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Music Preferences and the Adolescent

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DOI: 10.1177/8755123315576534
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Karen S. Thomas1

Abstract
Music plays an important part in the transitional period of life for adolescents as they define their personal and
social identities and build their preferences for music. Recent neuroscientific research into the adolescent brain has
produced developmental models that work to explain the neural reasons behind teenage behavior and development.
These neural responses and developments of the brain provide some understanding for many of the social, as well as
musical, choices that teenagers make during this period. By examining processes in the adolescent brain, we can begin
to understand some reasons behind choices for music preference, which can aid music educators in determining the
best ways to present music to teenagers in the music classroom. The purpose of this article is to present a review
of previous research in adolescent brain development, music preference, and the application of such research in the
musical education of adolescent students.

Keywords
adolescent, brain, cognitive development, music activities, music preference

Adolescence is often a turbulent time for many teenagers, Brain Development

as well as for their parents, family, and teachers. Music
plays an important part in this transitional period of life Children are born with the ability to understand music in
for teenagers as they define their personal and social general and they develop an awareness of their specific
identities and build their preferences for music. Recent culture’s music through everyday experiences. As the
neuroscientific research into the adolescent brain has pro- brain grows and develops through early childhood, from
duced developmental models that work to explain the birth to around age 12, the structure of the brain is changed
neural reasons behind teenage behavior and develop- by environmental factors, such as learning experiences, as
ment. These neural responses and developments of the well as the genetic makeup of the child’s brain. As the
brain provide some understanding for many of the social, brain develops, synaptic connections are formed between
as well as musical, choices that teenagers make during the neurons, or brain cells, based on sensory experiences,
this period. By examining processes in the adolescent learning experiences, and the genetic code that sets up
brain, we can begin to understand some reasons behind systems in the brain (Joseph, 2000). The synaptic connec-
choices for music preference, which can aid music educa- tions in the brain that are strengthened during this time
tors in determining the best ways to present music to through repeated behaviors, such as word repetition and
teenagers in the music classroom. There is often a great other language skills, are made permanent. The connec-
divide between what adolescents perceive as school tions that are neglected and unused begin to wither and die
music and their music. As music educators, one of our at around age 11, in a process called neural pruning
goals is to help children become lifelong music learners, (Brotherson, 2005). The brain will continue to change
whether that means as music performers, music compos- throughout life by making connections or pruning unused
ers, or simply music listeners. Understanding how the connections in a process called plasticity (Galvan, 2010).
adolescent brain develops, and the processes behind the Basic system blueprints for things such as setting up
behaviors and choices of teenagers, can give music edu- the structure of language or music are encoded in the
cators insights to help them provide music activities that
facilitate lifelong music learning. The purpose of this 1
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
article is to present a review of previous research in ado-
Corresponding Author:
lescent brain development, music preference, and the Karen S. Thomas, Doctoral Candidate in Music Education, University
application of such research in the musical education of of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA.
adolescent students. Email: [email protected]

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2 Update 

genes. Together with genes, experiences help shape the risks, seek out new experiences and fail to restrain inap-
brain to certain specifications based on the kind of learn- propriate responses” (p. 865). The main difference
ing that takes place, such as the type of vocabulary a between the adolescent brain and the adult brain is the
child learns, or the musical skills a child gains (Ito, level of myelination, which is still increasing during the
2004). During the early childhood development period, adolescent development period (Feixa, 2011). Since ado-
axons, which are fibers from the brain cells that carry lescents have less myelination than adults, adolescent
electrical impulses or messages across the brain, begin to brains are more flexible to receive new learning and to
go through a process called myelination (Fields, 2005). choose their preferred neural response pathways, but
Myelin is a fatty substance that covers the axons to make their cognitive reactions are less efficient and reliable
message transfer more efficient (Knickmeyer et al., (Sercombe & Paus, 2009). An understanding of this
2008). This substance happens to be white in color, developmental process can help educators better under-
which is where we get the phrase white matter of the stand some of the reasons for the musical choices adoles-
brain. Learning experiences that occur during this devel- cents make during this period.
opmental period influence the myelination process,
which continues into early adulthood (Lenroot & Giedd,
2006). This efficiency comes with a price because after
Music and the Adolescent Brain
myelination it is harder for neural connections to be There is a lack of neuromusical research with adolescent
made, which makes learning new things, like a second participants, compared with the amount of research
language, for example, a little harder. During the early involving other age groups (Edwards & Hodges, 2007).
childhood period, a child’s brain begins to develop a sys- Reasons for this dearth may include lack of interest from
tem of executive functions that regulates working mem- adolescents to participate in studies, busy extracurricular
ory (also referred to as short-term memory where schedules, or a myriad other reasons. Further research
information is briefly stored), inhibition (the ability to involving adolescents is necessary for a more in-depth
control impulses), and mental shifting (the ability to understanding of the relationship between music and ado-
effectively switch tasks and have flexible mental control; lescent brain function.
Best, Miller, & Jones, 2009). The executive functions are Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging brain
housed in the prefrontal cortex, which is a region of the scans indicate that the nucleus accumbens, the reward
brain that is critical to skills such as planning, organiza- center in the limbic system, is extremely responsive to
tion, and emotional control. These executive functions immediate rewards in adolescents, compared to children
depend on the maturation of the frontal lobe, which con- and adults (Galvan et al., 2006; Giedd, 2004). These
tinues to develop into adulthood (Garon, Bryson, & scans also indicate that the prefrontal regions of both chil-
Smith, 2008). dren’s and adolescents’ brains had a less mature response
As the adolescent brain continues to develop, systems compared with adults (Casey et al., 2008). This informa-
mature in a back to front (lower order to higher order) tion provides an explanation of the developments in the
fashion, so that the frontal lobe is the last to develop fully. brain and how those developments may affect many
The limbic regions of the brain (e.g., the amygdala), are choices and decisions made by teenagers, including musi-
located under the cerebrum and are almost completely cal preferences. However, it should be considered that
developed by the time a child reaches adolescence there are individual differences with how teenagers
(Yurgelun-Todd, 2007). The limbic system is composed respond to rewards and emotions. Some teenagers have
of regions of the brain, including the hippocampus and different neural responses that may predispose them to
the amygdala, which are involved in memory, and social risky behavior, while others may not be prone to taking
and emotional processing (White, 2009). The limbic sys- risks (Dahl, 2004).
tem is also highly connected to the nucleus accumbens, This information may help explain some of the musi-
which is the brain’s pleasure and reward center (Spear, cal choices that teenagers make, as well as the emotional
2000). and social associations to music that are made during this
Since the limbic system matures before the prefrontal period. Emotional responses to music have been shown to
cortex, which involves decision making and long-term involve brain areas such as the neocortex and the limbic
planning, adolescent behavior often illustrates these structures (Hodges, 2008). Peretz and Sloboda (2005)
developments through risky activities, arrogance, and stated, “Under certain circumstances, music can access
moody and emotional behaviors (Casey, Getz, & neural substrates that are associated with either primary
Galavan, 2008; Sturman & Moghaddam, 2011). Powell reinforcers, such as food and sex, or with anticipation of
(2006) stated, “Neuroscientists probing the teen brain danger” (p. 410). This gives some indication as to why
have found that it undergoes a major remodeling that teenagers may be drawn to certain types of music that
may be responsible for the teenager’s propensity to take fulfill risk or reward-seeking emotions.

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Thomas 3

Adolescent Music Preferences takes precedence over their cognitive reasoning. Their
musical preferences may have a lot to do with their urge
A teenager’s view of himself or herself, his or her iden- to take risks or to find a means for emotional release.
tity, can be shaped by musical experiences, social interac- Many theories and models have been developed to
tions, school, family, culture, and life experiences. explain the formation of musical preferences. Canadian
Teenagers who study music can often identify themselves psychologist Berlyne posited in 1971 that there is an
by the instrument they play or by the music group to inverted-U relationship between music preference and
which they belong. Musical preference, which is fre- its arousal potential. According to this theory, when
quently a part of a teenager’s identity, can change accord- familiarity and complexity of music approaches or reach
ing to age, mood, social situation, or many other optimal levels, preference increases. However, when
circumstances that are often in flux. There is a great deal familiarity and complexity exceed optimal levels (e.g.,
of literature available regarding musical identity listening to a song too many times), preference will
(Folkestad, 2005; Green, 2011; Kelly-McHale, 2013; decrease. Repeated listening to a song can lead to more
Lamont, 2011; MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2002; familiarity and understanding of the complexity or struc-
McPherson, Davidson, & Faulkner, 2012; Partti & ture in the music, which at a certain point can result in
Karlsen, 2010), but an in-depth discussion of that topic is liking a song that was not preferred previously (Berlyne,
outside the scope of this article. 1971). Many researchers (Hargreaves, 1984; Hargreaves,
Miranda (2013) indicated that music can be very influ- North, & Tarrant, 2006; LeBlanc, 1982; North &
ential in adolescent development, especially in areas such Hargreaves, 1995) have found similar conclusions that
as socialization, emotion regulation, personality, motiva- support this premise.
tion, and positive development. While young children are LeBlanc’s (1980) music preference model was based
fairly open to listening to different kinds of music, teen- on a hierarchical system of input variables and listener
agers have developed a definite preference for certain characteristics that influence music preference to increas-
styles and are usually drawn to music that has similar ing degrees. The input variables include physical condi-
features as their preference, such as upbeat tempos in pop tions, cultural influence, and physiological conditions.
music. Lamont and Webb (2010) stated, “adolescence is a Listener characteristics include affective state, personal-
critical period for developing entrenched musical prefer- ity, attention, preference judgment, and brain processing.
ences” (p. 224). As presented earlier, the limbic system, Among these variables, musical training, music educa-
which is involved in emotional processing and is associ- tion, and cognition can be found within many levels of
ated with the reward and pleasure center, matures before this model. LeBlanc’s model suggests that the input vari-
the prefrontal cortex during adolescent brain develop- ables influence the listener’s decision about preference
ment. Adolescence can be a very emotional and passion- after the variables are sorted through the listener’s char-
ate stage in development, and intense connections acteristics. All these factors can play a part in determining
between emotions and music can be made during this the listener’s music preference.
time due to the developments occurring in the brain. A model proposed by Martindale and Moore in 1988
Many teenagers identify with others who like similar called the preference for prototypes theory was founded
music and tend to group themselves accordingly. Social on the idea that people classify stimuli based on already
cliques are often formed in high school among teens with known schemas. For example, if a teenager has devel-
similar music preferences. For example, teens who prefer oped a preference for pop music, the music he or she lis-
heavy metal music are more likely to socialize with those tens to and prefers will be compared with the prototype of
who have similar tastes, as opposed to socializing with pop music, based on its features, such as fast rhythms and
teens who may prefer different styles, such as jazz music repetitive melody (Martindale & Moore, 1988).
(North, Hargreaves, & O’Neill, 2000). Many teens feel a Hargreaves and North (2011) proposed another model
strong need to fit in and be accepted socially, so their in 2005, called the reciprocal feedback model, in which
musical preferences may change depending on their there are three main determining factors in music
social situation. responses: (a) the music, (b) the listening situation, and (c)
Adolescent music preference sometimes serves as an the listener. The type of musical response that is elicited is
outward identifier to other teens, indicating to a certain affected by the type or genre of music, the social situation
extent their ideals and personality. North et al. (2000) of the experience, and the type of listener (including vari-
stated, “an expressed preference for a particular style may ables such as gender, age, musical training, etc.). Each of
carry an implicit message to other adolescents regarding the three factors is also affected by the other factors. For
a range of attitudes and values” (p. 258). While teenagers example, the teenage listener is affected by the type of
are developing their identities, their emotional and reward music heard and by the listening situation. A teenager
systems in the brain are at peak development, which often would likely have a different musical response if he

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4 Update 

listened to his preferred pop music in a situation with his life, as well as the pressures they felt from family and
friends, as opposed to a situation with his parents. authority figures. Campbell et al. (2007) stated, “Music’s
Music preference of adolescents may be influenced by power to control negative emotions, in particular anger,
moods, emotions, or social interactions. Miranda and also emerged in the essay sample” (p. 228). This indicates
Gaudreau (2011) posited that adolescent music listening that the function and meaning of music can play a part in
motivations can be categorized into two systems: (a) sat- determining music preference in adolescents.
isfaction of individual needs, such as regulation of emo- Schäfer and Sedlmeier (2009) examined the functions
tions and (b) satisfaction of social needs, such as social or of music in relation to music preference and found that,
musical identity. The researchers suggested that adoles- especially for adolescents, music was related to develop-
cents sometimes choose music because it fulfills an emo- mental issues, expression of their identities, and convey-
tional need or provides an emotional outlet. For example, ing their personal beliefs and perceptions. Most
a teenager may listen to heavy metal music as an expres- participants in the study indicated that their preferred
sion of his or her own internal anger, thus fulfilling an music functioned as a way to influence or regulate their
emotional need for release. In addition, adolescents may moods. Since the limbic system (emotions and memo-
choose music because of the need to identify with a cer- ries) and the nucleus accumbens (reward and pleasure
tain group. For example, a teenager may listen to dance center) develop before the prefrontal cortex (decision
music because the rest of his or her friends listen to that making and planning), adolescents may choose music
type of music. The need to fit in and to share in the same based on emotions or pleasure. The researchers also noted
experiences as the rest of the group can be a powerful that “the most important reasons why people like their
motivation in adolescence, and music preferences can music . . . are its capability to express their identity and
often change because of that motivation. Music prefer- their values and its ability to bring people together”
ences can change over time and throughout life, but they (Schäfer & Sedlmeier, 2009, p. 296).
are especially maleable in adolescence, due to their emo-
tional and social associations.
An adolescent’s personality type can also be a factor
Implications for Music Education
that influences his or her musical preference. Schwartz Music educators have many goals in teaching students in
and Fouts (2003) studied the music preferences and per- the classroom, including broadening students’ musical
sonality styles of adolescents to determine whether there tastes, increasing preferences, increasing the level of
were commonalities among preference and personality musicianship, creating positive attitudes toward music,
types. Their findings indicated that teenagers who pre- and retaining students in their music programs (Droe,
ferred heavy music, such as heavy metal or rock music, 2006). When designing lessons and choosing music, edu-
were generally more independent and often questioned cators should consider their students’ musical preferences
authority. They found that teenagers who preferred light as well as the developments that occur in the brain. Since
music, such as pop music or dance music, were often very adolescence is characterized by emotional and reward-
conscientious and somewhat emotionally reserved. seeking behaviors, due largely to the development of the
Teenagers who had eclectic preferences, such as liking limbic system and nucleus accumbens regions in the
rock music and pop music, had less difficulty expressing brain, the choice of music repertoire in the classroom can
their emotions, and had fewer problems in social situa- be very important to encourage student enjoyment.
tions than teens in the other two groups. The researchers One type of classroom activity that can aid music edu-
indicated that the eclectic group used music “according to cators in broadening students’ musical tastes and prefer-
mood (e.g., to reflect and validate, to change), context ences is active music listening. Research has suggested
(e.g., alone, with peers), and particular needs at the time that young children and adolescents spend 3 or 4 hours
(e.g., relationship, autonomy)” (Schwartz & Fouts, 2003, each day listening to music on their own, through radio,
p. 212). CDs, mp3 players, television, and other sources (Rideout,
Music preference can be a way for adolescents to Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Schwartz and Fouts (2003)
relate to and help deal with their emotions. Their choice noted, “Between Grades 7 and 12, the typical adolescent
of music can also be a form of self-expression and serve spends over 10,000 h listening to music, an amount of
as an outward display of their beliefs and identities. time similar to that spent in class by the time they gradu-
Campbell, Connell, and Beegle (2007) examined essays ate from high school” (p. 205). Music listening is an inte-
from adolescent students that were submitted to a national gral part of most everyone’s lives, beginning as infants
essay contest about music education in schools in order to and developing throughout our lifetime. Music is con-
determine the meanings of music to adolescents. The nected deeply to emotions, tied to social contexts, and can
researchers found that many adolescents used music as a influence a person’s self-identity, especially in adoles-
way to relieve the academic and social pressures of school cence. Listening skills are fundamentally important to the

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Thomas 5

development of musical understanding and can encour- between what students perceive as school music and their
age creative thinking when presented as active, imagina- music. Green (2006) stated,
tive activities. When students are provided with frequent
and meaningful music listening experiences, they can By allowing learners the personal autonomy to explore
think about musical style, patterns, and meanings of authentically that aspect of musical autonomy, we could
music, which can help them to gain a greater understand- open their ears to the possibility of imbuing music with a
ing of music. Most people interact with music as listen- much wider variety of delineations than children and young
people usually realize are available. (p. 115)
ers, so it should be of the utmost importance for educators
to help students become creative in this fundamental
music behavior and help develop their musical prefer- Conclusion
ences and identities.
Based on music preference and brain development Adolescence can be a difficult transitional time for some
studies discussed in this article, music educators might teenagers, as emotions surge and the appeal for reckless
find it useful to incorporate familiar music into classroom activities abound. Coupled with the fact that the prefron-
listening and performance activities. These kinds of tal cortex, in charge of decision making and planning,
familiar music could include some popular music, but continues to develop on into adulthood, adolescent
also classical music that students have experienced in behavior often illustrates these developments through
movies and on television (Todd & Mishra, 2013). Todd risky activities, arrogance, and moody and emotional
and Mishra (2013) suggested that students might be more behaviors. Adolescence is also a time where this passion-
motivated to learn school music when teachers include ate behavior can be channeled into things such as music,
some popular music in lessons, as well as incorporating where preferences can develop and passion for music can
active modes of listening. Music educators could select extend into lifelong learning. Hallam (2011) stated,
music that shares similar elements as popular music, such “music plays an important role throughout our lives, and
as a fast tempo, or present music that has a familiar style, that typically the impact is affective rather than intellec-
such as excerpts of The Planets by Holst, which are remi- tual, with the widest range of benefits accruing to those
niscent of John Williams’s film music. When introducing who actively participate in making music” (p. 792). This
music selections to students initially, they might feel transitional development period is an important time for
more motivated to listen to and perform music that has a teenagers to shape their personal and musical identities,
personal appeal, as opposed to music that is strange and and to prepare for the social and emotional change into
foreign to them. Campbell et al. (2007) stated, adulthood. Music can affect the direction of a teenager’s
behavior during this time, giving him or her an outlet for
popular music has its own aesthetic and social values, that it emotional expression and access to rewarding activities
has considerable potential to connect with the everyday lives and social connections, and helping shape identity and
of adolescents, and that the informal processes of making develop musical preferences. Music educators can play a
popular music, such as improvisation and group composition, large role in the development of music preferences and
could make the educational experience more stimulating and positive attitudes toward music for their students. By
more enjoyable to adolescents. (p. 222) understanding the factors that can influence adolescent
music preference, both biologically and environmentally,
Allowing students to choose the music they want to learn music educators can better determine the most effective
in the classroom, within appropriate guidelines, can make ways to deliver instruction and help their students become
a great impact on the continuation of their music educa- lifelong music learners.
tion. The use of informal music activities and group proj-
ects in the classroom are also ways to foster music
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
preference and music identity development, and help fur-
ther the student’s role in music. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
When students are allowed to choose the music they respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
want to learn, and then are given the opportunity to learn
and perform the music in a small group setting, they are
able to take ownership in the learning process. As emo- Funding
tional connections are made to the music, through the The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
limbic system and nucleus accumbens in the brain, as authorship, and/or publication of this article.
well as social connections through school and home envi-
ronments, adolescents can broaden their association to References
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6 Update 

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