor shaved off his trademark mustache, which does appear in
the drawings.
The publisher of Jebat Derhaka was none other than Sabirin Hj. Mohd.
Annie, and it appeared in his new series Penerbitan Keluarga. In the introduction he expressed a conviction that, although the story was already
well known, the publication would be warmly welcomed for the entertainment it provided and for its repetition and commemoration of the virtues
of its hero in the past. Hopefully this comic would help the reader learn
progressive lessons (Jebat Derhaka, 1956). This introduction not only refers
to the commercial help the readers would provide to the publisher; it also
clearly alludes to the progress the nation would experience through pending independence from the British. The introduction was dated 30 June
1956, thirteen months before Malayan independence materialized, and ve
months after the release of a lm version of the Hang Tuah story that ended
with an ambivalent twist that questioned loyalty to a traditional ruler. The
proliferation of these comicswhich would subsequently inuence, and
[ 265 ]
be inuenced by, a lmmay be interpreted as an expression of hope that

the efforts of the comic industry, and connected artists, would lead to developing pride in the nation by a retelling and perhaps reinterpretation of
legendary tales for children and grown-ups.
The story of Hang Tuah has seen many artistic reinterpretations. Abdul
Rahman Napiah (1994) and Solehah Ishak (2002) have dealt extensively
with the dramatized representations of the Hang Tuah tale, which revolve
exclusively around the Tuah-Jebat duel. The 1958 radio play Tragedi Hang
Jebat (later retitled Hang Jebat Menderhaka [Hang Jebat commits treason]
and produced as a stage play) by Ali Aziz, is considered a turning point for
the shift towards Jebat as hero in the struggle against the old forces obstructing the full development of an independent Malay nation. This shift
was further rened in Usman Awangs Matinya Seorang Pahlawan (Death
of a Warrior, 1961), which was frequently staged to boost patriotic feelings
in the new-born nation. About two decades later the tale inspired three
playwrights in compiling absurdist plays which featured Jebat as champion of the underprivileged in Malaysian society (Solehah 78). Another
very interesting reinterpretation of the tale may be found in a short story
by Fatimah Busu (1984), in which the hero Jebat rises from his grave, which
has become a garbage dump, and eternally travels around the country
while bleeding from his mortal wound. Every Thursday night Jebat is visited by hundreds of thousands of small skulls who sing for him and eagerly
listen as he tells them the legendary tale of Hang Tuah. The skulls claim
that he is better off than them because he still wears his earthly body, but
Jebat counters with the tales of the people he encounters who are tortured
in hell. At dawn the following day he continues his journey. This version,
the rst by a female author, blends Islamic symbolism and legends, such
as the Tale of King Skull (Hikayat Raja Jumjumah), the Camus-inspired
Sisy phus tale, and homoerotic allusions with the Malay legend (Khoo).
The Romance of Hang Tuah holds a pivotal position in the development of the Malayan lm industry in the 1950s. It also played an important
role in a thriving popular literature industry, in which comics were a new
development. Although some comic books were modeled after Western
prototypes, the comic industry in the Peninsula quickly developed an indigenous style during this period, and much of this can be related to the
[ 266 ]
impeding possibility of independence. Throughout the Malay Peninsula

and Singapore, the idea of a modern nation, focused on progress, became
a mantra in the publishing and lm industry. Thus, the stories depicted in
lms and comics promoted ideals of sacrice and modernity (Barnard and
Barnard), while only later shifting to more commercial stories. This led to
a questioning of traditional tales that was only hinted at in the comics and
the ending of Hang Tuah, the 1956 lm.
While the MFP lm and numerous comics had reintroduced the story
of Hang Tuah and Hang Jebat to the general public in the 1950s, this trend
continued with the 1961 production of another lm that focused on the
story, this time titled Hang Jebat, which was made by Cathay Keris. In
contrast to earlier versions of the tale, however, this one focused on the
usual villain of the piece, Hang Jebat, making him a modern hero who
did not participate in feudal worship of loyalty, but made individualistic decisions in favor of his friends and family. Under the direction of
Malay auteur Hussein Haniff, the lm clearly places the tale in a modern
context. By focusing on the traditional antagonist, who was treasonous to
the ruler in the name of justice and friendship, Cathay Keris presented
a revolutionarymoderninterpretation of the Malay historical legend
(Jamil 229; Lim 65, 13031).
The discussed reinterpretations of the tale were only possible because
of the popularity and familiarity the producers and the audience had with
the story of Hang Tuah. This popularization began in the 1920s through
theatre performances, which led to a rewriting of the story in youth literature during the 1940s and 1950s. Each of these reinterpretations then inuenced highly popular forms of comics and lm beginning in the 1950s.
In this period after World War Two legendary tales were used to inculcate
Malays with a feeling of pride for their history so they would feel united
as one nation to overcome the problems decolonization would bring. But a
tale that contains the choice one has to make between loyalty to ones superiors or towards ones friends and next of kin as one of its major themes, is
of course prone to be used and reused as inspiration for future interpretations. These heroes are sure to be resurrected from the grave and will haunt
Malay artistic expression for generations to come.
[ 267 ]
ENKI BILALS INTERMEDIAL FANTASIES

FROM COMIC BOOK NIKOPOL TRILOGY TO FILM
I M M O RTA L S ( A D V I TA M )
A Franco Yugoslavian artist traumatized by the civil war in Bosnia, Enki Bilal was born in Belgrade in 1951, and immigrated to Paris
(France) at the age of ten. His glamorous comic books exude a haunting
sense of desperate and tragic love in the midst of political and economic
disasters (dictatorship, globalization, eugenics), and ecological cataclysms
(climate changes). Urban guerillas in devastated cities reminiscent of the
Sarajevo that haunts his childhood memories, and underground movements led by unwilling and all-too-human, often schizoid antiheroes are
featured among his idiosyncrasies.
This chapter offers a semiotic approach to Enki Bilals science-ction
lm Immortals (ad vitam), released in France in March 2004 and starring
Charlotte Rampling, ex-Miss France Linda Hardy, and Thomas Kretschmann. The lm was adapted by Bilal from his own well-known comic
books: The Nikopol Trilogy (Carnival of Mortals [1980], Woman Trap [1986]
and Cold Equator [1992]). Bilals fantastic Nikopol Trilogy is a surrealistic,
dreamlike dystopia based on what he sees as the harrowing realities of our
postmodern world: a cynical approach to money and power, coupled with
a morbid fear of aging and of death, to which the lm titleImmortals (ad
vitam)refers. Immortals (ad vitam) engages and critiques the role of images in societyand the potential for such images to be used as a form of
social control. As such, Bilals postmodernist work offers interesting possibilities for the media of comics and lm as social critique.
[ 268 ]
Taking up the timeless theme of the quest for eternal life and everlasting beauty, youth, and love, Bilal depicts a decadent albeit futuristic
world where the immediate impact of visual images generates and guarantees political domination. From plastic surgery to the adulteration of visual
images, the power of corrupt dictator Ferdinand Choublanc (Senator Kyle
Allgood in the lm) is based on manipulations of all kinds aimed at erasing, then replacing peoples memories (knowledge, language, the ability to
express themselves and to communicate) with the hypnotic-like state of
oblivion induced by spectacular shows and performances broadcast on ubiquitous video screens, and overwhelmingly and lethally beautied masks:
fake images and government-sponsored fashion and makeup pasted onto
void, alienated, and coldhearted robotlike individuals without a past.
The equilibrium and the order based on this strategyarticial memories and personal amnesia considered as weaponsis disrupted by the apparently absurd interruption of a ying pyramid inhabited by the Egyptian gods Anubis, Bastet, Thot, and others in the sky of New York. When
one central characters frozen leg suddenly falls down from outer space into
the streets, the surrealistic story turns into a politico-fantastic thriller.
A technical tour de force, the lm results from Bilals deconstruction/
transposition of his own comic books, which themselves are very lmic
in style. It offers an interpretative synthesis and selection of the basic elements of the comic book trilogy, arranged to t the cinematic format and
satisfy the expectations of the targeted audience: young viewers expecting
a cult movie. Thus, not only does the reconstruction entail a transposition
into a different, emphatically hybrid medium (lm, video, cartoon, virtual
images, animation lm), but it also brings about a shift in the works genre,
and therefore a shift in its intended reception.
The comic book trilogy focuses on the improbable love story of a mutant journalist (Jill Bioskop), the Egyptian god Horus, and Alcide Nikopol
(whose leg is referred to above), a human dissenter frozen by the all-powerful
Eugenics Society Globus, then accidentally thawed and ung into a terrifying world decades ahead of the chosen time, and whose refuge is Baudelaires decadent poetry. The Trilogy spans the years 2023 to 2034, and moves
from ultramodern cityscapes (New York, Paris, Berlin, London) in developed countries ruled by tyrants to African desert landscapes (especially in
E N K I B I L A L S I N T E R M E D I A L F A N T A S I E S
[ 269 ]
Egypt), peopled by civilized animals and threatened by tribal conicts and

militias fueled by western countries.
The rst volume, La Foire aux Immortels (Carnival of Mortals, 1980),
is set in March 2023 Paris, where an Egyptian ying pyramid has just run
out of fuel. Taking advantage of that failure, Horus rebels against his fellow
creatures universal rule, and to make them surrender to his will, blackmails dictator Ferdinand Choublanc, granting immortality in exchange
for Horuss control of the citys fuel supply. The capsule in which dissident
Nikopol has been frozen is hit by a missile and plummets down. Nikopols
frozen leg is cut off in the process. The volume focuses on the bargain between the two dissenters, Nikopol and Horus. In exchange for survival, a
new leg (made out of a metallic subway rail), and divine strength, Horus
inhabits Nikopols human body, while Nikopol, possessed by Horus, but
haunted by Baudelaires Flowers of Evil, becomes a hero and a leader. He
nevertheless collapses when Horus is chased from Paris by the gods, and
ends up in a lunatic asylum.
Volume II, La Femme pige (Woman Trap, 1986) begins in Paris, on 22
February 2025, then moves to London, and focuses on the white-skinned,
blue-cropped-haired mutant journalist Jill Bioskop, her reports, her blue
feelings (and, literally, blue tears), her loves, fatal both to herself and to her
lovers, and her amnesia. She and Nikopol are brought together by Horuss
telepathic inuence. The latter, punished by the gods after his rebellion,
looks for a female partner to reach immortality through procreation. He
uses Nikopols body to impregnate Jill. The book ends with Nikopol and
Jill, in love, ying over Egypt in a vessel piloted by Horus.
In volume III, Froid quateur (Cold Equator, 1992), all the characters,
plots, and subplots converge. Nikopol, his son and twin Niko, Horus
alternately inside and outside Nikopoland Jill Bioskop, but also the gods
(Anubis, Bastet among others) in their ying pyramid, Choublanc and other
dictators converge, somewhere in Africa on the Equator line, the territory
of the maalike organization KKDZO. The unifying devices are the lming of Amor/Amore (Jill and Nikopols love story), Nikopols ght against
dictatorship, and Nikos love story with yet another character, Yelena. The
book ends with an amnesiac Jill nishing the lm, unaware that the catatonic Nikopol (oblivious through madness) whose hand she absentmind-
[ 270 ]
edly shakes, used to be her lover, and the medium through which Horus
made her pregnant.
A comparison of the comic books and the screenplay reveals that the lm
is no mere adaptation and rather a totally new visual artifact. Two hundred talented young designers, some of whom had worked with Spielberg,
Lucas, Wim Wenders, Jeunet (City of Lost Children), and Sting, spent over
four years working with Bilal to make the lm. They used well-known
video clip maker Durans 3D animation software to keep and develop the
Bilal touch. A condensation of the three comic books on which it is recognizably based, the lm differs from them by highlighting certain features. For example, the bewildering travels through space, switches from
city to city, and travels from cityscapes to African natural desert scenery,
have been replaced by the breathtaking horizontal trajectories of cars ying across the sky of the one location where the action is concentrated:
New York City, especially Central Park, in the winter of 2095. This shift in
the spatiotemporal locus turns the lm into a science ction lm. Urban
lth and vertical concrete submerge everything, movements are cramped
or guided (with the noteworthy exception of Horuss free ight), and the
stiing atmosphere generates a claustrophobic sense of impending doom.
This feeling is enhanced by the lms focus on the main characters
(unlike the comic books numerous minor characters), whose functions
and actions are more explicitly motivated, whereas in the comic they had
remained implicit. The lm thus hinges on the triangular love story (NikopolHorus-Jill), but the perspective has changed, warding off the simplifying effects of such dramatic tightening up. Counterbalancing Nikopol and
Horuss male heroism, Jill here becomes the lms poignant center of consciousness. The lm focuses on her alienness, her feelings of displacement,
of not belonging,1 and her painful transformation into a human woman.
This is a physical and psychic transformation,2 the symptoms of which are
visually represented (the shedding of her blue hair symbolically represents
her fall into oblivion) and eagerly watched over by scientist Dr. Emma
Turner (Charlotte Rampling), the lmic counterpart to the comic books
Yelena Prokosh-Tootobi (Nikos lover). The lm opposes the original
world of primary symptoms, drives and instincts which incorporates
[ 271 ]
both futurism and archaism3 and in which male characters are tied to the
heroines, who try to nd and show them the way out (Deleuze 19495), because they have to, even if, in the process, they must forget everything before starting from scratch.4 From ur-topos to u-topos.
Physically attracted to Jills strange beauty and childlike purity, and
scientically fascinated by her extraterrestrial vitality, Emma Turner is the
lms sole human being, and, like Nikopol, a rebel against Globus Eugenics
Society. Her experiments aim at preserving the original, unadulterated human species, and ghting against the ongoing genetic manipulations and
the ideology of her timesome people are disposable, others must be protected. This concern is the dominant theme of the lm, which opens with
the traumatic sequence of a raid, in which Jill is caught, by Eugenics militias to capture sane human guinea pigs whose organs will be removed
for VIPs needs.
Absent from the comic books, the characters of Inspector Froebe and
his crew turn the lm into a political thriller reminiscent of American action lms and survival stories, and Nikopol into a political savior-of-theworld Bruce-Willis-type hero. The absence of his son-twin, Niko, makes
him all the more unique: the lm chooses not to duplicate the treatment
of the theme of dual personalities beyond the couples Horus/Nikopol and
Jill-before/Jill-after. This move sets off the individuality of Emma Turners character and emphasizes the medical theme as well as her scientic
rebellion.
The rhetoric of Bilals images in both mediums is based on a pessimistic vision of reality and characterized by his aestheticist though dysphoric
representation of urban, postmodern life. The iconic and linguistic codes
he uses to represent reality are an apt translation of his pessimistic imagination. His graphic pages are saturated by emotionalist images (Deleuzes
images motion), since the scale of his panels ranges from medium close
shots to close shots, closeups, and extreme closeups. The saturation of the
frames sets off faces in an emotionally efcient way.5 Readers are all the
more easily overwhelmed by the feeling of empathy such closeups force on
them, as other devices contribute to Bilals violently, cruelly beautiful representation of brute force and crime.
The all-but-speechless characters seem to have been frozen as in snapshots, with their vacant stares and robotlike movements, their silence and
[ 272 ]
inability to communicate in any direct waywhen he is not speaking

Horuss words, Nikopol quotes from Baudelaire instead of expressing himself. The feeling aroused by the rigidity and xity of the faces of these hieratic characters creates a mixture of fascination and awe. These robotlike
masks, statues, idols, golems, or freaks are the brutal though beautiful consequence of the political tyranny of aesthetics: government controlled and
sponsored fashions impose the use of certain colors, hairstyles, and dress
codes, which articially compensate for the lifeless anonymity of these
nonexpressive androgynous creatures. And fashions, such as peoples faces,
change whenever revolutions or coups occur.6
The violent, dysphoric atmosphere generated by such graphic options
is exacerbated by the psycho-physiologic effects of Bilals chromatic idiosyncrasies. The whole range of grayish and greenish tints and crude lights
he predominantly uses in his comic books, translated into the black and
white effect or grey monochromes of the lm, result in an expressionists
universe as much as a futuristic world. Indeed, the dominant impression is
that of a subterranean, or subaquatic, aquariumlike backcloth upon which
rare red or orange touchescrimson patches of bloodstand out. These
colors arouse tactile sensations such as those associated to the nonorganic
life of metallic, sleek, cold, shiny, hard, opaque, tasteless objects (connoting
ideal, noble absolute, nonhuman perfection), as opposed to the soft, warm,
resilient, mat, comforting grain of left-over, residual humanity (seen as
trivial, grotesque, carnivalesque, excremental, and obscene), as Nikopols
selection among Baudelaires Flowers of Evil shows.7 Bilals semiotic system
of colors and forms is structured as a network of binary oppositions: mutants vs. siblings (interbreeding), supernatural rapes vs. natural procreation, and so on.
Bilals dystopic representation of the world appears, at times, twice removed from reality by the explicit or implicit references to literature. For
instance Nikopol quotes from Baudelaires Flowers of Evil. His missing leg
is reminiscent of Thophile Gautiers Pied de la momie (The Mummys
Foot). The general atmosphere and ideology of the work are redolent of
H. P. Lovecrafts Chthulhu mythos, style, and prejudices. Furthermore the
name of the telepathic cat Gogol Algol is a knowing wink at the Russian
author Gogol and at Julien Greens Chteau dAlgol.
Other iconic linguistic codes are superimposed on Bilals visual and
[ 273 ]
intertextual codes. Pictorial modes, especially Dali and Magritte, and, more
generally speaking, Surrealism are imitated. References to cartoons, like
Roland Topors La Plante Sauvage,8 and applied arts like fashion design,
through references to Jean-Paul Gaultier or Philippe Dcouf, are also
present. Bilal also pastes newspaper articles onto his panels and a fake issue of Libration is inserted in the comic book. The reality effect of some
of its referential elements (Thursday 14th October 1993; Serge Julys editorial note) is counterbalanced by the derealizing effect of other clearly science ction elements such as titles like The Day When the Future Sent a
Telecopy, or Today, 3 February 2025 Meets 14 October 1993.9 The drawn
pseudo-photographs that illustrate it are ambiguous; traces, and therefore
revelations and proofs, of what-really-took-place, they nevertheless exhibit
impossible scenes. They ultimately work as indice-like epiphanies. To these
cases of intertextuality that reference a literary canon and give the comic
books a glamorous dimension, the lm adds a cult effect of numerous references to cinema. For example, the long black coats worn by the characters remind the viewer of The Matrix, while their makeup and violence is
reminiscent of Stanley Kubriks A Clockwork Orange. Nikopols hibernation capsule waltzing through space naturally brings to mind the same directors 2001: A Space Odyssey. The brutal hockey matches contain a hint
of Rollerball, while the thriller dimension evokes Blade Runner. Luc Bessons The Fifth Element is suggested by the action taking place a hundred
meters above ground, amid the skyscrapers, where cars and trolleys zoom
about, as well as by the performance, the plastic perfection, and the JeanPaul Gaultier outt of actress Linda Hardy (Mila Jovovichs blue-haired
double). Nikopol himself, who has become, during his hibernation, the
leader of an underground movement, Spirit of Nikopol, is endowed with
a role redolent of American action lms. Intertextuality thus contributes to
the shift from comic book to cult movie. Moreover, the rhetoric of Bilals
ction and the structuring of his comic book discourse rely on constant
shifts from book form to photography and the cinema, and vice versa. In
the same way as the comic books are written and drawn like lm shots/
sequences or composed like photographs, the lm resorts to the techniques
of drawing.
Indeed, the comic books sometimes look like ne photomontages and
read like a lms storyboard. The cinema is at the core of volume III, which
[ 274 ]
opens in the studios of Dembi Dolo, where director Giancarlo Donadoni

is showing Niko the rushes of the lm Amor/Amore featuring his father,
Nikopol, and mother, Jill. The story is from then on a retrospective narrative, aiming at explaining the disappearance of the heroic pair, at trying
to understand why the lm was never nished, and at presenting the lms
completion. In other words, the book is offered as an equivalent to the lost
lm, and designed like the lm it is meant to replace. Thus, the lming of
Amor/Amore may be absent from the lm itself, which may lose the mise
en abme effect present in the comic books, it nevertheless capitalizes on
self-referentiality. For Bilals fans, the lm they view is the one shot in the
comic book.
The initial sequence of the book shows Niko watching the image-byimage reel: the comic panels read like the lms actual storyboard. The ctional lm is thus represented as a series of almost identical snapshots cut
from the intended lm, with the intradiegetic spectators comments superimposed in squares pasted above the images: the directors technical comments counterpoised by Nikos emotional ones. An emotional climax is
reached with the nal sequence shot (Its the last scene I was able to shoot
with him), which freezes on closeups of Jill and Nikopols kiss. The hallucinatory xity of the lmed images is compensated by the movement
created by the succession of images barely different from one another. The
rst closeup of the pair, kissing, with their eyes shut, is followed by a close
shot of the same kiss, with their eyes open. The kiss is then interpolated
by the directors information, after a zooming out of the kiss, now seen as
part of a medium long shot of the green, desert movie house including the
two viewers, the director and Niko, facing the prolonged, enlarged kiss on
the giant screen, with their backs to us. The next image zooms in on the
directors blue hair (blue, as an homage to lost Jill), and a nal, lateral pan
shows the two men in prole, silhouetted against the screen, reduced by the
dilated closeups of the romantic pair. The lmlike changes in the framing, or in the scale of the camera shots, alter the spectators point of view
and understanding of the scene: what is out of frame is necessarily fantasized or imagined.
Other aspects of lmmaking can be pinpointed in Bilals inherently
cinematographic drawn work. His rhetoric includes references to casting
(Niko meets the actors impersonating lost Jill and Nikopol), to camera
[ 275 ]
moves, to editing, and even to dialogue and the direction of actors. For
instance, the typography of Bilals speech balloons and thought bubbles
turns these supplements of the drawn image into precinematographic
stage directions. Typed in white ink on a black page, inside a speech balloon (even though Bilals balloons are square!), the dialogue between Jill
and Jeff is both high brow and literary, given as a piece of reported speech
very much in the manner of Clines brutal prose: when, how and where
are we going? I ask, slightly drunk . . . Tomorrow morning, by aero-taxi,
to Berlin, he answers).10 The lm skillfully adapts the comic book generic,
traditional association of text and image. An example of Bilals transposition of speech balloons into a compelling sound track is the actors voices:
disquietingly, embarrassingly telltale, they echo the comic book characters
impersonal, at tones suggested by the typography and style. For instance,
Charlotte Rampling/Dr. Turners cold tone and foreign accent somehow
belie her benevolent proposals. The sound effects that accompany Horuss
penetration of Nikopols body remind one of a rape, especially as they are
similar to those accompanying Horus-Nikopols repeated rapes of Jill. The
sound track enhances the extreme violence of these scenes, as well as the
double-sided personality of the hero and his victimized beloved Jill.
The visual representation of dialogues is of particular interest because
of Bilals editing technique. For example, Jills telephone conversations
(Vol. I, 50), or Niko and Yelenas encounter and subsequent face to face in
a train full of African animals (Vol. I, 14), or their rendezvous at the Savoy Hotel (Vol. II, 81) are given rhythm by lmic editing techniques (shot/
reverse shot; over-the-shoulder cutting pattern) that structure the sequences
around camera moves compensating for the lack of expression of the faces
themselves, in the purest classical Hollywood style. The camera moves account for the paradoxically gripping aspect of these uniformly square,
immobile faces whose set, rigid expressions turn into opaque, stubborn,
impenetrable, and somewhat caricatural, enigmas. Contrary to the male
characters, most often facing and looking at the onlookers, Jill is shown
looking at something else, into another frame or beyond, her eyes averted.
On page 72 (Vol. II), she gazes at a crowd of people who look askance
at her: thus is her role subtly dened as the central focal point of other
peoples (including the readers) voyeuristic gaze: a melancholy, victimized
femme pige; a Woman Trap indeed.
[ 276 ]
Bilals preference for emotionalist images and closeups is all the

more compelling as it is set against remarkable pictures of landscapes
and cityscapes composed like panoramic shots. The panoramic view of
London seen from above Tower Bridge with yellow aero-taxis and a bloodred Thames (Vol. II, 87) is particularly striking and paradigmatic of Bilals
postmodern perception of the urban fabric as a juxtaposition of disjointed
places or heterogeneous spatiotemporal microcosms, where waste lands,
shanty towns, dockyards and warehouses, closed down and disused factories coexist with ultramodern, sleek concrete and glass designer buildings and high tech advertisings. It is a kind of urban wilderness, in which
the few existing landmarks are confusingly similar. Piles of girders and
scrap heaps are the common denominator of all sites, demolition or (re)construction sites alike, that arouse the same emotions of anguished impatience.
Bilals play on depth of focus, perspective, and decentering11 can best
be appreciated in Volume II, 95. The bottom lefthand side interior daylight
shot is interestingly decentered. Framed by a slightly out of line window, a
view of the hall of the Savoy hotel shows us, in the foreground, a woman in
a bathing suit diving into an out of frame swimming pool; in the middle
distance, a group of spectators are looking away from her at the disquieting
background outside the window: a lonely soldier standing guard in the
cold streets of Berlin. The image is built on the surrealistic juxtaposition,
within the same square, of three heterogeneous and apparently unrelated
scenes or spheres (all the characters look away from the others). The reader
ghts against the sense of the absurd evinced by the overall scenography,
especially the foreground scene (a diver without a pool), by looking for the
hidden meaning outside the window.
On page 149, Bilal likewise skillfully combines the effects of framing/
decentering and camera angle. The rst frame encloses a low angle shot of
Anubis being carried by Thot and accompanied by other birds ying away
from the Egyptian pyramid, which can be seen oating in the snow laden
sky (as the swarm of rockets in the background shows). In the next frame,
another low angle shot shows the naked legs of a man apparently ying
between skyscrapers: the white shanks and feet of Anubis, seen, magnied, from ground level. The framing here excludes the gods escort, to concentrate on the sole part (the ying leg) viewed by the human beings in
[ 277 ]
the streets. Then Bilal zooms in on a close shot of Anubiss face (right prole), looking down and revealing his intentions to descend among people
(dpose-moi en bas). In the nal low angle shot, the people in the street,
wide-eyed and frightened, are gaping at Anubiss body from his foot and
his leg up. The low-angle shots enhance the humans surprise and sense of
overwhelming, supernatural forces and imminent doom.
The meaningful choice of framing can also be underlined in the two
conicting images of the death of Ferdinand Choublanc. The rst one is
a gruesome grey, green, and crimson view of Nikopol staring at the obscenely enormous body of the dictator he has just found dead, smeared in
blood, blankly staring at him, and gripping a gun in his hand. The gore
effect is suppressed in the next frame, even though the very same scene is
represented: the reframed black-and-white photograph, from which Choublancs gun and embarrassing colors have been erased, published in the
newspaper and completed by the headline: Nikopol shoots Choublanc.12
What is at stake here is the indictment of the political manipulation of images and the governments control of the press. Nikopols challenge consists in revealing the political nature of media agendas.
The perspectivist relativism inherent in Bilals choice of nonlinear
editinghis use of duplicating devices and confrontation of diverging
views of the same thing or of a scene shown from several, differing angles
unied by cuts-awayis one of Bilals idiosyncrasies. Another example
is the hockey match in which Nikopol (inhabited by Horus) unwillingly
takes part. The reader sees it alternately from the players viewpoint, from
the perspective of the ofcials tribune (Vol. I, 33), and from that of the
Egyptian gods (37), each viewpoint evincing a different signicance.
Unlike Bilals lm, the comic books capitalize on the expressive editing effects of the montage of the pages.13 Page 137 exploits to the full
the contrast between the top rectangular frame (a close shot of the ve
KKDZO top ofcials impressive and massive), the middle frame (their ve
dictionary-like biographies), and the bottom rectangular frame (the same
ve ofcials, seen from behind, gazing at the pyramid oating in a snow
laden African sky, looming above troops of penguins). A sense of surrealistic improbability is generated by the artful juxtaposition, or rather editing, of these three images. The improbable encounter of alien cultures
is likewise conveyed through expressive editing in numerous cases. Page
[ 278 ]
120 associates the futurist image of scientic progress and symbols of ancient cultures and archaic beliefs brought together in the rocket driven by
Horus. Disjointed universes are set in parallel when Bastet, Anubis, Toth
are shown playing Monopoly (Vol. I, 5) or when the African deserts are
contrasted to urban settings such as New York, London, Berlin, and Paris.
Conversely, page 77 in volume II is carefully composed of frames
within frames. Within the squared space of the pub in Camden Town
framed by the page, the square frame of a TV set broadcasting, in bluish
tints, the evening news bulletin, induces a documentary kind of reading,
together with a holograph effect, a mise en abme. The registrational extracts from The KKDZO Daily News pasted onto page 163 similarly link up
a familiar journalistic layout with fantastic contents. The pseudoscientic
medical headlineIvo Kohl: acute cementitis!contrasts with the surreal black-and-white photograph of Kohls head transformed into cement
and severed from his body.
Some images actually work as meta-images. Niko, page 157, wonderingly examines his face in the mirror; the camera moves closer and closer
to his reection, so that the vertical crack in the mirror now looks like a
scar across his face: an appropriate symbol of his split identity and the outcome of his anguished soliloquy (Is this a murderers face?). The climax
of this revealing anamorphous occurs when a gecko suddenly runs over the
reection. The potentially deating effect is warded off by his assistants
question (You do not shave so as to save up your energy for the match,
is that it? . . . You are Loopkin, arent you?)14 and his bewildered reaction.
This epiphany of Loopkin, Nikopols boxing alter ego, is completed and
commented on by the nal supplementary image of the gecko running
across his face and partially covering his forehead and right eye. The symbolic signicance of such an image is supplemented by the wordplay, in
French, on lzard (gecko, lizard) and (se) lzarder (to be cracked, to crack
up). Thus, the apparently disconnected item (the gecko) is an apt example
of Bilals surrealistically meaningful cuts-away.15
These techniques (cut-away and meta-image) ultimately resemble collage techniques, and are endowed with the same role: pasting in an item
meant to replace and hide what has been cut off and taken away. These
instances of a painters use of the wet sponge and the varnish bottle
[ 279 ]
are remarkably relevant to Bilals obsessional leitmotivs: dismemberment/

rememberment/remembrance.
But in this violently beautiful world, where the beautiful is used as the
most efcient ideological tool to make people blindly surrender to any authority, not only is aesthetic perfection obtained through the obliteration
and the masking of human traits, but aesthetic coercion also entails the
sacrice of the human body, and is symbolically represented by the visual
prevalence of fragmentary or fragmented bodies. Images of torn-up bodies, of limbs torn apart, of dismembered bodies are the apt symptoms and
representations of the motive of split identities. These images-pulsions
(impulse images)16 coincide with the predatory type of relations prevailing in Bilals albums. What the subject instinctually desires is inevitably the partial object or the fetish.17 Taking place within the heros mind,
this results in a psychomachia the outcome of which is alienation, amnesia, and madness.
The signicance of all those fragments is twofold. First, they are a sign
and a symptom of mutilation and mutilating processes (caused by the war,
torture, or ultra-violent sports); but they also signify the healing process
through the image of graftingtransplanted organs, Nikopols congealed
body, his cut-off then welded leg, plastic surgerythe sole problem being the links and joins. In this sense, the comic book form is particularly
adeptimage by image snapshots brought together in the page layout
while the lm, because the images are linked by editing, is an inadequate
medium and translation of the healing process. The linking up of fragments is a key issue in this postmodern work saturated by both homosemiotic and heterosemiotic intertextual references.
As a result, it is difcult to dene the generic and ontological status of
Bilals lm. Is it a poetic, surrealistic, fantasmatic, and oniric mixture of
fable and SF, as Bilal claims in his interview of 24 March 2004? A sciencection movie? A fantastic lm? Viewer-response criticism can barely help
us here, as it seems difcult to dene its effects: the blurring, the epiphany,
or the apocalypse of the real? Indeed, just as the comic books use lmic devices and techniques, this truly intermedial lm18 incorporates derealizing
effects. The shift from the real to the unreal is permanent, as is the tension
between derealizing and documentary devices and reception.
[ 280 ]
Indeed, reality effects are counterbalanced by the hyperreality effects

generated by the insertion, onto a neutral, uniform background, of lmed
images, virtual images or characters, video games, or cartoon characters:
we are not in the real, Bilal declared. As Charlotte Rampling explained,
the three esh and blood actors playing Jill, Dr. Turner, and Nikopol
(the only nonhybrid creatures featured in the lm) had to act in a void,
without any scenery or lm set, visual landmarks, or props.19 Even if the
actors were not allowed to wander off the script, and everything was written down (Bilal), they moved amid imaginary beings tapped from their
own minds, in a setting amounting to the lmic equivalent of u-topos or
what Deleuze called espace quelconque (amorphous space):20 a green backcloth, a no-mans land into which the actors had to conjure up partners,
and into which the other elements were inlaid afterwards. In some cases,
the actors images were articial as well: they had to wear green overalls
and electrodes registering their skeletons movements, which were then
modeled and digitalized, and transposed onto drawn characters like those
of animated cartoons.
Bilals backgrounds, but also the way he resorts to coloring, denitely
result in an unreality effect. The last scene can be taken as a case in point,
when the characters tread on an ostensibly hand-painted, then animated
surface that seems unstable under their feet, until we realize it is ooded
with lmed water. The total absence of the sun and the compelling washdrawn grisaille that pervades everything set off the only patches of color:
those provided by the comic book characters (they seem, like Jill, to have
been penciled or delineated in charcoal), cartoon characters (cruel, bloodthirsty Dayaks), virtual characters (Dr. Froebe, John), or hybrid, intermedial creatures. The Egyptian gods, notably Horus, with their human bodies
and animal heads, look like crosses between comic book, drawn characters and photographs of human beings, the result of superimposed images. The same technique applies to the ying pyramid: a digitally modied photograph superimposed onto the hand-painted New York sky.
The movementswhich, according to Deleuze, after Bergson, dene
cinema, contrary to the superlative xity of comic book creaturesof
these intermedial creatures and images cause a strange, uncanny, and even
a surrealistic effect. Either arrested and jerkyimitating video games
[ 281 ]
or supersonicfor instance the vehicles speeding around the city in all

dimensionsthey symbolize and reveal their ultimate inhumanity, their
superlative alienness.
Yet, there is a remarkable structural and formal, aesthetic correspondence between these technical optionsaiming at surrealistic, unrealistic,
hyperrealistic effectsand Bilals vision of hidden, secret, painful realities.
The recurrent motives of grafting, pasting, joining can be understood in
relation to a morbid relation, foreclosure, repression or denial, to the traumas of History. The absurd pyramid, because it is displaced, has the same
function as the apple which replaces the mans face in the Magritte surrealistic picture Son of Man. It is the concrete manifestation of the ltering
function of the collective memories (screen-memories, indeed) articially
composed and conveyed by history manuals: fake, imported, appropriated
memories from the archaic past of other cultures instead of the traumas
of modern, but repressed history (in Bilals case, Sarajevos civil war). The
ancient Egyptian pyramid serves to occlude, mask, and ll in the blanks of
the hollowed out memories of Bosnia. It is the sign and the symbol of collective memory, which like all memorials, is probably a machine meant
to make people oblivious, by blocking their subjective ability to remember, and organized so as to eliminate the individuals sense of identity, to
the sole benet of their collective sense of belonging to a national community.21
The illusion of immortality to which the image of the pyramid is
linked enables the characters to prolong their protective denial of timeinduced metamorphoses and of mutations caused by History: memories,
suffering, and madness are associated, and opposed to the protective effects of oblivion, amnesia, and beauty; hence, Jills pills, hence Nikopols
Baudelaire. The eternal return of the past, its endless, degrading, maddening repetition: such is Bilals denition of immortality. The father and his
son are the same age and look like twins; their very names (Nikopol/Niko)
are a denial of progress and difference. Dual personalities and the inability
to move forward (xation) entail a sense of dissemination, fragmentation
(Niko, Nikopol, Loopkin, Horus), and dissolution of identity: symptoms
of schizophrenia (Nikopol-Horus; the two Jills), signs of a life dominated
by the death instincts (Thanatos), and in which the life instincts (Eros)
are perverted (Jills rapes). Immortality is but another name for the en[ 282 ]
chaining, degrading repetition of the past (Kierkegaard), and is quite different from resurrection as the gift of the new, of the possible,22 associated with Jills child.
This romantic love story targeted at young spectators also functions
as an apocalypse of the real, precisely because of its symbolic surrealistic
aspect.23 Yet one can contend that the science ction induced ctionalizing
reading (relying on unreality effects) constantly undermines the documentary type of reading (relying on registrational reality effects). The realizing processfavored by the lm adaptation of the comic booksis deconstructed by the derealizing processthe vanishing of the realgenerated
by the paradoxical hyperreality effects of intermediality and mediated
representations (heterosemiotic and homosemiotic intertextuality). Overwhelmed by aesthesis and poiesis, the viewers catharsis is undermined by
the borderline state induced by the identity troubles of the heroes, a state
he/she mimetically and vicariously experiences. Such hesitation undoubtedly reects Bilals own evolution: haunted by the recurrent war memories
of his childhood in Yugoslavia, he shows that growing up is a process of
transformation whereby humans are changed into mutants by their blessed
forgetfulness. In spite of inescapable ashes demonstrating the absurd but
threatening, towering presence of the Past, oblivion is the key to evolution
and happiness.
Viewing or reading Bilals intermedial, truly fantastic artifacts is a decidedly deceptive and misleading borderline experience. His idiosyncratic
aestheticist drawing of the realities he sees, imagines, remembers (or cannot forget), wavering between archaic, futuristic, decadent representations,
their intermedial aspect and the transmediality we have dealt with (from
comic book to lm, and vice versa) account for the mixed affects and effects generated by such a blurred ontological object, surreal, hyperreal, and
virtual, as well as real, and fraught with a political and a moral message.
[ 283 ]
NOTES
Pascal Lefvre, Incompatible Visual Ontologies? The Problematic Adaptation of
Drawn Images
1. My translation of a French quote by Alain Resnais (Thomas 247): Toujours estil que jusquici je nai jamais vu de lm tir dune bande dessine qui me paraisse ajouter
quelque chose luvre dorigine, a a toujours t des soustractions.
2. For instance in the recent 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die (Schneider, 2003)
there is only one live action adaptation of a comic, namely Tim Burtons Batman. Also in
other lists comics adaptations seldom appear: Les lms-cls du cinma (Beylie, 1987) or Beste
lms aller tijden (Hofman, 1993).
3. It is not unusual to read reviews such as Another Movie Based on Comic Book Disappoints (Baxendell, 2005). The Spanish scriptwriter and critic Jos Miguel Pallars (2003)
devotes a complete book to adaptations of comics, but explicitly excludes the superhero
genre because in his view those lms get already too much promotion. On the contrary adaptations of graphic novels such as Ghost World, American Splendor, Immortel, or Sin City
seem to please more the lm critics. Only exceptional superhero adaptations such as SpiderMan or X-Men get a quite positive press (Boogaerts 8388, 15762).
4. For instance at ALAS (a blog), fans of Watchmen say that they would not like to see
Watchmen adapted to lm.
5. Of course, not all comic adaptations were as nancially successful; Altmans Popeye
(1980) or Ang Lees Hulk (2003) were viewed as box ofce disappointments.
6. Benot Peeters (1996) states: Si les rencontres entre cinema et bande dessine nont
pas donn naissance beaucoup de chefs-duvre, elles ont par contre conduit un grand
nombre de lms curieux.
7. Art Spiegelman (1998): I dont want to see Maus as a movie. Ive had lots of offers.
I red my rst agent because he wanted to make a movie, and I kept telling him I didnt
want it. (. . .) Im not interested in it because (A) that aforementioned line about large
groups of people [Spiegelmans father told his son not to trust large groups] and (B) the
fact that it took so long for me to nd the proper way to get it told in panel form, thirteen
yearsit would have been eleven and a half if I hadnt tried to stop smoking for a year and
a half. But thirteen years to learn about animation and adapt it again. And it required a lot
of the abstraction that came with the comics medium.
8. After my query at the comix-scholars list in May 2005 various persons responded
that they experience such a primacy effect. Among others Chris Hayton wrote (19 May
2005): To a greater or lesser extent, depending on delity to the original story, I become irritated or disappointed by the departure from, for example, the Tales to Astonish/Incredible
[ 285 ]
Hulk stories that the latest Hulk movie was based on, even the Spider-Man movies, because I
read the stories month by month in the 1960s and so I want to see a movie that is faithful to
the plot and the characters as a I experienced them in their original form.
9. Excluded in this analysis are the following categories: a) lms loosely inspired
by comics such as Spielbergs Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) or Resnaiss LAnne Dernire
Marienbad (1961), b) lms by comics artists but not based on comics like Delicatessen
(Jeunet & Caro, 1996), c) lms where comic artists collaborated only on storyboard, costume, and prop design, d) lms entirely made up of panels of a comic such as Oshimas
Ninja Bugeicho (1967). Moreover there is also a category of lms that use some elements of
comics (like superheroes) but avoid the narrative clichs, as in Shyamalans Unbreakable
(2000).
10. Of course, original artwork of a comic can be shown in an exhibition, but these
penciled and inked pages differ from the printed version: mostly there are no colors, no
texts, and the format of the original plates are generally bigger than the printed books.
11. Walter Benjamin (223) explains: By making many reproductions it substitutes a
plurality of copies for a unique existence. And in permitting the reproducton to meet the
beholder or listener in his own particular situation, it reactivates the object reproduced.
These two processes lead to a tremendous shattering of tradition which is the obverse of
the contemporary crisis and renewal of mankind. Both processes are intimately connected
with the contemporary mass movements. Their most powerful agent is the lm. Its social
signicance, particularly in its most positive form, is inconceivable without its destructive,
cathartic aspect, that is the liquidation of the traditional value of the cultural heritage.
12. Of course one can view a video or a DVD also alone at home, but lms are made in
the rst place for theatres.
13. My translation of a French interview with Alan Moore (Mouchart 30): Je
mefforce de ne pas avoir dopinion. Ces long mtrages ne ressemblent pas beaucoup mes
livres. Si ce sont de bons lms, le mrite en revient aux ralisateurs. a na rien voir avec
moi. De mme si ces lms sont mdiocres. a mintresse de les voir, mais comme je nai
pas envie de travailler pour Hollywood et que le cinma nest pas lun de mes mdiums prfrs, je ne me sens pas trs impliqu dans ces projets.
14. Only by using a video or a DVD player can the viewer control the pace of the projection.
15. Only exceptionally does a comic artist like Bilal for Le Sommeil du monstre (1998)
draws each panel separately on a support and in a later phase tries to combine those separate panels. The newest digital techniques (like Photoshop) make this approach more easy.
16. Only recently multiple-frame imagery is becoming somewhat more accepted
thanks to popular American television series such as 24 (since 2001).
17. Special printing methods combined with special viewing spectacles can give the
viewer the impression of a really three-dimensional space. But the prints will always be
atexcept for a single experiment of a comic printed in relief.
18. The fact that a single frame of a lm is also a printed and static image does not
matter because the viewer looks only at the projection: nobody can see twenty-four still
frames per second separately. Our eyes and minds will be fooled into seeing movement
(Bordwell & Thompson 2).
19. Christiansen (115) contends that there are a number of lms in which there is no
movement (such as Oshimas Ninja Bugeicho, 1967), but he believes that the viewer of such a
lm can presume that there will be movement in the image, while this is never a possibility
in still images.
20. Though since the coming of the digital age images can easily be created without
lenses, generally the creators disguise them as photographical images. Digital images in
[ 286 ]
NOTES
cinema are predominantly created in an optical denotation system. The idea is that the digital must not be recognized as such; it must look real as much as possible.
21. Creative lm directors use also some of these picture elements, but they are harder
to manipulate and control on a lm set than a drawer can with a pencil on paper. Given
some drawing talent, leaving out elementsstressing the major linesis easier on paper:
what you do not draw does not exist. While a drawer has to add details, a director has to
leave out details.
22. My translation of a French article by Peeters (1996): Russir un lm convaincant
partir des Aventures de Tintin semble dcidment un pari presque impossible. Lambiguit
est probablement constitutive, car luvre dHerg se tient sur une corde raide entre ralisme et caricature. Le trait du dessinateurla fameuse ligne claireest llment qui unie luvre et garantit sa cohrence, sitt quil disparat, cest la confusion et la perte de
crdibilit qui sinstallent. Au bout du compte, lintrt premier des lms adapts de Tintin
est de prouver par labsurde quel point les qualits de luvre dHerg sont lies la bande
dessine et son langage.
23. My translation of an Italian text by Costa (25): Molto spesso si rimproverato al
cinema di nzione ispirato ai personaggi dei fumetti lincapacit di restituire lincanto, la
magia, in una parola lo stile di quelluniverso gurativo. In realt, molti dei problemi posti
dalla relazione tra il cinema e il fumetto sono analoghi a quelli che si pongono tra cinema
e pittura: la staticit della pittura e quella del fumetto, rispetto al movimento del cinema,
reagiscono in maniere diversa, in quanto la graca dei comics ha inventato e codicato
forme di dinamisme dalle quali dipende gran parte del suo fascino gurativo. Il cinema pu
cercare di restituirlo solo attraverso complesse operazioni di selezione e stilizzazioone dei
suoi propri mezzi espressi.
24. Though the combination of digital animated actors with real actors in one frame
is sometimes problematic in Immortel.
25. In some lms (as Oshimas Ninja Bugeicho) naturalistic spoken dialogue and sound
effects are added to the still images from a comic (in our example panels from the Sanpei
Shiratos manga of the same name). But Oshimas fast cutting of stylized still images, naturalistic spoken dialogue, and richly musical sound effects produce a strange and often very
striking disjunction (Burch 73839).
M i c h a e l C o h e n , D i c k Tr a c y : I n P u r s u i t o f a C o m i c B o o k A e s t h e t i c
1. In the original comic strip this character is called Junior. At the end of the lm the
Kid must choose a proper name for himself, and decides on Dick Tracy Jnr.
2. Measurements have been taken from a cross section of strips reprinted in Gould,
Dick Tracy: The Thirties.
3. John Belton explains that when a soundtrack was added to lm, the old standard
ratio of 1.33:1 was lost. In 1932 the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences established
the Academy ratio, only it was now 1.37:1. He notes that although it is a slightly different ratio, it is still referred to as 1.33:1 (4345).
K e r r y G o u g h , Tr a n s l a t i o n C r e a t i v i t y a n d A l i e n E c o n ( c ) o m i c s :
From Hollywood Blockbuster to Dark Horse Comic Book
1. Many thanks go to the editors for suggestions on an earlier draft of this chapter, Lee
Dawson for his continual availability, and Randy Stradley for all the information provided
surrounding the development of the Aliens comic books. Lee Dawson is publicist for Dark
NOTES
[ 287 ]
Horse Comics, and Randy Stradley is Senior Editor of the Original Alien Comic Books at
Dark Horse.
D e r e k J o h n s o n , W i l l t h e R e a l Wo l v e r i n e P l e a s e S t a n d U p ?
M a r v e l s M u t a t i o n f r o m M o n t h l i e s t o M o v i e s
1. See Welcome to Comic-Con International: San Diego! Emphasis has been added to
the original text.
2. See McAllister and Raviv.
3. For more detailed statistics, see Weak Finish to a Strong Comics Year at ICv2 News.
http://www.icv2.com/ articles/home/2080.html.
4. See Top July Comics Flat at ICv2 News to view the rest of the best-sellers during
summer 2003. http://www.icv2.com/articles/news/3317.html.
5. See ICv2s Top 300 Comics and Top 50 GNs Index for this statistic and other
monthly sales gures. www.icv2.com/articles/home/1850.html. The quoted gure here does
not represent a severe monthly downturn in sales from previous issues. While sales improved
for Ultimate X-Men over the next two years, the number of issues sold only increased by
around 10,000 copies (see Top July Comics Flat www.icv2.com/articles/ new/3317.html).
6. These statistics have been compiled from Entertainment Weekly (16 May 2003, 18
July 2003, and 8 Aug. 2003) and the internet site Box Ofce Mojo, www.boxofcemojo.com.
7. In comparisons to the Ultimate Universe, this original classic universe is generally
referred to as the Marvel Universe or the 616 universe. But for purposes of clarity here, I
will continue to refer to it in this generic way as the classic universe.
8. One of the primary ways in which this is done in the lms is through character
identication. The lack of character depth and screen presence for Cyclops makes him hard
to identify with as he and Wolverine vie for her affections in the rst lm. As the central
protagonist, on the other hand, Wolverines deeper characterization makes him more sympathetic as a potential suitor for Jean.
9. By 2004, the relationship between Cyclops and Jean Grey had ended as the result of
the formers extramarital affair with Emma Frost. This was, of course, another adult issue,
but it also left the door open to a couple more steamy encounters between Wolverine and
Jean, particularly at the end of Grant Morrisons run on New X-Men.
10. For example, the psychic powers of Emma Frost were supplemented by her ability
to assume a diamond form whereas Henry McCoy, AKA the Beast, became more catlike
and even less-human appearing than before. See New X-Men #11416.
11. See Moreels, 28. Feb. 2004. While Whedon (creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer,
Angel, and Firey) began his tenure on Astonishing X-Men in May 2004, the exact start date
for Singer to take on his role as producer of Ultimate X-Men was to be determined, and at
the time of this writing, seems unlikely to ever happen.
N e i l R a e a n d J o n a t h a n G r a y, W h e n G e n - X M e t t h e X - M e n :
Retextualizing Comic Book Film Reception
1. All interviewee names are pseudonyms.
Mel Gibson, Wham! Bam! The X-Men Are Here:
The British Broadsheet Press and the X-Men Films and Comic
1. In Britain the form of the newspaper, until very recently when some broadsheet papers began to release tabloid editions, has been seen as a physical indicator of certain as-
[ 288 ]
NOTES
pects of the approach and concerns of the paper. Generally, the term broadsheet has been
seen as indicating quality, a term attached here to notions of complex debate, whilst the
term tabloid has been seen as indicating popular and more simplistic. This shorthand,
whilst it does not take into account the political perspectives of the newspapers, also suggests class allegiances, with the broadsheets, the focus of this chapter, often being seen as
representing a middle-class and educated set of perspectives.
2. Most articles exhibited this slippage. In contrast, few articles consciously explored
the relationship between comics and lm. Those articles that did often focused on the
problems of translation between the two media, as is the case with, for instance, Mark Salisbury in the Guardian, 4 August 2000.
3. One of the more enthusiastic articles in the Telegraph, that by John Hiscock (4 August 2000), focused on why Stewart and McKellen were happy to do the lm. The Royal
Shakespeare Company connection served as a high cultural justication for the articles
serious interest in this example of mass culture, an alternative to apologizing.
4. The term fan marked, as it is, by assumptions about age and maturity. Clive King,
for instance, (29 July 2000) referred to geekdom when discussing fans (24).
5. This Act and the campaign which led to it are discussed in depth in Martin Barkers A Haunt of Fears.
6. One could argue that the X-Men comics and lm encourage such reection in adult
readers, given the parallels between the experience of becoming a teenager and becoming a
mutant, this being one interpretation of the sense of difference throughout the text.
7. Although there were occasions when even this was not enough to redeem the lm.
For instance, Macaulay states that, The confrontations between Magneto and Xavier have
the Shakespearean aspirations of the more ambitious Star Trek episodes (24). Science ction television, too, must know its place, again focusing the reader on notions of hierarchies
of culture.
8. Aspiration is also a factor, given the perpetual concern about the health of the British lm industry.
9. In this tradition, as is suggested by the way in which the term anarchy functions
as a synonym for popular culture in Culture and Anarchy, such culture represents disorder
and decline.
10. Arnold was profoundly inuential on Leavis, who saw the twentieth century as
marked by increasing cultural decline.
11. Simultaneously, Leavis both created a space for the study of popular culture, and in
seeing popular culture solely as decline created problems for its study.
12. Particularly ironic given that whilst this may be part of the image conveyed to the
reader, they are, of course, simultaneously engaged with and part of popular culture.
13. Hence Hoggart has been described as left-Leavisite.
A l d o J . R e g a l a d o , U n b r e a k a b l e a n d t h e L i m i t s o f Tr a n s g r e s s i o n
1. Although most fan histories acknowledge the character appearing in The Reign of
the Super-Man as a curious precursor to the more famous comic book character, none have
explored in detail the thematic connections that link the two.
M a r t i n F l a n a g a n , Te e n Tr a j e c t o r i e s i n S p i d e r - M a n a n d G h o s t Wo r l d
1. The main superhero publishers sharply differentiate their products in terms of age.
DC and Marvel both offer Mature classications (DCs Vertigo line, Marvels Max
and Knights imprints) while Marvel has recently launched an introductory Marvel Age
NOTES
[ 289 ]
line, suitable for any age but deliberately slanted towards preteen children. Twelve-and-overs
are catered to by Marvels Ultimate family of titles, with the forthcoming Fantastic Four
movie from Fox rumoured to derive from the teen-centric take on the characters in Ultimate Fantastic Four.
2. Exemplary works in the rst category include Frank Millers Batman Year One
(1988) and Daredevil: Man Without Fear (1993) and Mark Millars Red Son (2004); notable
in the latter are the works of Alan Moore, including but not limited to Watchmen (1986) and
Supreme (with Rob Liefeld, 199697). Michael Stracynzkis recent updating of minor Marvel
superhero team Squadron Supreme in the form of Supreme Power (2003 ) cheekily appropriates the Superman origin myth.
3. Spider-Man created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko; the Hulk created by Lee and Jack
Kirby; Daredevil created by Lee and Bill Everett.
4. For an historical account of Dr. Frederic Werthams assault on the comic book industry in the mid 1950s, see Wright (15479). An interesting contemporaneous commentary
on Werthams crusade can be found in Warshow (5374).
5. The Silver Age is frequently identied as beginning with Marvels Fantastic Four #1
(November 1961) and running throughout the rest of the 1960s. See Simon.
6. This notion supplies, for example, the dramatic arc of M. Night Shyamalans lm
Unbreakable (2000), a pseudo-realistic/psychological take on the process of discovering
ones own super-powers.
7. The teen bedroom is a threshold in the sense conceptualized by Mikhail Bakhtin;
that is, as a symbolic space where crisis or radical change unfolds, where one is renewed
or perishes (169).
8. Enid is seen crying in her bedroom several times, and Peter is comforted by Aunt
May in his room after Uncle Bens funeral.
9. For example, the shift from newsstand distribution to direct sales to fans through
dedicated stores (Wright 25462).
R a y n a D e n i s o n , I t s a B i r d ! I t s a P l a n e ! N o , I t s D V D ! :
Superman, Smallville, and the Production (of) Melodrama
1. A notable exception to the lack of scholarly discussion of genre discussions of
Superman is Ian Gordons work on Lois & Clark (The New Adventures of Superman) (1993
1997), which details the romantic and nostalgic aspects of the serials success (Gordon,
Superman on the Set).
2. Although the rst in the 19701980s cycle of Superman lms does appear in some
recent work on genre itself, as will be discussed later. See, for example, Neale 250 and Altman 117.
3. This is not intended to insist upon a totalizing or universalizing approach to these
two distinct media. However, in an age where more lms are viewed on television than in
cinema and where television has improved its production values so as to compete with lm,
it is an important moment in which to begin rethinking the relationship they share.
4. The rst campaign ran 11 May 1977 and consisted of an eight-page spread beginning with the famous S logo and the legend NOW SHOOTING. Subsequent pages gave
examples of the sets and full-page star headshots with character names. The second, advert
series includes a thank you message to the British lm industry and a full-page poster with
the Youll Believe a Man Can Fly tagline and production information.
5. The one reference to genre in the Fall Preview 01 article reads, Think a cross between The X-Files and Justice League 90210. As this re-covers the more detailed comparative
analysis of the longer issue, its impact for the show can be thought of as similar.
[ 290 ]
NOTES
6. The rst major conference on DVD took place in April 2005, and if this is any indication, it would seem that academic work on DVD is a quickly expanding eld (What Is a
DVD? University of Warwick, U.K., 23 April 2005).
7. The Chloe Chronicles came in two volumes, split across the Season 2 and 3 box
sets. Both contain reproductions of frames from the Smallville comic book short stories and
documentary footage.
C r a i g H i g h t , A m e r i c a n S p l e n d o r : Tr a n s l a t i n g C o m i c A u t o b i o g r a p h y i n t o
Drama-Documentary
1. See, for example, Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art; McCloud, Understanding Comics; Eisner, Graphic Storytelling; Harvey, Art of the Comic Book; Sabin, Comics, Comix and
Graphic Novels; Carrier. McCloud offers the most useful denition of comics as juxtaposed
pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or
produce an aesthetic response in the viewer (McCloud, Understanding Comics 9).
2. Animation sequences are quite common within documentary and have a long history. There is also a small subgenre of fully animated documentaries, hybrid forms which
typically employ the codes and conventions of the genre with elements such documentary
soundtracks, or other forms of evidence.
3. See http://www.harveypekar.com/about.html for a brief biography of Pekar.
4. Pekar has also done isolated examples of biographical work, such as Unsung Hero
The Story of Robert Mc Neill, but otherwise concentrates completely on autobiography.
5. Batman, for example, has endured immeasurable makeovers, and in the process the
character has been deconstructed at several levels. He now exists in a variety of published
forms, some of which are completely contradictory, but which collectively provide for a rich
variety of thematics and highly reexive articulations of comic traditions.
6. See Corner, Paget, Rosenthal, Lipkin, 2002.
7. Lipkin distinguishes here between the typical drama-documentary strategies of
modeling, sequencing, and interaction (Lipkin 13).
8. Although this is implied through the mostly jazz music which appears on the
soundtrack.
9 This is presumably real (that is, unstaged observational) footage, but by this stage
the relationship between the ctional and the actual is ambiguous.
10. There have been contrasting reactions to such techniques from most commentators of the lm. Some acknowledged this as an innovative technique which reects Pekars
perspective. Others complained that these frequent interruptions to the narrative sequences
added nothing to viewers understanding of Pekars life, and undermined their engagement
with Giamattis performance (see, for example, Hampton). Some critics were also irritated
by the device of using comic aesthetics on the cinematic screen. See http://www.mrqe.com/
for a variety of links to newspaper and online reviews for the lm.
11. At a different level, however, the inclusion of the conversation happily works to
validate the lmmakers revisions of Pekars original comic narrative.
12. Although, as noted above, there is a long tradition of animation within the documentary genre.
David Wilt, El Santo: The Case of a Mexican Multimedia Hero
1. This information can also be found in print in Royal Duncan and Gary Will, Wrestling Title Histories. Revised 4th edition. Waterloo, Ontario: Archeus Communications,
2000.
NOTES
[ 291 ]
2. Coincidentally, Gori Guerrero was also the protagonist of a 1950s comic book. Other
wrestlers starring in comic books in the rst wave of wrestlings popularity (after its
television debut in 1951) include Blue Demon, Black Shadow, Cavernario Galindo, and the
Mdico Asesino (Bartra 48).
3. The traditional day for wrestling matches in Mexico City arenas was Sunday, so the
Saturday TV matches in a way promoted the next days live event. Televised wrestling was
banned in 1956 by Ernesto P. Uruchurtu, the Iron Regent (an ofcial roughly equivalent to
a mayor) of Mexico City, who cited the sports bad inuence on youth (the prohibition was
later removed). Uruchurtu is also remembered for forbidding a proposed Beatles concert in
the capital in 1965.
4. Huracn Ramrez was a character created for a 1952 movie, which spawned numerous sequels. The owners of the character later allowed various professional wrestlers to
use the name in the ring. The Huracn Ramrez comic was also done in fotomontaje style.
5. Some of these events occurred only a few weeks before the comic book was printed.
Two decades later, the Huracn Ramrez comic book made a foray into contemporary events,
with a story set at the famous September 1971 Avndaro rock festival (Huracn Ramrez 152
[2 Nov. 1971]).
6. While Santos ring career and the sales of the comics were undoubtedly helped by
his movie stardom, there was not much cross-promotionthe movies didnt specically promote the comic and the comic books did not feature adaptations of Santo movies. There
were some lm references in the comics, howeverJos G. Cruz painted various covers in
the 1970s showing Santo with well-known horror movie images, including aliens wearing
Destination Moon-style spacesuits, Hammer Films monsters, the giant frog key art from
Frogs, Princess Leia from Star Wars, etc.
7. The comic books, on the other hand, did feature some recurring characters in addition to Santo. In the 1950s, for example, white witch Kyra appeared in several stories as
Santos supernatural love interest. Other characterssidekick Mala Facha, an adolescent
boy named Bobbywere used in more than one story cycle. In some 1970s comics, Santo
had an aide named Ik. Allegedly an alien being, Ik was portrayed by a young boy with a
pencil-thin moustache, wearing a pirate costume.
Paul M. Malone, From Blockbuster to Flop? The Apparent Failure
( o r P o s s i b l e Tr a n s c e n d e n c e ) o f R a l f K n i g s Q u e e r C o m i c s A e s t h e t i c i n
Maybe . . . Maybe Not and Killer Condom
1. All translations from the German are my own; Ralf Knigs website includes an English version in an excellent colloquial translation, but the quotations here are also my own
translations of the German pages.
J a n v a n d e r P u t t e n a n d T i m o t h y P. B a r n a r d , O l d M a l a y H e r o e s N e v e r D i e :
T h e S t o r y o f H a n g Tu a h i n F i l m s a n d C o m i c s
1. The rst reference that could be found for the phrase is in Budi Negoros Hang
Tuah Pahlawan Bangsa in the magazine Kenchana, Oct. 1948. The author ends his article by
stating that Hang Tuah was not only a Malay hero, but also a valuable son (of the nation)
in our present struggle, for with him the important motto Malays will not vanish from
this world was preserved. Freedom! (Hang Tuah bukan saja pahlawan Melayu tetapi pula
saorang putera yang sangat berharga dalam perjuangan kita hari ini, kerana padanya tersimpan semboyan yang utama Tidak Melayu hilang didunia. MERDEKA.).
2. In the last quarter of the twentieth century three newly written plays were staged in
[ 292 ]
NOTES
Malaysia, all of which featured absurdist theatre in which Tuahs friend and adversary Jebat
becomes the hero for characters in the seamy margins of society (Abdul).
3. The actresss name is Tiara Jacquelina. The quote comes from an interview done
at the Palm Springs International Film Festival. http://www.lmthreat.com/Interviews.
asp?Id=904. Accessed on 1 June 2005.
4. Mulyadi Mahamoods recent study (2004) only discusses cartoons and a few serialized comic strips that were published in newspapers. The only studies that concentrate on
comic books from the 1950s are by Zainab Awang Ngah (1984) and Annabel Gallop (1995).
For a comprehensive study of Malay language comic books from Indonesia, see Bonneff
(1998).
5. Seni kelawak is a neologism derived from lawak (comic, funny). It does not seem
to have lasted long, as we fail to nd it in any dictionary.
6. This is suggested by Harun Aminurrashid, the chief editor of both Kenchana and
Hiboran, another popular magazine that was published at the time. Looking back in the
tenth anniversary issue of Hiboran in 1956, he recalls that he met Achnas during a discussion about setting up the new magazine Kenchana. He engaged the young Indonesian who
was in the same predicament as Harun had found himself after World War Two. Achnas did
the technique and layout of Kenchana until it folded in 1950. He also drew political cartoons
about developments in Indonesia, which were published in Hiboran. In 1956 Achnas began a
career as a director of Malay and Indonesian lms (Harun 15).
7. It is probable that Tunggadewa was the rst published comic book after it had been
serialized in Kenchana. An advertisement in Kenchana announced that the comic in full
color was published in a compilation together with Indonesian strips and illustrated short
stories. It was published by the Malayan Indonesian Book and Magazine Store (MIBS) based
on Arab Street in Singapore. The publication is so far unknown from the collections in the
British Library or the University Malaya Library. Gallop conditionally designates Pesaka
dato moyang as the strongest contender for the title of earliest Malay comic book.
8. Foreword by Harun Aminurrashid in Pesaka dato moyang, 21 April 1952, quoted in
Gallop.
9. See Gallops discussion about this publisher, where she notes that the rst issue of
the comic magazine is printed with the old masthead of Dunia Film. See Hamedi Mohd
Adnan for details about the magazine.
10. The British Library in London holds the title Tiga bulan di dalam penjara by
Shamsuddin Salleh, which mentions Annies Medical Hall, Johor Baharu as its imprint (BL
14654.d.82). Conspicuously, several novels by this author were published by Annies Printing
Works (see Chambert-Loir 27779).
11. One of his earlier publications, Suara Timor (OctoberDecember 1942), also had
been published in Latin script, which was called an important script (huruf yang terkemuka) for that time (Hamedi).
12. This version was recently republished in a translated Dutch facsimile edition (Hang
Tuah, 2003); for details about the author/artist, see Soemargono (20947).
13. We have been unable to check the story of his Putra Hang Tuah, information from
Zainab Awang Ngah (10).
14. Hang Tuah, however, was not the rst Malay lm made in color. This honor goes to
the Cathay Keris produced Buluh Perindu (Bamboo of Yearning1953) (Barnard 12627).
15. The lm cost $300,000, at a time when most productions were made for less than
$30,000. At that time, the Malaysian dollar (or ringgit) was two shillings, four pence (a
British pound is worth twenty shillings). Majalah Bintang, 19 (2 Jan. 1956): 8.
16. Abdullah Hussain claims they were only paid a cup of coffee for their efforts, although he implies that Haji Buyong Adil may have pocketed all of their advisory fees
NOTES
[ 293 ]
(Abdullah Hussain, 2005: 599603). Mahmud Ahmads account of his role is titled Behind
the Scenes at Hang Tuah: Was Mahmud Ahmad an Advisor? (Di belakang layer di Filem
Hang Tuah. Mahmud Ahmad sebagai penasihat, Majalah Bintang, 20 (16 Feb. 1956): 8. The
earlier article is found in Majalah Bintang, 19 (2 Jan. 1956): 89.
S o p h i e G e o f f r o y - M e n o u x , E n k i B i l a l s I n t e r m e d i a l F a n t a s i e s :
F r o m C o m i c B o o k N i k o p o l Tr i l o g y t o F i l m I m m o r t a l s ( a d v i t a m )
1. You are a displaced person (Tu es une dplace); even her organs are displaced,
not in the right place (pas leur place).
2. There is a sort of blank in my memory (Il y a comme un trou dans ma mmoire).
My translation.
3. Le monde originaire des symptmes et pulsions qui embrasse le futurisme et
larchaisme (Deleuze 19495).
4. Tout oublier pour tout recommencer.
5. The closeup tears the image up from its spatiotemporal context and generates
crude affects. My translation. Le gros plan a le pouvoir darracher limage aux coordonnes spatio-temporelles pour faire surgir laffect pur . . . (Deleuze 137). Deleuze denes
closeups as emotionalist images or images affection; see his chapter 6, entitled Limageaffection: visage et gros plan (Deleuze 125).
6. New trends: green lips and red hair, beard, moustaches and any other body or facial
adornment. A pale complexion is a must (Vol. 1, p. 61). This cosmeto-political revolution
triggers off a visual turning point in the comic book: women, who used to be second-class
citizens, are more present, in a pseudo-medieval and carnivalesque atmosphere.
7. See B. Berensons well-known theory of tactile values. The Florentine Painters of
the Renaissance. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1896.
8. The Wild Planet. My translation.
9. My translation. Le Jour o le Futur Tlscripta, Aujourdhui, le 3 fvrier 2025 rencontre le 14 octobre 1993.
10. My translation. Quand, comment et pour aller o? je demande un peu
bourre . . . Demain matin, en aro-taxi, destination Berlin, me rpond-il . . . (Volume II,
p. 81).
11. Analyzing the examples of frames that cut the object lmed, or faces cut by the
screen, Pascal Bonitzer denes decentering (Dcadrage) as abnormal view points which
must not be mistaken for oblique perspectives or paradoxical angles, and are suggestive
of the images other dimensions. (Ces points de vue anormaux qui ne se confondent pas
avec une perspective oblique ou un angle paradoxal et renvoient une autre dimension de
limage, Pascal Bonitzer, Dcadrages in Cahiers du cinma, N 284, janvier 1978, quoted in
Deleuze 2728).
12. Lassassinat de Choublanc par Nikopol (Vol. III, p. 13839).
13. See 1920 Russian lmmakers denition of montage: the association of two shots
produces a signicance that is present in neither shots taken separately.
14. My translation. Cest pour garder linux que vous ne vous rasez pas? . . . Vous tes
bien Loopkin?
15. See Deleuze about the montage dattractions: it consists in inserting special
imagestheatre or cinema representations, or sculptural or plastic images, which apparently interrupt the course of the action. My translation of: insertion dimages spciales,
soit reprsentations thtrales ou scnographiques, soit reprsentations sculpturales ou plastiques, qui semblent interrompre le cours de laction (247).
16. My translation.
[ 294 ]
NOTES
17. Lobjet de la pulsion, according to Deleuze, cest toujours lobjet partiel ou le

ftiche (Deleuze 180).
18. Serge Raffy, for want of a better word (nonexistent in French), called it a lm mutant (a mutant lm) in Le Nouvel Observateur, 28 March 2004.
19. Charlotte Rampling, Interview, France Inter, 24 March 2004.
20. This amorphous space (Deleuze 168) is the perfect locus for virtual conjunctions (conjonction virtuelle, Deleuze 155) to occur, and the place where death instincts
and elementary drives are acted out. See his Mondes originaires et pulsions lmentaires
(Deleuze 173). It is a pure background, without a form, without an end, made of unformed
matter (on le reconnat son caractre informe, cest un fond pur, ou plutt un sans-fond,
fait de matires non formes, Deleuze 174).
21. Cette mmoire collective, comme toute machine de mmoire, serait une machine
fabriquer de loubli, dans la mesure o elle sopposerait la mmoire subjective et o il
sagirait dradiquer la subjectivit au prot dun discours collectif (Alain Brun quoted in
Joly 163).
22. Une rptition du pass enchanante, dgradante (Kierkegaard quoted in Deleuze
18485). For Kierkegaard, the eternal repetition of the past is opposed to lternel retour
comme rsurrection, comme don du nouveau, du possible (Deleuze 185).
23. It is a very romantic lm. Rampling, Interview, France Inter, 24 March 2004.
NOTES
[ 295 ]
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[ 315 ]
CONTRIBUTORS
T I M O T H Y P. B A R N A R D is an associate professor in the Department of History at the
National University of Singapore. He has published works on the history and culture of the
Melaka Straits region, with a particular focus on issues of identity and the environment.
Among his publications are Mulitiple Centres of Authority: Environment and Society in
Eastern Sumatra, 16741827 (Leiden: KITLV, 2003) and Contesting Malayness: Malay Identity
across Boundaries (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2004). He was until recently the
editor of the Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. He is currently working on a history of
Malay lm from 1945 to 1965.
M I C H A E L C O H E N S chapter on Dick Tracy is based on his completed masters thesis in
cinema studies from La Trobe University in Australia. His MA analyzes superhero lms that
reveal formal and stylistic choices which attempt to capture a comic book aesthetic. He is
also the editor and senior writer of lm reviews for the Experience: Events section of The
Scene.com.au, an online lifestyle site.
R AY N A D E N I S O N is a lecturer in media and lm studies at the University of Sussex. She
has recently completed a PhD titled Cultural Trafc in Japanese Anime: The Meanings of
Promotion, Reception and Exhibition Circuits in Princess Mononoke and has published
on the international ows in anime culture. She is also researching lm sound, childrens
media, the blockbuster, and investigative narratives in television and lm. To this end she
is currently co-editing a collection titled Mysterious Bodies: Investigating the Corporeal in
Television Drama with Mark Jancovich.
M A R T I N F L A N A G A N is course leader and senior lecturer in lm and media studies at the
University of Bolton. His thesis was concerned with the cinematic relevance of the theories
of Mikhail Bakhtin, and he has recently published an article applying Bakhtinian ideas to
action lm aesthetics in the collection Action and Adventure Cinema (Routledge, 2004). He
has also published work on Ang Lees Hulk in the New Review of Film and Television Studies,
and explored authorial issues in articles on Robert Rodriguez and Terrence Malick.
S O P H I E G E O F F R O Y- M E N O U X is professor at the University of La Runion (France).
Her teaching and research areas are intertextuality and intermediality, especially in fantastic literature. She has published critical editions (Hawthorne, by Henry James, Paris: Jos
Corti, 2000), unpublished correspondence (Henry James and Family: Eleven Unpublished
Letters, Sources, Spring 2003), and numerous books and articles on Henry James, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Vernon Lee (La voix maudite, Terre de Brume, 2001), and Angela Carter. She
[ 317 ]
has contributed thirty-ve entries in the forthcoming Dictionnaire des Littratures de

lImaginaire (LAtalante, 2007).
M E L G I B S O N is a senior lecturer in childhood studies at the University of Northumbria.
She has published on a range of issues around comics and audiences. She also works with
libraries and schools in developing comic collections.
I A N G O R D O N is an associate professor in history and convener of American studies at the
National University of Singapore. He is the author of Comic Strips and Consumer Culture
(Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998); Superman on the Set: The Market, Nostalgia and
Television Audiences, in Quality Popular Television (BFI, 2003); and a co-editor of Comics
and Ideology.
K E R R Y G O U G H is a lecturer in media theory at the University of Central England,
Birmingham. She is currently completing her PhD Ever Been Mistaken for a Man?: Ripley
as a Shifting Cultural Signier with the University of Nottingham. Her thesis examines
the historical reception of the Alien lm saga and the function that Lt. Ellen Ripley fulls
within the reception materials, as a historically specic located nexus for societal discourse
and debate surrounding the body, social behaviors, and gendered norms.
J O N AT H A N G R AY is assistant professor of communication and media studies at Fordham
University. He has published on various issues of textuality and audiences in Critical Studies
in Media Communication, International Journal of Cultural Studies, Intensities: Journal of
Cult Media, American Behavioral Scientist, and books on Blade Runner and Lord of the
Rings. His recent book is entitled Watching with the Simpsons: Television, Parody, and
Intertextuality (Routledge, 2006).
C R A I G H I G H T is a senior lecturer with the Screen and Media Studies Department at
the University of Waikato. With Dr. Jane Roscoe, he has co-written Faking It: MockDocumentary and the Subversion of Factuality (Manchester University Press), the rst major
work on mock-documentary as a documentary hybrid form. His recent research focuses on
digital technologies, including their relationship to documentary practice, and aspects of
the production, construction, and reception of documentary hybrids.
M A R K J A N C O V I C H is a professor of lm and television studies at the University of East
Anglia in the U.K. His books include The Cultural Politics of the New Criticism (Cambridge
University Press, 1993); Rational Fears: American Horror in the 1950s (Manchester University
Press, 1996); and Quality Popular Television (edited with James Lyons) (BFI, 2003).
D E R E K J O H N S O N is a PhD candidate in media and cultural studies at the University of
WisconsinMadison. His research focuses on the production, marketing, and reception of
serialized transmedia franchises in lm, television, comic books, video games, and other
commodity forms.
P A S C A L L E F V R E rst studied social sciences and American studies at the University of
Leuven (K.U. Leuven). While working as a producer at the Belgian national broadcasting
corporation (BRTN), he started publishing and organizing conferences on comic strips.
From 1996 till 1999 he was attached part time as a scientic advisor to the Belgian Centre of
Comic Strip Art in Brussels. Since 1997 he has been lecturing on comics at two Flemish art
schools (in Brussels and Antwerp). Selected publications are Pour une lecture moderne de la
[ 318 ]
CONTRIBUTORS
bande dessine (with Jan Baetens) and The Comic Strip in the Nineteenth Century (co-edited
with Charles Dierick). In October 2003 he completed his PhD on the formal analysis of
comics at the University of Leuven.
P A U L M . M A L O N E is an associate professor of German in the Department of Germanic
and Slavic Studies at the University of Waterloo, Canada. He is the author of Franz Kaf kas
The Trial: Four Stage Adaptations (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), and has also published on
German drama, lm, theatre/performance theory, and virtual reality computer technology.
M AT T H E W P. M C A L L I S T E R is an associate professor in lm, video, and media studies at
Penn State University. He is the author of The Commercialization of American Culture: New
Advertising, Control, and Democracy (Sage, 1996); Selling Survivor: The Use of TV News to
Promote Commercial Entertainment, in A. N. Valdivia (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to
Media Studies (Blackwell, 2003); and a co-editor of Comics and Ideology.
N E I L R A E is a doctoral candidate in media and communication studies at Goldsmiths
College, University of London. His dissertation examines the global publication, circulation,
and consumption of manga.
A L D O J . R E G A L A D O is a doctoral candidate in history at the University of Miami in
Florida. His doctoral dissertation, Bending Steel with Bare Hands: Modernity and the
American Superhero in the Twentieth Century, is a cultural history that examines the origins and construction of superheroes in American popular culture as they have been shaped
by the tensions inherent in the modernizing forces of an emergent capitalism and its relationship to shifting American notions of race, class, gender, and nationalism. His essay,
Unbreakable and the Limits of Transgression, appears in Comics as Philosophy (University
of Mississippi Press, 2005). Mr. Regalado is currently teaches history at the University of
Miami and at Palmer Trinity School.
J A N VA N D E R P U T T E N is assistant professor of Malay studies at the National University
of Singapore. His publications comprise articles about traditional Malay writing, the advent
of printing and identity, and include two books about private letters of two Malay authors
in the nineteenth century: In Everlasting Friendship: Letters from Raja Ali Haji and His Word
Is the Truth: Haji Ibrahims Letters and Other Writings.
D AV I D W I LT , University of Maryland, specializes in the study of lm and society, and
in Mexican cinema. He is the author of The Mexican Filmography 19162001 (2004) and
Hard-boiled in Hollywood (1991), and the co-author of Doing Their Bit: Wartime American
Animated Films, 19391945 (second edition, 2004) and Hollywood War Films, 19371945
(1996). He has also contributed to The Columbia Companion to American History on Film
(2004), Mondo Macabro (1997), Mexican Horror Cinema (1999), as well as liner notes for
various DVDs.
CONTRIBUTORS
[ 319 ]
INDEX
Abbott, Lawrence, 31
Academics. See Scholar
Adams, Neal, 10, 143
Adaptation, viii, xi, xii, 15, 910, 1214, 30,
36, 38, 4445, 57, 6466, 68, 79, 81, 83, 86,
90, 9597, 99, 13839, 144, 146, 149, 15758,
160, 167, 180, 186, 198, 200, 203, 210, 221,
224, 233, 242, 271, 283
Adolescence, 137, 138, 139, 14041, 14547,
149, 150, 151, 155, 15859
Adult, 34, 36, 13741, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148,
149, 15052, 155, 159
Adventures of Barry McKenzie, The, xiv
Advertising, 41, 160, 16567, 169, 177
Aesthetic, 1316, 26, 27, 2930, 3536, 141, 148,
158, 27273, 280
Agency, 137, 138, 150, 151, 157
guila Descalza, El, 218
Akira, 150
Alien, 38, 42, 43, 44, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58,
62, 240
Alienatation, xixii, 95, 125, 252, 257, 269, 280
Aliens, xii, 38, 39, 41, 4344, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60
Aliens #1, 41, 44, 46, 55, 62
Aliens vs. Predator, 41, 5558, 6062
Alma Grande, 210
Alpha Comics, 240
American, 116, 117, 119, 12124, 128, 13041,
146, 14852, 155, 167, 170, 22326, 23233,
240, 242; comics, 225; commercialism, 111;
dream, 121, 124; football, 200; modernity,
117, 126; popular culture, 119
American Beauty, 155
American Pie, 137
American Splendor, viii, xii, xiv, 11, 12, 180,
181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 194,
195, 196, 198
American Splendor Presents Bob and Harvs
Comics, 184
Animation, vii, 2, 7, 9, 18, 21, 182, 188, 19399,
220, 269, 271, 285n, 291n
Animatrix, The, 172
Annie, 10
Annies Printing Works, 251
Anti-Americanism, 1089
Anti-comics crusade, 118, 127
Anti-Social Behaviour Bill (UK), 151
Arbuckle, Fatty, vii
Archetype, 39, 138, 14142
Archie, xi
Arena Mxico, 202
Arnheim, Rudolf, 78
Art School Condential, xvi
Ascot Elite Entertainment Group, 238
Audience, xxiii, xv, 1, 3, 38, 50, 59, 61, 65
66, 70, 7476, 8689, 100, 103, 105, 111,
11619, 131, 135, 13738, 14041, 14748,
159, 162, 165, 168, 17180, 184, 187, 19098;
comic book, 5859; lm, 135, 234; television, 2012
Authenticity, viii, 47, 56, 89, 18182, 184, 186,
18890, 19293, 198, 240
AVP: Alien vs. Predator, 62
Aydeme Doctora Corazn, 210
Baby boomers, xiv, 129, 140
Bakhtin, Mikhail, 89, 119, 290n
Balaban, Bob, 145
Balai Pustaka, 252
Bale, Christian, viii
Bangsawan, 258
[ 321 ]
Barb Wire, 39
Barcelona International Comic Salon, 229
Bartra, Armando, 204, 209, 213
Batman, viix, 1, 1012, 39, 56, 65, 8689,
118, 138, 14244, 164, 198, 213, 232, 285n,
290n, 291n
Batman and Robin, x, 93
Batman Begins, viii, x, 138
Batman Returns, 144
Bazin, Andr, 15
Beano, The, 1045
Beatty, Warren, xii, 10, 1314, 21, 26, 28, 32, 34
Beisbolista Fenmeno, El, 215
Benjamin, Walter, 2
Beresford, Bruce, xiv
Berkowitz, Harry, x
Bestia Magnca, La, 215
Big Boy, 23, 25
Bilal, Enki, xv, 4, 10, 26869, 27183, 286n
Blade, vii, 73, 139, 144, 149, 164
Blade Runner, 274
Blade 2, 164
Blockbuster, viiviii, xixiii, xvi, 1, 70, 103,
113, 115, 13941, 16162, 165, 168, 173, 221, 230
Blue Demon, 21718
Brand, 38, 6685, 142, 147, 161, 166
Brando, Marlon, 16566
Breathless Mahoney, 23
Bridget Joness Diary, 102
Broadsheet, 1013, 11012
Brsel, 226, 22829, 241
Brow, The, 26
Bugs Bunny, 21
Bullenklten!, 225, 229
Buffy the Vampire Slayer, 150, 164, 170, 288n
Burton, Tim, ix, 1, 10, 87, 117, 138, 144, 150,
171, 285n
Buster Brown on the Care and Treatment of
Goats, vii
Butler, 44, 5354
Byrd, Ralph, 14
Cameron, James, 43, 45, 157
Captain America, 142
Captions, 188, 19495
Caricatures, 2021, 26, 264
Cariosas, Las, 218
Carnivalesque, 273
Cartoon, x, 9, 2021, 134, 140, 248, 269,
274, 281
[ 322 ]
INDEX
Cartoon: A Short History of Graphic Comedy

and Satire, The, 21
Casablanca, 227
Casey, Mark, 6
Cassidy, Hopalong, vii
Catalan Communications, 242
Cathay Keris, 260, 262, 267
Catwoman, 90
Cerebro del mal, 216
Chamaco, 202
Chanoc, 210
Chaplin, Charlie, vii
Chteau dAlgol, 273
Children, 1048, 11112, 140, 141, 147, 149, 151
55, 158, 200, 202, 213, 214, 219, 268, 283
Children & Young Persons Harmful Publications Act (UK, 1955), 105
Chloe Chronicles, The, 162, 17273, 17778
Choublanc, Ferdinand, 269, 270, 278
City of Lost Children, 271
Class, 101, 104, 107, 109, 112, 115, 119, 123, 124,
140, 146, 152, 153, 155, 156, 159; conict, 124;
social, 102; struggles, 123
Clockwork Orange, A, 274
Clowes, Daniel, xvi, 4, 139
Code Name: Wild Geese, 239
Color, 1315, 1822, 2426, 2831, 45, 79, 125,
127, 135, 146, 155, 192, 205, 261, 26364, 273,
278, 281, 286n, 291n, 293n; garish, 14
Columbia Pictures, 37
Comic, 112, 1415, 1821, 24, 26, 28, 3036,
6465, 67, 6870, 7381, 8586, 90120,
12628, 13132, 134, 13849, 15758, 180
99, 202, 21011, 213, 215, 217, 221, 223, 225
26, 22829, 23135, 240, 24245, 268; art,
xii, 1, 7, 8, 10
Comic Art: Characteristics and Potentialities
of a Narrative Medium, 31
Comic book, viixiv, 14, 18, 2731, 3839, 64
85, 104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117,
119, 12635, 16077, 18081, 18889, 193,
19899, 200, 2034, 20910, 21314, 217,
219, 225, 242, 26880, 283; aesthetic, 223;
alternative, viii, xi, xiii; art, 38, 42, 44,
49; artist, 170, 183, 221, 22829; companies, x, xii; convention, ix, 234; covers, 82;
creators, 129; culture, 64, 65, 66, 70, 108,
225, 226, 229; lms, ix, xiii, 73, 76, 86, 89,
94, 97, 114, 138, 160, 16466; format, 38,
43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 59, 60, 62, 65, 112; in-
dustry, 65, 6768, 7172, 202; market, 181;

movie (see Film); narrative, 49, 53, 56,
139, 160, 172, 18081; panel(s), 19395, 275;
publishing, 39, 65, 68, 70, 74; series, 40
41, 4445, 5153, 58, 62, 199, 216, 218, 220;
shops, 3940, 203, 21415; subculture, 118;
superhero, xi, 1415, 113, 117, 119, 12627,
13133, 135; television series, 164
Comic strip, 16, 22, 26, 3032, 104, 168;
border, 194; frames, 49, 199, 202
Comic Strip and Film Language, The, 30
Comics Buyers Guide, ix
Comics Campaign Council (CCC), 105, 108
Coming out, 22324, 23738
Computer games, 146, 151
Concrete, 41
Conglomerates, 38, 61, 69, 170
Constantin Film, 244
Constantine, ix
Consumption, 2, 88, 98, 111, 131, 134, 137, 140
41, 146, 159, 213
Corporal Hicks, 44, 49, 5255
Costa, Antonio, 9
Cross-promote, 138, 16768, 173, 217, 292n
Crumb, Robert, 181, 182, 184, 194, 198, 226, 228
Cult movie, 269, 274
Culture, 6473, 85, 102, 104, 10812, 115,
125, 13840, 144, 146, 148, 15054, 159;
American, 108, 110, 117, 125; elite, 110; imperialism, 108; mass, 102, 10911; popular,
28, 65, 70, 72, 102, 10912, 117, 119, 136, 138
39, 141, 146, 15052, 16061, 218, 220, 264
Culture and Environment, 110
Cyclops, 79, 80, 105, 144
Dangerous Minds, 150
Daredevil, 65, 90, 91, 96, 138, 139, 143, 144
Davis, Hope, 190
DC Comics, vii, x, 3740, 58, 6061, 65, 67
70, 7275, 120, 126, 142, 147, 165, 168, 170,
269, 279, 289n
Dark Horse Comics, xii, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 52,
56, 59, 62, 63
Death in Venice, 228
Der bewegte Mann (Maybe . . . Maybe
Not), xv
Diamond Comics, 65
Dick Tracy, ix, xi, xii, 10, 1336
Diegesis, 2, 1314, 16, 20, 24
Disney, ix, 69, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 78
Distribution, x, xvi, 2, 40, 57, 75, 158, 290n

Ditko, Steve, xiv, 147, 290n
Donnie Darko, 118, 150
Doucet, Julie, 181
Dreams of the Rarebit Fiend, vii
Dunn, Bill, 12122, 129, 131
Dunne, David, 116, 120, 129, 13032, 135
Dutch East Indies, 249, 258
DVD, xiv, xvi, 6, 31, 62, 133, 160, 16263, 170
73, 175, 17779, 220, 240, 242, 286n, 291n;
extras, 163, 177
Eco, Umberto, 160
Edward Scissorhands, 150
Effects, xvi, 7, 8, 1516, 18, 20, 22, 24, 29
30, 3638, 61, 97, 106, 113, 162, 16466,
172, 17476, 188, 209, 235, 239, 27583,
285n, 287n
Einstrzende Neubauten, 239
Eisner, Will, 2122, 3132, 291n
El Salvador, 204
Embong Ahmad, 255
Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL),
200
Enmascarado de Plata, El, 205, 210, 215
Entertainment Weekly, viiviii, x, 16869,
178, 288n
Exaggeration, 15, 2122, 26, 184
Familia Burrn, La, 210
Fan, ixxiii, 1, 3, 5, 12, 38, 57, 58, 61, 64, 70,
76, 79, 85100, 103, 105, 113, 11718, 121,
12629, 133, 136, 200, 213; culture, 85, 136;
publications, ix, 127
Fantastic Four, 138, 146, 290n
Fanzine, 121, 126, 128
Fatimah Busu, 266
Fifth Element, The, 274
Film, viixv, 216, 18, 20, 22, 24, 2635, 37
38, 42, 47, 50, 61, 62, 6468, 8689, 91, 92,
93104, 108, 11320, 12831, 13336, 13842,
14448, 15057, 15978, 180, 18498, 2003,
209, 213, 21522, 226, 22935, 23745, 268
76, 278, 28081, 283; devices, 6, 280; editing techniques, 276; form, 21, 30, 34;
format, 269; franchise, 67, 82, 11214; production, 6869, 74; scene, 30; series, 14,
38, 4445, 4751, 57; star, 199, 208, 218, 219,
220; style, 36
Film noir, 16, 235
INDEX
[ 323 ]
Filmmakers, viiiix, 16, 17, 26, 92, 93, 97, 116,

171, 174, 180, 182, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192,
193, 198
Flash Gordon, 41, 248
Flattop, 14, 22, 26
Flowers of Evil, 270, 273
Fotomisterio, 209
Frame, xii, 3, 6, 12, 3032, 47, 192, 194, 197,
272, 275, 277, 27879
France, Charles H., vii
Franchise, vii, x, xiii, 38, 4041, 52, 56, 58
62, 67, 75, 78, 82, 11215, 16061, 169, 171,
17677, 179
Friedman, Rob, ix
From Hell, vii, 4, 10, 198
Fu Manchu, Dr., 124
Gay, 22129, 23137, 24145
Geipel, John, 21
Geliga Press, 250
Genre, 1415, 64, 6768, 102, 11316, 120, 122,
125, 128, 13334, 13739, 14546, 150, 160
79, 18182, 187, 231, 234, 243, 269
Gen-X, 86
German Film Awards, 230
Ghost World, vii, xiixiv, 12, 13940, 14445,
14850, 15253, 155, 15759, 180, 285n
Giamatti, Paul, 188, 19098, 291n
Giger, H. R., 38, 42
Godzilla, 41
Godzilla Special, 39
Golden Key, xi
Gould, Chester, 14, 28, 32, 287n
Gran Perro Muerto, El, 218
Graphic novel, viii, xi, xvxvi, 11, 4041, 94,
112, 143, 158, 186, 285n, 291n
Great Depression, 12025
Green Goblin, 147, 149, 156
Green Lantern/Green Arrow, 143
Grey, Brad, x
Grey, Jean, 79, 144, 288n
Guardian, The, 101, 102, 103, 104, 112
Haji Buyong Adil, 262, 264
Hang Derahman, 253
Hang Jebat, 247, 256, 263, 264, 266, 267
Hang Tuah, xv, 246, 247, 248, 251, 252, 253,
255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263,
264, 265, 266, 267
[ 324 ]
INDEX
Harun Aminurrashid, 250, 264

Harvey, xi
Hateld, Charles, xi
Hellboy, 41
Herg, 9
Hero, 118, 12425, 130, 132, 135, 143, 160, 164,
169, 171, 173, 175, 199, 200, 203, 208, 21316,
219, 24648, 252, 259, 26567, 270, 276, 280
Hiburan, 255
Hijo del Santo, El, 208
Hikayat, 246, 252, 256, 257, 258, 259, 266
Historietas, 202, 213
History of Violence, A, xii
Hodge, Gordon, x
Hombre Rojo, El, 201
Homeward Bound: American Families in the
Cold War Era, 125
Homolulu, 223
Hong Kong, 260, 262
Hoover, President Herbert, 121
Hope, Bob, vii
How to Draw and Sell Comic Strips for
Newspapers and Comic Books!, 15
Huerta, Rodolfo Guzmn, 200, 203, 205,
207, 212, 214, 216, 21920
Hulk, vii, xi, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 65, 66, 81, 82, 138,
139, 142, 143, 164
Husin Ahmad, 255
Hussein Haniff, 267
Ice Storm, The, 155
Iceman, 142, 144
Icon, 14, 16, 2729, 78, 8283, 121, 136, 233
Identity, xiii, xvxvii, 69, 7679, 81, 8384,
107, 116, 13536, 13839, 14145, 14849, 152,
154, 15759, 173, 185, 201, 205, 211, 213, 216,
219, 221, 231, 238, 248, 279, 28283
Ideological, 137, 14041, 152, 154, 159, 221,
27273, 280
Image Comics, 40
Immortel, xv, 4, 10, 12, 270, 285n, 287n
Incgnito, El, 216
Independent, The, 101, 103, 106, 11213
Independent on Sunday, 101
Independent subscription services, 39
India, 252, 261
Indonesia, 249, 251, 252, 262
Intellectual property, 68, 72
International Comic Salon at Grenoble, 229
Interpretation, 9, 11, 7880, 82, 87, 88, 89, 92,

181, 185, 190, 269
Intertextuality, 10, 86, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 97,
98, 99, 162, 274, 283; codes, 274; webs, 162
Itchy, 25
Lord of the Rings, 87, 92

Lost Boys, The, 150
Luchador Fenmeno, El, 215
Luthor, Lex, 175
Lysistrata, 224, 227, 24243
Jackman, Hugh, 78, 80, 83, 144

Jakarta, 252
Jambi, 256
James Bond, vii, 10, 88
Jamil Sulong, 260, 262, 264
Java, 253
Jemas, Bill, x, 7172, 7576
Jenkins, Henry, x, 50, 54, 56, 58, 89, 91,
94, 100
Jews, 121, 125, 182, 196
Johnny Storm, 142
Johnson, Ken, 11
Johor, 250, 256
Jor-el, 165
Judge Dredd, 56, 87
Madonna, 23
Magic Behind the Cape, The, 17374
Maguire, Tobey, 89, 139, 155
Mahabharata, 252
Mahmud Ahmad, 262
Making Superman: Filming the Legend, 173
Malcolm in the Middle, 150
Man in the Iron Mask, The, 201
Man of Steel. See Superman
MnnerschwarmSkript, 234
Marginalize, 125, 135, 151, 223, 224
Market, ixx, xiiixvi, 3740, 41, 58, 5963,
66, 6876, 78, 80, 8385, 116, 12021, 123
24, 138, 141, 146, 170, 174, 177, 181, 195, 229,
23234, 242, 252
Marvel, vii, x, xiii, xvi, 3740, 58, 6061, 64
78, 8085, 102, 104, 107, 142, 14445, 149
Mary Jane, 140, 148
Mask, The, 8, 39, 41
Matrix, The, 7, 172, 274
Maus, viii, 2, 182
McCay, Winsor, vii
McCloud, Scott, 14, 2122, 26, 31, 65, 68, 291n
McFarlane, Todd, 62
McKean, Dave, 10
McKenzie, Alan, 15
Mdico Asesino, El, 205, 292n
Meehan, Eileen, 3738, 41
Melaka, 246, 247, 249, 251, 252, 256, 257
Melodrama, 16, 16064, 169, 170, 17375, 177,
187, 188, 192, 194
Men in Black, 1, 104
Mendes, Sam, viii, 155
Mickey Mouse, 21, 78, 248
Miller, Frank, viii, 10
Misterio en las Bermudas, 217
Montage, 6, 2324, 29, 34, 48, 19394, 278
Moore, Alan, viii, 4
Motion picture. See Film
Movie. See Film
MPAA rating, 241
Murcilago II, El, 201
Murdock, Matt, 91, 143
Kalimn, 199, 208, 210

Kane, Bob, viii, 142
Keaton, Michael, ix
Keluarga-Zawyah Publishing House, 250
Kent, Clark, 161, 16869, 17273, 17677
Kondom des Grauens (Killer Condom), xv,
221, 23442
Knig, Ralf, xv, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 229,
232, 233, 234, 238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245
Kubert, Andy, 81
Lacassin, Francis, 30
Lane, Lois, 175
Leary, Timothy, 43
Leavis, F. R., 109
Lee, Ang, viii, 138, 143, 155, 285n
Lee, Stan, 45, 11, 142, 290n
Les Frustrs, 228
Letterers, 185
Lettering, 50
Licensing, ix, x, xiv, 37, 41, 42, 44, 52, 56, 59
62, 6774, 76, 78, 81, 85
Licensing Corp. of America, ix
Little Face, 26
Little Nemo in Slumberland, 199
Lobo Negro, El, 201
Logan, James, 77. See also Wolverine
INDEX
[ 325 ]
My New York Diary, 181

Myth, 94, 118, 128, 143, 145, 16062, 184, 213,
215, 257, 273, 290n
Name of the Rose, The, 230
Narrative, 2, 1516, 20, 24, 2732, 34, 38, 40,
44, 4756, 61, 80, 8384, 113, 117, 119, 129,
13740, 143, 14648, 15052, 157, 15961,
164, 17178, 18082, 185; constructions,
187; devices, 140; episodic, 183, 189; sequences, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 197
Nasjah Djamin, 252
Naz Achnas, 249
Nazi, 114, 182, 217, 223, 225, 229
Nelson, Mark A., 44, 45, 57
New X-Men, 66, 71, 77, 79
New York Review of Books, viii
New York Times, viii, 168, 232, 241
Newsday, x
Newspaper, 1013, 110, 199, 202, 213
Newsweek, ix
Newt, 44, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55
Nightcrawler, 97, 113
Nikopol, Alcide, 26977, 27882
Nikopol Trilogy, 4, 268
Observer, The, 101, 104
Oedipal, 139, 14144, 148
Old Boy, 12
ONeill, Dennis, x
Ontology, xii, 13, 15, 21, 26, 30, 32, 36, 85
Opposite of Sex, The, 137
Oss, Fernando, 215, 216
Our Cancer Year, 186
Our Movie Year, 198
Panel, vii, xi, 3, 57, 1314, 1718, 2634, 36,
47, 4950, 64, 184, 189, 19295, 203, 206
10, 272, 27475
Paramount Pictures, x
Pareja Atmica, La, 201
Parker, Peter, 5, 77, 139, 143, 14849, 151, 155
56, 159
Peanuts, 226
Peeters, Benot, 1, 9, 285n, 287n
Pekar, Harvey, xiv, 11, 18098
Pepn, 202, 203, 205, 213
Pepsi Generation, 146
Perelman, Ron, 70
[ 326 ]
INDEX
Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood, 181

Peters, Jon, ix
Phani Majumdar, 261
Phantom, The, 216
Photograms, 6
Pinewood Studios, 165, 167
Plante Sauvage, La, 274
Plume, Kenneth, 5
Popeye, 21
Porno Baby, 239
Portrayals, 186, 191
Postmodern, 119, 139, 141, 154, 165, 268,
272, 277
Potter, Harry, vii
Power, 12224, 127, 132, 138, 139, 14445, 150
51, 156, 182, 26869
Pretty Baby: Der bewegte Mann, 227
Prince Valiant, 248
Private Eye, xiv
Producing Smallville: The Heroes Behind the
Camera, 175, 178
Production, viixvi, 23, 10, 12, 38, 62, 187,
191, 198; discourses, 160, 162, 165, 174, 178;
values, 161
Prosthetic, 10, 20, 22, 26
Pulcini, Robert, 186
Pustz, Matthew, 64, 6970, 85
Queer, 22124, 242, 24345
Quesada, Joe, 81
Rabelais and His World, 119
Raimi, Sam, 1, 5, 138, 145, 147, 156
Ramrez, Huracn, 208, 215, 218
Ramlee, P., 260, 261, 263, 264
Rawson, Philip, 79
Razak Ahmad, 250, 253
Readers, x, xiixiii, xvi, 13, 5, 912, 15, 31,
6566, 70, 75, 82, 8587, 89100, 1024,
107, 121, 12527, 141, 14546, 183, 186, 196,
199, 204, 211, 21314, 218, 226, 229, 234,
245, 24951, 25355, 265, 272, 276
Reading, 3, 5, 89, 92, 93, 96, 103, 106, 107, 110;
communities, 65, 85
Rebranding, 6667, 69, 71, 74, 7778, 81
82, 84
Reception, xiii, 3, 12, 69, 8687, 89, 90, 99,
117, 14647, 159, 162, 269, 280
Reeve, Christopher, 96, 16566, 17477
Representation, xii, xiv, 20, 23, 29, 47, 49, 82,

137, 141, 14647, 15051, 158, 18082, 185
94, 19698, 217, 221, 248, 266, 27273, 276,
280, 283
Resnais, Alain, 1
Return of the Jedi, 40
Richardson, Mike, 39, 41, 44, 58
Robertson, Darick, 80
Robles, Horacio, 204, 206, 207, 211
Rodent, The, 26
Romero, Jos Trinidad, 206, 210
Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), 109
Rubber that Rubs You Out, The, 241
Run Run Shaw, 260
S. Roomai Noor, 264
Sabirin Hj. Mohd. Annie, 250, 265
Sabrina the Teenage Witch, 150
Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 199295, 181
Saidin Yahya, 253
San Diego Comic Conference, ix, 264
Santo, la Leyenda de Plata, 208
Santo contra el Rey del Crimen, 216
Santo contra las Mujeres Vampiro, 217
Santo contra los Zombies, 216
Santo el Enmascarado de Plata contra la
Invasin de los Marcianos, 217
Santo vs. Hombres Infernales, 216
Santo y Blue Demon contra Drcula y el
Hombre Lobo, 217
Santo y Blue Demon contra los Monstruos, 217
Scholar, xii, 67, 118, 152, 257
Schumacher, Joel, 93
Schwulcomix, 222, 225, 234
Science ction, 113, 121, 217, 235, 268, 271
Scott, Ridley, 43
Seduction of the Innocent, The, 118
Semiotics, 88, 268, 273
Sensacional de Luchas, 208
September 11, 2001, 114, 147, 149
Sequence, 46, 1819, 2225, 3032, 34, 49,
1056, 113, 118, 126, 141, 143, 148, 156, 172,
188, 19095, 197, 224, 256, 27276
Sets in Motion: Art Direction and Film Narrative, 15
Shaping The Maxx, 13
Shaw Brothers, 26062
Shuster, Joe, xiii, 12026, 12829, 135
Shyamalan, M. Night, xiii, 11620, 12832,

13436, 286n, 290n
Siegel, Jerry, xiii, 12026, 12829, 135
Siegessule, 222
Sin City, viii, 10, 12, 41, 285n
Singapore, 24750, 252, 26062, 267
Singer, Bryan, 85, 138, 164
Sixth Sense, The, 116
Smallville, xiv, 138, 15051, 16065, 16870,
17273, 17578, 291n
Smith, Greg, 13, 31, 36
Snow White, 248
Soest, 222
Sombra Vengador, La, 215
Somigli, Luca, 28
Sooner or Later (I always get my man),
23, 29
Spawn, 41, 53, 232
Speech balloons, 11, 50, 194, 276
Spider-Man, xiiixiv, xvi, 1, 5, 37, 6566, 72,
77, 81, 86, 8890, 9394, 97, 99100, 137,
138, 139, 14052, 15659, 164, 17071, 198
Spiegelman, Art, 1, 182, 285n
Sprang, Dick, 10
Star Trek, 91, 113, 289n
Star Wars, 3941, 52, 87, 89, 114, 165, 168, 292n
Stewart, Patrick, 8384, 87, 89, 109
Stills, 209
Storaro, Vittorio, 32
Storm, 79, 106
Storm, Johnny, 142
Storyboard, 27475, 286n
Stradley, Randy, 39, 4142, 4445, 5052, 56,
5860, 287n
Studio, viiixii, 1516, 18, 3738, 41, 45, 49, 56,
59, 61, 6566, 7274, 76, 146, 165, 167, 191
93, 197, 202, 26061, 264, 275
Subbrands, xiii, 67, 69, 76, 8185
Sumatra, 246, 252
Superhero, xi, xii, xiii, xvi, 21, 27, 35, 6668,
7273, 76, 86, 96, 11621, 123, 125, 126, 127,
128, 13036, 138, 144, 147, 149, 208, 210, 213,
215, 218, 255; lms, 118, 128, 138
Superhero with a Thousand Faces: Visual
Narratives on Film and Paper, The, 28
Superman, xiv, 138, 16170, 17375, 177
Superman, viiviii, xi, xiiixiv, 1, 10, 50, 56,
86, 96, 12021, 12427, 135, 142, 149, 160
70, 17379, 211, 218, 250, 290n
INDEX
[ 327 ]
Superman II, 145, 161, 165, 169, 173

Supersabios, Los, 210
Sylbert, Richard, 1617
Taking Flight: The Development of
Superman, 173
Tank Girl, 90
Tarzan, 41, 248, 250
Telegraph, The, 101, 102, 103, 104, 109, 114
Television, x, 5, 28, 39, 6465, 68, 70, 7273,
77, 8485, 8889, 109, 120, 126, 128, 138,
146, 15051, 16065, 16872, 175, 17778,
18788, 191, 194, 202, 21415, 222, 227, 239,
244, 289n, 290n, 292n; series, viiviii, 11,
2223, 77, 161, 16465, 244, 286n
Tempting Roommates, 239
Terminator, 41, 56
Thomas Weisel Partners, x
Time Cop, 39
Times, The, 101, 106, 112, 114
Time Warner, viii, x, 37, 39, 68, 7074,
161, 168
Tintin, 9, 287n
Tokyo Pop, 40
Tom and Jerry, 9
Toxic Avenger, 241
Toys, x, 62, 77, 214, 219
Trailer, ix, 8, 170, 173
Translating, 39, 42, 50, 60, 180
Translation, 13, 27, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44,
45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 60, 62, 68, 71,
87, 90, 92, 97, 272, 280; accurate, 47; creativity, 38, 41, 62; easy, 180; uncensored, 182
Troma, 24142
Twentieth Century Fox, 37, 38, 41, 42, 52, 53,
56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63
2000AD, 87
2001: A Space Odyssey, 274
Ultimate Avengers, xvi
Ultimate X-Men, 6566, 77, 8182, 8485,
288n
Unbreakable, xiii, 11620, 128, 13236, 286n,
290n
Uncanny X-Men, 66, 71, 77, 7980, 82
Understanding Comics, 14, 2122, 26, 31, 291n
Urbaniak, James, 194
Use of English, The, 110
[ 328 ]
INDEX
Uses of Literacy, The, 110

Usman Awang, 266
V for Vendetta, viii
Valdiosera, Ramn, 209
Variety, x, 62, 166, 168, 178
Verheiden, Mark, 4245, 50, 52, 5455, 57
Video game, x, 6465, 6768, 78, 8284, 170
72, 281
Viewers, 1, 3, 9, 86, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 97, 99,
100, 275
Violence, xii, 9, 4749, 54, 87, 91, 121, 130,
134, 138, 14748, 15051, 157, 236, 24041,
274, 276
Virgin of Guadalupe, 212
Virgin Suicides, The, 150
Viz Llc, 40
Wall Street Journal, The, ix
Wayne, Bruce, ix
Wayne, John, 199, 200
Weimar Republic, 223
Welling, Tom, 16869, 176
Werner, 226, 22930, 238, 241
Wertham, Fredric, 12, 118, 127, 143, 158
What Children Think of Their Comics, 108
Wild Things, 157
Willats, John, 7
Willis, Bruce, 116, 129, 131, 272
Wolverine, vii, xiii, 64, 67, 7785, 93, 144,
288n
Wonder Woman, 139, 164
World of Fanzines: A Special Forum of Communication, The, 12
Xavier, Charles, 77, 79, 8384, 143, 289n
XEW-TV (Mexico City), 201
X-Force, 77
X-Men, vii, xiii, 5, 10, 6567, 72, 75, 77, 79
86, 90, 93, 97, 99, 1012, 10414, 138, 142,
144, 146, 150
X-Men: Evolution, 77, 82
X-Men Legends, 78, 83
X-Men 3, 113
X-Men 2, 66, 78, 8082, 101, 11114, 138, 143
X-Statix, 77, 82
X-treme X-Men, 27, 66, 77, 79, 82
Zawyah Publishing House, 251

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FILM AND COMIC BOOKS

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF MISSISSIPPI / JACKSON

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

INCOMPATIBLE VISUAL ONTOLOGIES?

TRANSLATION CREATIVITY AND ALIEN ECON(C)OMICS

WILL THE REAL WOLVERINE PLEASE STAND UP?

WHEN GEN-X MET THE X-MEN

WHAM! BAM! THE X-MEN ARE HERE

UNBREAKABLE AND THE LIMITS OF TRANSGRESSION

TEEN TRAJECTORIES IN SPIDER-MAN AND GHOST WORLD

ITS A BIRD! ITS A PLANE! NO, ITS DVD!

FROM BLOCKBUSTER TO FLOP?

OLD MALAY HEROES NEVER DIE

ENKI BILALS INTERMEDIAL FANTASIES

for cinemagraphic treatments. Production deals for comic book character

a lm (Hanson 1E). Clearly though media corporations have increasingly

uct. Treating characters as products, or as brands and subbrands, creates

narrative arcs marked by high-school graduations. Both lms appealed to

growth of the blogosphere), the relationship of lm to comics is a dynamic

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