Fluid Planning - Processes and Systems

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CHAPTER 3
Fluid Planning:
Processes and Systems
At this point, you have chosen a clear brine fluid and made adjustments
for temperature, pressure, and PCT. The volume of fluid required for the
job has also been estimated.
This chapter will cover:

1. Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid Properties
2. Corrosion Control
3. Displacement
4. Fluid Loss Control
5. Filtration and Brine Clarity
Much of the information contained in each of the following sections is

applicable to all clear brine fluids. For ease of use, where information is
specific, icons have been added to indicate whether it applies to one,
two, or three salt brines.
Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid

Properties
This section of TETRAs Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids
and Filtration is concerned with the brine density families depicted in
Figure 2 on page 11. Our goal is to focus your search upon information
that is pertinent to your project. For instance, if you are planning a completion using a 3% KCl brine, you may want to skip over information that
is specific to high density, three salt fluids. Brine properties also depend
on composition; as the number of salts in a fluid goes up, the response to
changes in brine properties such as the weight up procedure, cutback
procedure, or choice of viscosifying agent to use, will differ. If you are
trying to find information quickly, make use of the icons that indicate
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CHAPTER 3
MAINTENANCE
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CLEAR BRINE FLUID PROPER TIES
36
whether a section applies to one, two, or three salt brines to help narrow
your search.
Objectives
Maintain or adjust fluid density
Control formation pressure
Minimize fluid loss
Maintain adequate volume
Factors Affecting
TVD and BHP
Sources of dilution
Density adjustment options
Operational constraints
Discussion
Maintaining a consistent fluid density is of primary importance in pressure control. Formation pressure is usually estimated within a narrow
range. Occasionally, BHP will be different from that anticipated, and the
fluid density will have to be altered to fit the actual well conditions.
Adjustments may also be required due to dilution. Lower than anticipated formation pressure and fluid loss may necessitate a cutback or
downward density adjustment. Conversely, higher pressure will dictate
the addition of weight material to increase density.
Responding to variations in density means that a weight up or cutback
procedure may be necessary. Weight material, either a concentrated liquid blending stock spike fluid or dry salt weight material, should be
available on location in order to allow you to respond quickly and maintain safe working conditions.
Single Salt Brine Density Maintenance

1 SALT
With densities from 8.4 lb/gal to 11.6 lb/gal and gradients less
than about 0.6 psi/ft, single salt brines are employed in lower
pressure wells. Maintaining pressure control in these wells is no less
important than in any others.
Unintentional Dilution. Well pressure control can be jeopardized by the

unintentional dilution of a CBF with any source of lower density fluid
such as rain water. The effects of this unintentional dilution will depend
on the density difference between the working fluid and the diluting
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TETRA Technologies, Inc.
FLUID PLANNING: PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS
37
single salt fluid that has been diluted, as long as adequate mixing
equipment is available. Dry salt additives can also be used if
additional hydrostatic pressure is needed to control the well. (See
Equation 12 on page 69.) Weight up tables for the single salt fluids
are provided in the Single Salt Fluid Composition and Blending
Tables section, beginning on page 145.
When adding dry salt to increase density in a fluid, care should always
be taken to monitor TCT with respect to environmental considerations.
Dry Salt Weight Material can be used to increase the density of a
OF
Weight Up. A single salt brine can be reconstituted by adding dry salt
weight material in the correct proportions or by adding liquid weight
material or spike fluid.
MAINTENANCE
fluid. The greater the density difference, the more sensitive the working
fluid will be to dilution.
Spike Fluid is a fluid of higher density that can be added to a working

fluid to raise its density. Figure 6, Selecting and Using Spike Fluids,
on page 26, illustrates the potential for increasing fluid density using a
spike fluid. As the density of the working fluid approaches the density
of the spike fluid, the volume of spike required to raise the density
increases rapidly.
Changes in brine density, either by dilution or weight up, will change the
TCT of a single salt brine. Make sure you have consulted the Single Salt
Fluid Composition and Blending Tables section, beginning on page 145,
before making any change to the fluid density.
Adding dry salts to a fluid can result in a substantial increase in brine

temperature. A quick pilot test should be run to get a sense of the
temperature rise that may occur. ALWAYS ADD DRY CHEMICALS
SLOWLY, AND FREQUENTLY CHECK THE TEMPERATURE INCREASE.
Make an estimate of the quantity of weight material required to recover

from a 0.2 lb/gal drop in density, and have at least that amount
available on location.
Cutback. To reduce the hydrostatic pressure on a formation, in order to

slow fluid loss for example, the density of a fluid can be cut back by adding water. Cutback tables have been provided for each of the common
single salt brines in Chapter 6. (See Single Salt Fluid Composition and
Blending Tables, beginning on page 145.) The values in the tables are
decimal fractions of a barrel of starting brine needed to make one barrel
Engineered Solutions Guide for Clear Brine Fluids and Filtration
Second Edition
MAINTENANCE
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CHAPTER 3
38
of final density brine when diluted with water. Alternatively, Equation 15,
used for cutting a fluid back using weight percent salts, has also been
provided in Chapter 4, Field Applications and Brine Maintenance.
Seawater, due to the dissolved minerals it contains, is not recommended

for use in brine cutbacks.
Two Salt Brine Density Maintenance

2 SALT
Maintaining the density of a two salt brine is more complicated

than for that of a single salt fluid. Standard two salt fluids are
blends of calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium bromide (CaBr2), and water.
The relative proportion of each component determines the density and
TCT of the fluid. Any changes you make to weight a fluid up or cut a
fluid back must be made carefully or your TCT will be altered.
Density adjustment is most commonly required as a result of a fluids
dilution by rainwater, field brine, or simply by absorption of water from
the air.
Protecting CBFs from dilution is extremely important. It takes only 3.4

bbl of fresh water to drop the density of 100 bbl of a 14.5 lb/gal CBF by
0.2 lb/gal, which represents a 50 psi drop in bottomhole hydrostatic
pressure in a 5,000 ft well.
Dry Salt Weight Up. Under certain circumstances, dry salt may be used
to increase fluid density; however, caution should be exercised to closely
monitor TCT with respect to environmental considerations. Weight up of
a two salt fluid by adding dry calcium chloride (CaCl2) is not recommended, as doing so will alter the ratio of CaCl2 to CaBr2 and increase
the fluids TCT. It is also difficult to mix dry salts into nearly saturated
brines without using specialized mixing equipment. In the event of a
severe limit on fluid volume, addition of dry calcium bromide (CaBr2)
can be used as weight material in two salt fluids. Any composition
changes should be verified using one of TETRAs proprietary fluid blending programs.
Spike Fluid Weight Up. For midrange densities, a liquid 14.2 lb/gal
spike fluid can be sent to location for any necessary weight up applications. Calcium bromide 14.2 lb/gal blending stock is an effective spike
fluid that can be used to weight fluids up from about 11.7 lb/gal to 13.5
lb/gal; however, if the target density is greater than 13.5 lb/gal, the volume increase with a 14.2 blending stock is more than 50%. A 15.1 lb/
gal spike fluid can be used to achieve a weight up in the range of 13.6
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Care should be taken when utilizing a 15.1 lb/gal calcium chloride/

calcium bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2) spike fluid, as it may raise the TCT of
the resulting brine.
OF
Finally, in extreme cases where the working fluid lies on the boundary of
two and three salt fluids as shown on Figure 2 on page 11, a zinc containing fluid can be used to achieve density increases. In such cases, a
very small amount of 19.2 lb/gal spike fluid would be required; however, it would change the nature of the working brine; it would also
change the environmental regulations regarding conducting disposal
activities and reporting and reacting to spills. Before making this decision, weigh the pros and cons carefully.
MAINTENANCE
lb/gal to 14.8 lb/gal; above that range, the volume increase would be
more than 50%.
Estimate the type and quantity of weight material to be used on the job
based on raising the density of the working fluid by 0.2 lb/gal. Make sure
this amount of material is available on location. It should be kept in
sealed pill tanks to prevent any contamination and/or absorption of
water from the atmosphere.
Three Salt Brine Density Maintenance

3 SALT
High density three salt fluids are blended with precision to maximize performance and minimize the cost to the operator. This special
attention to composition means equal care and attention should be paid
to maintaining fluid properties like density, TCT, and brine clarity.
It is especially important to protect three salt fluids from dilution. To

prevent contamination and absorption of water from the atmosphere,
this material should be kept in closed top tanks.
There is a considerable difference between the density of a three salt

fluid and most types of dilution water. Rainwater, for example, has a
density of 8.3 lb/gal, and formation water has a density ranging from
8.5 lb/gal to 10 lb/gal. A small amount of contamination from either of
these sources can result in a large change in the density of the working
fluid. For example, it takes only 2.6 bbl of fresh water to decrease the
density of 100 bbl of a 16.5 lb/gal three salt fluid to 16.3 lb/gal (a 0.2
lb/gal decrease). In a 5,000 ft well, this dilution would reduce hydrostatic pressure by more than 50 psi.
The most economical means of maintaining the prescribed density in
three salt fluids is by the addition of 19.2 lb/gal zinc/calcium bromide
(ZnBr2/CaBr2), a common blending stock used in formulating CBFs. For
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CHAPTER 3
CORROSION CONTROL
40
working fluids with densities higher than 16.5 lb/gal, an even more concentrated zinc bromide (ZnBr2) fluid will have real economic advantages. This fluid has a density of 20.5 lb/gal. The effects are clearly
shown in Figure 6, Selecting and Using Spike Fluids, on page 26.
The advantages of using a higher density spike fluid are:
1. a much smaller volume is required to achieve the same density
increase,
2. less storage volume is needed for spike material on the rig, and
3. less volume increase occurs in the working fluid when adjustments are
made.
Density adjustment using solid chemicals such as dry calcium chloride is

possible, but is not recommended, as it will usually result in a higher TCT.
Calcium bromide dry salt can be used as weight material, especially
when volume increases are not practical. Dry salts will also require vigorous agitation to achieve complete solubility in highly concentrated,
heavy fluids.
The quantity of 19.2 lb/gal zinc/calcium bromide spike fluid should be

estimated based on raising the working fluid density by 0.2 lb/gal. As a
minimum, this amount should be maintained on the rig. To prevent
contamination and absorption of water from the atmosphere, this
material should be kept in sealed pill tanks.
This section is intended to briefly touch on brine maintenance. See

Chapter 4, Field Applications and Brine Maintenance, for a more in
depth discussion on the subject.
Corrosion Control
Inhibiting or minimizing corrosion is extremely important when planning
a well. This section provides a brief overview of the topic. A more complete discussion can be found in Chapter 8 in the Corrosion Control
section, beginning on page 185.
Objectives
Protect casing, liner, and downhole tools
Minimize corrosion promoters
Render corrosion products nondamaging to the formation
Protect packer and production tubing
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CORROSION CONTROL
Factors Affecting
Temperature
Brine acidity (pH)
Surface aeration and air entrainment
Acid formation gases (CO2, H2S)
Metallurgy
Bacteria
Discussion
The factors affecting corrosion are very complex. The information presented here is intended as a brief introduction. TETRA has done extensive testing in the area of corrosion, especially as it relates to
environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) in HPHT wells. A TETRA fluids
specialist will be happy to assist in developing solutions aimed at reducing the probability of corrosion in your well.
Temperature. Most chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher
temperatures. This is also true for the various reactions involved in the
corrosion process. Temperature conditions in the well will provide the
basis for choosing a corrosion program. With proper protection, by
means of a thoroughly planned corrosion control program, brines are
routinely used at temperatures as high as 350F with corrosion rates of
less than 15 mils per year (mpy). Recommended application rates for
TETRAHib and CORSAF corrosion inhibitors, OxBan oxygen
scavengers, and biological control additives are provided in Table 7,
Typical Corrosion Control System Applications, on page 44 at the end
of this section.
Brine Acidity (pH). Single salt fluids range from neutral to
1 SALT
slightly basic when they are manufactured. They can be treated
to increase alkalinity and reduce the presence of the corrosion
promoting hydrogen ion (H +) with the careful addition of a base such as
sodium hydroxide or lime.
Two salt calcium chloride/calcium bromide fluids are neutral to
2 SALT
slightly basic in nature. Alkalinity can be adjusted to further
reduce the presence of the corrosion promoting hydrogen ion
(H +). This adjustment, however, is not easily accomplished in the field.
Because of this, all TETRA two salt fluids are carefully blended to eliminate the presence of corrosion promoters.
Three salt fluids are prepared using calcium chloride (CaCl2),
calcium bromide (CaBr2), and zinc bromide (ZnBr2). When zinc
is dissolved, it has a tendency to create acidic conditions. If a
3 SALT
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CHAPTER 3
CORROSION CONTROL
42
solution is made more alkaline, then zinc may begin to precipitate as

zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2). In order to maintain the physical properties of
zinc bromide brines, the pH must be kept at a relatively low level.
Because corrosion is accelerated by low pH, special attention should be
given to minimizing corrosion in three salt fluids. TETRA has a long history of manufacturing zinc bromide and formulates all of its zinc products to minimize acidity and corrosion.
Contact a TETRA fluids specialist if you have concerns about zinc

precipitation. TETRA has developed a number of solutions to address
this problem.
Surface Aeration and Air Entrainment. Oxygen derived from the air is
a major corrosion accelerator. Oxygen solubility in concentrated salt
solutions is extremely low and becomes even lower as brine temperatures rise. Oxygen can, however, be introduced into the circulating system if fluids are allowed to freefall into tanks. Other possible sources for
oxygen are leaking pump seals, agitators, and suction pumps. Small air
bubbles can be entrained in more viscous brines and carried down into
the well. With increasing pressure, the entrained air will eventually dissolve and react with casing, tubing, or downhole tools. To reduce the
impact of surface aeration, it is prudent to add a small amount of oxygen scavenger.
OxBan HB can be used at the level of five gal/100 bbl and up,
depending on oxygen entrainment. If not supervised, this course of action
can lead to overtreatment. Preventative measures should be taken to
eliminate air entrainment to reduce such overtreatment.
The presence of trace amounts of oxygen with sulfur containing species

can be a dangerous combination with respect to EAC. For more information, see the Corrosion Control section in Chapter 8, beginning on
page 185.
Acid Formation Gases. More common in a completion fluid situation,
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can
accelerate corrosion. Both gases are slightly acidic in nature and will
contribute to the acidity of a brine.
Metallurgy. It is essential that information concerning the metallurgy of
casing and tubing be considered in the planning and design of any completion. If carbon steel tubing is to be used, the issue of general corrosion
must be adequately addressed. If CRA tubing is to be used, the issues of
EAC must be addressed, with the compatibility between the fluids and
tubing being carefully evaluated, especially if the fluid is to be used as a
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CORROSION CONTROL
packer fluid. Through participation in extensive scientific test studies in

the area of CBFs, metallurgy, and EAC, TETRA has developed a software
program called the MatchWell fluid compatibility selector. It can be used
to predict tubing/fluid compatibility and performance and make fluid
recommendations based on specific well conditions. For more information about EAC, read the Environmentally Assisted Cracking section,
beginning on page 189 in Chapter 8.
Consult your TETRA representative to take advantage of this technology
and receive a customer recommendation report from the MatchWell
fluid compatibility selector to assist you in planning your next HPHT well
completion.
Bacteria. In spite of the salinity and high temperatures found in the subsurface environment, bacteria have been found to exist in some of the
worlds most extreme environments. Especially adaptable are iron bacteria, sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and sulfate reducing bacteria. The presence of these microorganisms can dramatically increase the corrosivity
of the environment, especially if H2S is generated from the bacteria.
Brines that are properly formulated with biocides can eliminate these
bacterial problems.
Recommendations
1. Use a properly formulated TETRA clear brine fluid that has been manufactured to the highest specifications.
2. Select a corrosion inhibitor package that is compatible with the metallurgy at the expected bottomhole temperature.
3. Try to reduce all sources of entrained air such as freefalls, excessive
agitation, leaking pump seals, and suction vortices.
4. Do not run jet hoppers unless a polymer is being added.
5. Whenever possible, minimize the contact between CBFs and acidic
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
6. Select a brine formulation to help neutralize acidic gases.
Table 7 provides recommended application rates for TETRAHib and

CORSAF SF corrosion inhibitors, OxBan oxygen scavengers, and
biological control additives for different brine density ranges.
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CORROSION CONTROL
TABLE 7. Typical Corrosion Control System Applications

Fluid
Density
KCl, 3%
8.6
KCl
NaCl
NaBr
CaCl2
CaCl2
CaCl2 +
CRA2
CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2
1
10.0
12.0
10.0
11.6
11.6
14.5
14.5
Corrosion Inhibitor
Dose1
Oxygen Scavenger
Dose1
Biocide
Dose1
200F
TETRAHib
10
OxBan
1.5
Antimicrobial Biocide
300F
TETRAHib
15
OxBan
1.5
200F
TETRAHib
15
OxBan
300F
TETRAHib
20
OxBan
200F
TETRAHib
15
OxBan
300F
TETRAHib
20
OxBan
200F
TETRAHib
15
OxBan
300F
TETRAHib
20
OxBan
200F
TETRAHib
15
OxBan HB
10
300F
TETRAHib
20
OxBan HB
10
200F
TETRAHib Plus
OxBan HB
10
300F
TETRAHib Plus
7.5
OxBan HB
10
200F
CORSAF SF
20
OxBan HB
10
300F
CORSAF SF
30
OxBan HB
10
200F
TETRAHib Plus
10
OxBan HB
10
300F
TETRAHib Plus
15
OxBan HB
10
200F
CORSAF SF
20
OxBan HB
10
300F
CORSAF SF
30
OxBan HB
10
Dose quantities are in U.S. gallons per 100 barrels of brine, gal/100 bbl
2
Corrosion Resistant Alloy (e.g., 13 Chrome)
CHAPTER 3
CaCl2/Br2
9.7
Temperature
Fluid
Density
CaCl2/Br2
15.2
CaCl2/Br2 +
CRA2
Zn/CaCl2/Br2
Zn/CaCl2/Br2 +
CRA2
Zn/CaCl2/Br2
Zn/CaCl2/Br2 + CRA2
15.2
16.0
16.0
19.0
19.0
Temperature
Corrosion Inhibitor
Dose1
Oxygen Scavenger
Dose1
Biocide
Dose1
200F
TETRAHib Plus
10
OxBan HB
10
300F
TETRAHib Plus
15
OxBan HB
10
200F
CORSAF SF
20
OxBan HB
10
300F
CORSAF SF
30
OxBan HB
10
200F
TETRAHib Plus
15
OxBan HB
10
300F
TETRAHib Plus
20
OxBan HB
10
200F
CORSAF SF
20
OxBan HB
10
300F
CORSAF SF
30
OxBan HB
10
200F
TETRAHib Plus
15
OxBan HB
10-15
300F
TETRAHib Plus
20
OxBan HB
10-15
200F
CORSAF SF
20
OxBan HB
10-15
300F
CORSAF SF
30
OxBan HB
10-15
Dose quantities are in U.S. gallons per 100 barrels of brine, gal/100 bbl
2Corrosion Resistant Alloy (e.g., 13 Chrome)
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CORROSION CONTROL
TABLE 7. Typical Corrosion Control System Applications
CHAPTER 3
DISPLACEMENT
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Displacement
Introducing a clear brine fluid to a well after drilling operations can be a
critical step in a successful well completion. This section is designed to
provide an overview of the topic. For more information, consult the Displacement section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 193.
Objectives
Protect the formation by developing a completely solid free
environment in which to carry out well completion or workover
operations
Ensure that drilling fluid constituents do not come into contact with
CBFs
Separate the two systems to maintain the integrity of the drilling fluid
and the CBF
Reduce standby rig costs caused by unnecessary filtration time
Factors Affecting
Mud type
Pressure constraints
Environmental discharge limitations
Time constraints due to rig operations or cost
Discussion
Clear brine fluids are incompatible with water based, diesel oil based,
and synthetic oil based muds. When they are mixed, this incompatibility
generally produces a viscous, unpumpable mass due to flocculation of
the mud by high salt content of the brines. Should this reaction take
place downhole during the displacement, the flow resistance and pump
pressure will increase dramatically, and pumping operations may have
to be suspended due to excessive pressures. To avoid this reaction, drilling muds and CBFs must be separated when the mud is being displaced
from the well.
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Carefully preparing surface equipment for the change from a drilling

fluid to a clear brine fluid is always important, but is even more critical
when a three salt fluid is being used. It is important to avoid crosscontamination of drilling fluids with zinc. Even small amounts of zinc can
make a drilling fluid unacceptable for conventional disposal.
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DISPLACEMENT
The two general methods by which drilling fluids are removed from the
well prior to the introduction of a CBF are indirect displacement and
direct displacement.
Predisplacement Activities. There are seven major activities that must be
performed prior to conducting displacement operations. These predisplacement activities must be undertaken in the case of both indirect and
direct displacements.
The seven major predisplacement activities are as follows:
1. Selecting Displacement System. Pay careful attention to the design of
the displacement system chosen. TETRA has developed two chemical
systemsTDSP and TETRACleanboth of which can be configured for use in either direct or indirect displacements.
2. Cleaning Surface Equipment. Clean all surface equipment so that it is
completely free of solids and residual water. Active pits should be
cleaned, completely dried, and covered.
3. Verifying Rheology. Check the drilling fluid rheology and thin the mud
to promote complete removal of solids.
4. Ensuring Flow Path is Clear. Ensure that the flow path is clear by circulating or drilling out settled solids.
5. Calculating Pressure Differentials. Calculate pressure differentials
along the flow path to reduce overpressuring casing or tubing. Reverse
circulating during displacement will also result in a large pressure drop
at the base of the working string due to the highly turbulent flow conditions at that point. Higher pumping pressures may be required.
With single salt brines, large differentials are less likely in lower
pressure wells using lightweight mud and brines. But spacer
densities should be carefully designed to minimize these
pressure effects.
With two salt and three salt brines, pressure differentials

between heavier brines and the lightweight surfactant
rinse stage of a displacement system can result in large
pressure differentials between tubing and casing.
2 SALT
1 SALT
3 SALT
6. Running Wellbore Cleanup Tools. Run brush and scraper tools to the
casing bottom.
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DISPLACEMENT
CHAPTER 3
48
7. Maintaining Flow. Do not stop pumping at any time during displacement until the returns indicate a continuous flow of the CBF.
When planning displacement operations for our customers, TETRAs

fluids specialists use displacement modeling software to perform
necessary calculations and model specific displacement operations.
These software programs and their uses are explained in the
Displacement Modeling Software section in Chapter 8, beginning on
page 198.
Water Based Mud

In order to develop a completely solid free environment in the well prior
to completion operations, all traces of solid laden drilling fluids must be
removed. Two options, direct and indirect displacement, are available to
the operator when a water based mud has been used.
If CRA tubing is to be used, it is essential that all of the potential sulfur

contaminations, e.g., lignin sulfonates, be removed, as they may form
sulfides which can contribute to EAC.
Indirect Displacement. This technique can be used with water based

muds or sometimes with synthetic oil based muds because of the need to
discharge rinse water containing residual mud constituents.
An indirect displacement technique consists of:
1. displacing the mud from the hole by making a single pass with seawater or lease water,
2. circulating seawater with a surfactant added to remove the final mud
residue, and
3. installing the clear brine fluid with a spacer separating it from the seawater.
Indirect displacements are carried out when drilling fluid constituents can
be safely jettisoned to the ocean and adequate rig time is available to
allow for recirculation until returns are clean. Sufficient circulation time
must be expended to avoid contact between residual drilling solids and
the CBF. Contamination of the CBF by solids will cause delays, as the solids will have to be filtered from the CBF. If solids are not entirely
removed, the completion could be jeopardized if solids are allowed to
invade the perforations and/or producing zone. Solids may also settle
around the packer, making it difficult to remove.
Additionally, the presence of solids can induce a form of concentration
cell corrosion known as crevice corrosion, which can lead to EAC issues.
A further consideration is the possible generation of H2S or sulfur from
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Direct Displacement. This technique requires slightly more attention to

detail; however, because it can be carried out in a much shorter period
of time, it reduces rig time lost while circulating.
DISPLACEMENT
additives associated with the mud solids. These sulfur containing contaminants can lead to sulfide stress cracking (SSC).
TETRAs TDSP direct displacement system is a three stage process:

1. TDSP IMud Removal Stage. This first stage consists of a weighted
spacer designed to push the mud from the hole. This spacer is very viscous and should have a higher yield point than the mud being displaced, which will ensure separation of incompatible fluids and
maximize the hole cleaning ability. The density of the TDSP I phase will
be determined by the density of the drilling mud.
The volume of TDSP I should provide for at least 1,000 feet of coverage
in the largest annular section of casing.
2. TDSP IISurfactant Wash Stage. Stage two consists of a turbulent

flow spacer with a concentrated surfactant which disperses any residual mud from casing and tubing surfaces.
The annular velocity should be greater than 180 ft/min, and the volume
of TDSP II should provide at least 2,000 feet of coverage in the largest
annular section of casing.
3. TDSP IIIViscosified Sweep Stage. The third stage consists of a

spacer used between the surfactant wash spacer and the completion
fluid. This stage promotes the removal of residual materials dispersed
by the surfactant wash. The rheology of this stage is designed to maximize lifting capacity.
The volume of TDSP III should provide for at least 1,000 feet of coverage
in the largest annular section of casing.
Diesel Oil Based Muds and Synthetic Oil Based Muds

Diesel oil based and synthetic oil based drilling fluid systems often
require the use of direct displacement. An additional oil based pad
should be placed between the mud and TDSP I when a CBF is to follow
an oil based mud system; however, other than this, the procedures are
the same.
In a diesel oil based mud displacement where CRA tubing is used, it is

vital to eliminate the potential for sulfur or sulfide contamination, which
can lead to EAC. An in depth discussion of corrosion can be found in the
Corrosion Control section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 185.
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CHAPTER 3
FLUID LOSS CONTROL
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TETRAClean Displacement System

Developed for use under the stringent environmental regulations of the
North Sea, the versatile TETRAClean displacement system is used for
well cleanup after water based, diesel oil based, or synthetic oil based
drilling muds. For ease of use, the TETRAClean system is mixed as a single viscous pill, usually in the range of 200 to 250 bbl. The highly effective, concentrated pill reduces the need for additional pit volume.
Depending on brine chemistry, TETRAVis HEC polymer or BioPol polymer may be used to build viscosity. The TETRAClean 105 surfactant
package and TETRAClean 106 activator are added to the viscosified
brine. The pill is run after a compatible spacer and pumped at a rate
high enough to achieve turbulent conditions.
The TETRAClean system can be used without restriction in the UK North
Sea, as the system has an environmental Chemical Hazard Assessment
and Risk Management (CHARM) rating of Gold. An in depth discussion
of displacement and the TETRAClean system can be found in the Displacement section in Chapter 8, beginning on page 193.
Fluid Loss Control

Controlling fluid loss should be an integral part of planning for any completion operation. Prior to bringing any CBF to the location, provisions
should be made to deal with any potential fluid loss situation. This section is designed to provide a brief overview of the topic. For a more in
depth discussion, see the Reduction of Fluid Loss section in Chapter 8,
beginning on page 203.
Objectives
Maintain well controlensure a full column of adequate density brine
Minimize seepage losses that may contribute to formation damage
Reduce relative permeability effects
Stop lost circulation conditions
Factors Affecting
Fluid density and pressure differential
Formation permeability and porosity
Formation pressure and temperature
Completion fluid type
Length of thief zone
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Clear brine fluids are designed to minimize formation damage. Despite

their low potential for damage, these fluids are still foreign to oil and gas
producing formations; for this reason, their introduction to the wellbore
may have adverse effects if large quantities of fluid escape the wellbore
and enter the formation, mixing with formation fluids.
FLUID LOSS CONTROL
Discussion
Knowledge of reservoir characteristics should give some indication as to

the potential for movement of fluids from the well into the formation.
Generally there are two types of fluid loss:
1. Seepage is the migration of wellbore fluids into the formation under
the influence of hydrostatic pressure; it is controlled by formation permeability. With light seepage, penetration may be a matter of only a
few inches.
2. Lost circulation is severe fluid loss that has reached a rate at which circulation can no longer be maintained. It is wholesale loss of fluid to
highly fractured or very porous formations and requires immediate
action.
Between these two extremes, there is a continuum that spans the full
range. Completion engineers can choose between technologies
designed to address three broad categories: (1) light seepage, (2) moderate seepage due to a relatively permeable formation, and (3) lost circulation, which is severe and requires immediate and decisive action.
Light Seepage. In cases of light seepage, consider lowering the density
of the fluid to reduce flow into the formation. Well control and safety
considerations should both be carefully weighed. If lowering the density
is not feasible, a solid free, viscosified pill should be placed across the
producing zone to slow the loss. The ability of a viscosified pill to control
seepage will depend on the wellbore temperature, as the viscosifying
properties of most polymers are reduced at higher temperatures.
Polymer pills are generally applicable in formations with permeabilities
of less than one darcy. Most common polymer pills are made using
BioPol, TETRAVis, or a combination of the two. A decision as to which
polymer to use should be based on temperature stability, salt system, and
damage characteristics. For most general brine applications, the TETRAVis products are most widely used, since the polymer is considered
less damaging and easier to clean up.
1. Single Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. TETRAVis and BioPol L are
both commonly used to viscosify single salt fluids. BioPol L is
often chosen when bottomhole temperatures exceed 225F.
2. Two Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. The most common viscosifying
agent for use in two salt calcium chloride/calcium bromide
brines is TETRAVis L Plus.
1 SALT
2 SALT
Second Edition
CHAPTER 3
FLUID LOSS CONTROL
52
3. Three Salt Fluid Polymer Pills. TETRAVis L Plus is the most

common viscosifying agent used for three salt systems. It will
3 SALT
not hydrate in three salt fluids containing more than 1% ZnBr2
(0.3% Zn) and less than about 30% ZnBr2 (9% Zn). This range covers
three salt fluids with densities up to 17.2 lb/gal. In order to viscosify a
heavy fluid between 15.2 lb/gal and 17.3 lb/gal, a special cutback
fluid must be made from 19.2 lb/gal Zn/CaBr2 and fresh water.
A weighted pill containing zinc bromide can be formulated by using a

fluid made by cutting back 19.2 lb/gal spike fluid with fresh water. This
method will work throughout the range of three salt fluids. (See Mixing
Viscosified Pills, beginning on page 74.)
Moderate Seepage. At moderate loss rates, you will want to approach

the problem using a mixture of viscosifying agents and bridging material. There are four options available when dealing with moderate loss
situations. They are:
1. TETRACarb Sized Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). TETRAs sized calcium carbonate (CaCO3) pills provide a reversible means of quickly
shutting off rapid fluid loss to the formation. Carefully ground and
sized particles of CaCO3 are suspended in a viscosified pill and
placed across the thief zone. The procedure for building a viscosified
pill is given in Chapter 4. (See Mixing Viscosified Pills, beginning on
page 74.)
When completion operations are finished, a mild acid treatment may be

required to dissolve calcium carbonate solids.
2. TETRA SS Sized Sodium Chloride (NaCl). Another reversible means of

stopping fluid loss is by using a viscous pill with sized particles of
sodium chloride (NaCl) suspended in it. Sodium chloride particles can
be used to bridge formation pores and reduce fluid loss. Application is
limited to situations where a saturated salt (NaCl) solution can be
maintained; otherwise, the particles will dissolve. There are generally
sufficient chloride ions from calcium chloride in three salt fluids to keep
the salt crystals from dissolving.
The advantage of sized sodium chloride crystals is that they will dissolve
during flowback operations, provided formation fluids are not saturated
with respect to sodium chloride. Salt crystals can be removed by using an
undersaturated potassium or sodium chloride brine or a fresh water
rinse.
3. TETRAFlex FLC Seal. For moderate losses, this sized, shredded

crosslinked polymer mixed with a brine can be used for fluid loss control. The treatment is completely and rapidly reversible with a mild acid
treatment.
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53
FILTRATION
AND
BRINE CLARITY
4. TETRA SmartSeal. In the late stages of completion, especially after a

screen and gravel pack emplacement, a TETRA SmartSeal pill will
enable fluid loss control while running the final production tubing.
SmartSeal is a viscosified pill with a carefully chosen blend of TETRACarb calcium carbonate bridging material. SmartSeal pills are usually
small in volume, approximately five bbl, and can be designed to maintain viscosity at temperatures above 300F. To ensure integrity of the
SmartSeal pill and facilitate removal of the calcium carbonate filter
cake, a TETRA SmartSeal Pad should be run in front of and behind the
SmartSeal pill. In addition to guarding against dilution of the pill, the
SmartSeal Pads play an active role by treating the screen to reduce
adhesion of the TETRACarb particles, thus making cleanup easier and
more complete.
Lost Circulation. For situations involving lost circulation, the primary

objective is to seal off the thief zone. Coarse sized calcium carbonate or
sodium chloride bridging materials should be used.
A TETRA fluids representative can help with these decisions. Whichever
situation is anticipated, fluid loss control should be an integral part of
planning for any completion operation. Provisions should be made to
deal with fluid loss prior to bringing any CBF to the location. For more
information regarding this topic, see the Reduction of Fluid Loss section
in Chapter 8, beginning on page 203.
Filtration and Brine Clarity

Brine filtration is another component in TETRAs integrated productivity
protection system which encompasses more than just the fluid. Workover
and completion operations often generate solids that are picked up and
transported by the CBF. These solids can be carried into the formation or
perforations. Such solids can be difficult to remove and their presence
often results in lower productivity. In order to eliminate the possibility of
production impairment, brine filtration is used to remove solids from the
system. Another important aspect to consider when planning a filtration
operation is the potential impact that solids can have on corrosion within
the annulus, especially with the use of CRAs. Effectively removing these
solids is one more way to reduce the probability of corrosion.
Filtration equipment is operated continuously during all phases of completion operations as long as the CBF is in the hole. The primary goal of
this section is to assist you in selecting the correctly sized filtration equipment. Chapter 8, Special Topics, also includes a section on filtration,
which provides a better understanding of the filtration process.
Second Edition
CHAPTER 3
FILTRATION
AND
BRINE CLARITY
54
Objectives
Protect the producing formation
Remove solids from completion fluid
Remove potential contaminants for CRA applications
Assure an uninterrupted supply of filtered, solid free completion fluid
Ensure tool operability
Factors Affecting
Hole volume and available tankage
Efficiency and type of displacement
Type of completion
Anticipated flow rates
Deck space
Brine density and viscosity
Discussion
Protection of the formation should always be the primary objective of filtration. To optimize filtration operations, the following factors should be
considered.
Hole Volume. Simply put, the larger the hole, the larger the filtering
equipment should be. Typical flow rates for plate and frame filter presses
range from 0.8 bbl/min to 1.2 bbl/min per 100 square feet of filter
area. A hole with a volume of 800 barrels and appropriately sized surface tankage may have a circulating volume of as much as 1,800 barrels. Using the above range of 0.8 bbl/min to 1.2 bbl/min per 100
square feet, a 1,100 square foot filter unit would operate in the range
from 8.8 bbl/min to 13.2 bbl/min. Using an average value, it would
take 2.7 hours to filter the entire fluid volume once.
Drilling Fluid Displacement. Brine filtration is primarily a means of
removing potentially damaging particulate matter. It is not designed to
remove large amounts of solids resulting from incomplete mud displacement or tank cleaning operations. For the best utilization of filtration
equipment, and to minimize downtime, other strategies should be
employed for the removal of bulk solids. The upper limit for an efficient
plate and frame operation is a solid level of around 2% by volume. Fluids with solid content above 2% should be displaced with clean fluid.
Downtime may become significant if the filter is not correctly sized for
both flow rate and solid content. As an example, a fluid with a solid content of 0.25% would have a filtration unit operating time of 2.6 hours
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55
AND
BRINE CLARITY
Type of Completion. Some downhole activities like gravel packing or

milling operations are likely to generate a larger volume of solids, which
will influence the size of the filtration unit required. The rate at which solids accumulate in the filter will determine the active filtration time. This
subject is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. (See Filtration, beginning on page 205.)
FILTRATION
using a 600 square foot filter unit. Filtration unit operating time would
increase to 4.7 hours with an 1,100 square foot unit. Each precoat cycle
may require up to 60 minutes. Downtime would be greatly reduced from
7.2 hr/day to 4.4 hr/day with the larger unit. There is a distinct advantage in using a larger unit.
Available Tankage. Efficient filtration requires an available brine holding tank capacity of about 0.75 to 1.0 times the hole volume. The filter
feed tank and clean brine tank should be about the same size. This
allows larger particles to settle and increases the active filtration time for
the filter unit. This is an advantage, because the filter press must be broken down, washed out, and precoated each time the chambers are
filled.
Larger tanks provide a wide spot in the circulating path, allowing some
settling and taking some of the load off the filter. If rig space is limited
and tankage is small, more solids must be captured by the filter. If settling
is limited, the filter chambers will fill more rapidly and a larger filter
would be advisable. A smaller filter feed tank, for example 75 bbl, will
reduce settling time. This also means a shorter interval for dumping and
precoating, only 10 minutes at a circulating rate of 7.5 bbl/min, before
rig operations would have to be suspended until filtration equipment
could be brought back online.
Deck Space. Available floor space on the rig may dictate the size of the
filter unit used. All TETRA filter units are specifically designed for completion fluid applications.
TABLE 8. Filtration Equipment
TETRA Filtration Equipment
Unit
Filter Area
2
Flow Rate
Footprint
bbl/min
LxW
600
6 - 8
22 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo C600
600
8 - 10
16 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1100
1,100
8 - 12
24 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1300
1,300
12 - 14
26 x 15 feet
SafeDEflo 1500
1,500
14 - 20
26 x 15 feet
ft
SafeDEflo 600
Second Edition
CHAPTER 3
FILTRATION
AND
BRINE CLARITY
56
Some general specifications of TETRAs filtration equipment are shown in

Table 8 to assist you in making your selection. The Filtration section in
Chapter 8, Special Topics, explores the subject in greater detail.
Viscosity. Lightweight, single salt fluids typically have a viscosity of less
than 10 centipoise (cp), which will generally result in lower head losses
through the circulating system. Both the density and the viscosity of a
completion fluid should be considered when determining the filter unit
size required for a specific job.
Above 10.0 lb/gal, the viscosity of CBFs can range up to 30 cp. The
effect of viscosity is most noticeable in the case of two salt summer
blends which may be saturated with calcium chloride. The increased viscosity will also cause compression of the filter cake, reducing its permeability. This will lower flow rates and decrease operating times. In cases
such as these, a slightly larger filtration unit is recommended.
Recommendations
1. Plan and carefully execute a complete displacement of drilling mud to
reduce CBF contamination.
2. As a general guideline, plan a filtration unit that will provide 0.8 bbl/
min to 1.0 bbl/min per 100 ft2 of filter area.
3. Select filtration equipment that will minimize downtime by estimating
solid loading and filtration unit operating time; where settling time is
limited by pit volume, a larger filter unit should be selected.
4. Provide adequate tankage; 100% of the hole volume is ideal, but at
least 75% is recommended to maintain an uninterrupted supply of
clean completion fluid at all times.
5. Establish a baseline nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) value for the
fluid at the rig site as the reference turbidity value for filtered brine.
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Notes:
Second Edition
58
CHAPTER 3
Notes:
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35

This chapter will cover:

Much of the information contained in each of the following sections is

Maintenance of Clear Brine Fluid

CLEAR BRINE FLUID PROPER TIES

Single Salt Brine Density Maintenance

Unintentional Dilution. Well pressure control can be jeopardized by the

TETRA Technologies, Inc.