Comics and Narration

COMICS AND NARRATION

COMICS AND NARRATION

Thierry Groensteen

Translated by Ann Miller

www.upress.state.ms.us

The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the Association of American University Presses.

Publication of this book was made possible in part with the assistance of the Hemingway Grant program.

Cet ouvrage publié dans le cadre du programme d’aide à la publication bénéficie du soutien du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et du Service Culturel de l’Ambassade de France représenté aux Etats-Unis. This work received support from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Cultural Services of the French Embassy in the United States through their publishing assistance program.

Originally published in 2011 by Presses Universitaires de France as Bande dessinée et narration: Système de la bande dessinée 2

Copyright © 2011 by Presses Universitaires de France

Translation and foreword copyright © 2013 by University Press of Mississippi

All rights reserved

Manufactured in the United States of America

First printing 2013

∞

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Groensteen, Thierry.

[Bande dessinée et narration]

Comics and narration / Thierry Groensteen ; translated by Ann Miller.

        p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-61703-770-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61703-771-9 (ebook) 1. Comic books, strips, etc.—History and criticism. 2. Narration (Rhetoric) I. Title.

PN6710.G757 2013

741.5’9—dc23

2012036707

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

CONTENTS

Translator’s Foreword

Introduction

Chapter One.   Comics and the Test of Abstraction

Chapter Two.   New Insights into Sequentiality

Chapter Three. On a Few Theories of Page Layout

Chapter Four.  An Extension of Some Theoretical Propositions

Chapter Five.   The Question of the Narrator

Chapter Six.     The Subjectivity of the Character

Chapter Seven. The Rhythms of Comics

Chapter Eight.   Is Comics a Branch of Contemporary Art?

Notes

Index of Themes

Index of Names

TRANSLATOR’S FOREWORD

Bande dessinée et narration: Système de la bande dessinée 2,¹ published in the original French in 2011, is the long-awaited follow-up to Thierry Groensteen’s seminal Système de la bande dessinée, written in 1999,² in which he embarked on the project of defining the fundamental resources deployed by comics for the production of meaning and aesthetic effects. By making underlying systems visible, Groensteen was able to shed light on the spatial operations of layout and articulation that conditioned the activity of the reader. He now builds on and expands that analysis, refining the concepts set out in Système 1 by bringing them to bear on new material. He acknowledges the increasingly transnational nature of comics culture by moving beyond the mainly Franco-Belgian corpus on which he had drawn in the first volume and exploring innovative currents that blur and extend the boundaries of the medium, such as abstract comics, digital comics, and shōjo manga. In so doing, he shows how the comics apparatus is put to work by virtuoso practitioners across a spectrum from mainstream to experimental.

In addition, major chapters are devoted to two areas that were not covered in Système 1, the question of the narrator and the nature of rhythm in comics: here Groensteen maps out the theoretical terrain rigorously and comprehensively. The value of his approach becomes self-evident through the insights that it affords into the expressive power of artists as disparate as André Franquin, Robert Crumb, and Chris Ware, and, more generally, into evolutionary tendencies such as the recent move away from uniformity of graphic style in the work of exponents like David Mazzucchelli and Fabrice Neaud. In his final chapter, Groensteen poses the question of the relationship of comics to contemporary art: historically the latter has disdained the former, while plundering its resources, formal and thematic, but more recently certain comics artists have chosen to exhibit their work in galleries. The argument returns to the question of narration as Groensteen considers the most exciting work currently being produced by comics artists.

Groensteen also explores theoretical advances made over a decade during which more critical ink has flowed than ever before. He alludes to important work by many French-language researchers, most notably Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan, both of whom have offered re-readings of the history of the medium, critiquing approaches that discern only a straightforward evolution towards its present forms and functions, and Jean-Christophe Menu, whose concern, as both artist and theorist, is to investigate the potential of comics, including possibilities as yet unrealized. Groensteen is equally familiar with comics scholarship in English: he engages with the work of Scott McCloud and Douglas Wolk, among others. He also points to recently developing approaches such as the study of comics within media theory, adaptation theory, cultural studies, or cognitive science, all valid, he recognizes, even if it is the task of understanding how the medium works that is primary.

Groensteen himself has hardly been slacking in between the publication of Système 1 and Système 2, having produced a series of books that examine comics from a variety of angles, encompassing analyses of formal features and mechanisms, historical studies of the medium as a whole and of particular genres, and reflections on cultural positioning, as well as a superb textbook. This prolific output (to which should be added a plethora of articles and exhibition catalogues) has been achieved in parallel to his other activities as lecturer, publisher, and curator, not to mention indefatigable traveler, promoter of dialogue and debate on every continent. However, it is with this volume of the Système that he completes his general theory of the medium.

Readers of Système 1 will know that Groensteen’s approach, semiotic in the broadest sense, is not to be equated with a dry exercise in taxonomy: on the contrary, it is the pleasures of comics that provide the starting point for his analysis, and, equipped with the rich conceptual framework that he offers, we return to comics as better, subtler, and more demanding readers. Groensteen’s prose is elegant and highly readable, maintaining its lucidity however complex or detailed the point being made. The difference between French and English syntax patterns means that it is not easy for the translator to replicate the style of the original, and the text may seem a little clumsy in places as a result. Certain words pose particular problems: bande dessinée is an obvious example. I have used comics throughout, usually as a singular noun. I have not attempted to harmonize my translation with that of my System 1 predecessors, Bart Beaty and David Nguyen, not wanting to risk any further stylistic clashes, but where the text refers back to Système 1, the endnote gives the page numbers of both the original French text and its translated version. This will, I hope, facilitate the continuing debates that this book is bound to provoke and nourish among scholars in both linguistic communities.

Finally, I would like to thank two people: Laurence Grove, whose translation of an earlier version of Chapter 5 appeared in European Comic Art 3.1 (Spring 2010), and helped me to solve some tricky problems, and Malcolm Hope, who read through every chapter and made valuable suggestions.

COMICS AND NARRATION

INTRODUCTION

The System of Comics, published in the original French in 1999 and in English translation in 2007, set out to theorize the foundations of the language of comics. This theory was macrosemiotic in its scope: it was not concerned with the details of single images, but with the articulation of images within the space of the page and across that of the book as a whole. The principle of iconic solidarity was shown to be applicable to three major operations: breakdown, page layout, and braiding. The book had the further aim of describing the formal apparatus through which meaning is produced, emphasizing the extent to which aesthetic and semantic considerations were interwoven. The image was defined as utterable, describable, interpretable and, ultimately, appreciable—all adjectives that put the accent on the active participation of the reader in the construction of meaning and in the assessment of the work.

Over the twelve years that have elapsed since then, understanding of comics has moved forward. Advances in scholarship have been particularly noteworthy in relation to the history of the medium, largely due to the illuminating research of Thierry Smolderen into the history of the speech balloon,¹ and into competing conceptions of page layout in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.² This research has been brought together by the author in the form of a thick and beautifully illustrated volume published in 2009 called Naissances de la bande dessinée.³ Smolderen is the first historian to have shown how cartoons served as the laboratory wherein comic art was forged, and how comics have subsequently been constantly redefined through contact with society, with its media, its images and its technologies, leading up to the production of an (open) family of graphic dialects. He sheds light on the circumstances that led the medium to adopt, in turn, the model of progressive plot structure, tabular page layout, the cute aesthetic, decomposition of movement and facial expressions, and the speech balloon as visual sound track.

As a result, Jean-Christophe Menu’s rightful desire that a "critical history of the language of comics, rather than a history of its best-sellers"⁴ should be written, seems, in fact, to have already been partially realized. There remains, however, the task of completing the undertaking in relation to the twentieth century. As things stand, Smolderen stopped after McCay just as, before him, David Kunzle, starting from 1450, had only pursued his investigations as far as the end of the nineteenth century.

Another line of research that has grown considerably is content analysis. Into this vast field there falls anything to do with Gender Studies, the relationship of comics to History and the representation of society, as well as issues raised by autobiography and autofiction.

Harry Morgan has placed his most recent research under the aegis of Mythopoeia, or the production of myths.⁵ He aims to uncover the formal apparatus that regulates the interaction between the content of comics and the physical, material, technical, editorial, and social constraints that bear upon it. He maintains that it is the study of this specific connection that will enable the identification of the essential features of what he calls graphic literatures.⁶

New pathways continue to be opened up in contemporary research. Media theory offers perspectives from which to interrogate the relationships (consisting of filiation, overlap, reciprocal influences, borrowings, quotations, adaptations) between comics and literature, theatre, film, and photography. Within the field of comics itself, the development of another form of comparativism is to be welcomed: this consists of contrasting different traditions of comics production worldwide. Furthermore, disciplines based on cognitive science have cast some light, although still too faint, on the way in which images are perceived, processed by the human brain, understood, and recalled.

While all these types of investigation are flourishing, the same cannot be said of semiotic theory (in the widest definition of the word), which represents, as it were, the very foundations of comics research, and which, by analyzing the formal apparatus that constitutes it, offers the prospect of a more subtle understanding of the medium and its potential. Indeed, there has been relatively little progress in this area.

The intention of this volume is to deepen, extend, and complete the theoretical propositions put forward in System 1. It further clarifies the basic concepts of iconic solidarity, sequence, and modes of reading comics. It revisits more specific questions already discussed, such as regular page layout or the threshold of narrativity. It engages with new objects, like children’s books, digital comics, or abstract comics. It addresses fundamental questions that had been deferred, like the issue of rhythm and that of the narrator. It ends by situating comics in relation to the contemporary art scene.

To sum up, where the first volume described the foundations and the major articulations of the system, its particular architecture and dynamic, this volume is more concerned to analyze the uses to which it may be put.

It can be distinguished from the previous volume in two other ways.

In System 1, my thinking was based mainly on comics from the European, and most often, Franco-Belgian tradition. A choice that seemed normal to readers of the original edition may have been perceived as reductive or problematic in countries where the work was published in translation (particularly the U.S. and Japan). This second volume aspires to be much more open to other comics traditions. It devotes one section of its argument to manga and draws to a much greater extent on examples from virtuoso American comics artists like David Mazzucchelli, Art Spiegelman, and Chris Ware. I also enter into dialogue more often with English-language critics and researchers.

Finally, where System 1 approached comics from an essentially ahistorical standpoint, attempting to draw out some universals from the language of the medium, Comics and Narration is much more closely involved with its recent developments. This is not only because it takes account of phenomena such as abstract comics or digital comics that have only become established in recent years, but also in the sense that it attempts to ensure that theory is always in phase with the aesthetic evolution of modern comics.

The historical studies by Smolderen referred to above have shown comics to be a medium that constantly renews itself. Modern comics have won over a new readership and invented new formats (two evolutions encapsulated by the concept of the graphic novel, however hard it is to define). There has been a certain feminization of the comics profession. A current of auteurist comics has freed itself from the stranglehold of the series. It has gained ground on the terrain of the intimate, the confessional, and narratives of the self. The Ouvroir de bande dessinée potentielle [Workshop for Potential Comics] has turned experimentation and play on the codes of the medium into a manifesto, and, one might say, into a philosophy of creation.⁷ And the very long-standing tradition of wordless comics has been revivified by the innovative work of François Ayroles, Peter Kuper, Shaun Tan, Lewis Trondheim, Jim Woodring, and many others.

Perhaps more interesting than the proliferation of comics lacking any text is the fact that talking comics seem to have discovered the virtues of momentary silence, of the withheld utterance, the pause. In the past, comics were very talkative: the image was often submerged beneath the words and stifled by verbiage. Contemporary artists are not afraid to turn the sound off where necessary, to give the drawing some breathing space, to allow for thinking in images, and to engender a visual emotion. Comics have learned to hold their peace.⁸

Another seismic change in comics creation is the abandonment of the dogma of uniformity of style. I will discuss (see below, 5.3.3) the different stages, manifestations, and consequences of this development. An artist can now offer a wide range of different graphic styles within a single work, and, among them, afford a place to the draft, the inchoate, or to graphic lines that seriously disrespect the sacred imperative of optimum transparency and immediate legibility.

As a general rule, the comics industry perpetuates the imperialism of the series and the hero, along with outdated aesthetic standards corresponding to a long-gone classic period, even if, as a concession to modernity, it is prepared to disrupt layouts⁹ or to deploy the whole arsenal of special effects allowed for by digital coloring processes (just as most films churned out by the cinema industry are technically well made but lacking in originality). Authentically modern comic art thrives more easily in the margins, either with literary publishing houses that, as latecomers to comics, are less encumbered by the weight of tradition, or with independent or alternative publishers.

Since the 1990s, the gap has become ever wider between the ambitions and the procedures of a formulaic, commercial comics output designed for a mass market, and those of an auteurist comics production more detached from the imperative of maximizing profit margins, more focused on creative individuality and more receptive to artistic influences from outside the ninth art. (Unsurprisingly, children’s comics are still mostly bound by the standards of mass-market series. On the one hand, this is because the output of literary or alternative publishers is essentially aimed at adults, and, on the other, it is because the ideal of legibility imposed on commercially produced comics guarantees their ready accessibility to less seasoned readers.)

Although this book is more theoretical than critical in its scope, it will be more attentive than the previous one to newly emerging formal features: the play between the figurative and the non-figurative, the poetic quality of stories, stylistic patchworks, the exploration of subjectivity, and a certain hybridity arising out of the encounter with the techniques of contemporary art. My longtime interest in forms regarded as marginal and in minoritarian uses of the medium—especially silent comics, minimalist comics, and self-reflexive comics—has convinced me that theoretical elaboration can only be relevant and legitimate if it takes the risk of being responsive to contemporary developments in creative work, and of interrogating them.

CHAPTER ONE

Comics and the Test of Abstraction

It is in the nature of experimental works that they shift the boundaries or contest the usual definition of the medium to which they belong. This general rule is particularly applicable to comics, and I have already discussed the difficulties it poses for researchers (see Système 1, 17–21; System 1, 14–17).

In that first volume, I did in fact refuse to give a complete and analytical definition of comics, confining myself to the observation that a comic consists necessarily of a finite collection of separate and interdependent iconic elements. In more recent texts, I have taken to quoting the definition proposed by Ann Miller: As a visual and narrative art, [comics] produce meaning out of images which are in a sequential relationship, and which co-exist with each other spatially, with or without text.¹ An eminently balanced and sensible definition, which, I have written, applies perfectly to the great majority of work produced up until now.²

To the great majority, but not to all. The list of experimental comics that give this definition something of a mauling includes works with no characters, no narration, and no drawing (Jean-Christophe Menu, with characteristic wit, suggests a few more possibilities: archaic, infranarrative, pictogrammatic, and extraterrestrial comics).³

1.1 A NEW CATEGORY

One part of this marginal comics production has been labeled and in some sense officially recognized as a category, if not a genre, by the appearance in 2009 of the anthology Abstract Comics published by Fantagraphics and edited by Andrei Molotiu. What exactly are abstract comics? Molotiu distinguishes two types: either sequences of abstract drawings, or sequences of drawings that contain figurative elements, the juxtaposition of which does not produce a coherent narrative. His anthology offers many more examples of the first case than of the second. I would personally reserve the term abstract comics for the first type, and would call the second type infranarrative comics.

This anthology was not completely unprecedented: in its thirteenth volume, the journal Bile noire [Black Bile] (Spring 2003), published in Switzerland by Atrabile, launched a regular feature edited by Ibn al Rabin that was devoted to abstract comics, which had to conform to a rule prohibiting the representation of any concrete ‘object’ (i.e., one with an unambiguous meaning) other than those belonging to the semantics of the medium itself, in other words speech balloons and panels. Along with Rabin himself, contributors included Alex Baladi, Guy Delisle, Andreas Kündig, David Vandermeulen, and Lewis Trondheim (only Rabin and Trondheim also appear in Molotiu’s anthology).

Trondheim, as is well known, has since produced two small books for the Association in this same vein: the first, Bleu [Blue], is in color, ludic in tone, and visually similar to the work of Miró, and the second, La Nouvelle Pornographie [The New Pornography], is in black and white and is parodic in tone. This minuscule work (from the ‘Patte de Mouche’ [Squiggle (literally Fly’s Leg)] collection, 2006, had the particular virtue of proving that the play of abstract forms should not be taken automatically to imply an absence of meaning. In this instance, the artful combinations of black and white graphic forms straightforwardly evoked, even if in a disembodied or metaphorical way, the sexual scenarios promised by the title.

But that is an exceptional case. As a general rule, abstract comics demolish Ann Miller’s definition quoted above: they jettison narrative art, sequential relationships, and the production of meaning (subject to some slight reservations that I will mention later).

The text introducing the new regular feature in Bile noire, which continued to appear until 2007, also specified that any recourse to a text was strictly prohibited. This edict was somewhat surprising in that its author was apparently unaware that, if anyone so decides, words, just as much as images, can be put to incoherent use, become incomprehensible, and contribute to the destruction of meaning.

Abstract comics can be approached in a number of ways. We will encounter them later, firstly in relation to the question of rhythm (see below, p. 134–35), and secondly as part of the ongoing dialogue between comics and contemporary art (p. 162). For the moment, my discussion is concerned with them insofar as they re-problematize the very definition of comics.

1.2 THE FORMAL APPARATUS AND ITS PERCEPTION

Let us turn first to comics that are abstract in the strict sense of the word, that is to say composed of a series of drawings that are themselves non-figurative. What remains of the comics medium once it leaves the realm of mimesis? There remain, firstly, those elements belonging to the semantics of the medium itself, in other words speech balloons and panels, to quote the formulation of Bile noire (even if the term semantics seems inappropriate here). Jean-Christophe Menu refers to the "formal apparatus of comics as a crude skeleton."⁴ I had used the term skeleton myself to designate the grid whose compartments are left empty (Système 1, 35: System 1, 28). Another striking formula is the one used by Adam Gopnik in the catalogue of the MoMA exhibition High & Low, when he points out that painters like Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg, and Öyvind Fahlström realized, at the beginning of the 1960s, that the secondary machinery of the comics—the panels and balloons and onomatopoeia—began to have an iconic force greater than any image they might contain.⁵

It is interesting to note that no single element proclaimed to be constitutive of this machinery is in fact indispensable to comics. Many artists never use onomatopoeia, others never use speech balloons—either because their stories are wordless, or because the words are placed beneath the images or float inside them—and the drawings are not necessarily framed. It is nonetheless the combination of these elements (frames and balloons in particular) that, in the modern collective imaginary, seems to typify comics, to characterize the formal apparatus of the medium and its language (to the point where this machinery should be called primary rather than secondary).

Indeed, contemporary artists