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Gabriel Alexander Khoury
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AIRSHIP TECHNOLOGY
Second Edition
This comprehensive guide to modern airship design and operation,
written by world experts, is the only up-to-date book on airship technology intended as a technical guide to those interested in studying,
designing, building, flying, and operating airships. In addition to basic
airship principles, the book covers conventional and unconventional
design in a panoramic, in-depth manner, focusing on four themes:
(1) basic principles, such as aerostatics, aerodynamics, propulsion,
materials and structures, stability and control, mooring and ground handling, and piloting and meteorology; (2) different airship types, including conventional (manned and unmanned), hot air, solar powered, and
hybrid; (3) airship applications, including surveillance, tourism, heavy
lift, and disaster and humanitarian relief; and (4) airship roles and economic considerations. This second edition introduces nine new chapters and includes significant revisions and updates to five of the original
chapters.
Gabriel Alexander Khoury (DIC, CEng, EurIng, FIStructE, MNucI,
MIFE, FRAeS) is a Professor of Engineering at Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, and Padua University, Italy.
His interests include airships in general and solar-powered airships in
particular, for which he first published the proof in 1978. He was elected
Member of the Technical Committee of The Airship Association in
1979, Council Member in 1990, and Vice Chairman in 2011. Khoury
organized several international conferences of The Airship Association in Bedford, Cambridge, Friedrichshafen, and most recently Paris.
For his contributions to airships, Khoury was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Aeronautical Society. He was a founding member of the British
Solar Energy Society and was also elected Scientific Manager of three
European-funded multinational projects related to safety and Chairman of an international committee on fire safety design. In 2009, he was
awarded an international prize for best paper by the Institution of Civil
Engineers. Khoury is also a Chartered Engineer, a Euro Engineer, Fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers, Member of the Nuclear
Institute, Member of the Institution of Fire Engineers, Director of Fire
Safety Design, and Chief Executive of London Greenways.

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Cambridge Aerospace Series

Editors:
Wei Shyy
and
Michael J. Rycroft
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J. M. Rolfe and K. J. Staples (eds.): Flight Simulation

P. Berlin: The Geostationary Applications Satellite
M. J. T. Smith: Aircraft Noise
N. X. Vinh: Flight Mechanics of High-Performance Aircraft
W. A. Mair and D. L. Birdsall: Aircraft Performance
M. J. Abzug and E. E. Larrabee: Airplane Stability and Control
M. J. Sidi: Spacecraft Dynamics and Control
J. D. Anderson: A History of Aerodynamics
A. M. Cruise, J. A. Bowles, C. V. Goodall, and T. J. Patrick: Principles of Space
Instrument Design
G. A. Khoury (ed.): Airship Technology, Second Edition
J. P. Fielding: Introduction to Aircraft Design
J. G. Leishman: Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics, Second Edition
J. Katz and A. Plotkin: Low-Speed Aerodynamics, Second Edition
M. J. Abzug and E. E. Larrabee: Airplane Stability and Control: A History of
the Technologies That Made Aviation Possible, Second Edition
D. H. Hodges and G. A. Pierce: Introduction to Structural Dynamics and
Aeroelasticity, Second Edition
W. Fehse: Automatic Rendezvous and Docking of Spacecraft
R. D. Flack: Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications
E. A. Baskharone: Principles of Turbomachinery in Air-Breathing Engines
D. D. Knight: Numerical Methods for High-Speed Flows

C. A. Wagner, T. Huttl,
and P. Sagaut (eds.): Large-Eddy Simulation for
Acoustics
D. D. Joseph, T. Funada, and J. Wang: Potential Flows of Viscous and
Viscoelastic Fluids
W. Shyy, Y. Lian, H. Liu, J. Tang, and D. Viieru: Aerodynamics of Low
Reynolds Number Flyers
J. H. Saleh: Analyses for Durability and System Design Lifetime
B. K. Donaldson: Analysis of Aircraft Structures, Second Edition
C. Segal: The Scramjet Engine: Processes and Characteristics
J. F. Doyle: Guided Explorations of the Mechanics of Solids and Structures
A. K. Kundu: Aircraft Design
M. I. Friswell, J. E. T. Penny, S. D. Garvey, and A. W. Lees: Dynamics of
Rotating Machines
B. A. Conway (ed.): Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization
R. J. Adrian and J. Westerweel: Particle Image Velocimetry
G. A. Flandro, H. M. McMahon, and R. L. Roach: Basic Aerodynamics
H. Babinsky and J. K. Harvey: Shock WaveBoundary-Layer Interactions
C. K. W. Tam: Computational Aeroacoustics: A Wave Number Approach

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This book is dedicated to

The Volunteers of The Airship Association

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Gabriel Alexander Khoury
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Airship Technology
Second Edition
Gabriel Alexander Khoury
Imperial College of Science, Technology
and Medicine, London
Padua University, Italy
Vice Chairman, The Airship Association
Fellow, Royal Aeronautical Society

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C Cambridge University Press 1999, 2012

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1999
First paperback edition 2004
Second edition published 2012
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
Airship technology / [edited by] Gabriel Alexander Khoury. 2nd ed.
p. cm. (Cambridge aerospace series ; 10)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-01970-6 (hardback)
1. Airships Design and construction. I. Khoury, G. A.
(Gabriel Alexander), 1947
TL660.A37 2012
629.133 24dc23
2011032714
ISBN 978-1-107-01970-6 Hardback
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and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
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Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements

page xv
xvii

1 Introduction (Gabriel Alexander Khoury) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Basic Principles (Edwin Mowforth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Introduction
Principles of Aerostatics
The Aerostatics of the Airship
The Aerodynamics of the Airship
Unconventional Designs

8
8
13
18
19

3 Aerodynamics (Ian Cheeseman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Basic Assumptions
Drag
Dynamic Forces
Slender Body Theory
An Estimation Method for Overall Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
Unsteady Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic Parameter Estimation
Further Information
References

23
25
34
40
42
44
48
57
58

4 Stability and Control (Michael V. Cook) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Introduction
System of Axes and Notation
The Equations of Motion
The Linearised Equations of Motion
Dynamic Stability Analysis
Control and Response
Automatic Flight Control
Flying and Handling Qualities

60
61
63
67
71
78
82
83
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Contents

Acknowledgements
Further Information
Symbols
Subscripts
Stability and Control Derivatives
References

84
84
84
85
85
85

5 Propulsion (Ian Cheeseman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Introduction
The Propulsor
The Prime Mover
Energy Sources
Propulsion, Performance, and Control
Further Information
References

87
87
104
107
109
111
112

6 Materials (Shafiul Islam and Peter Bradley) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Introduction
Desirable Properties for Airship Textile Materials
Development of Textiles for Airship Use
Properties of Envelope Materials
Improved Laminates
Emerging Engineered Materials
Summary
References

113
113
118
131
140
140
143
144

7 Structures (Charles Luffman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Introduction
Historical
General Principles and Considerations
Principal Structural Groups
Further Information
References

149
150
150
159
187
187

8 Aerostatics (John Craig) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Introduction
The Atmosphere
Contained Gas
Buoyancy and Static Lift
Summary of Airship Operations
Other Factors Affecting Lift
Closed or Open System
Airship Balance
Derivation of Gas Mass Properties
Terms and Abbreviations Used

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189
191
192
193
197
198
199
203
207

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ix

9 Weight Estimates and Control (John Craig) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Airship Mass Properties
Design Considerations for Weight
Weight Estimation
Weight Monitoring and Control
Build Weight Control and Actual Airship Weight Determination
Weight Aspects of Airship Operations

209
212
214
234
234
236

10 Systems (Norman Mayer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Introduction
Pressure Control
Fuel
Ballast
Electrical
Crew
Access and Maintenance
Emergencies
Auxiliary Thrust
Replenishing
References

239
239
245
248
249
250
253
254
256
257
257

11 Mooring (Denis Howe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Introduction
Survey of the Ground Handling Problem
Ground Handling and Mooring Requirements
Historical Review of Ground Handling Techniques
Forces on an Airship Whilst Moored
The Effect of Size on Ground Handling
Future Ground Handling Systems
Conclusion
References

258
260
260
263
269
272
274
276
277

12 Ground Handling (Giles Camplin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Introduction
Reevaluating the Role of the Ground Crew
Virtual Solutions
The Knowledge Gap
An Example from the Historical Records
The Generic GH Problems
Evolution of Ground Handling Systems
Blind Spots
Establishing a New LTA Perspective
Seeking to Define Ground Handling
Evolution of GH Systems
Looking to the Future

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279
280
281
284
285
292
297
299
300
309
322

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Terms and Abbreviations

References

324
325

13 Meteorology (Martin Harris) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Introduction
The General Weather-Sensitivity of Airships
Adverse Weather Conditions for Twenty-First-Century Airships
Favorable Weather for Airship Operations
Understanding and Avoiding Storms
Mid-Latitude Frontal Low Pressure Systems
Thunderstorms
Severe Tropical Rotating Storms (Tropical Cyclones)
Optimising the Use of Local Weather for Airships
Micrometeorology for Airship Flying in Cities
Weather for Flying Airships in Mountainous Regions
Sea Breeze Circulation Systems and Airship Operations
Summary and Conclusions
References

327
328
329
333
337
338
345
346
347
348
350
353
354
356

14 Piloting (David Burns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Introduction
Effects of Controls
Static Heaviness
Effects of Wind
Weather
Vectored Thrust
Ground Handling
Takeoff
Pressure Height (Altitude)
Free Ballooning
Landing
Meteorology

357
358
359
361
363
366
368
369
371
372
374
378

15 Performance (Robert C. Hunt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Mission Considerations
Maximum Inflight Fuel Usage
Engine Selection
Power Offtake
Engine Drives and Propellers
Ship Weight
Gas Lift
Airship Sizing
Effect of Wind

379
379
381
383
384
384
385
386
387

16 Improvements (Edwin Mowforth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Introduction
Buoyancy Control by Lifting Gas Manipulation

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Boundary Layer Control

Stern Propulsion
Lenticular Geometry

xi

398
403
405

17 Design Synthesis (Brian G. Wilson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Introduction
Preliminary Comments
Baseline Design Layout
Baseline Evaluation
Design Trades and Sensitivities
Technology Trends
Design Synthesis

409
409
414
417
419
425
427

18 Roles and Economic Considerations (Reginald Hillsdon) . . . . . . . . . 431

Introduction
The Utility of Airship Types
The Spectrum of Potential Roles
Role Suitability
The Potential Market
Airship Economics
Conclusion
Further Information
References

431
431
437
446
448
452
455
456
456

19 Unconventional Designs (Gabriel Alexander Khoury) . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Introduction
Shape
Lift
Power Source
Structural Configuration
Lifting Gas
Unmanned Airships (see also Chapter 22 of this book)
Payload (Heavy Lift) (see Chapter 25 of this book)
Conclusions
References

457
457
463
480
496
503
509
511
515
515

20 Solar Power (Gabriel Alexander Khoury) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

Introduction
Outline of the Sunship
Solar Radiation
Solar-Powered Flight Speed
Components of the Solar Power System
References

520
521
521
525
533
545

21 Zeppelin NT (Bernd Straeter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

Introduction
General Description

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Contents

Dimensions
Flight Performance Data
Mission Applications of LZ N 07
Fuselage
Empennage
Gondola
Landing Gear
Propulsion System
Flight Control
Electronic Flight Instrument System
Hydraulic Systems
Electrical Systems
Ground Operation
Acknowledgement
Reference

550
550
555
559
563
564
565
566
569
571
572
573
574
576
576

22 Unmanned Airships (Leon Eversfield) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

Introduction
Background, Terminology, and Definitions
Potential Roles for Unmanned Airships
Design Drivers
Abbreviations
References

577
577
580
587
600
601

23 Hot Air Airships (Karl Ludwig Busemeyer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

Background and History
Before the Millenium
The German Entry
Hot Air versus Helium Airships
Hot Air Airships: General Characteristics
First Market for Hot Air Airships: Aerial Advertising
Second Market: Environmental Monitoring
Operational Experiences
AS 105 GD: Technical Development
AS 105 GD: Target Definition
AS 105 GD: Scientific Research and Certification Programme
The Achievement: AS 105 GD
The Future: The AS 105 GD/6 between Possibilities and Limitations
Pilot Licences and Crew Training
A European Venture: The Airship Alliance

602
602
604
605
606
607
607
608
610
611
612
614
614
616
617

24 Human-Powered Airships (Robert Knotts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Introduction
Survey of Recent Human-Powered Dirigibles
Baseline Models
Human Factors
Design Issues
Functional Analysis

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620
623
623
625
626

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Design Brief
Dirigible Envelope
Dirigible Forces
Propelling Power
Envelope Material
Envelope Design
Envelope Gore Patterns
Aerodynamic Testing
Simple Propeller Theory
Conclusions
References

xiii

630
630
631
633
633
633
634
635
635
637
638

25 Heavy Lift Airships (Gabriel Alexander Khoury, Edwin

Mowforth, and Ingolf Schaefer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Introduction
Dynastat Hybrid Air Vehicles Option
Rotastat Skyhook Option
Aerostat
Aerostat Skylifter Option
Aerostat CargoLifter Option
List of Mathematical Symbols and Acronyms
References

640
641
642
645
645
647
679
679

26 Aerodynamic Aspects of Hybrid Air Vehicles (Ken R. Nippress) . . . . 681

Introduction
Potential Advantages of the Hybrid Air Vehicle
Aerodynamic Considerations
Profile Drag
Lift and Induced Drag
Stability and Control
Performance
Summary
Acknowledgement
Further Information
Symbols
References

681
681
682
682
683
684
684
684
685
685
685
685

27 Disaster and Humanitarian Relief (Robert Knotts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686

Introduction
Disaster Relief Logistics and Supply Chain Management
Scale of the Problem
Past and Current Situations
The Way Ahead
Conclusions
References
Index

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687
689
689
692
694
695
697

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Preface

This is the second edition of the book Airship Technology, first published by
Cambridge University Press in 1999. It is a major improvement over the first edition,
with the introduction of nine new chapters and the significant revision and updating
of five of the original chapters.
This book covers the basic scientific/engineering principles of airships, which
was the main subject of the first edition. In this category I have now added chapters on meteorology and ground handling. A new contribution for this edition
is the type of airships, as these are varied: conventional ellipsoidal airships (e.g.,
Zeppelin New Technology [NT]), hybrid tri-lobed lifting body airships (e.g., hybrid
air vehicles), unmanned airships, hot air airships, and human-powered airships. Airship roles are important, hence the introduction in the new chapters of information
on airship applications, such as geological surveys, communications, passenger services, media, surveillance, and advertising. Examples of these are chapters on heavy
lift and disaster and humanitarian relief. Since the first edition, the design of unconventional hybrid airships has advanced significantly, especially in the dynastat trilobe lifting body form (see Chapters 19 and 26; an example is the hybrid air vehicle),
while the design of conventional airships has reached new technical and operational
advancement with the Zeppelin NT series (Chapter 21). It was recognised in the first
edition that the airship pilot (see Chapter 14 on piloting) almost needs to become
a part-time meteorologist. Thus, a new chapter dedicated to meteorology has been
introduced (Chapter 13), as is a new chapter dedicated solely to the important issue
of ground handling, for which many lessons need to be learned from past experience
(Chapter 12). The chapters on materials and unconventional designs (Chapters 6
and 19, respectively) have been significantly revised and updated. There have also
been increased interest and activity in relatively low-cost unmanned airships for lowaltitude (and high-altitude) applications (Chapters 19 and 22), in which the human
element is taken out of the direct loop. Given the inherent lifting capacity of airships
(at least the structure), there has been, for nearly half a century, an interest in their
use for heavy lift applications such as logging and civil engineering. A new chapter
on heavy lift brings together some of the designs, whether by means of the aerostat,
dynastat, or rotastat airship options (Chapter 25). Interestingly, work on rotating
hulls from various teams (part of Chapter 19) has declined since the first edition, but
this is still covered here.
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Preface

Pioneering attempts have been made to cross the English Channel by piloted airships powered solely by human power representing human endeavour (Chapter 24)
and in the future possibly by solar power to demonstrate the capability of this form
of renewable fuel (in Chapter 19). Both are also described in this new edition.
Hot air airships are popular for sport (also for aerial advertising and environmental
research); this subject is covered in this edition by a leading expert (Chapter 23).
This book provides a panoramic view of airship technology and design with its
varying and fascinating options, but necessarily starting with the basic principles of
aerostatics (Chapter 8), aerodynamics (Chapter 3), stability and control (Chapter 4),
propulsion (Chapter 5), materials (Chapter 6), structures (Chapter 7), weight estimates and controls (Chapter 9), systems (Chapter 10), design synthesis (Chapter 17),
mooring (Chapter 11), and solar power (Chapter 20).
The impetus for the first edition was the lack of a postWorld War II modern
technical book on airship design and technology, coupled with the revival of serious interest in airships by both industrialists and academics that had taken place
since the early 1970s with the formation of The Airship Association and with the
publication of its journal, Airship; its annual symposia; its international conventions
and exhibitions; and its dedicated website (http://www.airship-association.org). This
second edition of Airship Technology takes the subject into the twenty-first century.
Whether in design and development, or merely in operation, airship activity
has taken place in many countries around the world including the United Kingdom,
Germany, France, Australia, Canada, China, Brazil, Mexico, India, Hungary, Italy,
Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, and the United States.
This book draws on recent experience by bringing together twenty-two specialists in different aspects of airship design and operation, from different parts of
the world, in an integrated and holistic manner. These experts were drawn from
both academia and industry, thus providing the appropriate balance of theory and
practice.
Gabriel Alexander Khoury

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Acknowledgements

Contributors
The editor wishes to express his appreciation to the other twenty-one authors of the
different chapters for their valuable contributions and friendly, positive cooperation.
These are Dr Edwin Mowforth, Professor Ian Cheeseman, Mr Michael V.
Cook, Dr Shafiul Islam, Mr Peter Bradley, Mr Charles Luffman, Mr John Craig,
Mr Norman Mayer, Professor Denis Howe, Dr Giles Camplin, Mr Martin Harris,
Mr David Burns, Mr Robert C. Hunt, Mr Brian G. Wilson, Mr Reginald Hillsdon,
Dr Bernd Straeter, Mr Leon Eversfield, Mr Karl Ludwig Busemeyer, Mr Robert
Knotts, Dr Ingolf Schaefer, and Mr Ken R. Nippress.
The editor is also grateful for the assistance of Mr Jeremy Fitton on the
subject of the SkyLifter, Dr Ingolf Schaefer for information on several subjects,
Mr Bastien Lefrancois for supplying information on Projet SolR, Dr Masahiko Onda
for information on his high-altitude solar airship and on the subject of microwaves,
Mr Alan Handley on the Varialift project, Mr Michael Rentell on several items,
Mr Van Trueren on hydrogen, and Mr Peter Ward on helium. The editor is also
grateful for the cooperation of the authors Nitin Gupta and Pankaj Priyadarshi on
the multichamber multigas configuration airship.
The contribution of The Airship Association direct and indirect is also very
much appreciated.

Images
The assistance of Westinghouse Surveillance Ltd. in furnishing information on and
diagrams of the Skyships series of airships for a number of chapters in this book
is gratefully acknowledged. Contributors of other graphical material are also gratefully acknowledged. These include Mr Nigel Wells, Dr J. Bracher, Dr Masahiko
Onda, Dr Edwin Mowforth, Professor J. DeLaurier, Mr Martin Harris, Dr Giles
Camplin, Mr Leon Eversfield, Mr Karl Ludwig Busemeyer, Mr Robert Knotts,
Mr Ingolf Schaefer, Mr Jeremy Fitton, Mr Charles Luffman, Mr Ken Nippress,
Mr Gordon Taylor, HAV Ltd., Boeing, Prof D. Howe, Mr Hannes Neupert, Projet SolR, Mr Bastien Lefrancois, Lockheed Martin, DARPA, the Imperial War
Museum, Mr Alan Handley, Mr Nitin Gupta, Mr Pankaj Priyadarshi, Dr Bernd
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Acknowledgements

Straeter, Chief Engineer Jurgen Fecher, Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH & Co

KG, Lindstrand Technologies Ltd., NERC Satellite Receiving Station, the University of Dundee, and Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC).

Line Drawings
A special note of thanks is reserved for the professional skills of Mrs Valerie Till,
who has redrawn more than 200 line drawings and graphs. This has contributed
tremendously to the consistent appearance of the book and to the high quality of its
diagrams.

Personal Thanks
Last but not least, I thank my wife, Adriene, for her patience during the many years
of preparation of this book.

in this web service Cambridge University Press

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