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Grade 12 Chemistry
A Foundation for
Implementation
GRADE 12 CHEMISTRY
AFoundation for Implementation
2013
Manitoba Education
Manitoba Education Cataloguing in Publication Data

Grade 12 chemistry [electronic resource] : a foundation for
implementation
ISBN: 978-0-7711-5285-6
1. ChemistryStudy and teaching (Secondary).
2. ChemistryStudy and teaching (Secondary)Manitoba.
3. ChemistryCurricula.
530.0712
Copyright 2013, the Government of Manitoba, represented by the
Minister of Education.
Manitoba Education
School Programs Division
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Every effort has been made to acknowledge original sources and to
comply with copyright law. If cases are identified where this has not
been done, please notify Manitoba Education. Errors or omissions will
be corrected in a future edition. Sincere thanks to the authors,
artists, and publishers who allowed their original material to be used.
All images found in this document are copyright protected and should
not be extracted, accessed, or reproduced for any purpose other than
for their intended educational use in this document.
Any websites referenced in this document are subject to change.
Educators are advised to preview and evaluate websites and online
resources before recommending them for student use.
Print copies of this resource can be purchased from the Manitoba Text
Book Bureau (stock number 80534). Order online at <www.mtbb.mb.ca>.
This resource is also available on the Manitoba Education website at
<www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/science/scicurr.html>.
Disponible en franais.
Available in alternate formats upon request
Grade 12 Chemistry Contents
Contents
Acknowledgements
vii
Introduction
1
Background 1
Vision for Scientific Literacy 1
Goals for Canadian Science Education 2
Beliefs about Learning, Teaching, and Assessing Science
Changing Emphases in Science 3
Processes That Engage Students in Science Learning 5
Section 1: Manitoba Foundations for Scientific Literacy

1
The Five Foundations 3
The Nature of Science and Technology 4
Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE) 6
Scientific and Technological Skills and Attitudes 9
Essential Science Knowledge 12
The Unifying Concepts 13
Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science and
Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry Topic Chart 15
Section 2: Implementation of Grade 12 Chemistry
1
The Senior Years Student and the Science Learning Environment 3
Effective Teaching in Chemistry: What the Research Says to Teachers 14
Unit Development in Chemistry 17
A View of Chemistry Education: Toward Modes of Representation 18
The Modes of Representation 18
Toward an Instructional Philosophy in Chemistry 25
Section 3: Assessment in Grade 12 Chemistry
Classroom Assessment 3
Changing Emphases in Assessment 4
Purposes of Assessment 5
Assessment Strategies 7
Planning for Assessment 10
Characteristics of Effective Assessment 10
Managing Classroom Assessment 15
Section 4: Document Organization

1
Document Organization and Format 3
Guide to Reading the Learning Outcomes and the Document Format
Sample Two-Page Layout 6
General Learning Outcomes 8
Cluster 0: Skills and Attitudes Outcomes 10
Specific Learning Outcomes 13
iii
Contents Grade 12 Chemistry
Grade 12 Chemistry
Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Topic 2: Atomic Structure 1
Topic 3: Chemical Kinetics 1
Topic 4: Chemical Equilibrium 1
Topic 5: Acids and Bases 1
Topic 6: Electrochemistry 1
Appendices 1
topic 1 appendices 1
Appendix 1.1A: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity 3
Appendix 1.1B: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes) 4
Appendix 1.2:
Solubility Rules 7
Appendix 1.3:
Predicting Precipitation Reactions 8
Appendix 1.4:
Colour Chart for Ions in Aqueous Solutions 10
Appendix 1.5:
Identifying Unknown Solutions (Teacher Notes and
Preparation Guide) 11
Appendix 1.6A: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations
(Teacher Notes) 13
Appendix 1.6B: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (BLM) 14
Appendix 1.7A: Titration: Lab Activity 15
Appendix 1.7B: Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 18
Appendix 1.8:
Process Notes for Balancing Neutralization Reactions 20
Appendix 1.9A: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines) 21
Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide) 23
Appendix 1.9C: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 1) 25
Appendix 1.9D: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2) 26
Appendix 1.10A: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction 28
Appendix 1.10B: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction
(Sample Response) 29
Appendix 1.11: Oxidation Number Rules 30
Appendix 1.12A: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions
(Research Report and Presentation) 31
Appendix 1.12B: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions
(Sample Checklist and Assessment Rubric) 33
topic 2 appendices
Appendix 2.1:
Appendix 2.2:
Appendix 2.3:
Appendix 2.4:
Appendix 2.5:
Appendix 2.6:
Appendix 2.7A:
Appendix 2.7B:
iv
1
Spectral Lines 3
Gas Discharge Tubes (BLM) 5
Flaming Salts (Demonstration) 6
Observing Continuous Spectra and Line Spectra 8
Blank Periodic Table of the Elements 9
Table of Electronegativity Values 10
Electronegativities (BLM) 11
Electronegativities (Teacher Key) 12
Grade 12 Chemistry Contents
topic 3 appendices
Appendix 3.1:
Appendix 3.2A:
Appendix 3.2B:
Appendix 3.3A:
Appendix 3.3B:
Appendix 3.4A:
Appendix 3.4B:
Appendix 3.5A:
Appendix 3.5B:
Appendix 3.6A:
Appendix 3.6B:
1
Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity 3
Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 6
Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 (Answer Key) 8
Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 2 11
Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 2 (Answer Key) 13
Chemical Kinetics Problems 16
Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key) 18
Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity 22
Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity
(Answer Key) 26
Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity 28
Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes) 31
Appendix 4.1:
Preparation of Equilibrium Systems (Demonstration) 3
Appendix 4.2:
Solving Equilibrium Problems Using the ICE Table
Method 5
Appendix 4.3:
Solving for Keq Using the BIR/PEC Accounting
Method 7
Appendix 4.4:
Equilibrium Problems 9
Appendix 4.5:
Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity 10
Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity 13
Appendix 4.6B: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes) 15
Appendix 4.6C: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Report
Checklist 16
Appendix 4.7:
Equilibrium and Le Chteliers Principle (Pre-lab) 17
Appendix 4.8A: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity 18
Appendix 4.8B: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 19
Appendix 4.9:
Disrupting Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity 20
Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs 24
Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs 27
Contents Grade 12 Chemistry
topic 5 appendices
Appendix 5.1:
Appendix 5.2:
Appendix 5.3A:
Appendix 5.3B:
Appendix 5.4:
Appendix 5.5:
Appendix 5.6:
Appendix 5.7:
Appendix 5.8:
Appendix 5.9:
1
Selected Neutralization Indicators 3
Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity 4
Measuring pH: Lab Activity 6
Measuring pH: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 8
Relative Strengths of Acids 9
Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base Titration:
Lab Activity 10
Analysis of Household Vinegar: Lab Activity 14
Analysis of Aspirin: Lab Activity 16
Potentiometric Analysis of Acid in Soft Drinks:
Cola versus Non-cola: Lab Activity 18
Samples of Various Titration Curves (Teacher Notes) 23
Appendix 6.1:
Activity Series: Lab Activity 3
Appendix 6.2:
Table of Standard Reduction Potentials 5
General appendices
Appendix 7:
Appendix 8:
Appendix 9:
Appendix 10:
Appendix 11:
Appendix 12:
Bibliography
vi
1
Scientific Communication 3
Research 11
Assessment 17
Developing Assessment Rubrics in Science 23
Assessment Rubrics 29
General and Specific Learning Outcomes 39
Grade 12 Chemistry Acknowledgements
ACknowledgements
This document is based on a draft version of Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for Implementation,
which was released on the Manitoba Education website in fall 2004. Manitoba Education gratefully
acknowledges the contributions of the following individuals in the development of the draft and
final documents.
Principal Writers
Members of the
Development Team
Post-secondary Advisor
George D. Bush
Consulting Science Educator

Winnipeg, Manitoba
Elizabeth Kozoriz
Daniel McIntyre Collegiate

The Winnipeg School Division
Madeleine Asselin
Collge Louis-Riel
Division scolaire franco-manitobaine
George D. Bush
Consulting Science Educator

Winnipeg, Manitoba
Kelly Choy
(until June 2005)
Minnedosa Collegiate
Rolling River School Division
Kris Coulter
(until June 2005)
St. Johns High School

The Winnipeg School Division
Leona Groot
Gimli High School

Evergreen School Division
Jennifer Kirk
Balmoral Hall School

Independent Schools
Kent Lewarne
Nellie McClung Collegiate

Prairie Spirit School Division
Angela Russenholt
J. H. Bruns Collegiate
Louis Riel School Division
Rick Wiebe
John Taylor Collegiate

St. James-Assiniboia School Division
Brian Lewthwaite
Faculty of Education
University of Manitoba
vii
Acknowledgements Grade 12 Chemistry

Manitoba Education
School Programs Division Staff
Bureau de lducation franaise

Division Staff
viii
Carole Bilyk
Project Manager
Development Unit
Instruction, Curriculum and Assessment Branch
Louise Boissonneault
Coordinator
Document Production Services Unit

Educational Resources Branch
Sandra Drummond
Administrative Assistant
Development Unit
Darryl Gervais
Director
Lynn Harrison
Desktop Publisher

Heather Knight Wells

Science Consultant
(from August 2011 to
February 2012)
Development Unit
Gabe Kraljevic
Science Consultant
(from February 2012)
Development Unit
Susan Letkemann
Publications Editor

John Murray
Science Consultant
(until July 2011)
Development Unit
Aileen Najduch
Science Consultant
(until June 2005)
Jacques Dorge
Director
(until August 2011)
Curriculum Development and Implementation

Branch
Danile Dubois-Jacques
Consultant

Branch
Gilbert Michaud
Director
(from September 2011)

Branch
Grade 12 ChemIstry Introduction
IntroductIon
Background
Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for Implementation presents student learning
outcomes for Grade 12 Chemistry. These learning outcomes are the same for
students in the English, French Immersion, Franais, and Senior Years Technology
Education Programs, and result from a partnership involving two divisions of
Manitoba Education: School Programs Division and Bureau de lducation franaise
Division.
Student learning outcomes are concise descriptions of the knowledge and skills [and
attitudes] that students are expected to learn in a course or grade in a subject area
(Manitoba Education and Training, A Foundation for Excellence 14).
Manitobas student learning outcomes for Grade 12 Chemistry are based, in part,
on those found within the Common Framework of Science Learning Outcomes K to 12:
Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum (Council of Ministers of
Education, Canada) and on those developed as components of the 1998 Manitoba
Transitional Curricula. The former, commonly referred to as the Pan-Canadian
Science Framework, was initiated under the Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration
on School Curriculum (1995). It was developed by educators from Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, the Yukon
Territory, Ontario, and the Atlantic Provinces.
Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for Implementation provides the basis for learning,
teaching, and assessing chemistry in Manitoba. This document also serves as a
starting point for future development of curriculum support documents, related
teacher support materials, learning resources, assessment tools, and professional
learning for teachers. This document also complements the Pan-Canadian Science
Framework by providing support for its implementation, including suggestions for
instruction and assessment.
Vision for Scientific Literacy

Factors such as global interdependence, rapid scientific and technological
innovation, the need for a sustainable environment, economy, and society, and the
pervasiveness of science and technology in daily life reinforce the importance of
scientific literacy. Scientifically literate individuals can more effectively interpret
information, solve problems, make informed decisions, accommodate change, and
achieve new understandings. Science education makes possible the development of
the foundations necessary to develop a functional scientific literacy and assists in
building stronger futures for Canadas young people.
Introduction 1
Introduction Grade 12 ChemIstry
The Pan-Canadian Science Framework and Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for

Implementation support and promote an attainable and realistic vision for scientific
literacy.
The [Pan-Canadian Science Framework] is guided by the vision that all Canadian
students, regardless of gender or cultural background, will have an opportunity to
develop scientific literacy. Scientific literacy is an evolving combination of the
science-related attitudes, skills, and knowledge students need to develop inquiry,
problem-solving, and decision-making abilities, to become lifelong learners, and to
maintain a sense of wonder about the world around them.
Diverse learning experiences based on the [Pan-Canadian Science Framework] will
provide students with many opportunities to explore, analyze, evaluate, synthesize,
appreciate, and understand the interrelationships among science, technology, society,
and the environment that will affect their personal lives, their careers, and their
future (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada 4).
Goals for Canadian Science Education

Several goals promoting the achievement of scientific literacy within Canadian
science education were developed as part of the Pan-Canadian Science Framework.
These goals are addressed through the Manitoba science curricula. It is hoped that
science education will
encourage students at all levels to develop a rational sense of wonder and
curiosity about scientific and technological endeavours
enable students to use science and technology to acquire new knowledge and to
solve problems, so they may improve the quality of their own lives and the lives
of others
prepare students to address science-related societal, economic, ethical, and
environmental issues critically
provide students with a proficiency in science that creates opportunities for them
to pursue progressively higher levels of advanced study, prepares them for
science-related occupations, and engages them in science-related activities
appropriate to their interests and abilities
develop in students of varying aptitudes and interests a knowledge of the wide
variety of careers related to science, technology, and support for the natural and
human environments
Beliefs about Learning, Teaching, and Assessing Science

To promote a rational, achievable approach to developing scientific literacy among
future citizens, it is crucial to recognize how students learn, how science can best be
taught, and how learning can be assessed. Students are curious, active learners who
have individual interests, abilities, and needs. They come to school with prior
knowledge and various personal and cultural experiences that generate a range of
attitudes and beliefs about science and life, and connections between these realms.
2 Introduction
Students learn most effectively when their study of science is rooted in concrete
learning experiences related to a particular context or situation, and applied to their
world of experiences, where appropriate. Ideas and understandings that students
develop should be progressively extended and reconstructed as students grow in
their experiences and in their ability to conceptualize more deeply. Learning
involves the process of linking newly constructed understandings with prior
knowledge, and then adding new contexts and experiences to current
understandings. It is increasingly important that chemistry educators draw
professional attention to how fundamental research in learning theory will affect
their efforts in the science classroom.
Changing Emphases in Science

Student learning outcomes in Grade 12 Chemistry encompass changing emphases
in science education content delivery and changing emphases to promote inquiry, as
envisioned in the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council
113).
Changing Emphases in Science Education Content Delivery
The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system.
The science content standards [or student learning outcomes] encompass
the following changes in emphases:
Less Emphasis On
Knowing scientific facts and information

Studying subject matter disciplines
(physical, life, Earth sciences) for their
own sake
Separating science knowledge and
science process
Covering many science topics
Implementing inquiry as a set of

processes
More Emphasis On
Understanding scientific concepts and

developing abilities of inquiry
Learning subject matter disciplines in the

context of inquiry, technology, science in
personal and social perspectives, and
history and nature of science
Integrating all aspects of science content
Studying a few fundamental science
concepts
Implementing inquiry as instructional

strategies, abilities, and ideas to be
learned
Changing Emphases in Science Education Content Delivery: Reprinted with permission from
National Science Education Standards. Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences,
courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Introduction 3
Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry

The science content standards [or student learning outcomes] encompass
the following changes in emphases:
Less Emphasis On
More Emphasis On
Activities that demonstrate and verify

science content
Activities that investigate and analyze

science questions
Investigations confined to one class

period
Investigations over extended periods of

time
Process skills out of context
Process skills in context
Individual process skills such as

observation or inference
Using multiple process skills

manipulation, cognitive, procedural
Getting an answer
Using evidence and strategies for

developing or revising an explanation
Science as exploration and experiment
Science as argument and explanation
Providing answers to questions about

science content
Communicating science explanations
Individuals and groups of students

analyzing and synthesizing data without
defending a conclusion
Groups of students often analyzing and

synthesizing data after defending
conclusions
Doing a few investigations in order to

leave time to cover large amounts of
content
Doing more investigations in order to

develop understanding, ability, values of
inquiry, and knowledge of science
content
Concluding inquiries with the result of

the experiment
Applying the results of experiments to

scientific arguments and explanations
Management of materials and equipment
Management of ideas and information
Private communication of student ideas

and conclusions to teacher
Public communication of student ideas

and work to classmates
Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry: Reprinted with permission from National Science
Education Standards. Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences, courtesy of the
National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
4 Introduction
Processes That Engage Students in Science Learning

Development of increased scientific literacy is supported by instructional
environments that engage students in the following:
science inquiry: Students are encouraged to converse, ask penetrating questions,
and then seek to explore their own constructed explanations alongside scientific
explanations through guided research, writing, and planned investigations.
Problem solving: Students apply their acquired expertise and knowledge in
novel, often unforeseeable, ways.
decision making: As students identify rich, large-context problems, questions, or
issues related to the human and robotic exploration of the universe around them,
they pursue new knowledge that will assist them in making informed, rational,
defensible decisions that are rooted in the societal and humanistic domains
within which science practice operates.
the nature of science: Students appreciate and value the understanding that
science operates with the consent of personal, social, political, environmental,
and multicultural orientations of the global society. Moreover, there are
consequences when science circumvents its responsibilities among these societal
contexts.
science-related skills: Examples of science-related skills include initiating,
planning, performing, recording, analyzing, interpreting, communicating, and
team building. All these skills have central importance in learning the
dimensions of science. It is important that science students of today not be taught
the myth of a single, specifiable scientific method that leads to a superior
truth about the material world. If there is indeed an objective reality,
philosophers of science often agree that it may be difficult to define, or perhaps
may be unknowable. Nevertheless, the methods of science systematically permit
new knowledge domains to be constructed, and that knowledge is often robust
and durable.
science content knowledge: Transmission of science content is no longer
considered to be the primary outcome of science teaching. Science knowledge is
actively constructed from existing and emerging personal and social knowledge.
Creative, integrative, and interdisciplinary linkages should be balanced with the
traditional disciplinary focus of teaching and learning in chemistry. Unifying
concepts among traditional, bounded, restricted disciplines now give way to, and
add form and substance to, new views of exploration among the sciences that are
holistic and interdisciplinary.
Through these processes, students discover the significance of science in their lives
and come to appreciate the interrelatedness of science, technology, society, and the
environment. Each of these processes can be a starting point for science learning,
and may encompass the exploration of new ideas, the development of specific
investigations, and the application of ideas that are learned.
Introduction 5
To achieve the vision of a scientific literacy for all according to personal interests
and inclinations, students could become increasingly more engaged in the planning,
development, and evaluation of their own learning experiences. They should have
opportunities to work cooperatively with other students, to initiate investigations,
to communicate their findings, and to complete projects that demonstrate their
learning in a personal, although peer-reviewed, manner.
At the beginning of the instructional design process, teachers and students should
identify expected student learning outcomes and establish performance criteria. It is
important that these criteria correspond with provincial learning outcomes. This
communication between students and teachers helps identify clearly what needs to
be accomplished, thereby assisting in the learning process. (See Appendix 11 for
related rubrics.)
When students are aware of expected learning outcomes, they will be more focused
on their learning, and may be more likely to assess their own progress.
Furthermore, they can participate in creating appropriate assessment and
evaluation criteria. Assessment methods must be valid, reliable, and fair to
students.
6 Introduction
Section 1:
Manitoba FoundationS For ScientiFic Literacy
The Five Foundations 3
The Nature of Science and Technology 4
Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE) 6
Scientific and Technological Skills and Attitudes 9
Essential Science Knowledge 12
The Unifying Concepts 13
Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science and
Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry Topic Chart 15
Grade 12 ChemiStry Manitoba Foundations for Scientific Literacy
Manitoba FoundationS For ScientiFic Literacy

The Five Foundations
To develop scientifically literate students, Manitoba science curricula are built
upon five foundations for scientific literacy that have been adapted from the
Pan-Canadian Science Framework to address the needs of Manitoba students:
Nature of Science and Technology
Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE)
Scientific and Technological Skills and Attitudes
Essential Science Knowledge
Unifying Concepts
The following conceptual organizer illustrates the five foundations for scientific
literacy representing the goals of science learning from Kindergarten to Grade 12 in
Manitoba.
Manitoba Science Curriculum Conceptual Organizer
ve
rsi
ty
Essential
Science
Knowledge
Nature
of
Science
and
Technology
gy
Chan
g
an
Di
s
tion
rac
y
rit
ila
Sim
d
Manitoba
Foundations
for
Scientific
Literacy
Sy
ste
e
Int
Scientific
and
Technological
Skills
and
Attitudes
Science, Technology,
Society,
and the
Environment
d
an
e, C
on
sta
nc
y,
an
Unifying
ium
ibr
uil
Eq
En
er
Concepts
These foundations, which are described in more detail on the following pages, have
led to the development of the general learning outcomes identified for Grade 12
Chemistry.
Section 1 3
Manitoba Foundations for Scientific Literacy Grade 12 ChemiStry
The Nature of Science and Technology

Students learn that science and technology are creative human activities with long
histories in all cultures. Science is a way of learning about the universe. This
learning stems from curiosity, creativity, imagination, intuition, exploration,
observation, replication of experiments, interpretation of evidence, and debate over
that evidence and its interpretations. Scientific activity involves predicting,
interpreting, and explaining natural and human-made phenomena. Many
historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science presently argue that there is no
definable, set procedure for conducting a scientific investigation. Rather, they see
science as driven by a combination of theoretical concerns, knowledge,
experiments, and processes anchored in the physical world.
Producing science knowledge is an intrinsically collective endeavour. There is no such
thing as stand-alone science done in isolation. Scientists submit models and solutions
for the assessment of their peers, who judge their logical, rational and experimental
soundness through reference to the body of existing knowledge and modes of
representation (Larochelle and Dsautels 235).
Scientific theories are being tested, modified, and refined continually as new
knowledge and theories supersede existing knowledge bases. Scientific debate, both
on new observations and on hypotheses that challenge accepted knowledge,
involves many participants with diverse backgrounds. This highly complex
interplay, which has occurred throughout history, is animated by theoretical
discussions; experimentation; social, cultural, economic, and political influences;
personal biases; and the need for peer recognition and acceptance. Students will
realize that while some of our understandings about how the world works are due
to revolutionary scientific developments, many of our understandings result from
the steady and gradual accumulation of knowledge. History demonstrates,
however, that great advances in scientific thought have completely uprooted certain
disciplines, transplanting practitioners and theoreticians alike into an entirely new
set of guiding assumptions. Such scientific revolutions, as discussed by Thomas S.
Kuhn in his influential The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, constitute exemplars
that can energize the science teaching enterpriseparticularly in chemistry
education.
Technology results mainly from proposing solutions to problems arising from
human attempts to adapt to the external environment. Technology may be regarded
as a tool or machine; a process, system, environment, epistemology, and ethic; the
systematic application of knowledge, materials, tools, and skills to extend human
capabilities (Manitoba Education and Training, Technology As a Foundation Skill
Area 1). Technology refers to much more than the knowledge and skills related to
computers and their applications. Technology is based on the knowledge of
concepts and skills from other disciplines (including science), and is the application
of this knowledge to meet an identified need or to solve a problem using materials,
energy, and tools (including computers). Technology also has an influence on
processes and systems, on society, and on the ways people think, perceive, and
define their world.
4 Section 1
Grade 12 Chemistry emphasizes both the distinctions and relationships between

science and technology. The following illustration shows how science and
technology differ in purpose, procedure, and product, while at the same time
relating to each other.
Science and Technology: Their Nature and Interrelationships*
Purpose
Procedure
Product
Science
(Seeks answers to
questions that humans have
about the
natural world)
Applies Scientific
Inquiry Strategies
such as hypothesizing
and experimenting
Proposes Explanations for

the phenomena in the
natural world
New
Questions
Technology
(Seeks solutions to
problems arising from human
attempts to adapt to the
environment)
Applies ProblemSolving Strategies

such as designing,
building, and testing
Proposes Solutions
to human problems of
adaptation
Social Applications and Environmental

Implications of Explanations and Solutions
Purpose
Procedure
Product
New
Problems
Personal Actions Based on Explanations

and Solutions
* Source: Bybee, Rodger W., et al. Science and Technology Education for the Elementary Years: Frameworks for Curriculum
and Instruction. Rowley, MA: The NETWORK, Inc., 1989. Adapted with permission.
The following general learning outcomes (GLOs) have been developed to define
expectations related to the Nature of Science and Technology foundation area. (For
a complete listing of the general and specific learning outcomes, see Appendix 12.)
Section 1 5
Nature of Science and Technology General Learning Outcomes

As a result of their Senior Years science education, students will:
a1
Recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering questions about the
world and explaining natural phenomena.
a2
Recognize that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, models, and explanations, and
evolves as new evidence appears and new conceptualizations develop.
a3
Distinguish critically between science and technology in terms of their respective contexts,
goals, methods, products, and values.
a4
Identify and appreciate contributions made by women and men from many societies and cultural
backgrounds that have increased our understanding of the world and brought about
technological innovations.
a5
Recognize that science and technology interact with and advance one another.

Understanding the complex interrelationships among science, technology, society,
and the environment is an essential component of fostering increased scientific
literacy. By studying the historical context, students come to appreciate ways in
which cultural and intellectual traditions have influenced the questions and
methodologies of science, and how science, in turn, has influenced the wider world
of ideas.
Today, most scientists work in industry, where projects are more often driven by
societal and environmental needs than by pure research. Many technological
solutions have evoked complex social and environmental issues. Students recognize
the potential of scientific literacy to inform and empower decision making of
individuals, communities, and society as a whole.
Scientific knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient, for understanding the
relationships among science, technology, society, and the environment. To
understand these relationships fully, it is essential that students consider the values
related to science, technology, society, and the environment.
Sustainable development as a decision-making model
As a component of achieving scientific literacy, students must also develop an
appreciation for the importance of sustainable development. Sustainable
development is a decision-making model that considers the needs of both present
and future generations, and integrates and balances the health and well-being of the
community, the environment, and the impact of economic activities.
Sustainable human health and well-being is characterized by people coexisting
harmoniously within local, national, and global communities, and with nature. A
sustainable society is one that is physically, psychologically, spiritually, and
socially healthy. The well-being of individuals, families, and communities is of
considerable importance.
6 Section 1
A sustainable environment is one in which the life-sustaining processes and natural

resources of the Earth are conserved and regenerated.
A sustainable economy is one that provides equitable access to resources and
opportunities. It is characterized by development decisions, policies, and
practices that respect cultural realities and differences, and do not exhaust the
Earths resources. A sustainable economy is evident when decisions, policies, and
practices are carried out to minimize their impact on the Earths resources and to
maximize the regeneration of the natural environment.
Decisions or changes related to any one of the three componentshuman health
and well-being, the environment, or the economyhave a significant impact on
the other two components and, consequently, on our quality of life. Decision
making must take into account all three components to ensure an equitable,
reasonable, and sustainable quality of life for all.
Sustainable Development
Economy
Quality
of
Life
Environment
Human Health
and Well-Being
Educators are encouraged to consult Education for a Sustainable Future (Manitoba

Education and Training), a document that outlines ways of incorporating precepts,
principles, and practices to foster appropriate learning environments that would
help direct students toward a sustainable future. The document is available online
at <www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/docs/support/future>.
Sustainable development, Social responsibility, and equity
Sustainable development supports principles of social responsibility and equity.
Robin Williams believes that the concept of equity is essential to the attainment of
sustainability. This includes equity among nations, within nations, between humans
and other species, as well as between present and future generations.
Sustainable development is, at the same time, a decision-making process, a way of
thinking, a philosophy, and an ethic. Compromise is an important idea that
underlies the decision-making process within a sustainable development approach.
In order to achieve the necessary balance among human health and well-being, the
environment, and the economy, some compromises will be necessary.
Section 1 7

There can be no greater contribution or more essential element to long-term
environmental strategies leading to sustainable development that respects the
environment than the education of future generations in matters relating to the
environment (UNESCO).
Public awareness and understanding of the concept of sustainable development and
its practices are essential. If we are to change our way of life we must equip present
and future generations with the knowledge and training to put sustainable
development into effect (Manitoba Sustainability Development Coordination Unit 19).
As students advance from grade to grade, they identify STSE interrelationships and
apply decision-making skills in increasingly demanding contexts, such as the
following:
Complexity of understanding: from simple, concrete ideas to abstract ideas;
from limited knowledge of science to more in-depth and broader knowledge of
science and the world
applications in context: from contexts that are local and personal to those that
are societal and global
Consideration of variables and perspectives: from one or two that are simple to
many that are complex
Critical judgement: from simple right or wrong assessments to complex
evaluations
decision making: from decisions based on limited knowledge, made with the
teachers guidance, to decisions based on extensive research that are made
independently and involve personal judgement
The following GLOs have been developed to define expectations related to the
STSE foundation area.
Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE) General Learning
Outcomes
8 Section 1
b1
Describe scientific and technological developmentspast and presentand appreciate their

impact on individuals, societies, and the environment, both locally and globally.
b2
Recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and continue to be influenced
by human needs and the societal context of the time.
b3
Identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among personal habits,
lifestyle choices, and human health, both individual and social.
b4
Demonstrate a knowledge of and personal consideration for a range of possible science- and
technology-related interests, hobbies, and careers.
b5
Identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment, society, and economy,
both locally and globally.

A science education that strives for developing scientific literacy must engage
students in answering questions, solving problems, and making decisions. These
processes are referred to as scientific inquiry, technological problem solving (the
design process), and decision making (see the following chart). While the skills and
attitudes involved in these processes are not unique to science, they play an
important role in the development of scientific understandings and in the
application of science and technology to new situations.
Processes for Science Education*

Scientific Inquiry
Technological
Problem Solving
(Design Process)
Decision Making
Purpose:
Satisfying curiosity about Coping with everyday life,

events and phenomena in practices, and human
the natural world.
needs.
Identifying different views

or perspectives based on
varying information.
Procedure:
What do we know?
What do we want to
know?
How can we do it?

Will it work?
What are the alternatives

or consequences? Which
choice is best at this
time?
Product:
Knowledge about events

and phenomena in the
natural world.
An effective and efficient

way to accomplish a task
or meet a need.
A defensible decision in a
particular circumstance.
Example:
Scientific Question
Technological
Problem
STSEIssue
Why does my coffee cool

so quickly?
How can I keep my coffee

hot?
Should we use foam cups

or ceramic mugs for our
meeting?
An Answer:
Heat energy is transferred
by conduction,
convection, and radiation
to the surrounding
environment.
A Solution:
A foam cup will keep
liquids warm for a long
time. So will an insulated
cup.
A Decision:
Since we must use
disposable cups for the
meeting, we will choose a
biodegradable type.
* Source: Alberta Education, Integrated Occupational Program: Teacher Resource Manual, Science 8
and 9, 1989. Adapted with permission.
A description of each of these processes follows. Attitudes, which are an important

element of each process, are also examined, and are treated as indicators along the
pathway of student achievement. Hence, attitudes are to be modelled by teachers
and students, but are not formally assessed in the same manner as other specific
learning outcomes.
Section 1 9
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry is a way of learning about the universe. It involves posing
questions and searching for explanations of phenomena. Although no single
scientific method exists, students require certain skills to participate in sciencerelated experiences using a variety of appropriate methods.
Skills such as questioning, observing, inferring, predicting, measuring,
hypothesizing, classifying, designing experiments, and collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data are fundamental to scientific inquiryas are attitudes such as
curiosity, skepticism, and creativity. These skills are often represented as a cycle.
This cycle involves posing questions, generating possible explanations, and
collecting and analyzing evidence to determine which of these explanations is most
useful and accurate in accounting for the phenomena under investigation. New
questions may arise to reignite the cycle. It must be noted, however, that many
scientific inquiries (past and present) do not necessarily follow a set sequence of
steps, nor do they always start at the beginning of the cycle; scientists can be
creative and responsive to scientific challenges as they arise.
technological Problem Solving
Technological problem solving seeks solutions to problems arising from human
attempts to adapt to or change the environment. In Kindergarten to Grade 8
science, students have been developing these skills using a cycle of steps called the
design process. This design process includes the proposing, creating, and testing of
prototypes, products, and techniques in an attempt to reach an optimal solution to
a given problem. Feedback and evaluation are built into this cycle. In Senior Years
science, these technological problem-solving skills are incorporated into a decisionmaking process.
StSe issues and decision making
Students, as individuals and global citizens, are required to make decisions.
Increasingly, the types of issues they face demand an ability to apply scientific and
technological knowledge, processes, and products to the decisions they make
related to STSE. The decision-making process involves a series of steps, which may
include
clarifying the issue
critically evaluating all available research
generating possible courses of action
making a thoughtful decision
examining the impact of the decision
reflecting on the process
Students should be actively involved in decision-making situations as they progress
through their science education. Not only are decision-making situations important
in their own right, but they also provide a relevant context for engaging in scientific
inquiry, problem solving, and the study of STSE relationships (as shown in the
following illustration).
10 Section 1
COMMUNICATION
CONSENSUS
BUILDING
Feedback loop
Implementation
of a decision
Selection of a
best option
(decision)
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND RESPONSIBILITY
Evaluation of
actual
impacts
process
Reflection on
the decisionmaking and
implementation
Evaluation of
projected
impacts
Formulation of
possible options
Feedback loop
* Source: Manitoba Education and Youth. Senior 2 Science: A Foundation for Implementation. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Youth, 2003.
Reprinted from Introduction, p. 12.
Reflection on
the decisionmaking
process
Evaluation of
research data
Identification of
an STSE issue
TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

SAFETY
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
TEAMWORK
Decision-Making Model for STSE Issues*
Section 1 11
attitudes
Attitudes refer to generalized aspects of behaviour that are modelled for students.
Attitudes are not acquired in the same way as skills and knowledge. They cannot
be observed at any particular moment, but are evidenced by regular, unprompted
manifestations over time. Development of attitudes is a lifelong process that
involves the home, the school, the community, and society at large. The
development of positive attitudes plays an important role in students growth,
affecting their intellectual development and creating a readiness for responsible
application of what they learn.
Scientific and Technological Skills and Attitudes foundation area.
Scientific and Technological Skills and Attitudes General Learning Outcomes
c1
Recognize safety symbols and practices related to scientific and technological activities and to
their daily lives, and apply this knowledge in appropriate situations.
c2
Demonstrate appropriate scientific inquiry skills when seeking answers to questions.
c3
Demonstrate appropriate problem-solving skills when seeking solutions to technological

challenges.
c4
Demonstrate appropriate critical thinking and decision-making skills when choosing a course of
action based on scientific and technological information.
c5
Demonstrate curiosity, skepticism, creativity, open-mindedness, accuracy, precision, honesty,

and persistence, and appreciate their importance as scientific and technological habits of mind.
c6
Employ effective communication skills and use information technology to gather and share
scientific and technological ideas and data.
c7
Work cooperatively and value the ideas and contributions of others while carrying out scientific
and technological activities.
c8
Evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered during investigations
and in daily life.

The subject matter of science includes theories, models, concepts, and principles
that are essential to an understanding of life sciences, physical sciences, and Earth
and space sciences. Content is a vehicle for essential learnings (Drake), and it will
be increasingly important for students of chemistry to make interdisciplinary
connections among the following.
Life sciences: This study deals with the growth and interactions of life forms
within their environment in ways that reflect their uniqueness, diversity, genetic
continuity, and changing nature. Life sciences include the study of organisms
(including humans and cells), ecosystems, biodiversity, biochemistry, and
biotechnology.
12 Section 1
Physical sciences: Primarily associated with chemistry and physics, the physical
sciences deal with matter, energy, and forces. Matter has structure, and
interactions exist among its components. Energy links matter to gravitational,
electromagnetic, and nuclear forces of the universe. The laws of conservation of
mass and energy, momentum, and charge are addressed by physical science.
Geosciences and the space sciences: These studies provide students with local,
global, and universal perspectives. Earth exhibits form, structure, and patterns of
change, as does our surrounding solar system and the physical universe beyond.
Earth and space sciences include fields of study such as geology, hydrology,
meteorology, and astronomy.
Essential Science Knowledge foundation area.
Essential Science Knowledge General Learning Outcomes
d1
Understand essential life structures and processes pertaining to a wide variety of organisms,
including humans.
d2
Understand various biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems, as well as their interaction
and interdependence within ecosystems and within the biosphere as a whole.
d3
Understand the properties and structures of matter, as well as various common manifestations
and applications of the actions and interactions of matter.
d4
Understand how stability, motion, forces, and energy transfers and transformations play a role in
a wide range of natural and constructed contexts.
d5
Understand the composition of the Earths atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, as well as
the processes involved within and among them.
d6
Understand the composition of the universe, the interactions within it, and the implications of
humankinds continued attempts to understand and explore it.
The Unifying Concepts

An effective way to create linkages within and among science disciplines is to use
unifying conceptsthe key ideas that underlie and integrate all science knowledge
and extend into areas such as mathematics and social studies. Unifying concepts
help students construct a more holistic, systems-related understanding of science
and its role in society.
The following four unifying concepts were used in the development of Grade 12
Chemistry:
Similarity and diversity: The concepts of similarity and diversity provide tools
for organizing our experiences with the world. Beginning with informal
experiences, students learn to recognize attributes of materials, organisms, and
events that help to make useful distinctions between and among them. Over
time, students adopt accepted procedures and protocols for describing and
classifying objects, organisms, and events they encounter, thus enabling them to
share ideas with others and to reflect on their own experiences.
Section 1 13
Systems and interactions: An important part of understanding and interpreting

the world is the ability to think about the whole in terms of its parts and,
alternately, about parts in terms of how they relate to one another and to the
whole. A system is a collection of components that interact with one another so
that the overall effect is often different from that of the individual parts, even
when these are considered together. Students will study both natural and
technological systems.
Change, constancy, and equilibrium: The concepts of constancy and change
underlie most understandings of the natural and technological world. Through
observations, students learn that some characteristics of living things, materials,
and systems remain constant over time, whereas others change. Through formal
and informal studies, students develop an understanding of the processes and
conditions in which change, constancy, and equilibrium take place.
energy: The concept of energy provides a conceptual understanding that brings
together many aspects of natural phenomena, materials, and the processes of
change. Energy, whether transmitted or transformed, is the driving force of both
movement and change. Students learn to describe energy in terms of its effects
and, over time, develop a concept of energy as something inherent within the
interactions of materials, the processes of life, and the functions of systems.
Unifying Concepts foundation area.
Unifying Concepts General Learning Outcomes
14 Section 1
e1
Describe and appreciate the similarity and diversity of forms, functions, and patterns within the
natural and constructed world.
e2
Describe and appreciate how the natural and constructed world is made up of systems and how
interactions take place within and among these systems.
e3
Recognize that characteristics of materials and systems can remain constant or change over
time, and describe the conditions and processes involved.
e4
Recognize that energy, whether transmitted or transformed, is the driving force of both
movement and change, and is inherent within materials and in the interactions among them.
Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science and Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry

Topic Chart
The following table provides a quick reference to the different thematic clusters
from Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science and Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry. It allows
teachers to examine, at a glance, students previous exposure to scientific
knowledge in different areas. The chemistry-related content clusters are greyshaded for reference.
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
Cluster 3
Cluster 4
Kindergarten
Trees
Colours
Paper
Grade 1
Characteristics
and Needs of
Living Things
The Senses
Characteristics
of Objects
and Materials
Daily and
Seasonal
Changes
Grade 2
Growth and
Changes in
Animals
Properties of
Solids, Liquids,
and Gases
Position
and
Motion
Air and Water

in the
Environment
Grade 3
Growth and
Changes in
Plants
Materials
and
Structures
Forces That
Attract or
Repel
Soils
in the
Environment
Grade 4
Habitats and
Communities
Light
Sound
Rocks,
Minerals,
and Erosion
Maintaining
a Healthy
Body
Properties of
and Changes
in Substances
Forces and
Simple
Machines
Weather
Diversity
of Living
Things
Flight
Electricity
Exploring
the Solar
System
Interactions
within
Ecosystems
Particle
Theory of
Matter
Forces
and
Structures
Earths
Crust
Grade 8
Cells and
Systems
Optics
Fluids
Water
Systems
Grade 9
Reproduction
Atoms and
Elements
Nature of
Electricity
Exploring
the Universe
Grade 10
Dynamics of
Ecosystems
Chemistry
in Action
In Motion
Weather
Dynamics
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Cluster 0
Overall Skills and Attitudes

(To Be Integrated into Clusters 1 to 4)
Science
Grade 11
Chemistry
Topics: Physical Properties of Matter, Gases and the Atmosphere,

Chemical Reactions, Solutions, and Organic Chemistry
Grade 12
Chemistry
Topics: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions, Atomic Structure, Kinetics,

Chemical Equilibrium, Acids and Bases, and Electrochemistry
Section 1 15
NoteS
16 Section 1
Section 2:
implementation of Grade 12 chemiStry
The Senior Years Student and the Science Learning Environment 3
Effective Teaching in Chemistry: What the Research Says to Teachers 14
Unit Development in Chemistry 17
A View of Chemistry Education: Toward Modes of Representation 18
The Modes of Representation 18
Toward an Instructional Philosophy in Chemistry 25
GraDe 12 CHemiSTry Implementation of Grade 12 Chemistry
implementation of Grade 12 chemiStry

The Senior Years Student and the Science Learning Environment
Each year, teachers are called upon to make many decisions regarding course
content, learning materials and resources, and instructional and assessment
methods. Successful learning is more likely to occur if these decisions are informed
by teachers understanding of their students and the ways they learn.
Teachers seeking to learn about their students need to be knowledgeable in various
areas, including the following:
How people learn: In recent decades, cognitive psychology, brain-imaging
technology, and multiple intelligences theory have transformed our
understanding of learning. Ongoing professional learning is important to
teachers as they seek to update their knowledge of the processes of learning.
Ways in which student populations are changing: The students whom teachers
encounter today are different in many respects from students a generation ago.
Students are more likely to be living with a single parent or stepfamily. More
have part-time jobs. Students are more sophisticated in their knowledge and use
of information technology, and much of their understanding of the world comes
from television. Classrooms are more likely to be ethnically diverse.
Developmental characteristics of students: The characteristics of adolescent
learners have many implications for teachers.
The unique qualities of each student: Family relationships, academic and life
experiences, personality, interests, learning approaches, socio-economic status,
and rate of development all influence a students ability to learn. Teachers can
gain an understanding of the unique qualities of each student only through daily
interaction, observation, and assessment.
Characteristics of Grade 12 Learners*
For many students, Grade 12 is a stable and productive year. Many Grade 12
students have developed a degree of security within their peer group and a sense of
belonging in school. They show increasing maturity in dealing with the freedoms
and responsibilities of late adolescence: romantic relationships, part-time jobs, and a
drivers licence. In Grade 12, most students have a great deal of energy and a
growing capacity for abstract and critical thinking. Many are prepared to express
themselves with confidence and to take creative and intellectual risks. The stresses
and preoccupations of preparing for graduation, post-secondary education, or fulltime jobs are still a year away. For many students, Grade 12 may be the most
profitable academic year of the Senior Years.
___________________
* Source: Manitoba Education and Training. Senior 4 English Language Arts: A Foundation for
Implementation. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 2000. Adapted from Section 3,
pp. 78.
Section 2 3
Implementation of Grade 12 Chemistry GraDe 12 CHemiSTry
Although many Grade 12 students handle their new responsibilities and the
demands on their time with ease, others experience difficulty. External interests
may seem more important than school. Because of their increased autonomy,
students who previously had problems managing their behaviour at school may
now express their difficulties through poor attendance, alcohol and drug use, or
other behaviours that place them at risk.
Students struggling to control their lives and circumstances may make choices that
seem to teachers to be contrary to their best interests. Communication with the
home and awareness of what their students are experiencing outside school
continue to be important for Grade 12 teachers. Although the developmental
variance evident in previous years has narrowed, students in Grade 12 can still
change a great deal in the course of one year or even one semester. Teachers need
to be sensitive to the dynamic classroom atmosphere and recognize when shifts in
interests, capabilities, and needs are occurring, so they can adjust learning
experiences for their students.
The following chart identifies some common characteristics of late adolescence
observed in educational studies (Glatthorn; Maxwell and Meiser; Probst) and by
Manitoba teachers, and discusses the implications of these characteristics for
teachers.
Grade 12 Learners:Implications for Teachers*

Characteristics of Grade 12 Learners
Significance for Grade 12 Teachers
Cognitive Characteristics
Most Grade 12 learners are capable of abstract
thought and are in the process of revising their former
concrete thinking into fuller understanding of principles.
Teach to the big picture. Help students forge links

between what they already know and what they are
learning. Be cognizant of individual differences and
build bridges for students who think concretely.
Students are less absolute in their reasoning, more

able to consider diverse points of view. They recognize
that knowledge may be relative to context.
Focus on developing problem-solving and critical

thinking skills, particularly those related to STSE and
decision making.
Many basic learning processes have become

automatic by Grade 12, freeing students to concentrate
on complex learning.
Identify the knowledge, skills, and strategies that

students already possess, and build the course around
new challenges. Through assessment, identify
students who have not mastered learning processes at
Grade 12 levels and provide additional assistance and
support.
Students have a clearer self-understanding and have

developed specialized interests and expertise. They
need to connect what they are learning to the world
outside the school. Chemistry must be seen as
valuable and necessary.
Use strategies that enhance students metacognition.

Encourage students to develop scientific skills through
exploring areas of interest. Cultivate classroom experts
and invite students with individual interests to enrich
the learning experience of the class.
(continued)
* Source: Manitoba Education and Training. Senior 4 English Language Arts: A Foundation for Implementation. Winnipeg,
MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 2000. Adapted from Section 3, pp. 911.
4 Section 2
Grade 12 Learners:Implications for Teachers (continued)

Psychological and Emotional Characteristics

It is important for Grade 12 students to see that their
autonomy and emerging independence are respected.
They need a measure of control over what happens to
them in school.
Provide choice. Allow students to select many of the

resources they will explore and the forms they will use
to demonstrate their learning. Collaborate with students
in assessment. Teach students to be independent
learners. Gradually release responsibility to students.
Students are preparing for senior leadership roles

within the school and may be more involved with
leadership in their communities.
Provide students with leadership opportunities within

the classroom and with a forum to practise skills in
public speaking and group facilitation.
Students need to understand the purpose and

relevance of practices, policies, and processes. They
may express their growing independence through a
general cynicism about authority and institutions.
Use students tendency to question social mores to

help them develop critical thinking. Negotiate policies
and demonstrate a willingness to make compromises.
Use students questions to fuel classroom inquiry.
Grade 12 students have a clearer sense of identity

than they had previously and are capable of being
more reflective and self-aware. Some students are
more willing to express themselves and disclose their
thoughts and ideas.
Provide optional and gradual opportunities for selfdisclosure. Invite students to explore and express
themselves through their work. Celebrate student
differences.
Physical Characteristics
Many Grade 12 students have reached adult physical
stature. Others, particularly males, are still in a stage
of extremely rapid growth and experience a changing
body image and self-consciousness.
Be sensitive to the risk students may feel in public

performances and increase expectations gradually.
Provide students with positive information about
themselves.
By Grade 12, students are better able to sit still and

concentrate on one learning task for longer periods,
but they still need interaction and variety. They have a
great deal of energy.
Put physical energy to the service of active learning

instead of trying to contain it. Provide variety; change
the pace frequently; use kinesthetic learning
experiences.
Grade 12 students still need more sleep than adults

do, and may come to school tired as a result of parttime jobs or activity overload.
Be aware that inertia or indifference may be the result

of fatigue. Work with students and families to set goals
and plan activities realistically so that school work
assumes a higher priority.
(continued)
Section 2 5
Grade 12 Learners:Implications for Teachers (continued)

Moral and Ethical Characteristics

Grade 12 students are working at developing a
personal ethic, rather than following a prescribed set
of values and code of behaviour.
Explore the ethical meaning of situations in life and in

scientific contexts. Provide opportunities for students to
reflect on their thoughts in discussion, writing, or
representation.
Students are sensitive to personal or systemic injustice

but are increasingly realistic about the factors affecting
social change.
Explore ways in which decision-making activities can

effect social change, and link to the continuum of
science, technology, society, and the environment.
Students are shifting from an egocentric view of the

world to one centred in relationships and community.
They are able to recognize different points of view and
adapt to difficult situations.
Provide opportunities for students to make and follow

through on commitments and to refine their interactive
skills.
Students are becoming realistic about the complexities

of adult responsibilities but resist arbitrary authority.
Explain the purpose of every learning experience.

Enlist student collaboration in developing classroom
policies. Strive to be consistent.
Social Characteristics
By Grade 12, certain individuals will take risks in
asserting an individual identity. Many students,
however, continue to be intensely concerned with how
peers view their appearance and behaviour. Much of
their sense of self is drawn from peers, with whom
they may adopt a group consciousness, rather than
from making autonomous decisions.
Ensure that the classroom has an accepting climate.

Model respect for each student. Use learning
experiences that foster student self-understanding and
self-reflection. Challenge students to make personal
judgements about situations in life and in their natural
environment.
Adolescents frequently express identification with peer

groups through slang, musical choices, clothing, body
decoration, and behaviour.
Foster a classroom identity and culture. Ensure that

every student is included and valued. Structure learning
so that students can interact with peers, and teach
strategies for effective interaction.
Crises of friendship and romance, and a preoccupation

with relationships, can distract students from
academics.
Open doors for students to study personal relationships

in science (for example, through biographies of
scientists). Respect confidentiality, except where a
students safety is at risk.
Students begin to recognize teachers as individuals

and welcome a personal connection.
Nurture and enjoy a relationship with each student. Try

to find areas of common interest with each one.
Respond with openness, empathy, and warmth.
6 Section 2
Fostering a Will to Learn: Creating Links between Language and Science*

Experiences of intense involvement are optimal opportunities to teach engagement
in learning, and teachers should try to ensure they happen frequently in the
classroom. Not every learning task, however, can be intrinsically rewarding to
every learner. Being a successful learner also requires a high degree of what Corno
and Randi call sustained voluntary effortan attitude expressed in committing
oneself to less interesting tasks, persisting in solving problems, paying
conscientious attention to detail, managing time, self-monitoring, and making
choices between competing values, such as the desire to do well on a homework
assignment and the desire to spend the evening with friends. The willingness to
make this sustained effort constitutes motivation.
Motivation is a concern of teachers, not only because it is essential to classroom
learning, but also because volition and self-direction are central to lifelong learning.
Science courses seek to teach students how to interpret and analyze science
concepts, and to foster the desire to do so. Motivation is not a single factor that
students either bring or do not bring to the classroom. It is multi-dimensional,
individual, and often comprises both intrinsic and extrinsic elements. Students hold
certain presuppositions about science learning that affect the way they learn.
Teachers can promote certain attitudes and skills to facilitate students engagement
in each learning task, while recognizing and affirming entry-level abilities.
In considering how they can foster motivation, teachers may explore students
appreciation of the value (intrinsic and extrinsic) of learning experiences and their
belief about their likelihood of success. These two elements can be expressed as an
equation; the effort students are willing to expend on a task is a product of their
expectation of success and of the value they ascribe to success (Good and Brophy).
Expectancy
(the degree to which
students expect to be
able to perform the
tasks successfully if they
apply themselves)
Value
Motivation
(the degree to which

students value the
rewards of performing
a task successfully)
Teachers may, therefore, want to focus on ensuring that students are able to
succeed if they apply reasonable effort, and on helping students recognize the value
of classroom learning experiences. The following chart provides teachers with
suggestions for fostering motivation.
_________________
p. 19.
Section 2 7
Fostering Motivation*
Ways to Foster
Expectations of Success
Help students to develop
a sense of self-efficacy.
Best Practice and Research

Students who have a sense of self-efficacy are more willing to participate, work
harder, persist longer when they encounter difficulties, and achieve at a higher level
than students who doubt their learning capabilities (Schunk and Zimmerman).
Teachers foster student self-efficacy by recognizing that each student can succeed
and by communicating that belief to the student. A students perception that he or
she is a poor learner is a strong predictor of poor performance, overriding natural
ability and previous learning (Silver and Marshall). All students benefit from knowing
that the teacher believes they can succeed and will provide the necessary supports
to ensure that learning takes place.
Teachers also foster a sense of self-efficacy by teaching students that they can
learn how to learn. Students who experience difficulty often view the learning
process as mysterious and outside their control. They believe that others who
succeed in school do so entirely because of natural, superior abilities. It is highly
motivating for these students to discover that they, too, can learn and apply the
strategies that successful students use when learning.
Help students to learn

about and monitor their
own learning processes.
Research shows that students with high metacognition (students who understand
how they learn) learn more efficiently, are more adept at transferring what they
know to other situations, and are more autonomous than students who have little
awareness of how they learn. Teachers enhance metacognition by embedding, into
all aspects of the curriculum, instruction in the importance of planning, monitoring,
and self-assessing. Teachers foster a will to learn when they support the cognitive
curriculum with a metacognitive and motivational one (Turner 199).
Assign tasks of
appropriate difficulty,
communicating
assessment criteria clearly
and ensuring that students
have clear instruction,
modelling, and practice so
they can complete the
tasks successfully.
Systemic instruction helps students to learn strategies they can apply independently
(Ellis et al.).
Help students to set

specific and realistic
personal goals and to
learn from situations
where they do not attain
their goals. Celebrate
student achievements.
Research shows that learning is enhanced when students set goals that
incorporate specific criteria and performance standards (Foster; Locke and
Latham).
Teachers promote goal-setting skills by working in collaboration with students in
developing assessment strategies and rubrics (see Section 3: Assessment in
Grade 12 Chemistry and Appendix 9:Assessment).
(continued)
___________________
8 Section 2
Fostering Motivation (continued)

Ways to Foster
Expectations of Success
Best Practice and Research
Offer choices
Intrinsic motivation is closely tied to students self-selection of topics, texts, learning

activities, and creative forms. Teachers may involve students in the choice of a
topic for thematic development. Support students in the search for learning
resources that are developmentally appropriate and of high interest, and encourage
students to bring the world views they value into the classroom. Self-selection
allows students to build their learning on the foundation of their personal interests
and enthusiasm.
Set worthwhile academic

objectives.
Rather than asking students to execute isolated skills or perform exercises that are
without context, embed instruction in meaningful events and activities that simulate
real-world settings, and ensure that students share performances and products with
a peer audience.
Help students to learn

about and monitor their
own learning processes.
In teaching specific learning strategies, focus on the usefulness of each strategy for
making information meaningful, or for expressing ideas of importance to students.
Emphasize the importance of science to the richness and effectiveness of students
lives, and de-emphasize external rewards and consequences such as marks.
Ensure that scientific

experiences are
interactive.
A community that encourages students to share their learning with each other
values science. Teachers who model curiosity, enthusiasm, and pleasure in learning
science-related concepts, and who share their experiences, foster motivation for
scientific literacy.
Creating a Stimulating Learning environment

A vital science class grows out of, and is reflected in, a stimulating and inviting
physical environment. While the resources and physical realities of classrooms
vary, a well-equipped science classroom offers or contains a variety of resources
that help stimulate learning. It is helpful to involve students in the classroom
design.
Ways to create a stimulating learning environment include the following:
Flexible seating arrangements: Use movable desks or tables to design seating
arrangements that reflect a student-centred philosophy and that allow students
to interact in various configurations.
a media-rich environment: Have a classroom library of books for self-selected
reading. The classroom library may include science periodicals, newspaper
articles, newsletters, Internet articles, science-fiction literature, and students
published work. It may also include a binder of student reviews and
recommendations, and may be decorated by student-designed posters or book
jackets. Classroom reference materials could include dictionaries/encyclopedias
of science, books of facts, software and CD-ROM titles, past examinations
collated into binders, and manuals.
access to electronic equipment: Provide access to a computer, television,
videocassette recorder, DVD-ROM, and video camera, if possible.
Section 2 9
Wall displays: Exhibit posters, Hall of Fame displays, murals, banners, and
collages that celebrate student accomplishments. Change these regularly to
reflect student interests and active involvement in the science classroom.
Display items and artifacts: Have models, plants, photographs, art
reproductions, maps, newspaper and magazine clippings, fossils, musical
instruments, and so on, in your classroom to stimulate inquiry and to express the
link between the science classroom and the larger world.
Communication: Post checklists, processes, and strategies to facilitate and
encourage students independent learning. Provide a bulletin board for
administrative announcements and schedules.
Well-equipped and safe laboratory: Provide regular access to a well-equipped
and safe science lab to foster the development of critical lab skills.
Language Learning Connected to Science
Science curricula involve all aspects of language and literacy development. Halliday
suggests that as students actively use the language arts, they engage in three kinds
of language learning, which can be linked to broader scientific literacy (cited in
Strickland and Strickland 203).
Students learn language: Language learning is a social process that begins at
infancy and continues throughout life. Language-rich environments enhance and
accelerate the process. Terminology-rich science has a role in new language
development.
Students learn through language: As students listen, read, or view, they focus
primarily on making meaning from the text at hand. Students use language to
increase their knowledge of the world.
Students learn about language: Knowledge of language and how it works is a
subject in and of itself; nevertheless, science as a discipline of inquiry relies on a
particular use of language for effective communication. Consequently, students
also focus on the language arts and their role when applied to science.
Scientific literacy learning is dynamic and involves many processes. The following
graphic identifies some of the dynamic processes that form the foundation for
effective literacy learning in science classrooms.
10 Section 2
Dynamic Processes in Literacy Learning Integrated into Science*

Integrated
Process
Students shift stances from
listener to speaker, reader to
writer, and viewer to
representer, as they move
between and among
the language arts.
Metacognitive
Process
Students think not only
about what they are learning,
but also about how they are
learning. Students become
engaged learners when they
understand their own
learning processes and
believe in their own
abilities.
Recursive
Process
Language learning is a
continuum dependent upon
prior experience. Processes
often do not occur in a linear
sequence, but switch and recur.
Students move back and forth
within and between phases,
exploring, making
connections, creating,
revising, and
recreating.
MeaningMaking Process
Students actively construct
their own meaning in relation
to prior knowledge and
experiences. Literacy involves a
transaction between the learner
and the text, within a particular
context. In the process, both
the learner and the
text are changed.
Experiential
Process
Students bring prior
knowledge of both science and
language to science learning.
Teachers introduce them to new
ideas and experiences. Teachers
provide scaffolding to enable
students to achieve
understanding that they
could not yet reach
alone.
Linguistic
Process
Students learn to use
semantic, syntactic,
graphophonic, and
pragmatic cues.
Social
Process
Students learn from the
literacy demonstrations of
others and construct meaning
with others. Interactions with
others provide support and
motivation. Students flourish
and take risks within a
caring, supportive
community of
learners.
MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 1998. Adapted from Overview, p. 11.
Section 2 11
ethical issues
The development of topics within Grade 12 Chemistry should lead to issues and
questions that go beyond the traditional curriculum. For example, medical
biochemistry, or the implementation of international protocols related to the
prospects of global climate change, raises questions of ethics, values, and
responsible use of the products of the physical sciences. The environmental
consequences of the industrial applications of chemistry, or the atmospheric
chemistry of climate change, raise issues of considerable importance, as do the
topics of nuclear waste disposal and weapons procurement. These are among the
important issues that science is often called upon for advice. As students and
teachers address these issues, they will naturally be drawn to the study of the
underlying scientific concepts. Students should realize that science only provides
the background for making informed personal and social decisions, and that, as
informed decision makers, they may have an impact on society and the world.
Students of chemistry are not immune to the importance of these aspects of science
in a modern, post-industrial world.
Some students and parent(s) may express concern because the perspectives of
current science conflict with personal systems of belief. These individuals have a
right to expect that science and the public education system will respect those
beliefs, although this does not preclude such issues from arising in the classroom.
Teachers should explain to students that science is one way of learning about the
universe and our unique place embedded in it, and that other explanations, in
addition to those of the traditional Western sciences, have been put forth
particularly in the realm of cosmogony.
Diversity in the Classroom
Students come from a variety of backgrounds and have distinct learning
requirements, learning and thinking approaches, and prior knowledge and
experiences. Their depth of prior knowledge varies, reflecting their experiences
inside and outside the classroom. Some entry-level knowledge held by students
may be limited or incorrect, impeding new learning. For new learning to occur, it is
important for teachers to activate students prior knowledge, to correct
misconceptions, and to encourage students to relate new information to prior
experiences.
Manitobas cultural diversity provides opportunities for embracing a wealth of
culturally significant references and learning resources in the Senior Years science
classroom. Students from various backgrounds bring socially constructed
meanings, references, and values to science learning experiences, as well as their
unique learning approaches. As noted in Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook, To
be effective, the classroom must reflect, accommodate, and embrace the cultural
diversity of its students (Manitoba Education and Training 7.13).
12 Section 2
In addition, cultural influences can affect how students think about science:
reasoning by analogy or by strict linear logic; memorization of specific correct
responses or generalizations; problem solving by induction or by deduction; or
needing to learn through hands-on apprenticeship to gain one aspect of a skill
before moving on to the next step (Kolodny). Cultural prohibitions permeate some
societies; for example, values that discourage assertiveness, outspokenness, and
competitiveness in some cultures can result in behaviour that can be interpreted as
being indifferent, having nothing to say, or being unable to act decisively (Hoy;
National Research Council). The problems engendered by these cultural differences
are often beyond the ability of teachers of advanced courses to handle on their own.
In many such cases, support from other members of the school staff is essential.
Learning resources
Traditionally, the teaching of science in Senior Years has largely been a textbookcentred enterprise. The use of a single textbook as the sole resource for the teaching
and learning of science severely restricts the development of knowledge, skills and
strategies, and attitudes that are critical for todays students. Furthermore, it
promotes the idea that all answers are enshrined in a textbook. The successful
implementation of Grade 12 Chemistry depends on a resource-based learning
approach, in which textbooks are used only as one of many reference sources.
Research suggests that we should provide a wide range of learning resources for
structuring teaching and learning experiences. These include human resources,
textbooks, magazines/journals, films, audio and video recordings, computer-based
multimedia resources, the Internet, and other materials.
Resources referenced in this curriculum include print reference materials such as
Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook: A Teaching Resource (Manitoba Education
and Training) and Science Safety: A Kindergarten to Senior 4 Resource Manual for
Teachers, Schools, and School Divisions (Manitoba Education and Training). In
addition, numerous articles from the chemistry education research community are
recommended to teachers.
The choice of learning resources, such as text(s), multimedia learning resources
(including video, software, CD-ROMs, microcomputer-based laboratory [MBL]
probeware, calculator-based laboratory [CBL] probeware), and websites, will
depend on the topic, the local situation, the reading level of students, the
background of the teacher, community resources, and availability of other
materials. A concerted effort should be made to use appropriate learning resources
from a wide variety of sources, as not all curricular outcomes can be achieved by
using any one resource in the study of a particular topic.
Selecting Learning Resources
For information on selecting learning resources for Grade 11 and Grade 12
Chemistry, see the Manitoba Education website at
<www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/learnres/bibliographies.html>.
Section 2 13
implementing the Curriculum

Chemistry curricula in the past have focused primarily on presenting a breadth of
knowledge (that is, a large amount of content) deemed essential, and on the
mathematical manipulation of algorithms. While the Grade 12 Chemistry
curriculum continues to be concerned with students gaining relevant knowledge
and with providing appropriate mathematical treatment of concepts, it is also
concerned both with fostering the development of various skills (context-based
process skills, decision-making skills, problem-solving skills, laboratory
experimental skills, critical thinking skills, independent learning skills) and with
effecting a change of viewpoint. A strong focus of Grade 12 Chemistry is to link
science to the experiential life of students.
By offering a multidisciplinary focus where appropriate, Grade 12 Chemistry
provides a new set of foundations for fostering increased scientific literacy.
Consisting of 28 general learning outcomes (GLOs), each linked with a number of
specific learning outcomes (SLOs), the Grade 12 Chemistry curriculum will build
upon what students know and are able to do as a result of their studies in
Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science (see Kindergarten to Grade 10 Science and
Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry Topic Chart at the end of Section 1: Manitoba
Foundations for Scientific Literacy). As many foundational concepts are taught in
Grade 11 Chemistry, students are strongly encouraged to have completed Grade 11
Chemistry before they begin Grade 12 Chemistry.
Grade 12 Chemistry assumes 110 hours of instructional time, and is designed to
include formal assessments, field excursions, and related co-curricular efforts.
Effective Teaching in Chemistry: What the Research Says to Teachers

Findings of research on How Students Learn
A number of summaries of the instructional implications of recent research on
learning are provided below. The National Research Council report How People
Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking) can be
adapted and elaborated specifically for the study of chemistry. That report leads to
the following implications for effective chemistry instruction.
1. effective teachers draw out and work with students current understandings,
including those understandings students bring with them to the course and
those they develop as the course progresses.
There is an emerging consensus in science education research, including a
substantial body of work specific to introductory chemistry, that, to be effective,
instruction must elicit, engage, and respond substantively to student
understandings (Champagne, Gunstone, and Klopfer; Clement; Hake; Hestenes,
Wells, and Swackhamer; McDermott and Redish). There are now a number of
examples of curricula and materials designed to support interaction with
students prior understandings, and there is evidence that these approaches can
achieve progress in understanding that is not possible for most students with
traditional methods.
14 Section 2
2. effective teachers address students metacognitive skills, habits, and

epistemologies.
Students need to understand not only the concepts of chemistry, but also the
nature of knowledge and learning (Hammer; Hewson; McDermott; Reif and
Larkin; White and Frederiksen). Many students arrive at chemistry courses,
including advanced-treatment courses such as Chemistry Advanced Placement
(AP), expecting to learn by memorizing formulas disconnected from each other,
as well as from the students experiences of the physical world. Effective
instruction challenges these expectations, helping students to see chemistry
learning as a matter of identifying, applying, and refining their current
understanding. Students learn to examine assumptions hidden in their
reasoning; to monitor the quality and consistency of their understanding; to
formulate, implement, critique, and refine models of physical phenomena; and
to make use of a spectrum of appropriate representational tools. By the end of a
chemistry course, students develop a rich sense of the coherent, principled
structure of chemistry and are both able and inclined to apply those principles in
unfamiliar situations. In short, effective instruction should work toward the
objectives identified in Section 1: Manitoba Foundations for Scientific Literacy.
3. effective teachers are sophisticated diagnosticians of student knowledge,
reasoning, and participation.
How teachers respond to student thinking depends critically on what they
perceive in that thinking, on what they interpret to be the strengths and
weaknesses of the students understanding and approach. Effective teachers
continually gather information to support this ongoing assessment from several
different sources: written work on assignments, tests, and quizzes; classroom
discussions; and contact with students outside the classroom. They ask students
to explain their reasoning throughout their work, particularly through the
appropriate and measured use of differentiated instruction techniques. Upon
gaining new insights into student understanding, effective teachers adapt their
instructional strategies and assessments.
4. effective teachers teach a smaller number of topics in greater depth, providing
many examples in which the same concept is at work.
This is a common refrain in findings from education research, often expressed in
the slogan less is more. In part, this finding is an implication of the previous
two: drawing out and working with student understandings and addressing
metacognitive skills and habits all take time, and this necessitates a reduction in
the breadth of coverage. Education research also suggests that coming to
understand a concept requires multiple encounters in a variety of contexts. This
finding is reflected across this chemistry curriculum, drawing on the spiralling
approach that revisits prior knowledge in new ways, or at an increased level of
sophistication.
Section 2 15
making interdisciplinary Connections in the Chemistry Classroom

An important issue for a field as ancient as chemistry is how it adapts to the needs
of society in a given place and time. The field of chemistry today faces a period of
transition.
A period in which technology and knowledge-based industries are the primary
drivers of the national economy has begun.
A period in which other areas of science, such as microbiology and genetics, will
undergo rapid progress has also begun.
The increasing availability, power, and sophistication of computational hardware
and software will make possible novel quantitative descriptions of the physical
universe. Society in general appears to be rapidly becoming more and more
knowledge based. Enormous quantities of information are instantly available on
ubiquitous computers.
Teachers of chemistry will need to be able to apply the body of knowledge
developed within chemistry to totally new areas. In other words, chemistry teachers
will be asked to become more interdisciplinary; they will have to apply their special
knowledge and methods to problems that cross the boundaries of traditional
disciplines.
On the other hand, the topics that possess several features that naturally allow
students to begin to confront interdisciplinary issues are welcome, and align more
closely to the new emphases outlined in Section 1: Manitoba Foundations for
Scientific Literacy. First, there is the provision for interdisciplinary options (such as
biomedical chemistry, historical chemistry, the nature of science as seen through
chemistry) that teachers may choose to create.
Collaborative group work of students creates its interdisciplinary dimension
through ownership of a collaborative scientific investigation. Such projects can
easily involve applying knowledge and methods from several different scientific
fields. Increased interdisciplinary content could be added to chemistry courses by
developing more contexts such as the biomedical chemistry option mentioned
above. Alternatively, the enriched chemistry course might choose to explore
examples illustrating how fundamental physical principles apply to a wide variety
of areas. For example, the elastic properties of DNA molecules might be used to
discuss the range of validity of Hookes law for spring forces. Biological cell
membranes could be used to construct interesting examples of electrical potential
differences and electric fields. In agreement with the National Research Councils
National Science Education Standards (NSES), Manitoba Education encourages
teachers to include some experiences with the interdisciplinary applications of
chemistry when implementing the chemistry curriculum.
16 Section 2
Unit Development in Chemistry

Grade 12 Chemistry is driven by specific learning outcomes that can be arranged in
a variety of groupings. This design empowers teachers to plan appropriate learning
experiences based on the nature of their students, school, and community. Teachers
are encouraged to seek their own instructional design with the new curriculum, to
share approaches and experiences with colleagues, and to use an integrated
interdisciplinary focus to develop and extend student experiences and
understandings in new ways.
Working with bigger ideas can allow for a more in-depth inquiry. Organizing
around a problem or theme will generally present information in the context of
real-world applications (Willis). For instance, the treatment of vector analysis or
free-body diagramsusually taught in isolation as discrete mastery skillscould
be better served by presenting these concepts at the time when the context will
demand their use. Throughout the year, provide students with opportunities to
uncover concepts from among the sciences in a substantial way, and to make
coherent connections among them to chemistry.
Science deals with major themes in which people are already interested or can
readily be interested: life and living things, matter, the universe, information, the
made-world. A primary reason, therefore, for teaching science to young people is
to pass on to them some of this knowledge about the material world, simply because
it is both interesting and importantand to convey the sense of excitement that
scientific knowledge brings (Millar and Osborne 7).
For teachers adopting a thematic or big ideas from chemistry approach to

organizing the course, choosing an effective theme is critical to the success of such a
pathway. Involving students in the selection of a theme (or the important
subcomponents of a compulsory topic) will encourage and motivate them by
recognizing their interests.
A theme should
be broad enough for students to find personal areas of interest
promote learning
have substance and apply to the real world
have relevant materials readily available
be meaningful and age-appropriate
have depth
integrate across the disciplines of chemistry, biology, physics, and geosciences
fascinate students (Willis)
Section 2 17
A View of Chemistry Education: Toward Modes of Representation

Ask your students to respond, in one sentence, to the question, what is
chemistry? Responses tend to describe previous experiences with chemistry
content: chemistry is molecular motion, or chemistry is the study of energy and
matter, or chemistry is like physics with lots of math in it, or, from an educators
standpoint, chemistry is an understanding of particulate representations not
visible to us. Other responses are more global: chemistry is the study of the
makeup of the universe, or chemistry is the science of all things. The
relationship of mathematics to chemistry is predominant; a common lament is
chemistry is math or chemistry is figuring out the simple things in everyday life
in a mathematically complex way at the Senior Years. These responses indicate
that students see mathematics as the process of chemistry. Many see chemistry as an
important aspect of their preparation for an uncertain future, but with a varying
sense of what chemistry really is and what it could do for them.
What is chemistry? Although answers vary, a common theme exists if we consider
the various branches of chemistry and the underlying principles. Chemistry can
also be considered as including particulate representations in the world we perceive
around us. However, those relationships are embedded in visual, social, and
historical contextsa set of lenses through which the relationships are perceived
and acted upon. For instance, we contemplate something interesting, and then
build models to identify fundamental characteristics to determine how they interact
and influence each other. From these relationships we are able to predict the
behaviour of other interesting things that have the same or similar parameters. A
major component of chemistry, then, is the study of relationships in a variety of
different forms. What makes the study of chemistry so difficult for so many is that
relationships can be represented in many different waysand too often are shown
in just one manifestation, the mathematical symbolic relationship.
The Modes of Representation

The modes of representing relationships include the following:
macroscopic (visual) mode
numerical mode
graphical mode
symbolic mode
particulate mode
To facilitate teaching and learning, it is important to understand the various modes
of representation and their relationship to each other.
18 Section 2
macroscopic (Visual) mode

To illustrate the modes of representation, consider an example making use of the
physical properties of gases under changes in pressure. Initially, a single book is
placed on top of syringe apparatus (see illustration below). If we then enlarge the
scope of the picture by adding other books, we can perceive that a relationship is
emerging relating the amount of mass added to the syringe (that is, compressing
the gas within the syringe) and the amount of compression in the gas sample. This
is what we would call the macroscopic (visual) mode of representing a relationship.
Its basis is in the real world of sense perception and our associated perceptions of
how this world operates.
In the macroscopic (visual) mode, we suggest a relationship between two variables
and then test our hypothesis by observation and experimentation. In the present
case, as the downward force increases with the addition of more books, the syringe
depresses in some easily observed proportional manner. Sometimes we can even
determine the exact relationship. In this case, we can place a hypothetical straight
edge to line up in a straight line across the syringes, and certainly this does seem
to indicate that there is a predictable relationship.
Ch
em
Chem
Ch
em
Che
em
Ch m
Chem
Ch
em
Che
emm
Ch
em
Ch Chem
Che
em
Ch m
Chem
The macroscopic (visual) mode of representation embodies more than conjecture

and observation. It incorporates critical and creative thinking as we build and
modify models of nature that act as a foundation for our investigations. The real
world is conceptualized by a set of guiding assumptions we imagine to be true. We
may internalize a model to aid this conceptualization, and then we test this model
using experiments. A successful model has explanatory and predictive capabilities.
A model may incur discrepant events, which may force us to reconsider and
modify our model. Our model may be falsified, in which case we abandon the
model in search of a more complete and accurate model. For instance, the model of
electric charge provides a foundation for the examination of electric phenomena.
Historically, the fluid and particle models of charge accounted for experimental
observations. However, as our ideas about the structure of matter evolved, the
particle model provided a more reliable, predictive, and robust explanatory model.
Although we can make some general descriptions of relationships (e.g., as pressure
increases, volume decreases), we cannot always determine an exact relationship
using the macroscopic (visual) mode of representation. Therefore, we quantify the
characteristics and compare the numbers. This is called the numerical mode of
representation.
Section 2 19
Numerical mode
In the numerical mode of representation, we operationally define fundamental
properties and use measurement to collect data. In the case here, the pressure
exerted on the gas is operationally defined as changes in the position of the
syringe and is something we can readily see with the eyes. If there is no pressure
applied, we see no change in the position of the syringe, and greater force implies
greater pressure exerted on the air within the syringe. We can then examine the
data to determine an exact relationship. The numerical mode dictates an
understanding of proportioning and numerical patterns (e.g., if pressure [P]
doubles, volume [V] is halved, and if P triples, V is reduced to a third of the
original volume, and so on). This suggests a direct proportion, and we can then
formulate a representative law describing the predictable behaviour of confined
gas samples or other phenomena of interest. However, in most cases that students
and researchers are involved in, the collection of data results in systematic errors.
Determining the relationship by simple inspection of the data can be very difficult.
A picture, however, is worth a thousand numbers to us. Graphing the data usually
gives a clearer picture of the relationship. It could be looked upon, for students, as a
preparation for examining closely a picture of the numbers (the graph).
The following data table is an example of a numerical mode that is of importance to
us at Grade 12to identify a direct relationship if that is the case, or an inverse
relationship such as in the example here (volume and pressure in a gas sample):
Volume and Pressure in a Gas
20 Section 2
Volume
(mL)
Pressure
(mmHg)
30.5
739.8
20.3
1122.4
15.2
1493.8
10.2
2232.0
Graphical mode
The graphical mode of representation is a mathematical picture of the relationship.
Fortunately, there are a limited number of pictures one needs to know to determine
relationships. In fact, at the introductory Grade 12 Chemistry level, it is only
necessary to know three pictures that derive from mathematical relationships: a
straight line, a power curve, and an inverse curve. By adjusting the data to
straighten the curve, we can determine the exact relationship and formulate a law
that can be represented in a symbolic manner.
For our purposes here, there can be no better example of the power of mathematical
modelling than that from the relationship between the volume of a gas sample and
the pressure it exerts on the walls of a container. We, of course, know this as Boyles
Law, but it is instructive to view this from the point of view of students and our
discussion here of modes of representation. Below is a graphical representation of
numerical data from a fictitious student lab experience based on Robert Boyles
original data:
3000
-Pressure and Volume
l
l
Pressure (mmHg)
2500
2000
1500
l
l
l
l
1000
10
15
20
Volume (mL)
l
25
l l
l l
30
We would expect two things to arise from a discussion of this picture. First, the
relationship is inverse in some way (as one variable gets larger, the responding
variable gets smaller). Second, the inverse behaviour is not one to one; that is, it is
not a linear relationship. We cannot expect that either volume or pressure can
increase or decrease indefinitely in realistic terms. In order to tease out or model
the physical law that explains this behaviour of gases under pressure, students are
instructed in the techniques for curve straightening at Grade 12. This technique
directly links the graphical and symbolic modes of representation.
Section 2 21
Lets see how this is accomplished. Our initial mathematical model states, using the
present example with gases, that some sort of inverse relationship exists between
volume and pressure. Expressing this as follows is a good starting point:
Pressure goes down as volume goes up.
Pa I
V
or
P=kV
The implication is that if we replot that data, but this time plot the inverse of volume
against pressure, a new relationship should become visible:
3000
Pressure of Gas versus Inverse of Volume (I/V)
Pressure (mmHg)
2500
2000
1500
l
l
1000
l
l
l
l
l
ll
0.05
22 Section 2
-1
Volume
0.10
-1
(mL )
Symbolic mode
The fourth mode of representation is the symbolic mode. To continue with our
example using Boyles Law, we represent the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas as an algebraic relationship, which can be applied to other physical
events that are similar in nature. When we look again at the last graph plotting the
inverse of volume with pressure, it is clearly evident that a direct relationship exists
between these two quantities. It would be very easy to determine a line of best fit
for this graph, determine the slope of that line, and close off the discussion with the
statement of a fundamental physical law.
If P = k V1, then P V = a constant (k).
We then can state Boyles Law as the product of pressure and
volume as being a constant....
Thus far, we have represented relationships in four different modes: macroscopic

(visual), numerical, graphical, and symbolic. In our model of chemistry education,
students should be afforded the opportunity to function in each mode of
representation to demonstrate growing understanding and mastery of these modes
conceptually.
Particulate mode
Now, we will discuss a fifth mode of representation: particulate representations.
Throughout Grade 12 Chemistry, students will regularly involve themselves with
modelling chemical phenomena. This will include building ball-and-stick models,
using software simulations, or drawing pictures of events that are occurring at the
nanometre scale and are beyond our spatial constraints. For instance, we could
illustrate the gas sample featured in this discussion in this manner:
Decrease
volume
(What happens
to the
behaviour?)
Section 2 23
The importance of the modes of representation

It is easy to become caught up in a single mode of representation, especially the
symbolic mode, when teaching and learning chemistry. Students often complain
about the number of calculations in their chemistry course, or question their
purpose. They dutifully memorize equations and notation, learn to substitute for
variables, and arrive at numerical solutions. Students and teachers can easily
become trapped exclusively within the symbolic mode of representation.
Instruction using the symbolic mode is easy because little or no preparation is
required. The teacher, already grounded in mathematical principles, only needs to
derive an equation algebraically. This out of context treatment of relationships
between the physical/conceptual (i.e., visual mode variables) and the symbolic
presents tremendous difficulties for most students, including those students who
are apparently mathematically competent.
Meaningful connections between the symbolic and physical/conceptual modes are
difficult to make in a decontextualized setting. Many teachers, whose own
instruction in chemistry may have been primarily in the symbolic mode, may never
have mediated their own conceptual difficulties. Students taught exclusively in the
symbolic mode often know how to arrive at cookbook answers, but they rarely
understand the chemistry or retain the concepts. In fact, their difficulties rarely
focus on chemistry. Confusion appears because of notation, similar types of
equations, various algebraic representations of formulas, and calculations. As soon
as physical concepts are necessary, as in word problems beyond the plug and
slug variety, success rates decrease dramatically. Research in chemistry education
indicates that many advanced students experience difficulties when operating in
the physical/conceptual domain, but do calculations with apparent ease and
success. This, of course, may not be surprising if students instruction has been
almost exclusively in the symbolic mode of representation.
Students need to develop their understanding of relationships more completely,
and develop skills in each mode of representation. Students should be able to
transfer between modes both fluidly and with facility. Moving through the modes
is not necessarily done in consecutive order. A real scientist can begin
investigations in any mode and transfer easily through any combination of modes.
Students who demonstrate a complete understanding of physical/conceptual
relationships should be able to move from mode to mode in any order.
While fluency with the modes of representation provides a solid foundation for
chemistry education, it is, of itself, not complete when portraying the nature of
scientific activity. Albert Einstein, while developing his theory of relativity,
conceptualized a hypothesis and then deduced a series of laws symbolically from a
set of fundamental assumptions about time and space. He left it to others to
observe, and then refute or confirm his propositions. Historical perspectives, and an
understanding of the nature of science, will move students toward a more
philosophically valid treatment of chemistry.
24 Section 2
Summing up the Modes of Representation for Chemistry Teachers

Macroscopic (Visual): Encourage students to discuss the representations they
see and experience.
Numerical: Use student-generated measurementsalways in the context of
activities.
Graphical: Carefully plot graphs; get the picture of the numbers, not this is a
picture of the world.
Symbolic: Emphasize the concept first, and then initially apply formulas as word
definitions. Only then work type problems using formulas. Ideally, formulas are
memorized only in certain instances.
Particulate: Frequently make use of physical models that explain or illustrate the
invisible world of molecular structure and behaviour. Attempt to connect physical
phenomena with the underlying microscale movements of particles.
Toward an Instructional Philosophy in Chemistry

Teaching Grade 12 Chemistry with a focus on both content and processes naturally
allows for the use of a variety of instructional strategies. These strategies include
the collection and analysis of data from both laboratory work and field work, group
and individual instruction, a diversity of questioning techniques, decision-making,
problem-solving, and design-process activities, and a resource-based approach to
learning. Senior Years science programming should foster critical thinking skills
and promote the integration of knowledge and the application of facts to real-life
situations. Scientific concepts from other Senior Years science courses may become
part of the subject matter as the Grade 12 Chemistry course develops in the
classroom. This approach is a valuable and useful means of reinforcing and
validating scientific concepts as having relevant and contextual applications.
Chemistry is, in part, a way of thinking that has rules for judging the validity of
answers applicable to everyday life. It is an intense human activity, full of trial and
error that is influenced by cultural priorities and humanistic perspectives. The myth
of total objectivity that often permeates scientific dialogue also needs to be exposed
and discussed. Among the natural sciences, scientific truth is no longer viewed as
an objective reality awaiting discovery; rather, it is placed in the context of
something always to be sought. In recognition of the tentative nature of current
knowledge claims, scientific truth is not a goal that can be reached in absolute
terms, but can remain as one of the hallmarks of the traditions of scientific practice.
Students should be encouraged to make distinctions between what is observable
and testable, as well as develop the ability to consider the abstract deductions,
models, and themes that derive from evolving scientific research and thinking.
Section 2 25
Conceptual knowledge in science can also be integrated with principles from other
disciplines. The inclusion of social, historical, and political implications in the study
of chemistry provides students with opportunities to develop a facility to
communicate ideas effectively through verbal and written expression. Finally,
students will benefit from opportunities to develop an awareness of the options
available to them for careers and vocations in the wide diversity of sciences.
Grade 12 Chemistry, as a component of young peoples whole educational
experience, will assist in preparing them for a full and satisfying life. This
curriculum will sustain and develop the curiosity of young people about the
natural world around them, and build their confidence in their ability to inquire
into its behaviour, now and in the future. It seeks to foster a sense of wonder,
enthusiasm, and interest in science so that young people will feel confident and
competent to engage with everyday scientific and technological applications and
solutions.
As students study a range of topics through various sub-disciplines of chemistry,
they will develop a broad, general understanding of the important ideas and
explanatory frameworks of the field as a whole, including the procedures of
scientific inquiry that have had a major impact on our material environment and on
our culture. They will develop an appreciation for why these ideas are valued and
the underlying rationale for decisions that they may wish, or may be advised, to
take in everyday contexts, both now and in later life. They will be able to
understand, and respond critically to, media reports of issues with a science
(particularly a chemistry-related) component. Finally, students will feel empowered
to hold and express personal viewpoints on issues with a science component that
enter the arena of public debate, and perhaps to become actively involved in some
of these issues (Millar and Osborne 12).
results-Based Learning*
In results-based learning, the programming focus is on what students know and
can do, rather than on what material is covered. The learning outcomes are an
elaboration of the knowledge, strategies, and skills and attitudes expected of each
Grade 12 Chemistry student. All programming decisions are directed toward
addressing the gap between the students present level of performance and the
performance specified in the learning outcomes.
Bridging the Gap between

Student Performance and the Identified Learning Outcomes
Present Level of
Student Performance
Programming Decisions
Grade 12 Student
Learning Outcomes
Instructional Strategies
Materials and Resources
Assessment Tools and Strategies
________________
Implementation. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 2000. Adapted from Section 2, p. 9.
26 Section 2
The student learning outcomes are not taught separately or in isolation. Nor are
they taught consecutively in the order in which they appear in the curriculum
documents. Most lessons or units draw on knowledge, skills and strategies, and
attitudes addressed in several or all general learning outcomes. In the process of
planning, teachers are encouraged to identify the learning outcomes they intend to
assess, and link all assessment to the specific learning outcomes.
In implementing results-based curricula, experienced teachers may find that they
use many of the instructional strategies and resources they have used previously.
However, the nature of results-based learning will reshape their programming in
several ways:
Planning is ongoing throughout the semester or year because instruction is
informed by learning requirements that become evident through continuous
assessment.
Some learning outcomes, especially skills and attitudes outcomes, are addressed
repeatedly in different ways throughout the school semester or year. As students
develop new scientific knowledge, skills and strategies, and attitudes, they need
to practise and refine those they have previously experienced.
Varied instructional approaches*
Teachers wear a number of different pedagogical hats, and change their teaching
styles in relation to the cognitive gains, attitudes, and skills demanded of the task at
hand (Hodson). In planning instruction for Grade 12 Chemistry, teachers may draw
upon a repertoire of instructional approaches and methods and use combinations of
these in each unit and lesson. Many suggestions are contained in this document.
Instructional approaches may be categorized as
direct instruction
indirect instruction
experiential learning
independent study
interactive instruction
Most teachers draw from all these categories to ensure variety in their classroom
learning experiences, to engage students with various intelligences and a range of
learning approaches, and to achieve instructional goals.
________________
p. 10.
Section 2 27
The following diagram displays instructional approaches and suggests some

examples of methods within each approach. Note that the approaches overlap.
Instructional Approaches*
Interactive Instruction
Debates
Role Playing
Panels
Brainstorming
Peer Conferencing
Discussion
Collaborative Learning Groups
Problem Solving
Talking Circles
Peer Editing
Interviewing
Direct Instruction
Lesson Overviews
Guest Speakers
Explicit Teaching
Instruction of Strategic Processes
Modelling
Didactic Questioning
Demonstrations
Mini-Lessons
Guides for Reading,
Listening, and Viewing
Independent Study
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Essays
Reports
Study Guides
Learning Contracts
Homework
Inquiry and Research Projects
Learning Centres
Indirect Instruction
Jigsaw Groups
Problem Solving
Inquiry and Research
Reading and Viewing for Meaning
Reflective Discussion
Gallery Walks
Concept Mapping
Experiential Learning
Field Trips
Simulations
Primary Research
Games
Focused Imaging
Observations
Role Playing
Surveys
* Source: 1991, Government of Saskatchewan. Adapted with permission.
28 Section 2
instructional approaches
In selecting instructional approaches and methods, teachers consider which
combination will assist students in achieving the learning outcomes targeted for a
particular lesson or unit. Teachers consider the advantages and limitations of the
approaches and methods, as well as the interests, knowledge, skills, and attitudes of
their students. Some of these elements are represented in the following chart.
Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods*

Instructional
Approaches
Roles
Purposes/Uses
Methods
Advantages/
Limitations
Direct
Instruction
Highly teacherdirected
Teacher uses
didactic questioning
to elicit student
involvement
Providing information
Developing step-bystep skills and
strategies
Introducing other
approaches and
methods
Teaching active
listening and note
making
Teachers:
Explicit teaching
Lesson overviews
Guest speakers
Instruction of strategic
processes
Lecturing
Didactic questioning
Demonstrating and
modelling prior to
guided practice
Mini-lessons
Guides for reading,
listening, and viewing
Effective in providing
students with
knowledge of steps
of highly sequenced
skills and strategies
Limited use in
developing abilities,
processes, and
attitudes for critical
thinking and
interpersonal
learning
May encourage
passive, not active
learning
Indirect
Instruction
Mainly studentcentred
Teachers role
shifts to facilitator,
supporter, resource
person
Teacher monitors
progress to
determine when
intervention or
another approach
is required
Activating student
interest and curiosity
Developing creativity
and interpersonal
skills and strategies
Exploring diverse
possibilities
Forming hypotheses
and developing
concepts
Solving problems
Drawing inferences
Students:
Observing
Investigating
Inquiring and
researching
Jigsaw groups
Problem solving
Reading and viewing
for meaning
Reflective discussion
Concept mapping
Active involvement
an effective way for
students to learn
High degree of
differentiation and
pursuit of individual
interests possible
Excellent facilitation
and organizational
skills required of
teachers
Some difficulty
integrating focused
instruction and
concepts of content
(continued)
Section 2 29
Instructional Approaches: Roles, Purposes, and Methods (continued)

Instructional
Approaches
Roles
Purposes/Uses
Methods
Advantages/
Limitations
Interactive
Instruction
Student-centred
Teacher forms
groups, teaches
and guides smallgroup skills and
strategies
Activating student
interest and curiosity
Developing creativity
and interpersonal skills
and strategies
Exploring diverse
possibilities
Forming hypotheses
and developing
concepts
Solving problems
Drawing inferences
Students participating in:

Discussions
Sharing
Generating alternative
ways of thinking and
feeling
Decision making
Debates
Role-playing
Panels
Brainstorming
Peer conferencing
Collaborative learning
groups
Problem solving
Talking circles
Interviewing
Peer editing
Increase of student
motivation and
learning through
active involvement in
groups
Key to success is
teachers knowledge
and skill in forming
groups, instructing,
and guiding group
dynamics
Effective in assisting
students
development of life
skills in cooperation
and collaboration
Experiential
Instruction
Student-centred
Teachers role may
be to design the
order and steps of
the process
Focusing on processes
of learning rather than
on products
Developing students
knowledge and
experience
Preparing students for
direct instruction

Learning activities
Field trips
Simulations
Primary research
Games
Focused imaging
Role-playing
Surveys
Sharing observations
and reflections
Reflecting critically on
experiences
Developing hypotheses
and generalizations in
new situations
Increase in student
understanding and
retention
Additional resources
and time required for
hands-on learning
Independent
Study
Student-centred
Teachers role to
guide or supervise
students
independent study,
teach knowledge,
skills, and
strategies that
students require for
independent
learning, and
provide adequate
practice
Accessing and
developing student
initiative
Developing student
responsibility
Developing selfreliance and
independence

Inquiry and research
projects
Using a variety of
approaches and
methods
Computer-assisted
instruction
Essays and reports
Study guides
Learning contracts
Homework
Learning centres
Students grow as
independent, lifelong
learners
Student maturity,
knowledge, skills,
and strategies
important to success
Student access to
resources essential
Approach flexible
(may be used with
individual students
while other students
use other
approaches)
30 Section 2
Linking instructional approaches with Specific instructional Strategies

The interactions of the five instructional approaches just discussed can be linked to
more specific strategies commonly found within this curriculum document.
Although not exhaustive, the instructional strategies that follow may be used with
Grade 12 Chemistry as starting points toward a broader array of strategically used
classroom learning experiences with students.
Direct Instruction
Teacher demonstrations: Demonstrations, such as discrepant events, may be
used to arouse student interest and allow for visualization of phenomena.
Demonstrations can activate prior knowledge and generate discussion around
learning outcomes.
Community connections: Field trips and guest speakers may provide students
with opportunities to see science applied in their community and in local natural
environments.
Prior knowledge activities: Students learn best when they are able to relate new
knowledge to what they already know. Brainstorming, KWL (Know, Want to
know, Learned) charts, and Listen-Think-Pair-Share (see SYSTH, Chapter 9)* are
just a few of the strategies that may be used to activate and assess students prior
knowledge.
Indirect Instruction
Class discussion (teacher facilitated): Discussions may be used in a variety of
ways. They may spark interest in a topic or learning outcome, activate prior
knowledge by inviting speculation on why certain events occur, or generate ideas
for solutions to problems.
Collaborative teamwork: Instructional strategies, such as the Jigsaw or
Roundtable (see SYSTH, 3.19, 3.20, and Appendix 7), encourage students to learn
from one another and to develop teamwork skills. The use of cooperative
learning activities may lead to increased understanding of content and improved
thinking skills.
Interactive Instruction
Class discussion (student facilitated): Student-led discussions may be used with
groups of students who are amenable to this form of interaction once procedures
have been well developed in advance. They may spark interest in a topic or
learning outcome, activate prior knowledge by inviting speculation on why
certain events occur, or generate ideas for solutions to problems.
Debates: Debates draw upon students own positions on STSE issues. When
carefully structured, debates may be used to encourage students consideration of
societal concerns and the opinions of others, and improve their communication
and research skills.
________________
* For a discussion of these and other instructional strategies, see Senior Years Science Teachers
Handbook (Manitoba Education and Training)abbreviated as SYSTH in this document.
Section 2 31
Experiential Learning
Student research/reports: Learning projects that involve student research are
among the most effective ways to individualize instruction in a diverse
classroom. These learning activities provide students with opportunities to
develop their research skills as they gather, process, and evaluate information.
Problem-based learning (PBL): PBL is a curricular design that centres on an
authentic problem. Students are assigned roles and presented with a problem
that has no single, clear-cut solution. Students acquire content knowledge as they
work toward solving the problem.
Journal writing: Science journal writing allows students to explore and record
various aspects of their experiences in science class. By sorting out their thoughts
on paper or thinking about their learning (metacognition), students are better
able to process what they are learning.
Laboratory activities: Laboratory activities, whether student- or teacherdesigned, provide students with opportunities to apply their scientific
knowledge and skills related to a group of learning outcomes. Students will
appreciate the hands-on experience of doing science, as opposed to a sense of just
learning about science.
Independent Study
WebQuests: A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or all of
the information used by learners comes from resources on the Internet.
WebQuests are designed to use learners time well, to focus on using information
rather than looking for it, and to support learners thinking at the levels of
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Visual displays: When students create visual displays, they make their thinking
visible. Generating diagrams, concept maps, posters, and models provides
students with opportunities to represent abstract information in a more concrete
form.
Phases of Learning*
When preparing instructional plans and goals, many teachers find it helpful to
consider three learning phases:
activating (preparing for learning)
acquiring (integrating and processing learning)
applying (consolidating learning)
These phases are not entirely linear but are a useful way of thinking and planning.
A variety of activating, acquiring, and applying strategies are discussed in Success
for All Learners: A Handbook on Differentiating Instruction and in Senior Years Science
Teachers Handbook (Manitoba Education and Training).
________________
pp. 1215.
32 Section 2
Activating (Preparing for Learning)

One of the strongest indications of how well students will comprehend new
information is their prior knowledge of the subject. Some educators observe that
more student learning occurs during this activating phase than at any other time. In
planning instruction and assessment, teachers develop student learning experiences
and select strategies for activating their students prior knowledge. Using these
activating strategies, the learning experiences then provide information about the
extent of students prior knowledge of the topic to be studied, their knowledge of
and familiarity with the context in which that knowledge was acquired, and their
knowledge of and proficiency in applying skills for learning.
Learning experiences that draw on students prior knowledge
help students relate new information, skills, and strategies to what they already
know and can do (e.g., if a text includes unfamiliar vocabulary, students may not
recognize the connection between what they know and the new material being
presented)
allow teachers to recognize misconceptions that might make learning difficult for
students
allow teachers to augment and strengthen students knowledge base when
students do not possess adequate prior knowledge and experience to engage
with new information and ideas
help students recognize gaps in their knowledge
stimulate curiosity and initiate the inquiry process that will direct learning
Acquiring (Integrating and Processing Learning)
In the second phase of learning, students engage with new information and
integrate it with what they already know, adding to and revising their previous
knowledge. Part of the teachers role in this phase is to present this new
information or to help students access it from various resources.
Since learning is an internal process, however, facilitating learning requires more of
teachers than simply presenting information. In the acquiring phase, teachers
instruct students in strategies that help them make meaning of information,
integrate it with what they already know, and express their new understanding. In
addition, teachers monitor these processes to ensure that learning is taking place,
using a variety of instruments, tools, and strategies such as observations,
conferences, and examination of student work.
In practice, within an actual lesson or unit, the acquiring phase of learning may
include a series of steps and strategies, such as
setting the purpose (e.g., discrepant events, lesson overviews, learning logs,
Admit Slips)
presenting information (e.g., lab demonstrations, guest speakers, mini-lessons,
active reading)
processing information (e.g., note making, group discussions, journals, visual
representations)
Section 2 33
modelling (e.g., role-playing, demonstrations)

checking for understanding (e.g., quizzes, informal conferences)
Applying (Consolidating Learning)
New learning that is not reinforced is soon forgotten. The products and
performances by which students demonstrate new learning are not simply required
for assessment; they have an essential instructional purpose in providing students
with opportunities to demonstrate and consolidate their new knowledge, skills and
strategies, and attitudes. Students also need opportunities to reflect on what they
have learned and to consider how new learning applies to new situations. By
restructuring information, expressing new ideas in another form, or integrating
what they have learned in science with concepts from other subject areas, students
strengthen and extend learning.
To ensure that students consolidate new learning, teachers plan various learning
experiences involving
reflection (e.g., journals, Exit Slips)
closure (e.g., sharing of products, debriefing on processes)
application (e.g., inquiry, design process)
Differentiating instruction
How can Senior Years science teachers meet each students learning requirements
and still make learning experiences challenging and meaningful for all? One way to
help all students achieve the identified student learning outcomes is to differentiate
the instructional strategies. Grade 12 Chemistry makes reference to a variety of
field-validated strategies for differentiating instruction. Most have been taken from
the support document Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook (Manitoba Education
and Training).
Through differentiating instruction, teachers can
activate students prior knowledge
accommodate multiple intelligences and the variety of learning and thinking
approaches
help students interpret, apply, and integrate information
facilitate the transfer of knowledge, skills and strategies, and attitudes to
students daily lives
challenge students to realize academic and personal progress and achievement
Differentiating instruction does not mean offering different programming to each
student. Classroom experiences can be differentiated by offering students choices
and by varying instructional and assessment strategies to provide challenging and
effective learning experiences for all. Ideas for differentiating instruction are
provided in Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook and in Success for All Learners: A
Handbook on Differentiating Instruction (Manitoba Education and Training).
34 Section 2
Promoting Strategic Learning*

Many of the tasks science students perform are problem-solving tasks, such as
finding sources of information for an inquiry project, making meaning of a difficult
text, or organizing a body of information. To solve problems, students require a
strategic mindset; when confronted with a problem, students survey a number of
possible strategies, select the one that seems likely to work best for the situation,
and try an alternative method if the first one does not produce results.
Strategic learners in the sciences need to have not only a strategic mindset, but also
a repertoire of strategies for making meaning, for processing information, and for
expressing ideas and information effectively. Whereas skills are largely unconscious
mental processes that learners use in accomplishing learning tasks, strategies are
systematic and conscious plans, actions, and thoughts that learners select or invent
and adapt to each task. Strategies are often described as knowing what to do, how
to do it, when to do it, and why it is useful.
Scaffolding: Supporting Students in Strategic Learning
Many scientific tasks involve a complex interaction of skills. The most effective way
to learn, however, is not by breaking down the tasks into manageable parts and
teaching the skills separately and in isolation. In fact, this approach may be
counterproductive. Purcell-Gates uses the analogy of learning to ride a bicycle, a
skill that requires children to develop an intuitive sense of balance while also
learning to pedal and steer. Children do not learn to ride a bicycle by focusing on
only one of these skills at a time. Instead, they observe others who can ride a bicycle
successfully, and then make an attempt themselves. In the early stages of learning
to ride, a child counts on someone to provide supportto hold the bicycle upright
while the child mounts, to keep a hand on the seat to stabilize the bicycle for the
first few metres, and to coach and encourage. Gradually, these supports are
withdrawn as the rider becomes more competent. Eventually, the process becomes
automatic, and the rider is no longer aware of the skills being performed.
Providing this sort of support in teaching is called scaffolding, based on the work
of Wood, Bruner, and Ross. Teachers scaffold by
structuring tasks so that learners begin with something they can do
reducing the complexity of tasks
calling students attention to critical features of the tasks
modelling steps
providing sufficient guided and independent practice
_________________
pp. 1617.
Section 2 35
In a sense, each learning strategy is an external support or scaffold. At first,

working with a new strategy may be challenging and the main focus of students
attention. Eventually, students use the strategy automatically and rely on it as a
learning tool. Students gradually internalize the process of the strategy. They begin
to adjust and personalize the process and to apply the thinking behind the strategy
automatically.
In strategic instruction, teachers observe and monitor students use of a strategy for
a time, intervening where necessary. Students vary in the length of time they
require scaffolding. In this respect, strategic instruction is also a useful tool for
differentiation. Struggling learners may work with simplified versions of a strategy,
and they may continue to use the supports of a strategy (for example, a graphic
organizer for laboratory reports) after other students have internalized the process.
Strategic instruction works best when teachers pace the instruction of new
strategies carefully (so that students have time to practise each one), and when they
teach a strategy in the context of a specific task of relevant scientific experience.
36 Section 2
Section 3:
ASSeSSment in GrAde 12 chemiStry
Classroom Assessment 3
Changing Emphases in Assessment 4
Purposes of Assessment 5
Assessment Strategies 7
Planning for Assessment 10
Characteristics of Effective Assessment 10
Managing Classroom Assessment 15
Grade 12 ChemiStry Assessment in Grade 12 Chemistry
ASSeSSment in GrAde 12 chemiStry

Classroom Assessment
Classroom assessment is an integral part of science instruction. Assessment could
be described as the systematic process of gathering information about what a
student knows, is able to do, and is learning to do (Manitoba Education and
Training, Reporting on Student Progress and Achievement 5). The primary purpose of
classroom assessment is not to evaluate and classify student performance, but to
inform teaching and improve learning, and to monitor student progress in
achieving year-end learning outcomes.
Rather than emphasizing the recall of specific, detailed and unrelated facts,
[assessment in science] should give greater weight to an assessment of a holistic
understanding of the major scientific ideas and a critical understanding of science
and scientific reasoning (Millar and Osborne 25).
Classroom assessment is broadly defined as any activity or experience that provides

information about student learning. Teachers learn about student progress not only
through formal tests, examinations, and projects, but also through moment-bymoment observation of students in action. They often conduct assessment through
instructional activities.
Much of students learning is internal. To assess students science knowledge, skills
and strategies, and attitudes, teachers require a variety of tools and approaches.
They ask questions, observe students engaged in a variety of learning activities and
processes, and examine student work in progress. They also engage students in
peer-assessment and self-assessment activities. The information that teachers and
students gain from assessment activities informs and shapes what happens in the
classroom; assessment always implies that some action will follow.
To determine whether student learning outcomes have been achieved, student
assessment must be an integrated part of teaching and learning. Assessment of
student learning involves careful planning and systematic implementation.
Section 3 3
Assessment in Grade 12 Chemistry Grade 12 ChemiStry
Changing Emphases in Assessment

This view of effective assessment in science for Manitoba is reflective of changes in
emphases in science education at the national level and is congruent with
international changes in science education. The following chart summarizes some of
the changes in the assessment of student learning, as envisioned in National Science
Education Standards (National Research Council).
Changing Emphases in Assessment of Student Learning*
The assessment standards encompass the following changes in emphases:
Less Emphasis On
More Emphasis On
Assessing what is easily measured
Assessing what is most highly valued
Assessing scientific knowledge
Assessing scientific understanding and

reasoning
Assessing discrete knowledge
Assessing to learn what students do not

know
Assessing only achievement
End-of-term assessments by teachers

Development of external assessment by
measurements experts alone
Assessing rich, well-structured

knowledge
Assessing to learn what students do

understand
Assessing achievement and opportunity

to learn
Students engaged in ongoing
assessment of their work and that of
others
Teachers involved in the development of

external assessments
* Source: Reprinted with permission from National Science Education Standards, 1996 by the
National Academy of Sciences, courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
4 Section 3
Purposes of Assessment
Assessment is integral to instruction and learning. It plays a major role in how
students learn, their motivation to learn, and how teachers teach. Research indicates
that ongoing formative assessment contributes more significantly to learning than
the traditional focus on summative assessment does (Black and Wiliam). Manitoba
Education refers to formative assessment as assessment for learning and assessment
as learning.
Each type of assessment serves a purpose and contributes to student success:
assessment for learning helps teachers to gain insight into what students
understand so that they can appropriately plan and differentiate teaching
strategies and learning opportunities to help students progress. Students need
frequent opportunities to obtain meaningful and relevant feedback. Descriptive
feedback that includes analytical questions and constructive comments provides
information to students that they may use to adjust their learning processes, and
is more helpful to students than a numeric or alphabetic grade.
assessment as learning helps students to develop an awareness of how they
learn and to use that awareness to adjust and advance their learning, taking an
increased responsibility for their learning. When students have the opportunity
to become reflective learners they can synthesize their learning, solve problems,
apply their learning in authentic situations, and better understand their learning
processes.
assessment of learning serves to confirm whether or not students have met
curricular outcomes, and provides evidence of achievement to students, teachers,
and parents, as well as to the broader educational community. Assessment of
learning supports learning when it is used to celebrate success, adjust future
instruction, and provide feedback to the learner.
Assessment must be planned with its purpose in mind. Assessment for, as, and of
learning all have a role to play in supporting and improving student learning, and
must be appropriately balanced. The most important part of assessment is the
interpretation and use of the information that is gleaned for its intended purpose.
For more information on assessment, consult Rethinking Classroom Assessment with
Purpose in Mind: Assessment for Learning, Assessment as Learning, Assessment of
Learning (Earl, Katz, and Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for
Collaboration in Education).
Section 3 5
Overview of Planning Assessment*

Assessment for Learning
Assessment as Learning
Assessment of Learning
Why Assess?
to enable teachers to determine

next steps in advancing student
learning
to guide and provide

opportunities for each student
to monitor and critically reflect
on his or her learning and
identify next steps
to certify or inform parents or

others of students proficiency
in relation to curriculum learning
outcomes
Assess What?
each students progress and

learning needs in relation to the
curricular outcomes
each students thinking about

his or her learning, what
strategies he or she uses to
support or challenge that
learning, and the mechanisms
he or she uses to adjust and
advance his or her learning
the extent to which students

can apply the key concepts,
knowledge, skills, and attitudes
related to the curriculum
outcomes
What
Methods?
a range of methods in different

modes that make students
skills and understanding visible

modes that elicit students
learning and metacognitive
processes

modes that assess both product
and process
Ensuring
Quality
accuracy and consistency of

observations and
interpretations of student
learning
accuracy and consistency of

students self-reflection, selfmonitoring, and selfadjustment
accuracy, consistency, and

fairness of judgments based
on high-quality information
clear, detailed learning

expectations
engagement of the student in

considering and challenging
his or her thinking
accurate, detailed notes for

descriptive feedback to each
student
Using the
Information
provide each student with

accurate feedback to further
his or her learning
differentiate instruction by
continually checking where
each student is in relation to
the curricular outcomes
provide parents or guardians
with descriptive feedback
about student learning and
ideas for support
clear, detailed learning

expectations
fair and accurate summative
reporting
students record their own

learning
accurate, descriptive
feedback that will help him or
her develop independent
learning habits
indicate each students level

of learning
have each student focus on

the task and his or her
learning (not on getting the
right answer)
report fair, accurate, and

detailed information that can
be used to decide the next
steps in a students learning
provide the foundation for

discussions on placement or
promotion

ideas for adjusting,
rethinking, and articulating
his or her learning
provide the conditions for the
teacher and student to
discuss alternatives
students report about their
learning
* Source: Earl, Lorna M., Steven Katz, and Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education.
Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind: Assessment for Learning, Assessment as Learning, Assessment of
Learning. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth, 2006. 85. Available online at
<www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/assess/wncp/>.
6 Section 3
Assessment Strategies*
A range of assessment strategies can be used in the chemistry classroom, including
those described below. The same strategy can be used for both formative and
summative assessment, depending on the purpose of the assessment. Teachers are
encouraged to develop their own assessment for Senior Years science based on their
students learning requirements and the identified student learning outcomes.
Observation: Observation of students is an integral part of the assessment
process. It is most effective when focused on skills, concepts, and attitudes.
Making brief notes on index cards, self-adhesive notes, or grids, as well as
keeping checklists, helps teachers maintain records of continuous progress and
achievement.
interviews: Interviews allow teachers to assess an individuals understanding
and achievement of the student learning outcome(s). Interviews provide students
with opportunities to model and explain their understandings. Interviews may
be formal and informal. Posing science-related questions during planned
interviews enables teachers to focus on individual student skills and attitudes.
Students reveal their thinking processes and use of skills and strategies when
they are questioned about how they solved problems or answered science
questions. Using a prepared set of questions ensures that all interviews follow a
similar structure. It is important to keep a record of student responses and/or
understandings.
Group/peer assessment: Group assessment gives students opportunities to assess
how well they work within a group. Peer assessment gives them opportunities to
reflect on one anothers work, according to clearly established criteria. During the
peer-assessment process, students must reflect on their own understanding in
order to evaluate the performance of another student.
Self-assessment: Self-assessment is vital to all learning and, therefore, integral to
the assessment process. Each student should be encouraged to assess her or his
own work. Students apply known criteria and expectations to their work and
reflect on results to determine their progress toward the mastery of a specific
learning outcome. Participation in setting self-assessment criteria and
expectations helps students to see themselves as scientists and problem solvers. It
is important that teachers model the self-assessment process before expecting
students to assess themselves.
Science journal entries: Science journal writing provides students with
opportunities to reflect on their learning and to demonstrate their understanding
using pictures, labelled drawings, and words. These journal entries can be
powerful tools of formative assessment, allowing teachers to gauge a students
depth of understanding.
________________
* Source: Manitoba Education and Youth. Senior 2 Science: A Foundation for Implementation. Winnipeg,
MB: Manitoba Education and Youth, 2003. Reprinted from pp. 4850.
Section 3 7
rubrics/checklists: Rubrics and checklists are tools that identify the criteria upon
which student processes, performances, or products will be assessed. They also
describe the qualities of work at various levels of proficiency for each criterion.
Rubrics and checklists may be developed in collaboration with students.
Visual displays: When individuals or groups of students prepare visual displays,
they are involved in processing information and producing a knowledge
framework. The completed work (e.g., poster, concept map, diagram, model) is
the product with which teachers can determine what their students are thinking.
Laboratory reports: Laboratory reports allow teachers to gauge the ability of
students to observe, record, and interpret experimental results. These tools can
aid teachers in determining how well students understand the content.
Pencil-and-paper tasks: Quizzes can be used as discrete assessment tools, and
tests can be larger assessment experiences. These written tasks may include items
such as multiple-choice questions, completion of a drawing or labelled diagram,
problem solving, or long-answer questions. Ensure that both restricted and
extended expository responses are included in these assessment devices.
research reports/presentations: Research projects allow students to achieve the
learning outcomes in individual ways. Assessment should be built into the
project at every stage, from planning, to researching, to presenting the finished
product.
Performance assessment/student demonstrations: Performance tasks provide
students with opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge, thinking processes,
and skill development. The tasks require the application of knowledge and skills
related to a group of learning outcomes. Performance-based tests do not test the
information students possess, but the way their understanding of a subject has
been deepened, and their ability to apply their learning in a simulated
performance. A scoring rubric that includes a scale for the performance of the
task helps organize and interpret evidence. Rubrics allow for a continuum of
performance levels associated with the task being assessed.
8 Section 3
Performance-Based Assessment Approaches*

The following performance-based assessment approaches and strategies can be used
to assess student knowledge and skills:
Interpretation of media reports of science: Short pieces extracted from
newspapers could be used to assess the following: whether pupils understand the
scientific content of the piece; whether they can identify and evaluate the possible
risks and quality of the evidence presented; whether they can offer well-thought-out
reactions to the claims; and, finally, whether they can give their opinions about future
action that could be taken by individuals, governments, or other bodies.
Demonstration of an understanding of the major explanatory stories of
science: Questions should seek to examine observable results such as the
following: whether students have understood, for example, what the particle model
of matter is; whether they can give a short account of it; whether they can use it to
explain everyday phenomena; and whether they can explain why it is an important
idea in science.
Asking and answering questions based on data: Such questions should assess
students abilities to represent data in a variety of ways; to formulate and interpret
the messages that can be extracted from data; and to detect errors and dishonesty
in the way data are presented or selected. The ability to manipulate and interpret
data is a core skill that is of value, not only in science, but also in a wide range of
other professions and contexts.
Recognizing the role of evidence: At the heart of scientific rationality is a
commitment to evidence. Contemporary science confronts the modern citizen with
claims that are contested and uncertain. Questions based on historical or
contemporary examples can be used to investigate students understanding of the
role of evidence in resolving competing arguments between differing theoretical
accounts.
* Source: Millar, Robin, and Jonathan Osborne, eds. Beyond 2000: Science Education for the Future.
London, UK: Kings College, 1998. 26. Adapted with permission.
Section 3 9
Planning for Assessment

Assessment purposes, approaches, and tools should be developed with
instructional approaches during the planning of the unit. In developing assessment
tasks and methods, teachers determine
what they are assessing
why they are assessing
how the assessment information will be used
who will receive the assessment information
what assessment activities or tasks will allow students to demonstrate their
learning in authentic ways
Characteristics of Effective Assessment*

Effective assessment helps focus effort on implementing strategies to facilitate
learning both inside and outside the classroom. Effective assessment is
congruent with instruction and integral to it
ongoing and continuous
based on authentic tasks and meaningful science-learning processes and contexts
based on criteria that students know and understand and that appeal to their
strengths
a collaborative process involving students
multi-dimensional and uses a wide range of tools and methods
focused on what students have learned and can do
effective assessment is Congruent with (and integral to) instruction
Assessment requires teachers to be aware continually of the purpose of instruction:
What do I want my students to learn? What can they do to show that they have
learned it?
How teachers assess depends on what they are assessingwhether they are
assessing declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, or attitudes and habits of
mind.
declarative knowledge: If teachers wish to measure fact-based recall, declarative
knowledge is the most straightforward dimension of learning to measure using
traditional tools. The purpose of fostering scientific literacy, however, is not met
if students simply memorize the declarative knowledge related to science; what
is more important is whether students understand and are able to apply this
knowledge. For example, it is more important that they understand the purposes
and effects of biodiversity, that they respond to and interpret what biodiversity
means for them personally and environmentally, and that they use terminology
__________________
pp. 1014.
10 Section 3
with ease to enrich their scientific communication skills, and representrather

than reproducea definition of biodiversity. The challenge teachers face is to
design tools that test the application of declarative knowledge.
Procedural knowledge: Tools that are designed to test declarative knowledge
cannot effectively assess skills and processes. For example, rather than trying to
infer student processes by looking at final products, teachers assess procedural
knowledge by observing students in action, by discussing their strategies with
them in conferences and interviews, and by gathering data from student
reflections, such as journals.
attitudes and habits of mind: Attitudes and habits of mind cannot be assessed
directly. They are implicit in what students do and say. Assessment tools
typically describe the behaviours that reflect the attitudes and habits of
scientifically literate individuals. They identify the attitudes and habits of mind
that enhance science-related language learning and use, and provide students
with the means to reflect on their own internal processes. For example, rather
than assigning global marks for class participation, teachers assess learning
outcomes related to students effective contributions to large and small groups.
Assessment is intended to inform students of the programming emphases and to
help them focus on important aspects of learning. If teachers assess only the
elements that are easiest to measure, students may focus only on those things. For
example, if science courses place a high value on collaboration, creativity, and
divergent thinking (learning outcomes that may be more difficult to measure), then
assessment tools and processes must reflect those values. The ways teachers assess
(what and how) inform students of what is considered important in learning.
effective assessment is Ongoing and Continuous
Assessment that is woven into daily instruction offers students frequent
opportunities to gain feedback, to modify their learning approaches and methods,
and to observe their progress. Teachers provide informal assessment by questioning
students and offering comments. They also conduct formal assessments at various
stages of a project or unit of study.
Continuous assessment provides ongoing opportunities for teachers to review and
revise instruction, content, process emphases, and learning resources.
effective assessment is Based on authentic tasks and meaningful ScienceLearning Processes and Contexts
Assessment tasks in science should be authentic and meaningfultasks worth
mastering for their own sake, rather than tasks designed simply to demonstrate
student proficiency for teachers and others. Through assessment, teachers discover
whether students can use knowledge, processes, and resources effectively to
achieve worthwhile purposes. Therefore, teachers design tasks that replicate the
context in which knowledge will be applied in the world beyond the classroom.
Section 3 11
For example, authentic science writing tasks employ the forms used by a wide
range of people (for example, scientists, journalists, filmmakers, poets, novelists,
publicists, speakers, technical writers, engineers, and academics). As often as
possible, students write, speak, or represent their ideas for real audiences and for
real purposes. In developing assessment tasks, teachers may consider providing
students with the resources people use when performing the same tasks in real-life
situations related to issues in science.
Authentic assessment tasks are tests not only of the information students possess,
but also of the way their understanding of a subject has deepened, and of their
ability to apply learning. They demonstrate to students the relevance and
importance of learning. Performance-based tests are also a way of consolidating
student learning. The perennial problem teachers have with teaching to the test
is of less concern if tests are authentic assessments of student knowledge, skills and
strategies, and attitudes.
effective assessment is Based on Criteria that Students Know and Understand
and that appeal to their Strengths
Assessment criteria must be clearly established and made explicit to students before
an assignment or a test so that students can focus their efforts. In addition,
whenever possible, students need to be involved in developing assessment criteria.
Appendix 10: Developing Assessment Rubrics in Science describes a process for
creating assessment rubrics in collaboration with students.
Students should also understand clearly what successful accomplishment of each
proposed task looks like. Models of student work from previous years and other
exemplars assist students in developing personal learning goals.
Each assessment task should test only those learning outcomes that have been
identified to students. This means, for example, that laboratory skills tests need to
be devised and marked to gather information about students laboratory skills, not
their ability to express ideas effectively when writing a laboratory report.
effective assessment is a Collaborative Process involving Students
The ultimate purpose of assessment is to enable students to assess themselves. The
gradual increase of student responsibility for assessment is aimed at developing
students autonomy as lifelong learners. Assessment should decrease, rather than
foster, students dependence on teachers comments for direction in learning and on
marks for validation of their accomplishments.
Assessment enhances students metacognition. It helps them make judgements
about their own learning, and provides them with information for goal setting and
self-monitoring.
Teachers increase students responsibility for assessment by
requiring students to select the products and performances to demonstrate their
learning
12 Section 3
involving students in developing assessment criteria whenever possible (This

clarifies the goals of a particular assignment and provides students with the
vocabulary to discuss their own work.)
involving students in peer assessment, informally through peer conferences and
formally using checklists
having students use tools for reflection and self-assessment at every opportunity
(e.g., self-assessment checklists, journals, identification and selection of goals,
self-assessment of portfolio items)
establishing a protocol for students who wish to challenge a teacher-assigned
mark (Formal appeals are valuable exercises in persuasive writing, and provide
opportunities for students to examine their performance in light of the
assessment criteria.)
effective assessment is multi-dimensional and Uses a Wide range of tools and
methods
Assessment in science must recognize the complexity and holistic nature of learning
for scientific literacy. To compile a complete profile of each students progress,
teachers gather data using many different means over numerous occasions. Student
profiles may involve both students and teachers in data gathering and assessment.
The following chart identifies areas for assessment and some suggested assessment
instruments, tools, and methods.
Data-Gathering Profile
Observation of Processes
Teacher:
Checklists
Conferences and
interviews
Anecdotal comments and
records
Reviews of drafts and
revisions
Oral presentations
Rubrics and marking
scales
Students:
Journals
Self-assessment
instruments and tools
(e.g., checklists, rating
scales, progress charts)
Peer-assessment
(e.g., peer-conference
records, rating scales)
Classroom Tests
Teacher:
Paper-and-pencil tests
(e.g., teacher-made
tests, unit tests, essaystyle tests)
Performance tests and
simulations
Rubrics and marking
scales
Students:
Journals
Self-assessment
Observation of Products and Performances

Teacher:
Written assignments
Demonstrations
Presentations
Seminars
Projects
Portfolios
Student journals and
notebooks
Checklists
Rubrics and marking
scales
Students:
Journals
Self-assessment
Peer-assessment
Portfolio analysis
Divisional and Provincial Standards Tests

Teacher marker:
Rubrics and marking scales
Section 3 13
effective assessment Focuses on What Students have Learned and Can do (Not
on What they have Not Learned or Cannot do)
Assessment must be equitable; it must offer opportunities for success to every
student. Effective assessment demonstrates the knowledge, skills and strategies,
and attitudes of each student and the progress the student is making, rather than
simply identifying deficits in learning.
To assess what students have learned and can do, teachers need to use a variety of
strategies and approaches, such as the following:
Use a wide range of instruments to assess the multi-dimensional expressions of
each students learning, avoiding reliance upon rote recall or memorization.
Provide students with opportunities to learn from feedback and to refine their
work, recognizing that not every assignment will be successful, nor will it
become part of a summative evaluation.
Examine several pieces of student work in assessing any particular learning
outcome to ensure that data collected are valid bases for making generalizations
about student learning.
Develop complete student profiles by using information from both learningoutcome-referenced assessment, which compares a students performance to
predetermined criteria, and self-referenced assessment, which compares a
students performance to her or his prior performance.
Avoid using assessment for purposes of discipline or classroom control. Research
has found that assessment that is perceived as a tool for controlling student
behaviour, meting out rewards and punishments rather than providing feedback
on student learning, reduces student motivation (Ryan, Connell, and Deci).
Students are sometimes assigned a mark of zero for incomplete work. Averaging a
zero into the students mark, however, means the mark no longer communicates
accurate information about the students achievement of science learning outcomes.
Unfinished assignments signal personal or motivational problems that need to be
addressed in appropriate and alternative ways.
Allow students, when appropriate and possible, to choose how they will
demonstrate their competence.
Use assessment tools appropriate for assessing individual and unique products,
processes, and performances.
14 Section 3
Managing Classroom Assessment*

Assessment is one of the greatest challenges science teachers face. The practices that
make science classrooms vital and effective (promoting student choice, assessing
processes, and assessing the subjective aspect of learning) make assessment a
complex matter.
Systems and supports that may assist teachers in managing assessment include
dispensing with ineffectual means of assessment
using time savers
sharing the load
taking advantage of technology
establishing systems of recording assessment information
A discussion of these suggestions follows.
dispensing with ineffectual means of assessment
Teachers need to question the efficacy, for example, of writing lengthy
commentaries on summative assessment of student projects. Detailed comments are
best provided as formative assessment (when students can make immediate use of
the feedback) and shared orally in conferences (which provide opportunities for
student-teacher discussion).
The time spent in assessment needs to be learning time, both for the teacher and the
student.
Using time Savers
Many effective assessment tools are time savers. Developing checklists and rubrics
is time-consuming; however, well-written rubrics may eliminate the need to write
extensive comments, and may mean that student performances can be assessed
largely during class time.
Sharing the Load
While the ultimate responsibility for assessment rests with the teacher, student selfassessment also provides a wealth of information. Collaborating with students to
generate assessment criteria is part of effective instruction. Grade 12 students may
develop checklists and keep copies of their own goals in an assessment binder for
periodic conferences. Students may be willing to contribute work samples to be
used as models in other classes.
Collaborating with other teachers in creating assessment tools saves time and
provides opportunities to discuss assessment criteria.
_________________
Implementation. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 1998. Adapted from Assessment,
pp. 910.
Section 3 15
taking advantage of technology

Electronic tools (e.g., audiotapes, videotapes, and computer files) can assist teachers
in making and recording observations. Word processors allow teachers to save,
modify, and reuse task-specific checklists and rubrics.
establishing Systems for recording assessment information
Collecting data from student observations is especially challenging for Senior Years
teachers, who may teach several classes of students in a given semester or term.
Teachers may want to identify a group of students in each class for observation
each week. Binders, card files, and electronic databases are useful for record
keeping, as are self-adhesive notes recording brief observations on student files,
which can later be transformed into anecdotal reports.
Teachers may also want to develop comprehensive forms for listing the identified
learning outcomes, and for recording data.
16 Section 3
Section 4:
Document organization
Document Organization and Format 3
Sample Two-Page Layout 6
General Learning Outcomes 8
Cluster 0: Skills and Attitudes Outcomes 10
Specific Learning Outcomes 13
Grade 12 ChemiStry Document Organization
Document organization
Document Organization and Format
The suggestions for instruction and assessment contained within Grade 12
Chemistry: A Foundation for Implementation provide teachers with strategies for
assisting students in achieving the general and specific learning outcomes identified
for this curriculum. The instructional and assessment suggestions offer teachers a
range of strategies from which to select appropriate directions with students.
Although they are not prescriptive, the strategies presented can be considered
starting points from which teachers can include their own initiatives, style, and
effective techniques to foster learning.
The topic-related appendices (found at the end of each topic) and the general
appendices (found at the end of this document) provide additional information on
student learning activities, teacher support materials related to instruction and
assessment, and a variety of assessment rubrics. These complementary resources
are closely linked to the learning outcomes and to the skills and attitudes outcomes,
and are designed to support, facilitate, and enhance student learning.
At-a-glance listings of the general learning outcomes, skills and attitudes outcomes,
and specific learning outcomes for Grade 12 Chemistry are provided at the end of
this section of this document, as well as in Appendix 12.

The specific learning outcomes identified for Grade 12 Chemistry are organized
according to the following five thematic topics:
Topic 2: Atomic Structure
Topic 3: Chemical Kinetics
Topic 4: Chemical Equilibrium
Topic 5: Acids and Bases
Topic 6: Electrochemistry
The suggested strategies for implementing the curriculum outcomes within each
chemistry topic include the following components:
Specific Learning Outcomes (SLOs): The SLOs identified at the top of each page
outline the intended learning to be achieved by the student by the end of the
course. They include the SLOs related to the particular chemistry topic, in
addition to the learning outcomes related to Cluster 0: Skills and Attitudes,
selected to correspond to the Suggestions for Instruction.
General Learning Outcome (GLO) Connections: The GLOs provide links across
the entire scope of the Kindergarten to Grade 12 continuum of learning in
science. These GLOs provide connections to the Five Foundations for Scientific
Literacy that guide all Manitoba science curricula in all science discipline areas.
Section 4 3
Document Organization Grade 12 ChemiStry
Suggestions for instruction: The instructional strategies relate directly to the

achievement of the identified SLOs.
entry-Level Knowledge: Students will have prior knowledge in relation to
some learning outcomes. Identification of students entry-level knowledge,
where included, links instructors to key areas of the science curriculum from
previous years, providing information about where students should be in
relation to the present learning outcomes. Prior knowledge learning activities
can then be used to provide students with a rationale about what is to come
or to refresh conceptual or procedural knowledge that has lapsed over time.
Student Learning activities: Student learning activities are suggested for all
learning outcomes. The examples of teacher-facilitated instructional strategies
presented in this document are designed to be student-centred, engaging the
learner directly in some contextual way.
teacher Notes: Incorporated throughout this document as needed, these notes
provide teachers with definitions and content background (often beyond what
students are required to know), planning hints, special-interest material, cautions
and safety information, and depth of treatment on certain issues related to the
identified learning outcomes.
Suggestions for assessment: These suggestions offer strategies for assessing
students achievement of the specific learning outcomes.
Learning resources Links: The links to additional chemistry resources are
intended to guide and support instruction, the learning process, and student
assessment. While only titles, authors, and page references are provided in the
Learning Resources Links for the specific learning outcome(s), the complete
bibliographic information is cited in the Bibliography of this document. It is
important to recognize that new editions of standard texts in the field of
chemistry can be expected about every two yearsoften with minimal changes
to content. The editions of learning resources identified in this document include
those that were used directly in the preparation of Grade 12 Chemistry: A
Foundation for Implementation. Teachers are encouraged to seek out newer
versions of texts considered as standards in the field.
The following resources are cited most frequently in the Learning resources
Links:
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 9th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2007.
Chastko, Audrey, Jeff Goldie, Frank Mustoe, Ian Phillips, and Sandy Searle. McGraw-Hill
Ryerson Inquiry into Chemistry. Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2007.
Davies, Lucille, Maurice Di Giuseppe, Ted Gibb, Milan Sanader, and Angela Vavitsas.
Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation. Ontario Edition. Toronto, ON: Thomson
Nelson, 2003.
Davis, Joseph E., W. Keith McNab, Edward L. Haenisch, A. L. McClellan, and Paul R.
OConnor. Laboratory Manual for Chemistry: Experiments and Principles. Lexington, MA:
D.C. Heath and Company, 1968.
Dingrando, Laurel, Kathleen (Gregg) Tallman, Nichols Hainen, and Cheryl Wistrom.
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change. Columbus, OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2005.
4 Section 4

_____. Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change: ChemLab and MiniLab Worksheets. Columbus,
OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2002.
_____. Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Laboratory Manual. Columbus, OH:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2005.
_____. Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teacher Edition.
Columbus, OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2002.
_____. Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition. Columbus, OH:
Fisher, Douglas. Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Science Notebook. Columbus, OH:
Jenkins, Frank, Hans van Kessel, Lucille Davies, Oliver Lantz, Patricia Thomas, and Dick
Tompkins. Nelson Chemistry 11. Ontario Edition. Toronto, ON: Nelson Thomson
Learning, 2002.
Manitoba Education and Training. Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook: A Teaching
Resource. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 1997.
Merrill, Phyllis, Robert W. Parry, and Robert L. Tellefsen. Chemistry: Experimental
Foundations, Laboratory Manual. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1982.
Mustoe, Frank, Michael P. Jansen, Ted Doram, John Ivanco, Christina Clancy, and Anita
Ghazariansteja. McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry. Combined Atlantic Edition. Toronto,
ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2004.
Penrose, Mike, Ted Gibb, Milan Sanader, and Angela Vavitsas. Nelson Chemistry 12:
College Preparation Teachers Resource. Toronto, ON: Nelson, 2004.
Phillips, John S., Victor S. Strozak, and Cheryl Wistrom. Glencoe Chemistry: Concepts and
Applications. Columbus, OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Silberberg, Martin S. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. 3rd ed. Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2003.
Slater, A., and G. Rayner-Canham. Microscale Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishers Limited, 1994.
van Kessel, Hans, Frank Jenkins, Lucille Davies, Donald Plumb, Maurice Di Giuseppe,
Oliver Lanz, and Dick Tompkins. Nelson Chemistry 12. Ontario Edition. Toronto, ON:
Thomson Nelson, 2003.
Wagner, Maxine. Prentice Hall Chemistry: The Study of Matter, Laboratory Manual. 3rd ed.
Needham, MA: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1989.
Waterman, Edward L., and Stephen Thompson. Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale
Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Boston, MA: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.
Whitman, Ronald Laurie, and Ernest E. Zinck. Prentice Hall Chemistry Today: Laboratory
Manual. Scarborough, ON: Prentice-Hall of Canada, 1976.
Wilbraham, Antony C., Dennis D. Staley, and Michael S. Matta. Prentice Hall Chemistry:
Laboratory Manual. Boston, MA: Pearson Prentice Hall, n.d.
_____. Prentice Hall Chemistry: Laboratory Manual, Teachers Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson
Prentice Hall, n.d.
Wilbraham, Antony C., Dennis D. Staley, Michael S. Matta, and Edward L. Waterman.
Prentice Hall Chemistry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education/Prentice Hall,
2005.
_____. Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education/Prentice Hall, 2005.
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. Chemistry. 5th ed. Boston, MA: HoughtonMifflin, 2000.
Section 4 5
Sample Two-Page Layout

The following clarification on reading the document format is based on a sample
two-page layout from Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for Implementation.
The first alphanumeric code

indicates course
(Grade 12
Chemistry); the
second digit indicates
topic number; and
the third digit(s)
indicate(s) specific
learning outcome
number.
GRADE 12 CHEMISTRY Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions
SLO: C12-1-11
Indicates
chemistry topic.
Suggestions for
student learning
experiences relate
directly to the
attainment of the
specific learning
outcome(s).
Include: acidic and basic solutions
SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTION
(3 hours)
Suggested instructional time allotment

for treatment of the specific learning
outcome(s).
Entry-Level Knowledge
Students learned about the conservation of atoms in Grade 10 Science (S2-2-06), and
about the conservation of atoms and mass during a chemical reaction in Grade 11
Chemistry (C11-3-12 and C11-3-13).
Assessing Prior Knowledge
Check for students understanding of prior knowledge and review concepts as
necessary.
There are two basic methods for balancing

oxidation-reduction reactions. The method that
deals with oxidation numbers is addressed here
in Topic 1 as an introduction to redox reaction.
The other more efficient method involving halfcell reactions is addressed in Topic 6, where
oxidation potentials and the electromotive series
can be discussed more comprehensively.
Examples: Provide ideas of what

could be included (non-mandatory).
No examples occur in this learning
outcome.
6 Section 4
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOME

C12-1-11: Balance oxidation-reduction reactions using redox methods.
TEACHER NOTES
Include: Indicates a mandatory

component of the specific learning
outcome, or a defined set of
limitations.
General learning
outcome (GLO)
statements
connect learning
to the Manitoba
Foundations for
Scientific Literacy.
Specific learning outcome (SLO) statements

define what students are expected to
achieve by the end of Grade 12 Chemistry.
planning hints, special-
interest
material, and depth
Generally, if the reaction is written in the molecular form, as in the
first example
treatment
that follows, then the acid or base will already be included in the of
reaction.
In the of certain
Safety
information and
case of ionic aqueous reactions, H+ ions or OH ions would needissues.
to be added
to the
appropriate side to balance both ion charge and elemental species.
The following
cautions
are included.
examples will clearly illustrate this.
Oxidation-Number Change Method

Use the steps illustrated in the following examples to balance a redox reaction using
the oxidation-number change method. With this method, a redox equation is
balanced by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers (i.e.,
electrons lost and gained).
General Learning Outcome Connections
GLO D3:
Note:
Because of the links between
oxidation-reduction and
electrochemistry, teachers may
Teacher notes provide
consider teaching Topic 6:
teachers
with background
Electrochemistry
following learning
information, definitions,
outcome C12-1-11.
Understand the properties and structures of matter, as well as various common manifestations and
applications of the actions and interactions of matter.
58 Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Skills and attitudes learning outcomes

define expectations across all topics in
Grade 12 Chemistry.
GRADE 12 CHEMISTRY Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
SKILLS
AND
ATTITUDES OUTCOMES
C12-0-U1: Use appropriate strategies and skills to develop an understanding of chemical concepts.
Examples: analogies, concept frames, concept maps, manipulatives, particulate representations, roleplays, simulations, sort-and-predict frames, word cycles . . .
C12-0-U2: Demonstrate an understanding of chemical concepts.
Examples: use accurate scientific vocabulary, explain concepts to others, compare and contrast
concepts, apply knowledge to new situations and/or contexts, create analogies, use manipulatives . . .
SUGGESTIONS FOR ASSESSMENT
Paper-and-Pencil Task
Have students balance redox equations using process notes (see SYSTH 13.14).
Journal Writing
Students may wish to write an account of the technology that goes into the
functioning and use of a traditional breathalyzer.
LEARNING RESOURCES LINKS
Glencoe Chemistry: Concepts and Applications (Phillips, Strozak, and Wistrom)

Breathalyzer Test, 569
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al.)

Section 20.2: Balancing Redox Equations, 644
The Oxidation-Number Method, 644
Section 20.3: Half-Reactions, 650
Suggested assessment
strategies relate
directly to assessing
student achievement
of the specific
learning outcome(s).
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry, Combined Atlantic Edition (Mustoe, et al.)

18.2: Oxidation Numbers, 721
18.3: The Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Equations, 730
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al.)

Selecting Learning Resources
For additional information on selecting learning resources for Grade 11 and Grade 12 Chemistry,
see the Manitoba Education website at <www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/learnres/bibliographies.html>.
Links indicate the

titles, authors, and
page references (or
URLs) where SLOrelated content is
treated within the
various learning
resources.
Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 63
Section 4 7
General Learning Outcomes

General learning outcomes (GLOs) provide connections to the Five Foundations for
Scientific Literacy that guide all Manitoba science curricula in all science discipline
areas.
A1
Recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering

questions about the world and explaining natural phenomena.
A2
Recognize that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, models, and

explanations, and evolves as new evidence appears and new
conceptualizations develop.
A3
Distinguish critically between science and technology in terms of their

respective contexts, goals, methods, products, and values.
A4
Identify and appreciate contributions made by women and men from many
societies and cultural backgrounds that have increased our understanding of
the world and brought about technological innovations.
A5

8 Section 4
B1
Describe scientific and technological developmentspast and presentand

appreciate their impact on individuals, societies, and the environment, both
locally and globally.
B2
Recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and

continue to be influenced by human needs and the societal context of the time.
B3
Identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among
personal habits, lifestyle choices, and human health, both individual and
social.
B4
Demonstrate knowledge of and personal consideration for a range of possible

science- and technology-related interests, hobbies, and careers.
B5
Identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment,

society, and economy, both locally and globally.

C1
Recognize safety symbols and practices related to scientific and technological

activities and to their daily lives, and apply this knowledge in appropriate
situations.
C2
Demonstrate appropriate scientific inquiry skills when seeking answers to

questions.
C3
Demonstrate appropriate problem-solving skills when seeking solutions to

technological challenges.
C4
Demonstrate appropriate critical thinking and decision-making skills when

choosing a course of action based on scientific and technological information.
C5
Demonstrate curiosity, skepticism, creativity, open-mindedness, accuracy,

precision, honesty, and persistence, and appreciate their importance as
scientific and technological habits of mind.
C6
Employ effective communication skills and use information technology to

gather and share scientific and technological ideas and data.
C7
Work cooperatively and value the ideas and contributions of others while
carrying out scientific and technological activities.
C8
Evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered

during investigations and in daily life.

D1
Understand essential life structures and processes pertaining to a wide variety

of organisms, including humans.
D2
Understand various biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems, as well as

their interaction and interdependence within ecosystems and within the
biosphere as a whole.
D3
Understand the properties and structures of matter, as well as various

common manifestations and applications of the actions and interactions of
matter.
D4
Understand how stability, motion, forces, and energy transfers and

transformations play a role in a wide range of natural and constructed
contexts.
D5
Understand the composition of the Earths atmosphere, hydrosphere, and

lithosphere, as well as the processes involved within and among them.
D6
Understand the composition of the universe, the interactions within it, and the
implications of humankinds continued attempts to understand and explore it.
Section 4 9
Unifying Concepts
E1
Describe and appreciate the similarity and diversity of forms, functions, and
patterns within the natural and constructed world.
E2
Describe and appreciate how the natural and constructed world is made up of
systems and how interactions take place within and among these systems.
E3
Recognize that characteristics of materials and systems can remain constant or

change over time, and describe the conditions and processes involved.
E4
Recognize that energy, whether transmitted or transformed, is the driving

force of both movement and change, and is inherent within materials and in
the interactions among them.
Cluster 0: Skills and Attitudes Outcomes

In Grade 12 Chemistry, Cluster 0 comprises four categories of specific learning
outcomes that describe the skills and attitudes involved in scientific inquiry and the
decision-making process for science, technology, society, and the environment
(STSE) issues. From Grades 5 to 10, students develop scientific inquiry through the
development of a hypothesis/prediction, the identification and treatment of
variables, and the formation of conclusions. Students begin to make decisions based
on scientific facts and refine their decision-making skills as they progress through
the grades, gradually becoming more independent. Students also develop key
attitudes, an initial awareness of the nature of science, and other skills related to
research, communication, the use of information technology, and cooperative
learning.
In Grade 12 Chemistry, students continue to use scientific inquiry as an important
process in their science learning, but also recognize that STSE issues require a more
sophisticated treatment through the decision-making process.
Teachers should select appropriate contexts to introduce and reinforce scientific
inquiry, the decision-making process, and positive attitudes within the thematic
topics (Topics 1 to 6) throughout the school year. To assist in planning and to
facilitate curricular integration, many specific learning outcomes within the Skills
and Attitudes cluster can link to specific learning outcomes in other subject areas.
Demonstrating Understanding
C12-0-U1 Use appropriate strategies and skills to develop an understanding of
chemical concepts.
Examples: analogies, concept frames, concept maps, manipulatives, particulate
representations, role-plays, simulations, sort-and-predict frames, word cycles . . .
C12-0-U2 Demonstrate an understanding of chemical concepts.

Examples: use accurate scientific vocabulary, explain concepts to others, compare and
contrast concepts, apply knowledge to new situations and/or contexts, create analogies,
use manipulatives . . .
10 Section 4
Scientific Inquiry
C12-0-S1 Demonstrate work habits that ensure personal safety and the safety of
others, as well as consideration for the environment.
Include: knowledge and use of relevant safety precautions, Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), and emergency equipment
C12-0-S2 State a testable hypothesis or prediction based on background data or on

observed events.
C12-0-S3 Design and implement an investigation to answer a specific scientific
question.
Include: materials, independent and dependent variables, controls, methods,
and safety considerations
C12-0-S4 Select and use scientific equipment appropriately and safely.

Examples: volumetric glassware, balance, thermometer . . .
C12-0-S5 Collect, record, organize, and display data using an appropriate format.
Examples: labelled diagrams, graphs, multimedia applications, software integration,
probeware . . .
C12-0-S6 Estimate and measure accurately using Systme International (SI) and
other standard units.
Include: SI conversions and significant figures
C12-0-S7 Interpret patterns and trends in data, and infer and explain
relationships.
C12-0-S8 Evaluate data and data-collection methods for accuracy and precision.
Include: discrepancies in data, sources of error, and percent error
C12-0-S9 Draw a conclusion based on the analysis and interpretation of data.

Include: cause-and-effect relationships, alternative explanations, and supporting
or rejecting a hypothesis or prediction
Research
C12-0-R1 Synthesize information obtained from a variety of sources.
Include: print and electronic sources, specialists, and other resource people
C12-0-R2 Evaluate information obtained to determine its usefulness for

information needs.
Examples: scientific accuracy, reliability, currency, relevance, balance of perspectives,
bias . . .
C12-0-R3 Quote from or refer to sources as required and reference information

sources according to an accepted practice.
C12-0-R4 Compare diverse perspectives and interpretations in the media and
other information sources.
C12-0-R5 Communicate information in a variety of forms appropriate to the
audience, purpose, and context.
Section 4 11
Communication and Teamwork

C12-0-C1 Collaborate with others to achieve group goals and responsibilities.
C12-0-C2 Elicit, clarify, and respond to questions, ideas, and diverse points of
view in discussions.
C12-0-C3 Evaluate individual and group processes.
Nature of Science
C12-0-N1 Explain the roles of theory, evidence, and models in the development of
scientific knowledge.
C12-0-N2 Describe, from a historical perspective, how the observations and
experimental work of many individuals led to modern understandings
of matter.
C12-0-N3 Describe how scientific knowledge changes as new evidence emerges
and/or new ideas and interpretations are advanced.
STSE
C12-0-T1 Describe examples of the relationship between chemical principles and
applications of chemistry.
C12-0-T2 Explain how scientific research and technology interact in the
production and distribution of beneficial materials.
C12-0-T3 Provide examples of how chemical principles are applied in products
and processes, in scientific studies, and in daily life.
Attitudes
C12-0-A1 Demonstrate confidence in their ability to carry out investigations in
chemistry and to address STSE-related issues.
C12-0-A2 Value skepticism, honesty, accuracy, precision, perseverance, and openmindedness as scientific and technological habits of mind.
C12-0-A3 Demonstrate a continuing, increasingly informed interest in chemistry
and chemistry-related careers and issues.
C12-0-A4 Be sensitive and responsible in maintaining a balance between the needs
of humans and a sustainable environment.
12 Section 4
Specific Learning Outcomes

The specific learning outcomes (SLOs) identified here constitute the intended
learning to be achieved by the student by the end of Grade 12 Chemistry. These
statements clearly define what students are expected to achieve and/or be able to
perform at the end of the course. These SLOs, combined with the Skills and
Attitudes SLOs, constitute the source upon which assessment and instructional
design are based.

C12-1-01 Explain examples of solubility and precipitation at the particulate and
symbolic levels.
C12-1-02 Perform a laboratory activity to develop a set of solubility rules.
C12-1-03 Use a table of solubility rules to predict the formation of a precipitate.
C12-1-04 Write balanced neutralization reactions involving strong acids and bases.
C12-1-05 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate the stoichiometry of a
neutralization reaction between a strong base and a strong acid.
C12-1-06 Calculate the concentration or volume of an acid or a base from the
concentration and volume of an acid or a base required for
neutralization.
C12-1-07 Design and test a procedure to determine the identity of a variety of
unknown solutions.
C12-1-08 Outline the development of scientific understanding of oxidation and
reduction reactions.
Include: gain and loss of electrons, oxidizing agent, and reducing agent
C12-1-09 Determine the oxidation numbers for atoms in compounds and ions.
C12-1-10 Identify reactions as redox or non-redox.
Include: oxidizing agent, reducing agent, oxidized substance, and reduced
substance
C12-1-11 Balance oxidation-reduction reactions using redox methods.

C12-1-12 Research practical applications of redox reactions.

Examples: rocket fuels, fireworks, household bleach, photography, metal recovery from
ores, steel making, aluminum recycling, fuel cells, batteries, tarnish removal, fruit
clocks, forensic blood detection using luminol, chemiluminescence/ bioluminescence,
electrolytic cleaning, electrodeposition, photochemical etching, antioxidants/
preservatives . . .
Section 4 13

C12-2-01 Describe qualitatively the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of
frequency, wavelength, and energy.
C12-2-02 Recognize, through direct observation, that elements have unique line
spectra.
Include: flame tests or gas discharge tubes and spectroscopes or diffraction
gratings
C12-2-03 Describe applications and/or natural occurrences of line spectra.

Examples: astronomy, aurora borealis, fireworks, neon lights . . .
C12-2-04 Outline the historical development of the quantum mechanical model of

the atom.
C12-2-05 Write electron configurations for elements of the periodic table.
Include: selected elements up to atomic number 36 (krypton)
C12-2-06 Relate the electron configuration of an element to its valence electron(s)

and its position on the periodic table.
C12-2-07 Identify and account for periodic trends among the properties of
elements, and relate the properties to electron configuration.
Include: atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energy, and electronegativity

C12-3-01 Formulate an operational definition of reaction rate.
Include: examples of chemical reactions that occur at different rates
C12-3-02 Identify variables used to monitor reaction rates (i.e., change per unit of
time, Dx/Dt).
Examples: pressure, temperature, pH, conductivity, colour . . .
C12-3-03 Perform a laboratory activity to measure the average and instantaneous

rates of a chemical reaction.
Include: initial reaction rate
C12-3-04 Relate the rate of formation of a product to the rate of disappearance of a

reactant, given experimental rate data and reaction stoichiometry.
Include: descriptive treatment at the particulate level
C12-3-05 Perform a laboratory activity to identify factors that affect the rate of a
chemical reaction.
Include: nature of reactants, surface area, concentration, pressure, volume,
temperature, and presence of a catalyst
C12-3-06 Use the collision theory to explain the factors that affect the rate of
chemical reactions.
Include: activation energy and orientation of molecules
14 Section 4
C12-3-07 Draw potential energy diagrams for endothermic and exothermic

reactions.
Include: relative rates, effect of a catalyst, and heat of reaction (enthalpy change)
C12-3-08 Describe qualitatively the relationship between the factors that affect the
rate of chemical reactions and the relative rate of a reaction, using the
collision theory.
C12-3-09 Explain the concept of a reaction mechanism.
Include: rate-determining step
C12-3-10 Determine the rate law and order of a chemical reaction from
experimental data.
Include: zero-, first-, and second-order reactions and reaction rate versus
concentration graphs

C12-4-01 Relate the concept of equilibrium to physical and chemical systems.
Include: conditions necessary to achieve equilibrium
C12-4-02 Write equilibrium law expressions from balanced chemical equations for
heterogeneous and homogeneous systems.
Include: mass action expression
C12-4-03 Use the value of the equilibrium constant (Keq) to explain how far a
system at equilibrium has gone towards completion.
C12-4-04 Solve problems involving equilibrium constants.
C12-4-05 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the equilibrium constant of an
equilibrium system.
C12-4-06 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict and explain shifts in equilibrium.
Include: temperature changes, pressure/volume changes, changes in
reactant/product concentration, the addition of a catalyst, the addition of an
inert gas, and the effects of various stresses on the equilibrium constant
C12-4-07 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate Le Chteliers principle.

C12-4-08 Interpret concentration versus time graphs.
Include: temperature changes, concentration changes, and the addition of a
catalyst
C12-4-09 Describe practical applications of Le Chteliers principle.

Examples: Haber process, hemoglobin production at high altitude, carbonated beverages,
eyes adjusting to light, blood pH, recharging of batteries, turbocharged/supercharged
engines, ester synthesis, weather indicators, arrangement of produce, carbonated
beverages in a hens diet . . .
C12-4-10 Write solubility product (Ksp) expressions from balanced chemical

equations for salts with low solubility.
Section 4 15
C12-4-11 Solve problems involving Ksp.

Include: common ion problems
C12-4-12 Describe examples of the practical application of salts with low

solubility.
Examples: kidney stones, limestone caverns, osteoporosis, tooth decay . . .
C12-4-13 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the Ksp of a salt with low
solubility.

C12-5-01 Outline the historical development of acid-base theories.
Include: the Arrhenius, Brnsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories
C12-5-02 Write balanced acid-base chemical equations.

Include: conjugate acid-base pairs and amphoteric behaviour
C12-5-03 Describe the relationship between the hydronium and hydroxide ion
concentrations in water.
Include: the ion product of water, Kw
C12-5-04 Perform a laboratory activity to formulate an operational definition of

pH.
C12-5-05 Describe how an acid-base indicator works in terms of colour shifts and
Le Chteliers principle.
C12-5-06 Solve problems involving pH.
C12-5-07 Distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases.
Include: electrolytes and non-electrolytes
C12-5-08 Write the equilibrium expression (Ka or Kb) from a balanced chemical
equation.
C12-5-09 Use Ka or Kb to solve problems for pH, percent dissociation, and
concentration.
C12-5-10 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the concentration of an
unknown acid or base, using a standardized acid or base.
C12-5-11 Predict whether an aqueous solution of a given ionic compound will be
acidic, basic, or neutral, given the formula.
16 Section 4
C12-6-01 Develop an activity series experimentally.
C12-6-02 Predict the spontaneity of reactions using an activity series.
C12-6-03 Outline the historical development of voltaic (galvanic) cells.
Include: contributions of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta
C12-6-04 Explain the operation of a voltaic (galvanic) cell at the visual, particulate,
and symbolic levels.
Include: writing half-cell reactions, the overall reaction, and shorthand (line)
notation
C12-6-05 Construct a functioning voltaic (galvanic) cell and measure its potential.
C12-6-06 Define standard electrode potential.
Include: hydrogen electrode as a reference
C12-6-07 Calculate standard cell potentials, given standard electrode potentials.

C12-6-08 Predict the spontaneity of reactions using standard electrode potentials.
C12-6-09 Compare and contrast voltaic (galvanic) and electrolytic cells.
C12-6-10 Explain the operation of an electrolytic cell at the visual, particulate, and
symbolic levels.
Include: a molten ionic compound and an aqueous ionic compound
C12-6-11 Describe practical uses of electrolytic cells.

Examples: electrolysis of water, electrolysis of brine, electroplating, production and
purification of metals . . .
C12-6-12 Using Faradays law, solve problems related to electrolytic cells.
Section 4 17
NOteS
18 Section 4
Grade 12 Chemistry
topiC 1:
reactions in aqueous solutions
topic 1: reactions in aqueous solutions

C12-1-01 Explain examples of solubility and precipitation at the particulate
C12-1-03 Use a table of solubility rules to predict the formation of a
precipitate.
C12-1-04 Write balanced neutralization reactions involving strong acids
and bases.
C12-1-05 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate the stoichiometry of
a neutralization reaction between a strong base and a strong acid.
C12-1-06 Calculate the concentration or volume of an acid or a base from
the concentration and volume of an acid or a base required for
neutralization.
C12-1-07 Design and test a procedure to determine the identity of a variety
of unknown solutions.
C12-1-08 Outline the development of scientific understanding of oxidation
and reduction reactions.
C12-1-09 Determine the oxidation numbers for atoms in compounds and

ions.
Include: oxidizing agent, reducing agent, oxidized substance, and
reduced substance


Examples: rocket fuels, fireworks, household bleach, photography, metal
recovery from ores, steel making, aluminum recycling, fuel cells, batteries,
tarnish removal, fruit clocks, forensic blood detection using luminol,
chemiluminescence/bioluminescence, electrolytic cleaning, electrodeposition,
photochemical etching, antioxidants/preservatives . . .
suggested time: 18 hours
Grade 12 CheMistry Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
SLO: C12-1-01
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions
SpeCifiC LearninG OUtCOme

C12-1-01: explain examples of solubility and precipitation at
the particulate and symbolic levels.
(0.5 hour)
suGGestions for instruCtion

The solution process was addressed in detail in Grade 11 Chemistry (Topic 4:
Solutions). Students explained the solution process of simple ionic and covalent
compounds, using visual and particulate representations and chemical equations.
Students performed a laboratory activity to illustrate the formation of solutions in
terms of the polar and non-polar nature of substances, which included the terms
soluble and insoluble.
Check for students understanding of prior knowledge, and review concepts as
necessary. Prior knowledge can be reviewed and/or assessed by using any of the
KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learned) strategies (e.g., Concept Map, Knowledge
Chart, Think-Pair-Share) found in Chapter 9 of Senior Years Science Teachers
Handbook (Manitoba Education and Training)hereinafter referred to as SYSTH.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Demonstration
Provide students with several examples of solutions and have them explain the
solution process at the molecular level and the symbolic level. In this context, the
term molecular is considered interchangeable with the term particulate.
Example 1: NaCl(s) dissolved in water
Molecular level:
NaCl (solid) + H2O (liquid)
l
l
l
l
l
l
l l
ll
ll
l
l ll
l
l
l
l
l
l
ll l
l ll l
l
l
l l
ll
l
ll l l l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l ll
ll
l l
ll l l l
ll
ll
ll
l
ll l l
l l l l l l
l ll
l
l l
l
l
l
l
l l
ll
ll
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l ll l l l l l l
l l
NaCl(aq)

GLO D3:
4 topic 1: reactions in aqueous solutions

SkiLLS
anD
attitUDeS OUtCOme
symbolic level:
NaCl (s)
H2O
NaCl(aq)
Example 2: NaCl(aq) and AgNO3(aq) combined together

n
Molecular level:
First show both solutions individually in their beakers. In beaker 1, NaCl(aq) is
drawn with the Na+ and Cl ions circulating amidst the water molecules. In
beaker 2, AgNO3(aq) is drawn with the Ag+ and NO3 ions floating around the
water molecules.
Then, in the third diagram, show the mixing of the two solutions. Students
should see that the Ag+ ions will precipitate with the Cl ions, forming a white
precipitate.
symbolic level:
Molecular equation:
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Ionic equation:
Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq)
AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3(aq)
Net ionic equation:

Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq)
AgCl(s)
Animations
Have students view animations of precipitation reactions online.
Sample Website:
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Precipitation Reactions: Another Example of
Precipitation Reaction. Teaching Laboratory. Crescent Girls School.
<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/pptReaction4.htm> (18 Jan. 2012).
This animation shows the reaction that takes place between solutions of sodium
chloride and silver nitrate.
Note: Not all mixtures of ions produce a precipitation reaction. For example, if we
mix together a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) and a solution of potassium
iodide (KI), no precipitation will occur. All ions will stay in the solution.
topic 1: reactions in aqueous solutions 5
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-01: explain examples of solubility and precipitation at
the particulate and symbolic levels.
(continued)
suGGestions for assessment

Ask students to diagram various reactions, showing the reaction at the molecular
(particulate) level and at the symbolic level.
learninG resourCes links

Chemistry (Chang 489)
Chemistry (Zumdahl and Zumdahl 133)
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg 136)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 455)
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Inquiry into Chemistry (Chastko, et al. 169)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 488)
Website
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Precipitation Reactions: Another
Example of Precipitation Reaction. Teaching Laboratory. Crescent Girls
School. <www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/pptReaction4.htm>
(18 Jan. 2012).
selecting learning resources

SkiLLS
anD
attitUDeS OUtCOme
Notes
SLO: C12-1-02
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-02: perform a laboratory activity to develop a set of solubility
rules.
(2 hours)

In Grade 9 Science (specific learning outcome S1-2-13), students defined the term
precipitate and recognized the formation of a precipitate to be one of the indicators
of a chemical change.
In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-07), students investigated double displacement reactions.
Grade 11 Chemistry (Unit 4: Solutions) presented the concepts of species being
soluble or insoluble. Concentration was also addressed in detail in Grade 11
Chemistry.
KWL strategies (e.g., Concept Map, Knowledge Chart, Think-Pair-Sharesee
SYSTH, Chapter 9).
TEAchEr NoTEs
The following demonstration is meant to be an activation activity. Students will be
able to review reactions they have studied in Grade 10 Science and in Grade 11
Chemistry. Encourage students to draw molecular representations of these
reactions.

GLO B3:
GLO B5:
GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO C8:
identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among personal habits, lifestyle
choices, and human health, both individual and social.
identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment, society, and economy, both
recognize safety symbols and practices related to scientific and technological activities and to their daily
lives, and apply this knowledge in appropriate situations.
Demonstrate curiosity, skepticism, creativity, open-mindedness, accuracy, precision, honesty, and
persistence, and appreciate their importance as scientific and technological habits of mind.
evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered during investigations and in
daily life.

SkiLLS
anD
attitUDeS OUtCOmeS
C12-0-S1: Demonstrate work habits that ensure personal safety and the safety of others, as well as
consideration for the environment.
include: knowledge and use of relevant safety precautions, Workplace Hazardous materials
information System (WHmiS), and emergency equipment
C12-0-S3: Design and implement an investigation to answer a specific scientific question.

include: materials, independent and dependent variables, controls, methods, and safety
considerations
C12-0-S5: Collect, record, organize, and display data using an appropriate format.
Examples: labelled diagrams, graphs, multimedia applications, software integration, probeware . . .
C12-0-S7: interpret patterns and trends in data, and infer and explain relationships.
C12-0-S9: Draw a conclusion based on the analysis and interpretation of data.
include: cause-and-effect relationships, alternative explanations, and supporting or rejecting a
hypothesis or prediction
C12-0-a1: Demonstrate confidence in their ability to carry out investigations in chemistry and to
address StSe-related issues.
Demonstration
Show students the reaction between potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate, or
between cobalt(II) chloride and a saturated calcium hydroxide solution (limewater).
These double displacement reactions demonstrate two indicators of a chemical
change (colour and precipitate formation). As an extension, have students predict
the products of the reaction and balance the equation. Remind students that both
solutions have a concentration, which is a numeric reflection of the moles of solute
compared to the volume of solution. The precipitate produced by the reaction is
insoluble, or slightly soluble, in the other aqueous product.
Laboratory Activity
Have students develop their own procedure to create a set of solubility rules. For
this experiment, see Appendix 1.1A: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab
Activity. Provide students with 0.1 mol/L solutions of various anions and cations
so that they can observe whether precipitates are formed. These observations will
help students develop a set of solubility rules for the positive and negative ions
used in the lab activity. A list of the solubility rules can be found in Appendix 1.1B:
Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) and in the
resources listed in the Learning Resources Links.

Laboratory report
The lab activity could be assessed as a formal lab report using the Laboratory
Report Outline or the Laboratory Report Format (see SYSTH 11.38, 14.12). Word
processing and spreadsheet software could be used to prepare reports. Also refer to
the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-02: perform a laboratory activity to develop a set of solubility
rules.
(continued)
Laboratory skills
Periodically and randomly review the lab skills of individual students, so that
eventually all students are assessed. Sample checklists for assessing lab skills and
work habits are available in SYSTH (6.10, 6.11).
Students can report on why certain ions are insoluble or soluble.
Journal Writing
Have students answer the following question in their science journals:
Do you think that solubility guidelines might be a better phrase to use than
solubility rules? Why or why not?
class Discussion
Students can share their results with each other and come up with some general
guidelines regarding the solubility of ions in solution. The students rules can then
be reconfirmed by the solubility rules table.

Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation Teachers Resource (Penrose, et al.)
LSM 1.15 1: The Solubility Rules, 97
investigations
Laboratory Manual for Chemistry: Experiments and Principles (Davis, et al.)
Experiment 17: Reactions between Ions in Aqueous Solutions, 50
Microscale Chemistry Laboratory Manual (Slater and Rayner-Canham)
Experiment 20: Solubilities of Salts, 60
Prentice Hall Chemistry: The Study of Matter, Laboratory Manual (Wagner)
Lab 31: Precipitates and Solubility Rules, 157

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considerations
appendices
Appendix 1.1A: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes)

SLO: C12-1-03
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-03: Use a table of solubility rules to predict the formation of a
precipitate.
(1 hour)

In Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-4-03), students were introduced to the fact that when
ionic compounds are placed in water, they dissociate (i.e., they separate into their
ions). In Grade 10 Science (SLO S2-2-07), students classified reactions such as
double displacement reactions. When solutions of two ionic compounds are placed
into water, the ions will interact with each other and a double displacement
reaction may occur. A precipitation reaction occurs when two aqueous solutions are
mixed and a solid (precipitate) is formed. Refer to specific learning outcome C12-101 in Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions, which addresses the process of
double displacement reactions at the particulate level and the symbolic level.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Precipitation reactions are used in water treatment plants, in qualitative analysis,
and as a preparation method for many salts. They are also a means by which
limestone caverns are formed.
Writing Net Ionic Equations
Take students through the following steps to ensure that they will be able to write
net ionic equations.

GLO B3:
GLO B5:
GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO C8:
GLO D3:
daily life.

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Sample Problem:
Write a net ionic equation for the reaction between BaCl2 and Na2SO4.
1. Predict the products of the reaction and ensure that the equation is balanced.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4
BaSO4 + 2NaCl
2. Use Appendix 1.2: Solubility Rules to identify which ionic substances will
precipitate from aqueous solutions. (Any chemistry text listed in the Learning
Resources Links will have a table of rules.) Looking at these solubility rules,
students should notice that the Cl ion is soluble with the Na+ ion. Therefore,
NaCl will stay in solution; that is, it is written as NaCl(aq). Students should also
notice from the solubility rules that the Ba2+ ion forms an insoluble product with
the SO42 ion. Therefore, BaSO4 is written with a subscript (s), as it forms a
precipitate in the beaker. Those substances that form a precipitate should be
followed by (s), and those that do not form a precipitate should be followed
by (aq).
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)
BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
This is known as the balanced molecular equation.

3. Recognize that soluble aqueous ionic compounds will dissociate into ions,
whereas insoluble compounds will not. Students must make sure that their
equation is balanced.
Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq)
BaSO4(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
This is known as the complete ionic equation, total ionic equation, or ionic equation.
4. Cancel out all spectator ions (those that appear on both sides of the equation),
and rewrite the equation.
Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq)
BaSO4(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
BaSO4(s)
This is known as the net ionic equation.

See Appendix 1.3: Predicting Precipitation Reactions for more sample problems.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

precipitate.
(continued)
Animations
A variety of animations of precipitation reactions are available online.
Sample Websites:
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM). Distance
Education and Extended Programs. Science Secondary Level. STEM@NCSSM.
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/stem/sci-secondary> (3 Aug. 2012).
Dozens of chemistry animations, images, documents, and videos can be found
on this website.
_____. _____. Chemistry GraphicsMoles. Teachers Instructional Graphics and
Educational Resource (TIGER). <www.dlt.ncssm.edu/stem/sci-secondary>
(18 Jan. 2012).
The animation entitled DoubleDisp_Reaction_Precipitation.html (.exe or .mov)
shows the double displacement reaction between lead(II) nitrate and potassium
iodide to form a slightly soluble precipitate.
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Precipitation Reactions: Precipitation
Explained. Teaching Laboratory. Crescent Girls School.
This animation shows the precipitation reaction of lead(II) nitrate and potassium
iodide.
Laboratory Activity
Provide students with well plates and four unknown solutions in dropper bottles.
Students should be able to determine the identity of each solution, using
experimentation, their solubility rules, and a colour chart (see Appendix 1.4: Colour
Chart for Ions in Aqueous Solutions). For a sample procedure, see Appendix 1.5:
Identifying Unknown Solutions (Teacher Notes and Preparation Guide).
Discrepant Event
If you have not already done the demonstration suggested for C12-1-01, show
students that two clear solutions mixed together do not necessarily give a clear
product (e.g., lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide).
Alternatively, for a more environmentally friendly demonstration, show students a
precipitation reaction with a variety of colours involved.

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Example:
CoCl2 + saturated Ca(OH)2 (limewater)
pink
clear
Co(OH)2 ppt
blue-green

Have students use process notes to solve problems using a set of solubility rules to
predict the potential formation of a precipitate in a double replacement reaction. For
examples of problems, see Appendix 1.3: Predicting Precipitation Reactions.
Laboratory skills
Journal Writing/Process Notes
Students can explain the steps to writing out net ionic equations in their science
journals. See Appendix 1.6A: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations
(Teacher Notes) and Appendix 1.6B: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations
(BLM).
Visual Displays
Have students create a Word Cycle using the terms ions, spectator ions, precipitate,
molecular equation, total ionic equation, net ionic equation, and double displacement
reaction (see Word Cycle, SYSTH 10.21).
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

precipitate.
(continued)

ChemLab Solution Identification, 456
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry, Combined Atlantic Edition (Mustoe, et al. 289)
Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation Teachers Resource (Penrose, et al.)
LSM 1.151: The Solubility Rules, 97
Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation, Ontario Edition (Davies, et al.)
Using Solubility Rules to Predict Precipitate Formation, 54
investigations
MiniLab: Observing a Precipitate-Forming Reaction, 295
Investigation 8A: The Solubility of Ionic Compounds, 283
Prentice Hall Chemistry Today: Laboratory Manual (Whitman and Zinck)
Solutions and Solubility, 58
Websites
Education and Extended Programs. Science Secondary Level.
STEM@NCSSM. <www.dlt.ncssm.edu/stem/sci-secondary>
(3 Aug. 2012).
_____. _____. Chemistry GraphicsMoles. Teachers Instructional Graphics
and Educational Resource (TIGER).
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/chem2.htm#moles> (18 Jan. 2012).
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Precipitation Reactions: Precipitation
Explained. Teaching Laboratory. Crescent Girls School.
<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/pptReaction3.htm>
(18 Jan. 2012).

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appendices
Appendix 1.2: Solubility Rules
Appendix 1.3: Predicting Precipitation Reactions
Appendix 1.4
Colour Chart for Ions in Aqueous Solutions
Appendix 1.5: Identifying Unknown Solutions (Teacher Notes and

Preparation Guide)
Appendix 1.6A: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (Teacher
Notes)
Appendix 1.6B: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (BLM)
SLO: C12-1-04
SLO: C12-1-05
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions
SpeCifiC LearninG OUtCOmeS

C12-1-04: Write balanced neutralization reactions involving strong
acids and bases.
C12-1-05: perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate the
stoichiometry of a neutralization reaction between a strong
base and a strong acid.
(2.5 hours)

The following learning outcomes were addressed in Grade 10 Science:
S2-2-03: Write formulas and names of binary ionic compounds.
Include: IUPAC guidelines and rationale for their use
S2-2-06: Balance chemical equations.

Include: translation of word equations to balanced chemical equations, and balanced
chemical equations to word equations
S2-2-10: Explain how acids and bases interact to form a salt and water in the
process of neutralization.
In Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-3-03), students were shown how to write formulas and
names for polyatomic compounds using International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature.
Check for students prior knowledge and review concepts as necessary.
TEAchEr NoTEs
rules for Naming Binary and Polyatomic Acids
Introduce the rules for naming binary and polyatomic acids.
To name binary acids, follow these steps:
1. Use the prefix hydro.
2. Use the root of the anion.
3. Use the suffix ic.
4. Use the word acid as the second word in the name.
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:


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C12-0-S8: evaluate data and data-collection methods for accuracy and precision.
include: discrepancies in data, sources of error, and percent error
Example 1:
Naming a binary acid: HCl
1. hydro
2. chloride
3. chloric
4. hydrochloric acid
To name polyatomic acids, follow a different set of rules. Many of the oxygen-rich
polyatomic negative ions form acids that are named by replacing the suffix ate
with ic and the suffix ite with ous. To name oxyacids (acids containing the
element oxygen), students should be able to recognize oxyacids by the general
formula HaXbOc , where X represents an element other than hydrogen or oxygen. If
enough H+ ions are added to a (root)ate polyatomic ion to completely neutralize its
charge, the (root)ic acid is formed.
Examples of polyatomic acids:
HNO3 (nitric acid) is formed by adding one H+ ion to nitrate, NO3
H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) is formed by adding two H+ ions to sulphate, SO42
A strong acid completely dissociates into ions. This means that if 100 molecules of
HCl are dissolved in water, 100 ions of H+ and 100 ions of Cl are produced.
Emphasize that there are only six strong acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl),
hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid
(HNO3), and perchloric acid (HClO4). Students should memorize the names of these
acids, as this nomenclature forms the basis for naming other acids. Naming of other
oxyacids and weak acids will be dealt with in Topic 5: Acids and Bases.
To name a base, the name of the metal is combined with the anion, OH, hydroxide
ion. For example, NaOH would be named sodium hydroxide. A strong base
completely dissociates into ions. This means that if 100 formula units of NaOH are
dissolved in water, 100 ions of Na+ and 100 ions of OH are produced. Strong bases
include any ionic compound that contains the hydroxide (OH) ion. When
combined with the hydroxide ion, elements found in groups 1 (IA) and 2 (IIA) form
strong bases.
Grade 12 CheMistry Topic 1: Aqueous Reactions
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

acids and bases.
(continued)
These are the only acids and bases that students will be dealing with in Topic 1:
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions.
When a strong acid and a strong base combine together they react completely. This
means that all the hydrogen ions (from the acid) and all the hydroxide ions (from
the base) will react to form water.
Remind students that acids and bases are ionic compounds, so that when placed
into water, they will separate into their ions and undergo a double displacement
reaction where a salt and water are formed.
Example 2:
Write an equation for the neutralization reaction between H2SO4 and NaOH.
1. Predict the products of the reaction and ensure that the equation is balanced.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH
H2O + Na2SO4
2. Use the solubility rules to confirm whether each product will be aqueous, solid,
or liquid.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq)
Note: Point out to students that water is a liquid, since aqueous solutions are
dissolved in water.
3. Write a total ionic equation, showing all ions that are in solution.
2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
2H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq)
4. Cancel the spectator ions and write the net ionic equation.
2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
2H+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
H+(aq) + OH(aq)
2H2O(l)
H2O(l)
2H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq)

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Discrepant Event
Show students that neutralization reactions can produce a greater volume than the
sum of the volumes of the reactants. Traditional demonstrations include adding
125 mL of 0.1 mol/L HCl to 125 mL of 0.1 mol/L NaOH in a 250 mL graduated
cylinder. An increase in volume of 2 to 3 mL should be observed. Have students
explain this demonstration using particulate representations.
Animations/simulations
Have students view online animations/simulations of neutralization reactions.
Sample Websites:
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Home Page.
<www.iupac.org> (18 Jan. 2012).
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Acid-Base Reactions. Teaching Laboratory.
Crescent Girls School.
<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/AcidReaction3.htm> (18 Jan. 2012).
This simulation demonstrates the neutralization reaction between sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen chloride solutions. The spectator ions are also indicated
in the simulation.
TEAchEr NoTEs
In Grade 10 Science, students worked with a 1:1 ratio for the neutralization reaction.
In the following suggested lab activity, students will look at a 2:1 ratio. It is
recommended that teachers avoid any discussion of Brnsted-Lowry acids and
bases in addressing learning outcomes C12-1-04 and C12-1-05. A more in-depth
titration will be done in Topic 5: Acids and Bases.
Laboratory Activity
Provide students with 0.1 mol/L solutions of NaOH and H2SO4. Have them
perform a microscale titration so that they can compare the stoichiometric ratio to
the experimental molar ratio between the reactants. Refer to Dispensing Drops from
a Pipet onto a Reaction Surface (Waterman and Thompson 10). See Appendix 1.7A:
Titration: Lab Activity and Appendix 1.7B: Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes).
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

acids and bases.
(continued)

Process Notes
Ask students to explain the steps involved in writing neutralization reactions using
process notes. For an example, see Appendix 1.8: Process Notes for Balancing
Neutralization Reactions.
Students should be able to write balanced neutralization reactions.
Laboratory reports
The lab activity could be assessed as a formal lab report using the Laboratory
Report Outline or the Laboratory Report Format (see SYSTH 11.38, 14.12). Word
processing and spreadsheet software could be used to prepare reports. Also refer to
Laboratory skills
eventually all students are assessed. Assess skills such as ensuring consistent trials,
proper use of a micropipette, and safe handling of chemicals. Sample checklists for
assessing lab skills and work habits are available in SYSTH (6.10, 6.11).

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg 144, 148)
Glencoe Chemistry: Concepts and Applications (Phillips, Strozak, and Wistrom
521)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 250, 295, 617)
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Inquiry into Chemistry (Chastko, et al. 163, 224)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 217, 612)

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investigations
Microscale Chemistry Laboratory Manual (Slater and Rayner-Canham)
Volumetric Acid-Base Titration, 24
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual
(Waterman and Thompson)
Dispensing Drops from a Pipet onto a Reaction Surface, 10
Websites
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Acid-Base Reactions. Teaching
Laboratory. Crescent Girls School.
<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/AcidReaction3.htm>
(18 Jan. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 1.7A: Titration: Lab Activity
Appendix 1.7B: Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)
Appendix 1.8:
Process Notes for Balancing Neutralization Reactions

SLO: C12-1-06
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-06: Calculate the concentration or volume of an acid or a base
from the concentration and volume of an acid or a base
required for neutralization.
(1 hour)

In addressing learning outcome C12-1-05, students obtained experimental data
related to the stoichiometry of a neutralization reaction between a strong base and a
strong acid.
Demonstrations/Activating Activity
Before applying the suggested problem-solving strategy for sample neutralization
problems, teachers can perform several acid-base demonstrations to activate
students interest. Have students write their
observations on the chemical reaction taking
Note:
place (i.e., first describe the reactants and then
Because some of these
demonstrations involve weak acids,
describe the resulting products).
The following list is a sample of the variety of
demonstrations teachers can choose to perform.
References for these demonstrations are given in
the Learning Resources Links.
n
students should not be asked to

write balanced equations after they
are shown.
orange Juice to strawberry Float

This demonstration involves mixing sodium
bicarbonate and Alconox in water. Methyl
orange indicator is added to this solution,
which results in a solution similar to orange
juice. Then hydrochloric acid is added
quickly but very carefully. The reaction is
very vigorous and produces a solution that
looks like a strawberry float.
Caution:
This is a very messy demonstration
and strict safety precautions should
be taken.

GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:


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ph rainbow tube
This demonstration starts with a tube filled with green solution. At one end, a
few drops of acid are added, and at the other end, a few drops of base are
added. As a result, a whole spectrum of colours appears.
Multi-Use for MoM

For this demonstration, a mixture of magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), also
known as milk of magnesia, hydrochloric acid, and universal indicator shows a
colour change from blue (basic) to red (acidic). The full colour range of universal
indicator is shown during this process.
indicator sponge
This demonstration shows an indicator colour transition between pH 3 (blue)
and pH 5 (red). Materials needed are a light-coloured cellulose sponge, a congo
red indicator, sodium bicarbonate, and acetic or hydrochloric acid.
Magic Pitcher demo

Several beakers are set up and, with the magic pitcher, students observe
different colour changes in the beakers. The key to this demonstration is that all
the beakers have had some drops of either acid or base, with varying
concentrations, added to them.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Students can use the experimental data obtained in relation to learning outcome
C12-1-04 to determine the unknown concentration of the acid or base. Teachers
should de-emphasize the use of formulas such as C1V1 = C2V2. Also note that some
chemistry texts use the following notation for concentration: M1V1 = M2V2. In
American-based textbooks, it is common to see molarity (M) being used. In
Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-4-13), the definition for molarity and concentration are
given. Use mol/L as much as possible, as IUPAC no longer accepts M (molarity) as
a unit. Refer to the following website for further information on correct terminology
and units:
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
Problem-solving strategy
To help students gain a better understanding of the concept of calculating the
concentration or volume of an acid or a base, use the following process in solving
neutralization problems:
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
2. Use the concentration and volume of the known acid or base to calculate the
moles of the substance.
3. Use the coefficients from the balanced equation to determine the moles of the
unknown acid or base.
4. Calculate the required volume or concentration of the acid or base.
sample Neutralization Problems
1. In the reaction of 35.0 mL of liquid drain cleaner containing sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), 50.08 mL of 0.409 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl) must be added to
neutralize the base. What is the concentration of the base in the cleaner?
Solution:
a) Write a balanced equation.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)
H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
b) Calculate the number of moles of HCl by multiplying concentration by

volume.
mol HCl = (0.409 mol/L)(0.05008 L)
= 0.0205 mol HCl
c) Use the balanced equation for the mole ratio between HCl and NaOH, and
solve for the number of moles of NaOH.
1 mol NaOH
x mol NaOH
1 mol HCl
0.0205 mol HCl
x mol NaOH 0.0205 mol HCl
1 mol NaOH
1 mol HCl
x mol NaOH 0.0205 moles NaOH
d) Solve for the concentration of NaOH by dividing the number of moles by the
volume given.
NaOH
0.0205 moles
0.586 mol/L
0.0350 L

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2. Calculate the volume of 0.256 mol/L Ba(OH)2 that must be added to neutralize
46.0 mL of 0.407 mol/L HClO4.
Solution:
a) Write a balanced equation.
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HClO4(aq)
2H2O(l) + BaCl2(aq)
b) Calculate the number of moles of HClO4 by multiplying concentration by

volume.
mol HClO4 = (0.407 mol/L)(0.0460 L)
= 0.0187 mol HClO4
c) Solve for the number of moles of Ba(OH)2 by setting up the ratio,
number of moles: coefficient from balanced equation.
mol Ba OH2
mol HClO 4
coefficient HClO 4 coefficient Ba OH 2

mol Ba OH2
0..0187 mol HClO 4
2 mol HClO 4
1 mol Ba OH2
0.00935 mol Ba OH2 mol Ba OH2
d) Solve for the volume of Ba(OH)2 by dividing the number of moles by the
concentration.
V
mol 0.00935 mol
0.0365 L
0.256 mol/L
C
Volume of Ba OH2 36.5 mL

Paper-and-Pencil Tasks
1. Ask students to write down the steps for solving neutralization problems.
2. Provide students with a neutralization problem to solve. Use a process-notes
format to have individuals share their thought processes for finding the
mathematical solution to the problems.
The texts cited in the Learning Resources Links provide samples of problems in
calculating for the concentration or the volume of given solutions.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)

521)
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry, Combined Atlantic Edition (Mustoe, et al.

600)

demonstrations
Becker, Robert. pH Rainbow Tube. Chem 13 News 190 (Dec. 1989).
_____. pH Rainbow Tube. 1999. Flinn Scientific, Inc. Available on the
Northern Kentucky University website at
<www.nku.edu/~sieveb1/makeandtake2011.pdf> (17 Apr. 2012).
Flinn Scientific, Inc. Indicator Sponge: A Discrepant Event Demonstration.
2009. Chem Fax! <www.flinnsci.com/Documents/demoPDFs/Chemistry/
CF10376.pdf> (18 May 2012).
_____. Orange Juice to Strawberry Float: A Foamy Acid-Base
Demonstration. 2010. Chem Fax! <www.flinnsci.com/Documents/
demoPDFs/Chemistry/CF0516.00.pdf> (17 Apr. 2012).
_____. Orange Juice to Strawberry Float. 2009. YouTube.
<www.youtube.com/watch?v=UVdbG9-mHyc&feature=BFa&list=
ULUVdbG9-mHyc&lf=channel> (17 Apr. 2012).
Gross, George, et al. Indicator Sponge. A Demo a Day: A Year of Chemical
Demonstrations. Ed. Borislaw Bilash II, George R. Gross, and John K. Koob.
Batavia, IL: Flinn Scientific, Inc., 1995.
Tanis, Dave. Demonstrations in Chemistry Classrooms, Michigan Science Teachers
Association Conference. 14 Mar. 2003. <http://alittlecreation.com/
science/Chemistry/tanis-chem.pdf> (6 Aug. 2010).
This resource describes the following demonstrations:
n
Sconzo, Penny. Multi-Use for MOM. Flinn Workshop Materials.

Batavia, IL: Flinn Scientific Foundation, 2001. Page 29.
Becker, Bob. Magic Pitcher Demo. Flinn Workshop Materials. Batavia,
IL: Flinn Scientific, Inc., 2001. Page 54.

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SLO: C12-1-07
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-07: Design and test a procedure to determine the identity of a
variety of unknown solutions.
(2 hours)

Students should be able to use the concepts addressed in the previous learning
outcomes to proceed with the lab activity that follows.
TEAchEr NoTEs
The solutions for the following lab activity should be prepared well in advance of
the actual lab period. Hand out the lab guidelines a week before students perform
the lab activity so they can research the possible products for each reaction (see
Appendix 1.9A: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity [Guidelines]). Have students
submit their plans a few days before the lab activity is conducted and check
whether their plans are viable. Students can prepare for the lab activity by
searching the Internet for information on their solutions, using key terms such as
test tube mystery, identification of unknowns, and unknown ionic solutions.
Remind students that the solubility chart and litmus tests can be used for acid and
base identification. The colour and odour of solutions can also be used to identify
the unknowns. Students who have prepared for the lab activity will have a better
chance of being successful in identifying the unknowns.
Consult Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide) for
information on preparing for this lab activity before assigning it to students. A
possible solution set is also provided in Appendix 1.9B. Teacher keys are
available in Appendix 1.9C: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 1), which
provides a sample grid of what students would bring to the lab, and in
Appendix 1.9D: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2), which provides a
detailed synopsis of expected student observations post-lab.

GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C4:
GLO C5:
GLO C8:
Demonstrate appropriate critical thinking and decision-making skills when choosing a course of action
based on scientific and technological information.
daily life.

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considerations
C12-0-S4: Select and use scientific equipment appropriately and safely.


Laboratory Activity
Provide students with 12 unlabelled samples of the solutions listed in
Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide).
Have students determine the identity of each solution using solubility rules,
observation of colour and odour, flame tests, and litmus paper. See Appendix 1.9A:
Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines).

Laboratory reports
The suggested lab activity could be assessed as a formal lab report using the
Laboratory Report Outline or the Laboratory Report Format (see SYSTH 11.38,
14.12). Word processing and spreadsheet software could be used to prepare reports.
Also see the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
Laboratory skills
Create a short skill-based rubric to assess a predetermined set of lab skills. See
Appendix 11 for a variety of rubrics and checklists that can be used for selfassessment, peer assessment, and teacher assessment.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-07: Design and test a procedure to determine the identity of a
variety of unknown solutions.
(continued)

investigations
ChemLab: Solution Identification, 456
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Inquiry into Chemistry (Chastko, et al.)
Thought Lab 7.1: Identifying Unknown Aqueous Solutions, 267
appendices
Appendix 1.9A: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines)
Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide)
Appendix 1.9C: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 1)
Appendix 1.9D: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2)


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considerations


Notes
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-08: Outline the development of scientific understanding of
oxidation and reduction reactions.
include: gain and loss of electrons, oxidizing agent, and reducing
agent
SLO: C12-1-08
(0.5 hour)

In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-01, S2-2-02, S2-2-03, and S2-2-04), students were shown
the significance of the electron and nuclear charge with respect to periodicity and
the reaction between elements to produce ionic and covalent compounds.
In addressing specific learning outcome C12-1-08, students develop an
understanding of how loss and gain of electrons can be considered to be either an
oxidation process or a reduction process.
SYSTH, Chapter 9).
Demonstration/Activating Activity
The following demonstration can be performed
to introduce this learning outcome. Place 20 g of
Caution:
This reaction is exothermic, so use
copper(II) chloride dihydrate (CuCl2 2H2O) in
precautions. Provide for adequate
a 250 mL beaker and dissolve it in 175 mL of
ventilation or use a fume hood.
water. Loosely crumple a 10 cm 10 cm piece
of aluminum foil and place it in the solution.
Encourage students to note their observations carefully at the macro level for later
discussions related to activity at the molecular level. For instance, ask students
whether an aluminum tank could be used to transport a CuCl2 solution. Students
could also explain why the following reaction does not occur: Cu(s) + AlCl3(aq).

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TEAchEr NoTEs
The information presented for learning outcome C12-1-12 should provide teachers
with enough information to motivate students to learn more about the underlying
processes or factors that cause oxidation and reduction reactions to occur (e.g.,
rocket propulsion, fireworks, antioxidants, photosynthesis, rusting, breathalyzers, to
name a few of the applications).
oxidation and reduction
Oxidation and reduction reactions and the loss and gain of electrons have been
studied since the early 1800s. Scientists have focused on oxidation and reduction
reactions and the movement of electrons in addressing the energy crisis and the
struggle against climate change on our planet.
Many scientists believe that hydrogen cells and fuel cells are the way of the future.
If students are to make environmentally sound choices for the future, they should
understand the current electrochemical technologies they will be using. Provide
students with a brief overview of these technologies as a preparation for a detailed
discussion of electrochemistry in Topic 6: Electrochemistry.
The term oxidation was first applied to the combining of oxygen with other elements
(e.g., rusting iron or burning carbon or methane). Burning is another name for rapid
oxidation.
The term reduction originally meant the removal of oxygen from a compound. It
comes from the fact that the free metal has a lower mass than its oxide compound.
There is a decrease or reduction in the mass of the material as the oxygen is
removed.
Differentiating between oxidation and reduction:Examples
From their prior knowledge, students should have some familiarity with oxidation
through burning, or combustion, and the rotting of food. Students should have
observed the burning of magnesium metal in Grade 11 Chemistry. Remind students
that burning, or combustion, is the reaction of a substance with the oxygen gas in
the air.

Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

agent
(continued)
Example 1:
2Mg(s) + O2(g)
2MgO(s)
If this reaction is written in ionic form, it becomes

2Mg0 + O20
2Mg2+O2
Observations
n
n
n
n
Non-scientists usually refer to this reaction as burning, or combustion, but

scientists refer to it as oxidation.
Both magnesium and oxygen gases are elements and have no charge.
The magnesium has been oxidized to MgO by the reaction with oxygen gas.
Considering the charges, the metal has gone from 0 charge to 2+ charge, and the
non-metal from 0 charge to 2 charge.
Historically, chemists recognized that other non-metallic elements unite with

substances in a manner similar to that of oxygen (e.g., hydrogen, antimony, and
sodium will burn in chlorine, iron will burn in fluorine). Therefore, the terms
oxidation and reduction were redefined as follows:
n
n
oxidation: the process by which electrons are removed from an atom or ion.
reduction: the process by which any atom or ion gains electrons.
If we look at the change in ion charge as a function of electrons, the following

relationships can be written as
Mg2+ + 2e
Mg
O2 + 4e
2O2
In this equation, charge is conserved.

There is 0 charge on both sides.
By doubling the Mg relationship, the electrons are lost by the Mg and gained by the
oxygen balance.
2 (Mg
Mg2+ + 2e) = 2Mg
This results in the balanced equation

2Mg
+ O2 + 4e
2Mg + O2
2Mg2+ + 4e
2O2
2MgO
2Mg2+ + 4e

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Using this example, we could say that Mg is oxidized (combines with oxygen).
n
Mg gains a positive charge by becoming an ion.
This change occurs by a loss of electrons.
Can we apply these generalizations to other reactions?

Example 2:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g)
MgCl2(s)
If this reaction is written in ionic form, it becomes

Mg0 + Cl20
Mg2+Cl1Cl1
Recall that 2Cl1 ions are required to balance the 2+ charges of the Mg ion to form
MgCl2.
As in the first example, we can write the reaction as an ionic representation.
Mg
Mg2+ + 2e
Cl2 + 2e
2Cl1

Using this example, we could say that Mg is again oxidized.

n
Mg gains a positive charge to become an ion.
This change occurs by a loss of electrons.
A complementary reaction is that a Cl atom becomes a Cl1.

n
Cl is reduced to a negative ion.
This change occurs by a gain of electrons.
Based on these generalizations, chemists have defined oxidation as a loss of

electrons, and reduction as a gain of electrons.
Mnemonics such as the following may help students differentiate between
oxidation and reduction:
n
OIL RIGoxidation is losing and reduction is gaining
LEO GERlosing electrons oxidation and gaining electrons reduction
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

agent
(continued)
Example 3:
Fe3+ + Cu1+
Fe2+ + Cu2+
Fe3+ + 1e1
Fe2+
Cu
1+
2+
Cu + 1e
Gain of electronsreduction
Loss of electronsoxidation
There are basically two types of chemical reactions: those that do not have any
apparent electron change and those that do. The second type of chemical reaction,
in which electrons are transferred (lost or gained) between reactants, is called an
oxidation-reduction reaction or a redox reaction.
Have students view online animations or simulations illustrating a redox reaction
at the molecular level.
Sample Website:
Chemical Education Research Group, Iowa State University. Chemistry
Experiment Simulations and Conceptual Computer Animations. Chemical
Education. <http://group.chem.iastate.edu/Greenbowe/sections/
projectfolder/simDownload/index4.html> (22 Nov. 2012).
In the Electrochemistry section, download and unzip the following animations:
n
Zinc Copper REDOX Transfer
Lead Silver REDOX Transfer
In the Electrochemistry section, download and unzip the following simulation:

n
Reactions of Metals and Metal Ions Experiment

In this simulation, electrons are transferred from zinc atoms to copper(II)
ions. The animation shows electron exchange at the particulate level and
gives a detailed explanation of the process occurring.
compare and contrast

Have students start working on Appendix 1.10A: Compare and Contrast Oxidation
and Reduction. Students will be able to complete this frame once they have been
introduced to learning outcome C12-1-09.

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1. Give students an example of a chemical reaction and ask them to identify the
substance being oxidized and the substance being reduced, as well as determine
the numbers of electrons lost and gained to conserve charge. Students should be
able to write the half-reactions; however, at this point, teachers would not likely
use the term.
Examples of chemical reactions such as the following can be drawn from
Grade 11 Chemistry:
2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s)
2Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
Based on their prior knowledge, students can remove spectator ions from
reactions.
2. Ask students to determine which of the following are oxidation reactions and
which are reduction reactions. Students should be able to explain their answers.
Examples:
Na
F + 1e1
Ti3+
Na1+ + 1e1
F1
Ti4+ + 1e1
(oxidation)
(reduction)
(oxidation)
3. Have students answer the following question:

Why must oxidation and reduction reactions occur together?
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

agent
(continued)

556)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 637, 657)
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, 652)
Particulate Representation, 374
demonstration
Merrill Chemistry: A Modern Course, Teacher Annotated Edition (Smoot, Price,
and Smith 507)
Website
Animations: Zinc Copper REDOX Transfer
Lead Silver REDOX Transfer
Simulation: Reactions of Metals and Metal Ions Experiment
appendices
Appendix 1.10A: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction
Appendix 1.10B: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction (Sample
Response)


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Notes
SLO: C12-1-09
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-09: Determine the oxidation numbers for atoms in compounds
and ions.
(1 hour)

Students should be familiar with the concepts of oxidation and reduction from
learning outcome C12-1-08.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Now that students can differentiate between oxidation and reduction reactions,
give them an opportunity to discover that in complex reactions it is not always
obvious what is being reduced or oxidized.
Chemists have created a set of rules to allow us to determine more easily the
oxidation number of a given element within a compound or complex ion.
All chemistry texts provide rules for assigning oxidation numbers. Although the
rules provided in texts will vary slightly, they will give the same value for
oxidation numbers. One such set of rules is provided in Appendix 1.11: Oxidation
Number Rules.
Remind students that the ion charge is written as 2+, whereas the oxidation number
is written as +2.
Determining oxidation Numbers:Examples
There are many ways to set up or explain the arithmetic process for finding
oxidation numbers. One such method is illustrated in the following examples, using
the nine rules identified in Appendix 1.11: Oxidation Number Rules. See the
Teacher Background notes that follow the examples.
For the following examples, determine the oxidation number of the elements
written in bold.

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Example 1:
HNO3
Rule 4 tells us that the oxidation number of H1+ = +1, and rule 5 tells us that
O2 = 2. These numbers can be written in the appropriate places as indicated.
The total charge is calculated on the bottom (i.e., for H, +1 1 = +1;
for O, 2 3 = 6).
+1
O3
+1
The oxidation numbers are written on top.
The total charges are written on the bottom.
Rule 3 tells us the sum of the bottom charges must be 0.

Thus, the unknown (?) on the bottom line must be +5.
+1
O3
+1
+5
Since there is only one N, the oxidation number of N must be +5.

+1
+5
O3
+1
+5
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

and ions.
(continued)
Example 2:
Na3PO4
Rule 6 tells us that the oxidation number of Na1+ = +1, and rule 5 tells us that
O2 = 2. These numbers can be written in the appropriate places as indicated.
The total charge is calculated on the bottom (i.e., for O, 2 4 = 8;
for Na, +1 3 = +3).
+1
Na3
O4
+3
The oxidation numbers are written on top.
The total charges are written on the bottom.
Rule 3 tells us the sum of the bottom charges must be 0.

Thus, the unknown (?) on the bottom line must be +5.
+1
Na3
O4
+3
+5
Since there is only one P, the oxidation number of P must be +5.

+1
+5
Na3
O4
+3
+5

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Example 3:
Cr2O72
This is a complex ion with an overall charge of 2. This time the bottom charges
must sum 2. Rule 5 tells us O2 = 2.
?
Cr2 O72
?
14
According to rule 3, 14 + ? = 2; therefore, the unknown (?) must be +12.

?
Cr2 O72
+12
14
However, there are 2 Cr atoms; therefore, the oxidation number of each Cr must be
+6.
+6
Cr2 O72
+12
14
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

and ions.
(continued)
Other Examples:
V2O5
(+5)
H2CO3
(+4)
(NH4)2SO4
(3)
[hint: Rewrite the formula as N2H8SO4 or use the

ammonium ion NH4+.]
Ra(NO2)2
(+3)
[hint: Rewrite the formula as RaN2O4 or use NO21.]
This method is more visual in nature than other methods. Some chemistry texts use
a purely algebraic solution that will work for some students.
Teacher Background
Many chemistry texts mention the oxidation states of hydrides, peroxides, and
superoxides. This background information should assist teachers in giving students
clear explanations, and should be considered for an extension or enrichment
learning experience.
1. ionic hydrides occur when hydrogen reacts with a reactive metal, such as the
alkali metals or alkaline earth family.
Examples:
NaH
The oxidation number of H is 1.
BaH2
AlH3
2. Covalent hydrides occur when the hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the
atom of another element. There are two types of covalent hydrides: those
containing discrete molecular units, such as CH4 and NH3, and those that have
more complex structures, such as (BeH2)x and (AlH3)x.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
This is a redox reaction.
The carbon in CH4 has an oxidation number of 4 going to +4 in CO2, whereas

the oxygen atom goes from 0 in free oxygen to 2 in both CO2 and H2O.
3. ionic peroxides are usually listed as an exception to the normal rules for
assigning oxidation numbers for oxygen. They are known for the alkali metals:
calcium, strontium, and barium. The ionic peroxides with water or dilute acids
produce H2O2, and are powerful oxidizing agents.
The peroxide ion is O22, in which the O atom has a 1 oxidation number.

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4. superoxides are a group of compounds that contain the O2 ion. Under excess
O2 conditions, alkali metals will undergo combustion reactions that generate
several different products: oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The superoxide
1
2
ion O2 and, therefore, the O atom have an oxidation number of .

Potassium, rubidium, and cesium form stable, solid superoxide compounds that
decompose when they contact water, releasing O2 gas. This reaction is used in
specialized breathing equipment. Moisture from a persons breath will start the
reaction, releasing oxygen gas:
2KO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + O2(g) + H2O2(aq)
Furthermore, KO2 will react with CO2 in the breath to release even more oxygen:
4KO2(s) + 2CO2(g)
2K2CO3(s) + 3O2(g)
As always, work through all examples before assigning them to students in case
fractional oxidation numbers arise. This may not be a problem in relation to
learning outcome C12-1-09, but it could provide a challenge when students are
balancing redox reactions in addressing learning outcome C12-1-10 (e.g., Fe3O4,
where the oxidation number of Fe would be +8/3).
Identifying oxidation Numbers
Have students identify the oxidation number for sulphur in each of the following
compounds: Na2SO4, H2S, S, S2Cl2, SO2, and K2S2O3. Ask them to organize these
substances in order of increasing oxidation number (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe
Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 641).
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

and ions.
(continued)

1. Students should be able to determine the oxidation numbers for atoms in
compounds and ions. A host of chemistry texts contain examples for students to
practise assigning oxidation numbers. Students can be presented with sealed test
tubes of substances with the formulas of the substances listed on the test tubes.
Students can determine the oxidation number for each atom that is given in the
chemical formula (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change,
Teacher Wraparound Edition 643).
2. Have students complete Appendix 1.10A: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and
Reduction, which they started in relation to learning outcome C12-1-08 (see
Appendix 1.10B for a sample response).
Journal Writing
Ask students to propose how the rotting of food relates to oxidation and
combustion. Ask them to explain how burning and rusting are similar and yet quite
different.

Determining Oxidation Numbers, 641
Oxidation Number in Redox Reactions, 643
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition (Dingrando,
et al. 641, 643)
Oxidation Numbers, 721
5.2: Redox Reactions of Nonmetals, 379
Section 20.2: Oxidation Numbers, 639
appendices
Appendix 1.10B: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction (Sample
Response)
Appendix 1.11:
Oxidation Number Rules

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SLO: C12-1-10
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-10: identify reactions as redox or non-redox.
include: oxidizing agent, reducing agent, oxidized substance, and
reduced substance
(0.5 hour)

Students should be familiar with the concepts of oxidation and reduction from
learning outcome C12-1-09.
In Grade 10 (S2-2-06), students were introduced to the conservation of atoms in a
reaction, and in Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-3-05, C11-3-12, and C11-3-13), they
learned about the conservation of atoms and mass during a chemical reaction.
necessary.
Demonstrations
Prepare a beaker of weak silver nitrate solution and add to it a length of coiled bare
copper wire. Have students observe (and recall from Grade 11 Chemistry) the
chemical reaction that occurs. Can they propose an explanation? Does the reverse
reaction occur?
Use a weak solution of copper nitrate and silver metal to demonstrate the nonspontaneous reverse reaction of the above demonstration.
Demonstrate a number of reactive solutions involving oxidation-reduction (e.g.,
copper plus zinc sulphate and zinc plus copper sulphate). The choices that are
farther apart on the Standard Reduction Potentials table would result in faster
reactions. Illustrate this concept with enough detailed examples (such as the one
that follows) to ensure students thoroughly understand the concept of oxidation
and reduction and loss and gain of electrons. This understanding is critical to their
success in Topic 6: Electrochemistry.

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Example:
Ionic equation:
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Net ionic equation:
Electrons lost (oxidation)
Cu0(s) + 2Ag+(aq)
Cu0
Cu2+ + 2e1
Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag0(s)
Electrons gained (reduction)
2Ag+ + 2e1
2Ag0
Note the following:

n
A reducing agent causes the reduction of another species.
An oxidizing agent causes the oxidation of another species.
The substance being oxidized, Cu0, is the reducing agent (also called an electron
donor).
The substance being reduced, Ag+, is the oxidizing agent (also called an electron
acceptor).
Some chemistry texts refer to oxidation as an increase in the oxidation state, whereas
reduction is a reduction in the oxidation state.
Notice that each solid copper metal atom loses two electrons to form a copper(II)
ion. Two silver ions pick up one of each of the copper electrons to form two silver
atoms. The copper is oxidized and the silver is reducedan oxidation-reduction
electron transfer reaction (a redox reaction).
Each loss of electrons from a molecule must be offset by an equal gain of electrons
in another molecule. Oxidation and reduction always accompany each other in
reactions. They occur simultaneously. If a reaction does not have any transfer of
electrons, it cannot be considered to be a redox reaction.

Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

reduced substance
(continued)
sample Problem
For the reaction, Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
n
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s), indicate the following:
State whether it is a redox or non-redox reaction.

If it is a redox reaction, identify the oxidized substance, the reduced substance,
the oxidizing agent, and the reducing agent.
Solution:
Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers to each substance based on the rules for
assigning oxidation numbers.
0
+2
Zn(s) + Cu
2+
(aq)
+2
2+
+ Cu(s)
Zn
(aq)
Step 2: Check which reactant is losing electrons. This will be the oxidized
substance.
0
+2
+2
2+
2+
Zn(s) + Cu
(aq)
Zn
(aq)
+ Cu(s)
Zn is losing 2 electrons to form Zn2+. Therefore, Zn is oxidized. Zn also is

the reducing agent, as it supplies electrons to the reactant getting reduced.
Step 3: Check which reactant is gaining electrons. This will be the reduced
substance.
0
+2
Zn(s) + Cu
2+
(aq)
+2
2+
+ Cu(s)
Zn
(aq)
Cu2+ is gaining 2 electrons to form Cu. Therefore, Cu2+ is reduced. Cu2+ also
is the oxidizing agent, as it takes away electrons from the reactant being
oxidized.
Step 4: Check whether a reduction and an oxidation occur. If both processes occur,
then it is a redox reaction.
Steps 2 and 3 confirm that this is a redox reaction.

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Teacher Background
A special type of redox reaction is one in which two elements in the same
compound change oxidation numbers. This is sometimes called a disproportionation
reaction. Two such examples are provided below.
Examples:
0
Cl2(g) +
2 +1
2OH(aq)
+1 1
2H2O2(aq)
+1 2
2 +1
OCl(aq)
Cl
(aq)
+1 2
+ H2O(l)
2H2O(l) + O2(g)
simulation
Have students view an online simulation of a redox reaction.
Sample Website:
Education. <http://group.chem.iastate.edu/Greenbowe/sections/projectfolder/
simDownload/index4.html> (18 Jan. 2012).
n

This simulation illustrates a redox reaction at the molecular level when a
metal is immersed in aqueous ionic solution. Students can predict what will
occur prior to placing the metal in the solution.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

reduced substance
(continued)

1. Have students solve problems dealing with the identification of redox and nonredox reactions.
2. Students should also be able to identify the oxidizing agent, reducing agent,
oxidized substance, and reduced substance in a redox reaction. Use the
convention that the substance is usually an atomic species, and therefore will
not use an ionic notation (e.g., N, as opposed to N+5). Teachers may choose
alternative ways of describing the substance oxidized or reduced, but
consistency throughout is important.
Examples:
For each of the following reactions, students could determine the substance
being oxidized, the substance being reduced, the oxidizing agent, and the
reducing agent.
a) Ag+(aq) + Cu0(s)
Ag0(s) + Cu2+(aq)
(Reaction is Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s))
Which substance is being oxidized?
Cu0(s)
Which substance is being reduced?
Ag+(aq)
What is the oxidizing agent?
Ag+(aq)
What is the reducing agent?
Cu0(s)
b) 2HNO3(aq) + 3H2S(g)
2NO(g) + 3S0(s) + 4H2O(l)
Which substance is being oxidized?
Which substance is being reduced?
What is the oxidizing agent?
HNO3(aq)
What is the reducing agent?
H2S(g)
3. Students could create an analogy that shows each of the following terms:
oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agent, and reducing agent (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe

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Three-Point Approach for Words and concepts

Ask students to use the Three-Point Approach to describe the terms oxidizing agent,
reducing agent, the substance oxidized, and the substance reduced (see SYSTH 10.22).
Journal Writing
At least two mnemonic devices are often used to assist students with remembering
the definition of oxidation and reduction:
n
OIL RIGoxidation is losing and reduction is gaining
LEO GERlosing electrons oxidation and gaining electrons reduction
Students could have a creative time either artistically or with words to illustrate
these mnemonic devices. For example, students could draw a cartoon or a short
comic strip of an atom losing an electron to another atom (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe

559)
Section 20.1: Oxidation and Reduction, 635
et al. 636, 638)
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, et al. 674)
Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation, Ontario Edition (Davies, et al. 382)
Section 20.1: The Meaning of Oxidation and Reduction, 631
investigation
ChemLab: Copper Atoms and Ions: Oxidation and Reduction, 560
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

reduced substance
(continued)
Website
Experiment Simulations and Conceptual Computer Animations.
Chemical Education. <http://group.chem.iastate.edu/Greenbowe/
sections/projectfolder/simDownload/index4.html> (18 Jan. 2012).


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Notes
SLO: C12-1-11
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

include: acidic and basic solutions
(3 hours)

Students learned about the conservation of atoms in Grade 10 Science (S2-2-06), and
about the conservation of atoms and mass during a chemical reaction in Grade 11
Chemistry (C11-3-12 and C11-3-13).
necessary.
TEAchEr NoTEs
There are two basic methods for balancing
oxidation-reduction reactions. The method that
deals with oxidation numbers is addressed here
in Topic 1 as an introduction to redox reaction.
The other more efficient method involving halfcell reactions is addressed in Topic 6, where
oxidation potentials and the electromotive series
can be discussed more comprehensively.
Note:
Because of the links between
oxidation-reduction and
electrochemistry, teachers may
consider teaching Topic 6:
Electrochemistry following learning
outcome C12-1-11.
Generally, if the reaction is written in the molecular form, as in the first example
that follows, then the acid or base will already be included in the reaction. In the
case of ionic aqueous reactions, H+ ions or OH ions would need to be added to the
appropriate side to balance both ion charge and elemental species. The following
examples will clearly illustrate this.
oxidation-Number change Method
Use the steps illustrated in the following examples to balance a redox reaction using
the oxidation-number change method. With this method, a redox equation is
balanced by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers (i.e.,
electrons lost and gained).

GLO D3:

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Example 1:
Balance the chemical reaction below, following the specified steps.
P(s) + HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
1. Assign oxidation numbers to all the atoms in the reaction. Write the numbers
above the appropriate atoms.
0
+1 +5 2
+1 2
+2 2
+1 +5 2
NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
2. Identify which atoms are oxidized and which are reduced. Use a line to connect
the atoms that undergo oxidation and the atoms that undergo reduction. Write
the number of electrons lost/gained at the midpoint of each line.
5 electrons lost
oxidation
0
+1 +5 2
+1 2
+2 2
+1 +5 2
NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
3 electrons gained
reduction
3. Balance the electrons lost and gained using appropriate coefficients.
3 (5 electrons lost)
oxidation
0
+1 +5 2
+1 2
+2 2
+1 +5 2
NO(g) + H3PO4(aq)
5 (3 electrons gained)
reduction
4. Place the coefficient 3 in front of the P(s) and H3PO4, and place the coefficient 5 in
front of HNO3 and NO.
3P(s) + 5HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
5NO(g) + 3H3PO4(aq)
5. Balance all other atoms as you normally would and do a final check to see
whether all atoms and charges are balanced. Balance the metals first, then the
non-metals, then hydrogen, and finally, oxygen. If students balance the elements
in that order, often the more complex O atom numbers are already done.
3P(s) + 5HNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
5NO(g) + 3H3PO4(aq)

Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
Example 2: Acidic Solution

Balance the following aqueous oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs in an acidic
solution.
BiO3(aq) + MnO2(aq)
Bi3+(aq) + MnO4(aq)
above the appropriate atoms and show electrons lost and gained.
3 electrons lost
oxidation
+5 2
+4 2
+3
BiO3(aq) + MnO2(aq)
+7 2
Bi3+(aq) + MnO4(aq)
2 electrons gained
reduction
2. Balance electrons lost and gained using appropriate coefficients.
2 (3 electrons lost)
oxidation
+5 2
+4 2
+3
BiO3(aq) + MnO2(aq)
+7 2
Bi3+(aq) + MnO4(aq)
reduction
3. Write the coefficients in front of the appropriate species.
3BiO3(aq) + 2MnO2(aq)
3Bi3+(aq) + 2MnO4(aq)
4. Add up the ion charges and balance with H+, since the reaction occurs in an
acidic solution.
Total the charges on both sides separately.
3BiO3(aq) + 2MnO2(aq)
(3)
(0)
(9+)
+
7+
(2)

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Therefore, 10H+ ions need to be added to the left side of the reaction to balance
the ion charge.
3BiO3(aq) + 2MnO2(aq) + 10h+(aq)
5. Water is now added to the opposite side to balance H and O atoms.

3BiO3(aq) + 2MnO2(aq) + 10H+(aq)
3Bi3+(aq) + 2MnO4(aq) + 5h2o(aq)
Example 3: Basic Solution

Balance the following aqueous oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs in a basic
solution.
MnO4(aq) + C2O42(aq)
MnO2(s) + CO32(aq)
above the appropriate atoms and show electrons lost and gained.
2 electrons lost per C2
oxidation
+7 2
+3 2
+4 2
MnO4(aq) + C2O42(aq)
+4 2
MnO2(s) + CO32(aq)
3 electrons gained
reduction
2. Balance electrons lost and gained using appropriate coefficients.
3 (2 electrons lost per C2)
oxidation
+7 2
+3 2
MnO4
(aq)
+4 2
2
+ C2O4
(aq)
+4 2
MnO2(s) + CO32(aq)
reduction
3. Write the coefficients in front of the appropriate species.
2MnO41(aq) + 3C2O42(aq)
2MnO2(s) + 6CO32(aq)
Note that 6CO32 is required to balance the C atoms in 3C2O42.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
4. Add up the ion charges and balance with OH, since the reaction occurs in a
basic solution.
2MnO41(aq) + 3C2O42(aq)
Total the charges on both sides separately.

2MnO41(aq) + 3C2O42(aq)
(2)
+ (6)
(0)
(12)
12
Therefore, 4OH ions need to be added to the left side of the reaction to balance
the ion charge.
2MnO41(aq) + 3C2O42(aq) + 4oh(aq)
5. Water is now added to the opposite side to balance H and O atoms.

2MnO41(aq) + 3C2O42(aq) + 4OH(aq)
2MnO2(s) + 6CO32(aq) + 2h2o(l)
Demonstration
A breathalyzer test works on a redox reaction given below. If students like a
challenge, ask them to balance this reaction.
3CH3CH2OH + 2K2Cr2O7 + 8H2SO4
(orange-yellow)
3CH3COOH + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 11H2O
(green)
Historically, before laser spectrophotometry became prevalent in roadside breath
analysis equipment, the driver being assessed provided a breath sample to a
solution of potassium dichromate that was an orange-green colour. As the ethanol
(if present in the sample) reacted with the acid, the solution would become
increasingly green. The degree of change was then measured by a simple
spectrophotometer. As the wavelength of emitted light shifted to green, it indicated
a larger amount of dissolved alcohol in the breath. These traditional reagents are
readily available in most school laboratories.
Build a simple breathalyzer and bubble denatured ethanol into it to test the change
in colour. Generic mouthwash is a safe source to simulate alcohol on the breath.
What would happen if methanol or isopropyl alcohol were used instead of ethanol?

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Have students balance redox equations using process notes (see SYSTH 13.14).
Journal Writing
Students may wish to write an account of the technology that goes into the
functioning and use of a traditional breathalyzer.

Breathalyzer Test, 569
The Oxidation-Number Method, 644
Section 20.3: Half-Reactions, 650
18.2: Oxidation Numbers, 721
18.3: The Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Equations, 730

Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

C12-1-12: research practical applications of redox reactions.
Examples: rocket fuels, fireworks, household bleach, photography,
metal recovery from ores, steelmaking, aluminum recycling, fuel
cells, batteries, tarnish removal, fruit clocks, forensic blood
detection using luminol, chemiluminescence/bioluminescence,
electrolytic cleaning, electrodeposition, photochemical etching,
antioxidants/preservatives . . .
SLO: C12-1-12
(4 hours)

TEAchEr NoTEs
In addressing learning outcome C12-1-12, ask students to choose a research topic
early in the school year so that they can research information and ideas on the
practical applications of redox reactions over an extended period of time. Group
presentations would be done during the study of Topic 6: Electrochemistry at the
end of the course. In their research, students could focus their attention on
n
n
n
the redox reaction taking place

the effect of the process on the environment
the energy consumption involved
Encourage students to investigate and perform demonstrations to support their oral

presentations on their selected research topics.
GLO a3:
GLO a4:
GLO a5:
GLO B1:
GLO B2:
GLO B4:
GLO C2:
GLO C4:
GLO C5:
GLO C6:
GLO C7:
GLO D3:
Distinguish critically between science and technology in terms of their respective contexts, goals, methods,
products, and values.
identify and appreciate contributions made by women and men from many societies and cultural
backgrounds that have increased our understanding of the world and brought about technological
innovations.
recognize that science and technology interact with and advance one another.
Describe scientific and technological developmentspast and presentand appreciate their impact on
individuals, societies, and the environment, both locally and globally.
recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and continue to be influenced by
human needs and the societal context of the time.
Demonstrate knowledge of and personal consideration for a range of possible science- and technologyrelated interests, hobbies, and careers.
employ effective communication skills and use information technology to gather and share scientific and
technological ideas and data.
Work cooperatively and value the ideas and contributions of others while carrying out scientific and
technological activities.

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C12-0-r1: Synthesize information obtained from a variety of sources.

include: print and electronic sources, specialists, and other resource people
C12-0-r5: Communicate information in a variety of forms appropriate to the audience, purpose, and
content.
C12-0-C1: Collaborate with others to achieve group goals and responsibilities.
C12-0-C2: elicit, clarify, and respond to questions, ideas, and diverse points of view in discussions.
C12-0-C3: evaluate individual and group processes.
C12-0-t1: Describe examples of the relationship between chemical principles and applications of
chemistry.
C12-0-t2: explain how scientific research and technology interact in the production and distribution
of materials.
C12-0-t3: provide examples of how chemical principles are applied in products and processes, in
scientific studies, and in daily life.
Practical Applications of redox reactions:research Topics

Have groups of students research practical applications of redox reactions and
prepare a written report and an oral presentation on their findings. The following
information serves as an introduction to the various applications of redox reactions
cited as examples in learning outcome C12-1-12. Choose examples that relate to
student and teacher interest and experience. This material can be supplemented by
additional research using the usual resources (e.g., Internet, texts, encyclopedias,
journals, experts). Ideally, students would provide information from their own
sphere of experience. For a sample assignment, see Appendix 1.12A: Practical
Applications of Redox Reactions (Research Report and Presentation).
n
rocket Fuels
Each solid rocket booster of the space shuttle, used during the first two minutes
of a launch, contains 495 000 kg of an explosive mixture of ammonium
perchlorate and aluminum:
NH4ClO4(s) + Al(s)
Al2O3(g) + HCl(g) + N2(g) + H2O(g)
Fireworks
The heat and thrust of a fireworks shell are produced by exothermic redox
reactions. A typical fireworks composition consists of an oxidizer (such as
potassium perchlorate), a fuel (such as aluminum or magnesium), a binder, and
some chemicals for the special effects of colour, sparks, and smoke. For example,
green fireworks are made by adding a barium compound, and gold sparks are
produced by adding iron filings or charcoal.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
household Bleach
Through the process of oxidation, unwanted colours (stains) are removed
(oxidized) by bleach. Colour is caused by the movement of electrons between
different energy levels of the atoms of the material.
OCl(aq) + coloured stain molecule(s)
Cl(aq) + colourless oxidized stain molecule(s)
Photography
There are three different redox reactions in black-and-white photography:
1. The film negative is an emulsion of silver bromide:
AgBr(s)
Ag+(aq) + Br(aq)
2. The film is processed, and the remaining Ag+(aq) is converted to free silver by
a reducing agent. The unreacted AgBr is removed by an appropriate solution
process. This step produces the negative.
3. The negative is then printed onto photographic paper.
Metal recovery from ores

Aluminum metal is obtained by electrolysis of aluminum oxide (refined
bauxite), using the Hall-Hroult process.
Cathode:
Anode:
Al3+(aq) + 3e
2O2(aq)
Net cell reaction: 4Al3+(aq) + 6O2(aq)
Al(s)
O2(g) + 4e
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
This process uses huge amounts of electric energy. Recycling of aluminum is a

lot more cost-effective than the processing of bauxite.
Copper, silver, gold, platinum, and palladium are the only transition metals that
are unreactive enough to be found in nature uncombined with other elements.

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content.
chemistry.
of materials.
steelmaking
One aspect of steelmaking is the basic oxygen process used to purify iron (the
most common method used). Scrap steel is mixed with molten iron in a blast
furnace. Oxygen is introduced (injected) to oxidize the impurities.
aluminum recycling
All aluminum products can be recycled after use. Scrap aluminum is generally
taken by road to the recycling plant, where it is checked and sorted to determine
composition and value. If the scrap is of unknown quality, the aluminum will
first be passed through some large magnets to remove any ferrous metal.
Depending upon the type of contamination present, some scrap must be further
processed. Beverage cans, for example, must have their lacquer removed prior to
aluminum recovery.
Fuel Cells
The most common fuel cell is the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell used in the space
shuttle. Some automotive manufacturers are now using fuel cells as a means of
power.
Oxidation:
(2H2(g) + 2OH(aq)
2H2O(l) + 2e) 2
Reduction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
4OH(aq)
Overall:
2H2O(l)
2H2(g) + O2(g)
Batteries
The flow of electrons in a battery is possible because zinc is oxidized in the
battery, and manganese dioxide (MNO2) is reduced. The following chemical
reactions occur:
Oxidation:
Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Reduction: 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2e
Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
tarnish removal
Silver tarnish (Ag2S) is formed by a redox reaction involving environmental
sulphides. To remove the tarnish, aluminum reacts in the following way:
3Ag2S(s) + 2Al(s)
Al2S3(s) + 6Ag(s)
Fruit Clocks
Inserting two electrodes of differing metals into a piece of fruit (such as a lemon)
and connecting them with wires will cause an electric current to flow to a basic
liquid-crystal display clock:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Forensic Blood detection Using Luminol

Criminalists spray a luminol mixture wherever they think blood might be found.
If hemoglobin and the luminol mixture come in contact, the iron in the
hemoglobin accelerates a reaction between the hydrogen peroxide and the
luminol. In this oxidation reaction, the luminol loses nitrogen and hydrogen
atoms and gains oxygen atoms, resulting in a compound called
3-aminophthalate. The reaction leaves the 3-aminophthalate in an energized
statethe electrons in the oxygen atoms are boosted to higher orbitals. The
electrons quickly fall back to a lower energy level, emitting the extra energy as a
light photon. With iron accelerating the process, the light is bright enough to see
in a dark room.
Chemiluminescence/Bioluminescence
Most chemiluminescence methods involve only a few chemical components to
generate light. Luminol chemiluminescence and peroxyoxalate
chemiluminescence are both used in bioanalytical methods. In each system, a
fuel is chemically oxidized to produce an excited-state product. In many
luminol methods, it is this excited product that emits the light for the signal. In
peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence, the initial excited-state product does not emit
light at all; instead, it reacts with another compound, often a compound also
viable as a fluorescent dye, and it is this fluorophore that becomes excited and
emits light.

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chemistry.
of materials.
Bioluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction within an organism. At

least two chemicals are required. The one that produces the light is generically
called a luciferin and the one that drives or catalyzes the reaction is called a
luciferase.
n
electrolytic Cleaning
Electrolysis can be used to clean metal objects, as explained by Dingrando, et al:
Coatings of salts from the seawater on metal objects are removed by an
electrochemical process. A voltaic cell is set up with a cathode that is the
object itself and a stainless steel anode in a basic solution. Chloride ions are
removed when the electric current is turned on.
In another process, bacteria convert sulfate ions to hydrogen sulfide gas and
cause silver coins and bars to become coated with silver sulfide after long
periods of time at the bottom of the ocean. In an electrolytic cell, the silver in
silver sulfide can be reduced to silver metal and reclaimed. (Glencoe
Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 684)
electrodeposition
The process used in electroplating is called electrodeposition (e.g., making CDs).
The item to be coated is placed into a solution of one or more metal salts. The
item is connected to an electrical circuit, forming the cathode (negative) of the
circuit, while the anode (positive) is typically made of the metal to be plated on
the item. When an electrical current is passed through the circuit, metal ions in
the solution are attracted to the item. The result is a layer of metal on the item.
Considerable skill is required to produce an evenly coated finished product. This
process is analogous to a galvanic cell acting in reverse.
Topic 1:
Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

(continued)
Photochemical etching
In the photochemical etching process, ultraviolet light is used to transfer a
pattern onto a piece of metal. Then chemicals are applied to remove certain
areas in the pattern, creating an intricate design on the metal (Dingrando, et al.,
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 641).
antioxidants/Preservatives
Oxidation can cause the decay of food and other organic material (e.g., human
skin). Antioxidants help reduce the decay of some essential amino acids and the
loss of some vitamins. Antioxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, BHT
(butylated hydroxytoluene), BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), sulphites, and
sulphur dioxide, react more readily with oxygen than the food does. This keeps
the food from spoiling.
heart Pacemakers
Engineered in Canada by John Hopps in the 1940s, the pacemaker sends
electrical impulses to the heart muscle to correct heartbeat irregularities. The
pacemaker obtains its energy from a battery that lasts seven years.
Corrosion Prevention
Paint, or another protective coating, can protect steel structures from corrosion.
Sacrificial anodes of magnesium, zinc, or other active metals are also used to
prevent corrosion.

research
It may be beneficial to have students begin their research on the applications of
redox chemistry now, and present or display their projects later during the study of
Topic 6: Electrochemistry. For assessment suggestions, refer to Appendix 1.12B:
Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Sample Checklist and Assessment
Rubric).
Students may wish to use a variety of presentation modes: models, posters,
computer-generated materials, animation, video, murals, and so on.

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chemistry.
of materials.

Chapter 21: Electrochemistry, 662
et al. 641, 684)
Chapter 21: Electrochemistry, 662
appendices
Appendix 1.12A: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Research Report
and Presentation)
Appendix 1.12B: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Sample Checklist
and Assessment Rubric)

Topic 1:
ReacTions in aqueous soluTions
appendices
Appendix 1.1A:
Appendix 1.1B:
Appendix 1.2:
Appendix 1.3:
Appendix 1.4:
Appendix 1.5:
Appendix 1.6A:
Appendix 1.6B:
Appendix 1.7A:
Appendix 1.7B:
Appendix 1.8:
Appendix 1.9A:
Appendix 1.9B:
Appendix 1.9C:
Appendix 1.9D:
Appendix 1.10A:
Appendix 1.10B:
Appendix 1.11:
Appendix 1.12A:
Appendix 1.12B:
Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity 3

Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 4
Solubility Rules 7
Predicting Precipitation Reactions 8
Colour Chart for Ions in Aqueous Solutions 10
Identifying Unknown Solutions (Teacher Notes and
Preparation Guide) 11
Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (Teacher Notes) 13
Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (BLM) 14
Titration: Lab Activity 15
Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 18
Process Notes for Balancing Neutralization Reactions 20
Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines) 21
Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide) 23
Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 1) 25
Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2) 26
Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction 28
Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction
(Sample Response) 29
Oxidation Number Rules 30
Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Research Report
and Presentation) 31
Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Sample Checklist and
Assessment Rubric) 33
GrAde 12 ChemisTry Topic 1 Appendices
Appendix 1.1A: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity

Purpose
In this lab activity, you will develop your own procedure to create a set of solubility
rules. You will be provided with 0.1 mol/L solutions of various anions and cations
so that you can observe whether precipitates are formed.
Solutions
The solutions the class will use include the following:
n
set A
set B
silver ions (Ag )
zinc ions (Zn2+)
barium ions (Ba2+)
iron ions (Fe3+)
sodium ions (Na+)
sodium ions (Na+)
ammonium ions (NH4+)
magnesium ions (Mg2+)
calcium ions (Ca2+)
potassium ions (K+)
chloride ions (Cl)
chloride ions (Cl)
carbonate ions (CO32)
hydroxide ions (OH)
sulphate ions (SO42)
bromide ions (Br)
nitrate ions (NO3)

phosphate ions (PO43)
carbonate ions (CO32)

acetate ions (C2H3O2)
Before you begin mixing solutions, set up a grid to organize your observations.
Follow-up Questions
1. Scientists have developed a set of solubility rules with respect to the solubility of
anions with numerous cations.
a) List the cations that did not form any precipitates.
b) For each anion, list the cations with which it was insoluble (formed a
precipitate).
2. List the set of solubility rules that you have developed.
Topic 1 Appendices 3

(Teacher Notes)
Introduction
Have student groups perform the lab activity using the solutions in either Set A or
Set B below and then share their observations.
Where appropriate, 1.0 mol/L solutions can be prepared instead of 0.1 mol/L
solutions. Involving students in the preparation of solutions is desireable. It may be
clearer for students if the ions that participate in the reactions come from separate
solutions. For instance, in Set A, a solution of 0.1 mol/L NaCl could be the source of
Na+ ions, and 0.1 mol/L Na2CO3 acts as the source of CO32 ions. These solutions
would replace the following solution in Set A below: 2 0.1 mol/L solutions of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) labelled Na+ and CO32. The NH4Cl is used for the NH4+
ions and the (NH4)2SO4 is used as the source for SO42 ions. For Set B, NaCl can be
used as a source for sodium ions, and KCl can be used as a source for potassium ions.
If this strategy is not followed, students will no doubt observe anomalous
precipitates (discrepant events) that were unexpected, and may be difficult to explain.
To avoid confusion, teachers are encouraged to proceed according to the level of
difficulty desired for students explanations of results.
Solutions
Prepare solution sets of 25 mL dropper bottles.
set A
1 0.1 mol/L solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3) labelled Ag+
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of barium chloride (BaCl2) labelled Ba2+ and Cl
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) labelled Na+ and CO32
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4) labelled NH4+ and SO42
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) labelled Ca2+ and NO3
1 0.1 mol/L solution of potassium phosphate (K3PO4) labelled PO43
set B
1 0.1 mol/L solution of zinc acetate (Zn(C2H3O2)2) labelled Zn2+
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) labelled Fe3+ and Cl
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) labelled Na+ and OH
1 0.1 mol/L solution of magnesium bromide (MgBr2) labelled Mg2+
1 0.1 mol/L solution of sodium bromide (NaBr) labelled Br
2 0.1 mol/L solutions of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) labelled K+ and CO32
1 0.1 mol/L solution of sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2) labelled C2H3O2
4 Topic 1 Appendices
Appendix 1.1A: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)
(continued)
Probable Results
Set A
Cl
CO32
SO42
NO3
PO43
Ag+
PPT
PPT
PPT
NP
PPT
Ba2+
NP
PPT
PPT
NP
PPT
Na+
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
NH4+
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
Ca2+
NP
PPT
PPT
NP
PPT
PPT = precipitate; NP = no precipitate
1. a) The cations that did not form any precipitates were Na+ and NH4+.
b) Cl formed a precipitate with Ag+.
CO32 formed a precipitate with Ag+, Ba2+, and Ca2+.
SO42 formed a precipitate with Ag+, Ba2+, and Ca2+.
Note: Ag2SO4 is sparingly soluble, so students may or may not see a
precipitate.
NO3 did not form a precipitate with any of the cations.
PO43 formed a precipitate with Ag+, Ba2+, and Ca2+.
Appendix 1.1B: Developing a Set of Solubility Rules: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)
(continued)
Set B
Cl
OH
Br
CO32
C2H3O2
Zn2+
NP
PPT
NP
PPT
NP
Fe3+
NP
PPT
NP
NP
NP
Na+
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
Mg2+
NP
PPT
NP
PPT
NP
K+
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
1. a) The cations that did not form any precipitates were Na+ and K+.
b) Cl did not form a precipitate with any of the cations.
OH formed a precipitate with Zn2+, Fe3+ and Mg2+.
Br did not form a precipitate with any of the cations.
CO32 formed a precipitate with Zn2+ and Mg2+.
C2H3O2 did not form a precipitate with any of the cations.
2. Solubility Rules
a) Most nitrate (NO3) salts are soluble.
b) Most salts containing the alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) and the
ammonium ion (NH4+) are soluble.
c) Most chloride (Cl), bromide (Br), and iodide (I) salts are soluble. Notable
exceptions are salts containing the ions Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+.
d) Most sulphate (SO42) salts are soluble. Notable exceptions are BaSO4, PbSO4,
HgSO4, and CaSO4.
e) Most hydroxide (OH) salts are only slightly soluble. The important soluble
hydroxides are NaOH and KOH. The compounds Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and
Ca(OH)2 are marginally soluble.
f) Most sulphide (S2), carbonate (CO32), chromate (CrO42), and phosphate
(PO43) salts are only slightly soluble.
Appendix 1.2: Solubility Rules
Negative Ions
Positive Ions
Solubility
Essentially all
Alkali ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+)
Soluble
Essentially all
Hydrogen ion H+(aq)
Soluble
Essentially all
Ammonium ion (NH4+)
Soluble
Nitrate, NO3
Essentially all
Soluble
Acetate, CH3COO
Essentially all (except Ag+)
Soluble
Chloride, Cl
Bromide, Br
Iodide, I
Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+, Cu+, Tl+
Low solubility
All others
Soluble
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Ra2+
Low solubility
All others
Soluble
Sulphate, SO4
Alkali ions, H+(aq), NH4+, Be2+,

Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+
Sulphide, S
All others
Alkali ions, H+(aq), NH4+,
Hydroxide, OH
Phosphate, PO43
2
Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+, Tl2+
Soluble
Low solubility
Soluble
All others
Low solubility
Alkali ions, H+(aq), NH4+
Soluble
All others
Low solubility
Ba2+, Sr2+, Pb2+, Ag+
Low solubility
All others
Soluble
Carbonate, CO3
Sulphite, SO32
Chromate, CrO4
Appendix 1.3: Predicting Precipitation Reactions

Use a solubility rules table to predict precipitation reactions.
a) Predict the products of the reactions in the following examples.
b) Write a balanced molecular equation and check the table for the solubility of the
products.
c) Write a total ionic equation.
d) Write a net ionic equation.
Example 1
AlCl3 reacts with KOH
a) Al3+ combines with OH to form Al(OH)3, and K+ combines with Cl to form
KCl.
b) The balanced molecular equation will be
AlCl3(aq) + 3KOH(aq)
Al(OH)3(s) + 3KCl(aq)
Notice from the solubility table that the Al3+ ion is insoluble with the OH ion,
thus forming a precipitate.
c) Compounds that are written as aqueous are broken down to their respective
cations and anions. Solids are written in molecular form.
Al3+(aq) + 3Cl(aq) + 3K+(aq) + 3OH(aq)
Al(OH)3(s) + 3K+(aq) + 3Cl(aq)
d) Ions that are common to both sides of the reaction are called spectator ions.
These ions are cancelled when writing the net ionic equation.
Al3+(aq) + 3Cl(aq) + 3K+(aq) + 3OH(aq)
The net ionic equation would be
Al3+(aq) + 3OH(aq)
Al(OH)3(s)
Al(OH)3(s) + 3K+(aq) + 3Cl(aq)
Appendix 1.3: Predicting Precipitation Reactions (continued)
Example 2
AgNO3 reacts with CaI2
a) Ag+ combines with I to form AgI, and Ca2+ combines with NO3 to form
Ca(NO3)2.
b) The balanced molecular equation will be
2AgNO3(aq) + CaI2(aq)
2AgI(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Notice from the solubility table that the Ag+ ion is insoluble with the I ion, thus
forming a precipitate.
c) Compounds that are written as aqueous are broken down to their respective
cations and anions. Solids are written in molecular form.
2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2I(aq)
2AgI(s) + Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)
d) Ions that are common to both sides of the reaction are called spectator ions.
These ions are cancelled when writing the net ionic equation.
2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2I(aq)
2AgI(s) + Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)
The net ionic equation would be

2Ag+(aq) + 2I(aq)
2AgI(s)
Appendix 1.4: Colour Chart for Ions in Aqueous Solutions
Ion
Symbol
Colour
Chrome(II)
Cr2+
Blue
Chrome(III)
Cr3+
Green
Cobalt(II)
Co2+
Pink
Chromate
CrO42
Yellow
Dichromate
Cr2O72
Orange
Copper(I)
Cu+
Green
Copper(II)
Cu2+
Blue
Iron(II)
Fe2+
Green
Iron(III)
Fe3+
Pale yellow
Manganese(II)
Mn2+
Pink
Permanganate
MnO4
Purple
Nickel(II)
Ni2+
Green

Preparation Guide)
Purpose
Present student groups with four unknown solutions. Their job will be to identify
each unknown solution using only a spot plate, a stir stick, a chart showing the
colour of ions in aqueous solutions, a table of solubility rules, and the solutions
themselves.
Solutions
The sets of solutions that students will use could include 0.1 mol/L solutions of the
following:
Set 1: Ba(NO3)2, NaOH, Na2CO3, CuSO4
Set 2: Co(NO3)2, Na3PO4, Na2SO4, AgNO3
Set 3: Cr2(SO4)3, MnSO4, Ba(NO3)2, Zn(NO3)2
Set 4: Fe(NO3)3, KI, Pb(NO3)2, NaOH
Set 5: NiSO4, Na2CO3, MnSO4, NaCl
Set 6: CuSO4, NaCl, Na3PO4, Zn(NO3)2
Questions
Students must correctly identify the four solutions and explain how they identified
each of the solutions using the solubility rules.
1. Using a chart that shows the colour of common ions in aqueous solutions, can
you identify any of your unknowns based on this information? Explain.
2. Which solutions that you mixed formed a precipitate? Can you identify any of
the unknown solutions based on this result? Explain.
3. Are there any reactions that have no precipitate formation? Can you identify any
of the unknown solutions based on this result? Explain.
Preparation Guide
Prepare 0.1 mol/L solutions of each of the following.
set 1
Solution 1: 2.613 g of Ba(NO3)2 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 0.40 g of NaOH in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 1.06 g of Na2CO3 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 2.50 g of CuSO45H2O in 100 mL of solution

Preparation Guide) (continued)
set 2
Solution 1: 2.91 g of Co(NO3)26H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 2.90 g of Na3PO47H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 1.421 g of Na2SO4 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 1.699 g of AgNO3 in 100 mL of solution
set 3
Solution 1: 3.60 g of Cr2(SO4)3 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 1.69 g of MnSO4H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 2.613 g of Ba(NO3)2 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 2.97 g of Zn(NO3)26H2O in 100 mL of solution
set 4
Solution 1: 4.04 g of Fe(NO3)39H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 1.66 g of KI in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 3.312 g of Pb(NO3)2 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 0.40 g of NaOH in 100 mL of solution
set 5
Solution 1: 2.63 g of NiSO46H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 1.06 g of Na2CO3 in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 1.69 g of MnSO4H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 0.584 g of NaCl in 100 mL of solution
set 6
Solution 1: 2.50 g of CuSO45H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 2: 0.584 g of NaCl in 100 mL of solution
Solution 3: 2.90 g of Na3PO47H2O in 100 mL of solution
Solution 4: 2.97 g of Zn(NO3)26H2O in 100 mL of solution
Appendix 1.6A: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations

(Teacher Notes)
Solve the problem, showing all
steps.
Use words to describe each step of

the solution.
Na2S + FeSO4 Na2SO4 + FeS
Step 1: Predict the products of the

double displacement reaction
and ensure that the equation is
balanced.
Na2S(aq) + FeSO4(aq)
Na2SO4(aq) + FeS(s)
Step 2: Use (aq) and (s) to identify

each species as being soluble
or slightly soluble (i.e., write
the molecular equation).
2Na+(aq) + S2(aq) + Fe2+(aq) + SO4(aq)

2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq) + FeS(s)
2Na+(aq) + S2(aq) + Fe2+(aq) + SO4(aq)

2Na
(aq)
+ SO4
(aq)
+ FeS(s)
S2(aq) + Fe2+(aq) FeS(s)
Step 3: Write the ionic equation by

breaking up soluble species
into their ions.
Step 4: Cancel out all spectator ions

This gives the net ionic equation.
Appendix 1.6B: Process Notes for Writing Net Ionic Equations (BLM)
Solve the problem, showing all

steps
Use words to describe each step

of the solution process.
BaCl2 + Na(PO4)3

double displacement reaction
and ensure that the equation
is balanced.
Step 2: Use (aq) and (s) to identify
each species as being soluble
or slightly soluble (i.e., write
the molecular equation).
Step 3: Write the ionic equation by
breaking up soluble species
into their ions.
Step 4: Cancel out all spectator ions
This gives the net ionic equation.
Appendix 1.7A: Titration: Lab Activity

Purpose
Titrations are procedures that are usually used to determine the unknown
concentrations of substances. In this lab activity, you will add drops of a known
concentration of sodium hydroxide to a beaker containing a known concentration of
sulphuric acid until neutralization occurs. The number of moles of each reactant can
then be calculated from the volumes present, so that their ratio can be compared to
the ratio of coefficients in the balanced equation.
Materials
50 mL beaker
three micropipettes
phenolphthalein indicator
10 mL graduated cylinder
distilled water
0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
0.1 mol/L sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Procedure
1. Using the 10 mL graduated cylinder and a micropipette, count and record the
number of drops required to obtain 1.0 mL of distilled water. Perform this
process a total of three times.
Note: For the best, most reproducible results, hold the micropipette vertically,
and squeeze the bulb slowly and gently. Avoid introducing air bubbles into the
stem of the pipette, as they will result in half or quarter drops.
2. Add 5 mL of distilled water and one drop of phenolphthalein indicator to a
50 mL beaker. Swirl the beaker well.
3. Using a second micropipette (to avoid contamination of the solutions), add
20 drops of 0.1 mol/L H2SO4 to the beaker. Swirl the solution carefully.
4. Using a third micropipette, add the 0.1 mol/L NaOH drop by drop, until the
addition of one drop of the base permanently changes the colour of the solution.
Be sure to swirl the beaker gently after each drop is added. Record the number of
drops required to reach the endpoint of the titration.
Note: The endpoint of the titration occurs when one drop of an acid or a base
permanently changes the colour of the indicator used in the titration.
5. Rinse the contents of the beaker down the sink with plenty of water (the final
rinse should be with distilled water), and perform steps 2 through 4 a total of
three times.
Appendix 1.7A: Titration: Lab Activity (continued)
Note: The trials should agree with one another to within one drop. If you make a
mistake, miss the endpoint, or lose count of the drops, perform another trial. Do
not erase the results, but make note of what went wrong.
Qualitative Observations
n
Describe each solution before reaction occurs.
Describe the solution after adding the drops of phenolphthalein.
Quantitative Data Tables

Trial
Drops of Water in 1.0 mL
1
2
3
Average
Volume of
Water Used
(mL)
Drops of
Sulphuric
Acid
20
20
20
Average
Volume of
Sulphuric
Acid
(mL)
Drops of
Sodium
Hydroxide
Volume of
Sodium
Hydroxide
(mL)
Appendix 1.7A: Titration: Lab Activity (continued)
Calculations
1. Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction.
2. Draw a particulate representation of the balanced reaction.
3. Calculate the average number of drops required to obtain 1.0 mL of distilled
water.
4. Using the data obtained in step 2 of the procedure, calculate the volume of
NaOH added in each trial.
5. Calculate the average number of moles of NaOH required to neutralize the
sample of H2SO4.
6. Using the data obtained in step 2, calculate the volume of H2SO4 added in each
trial.
7. Using your balanced equation, determine the average number of moles present
in the sample of H2SO4.
8. Use the coefficients in the balanced equation to determine the ratio of moles
between the sodium hydroxide and the sulphuric acid.
9. Use the number of moles obtained in steps 4 and 5 of the procedure to determine
the ratio of moles between the sodium hydroxide and the sulphuric acid.
Conclusion
State the stoichiometric relationship between the sodium hydroxide and the
sulphuric acid.
Questions
1. a) Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction between barium
hydroxide and sulphuric acid.
b) Use the coefficients in the balanced equation to calculate the volume of
barium hydroxide required to react with 20 mL of sulphuric acid.
2. a) Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction between aluminum
hydroxide and sulphuric acid.
b) Use the coefficients in the balanced equation to calculate the volume of
aluminum hydroxide required to react with 30 mL of sulphuric acid.
Sources of Error
What possible errors could have occurred in your lab activity?
Appendix 1.7B: Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)

Purpose
To demonstrate the stoichiometry of a neutralization reaction between a strong acid
and a strong base.
Qualitative Observations
Distilled water:
clear, colourless liquid
Sulphuric acid:
Sodium hydroxide: clear, colourless liquid

Phenolphthalein:
Quantitative Data Tables

Trial
Drops of Water in 1.0 mL
23
24
23
Average
23
Volume of
Water Used
(mL)
Drops of
Sulphuric
Acid
Volume of
Sulphuric
Acid
(mL)
Drops of
Sodium
Hydroxide
Volume of
Sodium
Hydroxide
(mL)
20
0.858
69
2.96
20
0.858
68
2.92
20
0.858
70
3.00
Average
20
0.858
69
2.96
Appendix 1.7B: Titration: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) (continued)
Calculations
1. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2. Molecule size is not a true representation of the actual size of the compound.
Na
OH
H
H
Na
Na
SO4
Na
SO4
OH
OH
OH
3. (23 + 24 + 23)/3 = 23.3 drops

4. volume NaOH = (1 mL/23.3 drops) 69 drops = 2.96 mL of NaOH
5. moles NaOH = 0.10 mole/L 2.96 103 L = 0.000296 moles NaOH
6. volume H2SO4 = (1 mL/23.3 drops) 20 drops = 0.858 mL of H2SO4
7. moles H2SO4 = 0.10 mole/L 0.858 103 L = 0.0000858 moles H2SO4
8. coefficient NaOH/coefficient H2SO4 = 2/1 = 2
9. moles NaOH/moles H2SO4 = 0.000296/0.0000858 = 3.45
Conclusion
Answers will vary. For example, the stoichiometric relationship between the sodium
hydroxide and the sulphuric acid in the balanced equation is 2 to 1, while the
experimental relationship is 3.45 to 1.
Questions
1. a) Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
BaSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
b) The volume of barium hydroxide required to react with 20 mL of sulphuric

acid is 20 mL.
2. a) 2Al(OH)3(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq)
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(l)
b) The volume of aluminum hydroxide required to react with 30 mL of

sulphuric acid is 20 mL.
Sources of Error
Sources of error could include calibration of the micropipette and graduated
cylinder, as well as the accuracy of the concentrations of the solutions used.
Appendix 1.8: Process Notes for Balancing Neutralization Reactions
Solve the problem, showing all the

steps.
Use words to describe each step of

the solution process.
H2SO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O

neutralization reaction.
Remember that a salt and
water are formed.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Step 2: Ensure that the equation is

balanced. Use (aq) and (l) to
identify each species as being
soluble or slightly soluble
(i.e., write the molecular
equation).
2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Step 3: Write a total ionic equation,

showing all ions that are in
2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2H2O(l)
solution.
2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Step 4: Cancel the spectator ions.

2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)
Step 5: Write the net ionic equation.
Appendix 1.9A: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines)

Purpose
Chemists, like detectives, attempt to identify unknowns through a process of careful
and creative analysis. This usually involves observing the colours, odours, and
reactions of unknown substances and comparing them with those of known
substances. In this experiment, you will try to identify 12 different chemical
compounds by reacting them with each other, observing the results, and comparing
the results with the known characteristics of some common chemicals.
Chemical Compounds
The 12 chemicals used in this experiment are listed below (in no particular order):
potassium chromate (K2CrO4)
aluminum chloride (AlCl3)
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
sodium acetate (NaCH3COO)
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
iron(III) nitrate (Fe(NO3)3)
silver nitrate (AgNO3)
copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4)
nickel(II) chloride (NiCl2)
lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2)
Research and Plan

Before starting the lab activity, you will have to do extensive research on the
characteristic colours of the solutions, any distinguishing odours, their flame-test
colours, and the colours of any precipitates that may be created through the
combination of each different species. Your written plan must include a data table
grid that includes each species, the solution and flame-test colours, the colours of
potential precipitates, and any other information that you think will help to identify
your unknowns.
Appendix 1.9A: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Guidelines) (continued)
Materials
On the day of the lab activity, you will be provided with the following materials:
12 test tubes containing 8 mL each of different solutions
well plates
stir sticks
cotton swabs/flame-test wires/moist wooden splints
Bunsen burners
matches
litmus paper
10 micropipettes
gloves
distilled water
Avoid running out of your samples, as you will not be provided with any more. Do
not assume that solution sets other groups are using are numbered in the same
waythey are not!
Lab Write-up
After recording all your observations in the lab activity, you will attempt to identify
each of the unknowns. A formal lab write-up must include a logical explanation of
how you determined the identity of each test tube. This will include net ionic
equations for any precipitates you saw.
Caution
All solutions must be treated as if they were poisonous and corrosive. Avoid
inhaling any fumes. Some reactions may occur very quickly, while others will occur
more slowly. Observe each reaction for at least two minutes before disposing of the
products. Gas evolution (bubbling) will be immediate. Rinse off your stir stick after
each use. As time will be limited, use your time wisely.
Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide)

Teachers can prepare the solutions for this lab activity in advance or have students
prepare them. Prepare a solution, given the amount of solute (in grams) and the
volume of solution (in millilitres), and determine the concentration in moles/litre.
Materials
well plates
stir sticks
cotton swabs/flame-test wires/moist wooden splints
Bunsen burners
matches
litmus paper
micropipettes (10 per group)
gloves
distilled water
test tube rack
test tubes (12 10/group = 120 test tubes)
test tube stoppers or plastic wrap to cover the test tubes
100 mL solutions of the following 12 solutions:
0.2 mol/L K2CrO4to prepare, dissolve 3.88 g of K2CrO4 in 100 mL of
distilled water
1.0 mol/L AlCl36H2Odissolve 24.14 g of AlCl3 in 100 mL of distilled water
1.0 mol/L Na2CO3dissolve 10.6 g of Na2CO3 in 100 mL of distilled water
1.0 mol/L NaCH3COO3H2Odissolve 13.61 g of NaCH3COO in 100 mL of
distilled water
6.0 mol/L HClmix 49.6 mL in 100 mL of distilled water
6.0 mol/L NaOHdissolve 24.0 g of NaOH in 100 mL of distilled water
6.0 mol/L NH4OHmix 40.5 mL in 100 mL of distilled water
0.1 mol/L Fe(NO3)39H2Odissolve 4.04 g of Fe(NO3)39H2O in 100 mL of
distilled water
0.1 mol/L AgNO3dissolve 1.70 g of AgNO3 in 100 mL of distilled water
0.1 mol/L CuSO4dissolve 2.50 g of CuSO45H2O in 100 mL of distilled
water
0.1 mol/L NiCl26H2Odissolve 2.38 g of NiCl2 in 100 mL of distilled water
0.1 mol/L Pb(NO3)2dissolve 3.31 g of Pb(NO3)2 in 100 mL of distilled water
Appendix 1.9B: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Preparation Guide) (continued)
100 mL solutions should be prepared in advance of the lab activity.

Test tubes can be pre-labelled with the information, set 1, test tube 1, and so on.
Students are given an 8 to 10 mL sample of each solution (12 different test tubes)
that are contained in a test tube rack.
A suggested teacher key is given for setting up each set of test tubes.
Solution Set Key

Substance
Group 1
and
Group 9
Group 2
and
Group 10
Group 3
and
Group 6
Group 4
and
Group 7
Group 5
and
Group 8
K2CrO4
AlCl3
Na2CO3
10
11
12
NaCH3COO
HCl
11
NaOH
12
10
11
NH4OH
Fe(NO3)3
10
AgNO3
11
12
10
CuSO4
NiCl2
12
Pb(NO3)2
10
11
12
NP = no precipitate
Pb(NO3)2
NiCl2
CuSO4
AgNO3
Fe(NO3)3
NH4OH
NaOH
HCl
NaCH3COO
Na2CO3
AlCl3
Kr2CrO4
Kr2CrO4
NP
AlCl3
Al2(CO3)3
NP
Na2CO3
NP
NP
NP
NaCH3COO
NP
gas
NP
NP
HCl
NP
NH4OH
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
Al(OH)3 Al(OH)3
NP
NaOH
Example of what students could have prepared before doing the lab activity.
Fe2(OH)3
Fe2(OH)3
NP
NP
Fe2(CO3)3
NP
NP
Fe(NO3)3
NP
AgOH
AgOH
AgCl
AgCH3COO
AgCO3
AgCl
Ag2CrO4
AgNO3
NP
NP
NiCO3
NP
NiCl2
PbCl2
NP
PbCO3
PbCl2
PbCrO4
Pb(NO3)2
Ag2SO4
NP
NP
AgCl
NP
PbCl2
PbSO4
NP
NP
Cu(OH)2 Ni(OH)2 Pb(OH)2
Cu(OH)2 Ni(OH)2 Pb(OH)2
NP
NP
CuCO3
NP
NP
CuSO4
Appendix 1.9C: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 1)
Appendix 1.9D: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2)

Substance
K2CrO4
Identifying
Colour/
Colour of
Solution
Yellow
Colour in
Litmus
Paper
FlameTest
Colour
Reacts
with
To
Make
Colour of
Precipitate
Blue
Violet
AgNO3
Pb(NO3)2
Ag2CrO4
PbCrO4
Brick red
Yellow
bubbles
Fe(CO3)3
AgCO3
CuCO3
NiCO3
PbCO3
Al2(CO3)3
Bubbles
White
White*
White
White
White
White
AlCl3
Neutral
Na2CO3
Blue
NaCH3COO
Blue
HCl
Pink
NaOH
Blue
Yellow
Na2CO3
NaOH
AgNO3
Pb(NO3)2
HCl
Fe(NO3)3
AgNO3
CuSO4
NiCl2
PB(NO3)2
AlCl3
Al2(CO3)3
Al(OH)3
AgCl
PbCl2
Yellow
AgNO3
AgCH3COO
AgNO3
Pb(NO3)2
Na2CO3
White
White
White*
Yellow
White*
Fe(NO3)3
AgNO3
CuSO4
NiCl2
Pb(NO3)2
AlCl3
AgCl
PbCl2
Bubbles
Fe(OH)3
AgOH
Cu(OH)2
Ni(OH)2
Pb(OH)2
Al(OH)3
White*
Yellow
Bubbles
White
Brown*
White
White
White
White
NH4OH
Strong
odour
Blue
Fe(NO3)3
AgNO3
CuSO4
NiCl2
Pb(NO3)2
AlCl3
Fe(OH)3
AgOH
Cu(OH)2
Ni(OH)2
Pb(OH)2
Al(OH)3
Fe(NO3)3
Pale yelow
Neutral
Na2CO3
NaOH
Fe2(CO3)3
Fe(OH3)
White
Brown*
White
White
White
White
White
White/Brown
* Most Ag precipitates start out a white to greyish-white colour, but turn purple/brown/black over time.
continued
Appendix 1.9D: Test Tube Mystery: Lab Activity (Teacher Key 2) (continued)
Substance
Identifying
Colour/
Colour of
Solution
Colour in
Litmus
Paper
CuSO4
Blue
Neutral
NiCl2
Green/
Green-blue
Neutral
AgNO3
Pb(NO3)2
FlameTest
Colour
Neutral
Neutral
Bluish-green
Bluish-white
Reacts
with
To
Make
Colour of
Precipitate
NiCl2
K2CrO4
AlCl3
Na2CO3
NaCH3COO
HCl
NaOH
CuSO4
AgCl
Ag2CrO4
AgCl
Ag2CO3
AgCH3COO
AgCl
AgOH
Ag2SO4
Pb(NO3)2
Na2CO3
NaOH
PbSO4
CuCO3
Cu(OH)2
White*
Brick red
White*
White*
White*
White*
Brown
White*
K2CrO4
AlCl3
Na2CO3
HCl
NaOH
CuSO4
NiCl2
PbCrO4
PbCl2
PbCO3
PBCl2
Pb(OH)2
PbSO4
PbCl2
Pb(NO3)2
Na2CO3
NaOH
AgNO3
PbCl2
NiCO3
Ni(OH)2
AgCl
White
White
White
Yellow
White
White
White*
Yellow
Yellow
White
Yellow
White
White
Yellow
* Most Ag precipitates start out a white to greyish-white colour, but turn purple/brown/black over time.
Oxidation
Reduction
Historical Definition:
Example:
Example:
Present Definition:
Present Definition:
Example:
Example:
Mnemonic Device:
Mnemonic Device:
When Balancing a Redox Reaction:
One substance is _________________
and it is also the ____________ agent.
and it is also the ____________ agent.
Its oxidation number _____________ .
Its oxidation number _____________ .
Appendix 1.10B: Compare and Contrast Oxidation and Reduction

(Sample Response)
Oxidation
Gain of oxygen
Reduction
Loss of oxygen
Example:
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20
Example:
Present Definition:
Present Definition:
Loss of electrons
2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2
Gain of electrons
Example:
Mg + S MgS
(Magnesium undergoes
oxidation)
Example:
Mg + S MgS
(Sulphur undergoes reduction)
Mnemonic Device:
Mnemonic Device:
OIL
RIG
LEO
GER
oxidized

reduced
reducing agent.
and it is also the ____________
oxidizing agent.
and it is also the ____________
increases .
Its oxidation number _____________
decreases .
Its oxidation number _____________
Appendix 1.11: Oxidation Number Rules

The rules for assigning oxidation numbers are identified below.
rule 1: The oxidation number of any free atom (or multiple of itself) is 0.
Examples:
C=0
H2 = 0
O2 = 0
rule 2: An ions oxidation number is its charge when in ionic form.

Examples:
Na+ = +1
P3+ = +3
S2 = 2
rule 3: In a compound or complex ion, the sum of all the oxidation numbers of
each part must equal the total charge of that compound or complex ion.
Examples:
NaCl
CaCl2
SO42
+1 1 = 0
+2 1 1 = 0
+6 2 2 2 2 = 2
rule 4: The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, except in metal hydrides where
H is the anion (e.g., CaH2 or LiH) and the oxidation number is 1.
rule 5: The oxidation number of oxygen is 2, except in peroxides (e.g., H2O2,
Na2O2) where it is 1, and when in combination with fluorine (O = +2).
rule 6: The oxidation number of a Group IA (Group 1) element in a compound is
+1.
rule 7: The oxidation number of a Group IIA (Group 2) element in a compound is
+2.
rule 8: In most cases, the oxidation number of a Group VIIA (Group 17) element in
a compound is 1.
rule 9: Within a compound containing complex ions, each elements oxidation
number can be determined using the charge on the complex ion.
Example:
n
The compound Ni2(SO4)3 contains the ions Ni3+ and SO42.

Since the oxidation number of O is 2 according to rule 5 (for a total of
8), S must be +6 to result in 2 charge on the sulphate ion.
Therefore,
?
+6 2
Ni2(SO4)3
?
+18 24
results in
+3
+6 2
Ni2(SO4)3
+6
+18 24
Appendix 1.12A: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions

(Research Report and Presentation)
To learn more about the practical applications of redox reactions taking place
around you, your group (of no more than three students) will research one of the
following topics, write a report on your findings, and give an oral presentation.
Topics
1. rocket fuels
2. fireworks
3. household bleach (i.e., stain removal and chlorination)
4. photography
5. metal recovery from ores
6. steelmaking
7. aluminum recycling
8. fuel cells
9. batteries
10. tarnish removal
11. fruit clocks
12. forensic blood detection using luminol
13. chemiluminescence/bioluminescence
14. electrolytic cleaning
15. electrodeposition
16. photochemical etching
17. antioxidants/preservatives
Resources
You will need access to resources such as the following:
n
school, university, or public libraries
Internet
textbooks (see teacher)
email communication (e.g., with an expert)
magazines, journals, and newspapers
interviews
Appendix 1.12A: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Research Report and

Presentation) (continued)
Project Requirements
Your research, report, and presentation should include the following:
n
Identify the redox application you have selected.

Describe the redox reaction taking place, including information on the substances
being oxidized and reduced, as well as the oxidizing agents and the reducing
agents.
Address the effects of the process on the environment, and the energy
consumption involved in the process.
Submit your groups written project (of approximately two pages) to your teacher
the day before your oral presentation. (Dates will be determined at the beginning of
Topic 6: Electrochemistry, so that the written report can be copied for your
classmates.)
The oral presentation should be approximately 10 minutes long and will be teacherassessed. It will be followed by a brief question period (no longer than five minutes)
in which the audience may ask clarifying questions.
Assessment
Please refer to the attached checklist and rubric for a more detailed list of the project
requirements and assessment criteria for both the written report and the oral
presentation.
Appendix 1.12B: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Sample

Checklist and Assessment Rubric)
Checklist
Written report
Have you included the following?
Title page
Bibliography with at least five sources
The selected redox application
All relevant redox reactions taking place
All substances being oxidized and reduced, and any oxidizing agents and
reducing agents
The effects of the process on the environment
The energy consumption involved in the process
An introduction and a conclusion that connect the topic to redox chemistry
Visual aids that help make the topic more easily understood
Five possible test questions about the topic
An answer key to the test questions
Oral Presentation
Have you included the following?
Equal participation by all group members
The selected redox application
All relevant redox reactions taking place
All substances being oxidized and reduced, and any oxidizing agents and
reducing agents
The effects of the process on the environment
The energy consumption involved in the process
An introduction and a conclusion that connect the topic to redox chemistry
A logical flow and clear transitions
Visual aids that help make the topic more easily understood
The information is
Clear, accurate, concise
Presented fully
Interesting and easily understood
Appendix 1.12B: Practical Applications of Redox Reactions (Sample Checklist and

Assessment Rubric) (continued)
Assessment Rubric
3
All relevant
redox reactions
are correct and
are included in
both the written
and oral reports.
All relevant
redox reactions
are correct and
are included in
one of the
reports.
Some relevant
redox reactions
are included in
the written and
oral reports, with
some errors.
No redox
reactions are
included in the
reports.
All substances
being oxidized
and reduced and
all oxidizing and
reducing agents
are correctly
listed.
Some substances
being oxidized
and reduced and
all oxidizing and
reducing agents
are correctly
listed.
Substances being
oxidized and
reduced and
oxidizing and
reducing agents
are incorrectly
listed.
Substances being
oxidized and
reduced and
oxidizing and
reducing agents
are not listed.
Topic 2:
ATomic STrucTure

C12-2-02 Recognize, through direct observation, that elements have unique
line spectra.
Include: flame tests or gas discharge tubes and spectroscopes or
diffraction gratings

C12-2-04 Outline the historical development of the quantum mechanical

model of the atom.
C12-2-06 Relate the electron configuration of an element to its valence

electron(s) and its position on the periodic table.
Include: atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energy, and
electronegativity
Suggested Time: 10 hours
Grade 12 Chemistry Topic 2: Atomic Structure
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure
SpECIfIC LEARnInG OUtCOmES

C12-2-01: Describe qualitatively the electromagnetic spectrum in terms
of frequency, wavelength, and energy.
C12-2-02: Recognize, through direct observation, that elements have
unique line spectra.
C12-2-03: Describe applications and/or natural occurrences of line

spectra.
SLO: C12-2-01
SLO: C12-2-02
SLO: C12-2-03
(3 hours)
SuggeSTionS for inSTrucTion

In Grade 8 Science (8-2-07), students compared and contrasted various types of
electromagnetic radiation with respect to energy, wavelength, frequency, and
human perception. Students who have studied Grade 11 Physics (Topic 1: Waves)
will be familiar with the terms wavelength and frequency.

GLO A1:
GLO A3:
GLO A5:
GLO B2:
GLO B3:
GLO B5:
GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C4:
GLO C5:
GLO C6:
GLO D3:
GLO D6:
Recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering questions about the world and
explaining natural phenomena.
Recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and continue to be influenced by
Identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among personal habits, lifestyle
Identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment, society, and economy, both
Recognize safety symbols and practices related to scientific and technological activities and to their daily
Employ effective communication skills and use information technology to gather and share scientific and
Understand the composition of the universe, the interactions within it, and the implications of humankinds
continued attempts to understand and explore it.
4 topic 2: atomic structure

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES
Include: knowledge and use of relevant safety precautions, Workplace Hazardous materials
Information System (WHmIS), and emergency equipment

C12-0-R1: Synthesize information obtained from a variety of sources.

chemistry.

Students prior knowledge can be reviewed and/or assessed by using any of the
KWL forms (e.g., Concept Map, Knowledge Chart, Think-Pair-Sharesee SYSTH,
Chapter 9).
TEAchEr NoTEs
The Electromagnetic spectrum (c12-2-01)
One purpose of studying atomic structure is to understand the electrons role in the
atom. Scientists at the turn of the twentieth century had just discovered this
subatomic particle, but they did not fully understand the magnitudes of types of
energy associated with an electron. By furthering their studies in this area, scientists
hoped they could better explain the behaviour of substances in chemical reactions.
In Topic 2: Atomic Structure, the electromagnetic spectrum will be linked to atomic
structure. The electromagnetic spectrum consists of electromagnetic radiation,
which is the release and transmission of energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. These waves consist of an electric field and a magnetic field that are
perpendicular to each other. The different components (gamma rays, X-rays,
microwaves, visible light, and others) of the electromagnetic spectrum vary due to
differences in wavelength and frequency, but they all travel at the same speed,
3 108 m/s. Energy is transferred by means of wavesmore specifically with
respect to atomic structure, electromagnetic waves.
Students should understand the relationship between wavelength () and
frequency (f ) as an inverse one ( = 1/f ). However, they are not required to treat
the relationship mathematically. It is more important for students to understand
conceptually that over a given span of distance, if the wavelength of a disturbance
is shortened (made smaller), then a greater number of waves would be able to fit
into that distance (increase in frequency).
topic 2: atomic structure 5
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)
A coiled spring toy, for example, can be used to show the relationship between
frequency and wavelength (see the following diagrams). Holding one end of the
toy, move your hand back and forth slowly. This illustrates a large wavelength (the
distance from one crest to the next successive crest) and a low frequency. Increasing
the frequency of the back-and-forth movement of your hand will result in a smaller
wavelength. In both cases, the speed of the wave is the same.
Motion of medium
Motion of wave
Crest
Trough
The following diagram shows clearly the relationship between wavelength () and
the number of cycles in a given space (frequency of the wave).
l
a)
b)
c)

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
The energy of the various parts of the electromagnetic (em) spectrum is directly
related to the frequency of the wave. If a wave has a high frequency, then it will
contain a higher amount of energy. For example, gamma rays are high-energy
waves due to their very high frequency (1020 Hz). Radio waves are low-energy
waves, as their frequency is approximately 106 Hz.
Visible light, with its colours ranging from red to violet, is the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is detected by the human eye. A common mnemonic
used to remember the colour spectrum is ROYGBIV. Ask students whether they can
recall this mnemonic from previous study (ROYGBIV: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet). Within this range of colours, red light has the largest
wavelength (small frequency). At the other end of the spectrum, violet light has the
smallest wavelength (large frequency).
When an iron nail is heated in a Bunsen burner flame, it will glow bright red. The
human eye is sensitive to the frequency and wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation within this range, and it is seen as red. If you place your hand near the
iron nail, your hand will detect the warmth of the nail, which is represented by the
infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Demonstrations
Several quick demonstrations can be performed to show the visible spectrum.
1. Hold up a glass prism to an overhead light and have students observe the white
light that passes through the prism break apart into a range of colours, known as
a spectrum. This can be projected on the classroom wall, ceiling, or overhead
screen.
2. Have students look at light being diffracted by a CD. This also shows a spectrum
of colours.

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)
TEAchEr NoTEs
Line spectra (c12-2-02)
Emission spectra can exist as continuous spectra or line spectra.
n
A continuous spectrum shows all the wavelengths of light in an uninterrupted

pattern, as demonstrated with the glass prism on the overhead. A common
occurrence with which students should be familiar is the rainbow, an
uninterrupted sequence of colours ranging from red to violet.
A line spectrum consists of distinct bright lines appearing on a dark background
that occur in different parts of the visible spectrum. This distinguishing feature
of gaseous atoms provides scientists with a unique fingerprint for each
element. Each element has its own unique line spectrum, as each element
contains differing amounts of electrons or different energy levels. These bright
lines indicate that only certain energies are possible within the atom. The
brightness of spectral lines depends on how many photons of the same
wavelength are emitted.
Demonstrations
Perform the following demonstrations:
1. In a darkened room, hold a Tesla coil near a graphite (carbon) rod secured by a
clamp to a ringstand. The spark that results shows a lightning bolt, which is
composed of the nitrogen spectrum. This can be related to natural occurrences of
light spectra, such as a rainbow or the northern lights (aurora borealis). (The
physics teacher in your school may have a Tesla coil.)
2. Apply an electric current through a dill pickle and cause it to glow. The excited
sodium atoms emit a yellow light (589 nanometre) when they drop back down
to the ground state. This demonstration can be found in the Journal of Chemical
Education (see Learning Resources Links). Instructions for this demonstration are
also found online.
Sample Website:
Loris Chemistry Page. Complete with the Glowing Pickle.
<http://myglowingpickle.com/> (30 Jan. 2012).

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
Laboratory Activities
The purpose of the suggested lab activities is to have students observe continuous
spectra and line spectra. An analogy can be made to differentiate between these two
types of spectra. A wheelchair ramp is similar to a continuous spectrum, whereas a
staircase is similar to a line spectrum. Students should recognize that each element
has its own unique line spectrum. For these lab activities, students can use
commercially made spectroscopes or they can make their own.
1. Have students use prisms or spectroscopes
to observe white light from an incandescent
light bulb. Students will see a continuous
spectrum of colours ranging from red to
violet.
Caution:
Do not permit students to view
sunlight directly.
Have students view a fluorescent light bulb through the spectroscopes. They will
observe line spectra superimposed on the visible light spectra (continuous
spectra). This happens because some of the mercury atoms emit ultraviolet (UV)
light, which is not visible to the human eye. This UV light is absorbed by the
phosphor coating of the fluorescent tube. When these phosphor electrons return
to the ground state, they give off a white light that has more blue and less red
than sunlight (see Wilbraham, et al., Prentice Hall Chemistry 137). Different types
of fluorescent tubes give off their own unique spectrum. An Internet search can
direct you to the spectra of these tubes.
Students can make their own mini spectroscopes. Instructions can be found
online.
Sample Website:
Schwabacher, Alan. Mini Spectroscopes. The Science of Stuff. Rev. 8 Jan. 2002.
University of Wisconsin, Department of Chemistry.
<https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/awschwab/www/specweb.htm>
(13 Jan. 2012).
2. Have students observe examples of emission line spectra using either gas
discharge tubes (if available) or colour flames. See Appendix 2.1: Spectral Lines
as a reference for the wavelength and colour of specific elements.

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)
Gas discharge tubes

As students view the gas discharge tubes,
Caution:
have them draw the actual line spectra,
Teachers
should handle the power
indicate the colours, and note the
supplies
and
the gas spectrum
approximate location of the spectral lines.
tubes.
Students
must exercise
See Appendix 2.2: Gas Discharge Tubes
caution when viewing the spectrum
(BLM). Students should then compare their
tubes. These tubes get hot very
observed line spectra to the known line
quickly and can cause burns.
spectra in order to identify the element
present in the gas mixture. For example,
students should observe four spectral lines for hydrogen: violet, blue-violet,
blue-green, and red. Point out to students that these visible spectral lines
represent electron transitions from energy levels 3, 4, 5, and 6 to energy level 2.
(Energy levels are addressed in greater detail in subsequent learning outcomes.)
metallic salts
Students can view wooden splints that have been soaked for a few days in
different solutions of metallic salts, such as 1/mol saturated solutions of barium,
calcium, copper(II), potassium, and sodium. Students should be able to observe
the specific colour of the metal for a brief moment.
Demonstration
Perform the following demonstration.
n
Flaming salts
For this demonstration, ignite a series of salt solutions mixed in methanol and
have students observe the colours given off. Refer to Appendix 2.3: Flaming
Salts (Demonstration).

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Applications and Natural occurrences of Line spectra (c12-2-03)
As students have now seen and drawn line spectra, they should be ready to discuss
the applications and/or natural occurrences of line spectra. Students will be familiar
with fireworks and neon lights. However, most students may not know, for
example, that neon gas generates an orange-red light.
Spectral lines are produced by an atom in the excited state. First, the atom must
absorb energy. Electrons are then raised to a higher energy level by absorbing
energy. When the electron falls back down to a lower energy level, it
simultaneously gives off a colour of light, which could also be referred to as a single
wavelength, or a single frequency, or a single packet of energy being emitted. This
corresponds to the distance that the electron travelled. Since many electron
transitions are possible between energy levels, many spectral lines are produced by
an atom in the excited state.
For the hydrogen atom, when the electron falls from energy level 3 down to energy
level 2, a red colour is emitted. This should make sense, as the electron is falling the
shortest distance, which corresponds to the lowest frequency of visible light, which
is red. If an electron falls from energy level 4 to energy level 2, a green colour is
emitted. If it falls from energy level 5 to energy level 2, an indigo colour is emitted.
And, if it falls from energy level 6 to energy level 2, a violet colour is emitted.
Many chemistry texts give examples of line spectra for at least some elements.
Viewing such examples will help students appreciate that each element has its own
unique line spectrum. The line spectra could then be used to analyze a light source
for its constituent elements. A typical application occurs in astronomy when an
astronomer passes the light from a distant light source through a spectroscope to
determine what elements were contained in the light. Light sources could be stars,
nebula, supernova explosions in external galaxies, and so on. It is also possible for
astronomers to detect forms of radiation other than visible light. For example,
X-rays and gamma rays are emitted from very dense neutron stars, or emanate from
black holes. It is also historically important that the element helium was first
identified in the spectrum of the Sun before it was detected in Earths atmosphere
(and hence, named from the Greek helios, a reference to the Greek sun god). The
historical link between physics and chemistry could be explored.

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)
Students may have used an open flame to observe line spectra. A familiar
application of the spectra produced by elements is the manufacture of fireworks.
The following is a selection of the colours of elements as they are ignited:
Barium: yellow-green
Strontium: bright red
Calcium: orange-red
Sodium: bright yellow
Potassium: light purple
Lithium: purple-red
Copper: green
The Internet contains a wealth of information on the chemistry and manufacture of
fireworks (for sample websites, see Learning Resources Links).
research
Students could research and write a report on an application or a natural
occurrence of line spectra (e.g., astronomy, aurora borealis, fireworks, neon lights).
1. If sufficient time is available, students could research both fireworks and the use
of line spectra for analysis. If gas discharge tubes were demonstrated in
addressing the previous learning outcome, students will know that neon gas
produces only the orange-red light, and other colours of discharge tubes are
produced by other gases (e.g., argon produces green, helium produces pinkorange, krypton produces lavender, xenon produces blue).
2. Students could research how astrophysicists can determine what elements
make up Earths Sun and other stars. In general, because a star is made up of
hot, glowing gases, its emitted light can be gathered by a telescope and
analyzed. From the atomic emission and absorption spectra of the light, the
elements present in the star can be determined (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
SuggeSTionS for ASSeSSmenT

1. Students should be able to do the following:
n
Draw a series of diagrams showing the relationship between the frequency

and wavelength of an electromagnetic wave.
Relate the frequency of electromagnetic radiation with the amount of energy
these waves contain.
Explain what happens to energy when frequency is doubled.
Explain what happens to energy when frequency is halved.
2. Following the lab activities suggested for learning outcome C12-2-02, have
students compare the light spectrum observed in fluorescent light with that
observed in incandescent light (see Appendix 2.4: Observing Continuous Spectra
and Line Spectra).
Laboratory skills
Students should be able to handle and use diffraction gratings, prisms, and
spectroscopes safely.
research report
Students can prepare and present their research findings on one of the applications
and/or natural occurrences of line spectra. Written reports, oral presentations,
posters, models, multimedia presentations, or displays can be used. A rubric for
Assessment of Research Project is provided in Appendix 11.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)
LeArning reSourceS LinkS

Chemistry (Chang 260, 262, 268)
Chemistry (Zumdahl and Zumdahl 292, 304)
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg 258, 264, 269)
Glencoe Chemistry: Concepts and Applications (Phillips, Strozak, and Wistrom 70,
73, 76)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 118, 120, 128, 131, 138)
et al. 124)
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al. 39, 635, 637)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 126, 137, 138, 141, 142)
Line spectra
235)
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al. 637)
Nelson Chemistry 12: College Preparation, Ontario Edition (Davies, et al. 17, 489)

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
investigations
MiniLab 2.2: Line Emission Spectra of Elements, 77
ChemLab 5: Line Spectra, 142
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al.)
Investigation 1.4.1: Atomic Spectra, 40
Activity 1.4.1: Creating a Flame Test Key, 42
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel et al.)
Activity 3.4.1: Line Spectra, 212
Identifying Gases Using Line Spectra, 19
Flame Tests, 23
Small-Scale LAB: Atomic Emission Spectra, 137
Quick LAB: Flame Tests, 142
demonstration
Gilbert, George L. Tested Demonstrations: Sodium D Line Emission from
Pickle. Journal of Chemical Education 70.3 (Mar. 1993): 250251.
Websites
Edward M. Gouge. A Flame Test Demonstration Device. Journal of Chemical
Education 65.6 (June 1988): 544. Available online at
<http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed065p544> (13 Jan. 2012).
Glencoe Online. An Internet WebQuest: The History of Fireworks. WebQuest
Science. <www.glencoe.com/sec/science/webquest/content/
fireworks.shtml> (1 Feb. 2012).
This website presents the history and components of fireworks.
HowStuffWorksVideos. Fireworks Videos. 19982012.
<http://videos.howstuffworks.com/science/fireworks-videos-playlist.
htm#video-8329> (13 Jan. 2012).
This website offers a series of videos showing how fireworks work.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure


spectra.
(continued)

Pyro Universe. Home Page. <www.pyrouniverse.com> (31 Jan. 2012).
This website presents a history of fireworks and a glossary of pyrotechnic
terms.
Schwabacher, Alan. Mini Spectroscopes. The Science of Stuff. Rev. 8 Jan.
2002. University of Wisconsin. Department of Chemistry.
<https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/awschwab/www/specweb.htm>
(13 Jan. 2012).
University of Colorado at Boulder. Spectral Line. Physics 2000: Science Trek.
<www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/quantumzone/index.html>
(1 Feb. 2012).
This website shows a continuous spectrum for light and line spectra for
various elements.
appendices
Appendix 2.1: Spectral Lines
Appendix 2.2: Gas Discharge Tubes (BLM)
Appendix 2.3: Flaming Salts (Demonstration)
Appendix 2.4: Observing Continuous Spectra and Line Spectra
Selecting Learning resources


SkILLS
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AttItUDES OUtCOmES


chemistry.
Notes
SLO: C12-2-04
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure
SpECIfIC LEARnInG OUtCOmE

C12-2-04: Outline the historical development of the quantum
mechanical model of the atom.
(1.5 hours)

In Grade 9 Science (S2-2-02), students investigated the historical progression of
ideas with respect to the atomic model. Students were also required to draw
simplified Bohr models up to atomic number 18 (argon) (S1-2-05).
TEAchEr NoTEs
historical Development of Quantum Mechanical Model
The historical development of the quantum mechanical model of the atom is a
complex, theoretical topic. Most chemistry texts provide information on this topic,
but the extent and complexity of the treatment varies. The presentation to students
should be as logical and as simple as possible. The following suggested sequence of
events omits Einsteins contribution, as the photoelectric effect is not relevant to the
historical progression.
In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr (18851962) proposed a model for the hydrogen
atom, which states that when radiation is absorbed by an atom, an electron jumps
from the ground state to a higher unstable energy level (excited state). This electron
eventually loses energy and changes to a lower energy level by emitting energy in
the form of light. Using arguments based on electrostatic interactions and
Newtonian physics, Bohr showed that the energies of the electron in the hydrogen
atom could be calculated by a simple relationship involving the Rydberg constant
and a whole number that later became known as the principal quantum number (n).
Johannes Robert Rydberg (18541919), a Swedish physicist who did his most
important work on spectroscopy, found a simple relationship relating the various
lines in the spectra of the elements. His expression included a constant that later
became known as the Rydberg constant. The values that Bohr calculated compared

GLO A1:
GLO A2:
GLO A4:
GLO D3:
Recognize that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, models, and explanations, and evolves as new
evidence appears and new conceptualizations develop.
innovations.

SkILLS
AnD
AttItUDES OUtCOmES
C12-0-n1: Explain the roles of theory, evidence, and models in the development of scientific
knowledge.
C12-0-n2: Describe, from a historical perspective, how the observations and experimental work of
many individuals led to modern understandings of matter.
C12-0-n3: Describe how scientific knowledge changes as new evidence emerges and/or new ideas
and interpretations are advanced.
favourably with the experimental values that had been observed earlier. This
provided strong evidence for the veracity of his model.
The following illustration shows the increase in potential energy as an electron
moves from the ground state to different excited states. The diagram illustrates the
energy levels.
Electron Energy Levels
e-
Excited state, n3
Excited state, n2
Ground state, n1
e-
e-
e-
n4
n3
n2
n1
n4
n2
l n1
Physicists were both mystified and intrigued by Bohrs model of the atom. They
questioned why the energies of electrons allowed only certain energies (later called
quantization). Apparently, even Bohr was not able to provide a logical explanation.
In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie (18921987) proposed a solution. He
reasoned that if light waves can behave like a stream of particles, then perhaps
particles such as electrons could similarly behave like waves. In his discussions, he
related the circumference of an atomic orbit to the wavelength of an electron
travelling around the nucleus. Shortly after de Broglie introduced this relationship,
American physicists Clinton Joseph Davisson (18811958) and Lester Halbert
Germer (18961972) and English physicist George Paget Thomson (18921975)
actually demonstrated that electrons do possess wavelike properties.

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure
(continued)
New questions then arose over the position of the electron. If an electron can act as
a wave, how can its precise location be defined within the atom? This led German
physicist Werner Heisenberg (19011976) to develop the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle, which states that it is impossible to know with certainty both the
momentum (or velocity) and the position of a particle at the same time.
Bohr made a significant contribution to our understanding of atoms, but his theory
did not provide a complete description of electronic behaviour within the atom. In
1926, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger (18871961), using complex differential
calculus, developed an equation that describes the energies and behaviour of
submicroscopic particles. The importance of this equation is analogous to the
contributions of Isaac Newton in terms of our understanding of the position and
motion of particles. While Newtons discussion focused on large, macroscopic
bodies, Schrdinger provided a novel, probabilistic view of the microscopic world.
For instance, Schrdingers equation represents the statistical probability of finding
an electron in a particular volume of space in the atom. The work of Schrdinger
contributed to beginning a new era in physics and chemistry that culminated in the
articulation of a new mechanicsnamely, quantum mechanics.
Animation:Electron orbits
Have students view an animation that shows the absorption and emission of
photons by a hydrogen atom. Students will observe how an electron absorbs energy
and travels to a higher orbital around the nucleus. Then the electron in this excited
state emits a photon and drops back down to a lower energy level. Students should
note that the electron is not very stable in the excited state and it prefers to drop
back down to a lower energy orbital.
Sample Websites:
University of Colorado at Boulder. Atomic Spectra. Physics 2000: Science Trek.
<www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/quantumzone/lines2.html> (3 Aug. 2012).
This animation allows students to click on an orbital to move a hydrogen
electron either up or down. A corresponding wave of light is either absorbed or
emitted.
Visionlearning, Inc. Bohrs Atom: Quantum Behavior in Hydrogen. Library.
<www.visionlearning.com/library/flash_viewer.php?oid=1347&mid=51>
(3 Aug. 2012).
This animation allows students to excite a hydrogen atom up through four
orbits and then allow it to fall back to any lower orbit down to its ground state.
A brief pulse of light will be emitted at each fall, with the numerical value of
that wavelength displayed.

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knowledge.
Learning Activity/Demonstration:Bohrs Atomic Theory and Emission

spectrum
Have students model emission spectra using the following items:
n
small coloured balls (or coloured markers)representing different photons with

energies corresponding to their colours
floor spacerepresenting the ground state
a chair, a tall stool, and a table counterrepresenting the higher energy levels
The gap between the floor and the chair needs to be larger than the gap between the
chair and stool. The counter must be higher than the stool.
The teacher (or a student) plays the role of an electron that jumps between different
energy levels.
n
The teacher gives red, yellow, blue, violet, and black balls to students, while
keeping a red, a blue, and a violet ball. The first student throws a violet ball at
the teacher. While catching the ball, the teacher jumps from the floor (first
energy level) onto the stool (third energy level). This represents the absorption
of a violet photon. The teacher immediately takes a violet ball (e.g., out of his or
her pocket), throws it in a different direction than the incoming balls direction,
and jumps down to the floor. This represents the release of a photon and
corresponds to the violet line in the hydrogen emission spectrum.
If a student throws a blue ball, the teacher jumps onto the chair (second energy
level). The teacher releases a blue ball from his or her pocket, and throws it in a
different direction than the incoming balls direction, and jumps down to the
floor. This represents the release of a photon and corresponds to the blue line in
the hydrogen emission spectrum.
The exercise continues with the red balls, which represent the energy between
the second level (the chair) and the third level (the stool) and correspond to the
red line in the hydrogen emission spectrum.
If the student throws a yellow ball, the teacher ignores it, as yellow does not
correspond to one of the energy-level transitions in hydrogen.
Finally, the teacher catches a black ball (representing ultraviolet), jumps onto the
counter, and runs free of the nucleus. This represents ionization.

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure
(continued)
This learning activity demonstrates a number of key points of Bohrs atomic theory
and emission spectra. The coloured balls represent the different energy levels and
the different energies correspond to jumps of different sizes. The emitted photon is
typically ejected in a different direction than the incident photon. Electron jumps
correspond to a small set of specific energy values.

research
1. Have students develop a timeline for the
scientific research that resulted in
modifications to the understanding of the
structure of an atom.
2. Have students research the scientists whose
work led to the establishment of the quantum
mechanical model of the atom. Students
research findings could be presented in the
form of
n
written reports
oral presentations
bulletin-board displays
multimedia presentations
Note:
The historical development of the
atom is an interesting account of
experimental interpretations and
theoretical explanations. It is not
necessary for students to
memorize this development, but
they need to appreciate its
complexity.
For assessment rubrics, refer to Appendix 11.

Have students use a diagram to explain the structure of the atom in terms of the
absorption of energy and the subsequent movement of electrons from one energy
level to another.

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knowledge.

Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking
(Cropper)
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al. 37, 45)
Nelson Chemistry 12, College Preparation, Ontario Edition (Davies, et al. 21)
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, et al. 37, 45)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 127, 130, 144)
World of Physics (McGrath)
demonstration
Palmquist, Bruce C. Interactive Spectra Demonstration.
The Physics Teacher 40.3 (Mar. 2002): 140.
Websites
University of Colorado at Boulder. Atomic Spectra. Physics 2000: Science
Trek. <www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/quantumzone/lines2.html>
(3 Aug. 2012).
(3 Aug. 2012).


C12-2-05: Write electron configurations for elements of the periodic
table.
SLO: C12-2-05
SLO: C12-2-06
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure
C12-2-06: Relate the electron configuration of an element to its

valence electron(s) and its position on the periodic table.
(2.5 hours)

In Grade 9 Science (S1-2-05), students drew Bohr atoms for the first 18 elements of
the periodic table up to argon. Students should also have an understanding of the
arrangement of the elements on the periodic table (S1-2-06, S2-2-01, S2-2-02). In
Grade 10 Science (S2-2-01), students were introduced to Lewis dot diagrams.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Electron configurations
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atoms electron configuration.
Chemists use a combination of numbers and letters to designate the energy levels of
electrons within an atom.
n
The numbers refer to the principal energy levels (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on).
The letters refer to the energy levels (s, p, d, f, g, h, and so on), as shown in the
following table.

GLO A2:
GLO D3:
GLO D4:
GLO E1:
Understand how stability, motion, forces, and energy transfers and transformations play a role in a wide
range of natural and constructed contexts.
Describe and appreciate the similarity and diversity of forms, functions, and patterns within the natural
and constructed world.

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AttItUDES OUtCOmES

summary of Energy Levels and sublevels

Principal Quantum
Number (n)
Sublevels Present
(Types of Orbitals)
Number of Orbitals
Related to Sublevel
Total Number of
Orbitals Related to
Principal Energy
Level (n2)
s
p
1
3
s
p
d
1
3
5
s
p
d
f
1
3
5
7
16
Three principles or rules define how electrons can be arranged in an atoms orbital.
1. the aufbau Principle
The Aufbau principle (derived from the German, aufbauen, which means to build
up) was proposed by Danish physicist Neils Bohr (18851962). The Aufbau
principle states that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available.
The first step is for students to learn the sequence of atomic orbitals from lowest
energy to highest energy, as shown in the following diagram.
Atomic Orbital Diagram
7s
Energy
6s
5s
4s
3s
2s
7p
6p
5p
4p
3p
6d
5d
4d
5f
4f
3d
2p
1s

table.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

(continued)
In the previous diagram, each box represents an atomic orbital. Each energy
level (n1, n2, n3, n4) has one or more sublevels, referred to as s, p, d, f, g, h, and
so on. All orbitals in the same sublevel have the same energy. For example, the
electrons in the 2p sublevel have the same amount of energy in that sublevel.
The energy sublevels within a principal energy level have different energies. The
2s orbital has a lower energy than 2p orbital. Orbitals related to energy sublevels
within one principal energy level can overlap orbitals related to energy
sublevels within another principal level. For example, the 4s orbital has a lower
energy than the 3d orbitals.
2. the Pauli exclusion Principle
Proposed by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (19001958), the Pauli exclusion
principle states that a maximum of two electrons may occupy a single atomic
orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins. Pauli proposed this
principle after observing atoms in excited states. The atomic orbital containing
two electrons with opposite spins is written as .
3. hunds rule
Proposed by German physicist Friedrich Hund (18961997), Hunds rule states
that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital
before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals. For
example, the three 2p orbitals would be filled as shown below.
1 electron
2 electrons
3 electrons
4 electrons

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A teaching aid that students can use to write the correct order for electron
configurations can be to set up as a diagram, as shown below.
7s
7p
5s
5p
6s
4s
3s
2s
1s
6p
6d
6f
4p
4d
4f
3p
2p
5d
5f
3d
Starting at the base of the diagram, the orbitals are filled by following the
direction of the arrows in this manner: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s,
and so on.
Learning Activities: Electron and Valence configurations
1. Ask students to write the electronic configuration using noble gas notation. For
example, the complete electron configuration for aluminum is 1s22s22p63s23p1.
Using the noble gas notation, the electron configuration for aluminum would be
written as [Ne] 3s23p1.
2. Show students how the modern periodic table has been designed according to
the structure of the atom with respect to valence electrons and the chemical
reactivity of elements.
Provide students with Appendix 2.5: Blank Periodic Table of the Elements and
have them write in the valence electrons and the orbital that is being completed.
Once the table is complete, the organization of the table should be apparent.
2s1
2s2
2s2
2p1
2s2
2p2
2s2
2p3
etc.
Periodic tables indicating the electron configurations of elements are available

online (see Websites in Learning Resources Links).

table.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

(continued)
3. Students can play Electron Configuration Bingo. Hand out the symbols of the
elements on a bingo card and call out electron configurations. For example, call
out 1s2, and have students cover up He.
Laboratory Activity
Have students perform a small-scale experiment on electron configurations of
atoms and ions (see Waterman and Thompson 7376).

1. Ask students to write the complete electronic configuration and the valence
configuration for elements up to and including krypton.
2. Have students identify the valence configuration from an elements position on
the periodic table.
concept Development
Have students think about and explain the analogy between Hunds rule and the
behaviour of total strangers as they board an empty bus (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe
Journal Writing
Ask students to write a report
. . . in which they speculate about flying a spacecraft to a planet in a different
solar system. In the new solar system, they discover that each atomic orbital of
the planets solid, liquid, and gaseous matter may contain up to three electrons
rather than just two. Their speculation should focus on the characteristics of the
elements on this new planet. (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and
Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 140)

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Chemistry (Chang 285, 292)
235, 238, 244)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 135, 140, 160)
et al. 137, 140)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 131, 133, 164)
investigation
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual (Waterman
and Thompson)
Experiment 10: Electron Configurations of Atoms and Ions, 7376
Websites
The ChemCollective. Periodic Table. Applets.
<www.chemcollective.org/applets/pertable.php> (1 Feb. 2012).
ScienceGeek.net. Printable Periodic Tables. Other Resources.
<www.sciencegeek.net/tables/tables.shtml> (1 Feb. 2012).
appendix
Appendix 2.5: Blank Periodic Table of the Elements

Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

C12-2-07: Identify and account for periodic trends among the
properties of elements, and relate the properties to electron
configuration.
electronegativity
SLO: C12-2-07
(3 hours)

Prior Knowledge
Electronegativity was briefly discussed in Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-4-02). Students
learned about this concept in order to explain the polarity and subsequent function
of the water molecule in the solution process. In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-02),
students were introduced to Lewis dot diagrams as a method of illustrating atomic
structure in both ionic and simple covalent compounds.
Activating Activity
Have students identify the first ionization energies of the first 36 elements of the
periodic table (H to Kr). Students should then graph the atomic number versus
ionization energy for each element. The points for each element of a period should
be connected with a straight line so that there are four curves on the graph.
Students will use this graph to determine the periodic and group trends of the first
ionization energies (Jenkins, et al. 5456). Also see Appendix C2: The Elements
(Jenkins, et al. 632633), or Appendix C, Table C6: Properties of Elements
(Dingrando, et al. 914916).
Students could repeat this activating activity using atomic radii and ionic radii data
for the first 36 elements to help them determine the respective trends.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Most chemistry texts provide an explanation of period and group trends for atomic
radii, ionization energies, and ionic radii. Encourage students to use their
understanding of nuclear charge and electron configurations to explain the trends,
rather than simply memorizing them.

GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:
GLO D4:
GLO E1:
Demonstrate appropriate scientific skills when seeking answers to questions.

Describe and appreciate the similarity and diversity of forms, functions, and patterns within the natural
and constructed world.

SkILLS
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AttItUDES OUtCOmES
C12-0-S7: Interpret patterns and trends in data, and infer and explain relationships.
Trends in Atomic radii

n
Periodic trends in atomic radii
The atomic radii generally decrease across a period from left to right. Since each
additional electron is added to the same principal energy level, the additional
electrons are not shielded from the increasingly positive nucleus. The increased
nuclear charge pulls the valence electrons closer to the nucleus, reducing the
atomic radius.
n
Group trends in atomic radii

The atomic radii generally increase as you move down a group. The outermost
orbital increases in size, shielding the valence electrons from the pull of the
nucleus. These factors overpower the increased pull of the more positive nucleus
on the valence electrons, causing the atomic radius to increase.
Trends in Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom in its
gaseous state. These values indicate how strongly an atoms nucleus holds onto its
valence electrons. High ionization energy values indicate the atom has a strong hold
on the electrons. Low ionization energy values indicate the atom has a weak hold
on the electrons. Atoms with high ionization values are unlikely to lose electrons
and form positive ions.
n
Periodic trends in First ionization energies

The first ionization energy generally increases across a period from left to right.
For example, lithium has a low first ionization energy, indicating it will easily
lose an electron to form the Li+ ion. The lithium atom has one valence electron,
and this electron is easily removed from its atom. As you move across the
period, it becomes increasingly harder to remove a valence electron from the
atom. The reason for this is that the increased nuclear charge of each successive
element produces an increased hold on the valence electrons, thereby increasing
the ionization energies. The stronger nuclear charge makes it harder to remove a
valence electron, as the electrons are pulled closer to the positively charged
nucleus. Therefore, neon, which is located at the end of the period, has a high
first ionization energy, indicating it will be unlikely to lose an electron to form
Ne+ ion. Neon has a stable outer energy level (8 electrons), so it does not want to
give up an electron readily.

configuration.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

electronegativity
(continued)
Periodic trends in successive ionization energies

The energy required for each successive ionization energy increases across a
period from left to right, as shown in Table 62: Successive Ionization Energies
for the Period 2 Elements (Dingrando, et al., Chemistry: Matter and Change 168).
The primary reason for this is that the increase in positive charge binds the
electrons more strongly.
The table also shows that for each element, the energy required for a specific
ionization displays a significant increase. The reason for this is that atoms tend
to lose or gain electrons in order to acquire a full energy level because this is the
most stable state. The energy jump occurs when a core electron, as opposed to a
valence electron, is being removed.
Example:
Sodium atom (with 1 valence electron)

le
Na
atom
500 kJ/mol energy needed to

remove the 1 valence electron
Sodium ion (no valence electrons)

+
4560 kJ/mol energy needed to

remove the 1 electron from the
stable energy level 2s22p6
Group trends in ionization energies

The ionization energies decrease as you move down a group. The increasing
atomic size pushes the valence electrons further away from the nucleus.
Consequently, it takes less energy to remove the electron because the strength of
attraction is less.

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Trends in Ionic radii

When atoms lose electrons to form positive ions (cations) they always get smaller.
Two factors lead to the reduction in size. First, the lost valence electron may lead to
a completely empty orbital. Second, the electron shielding is reduced, allowing the
nucleus to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus.
When atoms gain electrons to form negative ions (anions) they always get larger.
The electron shielding increases, pushing the electrons farther from the nucleus.
n
Periodic trends in ionic radii

The size of positive ions decrease as you move across a period from left to right,
and the size of negative ions decrease as you move across a period from left to
right.
Group trends in ionic radii

The ionic radii of both positive and negative ions increase as you move down a
group.
Trends in Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.
The first and most widely used electronegativity scale was developed by Linus
Pauling, who based his scale on thermochemical data. Many chemistry texts contain
Paulings values. Robert Mulliken, in 1936, developed an approach to
electronegativity that is based on atomic properties only. The Allred-Rochow scale,
proposed by A. L. Allred and E. G. Rochow, is based upon the electrostatic force of
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. This scale is included in
Appendix 2.6: Table of Electronegativity Values. Other tables could also be used
and are available online.
Sample Website:
Chemistry@Davidson. Electronegativity: Pauling, Allred-Rochow, and MullikenJaff. Dr. Nutts CHE 115 Course. <www.chm.davidson.edu/ronutt/che115/
electroneg.htm> (8 Feb. 2012).
This website presents the three different electronegativity scales: Pauling, AllredRochow, and Mulliken-Jaff.

configuration.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

electronegativity
(continued)
Electronegativity and Bond Type

Learning outcome C12-2-07 restricts the examples to binary compounds. Most
chemistry texts will have a periodic table that contains electronegativity values for
each element. By taking the difference between the values for each element,
students will be able to predict the type of bonding that occurs between the atoms.
Ask students to identify only whether the bonds are non-polar covalent, moderately
polar covalent, very polar covalent, or ionic, according to the following table. It is
not necessary for students to specify the percent character, even though some texts
provide percent values.
Electronegativity Differences and
Predicted Bond character
Electronegativity
Difference
Predicted
Bond Type
Examples
0.0 0.4
Non-polar
covalent
OO (0.0)
0.4 1.0
Moderately
polar covalent
SCl2 (3.162.58)
1.0 2.0
Very polar
covalent
CaS (2.581.00)
2.0
Ionic
KCl (3.160.82)
Predicting Type of Bonding That occurs in Atoms

Give students both a periodic table that contains the electronegativity values (see
Appendix 2.6: Table of Electronegativity Values) and the above table without the
examples. Then provide them with the formulae of various binary compounds and
have them predict the bond type.
Example:
What type of bond would occur in a molecule of LiF?
Solution:
From the electronegativity values, Li has a value of 0.97 and F has a value of 4.10.
The difference between 4.10 and 0.97 is 3.13. This would indicate that the bond
between Li and F is ionic in character.
See Appendix 2.7A: Electronegativities (BLM) for sample problems. A teacher key is
provided in Appendix 2.7B.

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Multimedia Presentation
For a PowerPoint presentation that provides an overview of electrons and their
periodic trends, visit the following website.
Sample Website:
ScienceGeek.net. AP Chemistry Powerpoints. AP Chemistry.
<www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/Powerpoints.shtml> (1 Feb. 2012).
Laboratory Activity
Students can perform a lab activity identifying an elements place in the periodic
table based on the elements properties (see Waterman and Thompson 69).

Visual Displays
Students could present the periodic and group trends for atomic radii, ionic radii,
ionization energy, and electronegativity in a visual display, such as a poster,
pamphlet, or bulletin board exhibit. Each presentation style could be assessed by a
predetermined rubric (samples of presentation rubrics are provided in
Appendix 11). Students can also fill in the period and group trends on a blank
periodic table (see Appendix 2.5).
1. Ask students to rank the atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energy, and
electronegativity for a set of elements. Students should also be able to explain
their rankings by relating them to electron configuration.
2. Have students draw the periodic and group trends, using directional arrows, on
a blank periodic table for atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energy, and
electronegativity. See Appendix 2.5: Blank Periodic Table of the Elements.
3. Provide students with examples of binary compounds and ask them to predict
the bond character of the molecule.
Journal Writing
Have students summarize the periodic and group trends of atomic radii, ionic radii,
ionization energy, and electronegativity.
Topic 2:
Atomic
Structure

configuration.
electronegativity
(continued)

Chemistry (Chang 312, 315, 319, 357)
Chemistry (Zumdahl and Zumdahl 327, 332, 353)
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (Silberberg 294, 305, 309,
320, 351)
258, 260, 303)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al. 163, 165, 167, 168,
914916)
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al., 51, 5456, 57, 632633)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 170, 173, 176, 177)
investigations
MiniLAB 8.1: Whats periodic about atomic radii? 262
Nelson Chemistry 11, Ontario Edition (Jenkins, et al.)
Activity 1.5.1: Graphing First Ionization Energy, 54
Activity 1.5.2: Graphing Electronegativity, 57
Small-Scale LAB 6: Periodicity in Three Dimensions, 179
Quick LAB 6: Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii, 175
and Thompson)
Experiment 9: A Periodic Table Logic Problem, 69

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Websites
Chemistry@Davidson. Electronegativity: Pauling, Allred-Rochow, and
Mulliken-Jaff. Dr. Nutts CHE 115 Course.
<www.chm.davidson.edu/ronutt/che115/electroneg.htm> (8 Feb. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 2.5:
Blank Periodic Table of the Elements
Appendix 2.6:
Table of Electronegativity Values
Appendix 2.7A: Electronegativities (BLM)

Appendix 2.7B: Electronegativities (Teacher Key)

Topic 2:
ATomic STrucTure
AppendiceS
Appendix 2.1:
Appendix 2.2:
Appendix 2.3:
Appendix 2.4:
Appendix 2.5:
Appendix 2.6:
Appendix 2.7A:
Appendix 2.7B:
Spectral Lines 3
Gas Discharge Tubes (BLM) 5
Flaming Salts (Demonstration) 6
Observing Continuous Spectra and Line Spectra 8
Blank Periodic Table of the Elements 9
Table of Electronegativity Values 10
Electronegativities (BLM) 11
Electronegativities (Teacher Key) 12
Appendix 2.1: Spectral Lines
Element
Wavelength (nm)
Colour
Barium
659.5
614.1
585.4
577.7
553.5
455.4
Red
Orange
Yellow
Yellow
Green (strong)
Blue (strong)
Calcium
445.4
443.4
442.6
396.8
393.3
Blue
Blue-violet
Violet (strong)
Violet (strong)
Violet (strong)
Chromium
520.8
520.6
520.4
428.9
427.4
425.4
Green
Green
Green
Violet (strong)
Violet (strong)
Violet (strong)
Copper
521.8
515.3
510.5
Green
Green
Green
Hydrogen
656.2
486.1
434.0
410.1
Red
Green
Blue-violet
Violet
Helium
706.5
667.8
587.5
501.5
471.3
388.8
Red
Red
Orange (strong)
Green
Blue
Violet (strong)
Potassium
404.7
404.4
Violet (strong)
Violet (strong)
continued
Appendix 2.1: Spectral Lines (continued)
Element
Wavelength (nm)
Colour
Mercury
623.4
579.0
576.9
546.0
435.8
Red
Yellow (strong)
Yellow (strong)
Green (strong)
Blue-violet
Lithium
670.7
610.3
460.3
Red (strong)
Orange
Violet
Sodium
589.5
588.9
568.8
568.2
Yellow (strong)
Yellow (strong)
Green
Green
Neon
640.2
585.2
540.0
Orange
Yellow
Green
Strontium
496.2
487.2
483.2
460.7
430.5
421.5
407.7
Blue-green
Blue
Blue
Blue (strong)
Blue-violet
Violet
Violet
Appendix 2.2: Gas Discharge Tubes (BLM)

Hydrogen
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen

Element _____________________
Element _____________________
Element _____________________
Element _____________________
Element _____________________
Element _____________________
Appendix 2.3: Flaming Salts (Demonstration)

For this demonstration, ignite a series of salt solutions mixed in methanol and have
students observe the colours given off. The demonstration is probably more
convincing if all the salts differ only by the metal (e.g., all the salts are chlorides).
Materials
evaporating dishes or crucibles (1 per salt solution)
long matches or a lighter
gloves and goggles
diffraction gratings or spectroscopes
Solutions
Prepare saturated salt solutions (60%) mixed in methanol
lithium chloride (LiCl)
sodium chloride (NaCl)
potassium chloride (KCl)
calcium chloride (CaCl2)
strontium chloride (SrCl2)
barium chloride (BaCl2)
copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4)
borax (Na2B4O7)
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Procedure
1. Set the evaporating dishes on a heat/flame-resistant surface.
2. Pour about 10 to 20 mL of each salt solution/methanol mix into separate dishes.
3. Light the salt mixture with a long match or lighter. (Do not drop the match into
the solution.)
4. Allow the flames to burn for a few seconds until a consistent, single-coloured
flame appears.
5. Record the colours of the flames in a data table.
6. Observe the spectral lines of the flames through a diffraction grating or
spectroscope.
Appendix 2.3: Flaming Salts (Demonstration) (continued)
Data Table
Salt Solutions
Flame Colour
Lithium chloride (LiCl)
Red
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Yellow
Potassiulm chloride (KCl)
Lilac
Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Bright orange
Strontium chloride (SrCl2)
Red-orange
Barium chloride (BaCl2)
Green
Copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4)
Green
Borax (Na2B4O7)
Green
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Yellow
Appendix 2.4: Observing Continuous Spectra and Line Spectra

Questions
1. Draw the spectra of an incandescent light bulb and of a fluorescent light bulb.
2. What is the difference between a line spectrum and a continuous spectrum?
Draw one of each.
3. Based on your observations in the lab activities, what types of materials
produce continuous spectra? What types of materials produce line spectra?
4. Give an example of a light source with
a) a continuous spectrum
b) a line spectrum
c) both a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum
5. Based on your observations, what would you say are some things that all lightemitting sources have in common? How can they differ?
6. Explain why a rainbow is considered to be an example of a continuous
spectrum.
7. What do the different colours in a line spectrum represent?
8. Why do different substances show different spectra?
9. Sodium vapour lamps emit a characteristic yellow light. What can you assume
about sodium atoms, based on this observation?
10. Explain how atoms produce their characteristic spectral lines. Why are different
lines produced instead of just a single line?
11. Which elements produce the largest number of spectral lines? What does this
suggest about electron transitions?
12. Spectral lines are fingerprints of elements. Explain what is meant by this
statement.
Actinide Series
Inner
Transition
Elements
Lanthanide Series
Periodic Table of Elements
Appendix 2.5: Blank Periodic Table of the Elements
Inner
Transition
Elements
87
Fr
0.86
55
Cs
0.86
37
Rb
0.89
19
K
0.91
11
Na
1.01
3
Li
0.97
1
H
2.20
Group
1
89103
Actinide
Series
5771
Lanthanide
Series
39
Y
1.11
21
Sc
1.20
Actinide Series
Lanthanide Series
88
Ra
0.97
56
Ba
0.97
38
Sr
0.99
20
Ca
1.04
12
Mg
1.23
4
Be
1.47
89
Ac
1.00
57
La
1.08
104
Rf
72
Hf
1.23
40
Zr
1.22
22
Ti
1.32
90
Th
1.11
58
Ce
1.08
105
Db
73
Ta
1.33
41
Nb
1.23
23
V
1.45
91
Pa
1.14
59
Pr
1.07
106
Sg
74
W
1.40
42
Mo
1.30
24
Cr
1.56
92
U
1.30
60
Nd
1.07
107
Bh
75
Re
1.46
43
Tc
1.36
25
Mn
1.60
93
Np
1.29
61
Pm
1.07
108
Hs
76
Os
1.52
44
Ru
1.42
26
Fe
1.64
94
Pu
1.25
62
Sm
1.07
109
Mt
77
Ir
1.55
45
Rh
1.45
27
Co
1.70
95
Am
63
Eu
1.01
110
Ds
78
Pt
1.44
46
Pd
1.35
28
Ni
1.75
10
96
Cm
64
Gd
1.11
111
Rg
79
Au
1.42
47
Ag
1.42
29
Cu
1.75
11
97
Bk
65
Tb
1.10
112
Cn
80
Hg
1.44
48
Cd
1.46
30
Zn
1.66
12
98
Cf
66
Dy
1.10
113
Uut
81
Tl
1.44
49
In
1.49
31
Ga
1.82
13
Al
1.47
5
B
2.01
13
99
Es
67
Ho
1.10
114
Uuq
82
Pb
1.55
50
Sn
1.72
32
Ge
2.02
14
Si
1.74
6
C
2.50
14
100
Fm
68
Er
1.11
115
Uup
83
Bi
1.67
51
Sb
1.82
33
As
2.20
15
P
2.06
7
N
3.07
15
101
Md
69
Tm
1.11
116
Uuh
84
Po
1.76
52
Te
2.01
34
Se
2.48
16
S
2.44
8
O
3.50
16
102
No
70
Yb
1.06
85
At
1.90
53
I
2.21
35
Br
2.74
17
Cl
2.83
9
F
4.10
17
103
Lr
71
Lu
1.14
118
Uuo
86
Rn
54
Xe
36
Kr
18
Ar
10
Ne
2
He
18
Appendix 2.6: Table of Electronegativity Values
Appendix 2.7A: Electronegativities (BLM)

Use the Table of Electronegativity Values to determine the bond type (ionic, polar
covalent, non-polar covalent) that would be formed between each of the following
elements. Provide the electronegativity difference for each pair.
Elements
Bond
Type
Electronegativity
Difference
1. Na, Cl
2. Al, Cl
3. H, S
4. K, F
5. O, O
6. Mg, S
7. Li, Br
8. F, F
Appendix 2.7B: Electronegativities (Teacher Key)

Use the Table of Electronegativity Values to determine the bond type (ionic, polar
covalent, non-polar covalent) that would be formed between each of the following
elements. Provide the electronegativity difference for each pair. Answers are based
on the Allred-Rochow scale.
Elements
Bond
Type
Electronegativity
Difference
1. Na, Cl
Very polar covalent
2.83 1.01 = 1.82
2. Al, Cl
Very polar covalent
2.83 1.47 = 1.36
3. H, S
Non-polar covalent
2.44 2.20 = 0.24
4. K, F
Ionic
4.10 0.91 = 3.19
5. O, O
Non-polar covalent
3.50 3.50 = 0
6. Mg, S
Very polar covalent
2.44 1.23 = 1.21
7. Li, Br
Very polar covalent
2.74 0.97 = 1.77
8. F, F
Non-polar covalent
4.10 4.10 = 0
Topic 3:
chemical KineTics
Topic 3: chemical Kinetics

C12-3-02 Identify variables used to monitor reaction rates (i.e., change per
unit of time, Dx/Dt).
Examples: pressure, temperature, pH, conductivity, colour. . .
C12-3-03 Perform a laboratory activity to measure the average and

instantaneous rates of a chemical reaction.
C12-3-04 Relate the rate of formation of a product to the rate of

disappearance of a reactant, given experimental rate data and
reaction stoichiometry.
C12-3-05 Perform a laboratory activity to identify factors that affect the

rate of a chemical reaction.
Include: nature of reactants, surface area, concentration, pressure,
volume, temperature, and presence of a catalyst
C12-3-06 Use the collision theory to explain the factors that affect the rate
of chemical reactions.

reactions.
Include: relative rates, effect of a catalyst, and heat of reaction (enthalpy
change)
C12-3-08 Describe qualitatively the relationship between the factors that

affect the rate of chemical reactions and the relative rate of a
reaction, using the collision theory.
experimental data.
Include: zero-, first-, and second-order reactions and reaction rate
versus concentration graphs
suggested Time: 10 hours
Grade 12 Chemistry Topic 3: Chemical Kinetics
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
SpECifiC LEaRninG OUtCOmES

C12-3-01: formulate an operational definition of reaction rate.
include: examples of chemical reactions that occur at different
rates
C12-3-02: identify variables used to monitor reaction rates

(i.e., change per unit of time, Dx/Dt).
SLO: C12-3-01
SLO: C12-3-02
(1 hour)
suggesTions for insTrucTion

Activating Activity
Ask students for examples of fast and slow reactions or processes that they
encounter in their daily lives. Students may begin with examples of physical
changes, such as melting or dissolving. Even though these are not examples of
chemical changes, they still reinforce the concept of fast and slow reactions. Try to
lead students to consider chemical reactions.
Some examples students may give for fast reactions are explosions, burning
gasoline (combustion), precipitation reactions, and neutralization reactions.
Some examples students may give for slow reactions are rusting of metals, baking a
cake, ripening of fruit, and growth of a plant.
TeAcher NoTes
reaction rate (c12-3-01)
Chemical kinetics crosses over into many other areas of science and engineering.
Rates of metabolic reaction and the progress of reactions involved in growth and
bone regeneration are studied by biologists. Automobile engineers want to decrease
the rate of rusting of car bodies, while agricultural scientists study the chemical
reactions involved in spoilage and decay of foods (see van Kessel, et al. 358).
The speed of any activity (e.g., running, reading, cooking) involves quantifying
how much is accomplished in a specific amount of time. We can quantify, or
measure, the speed of a chemical reaction (also known as its reaction rate).
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:
GLO E3:
GLO E3:

Recognize that characteristics of materials and systems can remain constant or change over time, and
describe the conditions and processes involved.
Recognize that energy, whether transmitted or transformed, is the driving force of both movement and
change, and is inherent within materials and in the interactions among them.
4 topic 3: Chemical Kinetics

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Operationally, reaction kinetics describes how fast or slow a reactant disappears or

a product forms. At this point, an operational definition will involve reaction time
as opposed to reaction rate. (Fast reactions have a short reaction time, while slow
reactions take a long time.)
Demonstrations/Laboratory Activities
Listed below are a number of demonstrations/lab activities illustrating the concept
of reaction rate in a chemical reaction. Perform a few demonstrations to help
students understand reaction rates.
n
reaction rate
React magnesium (Mg) metal with 1.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl). React
another piece of Mg metal with 6.0 mol/L HCl.
Ask students the following questions:
1. What happened?
2. How long did both reactions take?
3. Does it matter how much material you have?
4. How can you measure the rate of the reaction?
electrolysis reaction (extension)

Generate hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis in a dish of liquid soap. It will
give off bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen gas. Remove the gas generator. Ask
students whether a reaction is occurring. (Answers may vary.)
Discuss that this electrolysis reaction (splitting up of water to form hydrogen gas
and oxygen gas) is occurring spontaneously but at a slow rate. Ask students
how we could increase the rate. (Answers will vary.)
Touch the bubbles with a burning wood splint. (You may wish to have it
attached to a metre stick.) The reaction happens quickly. (A loud popping sound
results.)
mass Changes
Find the mass of uniform pieces of gelatin and then place each piece into a
separate beaker. Place different pieces of fruit in each of the beakers except the
one beaker that contains only the piece of gelatin (serves as the control). Leave
the beakers overnight. In the next class, determine the mass of the pieces of
gelatin again. Comment on any observations made (see Chastko 403).
topic 3: Chemical Kinetics 5

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

rates

(continued)
Food spoilage
Cut an apple into four slices, each with approximately the same surface area of
flesh exposed.
n
Dip the first slice in water and place it on a surface. The first slice acts as the
control.
Dip the second slice in lemon juice and place it next to the first slice.
Place the third slice in the refrigerator, or in a small cooler filled with ice.
Place the fourth slice in a sealable bag, removing as much air as possible.
Compare the four slices after 10, 20, and 30 minutes, and record the amount of
browning that occurs on the apple flesh at each time increment. Discuss
observations in relation to what the apple was exposed to.
Comment further on observations with the apple slices, this time in terms of the
rate at which the browning of the apple occurs in each sample (see van Kessel, et
al. 359).
n
decomposition reaction
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) gradually decomposes to form water and oxygen
gas. In this situation, the yeast acts on the hydrogen peroxide to speed up the
reaction.
Pour 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide into a beaker and record any observations.
Add a pinch of yeast to the hydrogen peroxide. Stir gently with a toothpick.
Record observations. (The hydrogen peroxide is clear and colourless. When the
yeast is added to the hydrogen peroxide, bubbles form, and then the mixture
starts to foam.)
Instead of using yeast, use manganese dioxide (MnO2) to speed up the hydrogen
peroxide decomposition reaction.

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TeAcher NoTes
Monitoring reaction rates (c12-3-02)
Reaction rate is change in an observable property over time. The observable property
should be selected based upon what can be measured in the laboratory. This could
be a colour change, a temperature change, a pressure change, or the appearance of a
new substance. Some common methods of measuring reaction rates involve the use
of spectrometers, conductivity apparatus, and manometers (or a simple syringe).
Note that concentration cannot be monitored directly. Emphasize that the
observable (measurable) properties described in the following examples can be used
to determine the change in concentration over time.
n
Pressure
A manometer can be used to measure a change in pressure when a reaction
results in a change in the number of moles of gas. The reaction between zinc and
acetic acid, for example, can be monitored by attaching a manometer to a
reaction vessel of known volume that is immersed in a constant-temperature
bath.
Zn(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + 2CH3COO(aq) + H2(g)
As H2(g) is produced, the gas pressure increases (Silberberg 681).

A simpler method would be to use a gas syringe to measure the reaction rate.
See diagram below.
Gas (density
does not matter)
Gas syringe
Reacting solid
and liquid
gas
Conical flask
Gaseous product collection system
with reactants in conical flask

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

rates

(continued)
temperature
The following reaction can be monitored by temperature.
N2O4
colourless
2NO2
reddish brown
If a sealed tube of NO2N2O4 is placed in a cold water bath, the dinitrogen

tetroxide (N2O4) becomes predominant. The contents of the tube become lighter
in colour.
If another tube containing a similar sample of NO2N2O4 is placed in a hot
water bath, the resulting colour change is a reddish brown, indicating a greater
presence of NO2.
A sealed tube of NO2N2O4 can be left at room temperature so students can
make the comparison with the tube in a cold water bath, and then with the tube
in a hot water bath.
n
the Concept of ph
A pH meter can be used to measure the change in acidity over time. This data
can then be used to determine the concentration of hydrogen (hydronium) ion
over time.
Conductivity
Electrodes can be placed in the reaction mixture and the increase/decrease in
conductivity of the products can be used to measure reaction rate. This method
is usually used when non-ionic reactants form ionic products (Silberberg 681).
Reaction rate can be calculated by finding the change in formation of product
over time, or by finding the change in consumption of a reactant over time.
Rate = Dx/Dt (formation of a product)
Rate = Dx/Dt (consumption of a reactant)
Students may confuse reaction rate and reaction time. Emphasize that reaction
rate describes a change over time, while reaction time is the amount of time it
takes for a reaction to occur. The two terms are inversely related, as shown by
the previous formulas.

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Colour
A spectrometer can be used to measure the concentration of a reactant or
product that absorbs (or gives off) light of a narrow range of wavelengths. An
example of this is
NO(g) + O3(g)
colourless
O2(g) +NO2(g)
reddish brown
Known amounts of the reactants are injected into a gas sample tube of known
volume, and the rate of NO2(g) produced is measured by monitoring the colour
over time (Silberberg 680).
suggesTions for assessmenT

Journal Writing
Students can make journal entries for fast and slow reactions and state their
rationale for each.
Ask students to consider questions such as the following:
n
n
n
n
What does rate mean?

How can you measure the rate of a reaction?
Does a reaction always occur at the same rate? Explain.
Do all reactions occur at the same rate? Explain.
Ask students to provide examples of

n
n
n
n
reactions that have different rates of reaction

reactions that occur at different rates under different conditions
processes that cannot be controlled
processes that can be controlled
1. Students can complete a Compare and Contrast think sheet for fast reactions
versus slow reactions (SYSTH 10.15, 10.24).
2. Students can complete a KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learned) strategy sheet on
reaction rate (SYSTH 9.8, 9.24).
3. Given a reaction, students can predict what variable (or property) may be most
easily monitored.
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

rates

(continued)
learning resources linKs

McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry, Combined Atlantic Edition (Mustoe, et al. 463,
466)
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, et al., 358, 360, 365)
investigations
Discovery Lab: Speeding Reactions, 529
Launch Lab: Does It Gel? 403
Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, et al.)
Slowing the Browning Process, 359
Inquiring Activity: Temperature and Reaction Rates, 540
Website
Brown, W. P. Factors Affecting the Speed-Rates of Chemical Reactions.
Doc Browns Chemistry. 20002010.
<www.docbrown.info/page03/3_31rates.htm> (8 Feb. 2012).

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Notes
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

C12-3-03: perform a laboratory activity to measure the average and
include: initial reaction rate
C12-3-04: Relate the rate of formation of a product to the rate of

disappearance of a reactant, given experimental rate data
and reaction stoichiometry.
include: descriptive treatment at the particulate level
SLO: C12-3-03
SLO: C12-3-04
(2.5 hours)

entry-Level Knowledge
Students studied the stoichiometry of chemical reactions in Grade 11 Chemistry
(Topic 3: Chemical Reactions).
Laboratory Activity
Have students perform a lab activity to measure the change in mass of calcium
carbonate as it reacts with 3 mol/L hydrochloric acid. See Appendix 3.1: Graphical
Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity.
Using the data derived from the lab activity (or data given in Appendix 3.1),
students can calculate the average rate and the instantaneous rate of a reaction.
Students can use software, such as Excel or Graphical Analysis, to plot data and
determine instantaneous rate at time = 0 (initial rate) and at other times. Students
can compare the rates and hypothesize why the rates change.
TeAcher NoTes
Average rate of a chemical reaction (c12-3-03)
The average rate of a reaction depends on the time interval chosen. Usually this is
calculated by dividing the total consumption (or total production) of a substance by
the total time it took for the reaction to occur. Refer to the following graph and
sample calculation.

GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:
GLO D4:


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C12-0-S6: Estimate and measure accurately using Systme international (Si) and other standard units.
include: Si conversions and significant figures
Mass of
Substance A (g)
Decomposition of
Substance A
30 l
20
10
Time (min)
Average rate =
change in the amount of substance A

30 g 10 g
=
= 4 g/min
change in time
0 min 5 min
Instantaneous rate of chemical reaction (c12-3-03)

The instantaneous rate is the rate of reaction that occurs at a particular instant in
time. To calculate this rate, a tangent line is drawn to the point of time on the graph
(particular instant of time), and the slope of this line is then calculated.
Refer to the following graph and sample calculation for determining the
instantaneous rate at 1 minute.
Mass of
Substance A (g)
Decomposition of
Substance A
30 l
20
10
Time (min)
Slope =
change in the amount of substance A

25 g 0 g
=
change in time
0 min 5 min
= 5 g/min at t = 1 min

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Paper Laboratory Activity

If students need additional practice, they can create sample plots with given data.
Two sample assignments (with answer keys) are provided in Appendix 3.2A:
Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 and Appendix 3.3A: Chemical Kinetics:
Assignment 2. From the plotted data, students calculate average rates and
determine instantaneous rates. They also compare rates and discover that the rate
of consumption of each reactant and the formation of each product is related to the
stoichiometry of the reaction.
TeAcher NoTes
rate and reaction stoichiometry (c12-3-04)
The concept of rate and reaction stoichiometry should be introduced carefully.
Diagrams of molecules would help students to understand reaction rate at the
particulate (molecular) level.
Example:
For the reaction N2 + 3H2
2NH3, the coefficient in front of the substance
determines the rate of consumption or production of that substance, if the initial
rate of N2 is known.
At the particulate level, this reaction would be expressed as follows:
N2 +
3H2
2NH3
Students should recognize that for every N2 molecule, three H2 molecules need to
be consumed. This means that the rate of consumption of H2 is three times the rate
of consumption of N2. In addition, for every molecule of N2 that is consumed, the
rate of production of NH3 molecules is doubled.

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Another way to state this is that N2 is consumed at one-third the rate that H2 is
consumed and at half the rate that NH3 is produced.
If the rate of one of the species is known, the rates of the other species can be
determined from the reaction stoichiometry.
If the rate of consumption of nitrogen is given as
Rate
D
N2
Dt
then the following is also true:

Rate
D
N2
H2
1 D
NH3
1 D
3 Dt
2
Dt
Dt
Sample Problem:
For the reaction N2 + 3H2
2NH3, if hydrogen reacts at a rate of 1.5 mol/L s,
what is the rate of formation of ammonia?
Solution:
Calculate the rate in a manner similar to how stoichiometry was used to determine
moles of product formed. Use the ratio of the coefficients to determine the ratio of
rates.
2 NH 3
Rate NH3 formation 1.5 mol/L s H 2
3H 2
1.0 mol/L s NH3

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Simulations, such as those on the following websites, allow students to determine
the rate of reaction at a given point in time. They also show the effect of
concentration change, the rate of a chemical reaction, and the determination of
stoichiometric coefficients.
Sample Websites:
Blauch, David N. Virtual Chemistry Experiments: Chemical Kinetics. 2001, 2009.
Chemistry@Davidson. <www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/kinetics/index.html>
(8 Feb. 2012).
See simulations on the following topics:
n
Reaction Rates
Rate of Reaction

simDownload/index4.html> (22 Nov. 2012).
In the Kinetics section, download and unzip the following animation:
n
NO + O3 Bimolecular Collision

Laboratory skills
A checklist can be used to assess students on the following lab skills:
n
n
n
collecting and interpreting data

making and using graphs
observing, predicting, and recognizing cause and effect

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1. Have students describe pictorially what is happening at the particulate level
when a reactant is consumed and a product is formed in a chemical reaction.
2. Have students solve problems on experimental rate data and reaction
stoichiometry. See Appendix 3.4A: Chemical Kinetics Problems and
Appendix 3.4B: Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key).

Nelson Chemistry 12, Ontario Edition (van Kessel, et al., 360, 362)
investigation
Lab Exercise 6.1.1: Determining a Rate of Reaction, 401
Websites
Blauch, David N. Rate of Reaction. Virtual Chemistry Experiments: Chemical
Kinetics. 2001, 2009. Chemistry@Davidson. <www.chm.davidson.edu/
vce/kinetics/RateOfReaction.html> (8 Feb. 2012).
Simulations: Reaction Rates
Rate of Reaction
Animation: NO + O3 Bimolecular Collision
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics


(continued)
appendices
Appendix 3.1:
Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity
Appendix 3.2A: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1

Appendix 3.2B: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 (Answer Key)
Appendix 3.4A: Chemical Kinetics Problems
Appendix 3.4B: Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key)


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Notes

C12-3-05: perform a laboratory activity to identify factors that affect the
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
include: nature of reactants, surface area, concentration, pressure,

C12-3-06: Use the collision theory to explain the factors that affect the
rate of chemical reactions.
include: activation energy and orientation of molecules
SLO: C12-3-05
SLO: C12-3-06
(2 hours)

TeAcher NoTes
At this point, introduce students to the collision theory of chemical reactions. The
collision theory states that in order for a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting
particles must collide. If the particles do not collide, no reaction occurs. Not all
collisions, however, produce a chemical reaction. Reacting particles must collide
with sufficient kinetic energy (called activation energy) and the correct collision
geometry or orientation.
Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for
particles to collide effectively, that is, to produce a chemical reaction.
Example:
Orientation of nitrogen monoxide molecule unlikely to produce a reaction.
Key:
No reaction occurs
ozone
oxygen
nitrogen
nitrogen
monoxide
Orientation of nitrogen monoxide molecule likely to produce a reaction.

+
produces
ozone
nitrogen
monoxide
nitrogen
dioxide
oxygen

GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO C8:
GLO D3:
GLO D4:

Evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered during investigations and in
daily life.

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C12-0-S2: State a testable hypothesis or prediction based on background data or on observed events.
Have students view online animations or simulations of chemical reactions.
Sample Websites:
simDownload/index4.html> (22 Nov. 2012).
In the Kinetics section, download and unzip the following animation:
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NO + O3 Bimolecular Collision
This animation shows the correct orientation of molecules upon collision, the
NO2 + O2. To break apart the ozone molecule
reaction being O3 + NO
(O3), the nitrogen atom of the nitrogen monoxide molecule must collide with
the correct positioning and sufficient energy to cause the chemical reaction to
occur.
University of Colorado at Boulder. Reactions and Rates. PhET Interactive

Simulations. <http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/reactions-and-rates>
(22 Nov. 2012).
This animation allows students to explore the factors that affect reaction rates by
changing variables such as concentrations, activation energy, and collision
orientation.
Factors Affecting the rate of a chemical reaction
Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction include the nature of reactants,
surface area, concentration, pressure, volume, temperature, and presence of a
catalyst. A discussion of these factors follows.
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Collision theory and the Nature of reactants

Some chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms as a result of bonds
breaking to form new bonds. Other reactions are a result of electron transfer.
The nature of the reactants involved in the reaction will affect the rate of
reaction. Reactions that involve ionic compounds and simple ions are usually
faster than reactions involving molecular compounds. The fewer the number of
bonds broken, the faster the reaction rate will be. The weaker the bonds are in
the reactants, the faster the reaction will be. The state of the reactants (solid,
liquid, or gas) will also affect the rate of reactions.

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Collision theory and surface area

From the lab activities suggested for learning outcome C12-3-05, students will
observe that increasing the surface area of a solid increases the reaction rate.
Collisions can occur only at a solids surface, so a powdered substance, such as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), will react more quickly than a large crystal of
CaCO3 as the powdered substance allows more surface area to be in contact
with the other reactants.
Collision theory and Concentration (Pressure, Volume)

The collision theory states that particles must collide with each other to react. If
the concentration of one reactant is increased, the reaction rate should increase,
as there are more molecules of the increased reactant that can collide.
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At the particulate level, if one molecule of A reacts with two molecules of B,

two collisions are possible, which could result in a reaction.
Key:
2 collisions
A
B
If the concentration of A is doubled, four collisions are possible, which could

result in a reaction.
4 collisions

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If the concentration of A is tripled, six collisions are possible, which could

result in a reaction.
6 collisions
Increasing the frequency by which collisions can occur in terms of increased

concentration results in a faster reaction rate.
effective Collisions and temperature
The following graph shows two different temperatures and the number of
molecules that have sufficient energy to react. The shaded area under both
curves indicate that there are more molecules that have sufficient activation
energy at T2 (higher temperature) than at T1 (lower temperature) (see van Kessel,
et al. 383).
Energy Distribution among Molecules
at Various Temperatures
T2 > T
Number of Molecules
Ea
T1
Greater number of
molecules at T2,
with enough energy
to react
T2
Kinetic Energy

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Have students perform lab activities that will lead them to discover the factors that
affect the rate of a reaction, rather than perform a verification lab. Some possible lab
activities are suggested below.
From the suggested lab activities, students should conclude that
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increasing temperature will increase the rate of a reaction (decreasing reaction

time)
increasing the concentration of reactant(s) will increase the rate of a reaction
(Note that pressure and volume are a subset of concentration.)
increasing the surface area will increase the rate of a reaction
the presence of a catalyst will increase the rate of a reaction
the nature (type) of reactants will affect the rate of a reaction
Choose one or more lab activities appropriate for the class.

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Factors affecting the rate of reactions (concentration, temperature). See

Appendix 3.5A: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity and
Appendix 3.5B: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity (Answer
Key).
This is a version of the classic Iodine Clock Reaction lab activity in which excess
iodine reacts with starch to produce a blue-black product only when the reaction
is complete. In this lab activity, students investigate the effects of concentration
and temperature on reaction rate.
In Part A, students change the concentration of one reactant, and time how long
it takes for the sudden and dramatic colour change to occur.
In Part B, students investigate the role of temperature in reaction rate by
running a series of reactions in water baths at different temperatures.
Students produce graphs of their data, draw conclusions about the relationship
between these variables, and explain the differences in reaction rate using the
collision theory.

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Factors affecting the rate of a reaction (concentration, nature of reactants,

temperature, catalyst, surface area). See Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the
Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity. Teacher notes are provided in Appendix 3.6B.
In Part A of this lab activity, students study the effect of the nature of reactants
on reaction time. Several different metals are reacted with hydrochloric acid, and
observations are made with regards to reaction time. Students also study the
effect of different solutions reacting with magnesium metal on reaction time.
In Part B, students examine the effect of surface area on reaction time. Mossy
zinc and powdered zinc are combined with hydrochloric acid, and the reaction
times are recorded. Chips of calcium carbonate and powdered calcium carbonate
are reacted with hydrochloric acid, and the reaction times are recorded.
In Part C, students study the effect of temperature on a chemical reaction. A
solution of potassium permanganate is combined with oxalic acid, and the
reaction time is recorded. A second test tube containing just the potassium
permanganate is heated in a hot water bath. Then the oxalic acid is added to the
test tube in the hot water bath, and the resulting reaction time is recorded.
Students then set up three test tubes containing hydrochloric acid. One test tube
is placed in cold water, the second test tube is kept at room temperature, and the
third test tube is placed in a hot water bath. Three identical pieces of magnesium
are added to each of the three test tubes, and the resulting reaction times are
noted.
In Part D, students use a catalyst to study its effect on reaction time. Potassium
permanganate is placed in two test tubes. In one of the test tubes, manganese(II)
sulphate is added (catalyst). Then oxalic acid is added to both test tubes, and the
reaction times are noted.

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
experiment 23: Factors affecting the rate of a Chemical reaction (Waterman

and Thompson, Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual
197)
In this four-part lab activity, students study the effects of temperature, surface
area, and concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction.
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Students begin by exploring the rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid

and magnesium, calcium carbonate, and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
They then study the effect of temperature, using the same reactants that were
used initially. Cold hydrochloric acid and warm hydrochloric acid are
separately reacted with magnesium, calcium carbonate, and sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
Students continue by investigating the effect of surface area on reaction rate.
Hydrochloric acid is reacted with a piece of magnesium, crushed
magnesium, a piece of calcium carbonate, and crushed calcium carbonate.
Finally, students look at the effect of concentration on reaction rate. Various
concentrations of hydrochloric acid are separately reacted with magnesium,
calcium carbonate, and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
experiment 36: Factors affecting reaction rates (Wilbraham, Staley, and

Matta, Prentice Hall Chemistry: Laboratory Manual 225)
In this experiment, students investigate factors that can speed up or slow down
chemical reactions. They examine the effect of temperature, reactant
concentration, particle size, catalysts, and surface area on reaction rate.
Chemlab 17: Concentration and reaction rate (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe

Chemistry: Matter and Change 550)
In this lab activity, students investigate the effect of concentration on reaction
rate. Pieces of magnesium ribbon are reacted separately with varying
concentrations of hydrochloric acid, and the resulting reaction time is recorded.
miniLaB 17: examining reaction rate and temperature (Dingrando, et al.,

Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change 539)
In this lab activity, students observe the effect of temperature on reaction rate.
They dissolve antacid tablets in water at room temperature, at 50C, and at 65C.

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investigation 12a: Factors affecting the rate of a reaction (Mustoe, et al.,

McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry 464)
In this three-part investigation, students predict and observe the effects of
changes to concentration, temperature, reactant, and surface area on the rate of a
chemical reaction. In each part, students record the time taken to collect test
tubes full of carbon dioxide and calculate the average rate in mL/s.
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Part 1 investigates the effect of concentration on a reaction. Sodium hydrogen

carbonate (NaHCO3) and varying concentrations of vinegar are reacted in
four trials.
Part 2 demonstrates the effect of temperature on reaction rate. Using the
same reactants as in Part 1, students perform two trials. Before the reactants
are combined, they are first cooled to about 10C below room temperature,
and then heated to 10C above room temperature.
Part 3 shows the effect of reactants and surface area on reaction rate. Students
perform two trials, first combining powdered calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
with vinegar, and then combining solid CaCO3 with vinegar.
In their investigations, students should comment on the effects of each factor on

reaction rate. If students have not observed factors, provide them with
demonstrations to illustrate the factors. In the post-lab discussion, have students
explain their observations based on the collision theory.
Laboratory Demonstrations
Teachers can choose to demonstrate lab activities such as the following:
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experiment 20: a study of reaction rates: the Clock reaction (Merrill,

Parry, and Tellefsen, Chemistry: Experimental Foundations, Laboratory Manual 62)
In this two-part experiment, demonstrate the role of concentration and
temperature changes on reaction rate.
surface area and reaction rate

The purpose of this demonstration is to have students observe the effect of an
increase in surface area on the rate of a chemical reaction. Place 2 g of
lycopodium powder (or starch) in a pile on a porcelain tile. Try to ignite the pile
with a burner or lighter. There will be no reaction. Lift the ceramic tile holding
the lycopodium powder (or starch) and sprinkle the powder over a lit burner.
The powder will ignite quite explosively. Students should observe that the
reaction rate increases as surface area increases (Smoot, Price, and Smith 442).

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Catalyst and reaction rate

In this demonstration, have students observe the effect of a catalyst on the rate
of a chemical reaction. Dissolve 25 g of sodium potassium tartrate (Rochelles
salt) in 300 mL of water in a large beaker. Add 100 mL of 3% to 6% hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) to the beaker. Heat the solution to 70C. Students should
observe that no reaction occurs. Add the catalyst, cobalt chloride, to the beaker.
The solution will turn pink and then a greenish colour (cobalt[II] tartrate
complex). After the reaction has been completed, the pink colour in the solution
will reappear. The cobalt chloride was not consumed in the reaction. Students
should observe that the solution at 70C did not chemically react until the
catalyst was added (Smoot, Price, and Smith 444).
Use a variety of online simulations and video clips, such as the following, to
demonstrate how various factors affect the rate of chemical reactions.
In the Kinetics section, download and unzip the following simulation:
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Arrhenius Equation: Temperature, Rate Constant, and Activation Energy

Experiment
In this simulation, students can vary the concentration of reactants and the
temperature. Students must start the time clock and wait for the reaction to
reach completion (blue-black colour).
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM). Chapter 15:
Kinetics. Chemistry Online Resource Essentials (CORE).
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/c15.htm> (9 Feb. 2012).
The following video clips are available on this website:
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Homogeneous Catalyst shows how the presence of a catalyst affects reaction

rate. Specifically, it shows the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
using a solution of Co2+.

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KI Catalyzed H2O2 Decomposition shows how the addition of a catalyst affects

reaction rate. Specifically, it shows the decomposition of H2O2, catalyzed
with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and uncatalyzed.
Glow Sticks shows how temperature affects reaction rate. One Glow Stick is
placed in hot water and another is placed in cold water.
Potato Catalyzed H2O2 Decomposition shows how surface area affects reaction
rate. Small pieces of potato are placed in a test tube containing H2O2. A small
amount of detergent is placed in each test tube to make the bubbles of
oxygen more visible.
Dust Explosion shows the effect of surface area on reaction rate. The video clip
shows the explosive nature of flour when placed in a closed container and
then ignited with a candle.
Petrucci, Ralph H., William S. Harwood, and Geoffrey Herring. Chapter 15:
Chemical Kinetics. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. 8th ed.
Prentice Hall, Inc.
<http://cwx.prenhall.com/petrucci/medialib/media_portfolio/15.html>
(8 May 2012).
The following simulation is available on this website (in the Instructors Media
Portfolio of Prentice Halls Companion Website for General Chemistry):
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CFCs and Stratospheric Ozone shows the catalytic decomposition of ozone by

chlorine atoms from CFCs.

Simulations. <http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/reactions-and-rates>
(22 Nov. 2012).

1. Have students compare and contrast the rate at which a sugar cube dissolves in
cold water and the rate at which granulated sugar dissolves in warm water.
Students could include observations of how surface area and water temperature
might affect the rate at which each substance dissolves (Fisher 238).
2. Have students describe how the collision theory would apply to a demolition
derby (Fisher 236).
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
Visual Displays
Students can represent a reaction between two substances, such as nitrogen
monoxide (NO) and ozone (O3), using ball-and-stick molecular models. Students
can show the correct orientation of the molecules as they collide to produce
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and oxygen (O2). They can also show the incorrect
orientation of the molecules that would not produce a reaction.
Laboratory report
The lab activities could be assessed by having students use the Laboratory Report
Outline or complete a Laboratory Report Frame (SYSTH 11.38, 14.12). Also refer to
Laboratory skills
Periodically and randomly review students lab skills using a variety of rubrics and
checklists (see SYSTH 6.10, 6.11).
research and reports
Students could research and report on how the rate of specific chemical processes
can be controlled. As an alternative to preparing a report, students could complete
an Article Analysis Frame on a related article (SYSTH 11.30, 11.40, 11.41).

Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Science Notebook (Fisher 236, 238)
470)
Merrill Chemistry: A Modern Course (Smoot, Price, and Smith 442)
Prentice Hall Chemistry (Wilbraham, et al. 541, 545)

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investigations
Chemistry: Experimental Foundations, Laboratory Manual (Merrill, Parry, and
Tellefsen)
Experiment 20: A Study of Reaction Rates: The Clock Reaction, 62
Chemlab 17: Concentration and Reaction Rate, 550
MiniLAB 17: Examining Reaction Rate and Temperature, 539
McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry, Combined Atlantic Edition (Mustoe, et al.).
Investigation 12A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction, 464
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Laboratory Manual (Wilbraham, Staley, and Matta)
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates, 225
(temperature, reactant concentration, particle size, catalysis, and surface
area)
and Thompson)
Experiment 28: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical Reaction, 197
(temperature, concentration, and surface area)
Websites
Simulation: Arrhenius Equation: Temperature, Rate Constant, and
Activation Energy Experiment
Animation: NO + O3 Bimolecular Collision
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM).
Chapter 15: Kinetics. Chemistry Online Resource Essentials (CORE).
Chemical Kinetics. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications.
8th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc.
(8 May 2012).
Simulations. <http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/reactions-andrates> (22 Nov. 2012).
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(continued)
appendices
Appendix 3.5A: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity
Appendix 3.5B: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity
(Answer Key)
Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity
Appendix 3.6B: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes)


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Notes
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

C12-3-07: Draw potential energy diagrams for endothermic and
exothermic reactions.
include: relative rates, effects of catalyst, and heat of reaction
(enthalpy change)
C12-3-08: Describe qualitatively the relationship between the factors

that affect the rate of chemical reactions and the relative
rate of a reaction, using the collision theory.
SLO: C12-3-07
SLO: C12-3-08
(2 hours)

entry-Level Knowledge
In Grade 10 Science (S2-3-09), students learned about kinetic and potential energy
with respect to motion. In Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-1-02), students were
introduced to the kinetic molecular theory to explain the properties of gases.
TeAcher NoTes
An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy into the
environment. Combustion, or burning, is an example of an exothermic reaction. On
the other hand, an endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that absorbs energy
from its surroundings, which is stored in the products that have formed. For
example, if aluminum chloride is dissolved in water, the beaker will feel cool to the
touch.
Students are expected to draw potential energy diagrams indicating the amount of
potential energy the reactants and the products have, the activation energy (Ea)
needed, the activated complex, and the change in enthalpy (DH) or the heat of
reactionthat is, how much heat is absorbed (endothermic reaction) or how much
heat is released (exothermic reaction).
The activation energy of a reaction dictates the relative rate of a reaction. The higher
the activation energy is, the slower the reaction rate is, and vice versa. Catalysts
increase reaction rates by reducing the activation energy. Catalysts do not affect the
heat of reaction.
Demonstration
For the kinesthetic learner, demonstrate the following:
1. Roll a ball up an incline and let the ball roll back down. The ball represents the
reactants that do not have enough activation energy to reach the activated
complex.
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2. Roll a ball up a shallower incline and allow the ball to roll over the edge of the
incline. The shallower incline represents the addition of a catalyst, which lowers
activation energy and allows the reaction to proceed (Dingrando, et al, Glencoe
Potential energy Diagrams
Students can use the collision theory and kinetic energy and potential energy
diagrams to explain their observations from the lab investigations performed in
relation to specific learning outcome C12-3-02. Students explanations should
include observations of what is happening at the molecular level.
The following diagram shows the progress of an endothermic reaction.
Endothermic Reaction
Potential Energy
Activated
complex
Activation energy (Ea)
Hproducts
DH is positive
(heat absorbed)
Hreactants
Reaction Coordinate
In this diagram, the reactants contain a certain amount of potential energy. As the
reaction proceeds from left to right, the molecules of the reactants gain more
energy, which is called activation energy. If the reactants have sufficient energy to
reach the activated complex, then bond breakage and realignment can occur and
new substances are formed. The products that have formed have a greater amount
of potential energy than the reactants had. This means that energy was absorbed
during the chemical reaction from its surroundings. If this reaction had taken place
in a beaker, the beaker would have felt cool to the touch. The heat of reaction, or
enthalpy change, is a positive value because the potential energy of the products is
larger than the potential energy of the reactants.
DH = Hproducts Hreactants = positive value = heat is absorbed

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(enthalpy change)

(continued)
The following diagram shows the progress of an exothermic reaction.

Exothermic Reaction
Potential Energy
Activated
complex
Ea
DH is negative
(heat released)
Hreactants
Hproducts
Reaction Coordinate
In this diagram, the reactants contain a certain amount of potential energy. As the
reaction proceeds from left to right, the molecules of the reactants gain more
energy, which is called activation energy. If the reactants have sufficient energy to
reach the activated complex, then bond breakage and realignment can occur and
new substances are formed. The products that have formed have a lower amount of
potential energy than the reactants had. This means that energy was released
during the chemical reaction to its surroundings. If this reaction had taken place in
a beaker, the beaker would have felt warm to the touch.
DH = Hproducts Hreactants = negative value = heat is released

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The following potential energy diagram indicates the reaction

CH3CH2OH + Br.
CH3CH2Br + OH
Potential Energy (kJ)
CH3CH2(OH)Br-
Activated
complex
Ea
88.9 kJ
Hreactants
CH3CH2Br + OH-
CH3CH2OH + Br-
DH = -77.2 kJ
Hproducts
Reaction Coordinate
Students should be able to indicate on the potential energy diagram the potential
energy of the reactants, the potential energy of the products, the activation energy,
the location of the activated complex, and the heat of reaction, or enthalphy change.
The following potential energy diagram for the reaction 2BrNO
2NO + Br2
shows the transition state where the molecules of nitrogen, bromine, and oxygen
are rearranged to form the products.
ON-Br
Activated complex
Potential Energy
ON-Br
Ea
2BrNO
2NO + Br2
DH is negative
(heat released)
Reaction Progress

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(enthalpy change)

(continued)
At the particulate level, this is how the potential energy diagram would appear for
the chemical reaction just described (Zumdahl and Zumdahl 588):
Potential Energy
OX-Q Activated complex

OX-Q
Key: O = oxygen
X = nitrogen
Q = bromine
Ea
QXO
QXO
Products
O-X
O-X + Q-Q
Reactants
Reaction Progress
relative rates
Teachers may wish to use potential energy diagrams to describe whether a reaction
is slow, medium, or fast.
Relative Rates of Reaction
Ea
SLOW
Notice Ea is very
large for this reaction.
It would take a lot of
energy to get this
reaction to go
to completion.
Ea
Ea
MEDIUM
FAST
Notice Ea is a bit smaller Notice Ea is very small
than the slow reaction. when compared to
the slow and medium
reactions.

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catalyst Added in a reaction

The following potential energy diagram shows an uncatalyzed reaction and a
catalyzed reaction.
Catalyzed and Uncatalyzed Reactions
Potential Energy
Uncatalyzed
Catalyzed
Hreactants
DH is unchanged
Hproducts
Reaction Coordinate
Students should have concluded from their lab activities (in relation to learning
outcome C12-3-05) that when a catalyst is added to a chemical reaction the reaction
rate increases (the reaction time is shorter). Students should note that the diagram
indicating the presence of a catalyst shows that a smaller activation energy is
required. They should note that the heat of reaction, or enthalpy change, does not
change.
In Diagram A below, the catalyst makes it possible for more particles to have
sufficient kinetic energy to reach the activated complex. The activation energy is
lowered, meaning that more particles are available to collide and form new
product. Diagram B shows that the activation energy is lowered, enabling more
collisions to occur. This results in more product being formed.
Diagram A
Diagram B
Ea with a catalyst
Number of Particles
Ea
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
Ea
Reaction Coordinate

Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(enthalpy change)

(continued)
collision Theory and Factors Affecting rate of reactions

In addressing learning outcomes C12-3-07 and C12-3-08, see the learning activities
suggested for learning outcomes C12-3-05 and C12-3-06.
Demonstrations/Animations
A variety of demonstrations/animations can be viewed online to reinforce the
effects of factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions.
Sample Websites:
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM). Chapter 15:
Kinetics. Chemistry Online Resource Essentials (CORE).
The following video clips, available on this website, can help students describe
the factors affecting chemical reaction rates.
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KI Catalyzed H2O2 Decomposition shows how the addition of a catalyst affects

reaction rate. Specifically, it shows the decomposition of H2O2, catalyzed
with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and uncatalyzed.
Glow Sticks shows how temperature affects reaction rate. One Glow Stick is
placed in hot water and another is placed in cold water.
Potato Catalyzed H2O2 Decomposition shows how surface area affects reaction
rate. Small pieces of potato are placed in a test tube containing H2O2. A small
amount of detergent is placed in each test tube to make the bubbles of
oxygen more visible.
Dust Explosion shows the effect of surface area on reaction rate. The video clip
shows the explosive nature of flour when placed in a closed container and
then ignited with a candle.

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_____. Distance Education and Extended Programs. ChemistryKinetics.

Teachers Instructional Graphics and Educational Resource (TIGER).
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/chem5.htm#kinetics> (10 Feb. 2012).
The following animations are available on this website:
Molecular_collision_Ea (.exe or .html) demonstrates the change in potential
energy for two molecules as they collide. Low energy and high energy
simulations are shown.
Catalys_2 (.exe or .html) shows the solid state catalytic hydrogenation of an
alkene.
Prentice Hall, Inc.
(8 May 2012).
The following simulation is available on this website (in the Instructors Media
Portfolio of Prentice Halls Companion Website for General Chemistry):
CFCs and Stratospheric Ozone shows the catalytic decomposition of ozone by
chlorine atoms from CFCs.
Science Bob. Crazy Foam Experiment. Science Bob Videos.
<www.sciencebob.com/experiments/videos/video-foam1.php> (13 Jan. 2012).
This experiment shows how the presence of a catalyst affects reaction rate.

Students should be able to interpret and draw potential energy diagrams from
given information.
Journal Writing
Students can interpret graphs by answering the following questions:
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n
n
Are the reactants or the products at a higher energy level?

Is energy absorbed or released after the reaction takes place?
Will the reaction always proceed to form products once the activated complex is
formed? Explain.
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics

(enthalpy change)

(continued)

713)
et al. 540)
Websites
Chapter 15: Kinetics. Chemistry Online Resource Essentials (CORE).
_____. Distance Education and Extended Programs. ChemistryKinetics.
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/chem5.htm#kinetics> (10 Feb. 2012).
Chemical Kinetics. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications.
8th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc.
(8 May 2012).
<www.sciencebob.com/experiments/videos/video-foam1.php>
(13 Jan. 2012).

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Notes
SpECifiC LEaRninG OUtCOmE

C12-3-09: Explain the concept of a reaction mechanism.
SLO: C12-3-09
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
include: rate-determining step
(0.5 hour)

TeAcher NoTes
reaction Mechanism
Teachers may wish to explain the concept of a reaction mechanism using the
analogy of cleaning up dinner dishes by hand. This process happens in many steps:
clearing the table, filling the sink with water and soap, placing the dishes in the
sink, washing the dishes, drying the dishes, putting the dishes away, draining the
sink, and wiping up.
Students need to be aware that an overall balanced chemical equation does not tell
us much about the actual pathway a chemical reaction follows, just as an average
speed of 100 km/h does not tell us much about the various speeds we need to drive
on a two-hour trip.
A reaction mechanism summarizes the individual steps a reaction follows. Each
individual step is called an elementary step or an elementary process.
2NO2(g), experimental data shows that the
Using the reaction 2NO(g) + O2(g)
NO2 is not formed directly from the collision of NO and O2 particles, as N2O2 can
be detected during the reaction.
A more likely scenario for the reaction is a two-step reaction mechanism:
Step 1:
2NO(g)
N2O2(g)
Step 2:
N2O2(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
Net reaction:
As the N2O2 appears in the reaction mechanism but not in the overall chemical
equation, it is called an intermediate.

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Catalysts, like intermediates, do not appear in the overall reaction. The

decomposition of ozone with a chlorine catalyst illustrates this:
Step 1:
Cl2(g) + O3(g)
Step 2:
O3(g)
Step 3:
ClO(g) + O(g)
Net reaction:
2O3(g)
ClO(g) + O2(g)
O2(g) + O(g)
Cl2(g) + O2(g)
3O2(g)
In the above example, the Cl2(g) is a catalyst and the ClO(g) is an intermediate.
The slowest of the elementary processes will determine the rate of the reaction. It is
called the rate-determining step.
The rate-determining step concept can be illustrated with the analogy of cleaning
up dishes, in which the longest step (washing the dishes) would be the ratedetermining step. Students should recognize that efforts to speed up the other steps
do not significantly affect the length of time required to clean up the dishes, but
speeding up the slowest step affects the time the most.
The molecularity of a reaction refers to the number of particles involved in an
elementary step. The molecules may be of the same type or different types. The
elementary step may involve one particle (unimolecular), two particles
(bimolecular), or three particles (termolecular). It is possible to use the elementary
steps of a reaction to deduce a rate law. (Rate laws are addressed in learning
outcome C12-3-10.)
Examples of Elementary Steps:
n
Unimolecular: Conversion of cyclopropane to propene

CH2
CH3 CH = CH2
CH2
CH2
There is only one particle involved in this one-step reaction mechanism, which is
the cyclopropane.

C12-3-09: Explain the concept of a reaction mechanism.
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
include: rate-determining step

(continued)
Bimolecular: Production of nitrogen dioxide

Both elementary steps for the production of nitrogen dioxide involve two
particles.
Step 1: NO(g) + NO(g)
Step 2: N2o2(g) + O2(g)
N2o2(g)
2NO2(g)
termolecular:
Very few reactions require three particles to react simultaneously in an
elementary step.
extension
Have students draw potential energy diagrams for multi-step reaction mechanisms.

Ask students to create their own analogy of a reaction mechanism.
Journal Writing
Students can describe how they would feel and act if they were an intermediate
substance in a reaction mechanism.


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Notes

C12-3-10: Determine the rate law and order of a chemical reaction
from experimental data.
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
include: zero-, first-, and second-order reactions and reaction rate

SLO: C12-3-10
(2 hours)

TeAcher NoTes
reaction rate Laws and reaction order
The differentiated rate law is determined by using the initial rate method. The
integrated rate law is determined by using the concentration change over time to
determine rate. Avoid using the integrated rate law, as it involves the use of
calculus. Instead, emphasize the use of the initial rate method. A key point to
remember is that the components of the rate law must be found by experiment and
not through the use of reaction stoichiometry.
Most chemistry textbooks deal with this topic in detail. Determine the depth of
instruction based on students learning requirements.
Introductory Example:
For the reaction A
B, the following data was obtained.
Trial
Initial [A]
(mol/L)
Initial rate
(mol/Ls)
0.10
0.20
10
0.30
15
When asked to interpret the above data, students may indicate that as the
concentration went up, the initial rate also went up. (It is a proportional
relationship.)
The relationship can be written as
Rate [A]x
where x is called the order of the reaction.

GLO D3:

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The order describes how rate is affected by changing concentration(s) of reactant(s).

For example, when doubling the concentration of a reactant results in a doubling of
the rate, the reaction is a first-order reaction with respect to that reactant (x = 1).
When doubling the concentration of a reactant results in the rate increasing by four
times (22), the reaction is a second-order reaction with respect to that reactant
(x = 2).
To evaluate this mathematically, replace the proportionality symbol with an equal
sign. To do this, a proportionality constant must be included. In this case, it is called
the rate constant (k).
Rate = k[A]x
In this data, x is equal to 1.
Sample Problem:
NO(g) + CO2(g), the following data was obtained.
For the reaction NO2(g) + CO(g)
Determine the overall rate law for this reaction.
Trial
Initial rate
(mol/Ls)
Initial [No2]
(mol/L)
Initial [co]
(mol/L)
0.0050
0.10
0.10
0.080
0.40
0.10
0.0050
0.10
0.20
Solution:
1. Take the ratio of the initial rates for Trials 1 and 2, in which only one reactant is
changed.
Trial 2
NO 2
0.40
4 times quadrupled the concentration

NO 2
Trial 1
0.10
Trial 2 rate
0.080
16 times rate increases 16 times

Trial 1 rate 0.0050
By increasing the concentration four times, the effect on the reaction time is that
it is increased by 16. This means that the reaction rate depends on the square of
the concentration of NO2. The reaction is a second-order reaction with respect to
NO2.
The rate law would be

C12-3-10: Determine the rate law and order of a chemical reaction
from experimental data.
Topic 3:
Chemical
Kinetics
include: zero-, first-, and second-order reactions and reaction rate

(continued)
Rate = k[NO2]2
2. Take the ratio of the initial rates for Trials 1 and 3, in which the concentration of
CO is changed.
Trial 3 CO 0.20
2 times doubled the concentration

Trial 1 CO 0.10
Trial 3 rate 0.0050
1 time rate does not increase

Trial 1 rate 0.0050
By increasing the concentration of CO, the experimental data shows that the
reaction rate does not change. It does not matter how much CO there is, as the
rate of reaction does not depend on [CO]. Therefore, the reaction is a zero-order
reaction with respect to CO.
The rate law would be
Rate = k[NO2]2[CO]0 = k[NO2]2(1) = k[NO2]2
Emphasize that the value of k is specific for each reaction and changes only for a
given reaction if the temperature changes.
If sufficient time is available, students could perform the following lab activities:
n
Lab 14: determining reaction orders (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry:

Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teacher Edition 53)
In this lab activity, students determine the general equation for the reaction
between crystal violet and sodium hydroxide.
experiment 30: rate Law determination of the Crystal Violet reaction

(Holmquist, Randall, and Volz, Chemistry with Vernier)
In this experiment, students observe the reaction between crystal violet and
sodium hydroxide. They study the relationship between concentration of crystal
violet and the time elapsed during the reaction.
reaction order (PASCO, Chemistry)

In this experiment, students analyze the reaction rate by determining the order
of the reaction when a colouring agent reacts with household bleach.

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Have students solve problems involving rate laws.
Journal Writing
Ask students to create a table in which they describe the effect of doubling,
tripling, and quadrupling [A] on the overall rate of chemical reactions having the
following rate laws:
Rate = k[A]0 Rate = k[A]1 Rate = k[A]2 Rate = k[A]3
(Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition
544).

et al. 544)
investigations
Chemistry with Calculators (Holmquist and Volz)
Glencoe Chemistry: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teacher Edition
(Dingrando, et al. 53)
Websites
Holmquist, Dan D., Jack Randall, and Donald L. Volz. Experiment 30: Rate
Law Determination of the Crystal Violet Reaction. Chemistry with Vernier.
Beaverton, OR: Vernier, 2007. Available online at <www.vernier.com/
experiments/cwv/30/rate_law_determination_of_the_crystal_violet_
reaction/> (7 June 2012).
PASCO. Reaction Order. 19962012.Chemistry.
<www.pasco.com/chemistry/kinetics-and-quilibrium/reactionorder.cfm>
(9 May 2012).
Topic 3:
chemical KineTics
appendices
Appendix 3.1: Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity 3
Appendix 3.2A: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 6
Appendix 3.2B: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 (Answer Key) 8
Appendix 3.3A: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 2 11
Appendix 3.3B: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 2 (Answer Key) 13
Appendix 3.4A: Chemical Kinetics Problems 16
Appendix 3.4B: Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key) 18
Appendix 3.5A: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity 22
(Answer Key) 26
Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity 28
(Teacher Notes) 31
Appendix 3.1: Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity

Introduction
The rate of a reaction can be calculated by studying the change in the amount of a
product or a reactant at different times.
The average rate of reaction can be calculated using the following formula:
Average rate
amount of substance
time
Or
Average rate
amount of substance at the end amount of substance initially

final time initial time
This calculation, however, is only the average rate of reaction over a time period. It
would be more useful to know the rate of the reaction at a specific time during the
reaction. This rate, called the instantaneous rate of reaction, can be determined by
measuring the amount of change in a product or a reactant at several times during a
reaction. Using this data, a graph can be created and the instantaneous rate of
reaction can be determined by drawing a tangent to the graph at any time and
finding the slope of that tangent.
In reality, calculus is needed to find this slope, but an approximation can be
determined by drawing a tangent line and finding the slope (as shown in the figure
below). To do this, select two points on the tangent and calculate the slope using
rise over run.
Loss of Reactant versus Time
Tangent
Amount of Reactant (g)
10
Instant of time (t = 1)
Slope =
Rise
Run
Data curve
1.25
-4.00
10
12
Time (s)
Appendix 3.1: Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity (continued)
Purpose
In this lab activity, you will measure the loss of mass of a reactant at several times
during a chemical reaction. Using the previous graph of the data, you will calculate
the average and instantaneous rates of reaction.
The reaction involved is
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
You will measure the loss of mass in this reaction as the

carbon dioxide is released
Caution:
HCl is an acid. Gloves,
goggles, and clothing
protection must be
worn.
Procedure
1. Place 10 to 12 large pieces of CaCO3 into a paper cup or on filter paper on a scale.
Pour 100 mL of 3.0 mol/L HCl solution into a 500 mL beaker. Place the beaker on
the scale beside the CaCO3. Record the total mass of everything.
2. With a stopwatch ready and the beaker on the scale, the person timing the lab
activity should indicate when to pour the CaCO3 chips into the acid and start the
timer. Be sure to put the cup or filter paper back on the scaleit must remain
there until the end of the experiment.
3. Record the mass every 30 seconds for 20 minutes.
Questions
1. The loss in mass in this reaction equals the amount of CO2 produced. Calculate
the mass of CO2 produced for each 30second time interval.
2. Calculate the average reaction rate. Using the average rate of reaction formula
(provided at the start of this lab activity), determine the average rate of this
reaction for the following time intervals:
a) First 5 minutes
b) First 10 minutes
c) Last 5 minutes
d) Last 10 minutes
e) From 5 to 15 minutes
f) For the entire 20 minutes
3. Construct a graph of mass of CO2 produced versus time.
Appendix 3.1: Graphical Determination of Reaction Rate: Lab Activity (continued)
4. Calculate the instantaneous rate of reaction. On your graph, mark the point,
draw an approximate tangent line, and calculate the slope of the tangent for the
following instants of time:
a) 30 seconds
b) 60 seconds
c) 5 minutes
d) 10 minutes
e) 15 minutes
f) 20 minutes
5. What did you observe in the rate of this reaction from beginning to end? Why
does the reaction rate change over time?
6. Explain when it would be useful to know the average rate of reaction and when
you would need to know the instantaneous rate of reaction.

A chemist is studying the formation of nitrogen dioxide from nitrogen monoxide
and oxygen gas. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
O2(g) + 2NO(g)
2NO2(g)
The chemist measured the concentration of the three gases at various time intervals
and recorded the data in the table below.
Change in Concentration of Reactants and Products Over Time
Time
(min)
Concentration (mol/L)
[O2]
[NO]
[NO2]
0.000343
0.000514
0.000317
0.000461
0.000053
0.000289
0.000406
0.000108
0.000271
0.000368
0.000146
10
0.000242
0.000311
0.000204
16
0.000216
0.000259
0.000256
26
0.000189
0.000206
0.000308
41
0.000167
0.000162
0.000353
51
0.000158
0.000143
0.000372
61
0.000150
0.000127
0.000387
71
0.000144
0.000116
0.000399
Questions
1. Construct a graph to represent the data provided in the table above. Plot gas
concentration along the yaxis and time on the xaxis.
Average rates over a period of time can be calculated by connecting two points
on your curve with a straight line and determining the slope.
Instantaneous rates are determined by drawing a tangent line to the curve at the
point of interest and determining the slope of the tangent line.
Appendix 3.2A: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 (continued)
2. What is the average rate of reaction for nitrogen oxide and oxygen and the
formation of nitrogen dioxide over the entire 71minute interval? Determine the
rate for each.
3. What is the average rate of the consumption of NO and O2 and the production of
NO2 over the first 10 minutes and over the last 10 minutes?
4. Find the instantaneous rate of consumption of O2 and NO and the instantaneous
rate of formation of NO2 at 4 minutes and at 41 minutes into the experiment.
Show your work on the graph. Explain why the rate changes.
5. What do you notice about the ratios of the rates of oxygen and nitrogen
monoxide consumption to the production of nitrogen dioxide?

Answers to Questions
1. Completed graph:
Change in Concentration of Reactants and
Product Over Time for the Reaction
O2(g) + 2NO(g)
2NO2(g)
0.0006
0.0005
n
n
n
n
0.0004
u
u
n
0.0003
u
u
u
s
0.0002
u O2
n
s
n NO
u
n
s
s
0.0001
u
n
u
n
s NO2
u
n
s
0 s
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (min)
2. Over the 71minute interval:

Average rate for NO =
0.000116 mol/L 0.000514 mol/L

71 min 0 min
6
= 5.61 10
Average rate for O2
mol/Lmin
0.000144 mol/L 0.000343 mol/L

71 min 0 min
= 2.80 106 mol/Lmin

Average rate for NO2 =
0.000399 mol/L 0 mol/L

71 min 0 min
= 5.61 106 mol/Lmin
70
80
Appendix 3.2B: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 1 (Answer Key) (continued)
3. Over the first 10 minutes:

0.000311 mol/L 0.000514 mol/L

10 min 0 min
5
= 2.03 10
Average rate for O2
mol/Lmin
0.000242 mol/L 0.000343 mol/L

10 min 0 min
= 1.01 105 mol/Lmin

0.000204 mol/L 0 mol/L

10 min 0 min
= 2.04 105 mol/Lmin

Over the last 10 minutes:
0.000116 mol/L 0.000127 mol/L

71 min 61 min
= 1.10 106 mol/Lmin

Average rate for O2
0.000144 mol/L 0.000150 mol/L

71 min 61 min
= 6.00 107 mol/Lmin

0.000399 mol/L 0.000387 mol/L

71 min 61 min
= 1.20 106 mol/Lmin

4. Answers will vary slightly due to the drawing of the tangent line to the point at
4 minutes.
Instantaneous rate, NO =
0.00028 mol/L 0.000485 mol/L

10 min 0 min
= 2.05 105 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate, O2
0.00022 mol/L 0.00033 mol/L

10 min 0 min
= 1.10 105 mol/Lmin
Instantaneous rate, NO2 =
0.000242 mol/L 0.00003 mol/L

10 min 0 min
= 2.12 105 mol/Lmin

Answers will vary slightly due to the drawing of the tangent line to the point at
41 minutes.
Instantaneous rate, NO =
0.000125 mol/L 0.00018 mol/L

60 min 30 min
= 1.83 106 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate, O2
0.00014 mol/L 0.00019 mol/L

70 min 20 min
= 1.00 106 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate, NO2 =
0.000365 mol/L 0.000325 mol/L

50 min 30 min
= 2.00 106 mol/Lmin

5. The ratio between O2 and NO2 is 1:2. The rate of consumption of O2 is onehalf
the rate of formation of NO2.
The ratio between NO and NO2 is 2:2 or 1:1. The rate of consumption of NO is
equal to the rate of formation of NO2.

A chemist is studying the decomposition of dinitrogen pentoxide at 45C. The
balanced equation is:
2N2O5(g)
4NO2(g) + 2O2(g)
The chemist measured the concentration of dinitrogen pentoxide at 10minute

intervals for 100 minutes, using colorimetry (spectrophotometry), and recorded the
data in the table below.
Decomposition of Dinitrogen Pentoxide at 45C
Time
(min)
[N2O5]
[NO2]
[O2]
0.0124
10
0.0092
20
0.0068
30
0.0050
40
0.0037
50
0.0027
60
0.0020
70
0.0014
80
0.0011
90
0.0008
100
0.0006
Appendix 3.3A: Chemical Kinetics: Assignment 2 (continued)
Questions
1. Use the data from the table above and the balanced equation to calculate the
concentration of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas at each interval. Then construct a
graph to represent this data. Plot gas concentration along the yaxis and time on the
xaxis.
Average rates over a period of time can be calculated by connecting two points on
your curve with a straight line and determining the slope.
Instantaneous rates are determined by drawing a tangent line to the curve at the
point of interest and determining the slope of the tangent line.
2. What is the average rate of decomposition of dinitrogen pentoxide and the formation
of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen over the entire 100minute interval? Determine the
rate for each.
3. What is the average rate for the first 20 minutes of the decomposition of N2O5 and
for the last 20 minutes?
4. Find the instantaneous rate of decomposition of N2O5 and the instantaneous rate of
formation of NO2 and O2 at 10 minutes and at 80 minutes into the experiment. Show
your work on the graph. Explain why the rate changes.
5. Explain why the rate changes between 10 and 80 minutes.

1. Completed chart and graph:
Time
(min)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
[N2O5]
[NO2]
[O2]
0.0124
0.0092
0.0068
0.0050
0.0037
0.0027
0.0020
0.0014
0.0011
0.0008
0.0006
0
0.0064
0.0112
0.0148
0.0174
0.0194
0.0208
0.0220
0.0226
0.0232
0.0236
0
0.0032
0.0056
0.0074
0.0087
0.0097
0.0104
0.0110
0.0113
0.0116
0.0118
0.0250
0.0200
n
0.0150
u
0.0100
0.0050
u
n
u
s
s
0.0000 n
s
0
20
s
u
u N2O5
n NO2
s O2
u
40
u
60
u
80
u
100
120
Reaction Time (min)
2. Over the 100minute interval:

Average rate for N2O5 =
0.0006 mol/L 0.0124 mol/L

100 min 0 min
= 1.18 104 mol/Lmin

Average rate for NO2
0.0236 mol/L 0 mol/L

100 min 0 min
= 2.36 104 mol/Lmin

Average rate for O2
0.00590 mol/L 0 mol/L

100 min 0 min
= 5.90 105 mol/Lmin

3. Over the first 20 minutes:
0.0068 mol/L 0.0124 mol/L

20 min. 0 min
= 2.80 104 mol/Lmin

Over the last 20 minutes:
0.0006 mol/L 0.0011 mol/L

100 min 80 min
= 2.50 105 mol/Lmin

4. Answers will vary slightly due to the drawing of the tangent line to the point at
10 minutes.
Instantaneous rate for N2O5 =
0.00370 mol/L 0.0118 mol/L

30 min 0 min
= 2.70 104 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate for NO2 =
0.0165 mol/L 0.0012 mol/L

30 min 0 min
= 5.10 104 mol/Lmin
Instantaneous rate for O2
0.0025 mol/L 0.0004 mol/L

20 min 0 min
= 1.05 104 mol/Lmin

Answers will vary slightly due to the drawing of the tangent line to the point at
80 minutes.
Instantaneous rate for N2O5 =
0 mol/L 0.002 mol/L

115 min 50 min
= 3.08 105 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate for NO2
0.0236 mol/L 0.02 mol/L

100 min 40 min
= 6.00 105 mol/Lmin

Instantaneous rate for O2
0.00590 mol/L 0.00520 mol/L

100 min 60 min
= 1.75 105 mol/Lmin

5. There are fewer reactant particles available over time, so the rate gets slower as
the reaction proceeds.
Appendix 3.4A: Chemical Kinetics Problems

Problems
1. State three examples of properties, directly related to reactants or products, that
could be used to measure a reaction rate (van Kessel, et al. 365).
2. What would be the easiest way to measure the reaction rate in each of the
following reactions? Explain your reasoning.
a) MnO4(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq)
(purple)
(pale green)
b) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)
(silver)
(colourless)
Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

(colourless)
(redbrown)
H2(g) + ZnSO4(aq)
(colourless) (colourless)
3. What units are used to express reaction rate?

4. In the reaction 3H2 + N2
2NH3, how does the rate of disappearance of
hydrogen compare to the rate of disappearance of nitrogen? How does the rate of
production of NH3 compare to the rate of disappearance of nitrogen?
5. For the reaction 2A + B
3C, it was found that the rate of consumption of B
was 0.30 mol/Ls. What was the rate of consumption of A and the rate of
formation of C?
6. At a certain temperature, the rate of consumption of N2O5 is 2.5 106 mol/Ls.
How fast are NO2 and O2 being formed?
2N2O5
4NO2 + O2
7. Write the rate of expression for the following reactions:

a) CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
b) 3O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
2O3(g)
c) 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
d) I(aq) + OCl(aq)
Cl(aq) + OI(aq)
8. In the following reaction, 4.0 mol of methane gas combusts completely in 3.2 s in
a 1.00 L container containing excess oxygen gas.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
a) Calculate the average rate of consumption of oxygen gas in mol/Ls.

b) Calculate the average rate of production of carbon dioxide gas in mol/Ls.
c) Calculate the average rate of production of water vapour in mol/Ls.
Appendix 3.4A: Chemical Kinetics Problems (continued)
9. Hydrogen iodide and oxygen react to form iodine gas and water vapour. If
oxygen gas reacts at a rate of 0.0042 mol/Ls,
4HI(g) + O2(g)
2I2(g) + 2H2O(g)
a) What is the rate of formation of iodine gas in mol/Ls?

b) What is the rate of formation of water vapour in mol/Ls?
c) What is the rate of consumption of hydrogen iodide gas in mol/Ls?
Appendix 3.4B: Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key)

1. Three examples of properties that could be used to measure reaction rate are
n
reactions that produce a gas (measure volume/pressure)
reactions that involve the ion as a product (conductivity)
reactions that produce a colour change (spectrometermeasure colour

intensity)
2. a) Observing the colour change would be the best indicator of reaction rate.
When the permanganate ion (MnO4) disappears, the pinkpurple colour of
the solution will disappear. You may see a redbrown colour appear as the
Fe3+ forms.
b) Because hydrogen gas is produced, you could collect the gas and measure the
volume produced as time passes. Or, if the container is sealed, pressure
increase could be measured.
3. mol/Ls
4. 3H2 + N2
2NH3
The rate of disappearance of H2 is 3 times as fast as the rate of disappearance of

N2.
3H2 + N2
2NH3
The rate of production of NH3 is 2 times as fast as the rate of disappearance of

N2.
5. The rate of consumption of A is
2A + B
3C
This is twice (2) the rate of consumption of B(0.30 mol/Ls)

= 2 0.30 mol/Ls
= 0.60 mol/Ls
The rate of formation of C is
2A + B
3C
Appendix 3.4B: Chemical Kinetics Problems (Answer Key) (continued)
This is three times (3) the rate of consumption of B(0.30 mol/Ls)

= 3 0.30 mol/Ls
= 0.90 mol/Ls
6. 2N2O5
4NO2 + O2
2:4 ratio, which simplifies to a 1:2 ratio.

The rate of formation of NO2 is 2 times as fast as the rate of disappearance of
N2O5.
The rate of formation of NO2 = 2 2.5 106 mol/Ls = 5.0 106 mol/Ls.
2N2O5
4NO2 + O2
The rate of formation of O2 is half as fast as the rate of disappearance of N2O5.

The rate of formation of O2 = 1/2 2.5 106 mol/Ls = 1.25 106 mol/Ls.
7. a) CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
Rate
b) 3O2(g)
Rate
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
CH 4
O2

CO 2
1
H2 O
2 t
2
t
t
t
2O3(g)
O2
1
O3
3 t
2 t
c) 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
Rate
O2
1 NO 1
NH3
H2 O
1
1
t
4
5 t
4 t
6
t
d) I(aq) + OCl(aq)
Rate
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Cl(aq) + OI(aq)
OCl

Cl

O
t
t
t
t
8. Rate of consumption of CH4 = concentration/time = 4.0 mol/L/3.2 s =

1.25 mol/Ls
a) Rate of consumption of O2
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of consumption of O2 is 2 times as fast as the rate of consumption of

CH4.
2 1.25 mol/Ls = 2.50 mol/Ls
b) Rate of production of CO2
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of production of CO2 is the same as the rate of consumption of CH4.
1 1.25 mol/Ls = 1.25 mol/Ls
c) Rate of production of H2O
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of production of H2O is 2 times as fast as the rate of consumption of

CH4.
2 1.25 mol/Ls = 2.50 mol/Ls
9. a) 4HI(g) + O2(g)
2I2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of formation of I2 is 2 times as fast as the rate of consumption of O2.

2 0.0042 mol/Ls = 0.0084 mol/Ls
b) 4HI(g) + O2(g)
2I2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of formation of H2O is 2 times as fast as the rate of consumption of

O2.
2 0.0042 mol/Ls = 0.0084 mol/Ls
c) 4HI(g) + O2(g)
2I2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The rate of consumption of HI is 4 times as fast as the rate of consumption of

O2.
4 0.0042 mol/Ls = 0.0168 mol/Ls
Appendix 3.5A: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity
Teacher Notes
This is a wellknown lab activity sometimes
called the Iodine Clock Reaction or the
HarcourtEsson Reaction. The sudden, dramatic
change in colour from a clear or cloudy, white
solution to a dark, blueblack solution helps
indicate the end of the reaction. By varying
concentration and temperature, students can
measure the time required for the colour change
to occur, and thus determine the effects of these
factors on the rate of the reaction.
This lab activity uses a threestep reaction that
produces iodine. The iodine will then form a
dark blue complex with starch.
Caution:
Print out and review with students
the Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) for potassium iodate,
sodium metabisulphite, and
sulphuric acid.
n
All lab participants must wear
personal safety equipment for
protection of eyes, hands, and
clothes.
n
Spills must be properly cleaned
immediately.
n
Review safety procedures for
using a hot plate and handling hot
solutions.
n
The first and ratedetermining step between iodate and metabisulphite ions
generates iodide ions:
IO3 + 3HSO3
I + 3SO42 + 3H+
The excess iodate oxidizes the iodide to form iodine:

IO3 + 5I + 6H+
3I2 + 3H2O
However, the iodine is reduced immediately by the metabisulphite ions back to

iodide:
I2 + HSO3 + H2O
2I + HSO4 + 2H+
Only when the metabisulphite is fully consumed will the elemental iodine remain
and react with the starch (not shown in these reactions). The solution then quickly
becomes blue.
Pre-lab Preparation
Two solutions need to be prepared for this lab activity:
n
solution A: Saturated potassium iodate (KIO3)

n
You will need approximately 80 mL per lab group.
This solution can be prepared well in advance.
Appendix 3.5A: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity (continued)
solution B: Sodium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and

soluble starch
n
You will need the following per litre of water:

25.0 g Na2S2O5
5.0 mL concentrated H2SO4
40 g soluble starch
You will need approximately 100 mL per lab group.

This solution does not store well and should be mixed no earlier than the day
before the lab activity.
To dissolve starch, start by mixing it thoroughly in a few mL of distilled
water, and then pour it into boiling water (less than one litre). Once dissolved,
let the water cool, add the H2SO4, add the Na2S2O5, and stir until dissolved
and bring up to 1.0 L.
Test the speed of the reaction beforehand. If the reaction happens too quickly
to measure the time accurately, dilute the KIO3 stock solution.
Materials (per group)

two 100 mL beakers
250 mL beaker
two 10 mL graduated cylinders
two test tubes (18 250 mm)
temperature probe
timer/stopwatch
personal safety equipment
hot plate
ice
distilled water
paper towel
Solution A (10 mL each trial)
Solution B (10 mL each trial)
Procedure
Part A: Concentration of reactants and rate of reaction
1. Label or mark one graduated cylinder as cylinder A and one beaker as beaker A.
Measure out exactly 10.0 mL of Solution A into this graduated cylinder and pour
it into a 100 mL beaker.
2. Measure out exactly 10.0 mL of Solution B using a second graduated cylinder
and pour it into another 100 mL beaker.
3. With a stopwatch ready, have the person timing the reaction give the signal to
mix the solutions and start timing. Quickly pour Solution A into Solution B, and
immediately swirl the solutions several times. Put the beaker on the paper towel
(for contrast). When a colour change occurs, stop the watch and record the time.
4. Rinse and dry out the beakers.
Repeat steps 1 to 4, changing the concentration of Solution A by mixing the
following amounts in beaker A for each trial.
Trial
mL of Solution A
mL of Distilled Water
9.0
1.0
8.0
2.0
7.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
Optional: Obtain data from other groups for their trials.

Part B: Temperature and reaction rate
1. Prepare an icewater bath by filling a 250 mL beaker half way with cold water
and ice.
2. Measure 10.0 mL of Solution A into a test tube labelled test tube A, and 10.0 mL
of Solution B in another test tube.
3. Place the test tubes into the ice bath and leave them there until the temperature
of the test tubes is equal to the ice bath. Record the temperature.
4. With a stopwatch ready, have the person timing the reaction give the signal to
mix the solutions and start timing. Quickly pour Solution A into Solution B, and
immediately swirl the test tube several times. Return the mixture immediately to
the ice bath.
5. Stop the time when the colour change occurs. Record the time.
6. Rinse and dry the test tubes.
Repeat steps 2 to 5 with a couple of warm tapwater baths (at different

temperatures) and then with an 80C to 90C bath using a hot plate.
Share your data with other students and obtain data from other groups to obtain a
range of temperatures.
Analysis
1. If you have shared data from Part A with other students, calculate the average
reaction rate for each trial.
2. Plot the data from the two trials (Part A and Part B) in two different graphs.
Conclusions
1. Make general statements about the effects of concentration and temperature on
the rate of reaction.
2. Use the collision theory to explain your observations.

(Answer Key)
Analysis
The graphs should look similar to the following:
Time versus Concentration
30
25
Time (s)
20
u
15
u
10
u
u
u
5
0
20
40
60
80
100
Concentration of Potassium Iodate (%)
Time versus Temperature

45
40
35
Time (s)
30
25
20
15
u
10
u
u
5
0
20
40
60
Temperature (C)
80
100
Appendix 3.5B: Factors Affecting the Rate of Reactions: Lab Activity (Answer Key)
(continued)
Conclusions
1. From the graph of Time versus Concentration, one can conclude that there is an
inverse relationship between the time it takes for a reaction to finish and the
concentration of one of the reactants. This relationship is not linearin other
words, the greater the concentration, the faster the reaction.
From the graph of Time versus Temperature, one can conclude that there is an
inverse, nonlinear relationship. As the temperature increases, the speed of the
reaction also increases.
2. According to the collision theory, the rate of reaction should increase (speed up)
when the concentration of a reactant increases because there are more particles of
the reactant present, increasing the chances of a collision with enough energy to
start a reaction.
When heated, particles increase in kinetic energy, meaning that there is a higher
likelihood of a collision between particles that have enough energy for the
reaction to occur. Therefore, reactions proceed faster when the temperature is
increased.
Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity

Part A: Nature of the Reactants
1. Add 20 drops of 3.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution to each of five wells of a
24well test plate.
2. Place a small piece of magnesium in the first well, a small piece of aluminum in
the second, a small piece of zinc in the third, a piece of iron in the fourth, and a
piece of copper in the fifth.
3. Observe and record your observations.
Questions
n
What gas is produced? How do you know?
Write a balanced equation to represent the reaction.
Do all the metals take the same time to react?
Rank the metals in order of reactivity.
4. Add 13 drops of water and 7 drops of 3.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution to
one well of a 24well test plate. Stir with a glass capillary tube (sealed at one end)
to mix the solution.
5. Add 13 drops of water and 7 drops of 3.0 mol/L acetic acid solution to a second
well of a 24well test plate. Stir with a glass capillary tube to mix the solution.
6. Add 20 drops of 1.0 mol/L aqueous zinc(II) nitrate solution to a third well, 20
drops of 1.0 mol/L iron(III) nitrate solution to a fourth well, and 20 drops of
1.0 mol/L copper(II) nitrate solution to a fifth well of the 24well test plate.
7. Place a small piece of magnesium in each of the five solutions.
Questions
n
What happened in each well? Identify the products in each case.
Write a balanced equation to represent each reaction.
How much time does the magnesium take to react in each solution?
Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity (continued)
Part B: Surface Area (degree of subdivision of a solid)

1. Add 30 drops of 3.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution to each of four wells of a
24well test plate.
2. To the first well, add a piece (a marble chip is suitable) of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). To the second well, add a similar amount of finely ground (powdered)
calcium carbonate.
3. To the third well, add a pice of mossy zinc. To the fourth well, add a similar
amount of finely divided zinc (20mesh) or powdered zinc.
Questions
n
What happened in each well? Identify the products in each case.
Write a balanced equation to represent each reaction.
How much time do the solids take to react in each solution?
Part C: Temperature
1. Prepare a hot water bath by heating about 150 mL of water in a 250 mL beaker to
boiling. Set aside.
2. Add 2 mL of 0.01 mol/L aqueous potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution
(made acidic with sulphuric acid) to each of two 13 100 mm test tubes.
3. Place one of the test tubes of potassium permanganate solution into the hot water
bath. While it is coming up to temperature, proceed to the next step.
4. Add 5 mL of 0.02 mol/L oxalic acid solution to the second test tube (at room
temperature). Stir with a stirring rod.
5. Add 5 mL of 0.02 mol/L oxalic acid solution to the test tube in the hot water
bath. Stir.
6. Reheat the water in your water bath to boiling, and set it aside again. Prepare a
cold water bath by adding ice cubes to 50 mL of water in a 250 mL beaker.
7. Add 3 mL of water and 1 mL of 3.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution to each of
three 13 100 mm test tubes. Place one of the test tubes in the hot water bath,
place one in the cold water bath, and leave one at room temperature. Wait about
2 minutes for the solutions to come to temperature.
Appendix 3.6A: Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction: Lab Activity (continued)
8. Cut three 0.5 cm long pieces of magnesium ribbon. Add one piece to each of the
three test tubes. Observe the time required for each piece to disappear
completely.
Question
n
Does the reaction take the same time at each temperature? Explain.
Part D: Catalyst
1. Add 2 mL of 0.01 mol/L aqueous potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution
(made acidic with sulphuric acid) to each of two 13 100 mm test tubes.
2. To one of the test tubes, add 5 drops of 0.01 mol/L manganese(II) sulphate
solution.
3. Add 5 mL of 0.02 mol/L oxalic acid solution to each of the test tubes, stopper the
tubes, and shake.
Question
n
Does the reaction take the same time in each test tube? Explain.

(Teacher Notes)
The four experiments demonstrate factors affecting the rate of a reaction, including
n
nature (identity) of reactants
surface area (degree of subdivision of a solid for heterogeneous reactants)
temperature
catalyst
Solutions
n
3.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution. Dilute 258 mL of concentrated

(11.6 mol/L or 36%) hydrochloric acid to 1.0 L with distilled water.
1.0 mol/L zinc(II) nitrate solution. Dissolve 29.7 g of zinc(II) nitrate hexahydrate,
Zn(NO3)26H2O, in 100 mL water.
1.0 mol/L iron(III) nitrate solution. Dissolve 4.04 g of iron(III) nitrate
nonahydrate, Fe(NO3)39H2O, in 100 mL water.
1.0 mol/L copper(II) nitrate solution. Dissolve 29.6 g of copper(II) nitrate
hexahydrate, Cu(NO3)26H2O, in 100 mL water.
0.01 mol/L potassium permanganate. Add 1 mL of concentrated (17.8 mol/L or
95%) sulphuric acid to 75 mL water and add enough water to take the total
volume up to 100 mL. Dissolve 1.58 g of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in
this solution.
0.02 mol/L oxalic acid solution. Dissolve 2.52 g of oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid,
HOOCCOOH2H2O) in 100 mL water.
0.01 mol/L manganese(II) sulphate solution. Dissolve 2.23 g of manganese(II)
sulphate tetrahydrate (manganous sulphate, MnSO44H2O) in 100 mL water.
Notes
1. Sulphate compounds can be used instead of nitrate compounds. Be sure to adjust
the masses used for the difference in molar mass.
2. Students may be more successful if the oxide layer is removed from the
magnesium ribbon by rubbing the ribbons surface gently with emery paper
before the magnesium samples are distributed.
Topic 4:
chemical equilibrium
Topic 4: chemical equilibrium

C12-4-01 Relate the concept of equilibrium to physical and chemical
systems.
C12-4-02 Write equilibrium law expressions from balanced chemical

equations for heterogeneous and homogeneous systems.
C12-4-03 Use the value of the equilibrium constant (Keq) to explain how far
a system at equilibrium has gone towards completion.
C12-4-05 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the equilibrium
constant of an equilibrium system.
C12-4-06 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict and explain shifts in
equilibrium.
reactant/product concentration, the addition of a catalyst, the addition
of an inert gas, and the effects of various stresses on the equilibrium
constant
C12-4-07 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate Le Chteliers

principle.
Include: temperature changes, concentration changes, and the addition
of a catalyst

Examples: Haber process, hemoglobin production at high altitude, carbonated
beverages, eyes adjusting to light, blood pH, recharging of batteries,
turbocharged/supercharged engines, ester synthesis, weather indicators,
arrangement of produce, carbonated beverages in a hens diet . . .
C12-4-10 Write solubility product (Ksp) expressions from balanced

chemical equations for salts with low solubility.
C12-4-12 Describe examples of the practical applications of salts with low

solubility.
C12-4-13 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the Ksp of a salt with

low solubility.
Suggested Time: 17 hours
Grade 12 Chemistry Topic 4: Chemical Equilibrium
SLO: C12-4-01
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium
SpeCifiC Learning OutCOme

C12-4-01: relate the concept of equilibrium to physical and chemical
systems.
include: conditions necessary to achieve equilibrium
(1 hour)

In Grade 9 Science (S1-2-12), students were introduced to the difference between
physical and chemical changes. In Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-1-05, C11-1-06),
students were introduced to the concept of equilibrium with respect to the rates of
evaporation and condensation of a liquid in a closed container. They further
developed analogies to help them understand the concept.
Check for students prior knowledge, and review concepts as necessary. Prior
knowledge can be reviewed and/or assessed by using any of the KWL strategies
(e.g., Concept Map, Knowledge Chart, Think-Pair-Sharesee SYSTH, Chapter 9).
Activation Demonstration:Blue Bottle Reaction
Introduce the topic of chemical equilibrium with a demonstration showing the
reversibility of chemical reactions. The classic blue bottle reaction demonstration
clearly shows a reversible reaction. In a 1000 mL Erlenmeyer flask, dissolve 14 g of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 700 mL distilled water. Add 14 g of dextrose (or
glucose) and 1 mL methylene blue to the NaOH solution. Stopper the flask tightly.
Shake it vigorously and observe that the solution turns blue. Allow the solution to
sit, and observe that the colour clears. This system involves the oxidation of
dextrose (or glucose) by oxygen (caused by shaking the flask). The methylene blue
acts as a catalyst for this reaction. Have students describe the reaction in the flask
and speculate why the solution does not stay blue.
Demonstrations of the blue bottle reaction can be viewed on various websites.
Sample Website:
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM). Chapter 14: Gas
Phase, Solubility, Complex Ion Equilibria. Chemistry Online Resource Essentials
(CORE). <www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/c14.htm> (15 Feb. 2012).
A video entitled Blue Bottle Equilibrium can be viewed on this website.
general Learning Outcome Connections

gLO D3:
understand the properties and structures of matter, as well as various common manifestations and
4 topic 4: Chemical equilibrium

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attituDeS OutCOmeS
C12-0-u1: use appropriate strategies and skills to develop an understanding of chemical concepts.
C12-0-u2: Demonstrate an understanding of chemical concepts.

TEAchER NoTEs
Reversible Reactions for Physical Equilibrium
Up to this point, this chemistry curriculum has addressed reversibility in physical
systems (i.e., phase changes and dissociation). Students will now be introduced to
the potential for reversibility in chemical systems. Discuss the conditions that are
necessary to achieve equilibrium in physical and chemical systems and emphasize
the differences between the two systems.
Physical equilibria require a closed system at constant temperature. Examples of
physical equilibria are evaporation and dissolving.
Examples:
In the diagram below, water (H2O(l)) is in equilibrium with its vapour (H2O(g)). The
rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation in a closed container at a
constant temperature. At the particulate level, for every one molecule of water
(H2O(l)) that evaporates, another water vapour molecule (H2O(g)) condenses to the
liquid state. This is an example of a reversible reaction for a physical equilibrium.
H2O(g)
Gas state
Liquid state
H2O(l)
topic 4: Chemical equilibrium 5

systems.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

(continued)
Animation
Have students view an equilibrium animation online.
Sample Website:
In the General Equilibria section, download and unzip the following animation:
n
Bromine Liquid-Gas Equilibrium Animation

This animation shows the molecular nature between liquid bromine and
gaseous bromine. Have students count the number of molecules in the gas
phase and in the liquid phase.
Reversible Reaction for chemical Equilibrium

The conditions required for chemical equilibria include constant observable
macroscopic properties (e.g., temperature, pressure, concentration), a closed system,
constant temperature, reversibility, and equal rates of opposing change (Chastko
637).
Example:
An example of a reversible reaction for a chemical equilibrium is
H2g Cl 2g
2 HClg
At the particulate level for this reaction, the rate of forward reaction is equal to the
rate of the reverse reaction. This means that for every molecule of H2 that combines
with a molecule of Cl2, there is one molecule of HCl that reacts with another
molecule of HCl, which reform to make the reactants H2 and Cl2. For a particulate
representation of this reversible reaction, see the following diagram.

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Reversible Reaction
Key
= Cl2
= H2
= HCl
H2 + Cl2
HCl
HCl + HCl
+ Cl2
The diagram shows H2 + Cl2 combining to form two molecules of HCl, and two
molecules of HCl combining to reform H2 + Cl2.
Demonstration/Animation
Demonstrate a chemical equilibrium with an NO2N2O4 system or a CoCl42
Co(H2O)62+ system. See Appendix 4.1: Preparation of Equilibrium Systems
(Demonstration) for preparation instructions. Sealed units of NO2N2O4 can be
purchased from science supply companies rather than preparing the tubes for
classroom demonstration.
Have students view an online demonstration or animation of a chemical
equilibrium.
Sample Website:
In the General Equilibria section, download and unzip the following animation:
n
NO2N2O4 Equilibrium Animation
This animation shows the NO2N2O4 reaction at the particulate level.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

systems.
(continued)
Graphs
How systems achieve equilibrium can be demonstrated through concentration
versus time graphs and rate versus time graphs, such as the following.
Concentration
Concentration versus Time
Rate versus Time
Rate
Reactants
Reactants
Products
te
Time
Products
te
Time
To prevent the misconception that equilibrium has been achieved by the end of the
plateau, point out to students that equilibrium occurs as soon as the plateau begins.
Avoid a quantitative discussion of these graphs at this point.
Learning Activity: The Process of Achieving Equilibrium
Have a group of students represent sodium and chloride ions in the following
reaction:
NaCl s heat
Na aq Cl aq
For example, in a class of 20 students, 10 students could represent sodium ions and
10 students could represent chloride ions. Have 4 sodium ions and 4 chloride ions
link arms on the left side of the room to represent sodium chloride particles. Have
the remaining 12 students stand on the right side of the room. Ask a student to
record on the board the number of each type of particles.
At this point, explain that in order for sodium chloride to break apart, heat is
required. Place on the floor four pieces of red construction paper (to represent the
heat), which can be picked up by the students representing the sodium chloride
particles so that they can break up into sodium and chloride ions and move to the
right side of the room. (The sodium ions in the sodium chloride particle should
hold onto the heat). Students on the right side of the room could use the heat to join
together to form a sodium chloride particle and move to the left side of the room.

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Allow this movement to continue for a few minutes, and then have a student record
the number of each particle a second time. Repeat this process once more so that
students can see that equilibrium has occurred.
Emphasize that the process of equilibrium is not finished. The forward and reverse
processes continue to occur.
Laboratory Activity
Have students perform the Discovery Lab: Whats equal about equilibrium?
(Dingrando, et al. 559).
For this lab activity, students pour 20 mL of water into a graduated cylinder and
20 mL into a beaker. They then place one glass tube in the cylinder and another
glass tube in the beaker. Students cover the end of each glass tube with their index
fingers and simultaneously transfer water from the cylinder to the beaker, and from
the beaker to the cylinder. The heights will even out after a number of transfers.
Equilibrium is established with 30 mL in the beaker and 10 mL in the graduated
cylinder.
SuggeSTionS for aSSeSSmenT

1. Students can complete a Compare and Contrast think sheet for the following:
physical and chemical systems and open and closed systems.
2. Present students with examples of situations showing systems that are at
equilibrium and systems that are not at equilibrium. Have them identify both
types of systems.
3. Provide students with data tables and ask them to identify whether or not the
reactions are at equilibrium.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

systems.
(continued)
Journal Writing
1. Ask students to list reactions that are reversible (e.g., dissolving salt in water)
and reactions that are not reversible (e.g., burning paper).
2. Have students answer the following question:
At equilibrium, does the concentration of reactant have to equal the
concentration of product? Explain your answer.
Answer:
No, the concentrations must be constant over time. They will not necessarily be
equal.
learning reSourceS linkS

211)
492)
investigation
Discovery Lab: Whats equal about equilibrium? 559
Website
Animations: Bromine Liquid-Gas Equilibrium Animation
NO2N2O4 Equilibrium Animation

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appendix
Appendix 4.1: Preparation of Equilibrium Systems (Demonstration)
Selecting learning resources

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium
SpeCifiC Learning OutCOmeS

C12-4-02: Write equilibrium law expressions from balanced chemical
include: mass action expression
C12-4-03: use the value of the equilibrium constant (Keq) to explain

how far a system at equilibrium has gone towards
completion.
C12-4-04: Solve problems involving equilibrium constants.
SLO: C12-4-02
SLO: C12-4-03
SLO: C12-4-04
(3.5 hours)

In Grade 7 Science (7-2-14), students were introduced to heterogeneous and
homogeneous solutions.
Check for students prior knowledge, and review concepts as necessary.
TEAchER NoTEs
Equilibrium Expressions
The ratio of product concentrations (raised to the value of the coefficient from the
balanced equation) to reactant concentrations (raised to the value of the coefficient
from the balanced equation) in a reaction at equilibrium is represented by the
equilibrium law expression (mass action expression). The law of mass action was
introduced in 1864 by Cato Maximilian Guldberg and Peter Waage, two Norwegian
chemists who analyzed the results of many different experiments and tested a
variety of mathematical relationships until they discovered the relationship that
always gave consistent results (Chastko 640).
equilibrium Law expression
Kc
C c D d
A a B b
Where [A], [B], [C], and [D] represent the concentrations of the reactants and
products after the reaction has reached equilibrium and the concentrations no
longer change. The exponents, a, b, c, and d, are the stoichiometric coefficients from
the equation (Chastko 641).
A general equilibrium reaction can be written as follows:
aA bB
cC dD
gLO D3:

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Equilibrium constants
Solids and liquids are not included in the mass action expression, as their
concentrations are constant. Regardless of how much of the solid or liquid is
present, the concentration (mol/L) of the solid and liquid remains the same. The
value of the mass action expression at any point in time is called the reaction
quotient (Q). At equilibrium, it is called the equilibrium constant (Keq). Inform
students that equilibrium constants are specific for only one reaction at a particular
temperature.
The equilibrium constant provides information such as how far a reaction has gone
toward completion before it reaches equilibrium. Because the equilibrium constant
is the ratio of products to reactants, a Keq value greater than 1 (Keq> 1) means that
there were more products than reactants, so the reaction was close to completion
when equilibrium was achieved (and vice versa).
Many chemistry textbooks use the symbol Keq to represent the equilibrium constant.
Unless the value is given with appropriate units, this symbol does not distinguish
between a constant equilibrium value calculated from equilibrium
concentrations (Kc) and that calculated from equilibrium pressure (Kp). In textbooks,
units are not used because they would vary depending on the powers to which the
concentrations are raised. In some cases, all units would cancel.
Problems Involving Equilibrium constants
Problems should be limited to
n
solving for Keq, given equilibrium

concentrations of all reactants and products
IcE Table
I
solving for an equilibrium concentration

when Keq and the equilibrium concentrations c
of all remaining reactants and products are
E
given
using an ICE table to solve for Keq, given an
initial concentration or an equilibrium
concentration of one of the products (see
Appendix 4.2: Solving Equilibrium Problems
Using the ICE Table Method and
Appendix 4.3: Solving for Keq Using the
BIR/PEC Accounting Method).
Initialthe initial concentrations

of the reactants and products
Changethe change in reactants
and products from the initial
conditions
Equilibriumthe concentrations
of the reactants and products at
equilibrium
BIR/PEc Accounting Method

B
I
R/P
E
c
Balanced equation
Initial (moles)
Reacted or produced (moles)
Equilibrium (moles)
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium


completion.
(continued)
Note that
. . . students need extra practice using their calculators to solve problems
involving scientific notation. In particular, students commonly make the mistake
of using the times () sign when entering scientific-notation numbers. Point out
that the exponent key ([EXP] on most calculators . . . or [EE] on others) actually
represents 10. To help students with this process, lead them through
entering several numbers in scientific-notation and carrying out calculations
with the numbers. (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change,
Teacher Wraparound Edition 579)
Learning Activity: Determining Mathematical Relationships
Students can work in groups to determine a mathematical relationship between the
equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products in a given data set.
Sample Problem: Mathematical Relationships
Your supervisor in the chemistry lab wants you to determine a mathematical
relationship for the data found from studying the following chemical equilibrium:
H2g I 2g
2HIg
What mathematical formula using equilibrium concentrations of reactants and

products gives a constant (K) for the hydrogen iodide reaction system?
Hints:
n
Be sure to analyze all your data to test your formula.

Remember that the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction at equilibrium.

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Trial
[h2]
(mol/L)
[I2]
(mol/L)
[hI]
(mol/L)
[reactants]
[products]2
[products]2
[reactants]
0.0032583
0.0012949
0.015869
0.02
60
0.0046981
0.0007014
0.013997
0.02
60
0.0010084
0.0010084
0.007816
0.02
60
0.0007106
0.0007106
0.005468
0.02
60
0.0013953
0.0013953
0.010791
0.02
60
Solution:
Rateforward = kf[H2][I2]
Ratereverse = kr[HI]2
At equilibrium,
Rateforward = Ratereverse
So,
kf[H2][I2] = kr[HI]2
Note: We cant cancel the k values, as they are not identical to one another.
kf
HI
kr
H2
I2
or
H
kr
2 22
kf
HI
If the concentrations for the first trial are substituted into this equation, the value
obtained is
kf
HI
0.015869
59.6
kr
H2
I2
0.0032583 0.0012949
Using the same concentrations for the first trial and substituting these values into
the second equation, the result is
H
I
0.0032583 0.0012949
kr
2 22
0.017
kf
0.0158692
HI

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

completion.
(continued)
Student groups should obtain answers in the order of 60 or 0.02 when using the
concentrations given in the other trials. Inform students that scientists have
collectively agreed that the equilibrium constants would be reported in texts such
as the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC Press), using the ratio of product
to reactant concentrations, or
kf
HI
Keq
kr
H2
I2
sample Problem: heterogeneous equilibrium

Write the mass action expression for the decomposition of solid calcium carbonate.
CaCO 3 s
CaOs CO 2g
Solution:
In applying the standard form of the mass action expression, the equation would be
written as follows:
Keq
CaO
CO 2
CaCO 3
However, the concentrations of pure solids and liquids are constant (i.e., they
cannot change). They are not included in the mass action expression, so the mass
action expression for the decomposition of calcium carbonate is
Keq
CO 2

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1. Students can write equilibrium law expressions from given chemical equations
and write chemical equations from equilibrium law expressions.
2. Have students use process notes to show the derivation of a mass action
expression for a reaction that involves solids and/or liquids.
3. Provide students with various Keq values and have them identify which
reactions were close to completion when equilibrium was achieved and which
were not.
4. Have students solve problems involving equilibrium constants (see
Appendix 4.4: Equilibrium Problems).
Journal Writing
Ask students to research the work of the Norwegian chemists Cato Maximilian
Guldberg and Peter Waage that led them to propose the law of mass action. Have
them describe how the law of mass action results in the formatting of equilibrium
constant expressions (Dingrando, et al., Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher
Wraparound Edition 563).

CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC Press)The Rubber Book
et al. 563, 579)
505)
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium


completion.
(continued)
appendices
Appendix 4.2: Solving Equilibrium Problems Using the ICE Table Method
Appendix 4.3: Solving for Keq Using the BIR/PEC Accounting Method
Appendix 4.4: Equilibrium Problems


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Notes
SLO: C12-4-05
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-05: perform a laboratory activity to determine the equilibrium
(1.5 hours)

In addressing specific learning outcome C12-4-04, students solved problems
involving equilibrium constants. They will now have an opportunity to use
experimental data to calculate the value of Keq for a reversible reaction.
TEAchER NoTEs
It is not intended that students perform all the lab activities suggested below (and
in the Learning Resources Links). Select a lab activity appropriate for students skill
level and the equipment available at the school.
Laboratory Activities:Investigating chemical Equilibrium
Have students perform lab activities, such as the following, to determine the
equilibrium constant of an equilibrium system.
n
Lab 16: exploring Chemical equilibrium (Dingrando, et al. 61)

In this experiment, students calculate Keq for a reaction between Fe3+ and SCN.
They investigate the reaction in which colourless Fe3+ and SCN ions combine to
form a red FeSCN2+ ion. They prepare serial dilutions of Fe(NO3)2 and estimate
the colour intensity of solutions at equilibrium. Students then relate colourintensity values to the concentration of FeSCN2+ at equilibrium.

gLO B3:
gLO B5:
gLO C1:
gLO C2:
gLO C5:

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C12-0-S6: estimate and measure accurately using Systme international (Si) and other standard
units.
investigation 16.C: Using experimental data to determine an equilibrium

Constant (Chastko, et al. 662).
This investigation studies the equilibrium between iron(III) ions, thiocyanate
ions, and iron(III) thiocyanate ions. Four different equilibrium mixtures with
different initial concentrations of Fe2+(aq) and SCN(aq) are prepared. The initial
concentrations of these ions are calculated from the volumes and concentrations
of the stock solution used and the total volumes of the equilibrium mixtures. The
concentration of Fe(SCN)2+(aq) in each mixture is determined by comparing the
colour intensity of the mixture with the colour intensity of a solution with
known concentration. The concentrations of Fe2+(aq)) and SCN(aq) are calculated
from the known concentration of Fe(SCN)2+(aq). Then these values are
substituted into the equilibrium expression to solve for Keq.
investigation 13a: measuring an equilibrium Constant (Mustoe, et al. 501).

This investigation is very similar to Investigation 16.C: Using Experimental Data
to Determine an Equilibrium Constant.
Lab exercise 7.2.1: develop an equilibrium Law (van Kessel, et al. 514).
Have students use experimental data and apply mathematical relationships to
see which gives a constant value.
Using a Colorimeter or spectrometer

Have students perform the experiment outlined in Appendix 4.5: Chemical
Equilibrium: Lab Activity. In this experiment, students add together varying
concentrations of SCN and Fe3+ to achieve an equilibrium system between the
two ions and the FeSCN2+ ion. Students should note that the higher the
concentration of the Fe3+ is, the darker the orange-red colour of the complex will
be. They then use spectrometers or colorimeters to determine the optical density
(absorbance) of each system, and then use the information to determine the
equilibrium concentrations of all reactants and products in order to solve for the
value of Keq.
Also refer to Chemical Equilibrium: Finding a Constant, Kc (Holmquist,
Randall, and Volz, Chemistry with CBL 201 to 202GT).
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-05: perform a laboratory activity to determine the equilibrium
(continued)

Laboratory Reports
Students can use the Laboratory Report Format to write their lab reports (see
SYSTH 14.12). Word processing and spreadsheet software could be used to prepare
reports. Also refer to the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
Laboratory skills
eventually all students are assessed. Pay particular attention to skills related to
serial dilutions from stock solutions. Sample checklists for assessing lab skills and

investigations
Chemistry with CBL (Holmquist, Randall, and Volz).
Chemical Equilibrium: Finding a Constant, Kc, 201 to 202T
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teacher
Edition (Dingrando et al.)
Lab 16: Exploring Chemical Equilibrium, 61
Investigation 13A: Measuring an Equilibrium Constant, 501
Investigation 16.C: Using Experimental Data to Determine an Equilibrium
Constant, 662
Lab Exercise 7.2.1: Develop an Equilibrium Law, 514
appendix
Appendix 4.5: Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity

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units.

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-06: use Le Chteliers principle to predict and explain shifts in
equilibrium.
include: temperature changes, pressure/volume changes, changes
in reactant/product concentrations, the addition of a catalyst, the
addition of an inert gas, and the effects of the various stresses on
the equilibrium constant
C12-4-07: perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate Le Chteliers

principle.
SLO: C12-4-06
SLO: C12-4-07
(3.5 hours)

In Grade 11 Chemistry (C11-02-05), students performed an experiment to discover
Boyles law, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional to
one another. In both Grades 11 and 12 Chemistry (C11-3-13, C12-3-04), students
have worked with endothermic and exothermic reactions. Students performed a lab
activity (C12-3-02) to observe the effects of concentration, temperature, pressure,
volume, and the presence of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction.
Check for students prior knowledge, and review concepts as necessary.
TEAchER NoTEs
Le chteliers Principle
In 1884, French chemist Henri Louis Le Chtelier proposed the law of mobile
equilibrium (commonly referred to as Le Chteliers principle), which states that if a
stress is placed on a reversible reaction at chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium
will shift to relieve the stress, thereby restoring equilibrium. Le Chteliers principle
describes how a chemical equilibrium shifts in response to a stress or disturbance
within an enclosed system, as described in the following table.

gLO C2:
gLO C3:
gLO C4:
gLO C5:
gLO C8:

Demonstrate appropriate problem-solving skills when seeking solutions to technological challenges.
evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered during investigations in daily
life.

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C12-0-S2: State a testable hypothesis or prediction based on background data or on observed

events.

C12-0-a2: Value skepticism, honesty, accuracy, precision, perseverance, and open-mindedness as

shifts in Equilibrium in Response to stress

stress
system Response
Effect on the Equilibrium constant
increase in
temperature
The system shifts to use up

the added heat, favouring
the endothermic reaction.
The equilibrium constant changes because the

equilibrium position shifts without any
substances being added or removed. There is
no heat-related term in the mass action
expression to maintain the ratio.
decrease in
temperature
The system shifts to produce

more heat, favouring the
exothermic reaction.
It changes because the equilibrium position

shifts without any substances being added or
removed. There is no heat-related term in the
mass action expression to maintain the ratio.
increase in
volume
(decrease in
pressure)
The system shifts to the side

with the most gas particles
because solids and liquids
are incompressible.
It does not change because all reactant and

product concentrations change, resulting in the
same ratio.
decrease in
volume
(increase in
pressure)
The system shifts to the side

with the fewest gas particles
because solids and liquids
are incompressible.

same ratio.
increase in
concentration
The system shifts to decrease

the reactant or product that
was added.

same ratio.
decrease in
concentration
The system shifts to increase

the reactant or product that
was removed.

same ratio.
addition of a
catalyst
No change in the system

occurs. Catalysts increase
the forward and reverse
reactions to the same extent,
so that they only serve to
help bring systems to
equilibrium faster.
It does not change.
addition of an
inert gas
No change in the system

occurs because it does not
take part in the reaction.
It does not change.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

equilibrium.

principle.
(continued)
The following shows how a change in concentration affects the other substances in
a chemical reaction (Silberberg 746).
These concentration changes cause a shift to the right:
increase
PCl 3
increase
Cl 2
decrease
PCl 5
These concentration changes cause a shift to the left:

decrease
PCl 3
decrease
Cl 2
increase
PCl 5
Demonstrations
traffic Light reaction
This demonstration shows an oscillating colour reaction starting with yelloworange, changing to red (after shaking the flask once), and then to green (after
shaking the flask again). After the flask stands for awhile, the colour returns to
red and then back to yellow-orange. The idea behind this demonstration is that
shaking is enough for the first reaction to occur, and then a few more shakes
gets the second reaction going. As the solution settles, the kinetic energy (from
shaking) drops, and the reactions do not have enough energy to continue.
To prepare for the demonstration, dissolve 32 g of potassium hydroxide in
1200 mL water (solution A), 40 g of glucose in 1200 mL water (solution B), 0.50 g
of benzoin in 500 mL water (solution C), and 1.0 g of indigo carmine in 200 mL
water (solution D). To a clean, empty flask, add 200 mL of solution A, then 200
mL of B, then 60 mL of C, and then 16 mL of D.
Similar demonstrations can be viewed online.
Sample Websites:
Keusch, Peter. Belousov-Zhabotinsky Reaction. Organic Chemistry
Demonstration Experiments on Video: Chemistry Visualized. University of
Regensburg. <www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/nat_Fak_IV/
Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/D-oscill-e.htm> (22 Feb. 2012).
In this video demonstration, the colour oscillates between red and blue.

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events.


Wyatt, Shawn. Go-Science Traffic Light Reaction Chemistry Demonstration.

World News. <http://wn.com/Traffic_Light_Reaction_GOScience_Demonstration> (22 Feb. 2012).
n
Liquid Crystal demonstration

If a sheet of temperature-sensitive liquid crystal is available, wrap the sheet
around glasses of cold water, water at room temperature, and hot water to see
that warmer temperatures yield darker colours:
LCLC
+
(light-coloured
liquid crystals)
heat
DCLC
(dark-coloured
liquid crystals)
Mood rings, made of liquid crystals, take advantage of this phenomenon by reequilibrating as a result of slight changes in body temperature.
Laboratory Activities: Disturbing Equilibrium systems
Any of the following experiments can be performed to determine how equilibrium
systems respond to stresses. It is not intended that students perform all the
suggested lab activities. Select lab activities appropriate for the abilities of students
in the class and the equipment available at the school.
n
analogy for an equilibrium reaction

The procedure for this investigation can be found in Appendix 4.6A: An
Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity. Students use straws of two
different diameters to transfer water between two graduated cylinders until
equilibrium is achieved. This lab activity demonstrates that systems are not
necessarily at equilibrium when the concentrations of reactants and products are
identical. Students results will vary, depending upon the size of straw they
place into each graduated cylinder. A lab report checklist for this experiment is
given in Appendix 4.6C. Teacher notes are provided in Appendix 4.6B.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

equilibrium.

principle.
(continued)
Qualitative equilibrium
The pre-lab exercise provided in Appendix 4.7: Equilibrium and Le Chteliers
Principle (Pre-lab) gives students an opportunity to predict the direction in
which the equilibrium will shift with the given stresses. A complete student
procedure for this lab activity can be found in Appendix 4.8A: Qualitative
Equilibrium: Lab Activity. (See Appendix 4.8B for teacher notes.) Students create
an equilibrium system using 0.02 mol/L iron(III) nitrate and 0.002 mol/L
potassium thiocyanate. The solutions are mixed, and then stressed by adding
iron(III) nitrate, solid potassium thiocyante, and sodium hydrogen phosphate to
samples of the solution. Shifts in the original equilibrium position may be seen
through colour changes.
disrupting equilibrium systems

The procedure for this lab activity can be found in Appendix 4.9: Disrupting
Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity. The reaction that students study is
Co H 2 O 6
pink
4Cl
CoCl 4 6H 2 O
blue
Students dissolve cobalt chloride in ethanol and record the colour of the
solution. They add stresses to samples of this prepared solution (distilled water,
hydrochloric acid, solid calcium chloride, silver nitrate solution, addition of heat,
and removal of heat) and note the resulting colours.
n
miniLaB 18: shifts in equilibrium (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter

and Change 573)
In this experiment, students observe an equilibrium shift in a colourful way.
Students add hydrochloric acid to a 0.1 mol/L solution of cobalt chloride. The
pink colour changes to a purple colour. To this solution, students then add
water, and the colour returns to pink. Then students place a sample of the cobalt
chloride-hydrochloric acid solution in hot water, which results in a blue colour
being produced. When they place a sample of the cobalt chloride-hydrochloric
acid solution in cold water, the pink colour appears.

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events.


Lab 15: observing equilibrium (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and
Change: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teacher Edition 57)
In the first part of the lab activity, students record the colours of Fe3+ ion, SCN
ion, and FeSCN2+ ion. The direction of shift in equilibrium is measured by the
colour change that occurs, which is related to the concentration of reactant.
Students pour a dilute solution of iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
into five separate test tubes. To the first test tube, 0.5 g of Fe(NO3)3 is added to
the solution, and a darker red colour is observed. To the second test tube, 0.5 g
NH4SCN is added to the solution, and a dark red colour results. To the third test
tube, 0.5 g KCl is added to the solution, and a light red colour (or orange colour)
is observed. To the fourth test tube, a few millilitres of sodium hydroxide
solution is added to the original solution, which results in a colourless solution
with a white precipitate. To the fifth test tube, a few millilitres of silver nitrate
are added, which results in a colourless solution and a white precipitate.
experiment 29: Le Chteliers Principle and Chemical equilibrium (Waterman

and Thompson, Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual
203)
In this experiment, students observe and record how a chemical system at
equilibrium responds to changes in concentration of reactants or products (203).
They describe these shifts in equilibrium in terms of Le Chteliers principle. As
this is a small-scale lab activity, the quantities required of the following solutions
are minimal: bromthymol blue, hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, ammonia,
copper(II) sulphate, lead(II) nitrate, potassium iodide, nitric acid, silver nitrate,
sodium carbonate, sodium thiosulphate, and sodium phosphate.
investigation 16a: modelling equilibrium (Chastko, et al. 635)

This investigation is similar to the one outlined in Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy
for an Equilibrium Reaction. Using two glass tubes of different diameters,
students transfer water from one graduated cylinder to another, and vice versa.
In the reactant cylinder, 25 mL of water is present. In the product cylinder, there
is no water present initially.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

equilibrium.

principle.
(continued)
expressLab: modelling equilibrium (Mustoe, et al 491)

This lab activity is the same as Investigation 16.A: Modelling Equilibrium
(Chastko, et al. 635).
investigation 16.B: disturbing equilibrium (Chastko, et al. 652)

In this three-part investigation, students use Le Chteliers principle to predict
the effect of change on a system at equilibrium. They design an experiment to
illustrate and test their prediction by assessing a change of colour or the
appearance (or disappearance) of a precipitate. In Part 1, students explore
changes to a base equilibrium system. In Part 2, they examine concentration and
temperature changes. In Part 3, the teacher performs a demonstration to
investigate gaseous equilibria.
investigation 13B: Perturbing equilibrium (Mustoe, et al 521)

This lab activity is essentially the same as Investigation 16.B: Disturbing
Equilibrium (Chastko, et al. 652), except students use different chemicals.
Students use Le Chteliers principle to predict and test the effect of changing
one factor in systems at equilibrium. Students complete the first three parts of
the investigation, and the teacher demonstrates the last part, dealing with
gaseous equilibria.
investigation 7.3.1: testing Le Chteliers Principle (van Kessel, et al 514)

In this seven-part lab activity, stresses are applied to different chemical
equilibrium systems to test Le Chteliers principle. The lab activity includes an
investigation of increasing pressure on a carbon dioxidebicarbonate mixture.
Whole-class Learning Activity: Reaction Tendencies

Have students view Reaction Tendencies, episode 4 of Chemical Equilibrium
(TVOntario). This episode shows the effects of heat and pressure on an equilibrium
system using Le Chteliers principle. Students can describe these effects on an
equilibrium system on both a macroscopic level and a microscopic level.

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online Demonstrations
Have students view online demonstrations of Le Chteliers principle.
Sample Website:
(CORE). <www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/c14.htm> (13 Jan. 2012).
This website provides a variety of video clips that demonstrate shifts in
equilibrium using Le Chteliers principle:
n
FeSCN2+ EquilibriumLe Chteliers Principle Lab, Part 1 shows the effect of

adding stresses to the equilibrium FeSCN2+Fe(SCN)+2.
Cobalt Complex Ion EquilibriumLe Chteliers Principle Lab, Part 3
demonstrates the cobalt chloride complex (pink to blue) equilibrium.
NO2N2O4 Gas EquilibriumLe Chteliers Principle Lab, Part 4 shows the effect
of temperature on the equilibrium NO2N2O4. As temperature is decreased,
there is an increase in N2O4 (colourless).

1. To begin addressing learning outcomes C12-4-06 and C12-4-07 and to review
prior knowledge, have students answer the following questions:
n
What are the five factors that affect reaction rate?

How do the rates of the forward and reverse reactions compare for a reaction
at equilibrium?

equilibrium.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium


principle.
(continued)
2. Have students answer questions related to Le Chteliers principle.

Example:
Much of the brown haze hanging over large cities is nitrogen dioxide (NO2(g)).
Nitrogen dioxide reacts to form dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4(g)), according to the
equation
2 NO 2g
N 2 O 4g 57.2 kJ
brown
colourless
Use this equilibrium to explain why the brownish haze over a large city
disappears in the winter, only to reappear again in the spring.
Answer:
The stress is a decrease in temperature in the winter. The exothermic reaction (a
release of heat) would be favoured to oppose the decrease in temperature. This
would favour the production of the colourless dinitrogen tetraoxide gas. In the
summer, the stress would be an increase in temperature. The endothermic
reaction (absorption of heat) would be favoured to oppose this stress. Nitrogen
dioxide would, therefore, be produced, and we would see a brown haze over the
city.
Journal Writing
Students can write a fictionalized newspaper article written on the day after Henri
Louis Le Chteliers principle was announced in 1884. Students articles should
highlight this scientific contribution.
Laboratory Reports
Students can use the Lab Report Format to write their lab reports (see SYSTH
Also refer to the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
Laboratory skills
eventually all students are assessed. For sample checklists, refer to SYSTH (6.10,
6.11).

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events.



214)
investigations
MiniLab 18: Shifts in Equilibrium, 573
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teachers
Edition (Dingrando, et al.)
Lab 15: Observing Equilibrium, 57
ExpressLab: Modelling Equilibrium, 491
Investigation 13-B: Perturbing Equilibrium, 521
Investigation 16.A: Modelling Equilibrium, 635
Investigation 16.B: Disturbing Equilibrium, 652
Investigation 7.3.1: Testing Le Chteliers Principle, 514
and Thompson)
Experiment 29: Le Chteliers Principle and Chemical Equilibrium, 203
Video
Reaction Tendencies. Chemical Equilibrium. Concepts in Science series.
TVOntario. Toronto, ON. 1984. (60 min)
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

equilibrium.

principle.
(continued)
Websites
Keusch, Peter. Belousov-Zhabotinsky Reaction. Organic Chemistry
Demonstration Experiments on Video: Chemistry Visualized. University
of Regensburg. <www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/nat_Fak_IV/
Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/D-oscill-e.htm> (22 Feb. 2012).
Chapter 14: Gas Phase, Solubility, Complex Ion Equilibria. Chemistry
Online Resource Essentials (CORE). <www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/c14.htm>
(13 Jan. 2012).
Wyatt, Shawn. Go-Science Traffic Light Reaction Chemistry Demonstration.
World News. <http://wn.com/Traffic_Light_Reaction_GOScience_Demonstration> (22 Feb. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes)
Appendix 4.6C: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Report
Checklist
Appendix 4.7:
Equilibrium and Le Chteliers Principle (Pre-lab)
Appendix 4.8A: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity

Appendix 4.8B: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)
Appendix 4.9:
Disrupting Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity


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Notes
SLO: C12-4-08
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-08: interpret concentration versus time graphs.
include: temperature changes, concentration changes, and the
addition of a catalyst
(1 hour)

In learning outcome C12-4-01, students were introduced to a qualitative treatment
of concentration versus time graphs.
In learning outcome C12-4-06, students saw that a system at equilibrium will shift
to minimize a stress and re-establish equilibrium.
TEAchER NoTEs
Ask students to recall that equilibrium is shown by a plateau on a concentration
versus time graph. If students completed the analogy lab activity in addressing
learning outcomes C12-4-06 and C12-4-07, ask them to refer to their results. See
Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity. The plateau
in such concentration versus time graphs demonstrates that the concentrations of
reactants and products are not changing over time.
concentration versus Time Graphs:class Activity
Work through the following sample problem with students to introduce the
quantitative analysis of concentration versus time graphs. See the teacher support
material in Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs and Appendix 4.11:
Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs.
Alternatively, provide students with graphical data, such as the following, so that
they can generate a graph before its interpretation.

gLO C2:
gLO C5:


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Data Table
Time
[FescN2+]
[scN ]
[Fe3+]
2.5
1.75
3.25
10
1.5
11
1.5
12
1.5
13
1.5
14
1.5
15
1.5
20
1.5
1.25
25
1.5
1.25
30
1.5
1.25
[Fe3+]
(after
stress)
Concentration versus Time

8
7
20
25
30
4s
s
sssss
2
1
uuu uuu
0u
0
10
15
35
Time (s)
u
FeSCN2+
SCN-
Fe3+
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-08: interpret concentration versus time graphs.
include: temperature changes, concentration changes, and the
addition of a catalyst
(continued)
sample Problem: interpretation of Concentration versus time Graph

2
For the reaction, Fe 3 SCN
FeSCN , the concentrations of the reactants

(Fe3+ and SCN) are decreasing as the reaction proceeds and the concentration of
the product (FeSCN2+) is increasing. It appears that the reaction reaches equilibrium
at 10 seconds. At 14 seconds, a stress is added to the equilibrium, as the
concentration of Fe3+ spikes dramatically upward at that point. There are more
molecules of Fe3+ in the system, so the number of molecules of SCN decreases, and
more product (FeSCN2+) is produced. A new equilibrium is established at 20
seconds.
Questions:
1. Write a balanced equation to represent the reaction.
2. How much time was required for the system to reach equilibrium?
3. Calculate the approximate value of the equilibrium constant from the
concentrations at 10 seconds.
4. Calculate the approximate value of the equilibrium constant from the
concentrations at 20 seconds.
5. How do the two values from questions 3 and 4 compare? Explain.
6. What stress occurred at 14 seconds?
7. How would the addition of a positive catalyst change the shape of this graph?
Answers:
2
1. Fe 3 SCN
FeSCN
2. The system reached equilibrium in 10 seconds.

2
1
FeSCN
3. K eq
0.22
3
Fe
SCN
3 1.5
2
1.5
FeSCN
4. Keq
0.24
3
Fe
SCN
51.25
5. The two values are approximately the same because the stress imposed on the
system was not a change in temperature.
6. The addition of Fe3+ occurred at 14 seconds.
7. A catalyst would decrease the time required to reach equilibrium. This would
condense (squish) the graph along the x-axis.

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1. Students can prepare questions on sketching and interpreting concentration
versus time graphs and test their classmates.
2. Have students complete Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time
Graphs.

McGraw-Hill Ryerson Inquiry into Chemistry (Chastko, et al. 647, 648, 650)
appendices
Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs
Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-09: Discuss practical applications of Le Chteliers principle.
Examples: Haber process, hemoglobin production at high altitude,
carbonated beverages, eyes adjusting to light, blood pH,
recharging of batteries, turbocharged/supercharged engines, ester
synthesis, weather indicators, carbonated beverages in a hens
diet . . .
SLO: C12-4-09
(1 hour)

Students were introduced to Le Chteliers principle in learning outcome C12-4-06.
Check for students prior knowledge, and review concepts as necessary. Some
examples may have been discussed in addressing previous learning outcomes.
TEAchER NoTEs
Practical Applications of Le chteliers Principle
The following examples of the practical applications of Le Chteliers principle are
provided to indicate the importance of Le Chteliers principle in our lives.
Students are not expected to learn the examples in great detail. Teachers can either
have students collect information from their own textbooks or, if information is
limited, through additional research. Some information is provided here for teacher
reference.
gLO a1:
gLO a3:
gLO a5:
gLO B2:
gLO B4:
gLO C2:
gLO C5:
gLO D1:
gLO D3:
gLO e2:
recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering questions about the world and
Demonstrate knowledge of and personal consideration for a range of possible science- and technologyrelated interests, hobbies, and careers.
understand essential life structures and processes pertaining to a wide variety of organisms, including
humans.
Describe and appreciate how the natural and constructed world is made up of systems and how
interactions take place within and among these systems.

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C12-0-r4: Compare diverse perspectives and interpretations in the media and other information
sources.
chemistry.
C12-0-a3: Demonstrate a continuing, increasingly informed interest in chemistry and chemistryrelated careers and issues.
C12-0-a4: Be sensitive and responsible in maintaining a balance between the needs of humans and
a sustainable environment.
the haber Process

The Haber process, used to produce ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen, was
discovered in 1909 by German chemist Fritz Haber, Nobel Prize winner and
father of chemical warfare. He is reported to have said, During peace time a
scientist belongs to the world, but during war time he belongs to his country
(Blickenstaff).
Students could research and report on the historical development and
importance of Habers contributions to chemistry. This project can launch into
discussions on the ethics of science and scientists, the obligation of scientists to
society, the diverse perspectives and interpretations of science in the media, the
role of chemistry in agriculture, and so on.
Most chemistry textbooks include a discussion of the Haber process (e.g., Chang,
9th ed. 630 Chastko, et al. 669). Discussions are also available online.
Sample Website:
Clark, Jim. The Haber Process. Chemguide. 2002.
<www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html> (13 Jan. 2012).
This website includes a description of the Haber process for manufacturing
ammonia.
hemoglobin Production and altitude

In the body, hemoglobin (Hb) in readily used to transport oxygen to tissues.
Hbaq O 2g
HbO 2aq
In a place such as Mexico City, where the elevation is 2.3 km above sea level,
atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration are low. To offset the stress,
equilibrium favours the reverse direction. As a result, people who live there may
experience hypoxia (a lack of oxygen), which can cause headache, nausea, and
extreme fatigue. In serious cases, if victims are not treated quickly, they may slip
into a coma and die.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

diet . . .
(continued)
Individuals living at high altitudes for extended periods of time adapt to

reduced oxygen concentrations by producing more hemoglobin. This shifts
equilibrium to the right once more, so that the symptoms of hypoxia disappear.
Studies have shown that the Sherpas, long-time residents of the Himalayan
mountains, have adapted to high altitude conditions by maintaining high levels
of hemoglobin in their blood, sometimes as much as 50 percent more than
individuals living at sea level (Chang, 9th ed. 630).
n
Carbonated Beverages
Soft drinks are carbonated under high pressure to create the following
equilibrium system:
CO 2g
CO 2aq heat
When a bottle of soda pop is opened, the pressure above the carbon dioxide
decreases. The system shifts to the left, the solubility of the carbon dioxide
drops, and carbon dioxide bubbles out of solution. If the bottle is left open for a
long time, the pop will go flat due to the reduced pressure.
Shaking a pop bottle will increase the pressure on the system, which will shift to
relieve the stress by favouring the forward reaction. Increasing the temperature
of a pop bottle (e.g., leaving it in a warm car on a summer day) will cause
equilibrium to shift in the reverse direction, creating more carbon dioxide gas.
This will generate a pressure that could potentially cause the pop bottle to burst.
n
eyes adjusting to Light

Photoreceptors, cells containing the visual pigment rhodopsin, line the inner
surface of the eyeball. The rhodopsin is made up of opsin (a protein) and
retinene (a pigment). When light strikes a photoreceptor, the energy absorbed
changes the shape of the retinene portion of the molecule. This forward reaction
takes place very quickly. The shape change signals the optic nerve, which carries
information to the brain where it is translated into a visual image.

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sources.
chemistry.
In the absence of light, the retinene is separated from the opsin. It takes time to
be able to see in the dark, again because the complex can be recombined with
the help of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules in a slower reverse reaction.
In a dark room, the photoreceptors in the eyes take a few minutes to reequilibrate to a lower light intensity, as the reverse reaction is slower. Moving
into a brightly lit room, the photoreceptors in the eyes again take a few minutes
to adjust to their new equilibrium due to the slower reverse reaction.
Ret-Op
Ret Op light
Signal sent
n
Signal not sent
Blood ph
Blood contains dissolved carbonic acid in equilibrium with carbon dioxide and
water.
H2 CO 3aq
CO 2aq H2 Ol
To keep carbonic acid at safe concentrations in the blood, the CO2 product is
exhaled. The removal of a product causes the forward reaction to be favoured,
reducing the amount of carbonic acid to keep blood pH within a safe range
(Chang, 9th ed. 706).
n
rechargeable Batteries
The following types of batteries are recharged through the addition of electrical
energy. When energy is added to the system, the reverse reaction is favoured,
which produces more reactants. Balanced chemical equations are provided for
each of the following types of batteries.
n
lead-acid batteries:
PbO 2s Pbs 4Haq 2 SO 4 2aq
2 PbSO 4 s 2H 2 Ol energy

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

diet . . .
(continued)
nickel-cadmium batteries:
Cds 2NiO OH s 2 H2 Ol
2 PbSO 4s 2 H2 O l energy
fuel cells:
2 H 2 g O 2 g
2H 2 Ol energy
turbocharged/supercharged engines
In a turbocharged engine, air is compressed and heated. This means that there is
a higher concentration (50 percent more) of warmer oxygen reacting with the
gasoline. This favours the production of products, which generates more power
for the car.
Turbochargers in normal engines work best at higher altitudes where the air is
less dense. The steam created by the reaction of the gasoline and oxygen is used
to turn a turbine that runs the air compressor. In a supercharger, a belt runs the
compressor.
Gasoline O 2
CO 2 H2 O power
ester synthesis
Reactions producing esters favour the reverse reaction. To favour the forward
reaction, scientists must increase the amount of acid present in the system.
CH 3OH CH3 COOH
CH3 COOCH 3 H 2 O
Weather indicators
Students may have seen that weather indicators are blue under normal
conditions but turn pink to indicate approaching rain. The colour changes are
due to changes in the colour of cobalt(II) chloride:
2
CoCl 4
6H 2 O
Co H2 O 6
blue
pink
4Cl

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sources.
chemistry.
Alternatively, use the equilibrium system
CoCl 2 6H2 O
CoCl 2 6H2 O
blue
pink
In periods of low humidity, the colour of the weather indicator is blue. When the
humidity is high, the products will be favoured and the colour of the indicator
will be pink.
n
eggs and soda Pop

Eggshells are made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3(s)), which is made from carbon
dioxide (CO2), a product of cellular respiration.
The net equation is
3H2 Ol 3CO 2g Ca 3 2aq
6H aq 3CaCO 3 s
When chickens become hot, they pant, which decreases the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the blood. To offset the stress, the equilibrium will shift in the
reverse direction and decrease the amount of calcium carbonate available to
make eggshells. This yields eggs with thin shells that break easily. Ted Odom, a
graduate student at the University of Illinois, found that giving chickens
carbonated water to drink will shift equilibrium in the forward direction and
minimize the effects of panting on warm days. This allows farmers to minimize
the effects without having to install expensive air conditioning in chicken coops
(van Kessel, et al. 457).
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-09: Discuss practical applications of Le Chateliers principle.
diet . . .
(continued)

class Discussion
To emphasize that the topic of equilibrium is not confined only to the chemistry
classroom, have students provide examples of its application in a variety of
contexts.
Research and Reports/Presentations
Students can research one or more applications of Le Chteliers principle,
including its use in industry. If students are to use the Internet for their research,
provide them with key search words to reduce search time. Students can report on
their research findings using a variety of formats:
n
written reports
visual displays (e.g., posters)
formal class presentations
Sample rubrics for assessing research reports and presentations are provided in
Appendix 11.
collaborative Teamwork
Use collaborative strategies such as Jigsaw (see SYSTH 3.20) or Roundtable
discussions (see Appendix 7) to have students share their knowledge of specific
examples of Le Chateliers principle with their classmates.
Journal Writing
1. Have students reflect on common examples of Le Chteliers principle. Students
reflections could be based on examples from their everyday lives or from careers
that use the principle.
2. Students can describe how their bodies would relieve the stress placed on them
by climbing to a high altitude (Fisher 251).

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sources.
chemistry.
Quiz/Test
Test students on their understanding of the applications of Le Chteliers principle,
using questions such as the following:
1. When someone takes your photograph, you may see a ghost image of the
flash for several minutes after the photo is taken. Explain this phenomenon in
terms of the rates of the forward and reverse rhodopsin reactions in the eye.
Answer:
When the flash occurred, the photoreceptors in the eye responded quickly to the
bright burst. However, since the reverse reaction is much slower, and the
intensity of the flash was so great, a ghost image can be seen for several minutes
while the reactions in the photoreceptors take time to reverse themselves.
2. When isopentyl alcohol and acetic acid react, they form the pleasant-smelling
compound isopentyl acetate (the essence of banana oil):
C 5H11OHaq CH3 COOHaq
CH 3COOC 5 H11aq H 2 Ol
A student adds a drying agent to remove water in an attempt to increase the
yield of banana oil. Is this approach reasonable? Explain.
Answer:
Adding a drying agent will decrease the amount of water present in the system.
To minimize the stress and re-establish equilibrium, the system will favour the
production of more products. Thus, adding a drying agent is a reasonable course
of action to increase the yield of banana oil.
Rubrics/checklists
See Appendix 11 for a variety of rubrics and checklists that can be used for self-,
peer-, and teacher-assessment for any of the research presentations.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-09: Discuss practical applications of Le Chateliers principle.
diet . . .
(continued)

Chemistry, 9th ed. (Chang 630, 706)
216)
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Science Notebook (Fisher 251)
526, 530)
Websites
Blickenstaff, Jacob Clark. Haber: Ethics in the Laboratory. 21 Jan. 2011.
National Science Teachers Association. <www.nsta.org/publications/
news/story.aspx?id=58157&print=true> (27 Dec. 2012).
Clark, Jim. The Haber Process. Chemguide. 2002.


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sources.
chemistry.
Notes
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-10: Write solubility product (Ksp) expressions from balanced
C12-4-11: Solve problems involving Ksp.
include: common ion problems
SLO: C12-4-10
SLO: C12-4-11
(3.5 hours)

In addressing learning outcomes C12-1-01 and C12-1-02, students saw reactions that
produce precipitates.
TEAchER NoTEs
solubility Product constants
In addressing learning outcomes C12-4-10 and C12-4-11, students should become
aware that the precipitates formed by double displacement reactions are not
insoluble, but slightly soluble. For example, while a solubility table would indicate
that silver chloride (AgCl) is insoluble, it does undergo both dissociation and
precipitation to set up the equilibrium
HO
AgCl s
Ag aq Cl aq
Earlier in Topic 4, students calculated equilibrium constants using the ratio of

product concentrations (raised to the value of their coefficients from the balanced
equation) to reactant concentrations (raised to the value of their coefficients from
the balanced equation) at equilibrium.
Ag Cl
aq
aq
Keq
AgCl
Since solids are not included in equilibrium expressions, as their concentrations are
constant, solubility product constants are calculated using only the concentrations
of products at equilibrium.
Ksp = [Ag+][Cl]
Like equilibrium constants, solubility product constants are specific for only one
reaction at a particular temperature. The higher the Ksp value is, the higher the
solubility of the salt will be.
gLO D3:

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Examples:
The following Ksp values are given for some salts at 25C (Chang 720):
n
calcium phosphate
Ksp = 1.2 1026
silver bromide
Ksp = 7.7 1013
barium fluoride
Ksp = 1.7 106
In these examples, barium fluoride (BaF2) has a higher solubility than the other two
salts, calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) and silver bromide (AgBr) because BaF2 has
the larger Ksp value. Calcium phosphate will dissolve very slightly in water due to
its very low Ksp value.
Be sure to clarify the difference between solubility (the number of moles of solute
that will dissolve in 1 L of solution, known as concentration) and solubility product
(the product of the concentrations of ions in solution, raised to the powers of their
coefficients in the balanced equation).
In chemistry textbooks, units for Ksp are not used because they would vary
depending on the powers to which the concentrations are raised, such as mol/L to
(mol/L)2 to (mol/L)3.
Visual representations can be viewed online.
Sample Website:
University of Colorado at Boulder. Salts and Solubility. PhET Interactive
Simulations. <http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/soluble-salts>
(22 Nov. 2012).
In this simulation, students can add different salts to water and watch them
dissolve and achieve a dynamic equilibrium with a solid precipitate. They
compare the number of ions in solution for highly soluble NaCl to other slightly
soluble salts and calculate Ksp values.
solving Ksp Problems
When asking students to solve problems involving Ksp, limit the problems to
n
calculating the Ksp, given the molar solubility of a compound
using an ICE table to solve for the molar solubility of a slightly soluble salt
identifying the concentration of ions present at equilibrium when the Ksp value
of the slightly soluble salt has been provided
determining the molar solubility of a slightly soluble salt in a solution containing
a known concentration of a common ion

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

(continued)
Sample problems and solutions follow.

Example 1:
Calculate the Ksp, given the molar solubility of a compound.
The solubility of calcium sulphate (CaSO4) is 4.9 103 mol/L. Calculate the Ksp
for CaSO4.
Solution:
1. Write the dissociation equation for CaSO4.
CaSO4(s)
Ca2+(aq) + SO42(aq)
2. Write the ion-product, or Ksp, expression.

Ksp = [Ca2+][SO42]
3. Substitute the molar concentrations of the ions, Ca2+ and SO42, into the Ksp
expression and solve the problem.
Ksp = [4.9 103 mol/L][4.9 103 mol/L]
Ksp = 2.4 105
Example 2:
Use an ICE table to solve for the molar solubility of a slightly soluble salt.
Calculate the molar solubility of lead chloride (PbCl2) in pure water at 25C. Ksp for
PbCl2 is 2 105.
Solution:
1. Write the dissociation equation for PbCl2.
PbCl2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
2. Set up an ICE table and fill in the values for the unknown ions. Note that for
every Pb2+ ion there are two Cl ions, which can be seen from the balanced
equation
PbCl2(s)
I
C
E
?
?
?
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
0
+x
x
0
+ 2x
2x

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3. Write the ion-product, or Ksp, expression and substitute the known values into
the expression.
Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl]2
2 105 = (x)(2x)2
4. Solve for x.
2 105 = 4x3
x3 = 5 106
x = 1.7 102 mol/L
The molar solubility of PbCl2 in pure water at 25C is
1.7 102 mol/L
Example 3:
Identify the concentration of ions present at equilibrium when the Ksp value of the slightly
soluble salt has been provided.
What is the concentration of silver and chloride ions in a saturated silver chloride
(AgCl) solution at 25C?
Ksp = 1.8 1010
Solution:
1. Write the dissociation equation for AgCl.
AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq)
2. Set up an ICE table and fill in the table for the unknown values of the ions, x.
AgCl
I
C
E
?
?
?
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq)
0
+x
x
0
+x
x
the expression.
Ksp = [Ag+][Cl]
1.8 1010 = (x)(x)

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

(continued)
4. Solve for x.
1.8 1010 = (x)2
x2 = 1.8 1010
x = 1.3 105 mol/L
The molar solubilities of the ions at equilibrium are equal to
x = [Ag+] = [Cl] = 1.3 105 mol/L
Example 4:
Determine the molar solubility of a slightly soluble salt in a solution containing a known
concentration of a common ion.
Calculate the molar solubility of silver chloride (AgCl) in a 1.5 103 mol/L silver
nitrate (AgNO3) solution.
Ksp for AgCl = 1.6 1010
Solution:
This is a common ion problem. The common ion is Ag+, which is present in AgCl
and AgNO3. Note that the presence of the common ion affects the solubility of
AgCl (in mol/L) but not the Ksp value because it is an equilibrium constant.
1. AgNO3 dissociates completely, as shown by the equation
AgNO3(s)
Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq)
Since the concentration of AgNO3 is given as 1.5 103 mol/L,

[Ag+] = 1.5 103 mol/L
Write the dissociation equation for AgCl.
AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq)

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2. Set up an ICE table and fill in the values for the unknown ions. Remember that
there are two sources for the Ag+ ion, 1.5 103 mol/L from AgNO3, and the
unknown amount, x, from AgCl.
AgCl(s)
I
C
E
?
?
?
Ag+(aq)
1.5 103
+x
1.5 103 + x
Cl(aq)
0
+x
x
the expression.
Ksp = [Ag+][ Cl]
1.6 1010 = (1.5 103 + x)(x)
This x can be ignored because the amount of Ag+ ion

that can dissolve from AgCl is very small compared to
the amount of Ag+ generated from AgNO3.
4. Solve for x.
1.6 1010 = (1.5 103)(x)
x = 1.1 107
[AgCl] = 1.1 107 mol/L
The molar solubility of AgCl in a 1.5 103 mol/L solution AgNO3(aq) is
1.1 107 mol/L

Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

(continued)

Have students write Ksp expressions from given chemical equations.
1. Write the expression for the solubility product constant for strontium sulphate
(SrSO4).
Answer:
2
2
SrSO 4s
Sr aq SO 4 aq
2
2
K sp
Sr
SO 4
2. Write the expression for the solubility product constant for aluminum sulphate
Al2(SO4)3.
Answer:
3
2
Al 2 SO 4 3s
2Al aq 3SO 4 aq
3
3
2
K sp
Al
SO 4
Sample Problems:
1. A sample of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2(s)) is added to pure water and allowed
to come to equilibrium at 25C. The concentration of Ba2+ is found to be 0.108
mol/L and that of OH is found to be 0.216 mol/L. What is the value of Ksp for
Ba(OH)2(s)?
Answer:
Ksp = 5.04 103
2. What is the molar solubility of a saturated solution of silver chloride (AgCl)?
Ksp = 1.6 1010.
Answer:
AgCl = 1.26 105 mol/L

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3. What will be the equilibrium concentrations of Ca2+ and OH in a saturated

solution of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) if its Ksp value is 1.3 106?
Answer:
[Ca2+] = 6.9 103 mol/L
[OH] = 1.4 102 mol/L
4. Calculate the molar solubility of calcium iodate (Ca(IO3)2) in 0.060 mol/L
sodium iodate (NaIO3). The Ksp of Ca(IO3)2 is 7.1 107.
Answer:
2.0 104 mol/L
extension:
5. Will a precipitate form when 1.00 L of 0.150 mol/L iron(II) chloride solution
(FeCl2) is mixed with 2.00 L of 0.0333 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution
(NaOH)?
Answer:
Trial Ksp or Qsp = 2.46 105, Ksp = 4.9 1017. Qsp > Ksp, so a precipitate
will form.
Journal Writing
Have students explain how adding additional sulfate ions to a saturated solution
of barium sulfate would affect the concentration of barium ions (Dingrando, et al.,
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 577).

Chemistry, 9th ed. (Chang 720)
et al 577)
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

(continued)
Website
University of Colorado at Boulder. Salts and Solubility. PhET Interactive
Simulations. <http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/soluble-salts>
(22 Nov. 2012).


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Notes
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-12: Describe examples of the practical applications of salts with
low solubility.
Examples: kidney stones, limestone caverns, osteoporosis, tooth
decay . . .
SLO: C12-4-12
(0.5 hour)

TEAchER NoTEs
Practical Applications of salts with Low solubility
The following examples of the practical applications of salts with low solubility are
provided to indicate the importance of slightly soluble salts in our lives. Students
are not expected to learn the examples in great detail. Teachers can either have
students collect information from their own textbooks or, if information is limited,
through additional research. Some information is provided here for teacher
reference.
n
Limestone Caverns
Limestone (CaCO3) is formed through the decay of marine organisms such as
snails, clams, corals, and algae. In water, the slightly soluble salt will set up the
following equilibrium:
2
2
CaCO 3s
Ca aq CO 3 aq
The chemical erosion of limestone occurs when it is in contact with acidic water:
Haq CO 3 2aq
HCO 3 aq
If the limestone deposit is deep enough underground, the dissolution of the

limestone produces a cave.

gLO a5:
gLO B2:
gLO C2:
gLO C4:
gLO C7:
gLO D3:
Work cooperatively and value the ideas and contributions of others while carrying out scientific and
technological activities.

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osteoporosis
Approximately 99 percent of the bodys calcium is stored in the bones, where it
forms the following equilibrium system:
2
3
Ca 3 PO 4 2s
3Ca aq 2 PO 4 aq
When the concentration of calcium in the blood decreases, balance can be

restored if the solubility of the calcium phosphate (bone) increases. This leads to
the development of porous, brittle bones. We can prevent this from happening
by obtaining the minimum daily requirement of calcium (especially between the
ages of 10 and 20 when bone growth is most rapid) and through regular weightbearing exercise. Note, however, that large amounts of calcium in the body may
lead to the formation of kidney stones.
n
tooth decay
The major constituent of tooth enamel is hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH,
Ksp= 6.8 1037). In the mouth, the following equilibrium is established:
3
Ca 5 PO 4 3 OHs
Ca 5 PO 4 aq OH aq
When sugar ferments on the teeth, the hydronium ion is produced. It reacts with
the hydroxide ion from the previous reaction, causing the forward reaction to be
favoured. An increase in the solubility of the hydroxyapatite leads to the
dissolving of tooth enamel. In recent years, fluoride has been added to water
and toothpaste. The fluoride ion replaces the hydroxide ion in hydroxyapaptite
to create fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F, Ksp = 1.0 1060). As the fluorapatite is less
soluble in water, teeth become more resistant to cavities.
The addition of fluoride to toothpaste has been helpful in preventing tooth
decay however, fluoride is not added to childrens toothpaste because an excess
of fluoride in the body from swallowing large amounts of paste can lead to
fluorosis, damaging teeth and bones.
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-12: Describe examples of the practical applications of salts with
low solubility.
Examples: kidney stones, limestone caverns, osteoporosis, tooth
decay . . .
(continued)

class Discussion
To emphasize that the topic of the solubility of slightly soluble salts is not confined
to the chemistry classroom, have students provide examples of its practical
application in a variety of contexts.
Research and Reports/Presentations
1. Students can research and report on one or more applications of salts with low
solubility. Results can be shared in written, verbal, or electronic format. If
students are to use the Internet for their research, provide them with key search
words to reduce search time.
2. Using their research, students can describe how the solubility of slightly soluble
salts is used in industry. Information may be shared with the entire class
through formal presentations.
3. Students could research the insoluble lead compounds that, for many years,
were used as paint pigments, which led to people, especially children, being
poisoned by exposure to lead-based paints (Dingrando et al., Glencoe Chemistry:
Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 578).
Visual Displays
Students can create visual displays (e.g., posters) to demonstrate practical
applications of the solubility of slightly soluble salts. Samples of presentation
rubrics are provided in Appendix 11.
collaborative Teamwork
Collaborative strategies such as Jigsaw (see SYSTH 3.20) or Roundtable
(see Appendix 7) could be used to have students share their knowledge of specific
applications of the solubility of slightly soluble salts with their classmates.
Journal Writing
Have students reflect on common applications of the solubility of slightly soluble
salts. Students reflections could be based on examples from their everyday lives or
on career-related applications.

SkiLLS
anD
attituDeS OutCOmeS


et al 578)

SLO: C12-4-13
Topic 4:
Chemical
Equilibrium

C12-4-13: perform a laboratory activity to determine the Ksp of a salt
with low solubility.
(1.5 hours)

In addressing learning outcome C12-4-11, students solved problems involving Ksp.
Learning outcome C12-4-13 provides students with an opportunity to use
experimental data to calculate the value of Ksp for a slightly soluble salt.
Have students perform a lab activity to determine the Ksp of a salt with low
solubility. Possible lab activities are suggested below.
n
experiment 39: a solubility Product Constant (Wilbraham, Staley, and Matta

243)
The purpose of this lab activity is to determine the solubility product constant of
lead(II) chloride (PbCl2). Students add 100 mL of saturated PbCl2 to 20 mL of
0.5 mol/L potassium chromate (K2CrO4) solution. The mixture is heated to the
boiling point and then left to stand and cool for at least five minutes. Students
decant the liquid from the beaker, making sure most of the precipitate stays in
the beaker. The filter paper is placed in the beaker with the precipitate and then
dried. The Ksp of PbCl2 is then determined through a series of calculations.
Chemlab 18: Comparing two solubility Product Constants (Dingrando, et al.

586)
The objectives of this lab activity are to compare the values of the Ksp for two
different compounds and relate them to observations, to explain observations of
the two precipitates using Le Chteliers principle, and to calculate the molar
solubilities of the two ionic compounds from their Ksp values. As this is a smallscale lab activity, minimal quantities of chemicals are used. Students add
10 drops of silver nitrate (AgNO3(aq)) and 10 drops of sodium chloride (NaCl(aq))
to two wells of a microplate, and observe that the precipitates that form, silver
chloride (AgCl(s)), are white. To the second well, students add 10 drops of
sodium sulphide (Na2S) solution. The precipitate that forms, silver sulphide
(Ag2S(s)), is black.

gLO C2:
gLO C5:


SkiLLS
anD
attituDeS OutCOmeS
C12-0-S6: estimate and measure accurately using Systme international (Si) and other standard units.
examples: Si conversions and significant figures
investigation 7.6.1: determining the Ksp of Calcium oxalate (van Kessel, et al.
517)
For this investigation, students determine the Ksp of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) by
mixing a fixed volume of 0.1 mol/L sodium oxalate (Na2C2O4) with a serial
dilution of aqueous calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) in a series of spot-plate wells.

Laboratory Reports
Students could use the Laboratory Report Format to write their lab reports (see
SYSTH 14.12). Word processing and spreadsheet software could be used to prepare
reports. Also refer to the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
Laboratory skills
eventually all students are assessed. Develop a checklist for the assessment of skills
related to measuring and mixing solutions. Sample checklists for assessing lab skills
and work habits are available in SYSTH (6.10, 6.11).

investigations
Chemlab 18: Comparing Two Solubility Product Constants, 586
Investigation 7.6.1: Determining the Ksp of Calcium Oxalate, 517
Experiment 39: A Solubility Product Constant, 243

Topic 4:
chemical equilibrium
appendices
Appendix 4.1: Preparation of Equilibrium Systems (Demonstration) 3
Appendix 4.2: Solving Equilibrium Problems Using the ICE Table Method 5
Appendix 4.3: Solving for Keq Using the BIR/PEC Accounting Method 7
Appendix 4.4:
Appendix 4.5:
Appendix 4.6A:
Appendix 4.6B:
Appendix 4.6C:
Appendix 4.7:
Appendix 4.8A:
Appendix 4.8B:
Appendix 4.9:
Appendix 4.10:
Appendix 4.11:
Equilibrium Problems 9
Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity 10
An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity 13
An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity
(Teacher Notes) 15
An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Report
Checklist 16
Equilibrium and Le Chteliers Principle (Pre-lab) 17
Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity 18
Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 19
Disrupting Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity 20
Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs 24
Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs 27
Appendix 4.1: Preparation of Equilibrium Systems (Demonstration)

Nitrogen DioxideDinitrogen Tetraoxide (NO2N2O4) System
Prepare nitrogen(IV) oxide by treating copper
turnings with concentrated nitric acid in a fume
hood. Collect the gas in three vials of
approximately 15 mL capacity. When the vials
are filled with gas, quickly seal the ends. The
colour intensity in each vial should be about the
same.
Caution:
Wear rubber gloves and goggles
for personal protection.
n
Prepare the vials in a fume hood.
n
See Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) for further information.
n
Procedure (Demonstration)
1. Place the three vials in beakers of water at 0C, 100C, and room temperature
respectively. The depth of colour shown in the three vials is a direct indication of
the extent of the thermal dissociation in the reaction:
2NO2(g)
N2O4(g)
DH = 58.0 kJ (mol N2O4)1
2. Have students compare the colours of the gases in the three vials.
3. Illustrate reversibility by placing the vial at 100C into the water at 0C. The vials
can also be removed from the 0C and 100C beakers and allowed to reach room
temperature.
Note: These manipulations can also be useful in the discussion of Le Chteliers
principle.
Tetrachlorocobalt(II)Aquocobalt(II) (CoCl42Co(H2O6)2+) System

Materials
two 600 mL beakers
two 500 mL Erlenmeyer (conical) flasks
hot plate
2propanol (isopropyl alcohol)
absolute ethanol (95% ethanol can be substituted for the absolute ethanol)
water
concentrated hydrochloric acid
Procedure
1. In one beaker, dissolve 10 g of cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2) in 500 mL of ethanol. In
the other beaker dissolve 10 g of cobalt(II) chloride in 500 mL of water. Note the
colours of the solutions. (The blue colour is due to the tetrahedrally coordinated
CoCl42. The pink colour is due to the octahedrally coordinated Co(H2O)62+.)
Appendix 4.1: Preparation of Equilibrium Systems (Demonstration) (continued)
2. Slowly add just enough water to the blue ethanol solution to change the colour
to pink. Divide this pink solution into two equal volumes in the Erlenmeyer
flasks. Add concentrated hydrochloric acid to one flask until the blue colour
reappears. Heat the other portion of pink solution on the hot plate until it turns
blue again. The hot solution may be cooled in an ice bath to restore the pink
colour.
Note: A similar solution can be prepared directly by mixing 20 mL of 0.50 mol/L
cobalt(II) chloride solution with 16 mL of saturated sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution. When this mixture is chilled in cold water, it will turn pink, and when it is
heated for a brief time in a Bunsen flame, it will turn blue. The process may be
repeated at will.
CoCl42(al) + 6H2O(al)
Co(H2O)62+(al) + 4Cl(al) + energy
Appendix 4.2: Solving Equilibrium Problems Using the ICE Table Method
A convenient way to organize data for equilibrium problems is to use an ICE table:
i
Initialthe initial concentrations of the reactants and products
C Changethe change in reactants and products from the initial conditions to

equilibrium
e Equilibriumthe concentrations of the reactants and products at equilibrium
To set up the table, record the balanced chemical equation. Write the letters I, C, and
E on the left side of the table. Insert the known values in the table, and use x to
represent the value that needs to be calculated. See the example below.
Sample Problem
In a lab experiment, 0.500 mol hydrogen (H2) and 0.500 mol iodine (I2) are placed in
a 1.00 L flask at 430C. The equilibrium constant, Keq, is 54.3 at this temperature.
Calculate the concentrations of H2, I2, and hydrogen iodide (HI) at equilibrium.
Solution:
1. Set up the ICE table and fill in known values.
H2(g)
i
C
e
0.500 mol/L
x
0.500 mol/L x
I2(g)
0.500 mol/L
x
0.500 mol/L x
2HI(g)
0 mol/L
2x
2x
2. Write the equilibrium expression for the reaction.

2
HI
Keq
H2
I2
3. Substitute the values at equilibrium into the expression.

54.3
2 x 2
0.500 x 0.500 x
4. Take the square root of both sides.

7.37
2x
0.500 x
Appendix 4.2: Solving Equilibrium Problems Using the ICE Table Method (continued)
5. Rearrange the equation and solve for x.

7.37 0.500 x 2 x
3.685 7.37 x 2 x
3.685 2 x 7.37 x
3.685 9.37 x
x
3.685
0.393 mol/L
9.37
6. At equilibrium, the concentration of H2, I2, and HI are as follows:

[H2] = 0.500 mol/L x = 0.500 mol/L 0.393 mol/L = 0.107 mol/L
[I2] = 0.500 mol/L x = 0.500 mol/L 0.393 mol/L = 0.107 mol/L
[HI] = 2x = (2)0.393 mol/L = 0.786 mol/L
Appendix 4.3: Solving for Keq Using the BIR/PEC Accounting Method
The BIR/PEC accounting method is used in finding Keq. It is optimally used when
not all substances are given at equilibrium.
B
Balanced equation
Initial (moles)
What you begin with before anything happens.
r/P
Reacted or
Produced (moles)
Derived from the coefficients.

Use ratio and proportion.
Equilibrium (moles)
The quantities of each substance at equilibrium.

Reactants are subtracted from Initial.
Products are added to Initial.
The number of moles divided by the total

volume.
Question 1
Reactants A and B are mixed in a 1.00 L container, each with initial amounts of
0.80 mol. They react to produce C and D, so that
A+B
C+D
At equilibrium, the amounts of C and D are found to be 0.60 mol. Find Keq.
Answer:
B
0.80 mol
0.80 mol
0 mol
0 mol
r or P
0.60 mol
0.60 mol
+0.60 mol
+0.60 mol
0.20 mol
0.20 mol
0.60 mol
0.60 mol
0.20 mol/1 L
=[0.20]
0.20 mol/1 L
=[0.20]
0.60 mol/1 L
=[0.60]
0.60 mol/1 L
=[0.60]
Keq
C D 0.60 0.60 0.36
9
A B 0.20 0.20 0.04
Appendix 4.3: Solving for Keq Using the BIR/PEC Accounting Method (continued)
Question 2
In a lab investigation, 2.00 mol of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and 3.0 mol of nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) are mixed in a 2.00 L container and reacted. Once equilibrium is
reached, the container is found to have 0.50 mol of sulphur trioxide (SO3). Calculate
the value of Keq for this reaction.
Answer:
SO2(g)
NO2(g)
SO3(g)
2.00 mol
3.00 mol
0 mol
0 mol
r or P
0.50 mol
0.50 mol
+0.50 mol
+0.50 mol
1.50 mol
2.50 mol
0.50 mol
0.50 mol
1.50/2 = [0.75]
2.50/2 = [1.25]
0.50/2 = [0.25]
0.50/2 = [0.25]
NO(g)
0.25 0.25 0.0625

SO 3
NO
Keq
0.067
SO 2
NO 2
0.75 1.25 0.9375
Question 3
Given: 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
2SO3(g)
Initially, 2.00 mol of SO2, 1.00 mol of O2, and 0.100 mol of SO3 are all mixed in a
15.0 L reaction container. After the reaction reaches equilibrium, 0.200 mol of O2 are
found to remain. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant.
Answer:
2SO2(g)
O2(g)
2SO3(g)
2.00 mol
1.00 mol
0.100 mol
r or P
1.60 mol
0.80 mol
+1.60 mol
0.40 mol
0.200 mol
1.70 mol
0.40/15 = [0.0267]
0.20/15 = [0.0133]
1.70/15 = [0.113]
0.1132
SO 3
0.0128
Keq
1350
2
2
0
.
0000095
SO 2
O2
0.0267 0.0133
Appendix 4.4: Equilibrium Problems

Problems
1. For the reaction N2(g) + O2(g)
2NO(g), an analysis of the equilibrium mixture
in a 1.00 L flask gives the following results: nitrogen 0.50 mol, oxygen
0.50 mol, and nitrogen monoxide 0.020 mol. Calculate Keq for the reaction.
2. Hydrogen sulphide is a pungent, poisonous gas. At 1400 K, an equilibrium
mixture was found to contain 0.013 mol/L hydrogen, 0.18 mol/L hydrogen
sulphide, and an undetermined amount of sulphur in the form of S2(g). If the
value of Keq is 2.4 104, what concentration of S2(g) is present at equilibrium at
this temperature?
2H2S(g)
2H2(g) + S2(g)
3. The following reaction increases the proportion of hydrogen gas for use as a fuel.
CO(g) + H2O(g)
H2(g) + CO2(g)
This reaction has been studied at different temperatures to find the optimum
conditions. At 700 K, the equilibrium constant is 8.3. Suppose that you start with
1.00 mol of CO(g) and 1.00 mol of H2O(g) in a 5.00 L container. What amount of
each substance will be present in the container when the gases are at equilibrium
at 700 K?
Solutions
1. Keq = 0.0016
2. [S2(g)] = 0.046 mol/L
3. [CO(g)] = 0.020 mol/L
[H2O(g)] = 0.020 mol/L
[H2(g)] = 0.18 mol/L
[CO2(g)] = 0.18 mol/L
Appendix 4.5: Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity

Introduction
Chemical reactions occur in order to approach a state of chemical equilibrium. The
equilibrium state can be characterized by specifying its equilibrium constant (i.e., by
indicating the numerical value of the mass action expression when the system is at
equilibrium).
Purpose
In this experiment, you will determine the value of the equilibrium constant for the
following reaction:
Fe3+(aq) + SCN(aq)
FeSCN2+(aq)
(red)
Procedure
1. Thoroughly clean six small test tubes, rinse with distilled water, and drain. Add
5 mL of 0.0020 mol/L sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) solution to each of these test
tubes.
2. To the first test tube, add 5 mL of 0.20 mol/L iron(III) nitrate (Fe(NO3)3) solution.
This tube will serve as the standard.
3. Proceed as follows with the remaining test tubes:
Add 10 mL of 0.20 mol/L iron(III) nitrate solution to a graduated cylinder, fill
the cylinder to 25 mL with distilled water, and stir thoroughly to mix. Pour
5 mL of the resulting diluted solution (0.080 mol/L iron(III), Fe3+) into test
tube 2.
Discard all but 10 mL of the diluted solution in the graduated cylinder. Refill
the cylinder with distilled water to 25 mL, and stir thoroughly. Add 5 mL of
the resulting solution (0.032 mol/L Fe3+) to test tube 3.
. Discard all but 10 mL of the solution in the cylinder, and again dilute to
25 mL. Continue this procedure until you have added to each successive test
tube 5 mL of progressively more dilute iron(III) (Fe3+) solution.
4. To determine the [FeSCN2+] in each test tube, determine the percent transmission
of each test tube using a colorimeter or spectrometer set to the wavelength
= 460 nm. Set the transmission of the blank to 100%. Then determine the
percent transmission of test tubes 1 to 6.
Appendix 4.5: Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity (continued)
Data
Optical density (absorbance) = log (percent transmission)
Percent Transmission
Optical Density (Absorbance)
Test tube 1
___________________
___________________
Test tube 2
___________________
___________________
Test tube 3
___________________
___________________
Test tube 4
___________________
___________________
Test tube 5
___________________
___________________
Test tube 6
___________________
___________________
Results
Initial Concentrations
Test Tube
[Fe3+]
[SCN]
Equilibrium Concentrations
[FeSCN2+]
[Fe3+]
[SCN]
1
2
3
4
5
6
Note:
When calculating equilibrium concentrations, assume that all the initial thiocyanate
ion (SCN) in test tube 1 has been converted to the thiocyanatoiron(III) ion
(FeSCN2+). This provides the [FeSCN2+] in test tube 1.
The [FeSCN2+] in the remaining test tubes can be determined using the idea that
the concentration of a coloured substance is directly proportional to the optical density
(absorbance).
Appendix 4.5: Chemical Equilibrium: Lab Activity (continued)
When calculating initial concentrations, assume that iron(III) nitrate (Fe(NO3)3) and
sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) are completely dissociated. Remember also that
mixing two solutions dilutes both of them. Equilibrium concentrations of iron(III)
ion (Fe3+) and thiocyanate ion (SCN) are obtained by subtracting
thiocyanatoiron(III) ion (FeSCN2+) formed from the initial iron(III) ion and
thiocyanate ion concentrations. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant K for
test tubes 2 to 6.
Questions
1. What assumptions are made in this experiment?
2. Why can you not determine a value for an equilibrium constant K for
test tube 1?
3. Using the average value of K, determine [SCN] in test tube 1 at equilibrium.
4. Approximately how complete is this reaction? Explain.
5. Compare and contrast ions in solution with gas molecules.
6. Why is this particular equilibrium suitable for study in our laboratory?
Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity

Purpose
n
To illustrate the experimental conditions necessary to have a system of

experimental equilibrium.
To illustrate the effect of applying stress to a system in equilibrium.
To illustrate graphically the changes that lead to the establishment of
equilibrium.
Apparatus/Materials
two 25 mL graduated cylinders
two drinking straws of different diameters
graph paper
Procedure
1. Copy the table below into your lab book and record your data as you perform
the experiment.
data Table
Number of
Transfers
Volume of Water
Cylinder A (mL)
Volume of Water
Cylinder B (mL)
25
1
2
3
etc.
2. Label a 25 mL cylinder as cylinder A (reactants) and fill it to the 25 mL mark

with water. Label a second 25 mL cylinder as cylinder B (products).
3. Working with your partner, transfer water simultaneously from one cylinder to
the other, using straws of different diameters. Lower the straws into the
respective cylinders, and when each straw touches the bottom of the cylinder,
place your index finger over the open end of the straw. Transfer the water
collected to the other cylinder and allow the straw to drain.
4. Remove each straw and record the volume of water in each cylinder, being
careful to read the meniscus to the nearest 0.1 mL.
5. Return the straws to their original cylinders and repeat the process, recording the
volumes after each transfer.
6. After three successive transfers result in no other change in volume, add 5 mL of
water to cylinder A. Record the volume in each cylinder. Then resume the water
transfer until three successive transfers again result in identical volumes.
Appendix 4.6A: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction: Lab Activity (continued)
Calculations
Plot the volume of water for both cylinder A and cylinder B on the yaxis of the
same piece of graph paper against the number of transfers on the xaxis. Join each
set of points with a smooth curve.
Questions
1. Describe, based on your graph, the changes in volume (analogous to
concentration) and corresponding rates that occur in each curve up to the point
where the extra 5 mL was added.
2. Describe the change that occurs in the curve for cylinder A at the point where
the 5 mL of water is added.
3. What significance can be attributed to
a) the point where the two curves meet?
b) the first flat portions of the two curves?
c) the second flat portions of the curves?
4. What change in the final volume of water in cylinder B results from the
addition of the 5 mL of water to cylinder A?
5. What is the evidence that equilibrium has been established if
a) the data for the water transfers are observed?
b) the plotted data are observed?
6. Why is this particular system called closed?
7. The additional 5 mL of water constitutes a stress on the system.
a) What analogous stress would be involved if the system really represented a
chemical reaction in equilibrium?
b) Name two other stresses that could be imposed on a chemical system.
8. What factor controls the relative volumes of water in each cylinder at
equilibrium in this exercise?
9. Consult with other members of your class to see whether their graphs are
similar to, or different from, yours. Account for any differences you find.
10. In a real chemical system, what factor would control the relative concentrations
of reactants and products present at equilibrium?

(Teacher Notes)
Background
For this experiment, it is very important to use two straws of different diameters so
that the equilibrium position is not half of the initial volume. It is also helpful to use
one coloured solution and one colourless solution.
Experimental results will depend upon the types of straws used and the starting
cylinder of each straw. The graphs below illustrate actual experimental data using
the procedure described in Appendix 4.6A.
Note: One coloured solution and one colourless solution could be used.
Experimental Data
25
Cylinder A
Volume (mL)
20
15
10
Cylinder B
5
0
10
5.0 mL H2O added

to cylinder A
20
Number of Transfers
30
40
25
Volume (mL)
20
Cylinder A
15
10
Cylinder B
5
0
10
5.0 mL H2O added

to Cylinder A
20
Number of Transfers
30
40
Appendix 4.6C: An Analogy for an Equilibrium Reaction:

Lab Report Checklist
Does the lab report include the following components?
Purpose
Observations (from Procedures)
Qualitative data
n
Describe the properties of water and the straws.

In general, what happened to the volume of water in the two graduated
cylinders?
When was equilibrium achieved?
What happened to the system when the volume of cylinder A was changed?
At what point was equilibrium reestablished?
Quantitative data Table
Calculations (Graph)
n
axes labelled
title
points joined with a smooth curve
descriptions of
n
the systems initial volumes (for cylinders A and B)
how we know from the graph that equilibrium is achieved
the change in volume of cylinder A due to the stress
the change in volume of cylinder B due to the stress
Conclusions
n
What happened when a stress was added to the system?
What happens to the slope of the graph when the system achieves equilibrium?
Sources of Error
Appendix 4.7: Equilibrium and Le Chteliers Principle (Pre-lab)

Questions
1. Define equilibrium.
2. State Le Chteliers principle.
3. Consider the following reaction.
2SO3(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g)
DH = 197.78 kJ
For this reaction, indicate how the amount of SO2(g) present at equilibrium would
be affected by
a) adding SO3
b) raising the temperature
c) decreasing the volume
d) removing some O2
e) adding some SO2
f) adding a catalyst
g) removing some SO3
Appendix 4.8A: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity

Introduction
A standard laboratory example for demonstrating the effect of changing
concentrations on the equilibrium positions is shown below:
Fe3+(aq) + SCN(aq)
pale yellow
FeSCN2+(aq)
red
The position of equilibrium can be determined from the colour of the solution.
When the iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate solutions are mixed, the colour
of the mixture is orange at equilibrium. If the equilibrium lies to the right, the
solution is a dark red colour. If the equilibrium lies to the left, the solution is a pale
yellow colour.
Apparatus/Materials
well plate
0.020 mol/L iron(III) nitrate (Fe(NO3)3)
0.002 mol/L potassium thiocyanate (KSCN)
toothpicks
Procedure
1. In each of four wells, add 5 drops of iron(III) nitrate and 5 drops of potassium
thiocyanate. Mix each solution with a toothpick.
2. Do not alter the first well. It will act as your control.
3. To the second well, add l0 drops of sodium hydroxide. Record your
observations.
4. To the third well, add l0 drops of iron(III) nitrate. Record your observations.
5. Add 10 drops of potassium thiocyanate to the fourth well. Record your
observations.
Observations and Analysis

Use Le Chteliers principle to explain the results from steps 3 to 5 of the procedure.
Appendix 4.8B: Qualitative Equilibrium: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)

Consider the demonstration below:
Control
NaOH
Fe(NO3)3
KSCN
orange
pale yellow
red
red
If salts contain Fe3+, SCN, or both, the colour of the solution becomes a deeper red.
This suggests a shift in equilibrium to the right. To use up some of the added
reactant, the rate of the forward reaction increases, thereby increasing the
concentration of FeSCN2+ and establishing a new equilibrium position.
When NaOH is added to the system, the solution turns to a pale yellow. The
hydroxide ions from the NaOH combine with iron(III) ions to produce an insoluble
complex of iron(III) hydroxide. Precipitating out the iron ions reduces the iron ion
concentration. The system responds to the change by favouring the reverse reaction
and replacing some of the lost iron. A change to a pale yellow colour indicates a
shift in the equilibrium to the left and a reduction in the FeSCN2+ ion concentration.
Appendix 4.9: Disrupting Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity

Introduction
Le Chteliers principle describes the effect that applying various types of stresses
will have on the position of equilibriumwhether or not it will shift to increase or
decrease the concentration(s) of products in the equilibrium system. These stresses
include changes in factors such as concentrations of reactants or products,
temperature of the system, and, for reactions involving gases, pressure.
Some investigations are done with systems in a water solution. In these systems,
where gases are not involved, the volume of the system is generally defined by the
volume of the solution, and pressure is of little or no consequence.
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to let you observe for yourself what Le Chteliers
principle means.
Apparatus
fume hood
50 mL beaker
well plate (12 wells)
scoopula
eyedropper pipettes
hot plate
ice bath
Materials
distilled water
solid cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl26H2O(s))
solid calcium chloride (CaCl2(s))
0.1 mol/L silver nitrate (AgNO3)
12 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl)
ethanol
Appendix 4.9: Disrupting Equilibrium Systems: Lab Activity (continued)
Procedure
1. Gather all equipment.
2. Measure out 10 mL of ethanol and place it in the 50 mL beaker.
3. Place several pieces of the solid cobalt(II) chloride in one of the wells in your
well plate. Note both its colour and the formula for the compound, as shown on
the label of the stock bottle.
4. Add 4 or 5 crystals of the cobalt(II) chloride to the ethanol in the beaker until a
blue solution results. Add more crystals, if necessary.
5. Using an eyedropper pipette, transfer onefifth of the blue solution to four of
the wells in the well plate. Be sure to leave a small amount in the beaker.
6. To one of the wells from step 5, add 5 drops of distilled water, one drop at a
time. Record your observations after each drop. Repeat this step in two more
wells so that all three of them exhibit the same colour.
7. Take your well plate to the fume hood.
Use the eyedropper pipette provided in the
acid bottle of 12 mol/L hydrochloric acid
and carefully add one drop at a time until
you have added 5 drops to the first well
from step 6.
Warning:
Hydrochloric acid is caustic and
corrosive. Avoid contact, and
immediately rinse all spills with
copious amounts of water.
8. To the second well from step 6, add 2 small

lumps of solid calcium chloride.
9. To the third well from step 6, add 10 drops
of 0.1 mol/L silver nitrate.
10. Retain the solution in the fourth well to use
for comparison purposes.
Caution:
Silver nitrate will stain your skin
and clothing.
11. To the remaining solution in the beaker, add just enough distilled water to get a
purple colour that is about halfway between the blue and pink shades. Place the
beaker on a hot plate and warm the beaker until a colour change occurs. Make
sure you do not let the ethanol come to a boil.
12. Chill the beaker in an ice bath to see if the colour change in step 11 is reversible.
Observations
Before Reactions
Colour
Distilled water
CoCl2H2O(s)
CaCl2(s)
0.1 mol/L AgNO3
12 mol/L HCl
Ethanol
After Reactions
Colour
Add distilled water (H2O)
Add hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Add calcium chloride (CaCl2(s))
Add silver nitrate (AgNO3)
Add heat
Remove heat
Analysis
1. The net ionic equation for the equilibrium reaction you have been investigating is
Co(H2O)62+ + 4Cl
pink
CoCl42 + 6H2O
blue
On the reagent bottle, the formula for the solid cobalt(II) chloride is CoCl26H2O.
What name do we give to compounds that have water molecules bound to their
structure?
2. Which cobalt complex was favoured by the addition of water in step 6 of the
procedure? Use Le Chteliers principle to explain the colour change.
3. Which cobalt complex was favoured in both steps 7 and 8 of the procedure?
What ion is common to both of the reagents that caused the colour changes? Use
Le Chteliers principle to explain why the colour change occurred in each case.
4. What colour was the solid you formed in step 9 of the procedure? Why must it
have been this colour? To what colour did the liquid in the well turn? Which
complex of cobalt was favoured? Explain. Use Le Chteliers principle to explain
why the liquid in the well underwent the colour change that you observed.
5. Which cobalt complex was favoured by the addition of heat in step 11 of the
procedure? Rewrite the equation for the reaction, including the energy term
directly in the equation. The value of DH for the process is +50 kJ/mol. Use Le
Chteliers principle and the equation that you just wrote to explain the colour
changes that resulted from the heating and cooling.
Discussion
Provide two sources of error. If any of your results do not match what the colour
change should have been, talk about it in your discussion.
Conclusion
State what the colour change should benot necessarily what you saw.
Stress
Colour Change
Shift
Addition of H2O
Addition of HCl
Addition of CaCl2
Addition of AgNO3
Addition of heat
Removal of heat
Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs

The graphs below illustrate rate changes for the NO2N2O4 equilibrium system. In
preparing the graphs, it was assumed that the system was at equilibrium initially,
then a stress was applied, and, after an instantaneous change, the system was
allowed to reestablish equilibrium.
2NO2(g)
brown
Addition of NO2
0.04
0.03
0.02
Rate forward
0.01
0.00
Rate back
Graph A
Time
Removal of NO2
0.02
Rate of Reaction
Rate of Reaction
DH = 58.0 kJ (mol N2O4)1
N2O4(g)
colourless
0.01
Rate forward
0.00
Rate back
Time
Graph B
Graph A
Initially, the reaction is at equilibriumboth the forward and the reverse rates are
equal. At the instant when more reactant NO2 is added, the forward rate increases.
As the reactant is consumed in the reaction, the forward rate decreases to a constant
value.
Initially, the reverse rate is unchanged. However, as more product is formed, the
rate of the back reaction increases to the new constant value.
Graph B
Initially, the reaction is a equilibriumboth the forward and reverse rates are equal.
At the instant when reactant NO2 is removed, the forward rate decreases. As more
NO2 is produced through the back reaction, the forward rate increases to a new
constant value.
Initially, the reverse rate is unchanged. However, since product is no longer being
formed at the same rate, the rate of the back reaction decreases as the amount of
product decreases (and more reactant is formed).
Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs (continued)
Addition of N2O4
0.01
Rate forward
Rate back
0.00
Graph C
Time
Removal of N2O4
0.02
Rate of Reaction
Rate of Reaction
0.02
0.01
Rate forward
0.00
Rate back
Time
Graph D
Graph C
At the instant when product N2O4 is added, the reverse rate goes up. Then, as some
product concentration is decreased by reaction, the reverse rate decreases until it
reaches a constant value.
At the instant when product N2O4 is added, the forward rate is unchanged. As the
reactant concentration increases, through reaction, the forward rate increases to
its new constant value.
Graph D
At the instant when product N2O4 is removed, the reverse rate goes down. Then, as
more product is formed by reaction, the reverse rate increases to a new constant
value.
At the instant when product N2O4 is removed, the forward rate is unchanged. Then,
as more reactant is used up in producing more of the product, the forward rate
decreases to a new constant value.
Appendix 4.10: Interpreting Equilibrium Graphs (continued)
Increase in Temperature
Rate forward
Rate back
0.2
0.1
0.0
Graph E
Time
Decrease in Temperature
0.02
Rate of Reaction
Rate of Reaction
0.3
Rate forward
Rate back
0.01
0.00
Time
Graph F
Graph E
Initially, the system is at equilibriumthe rates of the forward and reverse reactions
are equal.
When the temperature is increased, both the forward and the reverse rates increase.
Because the reaction is exothermic, the reverse rate goes up more than the forward
reaction does.
Graph F
Initially, the system is at equilibriumthe rates of the forward and reverse reactions
are equal.
When the temperature is lowered, both the forward and reverse rates decrease.
Because the reaction is exothermic, the reverse rate goes down less than the forward
reaction does.
Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs

The graphs below illustrate concentration changes for the NO2N2O4 equilibrium
system. In preparing the graphs, it was assumed that the system was at equilibrium
initially, then a stress was applied, and, after an instantaneous change, the system
was allowed to reestablish equilibrium.
2NO2(g)
DH = 58.0 kJ (mol N2O4)1
Addition of NO2
0.02
N2O4
NO2
0.01
Rate forward
0.00
Graph A
Rate back
Time
Removal of NO2
0.02
N2O4(g)
N2O4
NO2
0.01
Rate forward
0.00
Rate back
Time
Graph B
Graph A
Initially, the reaction is at equilibriumthe concentrations of reactant NO2 and
product N2O4 are constant. At the instant when more reactant NO2 is added, the
[NO2] increases abruptly. As the reactant is consumed in the reaction, its
concentration decreases to a constant value.
Initially, [N2O4] is unchanged. However, as reaction proceeds, more product is
formed, and [N2O4] increases to a new constant value, a new equilibrium position.
Graph B
Initially, the reaction is at equilibriumthe concentrations of reactant NO2 and
product N2O4 are constant. At the instant when more reactant NO2 is removed, the
[NO2] decreases abruptly. As more NO2 is produced through the back reaction, its
concentration increases to a new constant value.
Initially, [N2O4] is unchanged. However, since product is no longer being formed at
the same rate, its concentration decreases to a new constant value, a new
equilibrium position.
Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs (continued)
Increase in N2O4
N2O4
0.01
0.02
NO2
Rate forward
0.00
Graph C
Rate back
Time
Removal of N2O4
0.02
N2O4
0.01
NO2
Rate forward
0.00
Rate back
Time
Graph D
Graph C
At the instant when product N2O4 is added, [N2O4] goes up abruptly. Then, as the
product concentration is decreased by reaction, the reverse rate decreases until it
reaches a constant value.
At the instant when product N2O4 is added, the forward rate is unchanged. As the
reactant concentration increases, through reaction, the forward rate increases to
its new constant value.
Graph D
At the instant when product N2O4 is removed, the reverse rate goes down. Then, as
more product is formed by reaction, the reverse rate increases to a new constant
value.
At the instant when product N2O4 is removed, the forward rate is unchanged. Then,
as more reactant is used up in producing more of the product, the forward rate
decreases to a new constant value.
Appendix 4.11: Interpreting Concentration versus Time Graphs (continued)
Increase in Temperature
N2O4
0.01
NO2
Rate forward
0.00
Graph E
Rate back
Time
Decrease in Temperature
0.02
0.02
N2O4
0.01
NO2
0.00
Rate forward
Rate back
2
Time
Graph F
Graph E
Initially, the system is at equilibrium[NO2] and [N2O4] are constant.
The reaction is exothermicKeq decreases when the temperature increases. When
the temperature is increased, the system is not at equilibrium under the new
conditions. [NO2] increases to establish a new equilibrium.
Graph F
Initially, the system is at equilibrium[NO2] and [N2O4] are constant.
The reaction is exothermicKeq increases when the temperature decreases. When
the temperature is decreased, the system is not at equilibrium under the new
conditions. [N2O4] increases to establish a new equilibrium.
Topic 5:
Acids And BAses


C12-5-03 Describe the relationship between the hydronium and hydroxide

ion concentrations in water.
C12-5-04 Perform a laboratory activity to formulate an operational

definition of pH.
C12-5-05 Describe how an acid-base indicator works in terms of colour
shifts and Le Chteliers principle.
C12-5-08 Write the equilibrium expression (Ka or Kb) from a balanced

chemical equation.
concentration.
C12-5-10 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the concentration of
an unknown acid or base, using a standardized acid or base.
C12-5-11 Predict whether an aqueous solution of a given ionic compound
will be acidic, basic, or neutral, given the formula.
Grade 12 Chemistry Topic 5: Acids and Bases
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

C12-5-01: Outline the historical development of acid-base theories.
include: the arrhenius, Brnsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories
C12-5-02: Write balanced acid-base chemical equations.

include: conjugate acid-base pairs and amphoteric behaviour
SLO: C12-5-01
SLO: C12-5-02
(2 hours)

In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-08), students experimented to classify acids and bases
according to their characteristics. Students were introduced to hydrochloric,
sulphuric, and nitric acids, as well as to some bases, such as sodium hydroxide and
calcium hydroxide. In Grade 11 Chemistry (Topic 5: Organic Chemistry), students
studied organic acids, such as formic and acetic acids.
SYSTH, Chapter 9).
TEAchEr NoTEs
common Acids and Bases
Review common acids and bases, including those with which students are familiar.
Brainstorming or using a KWL strategy would provide students with an
opportunity to describe their prior knowledge. Common examples of acids include
lactic acid in sour milk, butyric acid in rancid butter, citric acid in citric fruit,
ascorbic acid as vitamin C, and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) tablets. Example of bases
include ammonia as a household cleaner and sodium hydroxide as an oven cleaner.

gLO a1:
gLO a2:
gLO a4:
gLO D3:
recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering questions about the world and
recognize that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, models, and explanations, and evolves as new
identify and appreciate contributions made by women and men from many societies and cultural
innovations.
4 topic 5: acids and Bases

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Theories of Acids and Bases

Current understanding and definitions of acids and bases are based on the
historical contributions of chemists such as Svante Arrhenius, Johannes Brnsted,
Thomas Lowry, and Gilbert Newton Lewis.
Each successive definition of acids and bases becomes more inclusive until finally
the definition proposed by Lewis (Lewis Dot Diagrams) becomes so general that
any reaction in which a pair of electrons is transferred becomes an acid-base
reaction.
the arrhenius theory
Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius (18591927) proposed a theory explaining the
nature of acids and bases according to their structure and the ions produced when
they dissolve in water.
n
acids: Acids are any substances that dissociate to produce hydrogen ions (H+)
when dissolved in water.
Examples:
Hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq)
Nitric acid:
HNO3(aq)
H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
H+(aq) + NO3(aq)
Bases: Bases are any substances that dissociate to produce hydroxide ions (OH)
when dissolved in water.
Examples:
Sodium hydroxide: NaOH(aq)
Barium hydroxide: Ba(OH)2(aq)
Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)
A limitation of the Arrhenius theory is that it does not account for reactions
between substances that are acidic or basic but do not have a hydrogen or
hydroxide ion. A few troublesome species such as carbon dioxide (which lacks
the hydrogen ion) and ammonia (which lacks the hydroxide ion) were explained
by Arrhenius as first reacting with water.
Examples:
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH4OH(aq)
H+(aq) + HCO(aq)
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
topic 5: acids and Bases 5

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

(continued)
the Brnsted-Lowry theory

Danish chemist Johannes Brnsted (18791947) and English chemist Thomas Lowry
(18741936) simultaneously proposed a new theory, called the Brnsted theory, or
the Brnsted-Lowry theory. This theory relates acid-base characteristics to proton
transfer, a process that includes more reactions than the definition of acids and
bases proposed by Arrhenius.
According to the Brnsted-Lowry definition, a substance such as carbon dioxide
(CO2(g)) can now be clearly seen as an acid that picks up a proton when bubbled
through water, according to the following reaction.
Example:
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
n
H2CO3(aq)
H+(aq) + HCO(aq)
acids: Acids are substances that increase the hydronium (H3O+) ion
concentration. Thus, acids are proton donors.
Examples:
Hydrochloric acid:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Nitric acid:
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + Cl(aq)
H3O+(aq) + NO3(aq)
When any one of the substances HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH, CO2, or H2SO4 is
added to water, the hydronium ion concentration is increased. Hence, the
substances are considered acids.
n
Bases: Bases are substances that increase the hydroxide (OH) ion concentration.
Thus, bases are proton acceptors.
Examples:
Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
Sodium hydroxide:
NaOH(aq)
Ammonia:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
When any one of the substances NaOH, Ca(OH)2, CaO, MgO, or NH3 is added
to water, the hydroxide ion concentration is increased. Hence, the substances are
considered bases.

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In any acid-base reaction, a conjugate acid and a base pair are established.
Example:
HX(aq) + H2O(l)
acid
base
H3O+(aq) + X(aq)
conjugate
acid
conjugate
base
Substances that can act as both acids and bases, such as water, are said to be
amphoteric.
Acids are classified by the number of hydrogen ions available to be donated.
Monoprotic acids have one hydrogen ion to donate. Polyprotic acids have two or more
hydrogen ions to donate. All polyprotic acids donate one hydrogen ion at a time.
An inspection of an acid Ka table will show that a diprotic acid such as sulphuric
acid will have 2 Ka values for each successive dissociation.
Examples:
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + HSO4(aq)
Ka = very large
HSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + SO42(aq)
Ka = 1.3 102
Note: The Brnsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases is the most useful for
Grade 12 Chemistry and should be the one emphasized. The Lewis definition
involves the transfer of electrons and can become quite complex.
the Lewis theory
American chemist Gilbert Newton (G. N.) Lewis (18751946) proposed in 1932 that
an acid accepts a pair of electrons during a chemical reaction, while a base donates
a pair of electrons.
The significance of the Lewis concept is that it is more general than any of the other
definitions. Lewis acid-base reactions include many reactions that would not be
included with the Brnsted-Lowry definition.
Lewis argued that the H+ ion picks up (accepts) a pair of electrons from the OH
ion to form a new covalent bond. As a result, any substance that can act as an
electron pair acceptor is a Lewis acid.
O
ll
l l
H+
ll
H-
O
ll
ll

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

(continued)
The pair of electrons that went into the new covalent bond were donated by the
OH. Lewis, therefore, argued that any substance that can act as an electron pair
donor is a Lewis base.
The Lewis acid-base theory does not affect the substances previously called
Brnsted-Lowry bases, because any Brnsted-Lowry base must have a pair of nonbonding electrons in order to accept a proton.
However, the Lewis theory vastly expands the category previously called
Brnsted-Lowry acids. Any compound that has one or more valence shell orbitals
can now act as an acid. This theory explains why boron trifluoride (BF3) reacts
instantly with ammonia (NH3). The non-bonding electrons on the N in ammonia
are donated into an empty orbital on the boron atom to form a covalent bond, as
shown below.
F
F
B
N
ll
N
H
Amphoteric Behaviour
Amino acids and proteins are amphoteric, as they both contain a basic amino group
(NH2) and an acid carboxyl group (COOH).
Demonstration:Properties of Bases
Ask students to recall how soap feels then they wash their hands (slippery). Then,
show them that when red litmus paper touches a wet bar of soap, the litmus paper
turns blue (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher
Learning Activity
Ask students to make paper cutouts to represent the atoms of hydrogen, oxygen,
and chlorine in the reaction between hydrogen chloride and water. They can use
thumbtacks to attach the cutouts to a poster board or bulletin board, then physically
transfer the H+ from HCl to H2O to create H3O+ and Cl (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe

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EAL strategy
Have English as an additional language (EAL) learners look up and then explain
the meanings of several key English prefixes and words used in addressing learning
outcomes C12-5-01 and C12-5-02: mono, di, tri, poly, amphoteric, conjugate,
monoprotic, polyprotic (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change,
Teacher Wraparound Edition 597).
suggesTions for AssessmenT

1. Students should be able to identify conjugate acid-base pairings from a given
reaction. They should also be able to write equations for the ionization of
hydrogen ions for polyprotic acids.
2. Students can complete a Three-Point Approach for Words and Concepts for each
of the three acid-base theories discussed (see SYSTH 10.22).
Debates
Have students perform a debate involving the Arrhenius and Brnsted-Lowry
theories of acids and bases. One student would defend the Arrhenius theory, while
the other would defend the Brnsted-Lowry theory.
Visual Displays
Students can develop a Concept Map using terms such as the following: acidic
solutions, acids, bases, Arrhenius theory, Brnsted-Lowry theory, Lewis theory, pair of
electrons, accept, and donate.
LeArning resources Links

Section 19.1: Acids and Bases: An Introduction, 595
(does not include the Lewis definition of acids and bases)
et al. 596598)
Section 19.1: Acid-Base Theories, 587
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases


(continued)
Website
In the Acid-Base Equilibria section, download and unzip the following
animation: NH3(aq) (Equilibrium System)
This animation shows NH3 and H2O combining to form NH4+ and OH. It
also illustrates the Lewis structures for this equilibrium. The reverse
reaction is also shown.
selecting Learning resources


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Notes

C12-5-03: Describe the relationship between the hydronium and
hydroxide ion concentrations in water.
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases
include: the ion product constant for water, Kw
C12-5-04: perform a laboratory activity to formulate an operational

definition of pH.
C12-5-05: Describe how an acid-base indicator works in terms of
colour shifts and Le Chteliers principle.
C12-5-06: Solve problems involving pH.
SLO:
SLO:
SLO:
SLO:
C12-5-03
C12-5-04
C12-5-05
C12-5-06
(3 hours)

In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-08), students experimented to classify acids and bases
according to their characteristic properties. This included a discussion of the
definition of pH, the significance of the pH table, and the use of indicators to
differentiate between acidic and basic solutions. In Grade 11 Chemistry (Topic 5:
Organic Chemistry), students studied organic acids, such as formic and acetic acids.
necessary. Prior knowledge of terms can be reviewed and/or assessed by using any
of the KWL strategies (e.g., Concept Map, Knowledge Chart, Think-Pair-Share,
Word Cycle, Three-Point Approach, Compare and Contrastsee SYSTH,
Chapter 9).
TEAchEr NoTEs
The Ion Product constant for Water (Kw)
Pure water undergoes a small degree of ionization. In fact, only two molecules out
of one billion will ionize.
2 H 2 O l
H3 O aq OH aq

gLO C2:
gLO C5:
gLO C8:
gLO D3:

daily life.

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The equilibrium expression for this reaction is

H 3O
OH
Keq Kw
H 3O
OH
Note: The concentration of H2O, [H2O], is equal to 1 because all pure liquids or
solids have a constant concentration.
Kw is the dissociation constant for water.
In pure water, the [H3O+] and [OH] at 25C are experimentally measured as
1 107 mol/L. By substituting these values into the expression
Kw = [H3O+][OH]
we get
Kw = [1 107][1 107] = 1 1014
The Potency of hydrogen (ph) scale
Every water solution is neutral, acidic, or basic.
n
A neutral solution occurs when the hydronium ion concentration is equal to the
hydroxide ion concentration.
[H3O+] = [OH]
An acidic solution occurs when the hydronium ion concentration is greater than
the hydroxide ion concentration.
[H3O+] > [OH]
A basic solution occurs when the hydronium ion concentration is less than the
hydroxide ion concentration.
[H3O+] < [OH]
Most concentrations of hydronium ions are very small (e.g., 4 108 mol/L or
0.00000004 mol/L) and can be difficult to express. In 1909, Danish biochemist Sren
P. Srenson (18681939) proposed the potency of hydrogen (pH) scale, a scale ranging
from 0 to 14 pH used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

definition of pH.
(continued)
Actual pH and concentration are calculated by

pH = log [H3O+]
(all in base 10)
Similarly,
pOH = log [OH]
(all in base 10)
Together,
pH + pOH = 14
Acid-Base Indicators
In Grade 10 Science, students used litmus, bromothymol blue, and phenolphthalein
as acid-base indicators to test a number of solutions for pH. A great number of
chemical substances can be used as indicators, which will change colour in the
presence of an acid or a base. A table identifying some common acid-base
indicators and their colour changes and pH range is provided in Appendix 5.1:
Selected Neutralization Indicators.
Acid-base indicators are weak organic acids that change colour when the
hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration is changed. Indicators (In) change
colour over a given pH range. Le Chateliers principle can be used to explain the
colour change.
Colour 1
HIn(aq)
Colour 2
H (aq) +In (aq)
(acid form)
(basic form)
The presence of an acid increases hydrogen ion concentration, causing a shift from
colour 2 toward colour 1. The presence of a base decreases hydrogen ion
concentration, causing a shift from colour 1 toward colour 2.

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Change ranges are often about 2 pH units, although quite a few are less. The human
eye responds more readily to some shades of colour than to others, and some
substances are naturally more intensely coloured than others are, even at the same
concentration.
It is important to realize that a pH change of 2 units is usually required to produce
a visible colour change of a neutralization indicator. Also, the pH range necessary
to produce a visible end point indication in the on colour type of indicator (the
colour goes either to colourless or from colourless) is governed to some extent by
the concentration of the indicator, while such is not the case for an indicator that
possesses two distinct colours (Fischer 265).
Further explanations of how indicators work can be found online.
Sample Website:
Clark, Jim. Acid-Base Indicators. Chemguide. 2002, mod. Dec. 2006.
<www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/indicators.html>
(22 Nov. 2012).
extension: Show students how to select an indicator from a titration curve.
Laboratory Activity
Have students perform an experiment to develop an operational definition of pH
(see Appendix 5.2: Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity, Appendix 5.3A:
Measuring pH: Lab Activity, and Appendix 5.3B: Measuring pH: Lab Activity
[Teacher Notes]).
In this experiment, students do the following:
n
n
n
Make solutions of 0.1 mol/L of a strong acid (HCl or HNO3).

Prepare serial dilutions (using instructions provided).
Determine the pH of these solutions using indicators, or a pH meter, and
compare them with the dilution concentrations.
Find the pH of common household products and compare them to the pH of the
known dilution solutions.
Another option would be to have students perform Quick LAB 19: Indicators from
Natural Sources (Wilbraham, et al. 604).
Check the Learning Resources Links for additional investigations.

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

definition of pH.
(continued)
Journal Writing
1. Have students write an operational definition of pH in their journals.
2. Ask students to compare the acidity of a solution with pH = 1 with the acidity of
a solution with pH = 3. They should be able to explain the exponential nature of
the pH scale using this comparison (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter
and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 612).
research Projects
Have students research and report on topics such as the following:
n
n
n
Acid-containing and acid-free paper

Acids in cooking
Biographical sketches of Sren P. Srensen (who developed the pH scale) or
Arnold Orville Beckman (who invented the pH meter)
Products of a specific pH (e.g., shampoos, antacids)
Demonstrations
Demonstrations showing colour changes are readily available. For example, a series
of four Chemical Demonstrations books by Bassam Z. Shakhashiri are available for
chemistry teachers who enjoy performing demonstrations for the class. One
complete volume of this set is devoted to colour changes in chemistry.
A few procedures for demonstrations are provided below for reference.
n
the ph rainbow tube

Fill a glass tube with universal indicator solution. Stopper each end. Add two
drops of hydrochloric acid (HCl) to one end of the tube and two drops of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to the other end. Use HCl and NaOH of equal
concentrations. Invert the tube several times and note the colour spectrum in the
tube.

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dry ice tube

Place dry ice into a 1000 mL graduated cylinder of universal indicator made
slightly basic. As the carbon dioxide (CO2) bubbles though the solution, it forms
carbonic acid, and the pH gradually changes from basic to acidic.
milk of magnesia
Add 50 mL of milk of magnesia and a few drops of universal indicator to a
beaker. Use a magnetic stirrer to mix the solution. Add 50 mL of 0.5 mol/L
hydrochloric acid. The colour will change as the basic solution becomes
acidified. The colour will change back as the buffering salts in the milk of
magnesia raise the pH once again.
the rainbow Connection

Secretly place a series of seven combinations of indicators into seven empty
glasses. Add a clear acid solution to each of the glasses and have students watch
the following colours appear: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
simulations/Animations
Have students view online simulations or animations of how an acid-base indicator
works in terms of colour shifts.
Sample Website:
In the Acid-Base Equilibria section, download and unzip the following
simulation:
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pH Measurements of Acids and Bases

In this simulation, students can determine the pH of various acidic and basic
solutions by inserting probes into the solutions and reading the pH values
given on the pH meter.
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases


definition of pH.
(continued)

Students can solve problems, given pH, [H3O+], or [OH], to calculate the
concentration of the opposing acid or base.
Laboratory skills
Students should be able to set up properly the pH range of indicators. Assess
students lab skills and work habits using checklists available in SYSTH (6.10, 6.11).
Laboratory reports
The lab activity could be assessed using the Laboratory Report Format (see SYSTH
Also refer to the Lab Report Assessment rubric in Appendix 11.
research and reports/Presentations
1. Have students research plants that grow best in acidic soil and plants that grow
best in basic soil. They can investigate how soils can be made more acidic or
more basic (Dingrando, et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher
2. Have students research the pH of skin and how various productsparticularly
basic soapscan interact with substances that protect the skin (Dingrando,
et al., Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Teacher Wraparound Edition 611).
Students could present their research findings either individually or in small
groups as written reports, oral presentations, or visual displays. Sample
presentation rubrics are provided in Appendix 11.

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A Basic Course in the Theory and Practice of Quantitative Chemical Analysis
(Fischer 265)
Chemical Demonstrations: A Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Vol. 1 to 4
(Shakhashiri)
et al. 609612)
investigations
Section 19.3: What Is pH? 608
Quick LAB 19: Indicators from Natural Sources, 604
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Laboratory Manual, Teachers Edition (Wilbraham, Staley,
and Matta)
Experiment 40: Estimation of pH, 247250
Prentice Hall Chemistry: Small-Scale Laboratory Manual, Teachers Edition
(Waterman and Thompson)
Experiment 30: Small-Scale Colorimetric pH Meter, 213215
Websites
Simulation: pH Measurements of Acids and Bases
(22 Nov. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 5.1: Selected Neutralization Indicators
Appendix 5.2: Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.3A: Measuring pH: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.3B: Measuring pH: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

C12-5-07: Distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases.
include: electrolytes and non-electrolytes
C12-5-08: Write the equilibrium expression (Ka or Kb) from a balanced

chemical equation.
C12-5-09: use Ka or Kb to solve problems for pH, percent dissociation,
and concentration.
SLO: C12-5-07
SLO: C12-5-08
SLO: C12-5-09
(5 hours)

In Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions (C12-1-03), students were introduced to
acid-base nomenclature and strong acids and bases.
In Topic 4: Chemical Equilibrium (C12-4-03), equilibrium constants were discussed
as indicators of whether a reaction went more or less to completion. Students will
now use this knowledge to explain the difference between strong and weak acids
and bases.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Demonstration
Demonstrate the difference between electrolytes and non-electrolytes using an
electrical conductivity tester with distilled water, a salt-water solution, a sugarwater solution, and ordinary tap water.
When the electrodes are placed in the distilled water, the bulb will not light. After a
small number of salt crystals dissolve, the bulb will light dimly. As more and more
salt crystals dissolve, the bulb will glow brighter.
Test the electrical conductivities of 0.1 mol/L aqueous solutions of hydrochloric
acid and acetic acid using a conductivity apparatus. Students will recognize that
both tests will result in a glowing filament, but the hydrochloric acid sample will
glow brighter than the acetic acid sampledue to its virtual 100% dissociation
(strong acid) and the greater number of free ions formed.

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strengths of Acids and Bases

In Grade 11 Chemistry, students learned to understand the difference between a
dilute solution (e.g., 0.0010 mol /L) and concentrated solution (e.g., 11.2 mol/L).
Now students will be shown how to differentiate between strong and weak acids
and bases. Clearly, a dilute solution of a strong acid is possible (e.g., 0.0010 mol/L
of sulphuric acid), as is a concentrated solution of a weak acid (e.g., 17.4 mol/L
acetic acid).
Acids and bases differ greatly in their strength, as discussed below.
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strong acids
In general, a strong acid, HA, will dissociate essentially 100% and have a very
large Keq. This means that the reaction goes to completion towards products
with very little, if any, of the reactant HA left.
HA + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + A(aq)
A single arrow is used.
Chemists do not usually write equilibrium expressions for strong acids and
bases because there is essentially no equilibrium. If they did, the equilibrium
expression would look like this:

H3 O
A
Keq
HA
At equilibrium, Keq is very large: Keq > 1.
For a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), there are virtually no HCl
molecules present in the aqueous solution of acid.
Keq = very large for HCl
Other examples of strong acids are
n
perchloric acid (HClO4)
hydroiodic acid (HI)
hydrobromic acid (HBr)
sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

chemical equation.
and concentration.
(continued)
strong Bases
A strong base also completely dissociates
into ions.
Examples of strong bases are
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
rubidium hydroxide (RbOH)
barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2)
Note:
In both strong acids and strong
bases, the reaction is so far to the
right that there is essentially no
reactant left, and so there is no
equilibrium.
For strong acids and bases, the

reactions use only a forward arrow,
denoting no reverse reaction.
0.50 mol/L of HCl will produce
[H+] = [Cl] = 0.50 mol/L
0.50 mol/L of NaOH will produce

[Na+] = [OH] = 0.50 mol/L
Weak acids
A weak acid dissociates only slightly into ions.
HAc(aq) + H2O
H3O+(aq) + Ac(aq)
A reversible arrow is used.
In this case, very little product is formed (i.e., the reverse reaction is preferred),
and Keq is very small, Keq < 1.
In the example of hydrocyanic acid (HCN),
HCN(aq) + H2O(l)
Keq = 6.2 1010
H3O+(aq) + CN(aq)

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The equilibrium expression can be

simplified, since the concentration of water
is very large compared to the concentration
of the acid. As a result, the equilibrium
expression can be written as
HA aq H2 O
H 3 O aq A aq
H 3O
A
Ka
HA
Note:
The value of Ka or Kb in the
case of a base provides a
measure of the relative
strength of an acid or a base.
where Ka is called the acid dissociation constant.
Other examples of weak acids are
citric acid (H3C6H5O7)
acetic acid (ethanoic acid) (CH3COOH HC2H3O2)
boric acid (H3BO3)
phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Weak Bases
A weak base dissociates only slightly into ions.
An important weak base is ammonia.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH+4(aq) + OH(aq)
A reversible arrow is used.
The equilibrium expression can be written as

NH 4
OH
Keq
NH3
The equilibrium expression can be simplified, since the concentration of water is

very large compared to the concentration of the base. As a result, the
equilibrium expression can be written as

NH 4
OH
Kb
1.8 105
NH3
Other examples of weak bases are

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aniline base (C6H5NH2)
methylamine base (CH3NH2)
pyridine base (C5H5N)

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

chemical equation.
and concentration.
(continued)
review
Appendix 5.4: Relative Strengths of Acids provides a Ka chart for acids. The larger
the Ka is, the stronger the acid is and the greater the tendency to release H+ (H3O+)
ions into solution. If we follow this argument, the species on the right side of the
arrow are bases. They have a tendency to pick up H+ (H3O+). If the strongest acids
are on the top left, then the strongest bases must be toward the bottom of the right.
The amide ion (NH2) is, therefore, the strongest base species, closely followed by
the oxide ion (O2).
To summarize:
Acids
Stronger acid higher % dissociation higher [H3O+] larger Ka
Conversely,
Smaller Ka lower [H3O+] lower % dissociation weaker acid
Bases
Stronger base higher % dissociation higher [OH] larger Kb
Conversely,
Smaller Kb lower [OH] lower % dissociation weaker base
Demonstration
Add equal amounts and concentrations of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and acetic acid
(CH3COOH) to magnesium metal. While HCl will react vigorously, CH3COOH will
not. This is because of the number of hydronium ions produced by each acid. (This
demonstration can also be used to reinforce the concepts of reaction rates and
concentrations of reactants.)

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Animations
Have students view online animations of strong and weak acids and bases.
Sample Website:
Chang, Raymond. Essential Study Partner. Chemistry. 7th ed. McGraw Hill Online
Learning Centre. <http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073656011/
student_view0/chapter15/essential_study_partner.html#> (21 Mar. 2012).
This website provides a variety of animations related to acids and bases:
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Acid Strength shows the difference in ionization between a strong acid

solution and a weak acid solution.
Base Strength shows the difference in ionization between a strong base
solution and a weak base solution.

Types of Problems
When having students solve problems using Ka or Kb, ask the questions in a variety
of ways, including the following variables: initial concentration, [H3O+], [OH],
percent dissociation, pH, pOH, Ka, and Kb.
Avoid presenting too many different types of questions before students have
understood and mastered the basic questions (e.g., assign questions with reverse
calculations only after students understand the forward calculations). Add pH and
pOH later.
There are basically two types of questions for a weak acid and/or a weak base, as
described below.
1. Given the initial concentration of the acid and/or base and the percent
dissociation, pH, pOH, and [H3O+] or [OH], find Ka or Kb.
Example:
Using a 0.75 mol/L solution of a weak base ammonia (NH3) and [OH] =
1.0 104 mol/L, find Kb.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH+4(aq) + OH(aq)
Write the equilibrium expression.

NH 4
OH
Kb
NH 3

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

chemical equation.
and concentration.
(continued)
Substitute the given values.

4
4
1.0 10
1.0 10
Kb
0.75
4
4
8 1.0 10
10
1.13.0
10
K b
OH
1
.
0
10
mol/L, since the stoichiometry is 1 : 1
KNH
4
b
0.75
K b 1.3 108
2. Given the initial concentration of the acid and/or base and Ka or Kb, find [H3O+],
[OH], percent dissociation, pH, and pOH.
Example:
Using 0.75 mol/L solution of a weak acid hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), find
[H3O+] and the percent dissociation.
The Ka is taken from a Ka table (see Appendix 5.4: Relative Strengths of Acids).
H2O2(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + HO2(aq)
The equilibrium expression is

H 3O
HO 2
Ka
2.4 1012
H2 O 2
Let x = amount that dissociates.

Therefore, at equilibrium,
[H2O2] = 0.75 x
[H3O+] = 0 + x
[HO2] = 0 + x
Note:
In Topic 4: Chemical
Equilibrium, students were
introduced to the ICE table
and the BIR/PEC methods of
accounting.

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Substitute the equilibrium concentration

values into the Ka expression and solve for x.
2.4 1012
0 x 0 x
0.75 mol/L x
When solving this problem according to

mathematical procedures, the quadratic
formula would be used.
Note:
Avoid using the quadratic
formula to solve dissociation
problems, unless conditions
exist for student success with
this level of treatment.
Chemists use the following assumption to simplify the calculation and avoid using
the quadratic formula.
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If x is much less than the initial concentration of the weak acid or the weak base,
x can be neglected when compared to 0.75, and so on. Hence, (0.75 mol/L x)
becomes 0.75 to two significant figures.
This is only possible when x is negligible compared to the initial concentration.
If Ka or Kb is quite large, and/or the initial concentration is given as more

significant figures, the assumption may not work, and the quadratic formula
would have to be used.
With this assumption, the equilibrium expression becomes
2.4 1012
0 x 0 x
0.75 mol/L
0 x 0 x
2.4 1012
2
simplified to12 0.75 xmol/L
2.4 10
x
0
0
0.75 mol/L
2.4 1012
x2
12
0.75

2.4
10mol/L
6
x 1.03.75
10
mol/L
2
x
2.4 1012
x 1.3 106
and
0.75 mol/L
x 1.3 106
Teachers may want to show students how this is possible, by checking the final
answer to two significant figures (0.75 mol/L 0.000013 mol/L = 0.75 mol/L to
two significant figures).

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

chemical equation.
and concentration.
(continued)
Hence,
x = [H3O+] = [HO2] = 1.3 106 mol/L
percent dissociation
H3 O
or
HO 2
100
initial concentration
1.3 106
100
0.75
1.7 104% or 0.00017%
Once students have mastered these types of questions, then pH and pOH could
be used instead of [H3O+] and [OH].
Ka and Kb constants and Le chteliers Principle
There is another type of question that can be asked that involves Ka and Kb
constants and Le Chteliers principle. Some examples are provided below.
For each of the sample problems, have students do the following:
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Complete the acid-base reaction with the help of tables.
Specify the two acids and bases involved.
Specify the stronger and weaker of the acids.
Indicate whether reactants or products are favoured at equilibrium.
Sample Problems:
a) H3PO4 + CH3COO
H3PO4 + CH3COO
Acid1
Base1
H2PO4 + CH3COOH
CB
CA
Ka = 7.5 103
Ka = 1.8 105
Stronger acid
Weaker acid
Products favoured

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b) SO32 + NH4+
SO32 + NH4+
HSO31 + NH3
Base1
CA
Acid1
CB
Ka = 5.7 1010
Ka = 6.2 108
Weaker acid
Stronger acid
Reactants favoured
c) HPO42 + S2
HPO42 + S2
PO43 + HS1
Acid1
CB
Base1
CA
Ka = 4.4 1014
Ka = 1.2 1015
Stronger acid
Weaker acid
Products favoured
Challenge Questions:
One mL of 0.10 mol/L HCl is added to each of five test tubes containing 10 mL of
1.0 mol/L solutions of the five ions listed below.
In each case,
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write the acid-base reaction according to Brnsted
identify the acids and bases on both sides of the reaction
specify in which case the hydronium ion concentration is lowered the most by
the reaction with HCl
a) CO32
b) HCO3
c) HPO42
d) CH3COO
e) HSO3

Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

chemical equation.
and concentration.
(continued)
Solutions:
B
a) CO32 + HCl
Ka very large
b) HCO31 + HCl
Ka very large
c) HPO42 + HCl
Ka very large
d) CH3COO1 + HCl
Ka very large
e) HSO31 + HCl
Ka very large
CA
CB
HCO31 + Cl1
Ka = 4.7 1011
H2CO3 + Cl1
Ka = 4.4 107
H2PO41 + Cl1
Ka = 6.3 108
CH3COOH + Cl1
Ka = 1.8 105
H2SO3 + Cl1
Ka = 6.2 108
As the Ka for HCl is constant in each reaction, we are comparing the Ka values for
the conjugate acids.
Since the Ka for CH3COOH is the largest compared to the others, that reaction will
go the least to the right. The Ka for HCO31 is the smallest, having the least effect on
the Ka for HCl, and, therefore, that reaction will go the furthest to the right, thus
causing the hydronium concentration to be lowered the most.
1. Students should be able to write the equilibrium expression (Ka or Kb) from a
balanced chemical equation.
2. Students should be able to solve problems for pH, percent dissociation, and
concentration, given the Ka or Kb.

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Ask students to complete a Compare and Contrast frame for weak and strong acids
and for weak and strong bases (see SYSTH 10.24).

Chapter 19: Acids and Bases
Chapter 19: Acids and Bases
appendix
Appendix 5.4: Relative Strengths of Acids

SLO: C12-5-10
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases

C12-5-10: perform a laboratory activity to determine the concentration
of an unknown acid or base, using a standardized acid or
base.
(3 hours)

In Grade 10 Science (S2-2-02), students explained how acids and bases interact to
form a salt and water in the process of neutralization.
In Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions (C12-1-04), students performed a lab
activity to demonstrate the stoichiometry of a neutralization reaction between a
strong base and a strong acid.
The lab experiment that students will perform for this learning outcome requires a
complete understanding of the process and theory of neutralization from Topic 1:
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions. To reduce the possibility of poor quantitative
results, do a thorough review of neutralization before assigning the lab experiment.
Check for understanding of students prior knowledge, and review concepts as
SYSTH, Chapter 9).

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gLO B5:
gLO C1:
gLO C2:
gLO C5:

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units.
TEAchEr NoTEs
Acid-Base Titration Lab Activities
Burettes found in schools will differ greatly in quality. Many schools still have
burettes with a length of rubber hose, a glass tip, part of an eyedropper, and a pinch
clamp to regulate the stream of liquid. The number and size of drops are not easy to
control with these burettes, and so their accuracy and reliability could be less than
those of Teflon spigots and a 120-second tip.
In Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions, teachers may have given students
microscale well plates with which to conduct their neutralization investigation. If
this was the case, then students may not have seen a burette before and must first
be introduced to the care and correct use of this delicate piece of equipment.
The lab activity provided in Appendix 5.5: Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base
Titration: Lab Activity assumes that enough burettes are available for each student
in the class to have one for the acid and another for the base. If this is not possible,
two students could share a common burette for the standard solution, but each
should have his or her own unknown solution in a separate burette.
If students are asked to do Part B of the lab activity, which involves the titration of a
solid acid, they will need an accurate quantitative method of dissolving the sample
of acid provided. This is best done with a volumetric flask, as is indicated in
Appendix 5.5. Note that having an electronic balance that reads to 0.001 g would
help increase the accuracy of the results.
If students do both parts of the lab activity, review the procedure after students
have first read the lab instructions as an assignment (prior knowledge). Then
initiate a discussion of lab skills and experimental errors. At this time, explain what
accuracy and reliability are with respect to this experiment.
If teachers wish to expose students to various types of titration curves (e.g., strong
acidweak base, weak acidstrong base, weak acidweak base), refer to
Appendix 5.9: Samples of Various Titration Curves (Teacher Notes).

base.
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases
(continued)
Have students complete the lab activity outlined in Appendix 5.5: Quantitative
Analysis: Acid-Base Titration: Lab Activity.
Depending on the time available, teachers may wish to use alternative or additional
lab activities that involve the titration process, such as the following:
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Appendix 5.6: Analysis of Household Vinegar: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.7: Analysis of Aspirin: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.8: Potentiometric Analysis of Acid in Soft Drinks: Cola versus Noncola: Lab Activity
Titration of Sodium Hypochlorite in Bleach with Sodium Thiosulfate (Waterman
and Thompson 113)
Chemistry with Vernier (Holmquist, Randall, and Volz) suggests two additional
experiments:
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Experiment 31: Time-Released Vitamin C Tablets
Experiment 35: Determining the Phosphoric Acid Content in Soft Drinks
See Learning Resources Links for references.

Ask students to do the following:
1. Compare and contrast or define the following terms: titrate, titrant, end point,
equivalence point, indicator, aliquot, standard solution, and dilute. Students could use
a Word Cycle, Compare and Contrast frames, or other vocabulary strategies to
demonstrate their understanding of the terms (see SYSTH 10.21, 10.24).
2. Explain why adding more solvent water to the sample being titrated has no
effect on the end point.
3. Discuss the lab results, including a discussion of experimental errors.

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units.
Laboratory skills
Students should be able to titrate a strong acid with a strong base.
Lab skills might include
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n
n
n
n
massing of a solid acid

quantitative transfer of solids
use of a volumetric flask
reading a burette to 0.01
performing the process of titration
To assess students lab skills and work habits, refer to checklists in SYSTH (6.10,
6.11).
research skills
Teachers may wish to have students search (e.g., on the Internet) for examples of
various research and industrial applications of the titration process, such as the
following:
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testing of acid rain
pH soil testing
efficacy of antacid tablets or acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin)
concentration of oxygen in surface waters (sodium thiocyanate titrant and starch

solution indicator)
maintenance of a required pH during the growth of bacteria
identification of food additives
determination of the surface area of marine algae used by marine biologists to

determine the condition of marine coral reefs
testing the phosphoric acid content in soft drinks

base.
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases
(continued)
Sample Websites:
Sea and Sky. Reefkeepers FAQ. Aquarium Resources.
<www.seasky.org/aquarium/aquarium_faq_page01.html> (21 Mar. 2012)
This website provides information on how marine scientists monitor the
environment of coral reefs.
SparkNotes Editors. SparkNote on Titrations. SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC.
<www.sparknotes.com/chemistry/acidsbases/titrations/section1.html>
(21 Mar. 2012).
This website provides definitions and explanations of titration and the related
terms.

Salt Hydrolysis, 621
Salt in Solution, 618
investigations
Chemistry with Vernier (Holmquist, Randall, and Volz)
Experiment 31: Time-Released Vitamin C Tablets
Experiment 35: Determining the Phosphoric Acid Content in Soft Drinks
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change (Dingrando, et al)
ChemLab 19: Standardizing a Base Solution by Titration, 626
Antacids, 628
and Thompson)
Part 2: Titration of Sodium Hypochlorite in Bleach with Sodium
Thiosulfate, 113

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units.
Websites
<www.seasky.org/aquarium/aquarium_faq_page01.html> (21 Mar. 2012).
SparkNotes Editors. SparkNote on Titrations. SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes
LLC. <www.sparknotes.com/chemistry/acidsbases/titrations/
section1.html> (21 Mar. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 5.5: Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base Titration: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.8: Potentiometric Analysis of Acid in Soft Drinks: Cola versus
Non-cola: Lab Activity
Appendix 5.9: Samples of Various Titration Curves (Teacher Notes)


C12-5-11: predict whether an aqueous solution of a given ionic
compound will be acidic, basic, or neutral, given the
formula.
SLO: C12-5-11
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases
(1 hour)

In previous grades, students have been introduced to the physical properties of
salts as being soluble or insoluble. So far in their knowledge of chemistry, they have
not encountered the chemical properties of salts.
TEAchEr NoTEs
In addressing learning outcome C12-5-11, students will learn to appreciate that salts
can be something other than neutral.
Many students have the misconception that salt solutions are always neutral.
Students should now understand that when an acid combines with a base, a salt
and water are produced. However, the resulting aqueous salt solution can be
neutral, acidic, or basic, depending on the strength of the acid and base that are
reacted.
hydrolysis of salts
The following table (intended for teachers) provides a summary of the species
involved with hydrolysis of salts (see Chang 678).
hydrolysis of salts
Type of salt
Examples
Cation from strong base

Anion from strong acid
NaCl, Kl, KNO3, RbBr,

BaCl2
Cation from strong base

Anion from weak acid
NaC2H3O2, KNO2
Cation from weak base

Anion from strong acid
NH4Cl, NH4NO3
Cation from weak base

Anion from weak acid
NH4NO2, NH4C2H3O2,
NH4CN
Ions That
Undergo hydrolysis
ph
None
Anion
>7
Cation
<7
Anion and cation
< 7 if Kb < Ka
7 if Kb Ka
> 7 if Kb > Ka

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This information can be simplified further:

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A strong acid and a strong base produce a neutral solution.
A strong base plus a weak acid produce a slightly basic salt.
A strong acid plus a weak base produce a slightly acidic salt.
A salt can react with the water (called salt hydrolysis) and the anions of the
dissociated salt may accept hydrogen ions from the water, producing a basic
solution, or the cations of the dissociated salt may donate hydrogen ions from the
water, producing an acidic solution.
The following detailed examples will show the process that occurs to the various
species during hydrolysis.
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Cation from a strong base plus the anion from a strong acid
ph 7
No example is necessary, as there is no hydrolysis.

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Cation from a strong base plus the anion from a weak acid
ph > 7
Example 1:
NaC2H3O2
Basic solution pH > 7
Sodium acetate solid dissolves in water to produce sodium cations and acetate
anions.
H O
2
NaC 2 H 3 O 2s
Naaq C 2 H3 O 2aq
Na+(aq) + H2O(l)
no reaction because Na+ is a spectator ion
Because the Ka for HC2H3O2 is very small (1.8 105), the reaction below tends
to go forward, as written, to remove hydrogen ions from solution, leaving an
excess of hydroxide ions.
C2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l)
HC2H3O2(aq) + OH(aq)

C12-5-11: predict whether an aqueous solution of a given ionic
compound will be acidic, basic, or neutral, given the
formula.
Topic 5:
Acids and
Bases
(continued)
Example 2:
K2CO3
Basic solution pH > 7
Since K2CO3 comes from a strong base (KOH) and a weak acid (H2CO3), a basic
solution results. Potassium carbonate dissolves in water to produce potassium
cations and carbonate anions.
HO
2
K 2 CO 3 s
2 Kaq CO 3 2aq
2K+(aq) + H2O(l)
no reaction
Similarly, because the Ka for carbonic acid is very small (4.4 107 ), the
reaction below tends to go forward, as written, to remove hydrogen ions from
solution, leaving an excess of hydroxide ions.
CO32(aq) + H2O(l)
n
H2CO3(aq) + OH(aq)
Cation from a weak base plus the anion from a strong acid
ph < 7
Example 3:
NH4NO3
Acidic solution pH < 7
Ammonium nitrate dissolves in water to produce ammonium cations and nitrate

anions. NH4NO3 comes from a weak base (NH3) and a strong acid (HNO3),
resulting in an acidic solution.
HO
2
NH 4 NO 3aq
NH4aq NO3aq
Since ammonium hydroxide is a weak base, the second reaction tends to go

forward, as written, to remove hydroxide ions from solution, leaving an excess
of hydrogen ions (hydronium ions).
H O
2
H2 Ol
H3 O4aq OHaq
NH4 aq OHaq
NH 4 OHaq
NH4aq H2 Ol
NH4 OHaq H3 Oaq
Since H3O+ is produced, the salt is acidic. (The negative ion of any strong acid
will not react with water.)

SkiLLS
anD
attituDeS OutCOme
Laboratory Activity
Students could complete a simple lab activity on the hydrolysis of a number of salts
to complement class discussion (see Wilbraham, Staley, and Matta, Prentice Hall
Chemistry: Laboratory Manual 267.)

Students should be able to determine whether a salt solution is neutral, acidic, or
basic, given the salt of a weak acid or the salt of a weak base.
Using a Compare and Contrast frame, students should be able to explain why
sodium hydrogen carbonate is an effective antacid but sodium hydroxide is not
(see Dingrando, et al. 628). For a Compare and Contrast frame, see SYSTH 10.24.

investigation
Experiment 44: Salt Hydrolysis, 267

Topic 5:
Acids And BAses
Appendices
Appendix 5.1:
Appendix 5.2:
Appendix 5.3A:
Appendix 5.3B:
Appendix 5.4:
Appendix 5.5:
Appendix 5.6:
Appendix 5.7:
Appendix 5.8:
Selected Neutralization Indicators 3

Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity 4
Measuring pH: Lab Activity 6
Measuring pH: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes) 8
Relative Strengths of Acids 9
Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base Titration: Lab Activity 10
Analysis of Household Vinegar: Lab Activity 14
Analysis of Aspirin: Lab Activity 16
Potentiometric Analysis of Acid in Soft Drinks:
Cola versus Non-cola: Lab Activity 18
Appendix 5.9: Samples of Various Titration Curves (Teacher Notes) 23
Appendix 5.1: Selected Neutralization Indicators
Indicator
Colour Change
(lower pH listed first)
Approximate pH
(range of colour change)
Methyl violet
Yellow to blue
0.0 to 1.6
Crystal violet
Yellow to violet
0.1 to 1.6
Paramethyl red
Red to yellow
1.0 to 3.0
Methyl yellow
Red to yellow
2.9 to 4.0
Bromophenol blue
Yellow to blue
3.0 to 4.6
Congo red
Blue to red
3.0 to 5.0
Methyl orange
Red to yellow
3.1 to 4.4
Ethyl orange
Red to yellow
3.4 to 4.5
Alizarin red S
Yellow to purple
3.7 to 5.0
Methyl red
Red to yellow
4.2 to 6.2
Methyl purple
Purple to green
4.8 to 5.4
Propyl red
Red to yellow
4.6 to 6.6
Paranitrophenol
Colourless to yellow
5.9 to 7.0
Bromcresol purple
Yellow to purple
5.2 to 6.8
Litmus
Red to blue
5.5 to 8.0
Bromothymol blue
Yellow to blue
6.0 to 7.6
Brilliant yellow
Yellow to orange
6.6 to 8.0
Neutral red
Red to amber
6.7 to 8.0
Phenol red
Yellow to red
6.7 to 8.4
Phenolphthalein
Colourless to pink
8.3 to 10.0
Thymolphthalein
Colourless to blue
9.4 to 10.6
Alizarin yellow
Yellow to red
10.0 to 12.0
Alizarin blue5
Amber and green to

blue-green
11.0 to 12.0
Appendix 5.2: Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity

Introduction
The acidity (concentration of H+) or alkalinity (concentration of OH) of an aqueous
solution is an important factor in describing the solutions properties. The
measurement of the H+ or OH in a solution can be accomplished in several ways.
n
Use of a ph meter: The pH meter is an electronic device that compares voltage

in a solution to that of a standard. The acidity or alkalinity is read directly from a
digital or analog meter. The device is accurate and fast, but relatively expensive.
Use of indicator paper: Indictor paper is ordinary filter paper that has been
soaked in a solution of dye(s) called indicator(s). The indicator changes colour
when the concentration of H+ reaches a certain level. While test paper is
relatively inexpensive, it is difficult to follow any continuous change in the pH of
the solution since the paper must be dipped in and out repeatedly.
Use of an indicator solution: An indicator solution changes colour at a specific
pH. Mixtures of indicators can be used to provide a continuously changing
picture corresponding to changes in pH. In this lab activity, three individual
indicators (methyl orange, phenolphthalein, and bromothymol blue) and a
standard mixture of indicators (universal) will be used. The standard universal
indicator is a mixture of organic dyes that change colour and allow for a fairly
accurate approximation of the whole number pH value of a test solution.
Purpose
To develop an operational definition of pH.
Materials and Apparatus

well plate
white paper
eyedroppers
distilled water
0.1 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl)
universal indicator
methyl orange indicator
bromothymol blue indicator
Appendix 5.2: Acid-Base Indicators and pH: Lab Activity (continued)
Procedure
1. Place the well plate on white paper with the lettered columns on the left. Place
9 drops of distilled water into wells 2 through 11 of rows A, B, C, and D.
2. Add 10 drops of 0.1 mol/L HCl to wells A1, B1, C1, and D1.
3. Add 10 drops of 0.1 mol/L NaOH to wells A12, B12, C12, and D12.
4. Transfer 1 drop of hydrochloric acid from well A1 to well A2. Mix by drawing
the contents of well A2 into the eyedropper and then returning the liquid to
well A2.
5. Transfer 1 drop from well A2 to well A3, again mixing by drawing the contents
of well A3 into an eyedropper and returning the contents to well A3. Continue
the serial dilution in this manner through to and including well 6.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for rows B, C, and D.
7. Transfer 1 drop of sodium hydroxide solution from well A12 to well A11. Mix
by drawing up the contents of well A11 into an eyedropper and then returning
the liquid to well A11.
8. Now transfer 1 drop from well A11 to well A10, again mixing by drawing the
contents of well A10 into an eyedropper and returning the contents to well A10.
Continue the serial dilution in this manner backwards through to and including
well 8.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for rows B, C, and D.
You now have 4 rows of diluted solutions containing varying amounts of acid and
base, each 1/10th of the acid of the well to its left and 1/10th of the base of the well
to its right. Well numbers indicate the approximate pH of the solutions in each well
(e.g., well 4 has a pH of 4 and well 9 has a pH of 9).
10. Add 1 drop of universal indicator to each well in row A.
11. Add 1 drop of methyl orange to each well in row B.
12. Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein to each well in row C.
13. Add 1 drop of bromothymol blue to each well in row D.
Analysis
1.
What is the significance of the colour changes in each row?
2.
Which would be a good indicator for general use?
3.
Which would be a good indicator for an HCl/NaOH titration? Why?
4.
Which would be a poor indicator for an HCl/NaOH titration? Why?

Appendix 5.3A: Measuring pH: Lab Activity

Introduction
The pH of an aqueous solution can be measured in several ways, including
n
with a pH meter, or a pH probe connected to a calculator or microcomputer

interface
with commercially prepared pH paper
with an acid-base indicator solution
An acid-base indicator is a substance whose colour in solution depends upon the

hydronium ion concentration. Acid-base indicators change colour from their acid
form to their base form over a specific range of pH.
Purpose
To determine the colours of three different indicators and a universal indicator (a
mixture of indicators) over a range of pH.
Procedure
1. Place a 96-well microplate on a piece of white paper with the numbered columns
on the top and the lettered rows on the left. (The white paper will make the
colour changes more visible.)
2. In rows A, C, E, and G, add 9 drops of distilled water to each of the wells 2
through 11.
3. Place 10 drops of a 0.1 mol/L aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) solution in
well 1 of rows A, C, E, and G.
4. Place 10 drops of a 0.1 mol/L aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution in
well 12 of rows A, C, E, and G.
5. Transfer 1 drop of 0.1 mol/L HCl(aq) solution from well A1 to well A2. Mix
thoroughly by stirring with a new toothpick or a clean glass stirrer. (If a glass
stirrer is used, rinse it carefully with distilled water and wipe it on a dry paper
towel before reusing it.) Continue by transferring 1 drop from well A2 to well
A3, mixing thoroughly. Continue from well to well until you reach well 6. This
will be the last acidic dilution.
6. Continue this procedure (serial dilution) for each of the rows C, E, and G.
Appendix 5.3A: Measuring pH: Lab Activity (continued)
7. Repeat the dilution procedure using the 0.1 mol/L NaOH(aq) solution in the
same rows as the acid dilution, working backwards from well 12 to well 8,
making well 8 the last basic dilution. You now have 4 rows each of the diluted
acidic and basic solutions. Show that the pH of the acidic solutions are
approximately 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively in wells 1 through 6, and that of
the pH of the basic solutions are approximately 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 respectively
in wells 8 through 12.
8. Add 1 drop of universal indicator solution to each well in row A.
9. Add 1 drop of methyl orange indicator solution to each well in row C.
10. Add 1 drop of bromothymol blue indicator solution to each well in row E.
11. Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein indicator solution to each well in row G.
12. Record your observations for each row.
13. Construct a table that correlates the pH range with a colour change.
14. Describe how you could use the results from this experiment to estimate the pH
of an aqueous solution.
Appendix 5.3B: Measuring pH: Lab Activity (Teacher Notes)

Preparation of Indicator Solutions
These solutions can be prepared in advance and remain stable for at least six
months.
n
methyl orange
Dissolve 0.01 g of methyl orange in 100 mL of distilled water.
Bromothymol blue
Dissolve 0.04 g of the sodium salt of bromothymol blue in 100 L of distilled
water.
Phenolphthalein
Dissolve 0.05 g of phenolphthalein in 50 mL of 95% ethanol, and dilute the
resulting solution to 100 mL with distilled water.
Yamadas Universal Indicator

Dissolve 0.0025 g of thymol blue, 0.06 g of methyl red, 0.030 g of bromothymol blue,
and 0.05 g of phenolphthalein in 50 mL of 95% ethanol. Add 0.01 mol/L aqueous
sodium hydroxide solution until the mixture is green, and dilute the resulting
solution to 100 mL with distilled water.
Appendix 5.4: Relative Strengths of Acids
Acid
Perchloric acid
Very large
Very large
+I
HBr + H2O H3O+ + Br

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl
Hydrochloric acid
Oxalic acid
+ ClO4
O+
HI + H2O H3
Hydrobromic acid
Sulphuric acid
O+
HClO4 + H2O H3
Hydriodic acid
Nitric acid
Ka
Reaction
Very large
Very large
HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3
Very large
H2SO4 + H2O H3O+ + HSO4

O+
HOOCCOOH + H2O H3
+ HOOCCOO
Very large
5.4 102
Sulphurous acid
H2SO3 + H2O H3O+ + HSO3
1.7 102
Hydrogen sulphate ion
HSO4 + H2O H3O+ + SO42
1.3 102
H3PO4 + H2O H3O+ + H2PO4
7.1 103
Phosphoric acid
Ferric ion
Hydrogen telluride
3+
Fe(H2O)6
Hydrogen selenide
+ H2O H3
(OH)2+
+ Fe(H2O)5
H2Te + H2O H3O+ + HTe

HF + H2O H3O+ + F
Hydrofluoric acid
Nitrous acid
O+
6.0 103
2.3 103
6.7 104
HNO2 + H2O H3O+ + NO2

H2Se + H2O H3O+ + HSe
5.1 104
1.7 104
Chromic ion
Cr(H2O)63+ + H2O H3O+ + Cr(H2O)5(OH)2+
1.5 104
Benzoic acid
C6H5COOH + H2O H3O+ + C6H5COO
6.6 105
HOOCCOO + H2O H3O+ + OOCCOO2
5.4 105
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO
1.8 105
Hydrogen oxalate ion

Acetic acid
Aluminum ion
Carbonic acid
Hydrogen sulphide
Dihydrogen phosphate ion
Hydrogen sulphite ion
3+
Al(H2O)6
O+
+ H2O H3
(OH)2+
+ Al(H2O)5
H2CO3 + H2O H3O+ + HCO3
H2S + H2O H3O+ + HS
H2PO4
HSO3
4.4 107
1.0 107
+ H2O H3O+ + HPO4
1.4 105
+ H2O H3O+ + SO3
6.3 108
6.2 108
NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3
5.7 1010
Hydrogen carbonate ion
HCO3 + H2O H3O+ + CO32
4.7 1011
Hydrogen telluride ion
HTe + H2O H3O+ + TE2
1.0 1011
Hydrogen peroxide
H2O2 + H2O H3O+ + HO2
2.4 1012
Ammonium ion
Monohydrogen phosphate ion

Hydrogen sulphide ion
Water
Hydroxide ion
Ammonia
HPO4
HS
+ H2O H3O+ + PO4

2
+ H2O H3O+ + S
OH
+ H2O H3O+ + O
1.2 1015
1.8 1016
< 1036
H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH
4.4 1013
NH3 + H2O H3O+ + NH2
Very small
Appendix 5.5: Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base Titration: Lab Activity

Purpose
In this lab activity, students will do the following:
n
Standardize a base solution using a stock acid solution by the method of titration.
Given an unknown mass of a solid acid, prepare a 100 mL aqueous solution of
that acid.
Titrate the unknown acid solution with a base of known concentration and
determine the number of grams of solid acid to 0.001 g.
Procedure
Part A
1. Obtain two burettes, placing one on the left for the acid and the other on the
right for the base. Before using the burettes, carefully wash them with soap and
water, and then rinse them with tap water to remove all soap. Then rinse the
burettes with 15 mL portions of distilled water, ensuring there are no air bubbles
in the tips of the burettes. Finally, rinse the burettes with several small
(10 to 15 mL) aliquots of each solution.
2. Fill one burette with the acid and the other with the base. To determine the initial
acid and base volumes, read each burette to the nearest 0.01 mL.
3. Introduce about 10 to 15 mL of acid into a clean 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask,
followed by about 10 mL of distilled water to rinse down the sides. Read the
volume of the acid burette and record it as the final acid reading. Add about
three drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the flask. Use a clean flask for each
trial.
4. While continuously swirling the flask, slowly add the base until a pale lasting
pink colour persists, indicating the end point.
Note: As the end point is approached, the colour disappears more slowly until
finally the pale pink colour persists. Then carefully read the volume from the
base burette and record it as the final base volume.
5. Repeat this entire process as many times (minimum 4) as needed to obtain
consistency of data to three significant figures for the base concentration.
6. Select the three best trials and record them in a Data Table. Show calculations for
each trial. Calculate the average of the three trials. Record this average.
Appendix 5.5: Quantitative Analysis: Acid-Base Titration: Lab Activity (continued)
Part B
1. Obtain a vial containing a sample of sulphamic acid with the formula H2NSO3H
and a molar mass of 97.09 g/mol.
2. Transfer the solid acid to a 100 mL volumetric flask. Fill half the flask with water
and swirl until the solid dissolves completely, and then fill the flask with water
exactly to the 100 mL mark. Take great care with the acid sample, as only one
sample will be handed out per student. The 100 mL sample is enough for five to
eight titrations, which should be enough to complete the determination.
3. Once the acid solution has been prepared, follow the procedure used for Part A
of this experiment. This time, however, use the sulphamic acid instead of the
hydrochloric acid and a new standard base stock solution. The concentration of
the base can be read off the stock solution.
4. Select three of the best trials and record them in a Data Table. Calculate the mass
to 0.001 g.
Calculations and Questions

1. Record the values of the acid and base volumes from Part A in the Titration Data
Table provided on the following page.
2. Calculate the concentration of the base used. Show all work.
3. Record the values of the acid and base values from Part B in the Titration Data
Table provided.
4. Calculate the concentration of the sulphamic acid in the sample. Show all work.
5. Calculate the mass of the sample of sulphamic acid. Present the average of the
best three trials. Show all work.
6. When an end point is reached in an acid-base titration, what does this indicate
about the concentration of the [H3O+] and [OH]?
7. What would you expect the pH of the solution to be just at the point at which the
phenolphthalein turns pink?
8. Why is an indicator solution so important to use for titrations?
9. What does the following statement mean? The relative volumes required in a
titration vary inversely with the concentrations of the solutions.
Titration Data Table (Part A)

Trial
Burette Reading
Final burette reading
Initial burette reading

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume
Acid
Base
Titration Data Table (Part B)

Trial
Burette Reading
Acid
Base

1

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Total volume

Purpose
To determine the percent of acetic acid by mass of household vinegar.
Introduction
Vinegar contains acetic acid (HC2H3O2) as the active ingredient. Most vinegar
samples contain 5% acetic acid.
Procedure
1. Pipette 5.0 mL of the vinegar sample into a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 25 mL
of distilled water to the flask. Add two or three drops of phenolphthalein
indicator solution.
2. Rinse the burette and fill it with the standardized solution of sodium hydroxide.
Record the level of the solution in the burette.
3. Slowly add the base solution from the burette to the flask containing the vinegar,
swirling the flask. When the pink colour starts to disappear more slowly, begin
adding the base solution a drop at a time.
4. Stop the titration when the first trace of faint pink remains for 20 to 30 seconds
after swirling. Wait about 30 seconds, and then record the level in the burette,
estimating to within half the smallest gradation (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.05).
5. Repeat the titration until you can reproduce the volume added to 0.1 mL.
6. Make the calculations necessary to complete the following Data Table. Assume
the density of vinegar is 1.00 g mL1.
Data Table
Trial 1
Burette reading
Final reading
Initial reading
Volume used
Concentration of standardized NaOH
Trial 2
Trial 3
Appendix 5.6: Analysis of Household Vinegar: Lab Activity (continued)
Calculations
Chemical amount (moles)
of HC2H3O2 in sample:
_____________________________
Mass of HC2H3O2 in sample:
_____________________________
Percent of HC2H3O2 by mass:
_____________________________

Introduction
Acetylsalicylic acid, sometimes abbreviated as ASA, is the active ingredient in
Aspirin. The structural formula of ASA is given below.
O
C CH3
O H
Pure ASA can be synthesized by treating salicylic acid with acetic anhydride in the
presence of a trace of either sulphuric or phosphoric acids.
O
O H
salicylic acid
CH3
CH3
C
C
O
O
acetic anhydride
C CH3
O H
acetylsalicylic acid
+ CH3
O H
acetic acid
The product is removed from the reaction mixture by crystallization. The crude
ASA must be purified by washing to remove excess by-products and then recrystallized in the pure state.
Aspirin tablets are made by blending the pure ASA with filler (inert material),
which gives body to the tablets so that they can be pressed and shaped.
Purpose
The purpose of this analysis is to determine the degree of purity of various
commercial ASA products. The analysis is based on titration of the ASA tablets with
a standard sodium hydroxide solution. During this reaction, H+ ion is transferred
from the acid to the reacting base, OH. The following equation illustrates the
reaction:
O
C CH3
O H
+ NaOH
C CH3
O-
Na+
+ HOH
Titration is continued until an end point is reached, as indicated by the

phenolphthalein indicator. The percent of ASA present can then be calculated.
Appendix 5.7: Analysis of Aspirin: Lab Activity (continued)
Procedure
1. Determine the mass of a single ASA tablet to the nearest 0.01 g by direct
weighing.
2. Place the tablet in a 250 mL conical flask and add approximately 15 mL of water
and 15 mL of ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Use a glass rod to crush the tablet. Agitate
the solution to dissolve the tablet. Complete solution may not be accomplished
prior to titration with the base solution.
3. Add approximately three drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution. No colour
change should be seen.
4. Carefully fill a 50 mL burette with standard 0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide
solution. Record the exact concentration of the standard sodium hydroxide
solution.
5. Record the level of sodium hydroxide solution in the burette. Place the flask
containing the ASA sample under the burette.
6. Add small volumes of sodium hydroxide solution, while swirling the flask.
Continue adding sodium hydroxide solution until the first indication that a
phenolphthalein end point has been reached, as indicated by a light pink colour
throughout the solution in the flask. This colour should remain without fading
upon swirling.
7. Record the level of the solution in the burette.
Calculations
Calculate the percent of ASA in your tablet. The formula mass of ASA is
180 g/mol, and each molecule transfers 1 hydrogen ion to a base.
Appendix 5.8: Potentiometric Analysis of Acid in Soft Drinks:

Cola versus Non-cola: Lab Activity
Introduction
Phosphoric acid is a common ingredient in cola drinks; it provides a taste that is
both sweet and sour, but does not compete with other flavours. There is some
variability in both the amount and composition of the acid in cola drinks. The
composition is affected by the equilibrium
H3PO4 + OH
H2PO4 + H2O
Purpose
In this experiment, you will determine the H3PO4 and H2PO4 in a sample of cola
drink using a potentiometric titration. A potentiometric detection method is
preferred over an acid-base indicator for two reasons:
n
The colour of the cola obscures indicator changes.

The use of a pH meter permits a more accurate location of the equivalence points
in a titration than an indicator.
You will also determine the citric acid concentration in a non-cola drink. Citric acid,
which is also tri-basic, is another common ingredient in many soft drinks. The acid
dissociation constants for phosphoric and citric acids are as follows:
Dissociation Constant
Phosphoric Acid
Citric Acid
K1
7.11 103
7.44 104
K2
6.32 108
1.73 105
K3
7.10 1013
4.02 107
From these data, it is clear that the constants for phosphoric acid are more than a
factor of 1000 apart, and three distinct end points can, therefore, be observed in a
titration. In contrast, the citric acid constants are closer together and the titration has
no definite breaks between the end points. Moreover, several of the citric and
phosphoric acid end points are close, so it is advisable to carry out this experiment
with soft drinks that do not contain both phosphoric and citric acid. A possible
choice is using Coca-Cola for the phosphoric acid determination, and Squirt for the
citric acid determination. If you choose other brands, read the list of ingredients to
make sure that only one or the other of the acids is present. The drinks also should
not contain lactic acid or aspartame (e.g., NutraSweet), so do not choose diet drinks.

Cola versus Non-cola: Lab Activity (continued)
The potentiometric response of the glass electrode is described by the equation
Eglass = k 0.059 pH
where k is a constant. Clearly, there is a simple linear relationship between the
measured potential and the pH of the solution. For convenience, the pH meter is
calibrated in pH units, so that the appropriate values can be read off directly.
You will calibrate the meter with pH 4 and 7 (or 10) buffers, following the
instructions that are provided with the pH meter. Once the meter is calibrated, the
pH of the H3PO4 solution is easily followed as a function of added NaOH.
At pH 10.5 to 11, the glass electrode begins to respond to other ions (mainly Na+ in
this case) since so few H3O+ ions remain. This effect, which makes it appear that the
pH is lower than it really is, is called the alkaline error. Its occurrence makes it
advisable not to carry the titration beyond pH 10.5, meaning that you will not
observe the third equivalence point of phosphoric acid:
HPO42 + OH
PO43 + H2O
Pre-laboratory Assignment
The phosphoric acid in a 100 mL sample of cola drink was titrated with 0.1025 N
NaOH. If the first equivalence point occurred after 13.11 mL of base was added, and
the second equivalence point occurred after 28.55 mL of base was added, calculate
the concentrations of H3PO4 and H2PO4 in the cola sample. (hint: Where would
the second equivalence point have occurred if only H3PO4 were present?)
Apparatus
stirrer and (large) stir bar
pH meter and glass electrode
two 250 mL beakers
50 mL burette
25 mL pipette
1000 mL bottle
1000 mL boiling flask
stirring rod
400 mL beaker
watch glass

Chemicals
sodium hydroxide
primary standardpotassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP)
cola unknown (e.g., Coca-Cola)
non-cola unknown (e.g., Squirt)
pH 4 and 7 buffers
Procedure
1. Standardize the pH meter with the buffers.
2. Prepare a standard 0.10 N NaOH solution (using a KHP primary standard). For
the titration, use the pH electrode in conjunction with the phenolphthalein
indicator and compare the electrode response to the indicator colour change.
Add small increments of titrant, reading both the stabilized pH value and the
total volume added after each addition. Initially, the additions should be large
enough to cause pH changes of about 0.2 units. When the pH starts to change
rapidly, reduce the size of the NaOH aliquots. As you near the equivalence point,
the pH will change considerably upon the slightest addition of base. To develop
the entire titration curve (pH versus volume of titrant), you need to proceed
somewhat beyond the equivalence point. The electrode response will be the
principal indicator of the end point in this experiment, but you should observe
that the indicator changes colour at the point where the greatest pH change
occurs (note this volume). Any difference is called the indicator error. It should be
small. Stop the titration at pH 10.5.
3. Add 100 mL of cola to a 250 mL beaker and cover it with a clean watch glass.
Bring the solution just to boiling and keep it warm for five minutes. This will
expel the CO2 which otherwise would interfere with the titration of H3PO4. Cool
the solution by placing ~200 mL of cold water in a 400 mL beaker and carefully
resting the beaker with the cola in the cold water.
4. Rinse the electrodes. Refill the burette with the NaOH.
5. Place the glass electrode in the beaker. Add the stir bar and enough water to
cover the electrode. Start the stirrer.
6. Proceed with the titration of the cola solution as you did for the NaOH
standardization (except that there is no indicator here). Expect two equivalence
points, one near pH 4 and the other near pH 8. Continue to pH 10.5.
7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 with the non-cola. Now only one equivalence point should be
found, near pH 6.

Calculations
1. Plot pH (ordinate, i.e, y-axis) versus volume of NaOH (abscissa, i.e., x-axis) for
the standardization and the two unknowns.
2. Construct first-derivative plots for these titrations. This is accomplished by
plotting (pH2 pH1)/(V2 V1) versus (V1 + V2)/2, where V1 and V2 are two
successive titration volumes (totals) and pH1 and pH2 are the corresponding pH
values. These plots have peaks where the original graphs have inflection points
(i.e., the end points of the titrations). Use them to estimate the equivalence points.
3. Calculate the molarity of the titrant.
4. Use the equivalence point volumes obtained for the cola titration, along with the
NaOH molarity, to calculate the moles of H3PO4 present. Remember that at the
first equivalence point, one proton has been titrated, while at the second
equivalence point, two protons have reacted. If your results show that
Veq2 > 2Veq1, then not only H3PO4 but also H2PO4 was present in the drink (see
Pre-laboratory Assignment). Calculate the concentrations of both.
5. Calculate the concentration of citric acid in the non-cola.
Questions
1. In the phosphoric acid titration, could Veq2 < 2Veq1? Explain.
2. Assume that you could titrate to the third equivalence point of H3PO4. What
would be the relationship of Veq3 to Veq2 and Veq1?
3. What is the structure of citric acid? Draw a simple molecular diagram.
4. How could CO2 interfere with the titration of H3PO4?
5. The glass electrode that you used appears to be a single device, while it is
actually two electrodes. Explain.

Extension Activity
Determination of acid in soft drink
Purpose
Specify the purpose.
Procedure
Explain the procedure used to prepare the cola and non-cola samples.
Calculations
A. Titration of NaOh and KhP
Concentration of KHP:
________________ mol/L
Volume of NaOH at equivalence point: ________________ mL

Concentration of NaOH:
________________ mol/L
Plot pH versus volume of NaOH for this titration, using graph paper. Label the
equivalence point.
B. data for titration of cola and non-cola with NaOh
Make a data table with the following columns:
data Table
Vol. NaOH
Added
pH
V2 V1
pH2 pH1
(V1 + V2)
2
pH2 pH1
V2 V1
Plot the first-derivative plots using the above data.

C. results
Cola:
Volume of first equivalence point: _________mL
pH: _________
Volume of second equivalence point: ________mL
pH: _________
Molarity of H3PO4: _________ mol/L

Molarity of H2PO4: _________ mol/L
Non-cola: Volume of equivalence point: _________ mL
Molarity of citric acid: _________ mol/L
pH: _________
Appendix 5.9: Samples of Various Titration Curves (Teacher Notes)

Plotting the pH of the solution during an acid-base titration generates a titration
curve. The general shape of the curves generated in a series of titrations may be
grouped into families, according to the solution titrated and the titrating solutions.
Typical examples of the general shapes for four classes of titration are illustrated
below. Some learning activities follow the examples.
1. A Solution of a Strong Acid Titrated with a Solution of a Strong Base

In this example, 25.0 mL of a 0.100 mol/L aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid,
HCl (a monoprotic strong acid), is titrated with a 0.100 mol/L aqueous solution
of sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq) (an ionic hydroxide). The equation representing
the reaction may be written as
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
or as the net ionic equation

H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)
2H2O(l)
At equivalence, moles HCl originally present = moles NaOH added.

Volume HCl original concentration HCl solution = Volume NaOH added
concentration NaOH solution.
At equivalence, [H3O+] = [OH] and [Na+] = [Cl]. Since Na+(aq) is a weaker acid
than water and Cl is a weaker base than water, the solution is described as
neutral. At 25C, the pH will be 7.0 (under the usual set of assumptions).
The expected titration curve is shown in Figure 1 below.
14
14
10
10
12
pH
12
pHequivalence
6
4
10
20
30
Volume NaOH(aq) (mL)
Figure 1: 0.1 mol/L HCl(aq) versus

0.1 mol/L NaOH(aq)
pHequivalence
6
4
Vequivalence
2
0
pH
Vequivalence
40
10
20
30
Volume HCl(aq) (mL)
40
Figure 2: 0.1 mol/L NaOH(aq) versus

0.1 mol/L HCl(aq)
Appendix 5.9: Samples of Various Titration Curves (continued)
2. A Solution of a Strong Base Titrated with a Solution of a Strong Acid

This titration is analogous to the strong acid and strong base titration, except that
the acid is the independent variable (i.e., is added from a burette or equivalent).
The example chosen is the titration of 25.0 mL of a 0.100 mol/L aqueous solution
of sodium hydroxide with a 0.100 mol/L solution of hydrochloric acid. The
expected titration curve is shown in Figure 2 on the previous page.
For both examples 1 and 2, the end point (assumed the equivalence point) is
found at the steepest part of the curve, the inflection point where the curve
changes direction.
3. A Solution of a Weak Acid Titrated with a Solution of a Strong Base

In this example, 25 mL of a 0.100 mol/L aqueous solution of acetic acid,
HCH3CO2 (a monoprotic weak acid with Ka = 1.8 105 mol/L), is titrated with
a 0.100 mol/L aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq) (an ionic
hydroxide). The equation representing the reaction may be written as
HCH3CO2(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCH3CO2(aq) + H2O(l)
or as the net ionic equation

HCH3CO2(aq) + OH(aq)
CH3CO2(aq) + H2O(l)
For a weak acid, the acid of highest concentration in an aqueous solution is the
undissociated acid, not the hydronium ion.
At equivalence, moles HCH3CO2 originally present = moles NaOH added.
At equivalence, [HCH3CO2] = [OH] and [NA+] = [CH3CO2]. Since NA+(aq) is a
weaker acid than water and CH3CO2 is a stronger base than water, the solution
will be basic. At 25C, the pH will be greater than 7.0 (under the usual set of
assumptions).
The expected titration curve is shown in Figure 3a below.

14
14
12
10
pH
10
pH
pH = pKa
0.5 Vequiv
2
0
12
pHequivalence
10
20
excess NaOH
Vequivalence
30
Figure 3a: 0.1 mol/L HOAc(aq) versus

0.1 mol/L NaOH(aq)
40
buffer region
6
4
2
10
20
30
40
Figure 3b: 0.1 mol/L HOAc(aq) versus

0.1 mol/L NaOH(aq)
The end point (assumed the equivalence point) is found at the steepest part of
the curve, the inflection point where the curve changes direction.
In a titration of a weak acid with a strong base (or of a weak base with a strong
acid, example 4), the region between about 10% and 90% of the equivalence
volume added is described as the buffer region (Figure 3b). In this region, both
undissociated acid and its conjugate base (the anion) are present in appreciable
concentrations, and the pH does not change appreciably as more hydroxide ion
is added to the mixture. (A mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or of a
weak base and its conjugate acid, are the common descriptions for a buffer
solution.)
At the half-equivalence volume (0.5 Vequivalence), [HCH3CO2] = [CH3CO2]
and Ka = [H3O+]. Thus, pH = pKa.
4. A Solution of a Weak Base Titrated with a Solution of a Strong Acid

This titration is analogous to the weak acid and strong base titration, except that
the acid is the independent variable (i.e., is added from a burette or equivalent).
The example chosen is the titration of 25.0 mL of a 0.100 mol/L solution of
aqueous ammonia (Kb = 1.8 105 mol/L) with a 0.100 mol/L solution of
hydrochloric acid. The expected titration curve is shown in Figure 4 below.
14
12
pH = pKw - pKb
10
pH
8
6
pHequivalence
0.5 Vequiv
4
0
10
20
Vequivalence
30
Volume HCl(aq) (mL)
40
Figure 4: 0.1 mol/L NH3(aq) versus

0.1 mol/L HCl(aq)
The end point (assumed the equivalence point) is found at the steepest part of the
curve, the inflection point where the curve changes direction.
At the half-equivalence volume, [NH4+] = [NH3] and [H3O+] = Ka for the conjugate
acid NH4+. Since, for a conjugate acid-base pair, Ka = Kw/Kb, at half-equivalence,
pH = pKw pKb.
Selecting an Indicator
A suitable indicator of a titration should change colour at the equivalence point of
the titration. Indicators do not change abruptly but rather over a pH range. Some
typical acid-base indicators are given in the table below.
Acid-Base Indicators
Indictor
Colour Change
pH Range
Bromocresol green
Yellow blue
3.6 5.2
Methyl red
Red yellow
4.8 6.0
Bromothymol blue
Yellow blue
6.0 7.6
Phenol red
Yellow red
6.8 8.4
Colourless pink
8.0 9.8
Phenolphthalein
For an effective end point, one drop (0.02 mL) of titrant should change the colour of
the indicator solution. Select an indicator that changes just past the equivalence
point but still within the steepest portion of the titration curve. (You also need to be
able to see the changesome people are colour blind and dont recognize red-green
changes, for example, and others have difficulty seeing changes such as pink to
colourless.)
For the model titrations shown, suitable indicators might include the following:
n
HCl versus NaOH:
any bromothymol blue, phenol red, or phenolphthalein
NaOH versus HCl:
any of bromocresol green, methyl red, or bromothymol

blue
HOAc versus NaOH: phenolphthalein
NH3 versus HCl:
methyl red or bromocresol green
Note: For accuracy, it is beneficial to titrate both HCl versus NaOH and NaOH
versus HCl with different indicators.
Learning Activity 1
A student pipetted 25.0 mL of an aqueous solution of an unknown acid into a
conical flask, added 25.0 mL of water, and then titrated the resulting mixture with a
standard 0.0985 mol/L solution of aqueous sodium hydroxide, measuring the pH of
the mixture after each addition. The following graph shows the titration curve
obtained.
14
12
10
pH
8
6
4
2
0
10
20
30
40
Using this graph, answer the following questions:

1. What was the concentration of the unknown acid solution?
2. What would be a suitable indicator for this solution?
3. Assuming the unknown acid is a weak monoprotic acid, estimate its Ka value.
Learning Activity 2
A student weighed 0.225 g of a solid unknown acid into a conical flask, added about
50.0 mL of water, and then titrated the resulting mixture with a standard
0.1245 mol/L solution of aqueous sodium hydroxide, measuring the pH of the
mixture after each addition. The following graph shows the titration curve obtained.
14
12
10
pH 8
6
4
2
10
15
20
25
30

2. Assuming the unknown acid is a weak monoprotic acid, estimate its Ka value.
3. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown acid.
4. Would the results obtained have been different if the student had added 100 mL
of water? Explain.
Learning Activity 3
A student weighed 0.0165 g of a solid unknown base into a conical flask, added
about 100 mL of water, and then titrated the resulting mixture with a standard
0.02635 mol/L solution of hydrochloric acid, measuring the pH of the mixture after
each addition. The following graph shows the titration curve obtained.
10
8
7
pH 6
5
4
10
15
20
25
Volume HCl(aq) (mL)
30
35

2. Assuming the unknown base is a weak monoprotic base, estimate its Kb value.
Estimate the Ka of its conjugate acid.
3. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown base.
Topic 6:
ElEcTrochEmisTry
C12-6-04 Explain the operation of a voltaic (galvanic) cell at the visual,

particulate, and symbolic levels.
Include: writing half-cell reactions, the overall reaction, and shorthand
(line) notation
C12-6-05 Construct a functioning voltaic (galvanic) cell and measure its

potential.
C12-6-07 Calculate standard cell potentials, given standard electrode

potentials.
C12-6-08 Predict the spontaneity of reactions using standard electrode
potentials.
C12-6-10 Explain the operation of an electrolytic cell at the visual,

Examples: electrolysis of water, electrolysis of brine, electroplating, production
and purification of metals . . .
C12-6-12 Solve problems related to electrolytic cells, using Faradays law.
Grade 12 Chemistry Topic 6: Electrochemistry
SLO: C12-6-01
SLO: C12-6-02
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry
SpeCIfIC LeaRnInG OutCOmeS

C12-6-01: Develop an activity series experimentally.
C12-6-02: predict the spontaneity of reactions using an activity series.
(2 hours)
suggEsTions for insTrucTion

In Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions, students were introduced to oxidation
and reduction reactions. Given an oxidation-reduction reaction, students should
now be able to identify the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a given
reaction, the element being oxidized, the element being reduced, and the oxidizing
and reducing agents. Students should also be able to balance oxidation-reduction
reactions and have a good understanding of the concept of the conservation of
electrons. If students are not able to perform these tasks adequately, they will have
difficulty understanding electrochemistry. Review redox information from Topic 1,
as necessary.
If students were asked to research practical applications of oxidation-reduction in
Topic 1 (C12-1-12), give them time to present their findings in Topic 6.
TEachEr NoTEs
standard reduction Potentials
Many chemistry texts use the SI system to present tables of Standard Reduction
Potentials in which the half-reaction at the top of the tables is the lithium ion being
reduced to the lithium atom, with the fluorine reduction half-reaction placed at the
bottom of the tables.
The tendency for a substance to gain electrons is referred to as its reduction
potential (E0). Because each reduction must be coupled with an oxidation, scientists
decided on a standard substance against which they could measure reduction
potential. Hydrogen was chosen; thus, the hydrogen half-reaction shows up in all
Standard Reduction Potentials tables as 0 volts. The rest of the table is
experimentally determined by reacting substances with hydrogen at concentrations
of 1 mol/L at standard temperature and pressure.
GLO B3:
GLO B5:
GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
Identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among personal habits, lifestyle
Identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment, society, and economy, both
4 topic 6: electrochemistry

SkILLS
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What to remember When Using a Table of standard reduction Potentials

1. Electrode potentials depend on the concentration of the reactants and products,
not on the quantity. This means that stoichiometric coefficients do not alter the
voltage of a half-reaction.
Examples:
Ag+ + e
2Ag+ + 2e
Ag(s) E0 = 0.80 V
2Ag(s) E0 = 0.80 V
2. Half-reactions are listed as reductions.

3. Half-reactions can occur in either
direction. Reversing the direction makes
the reaction an oxidation and reverses
the sign of E0.
4. A positive value for E0 means that the
substance is easily reduced. The more
positive the value is, the easier it is to
reduce. Conversely, the more negative a
number is, the easier it is to oxidize.
Note:
Depending on which resources
you use, electrode potentials
tables may be listed as oxidation
potentials and may list all the
reactions as oxidation halfreactions. Also, some tables list
more positive values for E 0 at the
top, while others list more
negative values at the top. This
document uses reduction
potentials, with more positive
values for E 0 at the top. See
Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab
Activity.
n
Remember that 1.0 V is more
positive than 2.0 V, and +1.0 V is
more negative than +2.0 V.
n
5. A negative value for E0 means that the substance is not easily reduced. The more
negative the value is, the more likely it is to be oxidized.
6. A substance with a more positive value for E0 will oxidize a substance that is
less positive on the Standard Reduction Potentials table. In other words, a
substance on the reactant side of any half-reaction can oxidize a substance that is
on the product side of a more negative E0 half-reaction.
representations of Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is ideally suited to discussions about what is occurring in the
visual, particulate, and symbolic modes of representation. Current research shows
that students gain a better understanding of chemical processes when these modes
of representation are discussed and illustrated. Once students have experienced
visual (macroscopic) changes in the laboratory, ask them to draw and explain what
is happening at the particulate/molecular (microscopic) level. Any animations used
to illustrate what is occurring at the molecular level will also increase students
understanding of the processes involved.
topic 6: electrochemistry 5
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

(continued)
animations/simulations
Have students use online resources to perform simulations or to view animations of
electrochemistry.
Sample Websites:
n

In this simulation, students discover the activity series by placing different
metals in various aqueous solutions. Students can observe the simulation at
the molecular level.
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Displacement Reaction. Teaching Laboratory.

<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/pptReaction3.htm> (3 Apr. 2012).
This animation shows the displacement reaction between aqueous copper(II)
sulphate solution, CuSO4(aq), and zinc metal, Zn(s).
Laboratory activity
For learning outcomes C12-6-01 and C12-6-02, students are required to perform an
experiment or investigation that shows, qualitatively, how an activity series is
derived. Most chemistry textbooks and resource manuals outline an experiment
that uses metals such as Zn, Cu, Pb, Fe, and even Ag, with their corresponding
ions. By reacting solid metals with aqueous ions of other metals, students can
record their observations and rank them from most to least reactive. For a
suggested experiment, refer to Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab Activity.

SkILLS
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Journal Writing
Have students
n
n
n
research the origin of the name electromotive series

discuss the importance of the electromotive series
relate position on the Standard Reduction Potentials table to chemical reactivity,
as discussed in Grade 10 Science or Grade 11 Chemistry
Visual Displays
Have students draw representations of reactants and products (or redox reactions)
and show how the transfer of electrons occurs in solution.
suggEsTions for AssEssmEnT

Laboratory skills
Students should exhibit appropriate lab skills at all times during the lab activity.
Sample checklists for assessing students lab skills and work habits are available in
SYSTH (6.10, 6.11).
Part a
Have students predict the spontaneous and/or non-spontaneous reactions between
metal and ionic species using Appendix 6.2: Table of Standard Reduction Potentials.
1. A zinc metal strip is placed into a 1.0 mol/L solution of copper(II) nitrate.
Answer:
The species available for reacting are: Zn0(aq), Cu2+(aq), and NO3(aq)
Zn0(aq) + Cu2+(aq) + NO3(aq)
NO3(aq) ions will not react unless the solution is acidic. See the table in
Appendix 6.2.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Cu0(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Zn0(s)
According to the table, Cu2+ has a greater affinity for electrons than Zn2+, and so
Cu2+ will attract electrons to become reduced in the process to Cu0. This causes
Zn0 to give up electrons and become oxidized to Zn2+.

Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

(continued)
The two reactions are

Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Zn0(s)
Cu2+(aq) + Zn0(s)
Cu0(s)
2e + Zn2+(aq)
Cu0(s) + Zn2+(aq)
Net reaction and spontaneous

reaction
2. An aluminum strip of metal is placed into a 1.0 mol/L solution of silver nitrate.
Answer:
The species available for reacting are: Al0(s), Ag+(aq), and NO3(aq)
Al0(s) + Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq)
NO3(aq) ions will not react unless the solution is acidic. See the table in
Appendix 6.2.
Ag+(aq) + 1e
Ag0(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3e
Al0(s)
According to the table, Ag+ has a greater affinity for electrons than Al3+, and so
Ag+ will attract electrons to become reduced in the process to Ag0. This causes
Al0 to give up electrons and become oxidized to Al3+.
The two reactions are
3[Ag+(aq) + 1e
Al0(s)
3Ag+(aq) + Al0(s)
Ag0(s)]
3e + Al3+(aq)
3Ag0(s) + Al3+(aq)
The first reaction is multiplied

by 3 to balance the electrons
lost and gained.
Net reaction and spontaneous
reaction.

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Part B
Have students use a Standard Reduction Potentials table to answer the following
questions about these species: Au3+, Cr0(s), Sr2+, and Br.
Answers:
1. Which species is the most easily reduced
(i.e., is the strongest oxidizing agent)?
Au3+
2. Which species has the greatest affinity for electrons?
Au3+
3. Which species is the least easily oxidized?
Br
4. Which species is the most easily oxidized?
Cr0
5. Which species will oxidize Sn2+ to Sn4+?
Au3+
6. Which species will reduce F2(g) to 2F(aq)?
Br and Cr0
Part C
Inform students that in an investigation (similar to the one done in class), strips of
gold, silver, and tin were placed in beakers containing their ions, resulting in the
following reactions:
1. Sn0(s) + Ag+(aq)
metallic Ag deposited
2. Au3+(aq) + Sn0(s)
metallic Au deposited
3. Au0(s) + Ag+(aq)
no reaction
Have students arrange the ions used in the investigation in order of decreasing
tendency to attract electrons (i.e., the species with the greatest affinity for electrons
would be at the top).
Answers:
n
Reaction 1 tells us that for the reaction to proceed as written, Ag+ must have a
greater affinity for electrons than Sn2+; therefore, Ag+ must be above Sn2+ on a
Standard Reduction Potentials table that has the species with the greatest affinity
for electrons at the top.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

(continued)
Similarly, reaction 2 tells us that for the reaction to proceed as written, Au3+ has
a greater affinity for electrons than Sn2+; therefore, Au3+ must be above Sn2+ on a
table that has the species with the greatest affinity for electrons at the top.
Note: The reverse logic in this explanation is of interest.
If reaction 3 had produced products, then, using the same logic as in the
previous two reactions, Ag+ would have been above Au3+. However, the reaction
did not occur, and so the reverse is true, or Au3+ is above Ag+.
The complete list of reactions or species having the greatest affinity for electrons
would be as follows:
Au3+, then Ag+, then Sn2+
or
Au3+ + 3e
Au0(s)
Ag+ + 1e
Ag0(s)
Sn2+ + 2e
Sn0(s)
Part d
Challenge students with the following question:
Substances A, B, C, D, and E are metals that form positive ions. Ions of metal A
react with metal E but not with metal C. However, metal C does react with
solutions containing ions of metals D and B. Metal D will not react with ions of
metal B. List the metal ions, placing the best oxidizing agent at the top.
Answers:
As students are becoming more familiar with the logic used to arrange the various
species, a shorter explanation will now be used. Assume the easiest case, where the
metal ions are 1+.
A+ + E0
Reaction
Therefore, A+ over E+
A+ + C0
No reaction
Therefore, C+ over A+
D+ + C0
Reaction
Therefore, D+ over C+
B+ + C0
Reaction
Therefore, B+ over C+
B+ + D0
No reaction
Therefore, D+ over B+
The species order, according to the best oxidizer first, would be: D+, B+, C+, A+, E+.

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lEArning rEsourcEs links

Chemistry in Microscale, Book 1 (Ehrenkranz and Mauch)
Metal Reactivities, 80
Table 21.1: Activity Series of Metals, with Half-Reactions for Oxidation
Process, 664 (stresses the reduction process)
investigations
Activity 5.3: Developing an Activity Series of Metals, 385
Experiment 46: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 275
and Thompson)
Experiment 34: Determination of an Activity Series, 241
Websites
Virtual Crezlab Qualitative Analysis. Displacement Reaction. Teaching
Laboratory. Crescent Girls School.
<www.crescent.edu.sg/crezlab/webpages/pptReaction3.htm>
(3 Apr. 2012).
appendices
Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab Activity
Appendix 6.2: Table of Standard Reduction Potentials

SLO: C12-6-03
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry
SpeCIfIC LeaRnInG OutCOme

C12-6-03: Outline the historical development of voltaic (galvanic) cells.
Include: contributions of Luigi Galvani and alessandro Volta
(1 hour)

TEachEr NoTEs
historical Development of Voltaic (Galvanic) cells
Electrochemical cells are also referred to as voltaic cells or voltaic piles, named after
their inventor Allessandro Volta. Another term for electrochemical cells is galvanic
cells, in honour of Luigi Galvani, who influenced Voltas invention.
Luigi Galvani (17371798), Italian physician and physicist, discovered a link
between electricity and animal tissue in the 1770s. While his primary interests were
comparative anatomy and medicine, he also studied electricity. He observed that a
steel scalpel that had been near his electrostatic generators would cause the legs of
preserved frogs to twitch if the blade touched a nerve. He also observed twitches
when brass hooks were holding the frog specimens as he dissected the frogs with
his scalpel. He concluded that an electrical fluid, which he called animal
electricity, was being sent along the frog nerves.
Alessandro Volta (17451827), an Italian physicist and contemporary of Galvani,
was doing pioneer work in electricity. When Galvanis animal electricity findings
were published, Volta was skeptical and began designing experiments to explain
Galvanis observations. Volta soon discovered that having two different metals in
contact with each other in a moist environment would generate electricity. He
concluded that the frog tissues were just indicators that there was a current

GLO a1:
GLO a2:
GLO a4:
GLO C2:
GLO C4:
GLO C5:
GLO C6:
GLO C8:
innovations.
employ effective communication skills and use information technology to gather and share scientific and
daily life.

SkILLS
anD
attItuDeS OutCOmeS

C12-0-R2: evaluate information obtained to determine its usefulness for information needs.
Examples: scientific accuracy, reliability, currency, relevance, balance of perspectives, bias . . .
C12-0-R3: Quote from or refer to sources as required and reference information sources according
to an accepted practice.
C12-0-n1: explain the roles of theory, evidence, and models in the development of scientific
knowledge.
between the metals. This became know as metallic electricity. Volta maintained that
the only source of electricity was through two dissimilar metals. He studied
different combinations of metals and conditions and, in 1800, built the first
electrochemical cell, which consisted of three plates or discs: zinc and copper
sandwiching pasteboard that had been soaked in salt water or vinegar. By stacking
several of these three-disc cells (called voltaic piles), he created a reliable, constant
current of electricity that revolutionalized electrical research and started the study
of electrochemistry.
The debate over whether animal or metallic electricity was the correct explanation
went on in the scientific community for many years. We now know that both
Galvani and Volta were right and wrong about the frog legs: electric potential in
nerves does stimulate muscle tissue, but this is not a special biological electricity.
Have students research the historical development of the voltaic (galvanic) cell,
using various print and online resources, and report their findings either
individually or in small groups.
Sample Websites:
Carboni, Giorgio. Experiments in Electrochemistry. 1998. Fun Science Gallery.
<www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm> (5 Apr. 2012).
This website presents an explanation of various electrochemical cells.
Corrosion Doctor. Whos Who in Electrochemistry.
<www.corrosion-doctors.org/Whos_who.htm> (5 Apr. 2012).
This website features biographies of famous scientists, including Luigi Galvani
and Alessandro Volta.
Energy Quest. Super Scientists: A Gallery of Energy Pioneers. 2006.
<www.energyquest.ca.gov/scientists/> (5 Apr. 2012).
This website provides information about Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

(continued)
Greenslade, Thomas B. The Electrochemical Cell. Instruments for Natural

Philosophy. <http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Electricity/
Electrochemical_Cell/Electrochemical_Cell.html> (5 Apr. 2012).
This website presents historical information about the electrochemical cell, along
with images of some of the original voltaic cells.
Magnetic Lab: National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. Voltaic Pile. Education.
19952012. <www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/voltaicpile1/
index.html> (22 Aug. 2012).
At this website, students can learn about Alessandro Voltas application of the
principles of electrochemistry to the creation of the first battery, a tool that came
to be known as the voltaic pile.
Sss-Fink, Georg, and Frdric Chrioux. 6.2: Scheme of Electrochemical Cell.
Unit 5: Electron Transfer Reactions. 2005. General Chemistry.
<http://chimge.unil.ch/En/redox/1red13.htm> (10 Apr. 2012).
This website includes a diagram that shows the various parts of an
electrochemical cell.
Laboratory activity/Demonstration
1. Have students construct a voltaic cell by building a lemon battery. This involves
inserting two metals, such as zinc and copper, into a lemon and connecting the
metals with wire to produce electricity (see Dingrando, et al. 663).
2. Students can also replicate Voltas experiment and make a voltaic pile. Have
them alternate nickels and pennies (copper discs) and pieces of cardboard
(soaked in salt water) and connect a lead from the bottom to the top of the pile.
They can then demonstrate how an electric current is generated by placing a
zinc disc on the bottom of the pile, with electrolyte-soaked filter paper in the
middle and a copper disc on top (this sandwich is called an element). After
building a stack of the six elements, and being careful that the solution does not
drip down the side of the stack (this can cause a short circuit), two cables with
alligator clipsone at the bottom and one at the topcan be used to measure
the voltage between the bottom zinc disc and the top copper disc. The voltaic
pile can power a small LCD clock, a thermometer, or a calculator.

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knowledge.

Ask students to describe how electrochemistry is involved in producing energy in
batteries (see Fisher 294).
Laboratory skills
If students were asked to recreate Voltas experiment as either a demonstration or a
lab activity, lab skills could be assessed using rubrics and checklists. Sample
checklists for assessing lab skills and work habits are available in SYSTH (6.10,
6.11).
class Discussion
Have the class brainstorm a list of items that require some type of battery.
research Presentations
Have students present their research findings on the historical development of
voltaic cells. Use a presentation rubric to assess students presentations (e.g., see
Rubric for Assessment of Student Presentation in Appendix 11).
Journal Writing
1. Have students answer the following questions:
What would be the effect of not having any kind of electrochemical cell?
How would our lives change?
2. After completing their research, students could describe the research done by
any of the scientists responsible for the development of electrochemical cells.
Visual Displays
Students can diagram and illustrate Voltas voltaic pile, explaining why it produces
an electric current. These visual displays could be assessed using the Rubric for
Assessment of Student Presentation and the Rubric for Assessment of Class
Presentation (see Appendix 11).
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

(continued)

Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Science Notebook (Fisher 294)
Section 21.1: Electrochemical Cells, 663668 (shows Voltas electric piles)
investigation
Discovery Lab: A Lemon Battery? 663
Websites
Corrosion Doctor. Whos Who in Electrochemistry. <www.corrosiondoctors.org/Whos_who.htm> (5 Apr. 2012).
Magnetic Lab: National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. Voltaic Pile.
Education. 19952012. <www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/
java/voltaicpile1/index.html> (22 Aug. 2012).
Sss-Fink, Georg, and Frdric Chrioux. 6.2: Scheme of Electrochemical
Cell. Unit 5: Electron Transfer Reactions. 2005. General Chemistry.


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knowledge.
Notes
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

C12-6-04: explain the operation of a voltaic (galvanic) cell at the
visual, particulate, and symbolic levels.
Include: writing half-cell reactions, the overall reaction, and
shorthand (line) notation
C12-6-05: Construct a functioning voltaic (galvanic) cell and measure

its potential.
SLO: C12-6-04
SLO: C12-6-05
(3 hours)

In Grade 9 Science (Cluster 3: The Nature of Electricity), students completed a
detailed study of electricity. They related the particle model of electricity to atomic
structure (S1-3-04), constructed diagrams for electrical circuits (S1-3-13), and used
appropriate instruments to measure voltage (S1-3-14). As a result, students will
have prior knowledge concerning electrical circuits; however, a review should be
done.
Demonstration/Discrepant Event
To start the class with a demonstration, walk into the classroom while drinking
orange juice. After taking a sip, pour the remaining juice into a beaker in which
there are two electrodes: one of magnesium metal and the other of copper. Ensure
that both electrodes are connected to a large display clock. As the clock starts
running, state that we are now on the clock and we can begin the class.
An alternative demonstration might be to have a piece of copper and a piece of
clean zinc metal stuck into a lemon connected to either a voltmeter or a similar
clock. This demonstration may be viewed online.
Sample Website:
Carboni, Giorgio. The Lemon Battery. Experiments in Electrochemistry. 1998. Fun
Science Gallery. <www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm#2>
(10 Apr. 2012).
This website outlines the procedure for performing The Lemon Battery
demonstration.

GLO C1:
GLO C2:
GLO C5:
GLO D3:

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TEachEr NoTEs
The operation of a Voltaic cell
Students should be asked to explain the operation of electrochemical cells using the
three modes of representation: visual (macroscopic), particulate (microscopic), and
symbolic. Chemistry texts provide clear particulate diagrams of electrochemical cell
processes.
After addressing specific learning outcomes C12-6-04 and C12-6-05, students should
understand that a chemical reaction can be used to create an electric current. A
voltaic cell is an apparatus that uses a spontaneous redox reaction to produce
electrical energy. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be
created or destroyed; it is simply converted from one form of energy into another.
In a voltaic cell, the chemical energy from a spontaneous redox reaction is
converted into electrical energy.
Many chemical and electrical processes occur in an electrochemical cell. Students
must be able to explain the reactions in both half-cells in terms of electron flow,
anion flow, and cation flow.
constructing a Voltaic cell
Students should first construct a spontaneous, working voltaic cell based on their
understanding of the electromotive series discussed in relation to learning outcomes
C12-6-01 and C12-6-02. Students should have access to voltmeters, wire, alligator
clamps, U-tubes, cotton wool, a number of common metals together with 1.0 mol/L
solutions of their ions, and a 1.0 mol/L solution of sodium, potassium, or
ammonium nitrate to use in their salt bridge.
Have students write out the spontaneous reaction and identify the reduction
reaction, the oxidation reaction, and the two half-cell reactions, using Appendix 6.2:
Table of Standard Reduction Potentials. After confirming spontaneity, have each
group of students construct their cell and measure the voltage across the electrodes.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


its potential.
(continued)
Note that students will likely not achieve the predicted net cell potential (E0cell)
voltage. According to the Nernst equation, the maximum voltage is dependent on
concentration and assumes that temperature is constant. Immediately after the
connections are made, concentrations will change. The reactant ions will decrease as
they are used up, and the product ions will increase as they are produced.
Le Chteliers principle will then cause a stress on the system and attempt to
re-establish equilibrium by the reverse reaction and by reducing the net cell voltage.
At this point, ask students what conditions would cause the equilibrium to shift
forward and increase voltage.
A concentration gradient would occur at each electrode, causing both an excess of
one ion and a shortage of other ions for the net reaction.
The Daniell cell
The diagram below illustrates the electrochemical cell for the following net reaction:
Cu2+(aq) + Zn0(s)
Cu0(s) + Zn2+(aq) + 1.10 V
Cu
+
Electron flow
Salt bridge
Zn
SO42-
SO42-
Zn2+
Cu2+
CuSO4(aq)
KCl
ZnSO4(aq)

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The illustrated cell is a special case of an electrochemical cell. It was first

successfully constructed in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell
(17901845). (An Internet search will generate extensive information, if required.)
This particular electrochemical cell with copper and zinc electrodes is now called a
Daniell cell.
In the diagram, the two half-cell reactions are connected by a salt bridge containing
a soluble ionic salt such as potassium chloride (KCl). The salt bridge is used as an
internal circuit and allows the half-cells to remain electrically balanced. In the case
of this cell, as zinc ions are produced at the anode, making the anodic compartment
positive with an excess of positive ions, the chloride ions move from the salt bridge
toward the anode to maintain electrical neutrality within that half-cell. In the case of
the cathodic copper cell, copper ions are being removed from the solution, making
it electrically negative. To counteract this, positive potassium ions from the salt
bridge move toward the cathode, again to maintain electrical neutrality within the
cathodic cell. When the two half-cells are joined with a wire path for the electrons
and another path for the positive and negative ion movement, an electrochemical
cell is made.
Each galvanic cell should consist of
n
an anode (zinc), which oxidizes (loses e)
a cathode (copper), which reduces (gains e)

Cu2+ + 2e
Zn0
Cu0
Zn2+ + 2e
Reduction reaction at the cathodecations removed

and limiting
Oxidation at the anodeanions produced and in excess
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode of an electrochemical cell.

Anions move toward the anode, and cations move toward the cathode.
The migration of ions is essential to the operation of the cell, since the accumulation
of ionic charge in the solution around the electrodes would oppose the movement
of electrons. The result is a voltage of +1.10 V.
The same cell can be constructed with a porous cup acting as the salt bridge. Give
students the opportunity to construct cells using either a salt bridge or a porous
cup.

Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


its potential.
(continued)
A shorthand (line) notation is often used to represent the voltaic cell diagram.
Reactant
Product
Reactant
Product
Zn(s) | Zn2+ (1 mol/L) || Cu2+ (1 mol/L) | Cu(s)

Oxidation
half-cell
Reduction
half-cell
The single vertical line (|) represents a phase boundary between the metal and
the ion in solution.
The double vertical line (||) represents the salt bridge. By convention, the anode
is written first, to the left of the double lines, and the cathode reaction is written
second, to the right of the double lines.
animations/simulations
Animations help students appreciate particulate (microscopic) events and
subsequent symbolic representations. Have students perform simulations or view
animations online.
Sample Websites:
n
Electrochemical Cell Experiment

This simulation helps students create a voltaic cell. Students select the
electrodes and the ionic solutions needed to create a functioning

Education and Extended Programs. ChemistryElectrochemistry. Teachers
Instructional Graphics and Educational Resource (TIGER).
<www.dlt.ncssm.edu/tiger/chem6.htm#electro> (11 Apr. 2012).
This website contains a set of six narrated Flash animations explaining how a
voltaic cell works.

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Have students draw a diagram of a voltaic cell on which they identify the positive
and negative electrodes, anode, cathode, half-cell reactions, direction of electron
flow, direction of ion flow, the solutions used, which electrode erodes, which
electrode plates, the net cell reaction, and the voltage produced. They should focus
on the particulate nature of matter when explaining electrode reactions, the
movement of ions, and electrons through the circuit, and the maintenance of
electrical neutrality in all parts of the cell.
Laboratory skills
Students should be able to build and test simple voltaic cells. Assess students lab
skills as necessary. Sample checklists for assessing students lab skills and work
habits are available in SYSTH (6.10, 6.11). Have groups of students compare the
results of their voltaic cells and explain differences in voltage. Try to have several
groups use the same electrodes to allow for comparison of results.
Have students research the electrochemical cell, using online resources, and report
their findings.
Sample Websites:
This website presents an explanation of various electrochemical cells.
This website presents historical information about the electrochemical cell, along
with images of some of the original voltaic cells.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


its potential.
(continued)

This website includes a diagram that shows the various parts of an
Journal Writing
After students have read and viewed online information about the electrochemical
cell, they can describe the research done by any of the scientists responsible for the
development of electrochemical cells.

Section 21.1: Voltaic Cells, 663
Voltaic Cells, 665
investigation
and Thompson)
Experiment 36: Small-Scale Voltaic Cells, 257
Websites
_____. The Lemon Battery. Experiments in Electrochemistry. 1998. Fun Science
Gallery. <www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm#2>
(10 Apr. 2012).
Simulation: Electrochemical Cell Experiment

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Education and Extended Programs. ChemistryElectrochemistry.
Sss-Fink, Georg, and Frdric Chrioux. 6.2: Scheme of Electrochemical
Cell. Unit 5: Electron Transfer Reactions. 2005. General Chemistry.
appendix

Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

C12-6-06: Define standard electrode potential.
C12-6-07: Calculate standard cell potentials, given standard electrode

potentials.
C12-6-08: predict the spontaneity of reactions using standard electrode
potentials.
SLO: C12-6-06
SLO: C12-6-07
SLO: C12-6-08
(2.5 hours)

Students focused on electricity in great depth in Grade 9 Science, and they have
studied electron transfer extensively in Grade 12 Chemistry. However, each time
students add a new layer of knowledge, a review and assessment of their
understanding is necessary.
TEachEr NoTEs
Electrode Potentials
When scientists first constructed voltaic (galvanic) electrochemical cells, they
recorded net cell potentials (standard reduction potential, E0) that resulted from the
reactions, but they did not know how much each half-cell contributed to the total
net cell voltage. Many experiments were done in an attempt to determine the
absolute E0 for any half-cell reaction.
During their experiments, chemists found that not only did temperature affect the
net cell potential, but so did the concentration of ions in solution and the pressure,
if a gas was used. Another term that is often used synonymously with cell potential
is electromotive force (emf).
Many reference electrodes were tried before chemists chose the hydrogen halfcell as the standard against which all other electrodes would be measured. Students
will readily see that this choice was reasonable, as the hydrogen half-cell reaction
appears in the middle of the Standard Reduction Potentials table and has an emf
value of 0.

GLO D3:

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standard hydrogen Electrode

In the hydrogen electrode diagram shown below, hydrogen gas (H2) is bubbled into
hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution at 25C. The platinum electrode provides a surface
on which the dissociation of hydrogen molecules can occur, as well as serving as an
electrical conductor to the external circuit.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Hydrogen
at 1 bar
Temperature = 298 K
Platinum wire
Platinum foil
covered in
porous platinum
Dilute sulphuric acid

[H+] = 1 mol/L
Temperature = 298 K
High-resistance
voltmeter
Magnesium
Hydrogen
at 1 bar
Platinum wire
Salt
bridge
Platinum foil
covered in
porous platinum
Dilute sulphuric acid

[H+] = 1 mol/L
Magnesium sulphate solution

[Mg2+] = 1 mol/L
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


potentials.
potentials.
(continued)
Under standard conditions of 1 atm for H2 and 1 mol/L HCl, the potential for the
reduction of H+ at 25C is taken to be exactly zero.
2H+ (1 mol/L) + 2e
E0 = 0 V
H2 (1 atm)
Once the standard half-cell had been chosen, scientists were able to use this cell to
determine the electrode potential for all the other half-cell reactions on the
electromotive series. These values were placed on a table of half-cell reactions
containing Standard Reduction Potentials.
Example:
A galvanic cell with a zinc electrode and a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
During the reaction, the zinc electrode loses mass, indicating that the zinc electrode
half-cell reaction must be
Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e
The shorthand notation for this cell is

Zn(s) | Zn2+ (1 mol/L) || H+ (1 mol/L) | H2 (1 atm ) | Pt(s)
The half-cell reactions are as follows:
Anode (oxidation)
Cathode (reduction)
Net reaction
Zn(s)
2H+ (1 mol/L) + 2e
Zn(s) + 2H+ (1 mol/L)
Zn2+ ( 1 mol/L) + 2e
H2 (1 atm)
Zn2+ (1 mol/L) +H2 (1 atm)

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By convention, the standard emf of the cell, E0cell, composed of a contribution from
the cathode and the anode, is given by
E0 cell E0 cathode E0 anode
Zn 2
H
E0
E0 cell E0
Zn
H2
Zn 2
0.76 V 0 E0
Zn
Zn 2
0.76 V
E0
Zn
(the voltage was measured for the cell

at 0.76 V)
2
0 Zn
solving for E Zn
In a similar way, all electrode potentials were determined and placed together with
their half-cell reactions on a table that chemists call the Standard Electrode
Potentials.
Students should now be shown how to determine the net cell emf using half-cell
reactions from the table of Standard Reduction Potentials.
Using the standard reduction Potentials Table
The table is organized according to the tendency of a substance to gain electrons,
which is its reduction potential. For every redox reaction, the half-reaction that is
more positive will proceed as a reduction reaction, and the half-reaction that is more
negative will proceed as an oxidation reaction.
The Standard Reduction Potentials table is used to determine spontaneity and
electrical potential of a given cell. Any positive cell potential value determined by
finding the difference between the cathode and anode half-reaction potentials will
result in a spontaneous redox reaction. Any negative cell potential value will indicate a
non-spontaneous redox reaction.
Example:
Calculate the cell potential for a silver-copper cell.
1. Find the half-reactions for silver and copper from the Standard Reduction
Potentials table.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Cu(s)
E0 = +0.34 V
Ag+(aq) + 1e
Ag(s)
E0 = +0.80 V
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


potentials.
potentials.
(continued)
Since Ag+ ions are more easily reduced than Cu2+ ions,
Ag+(aq) + 1e
Ag(s)
half-reaction is the reduction half-reaction
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Cu(s)
needs to be reversed to become the oxidation

half-reaction
Another way of saying this is that the Ag+ has a greater affinity for electrons
than the Cu2+ ion and, as a result, the reaction with the lower + emf will become
the oxidation reaction. When reversing any half-reaction, the sign of the
reduction potential is also reversed.
Therefore, the oxidation half-reaction will be
Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Ag+(aq) + 1e
Ag(s)
E0 = 0.34 V
Oxidation
E0 = +0.80 V
Reduction
2. Substitute the half-cell potentials into the equation.

E0cell = E0oxidation + E0reduction = (0.34 V) + (+0.80 V) = +0.46 V
This cell has a potential of +0.46 V and confirms its spontaneity.
Note:
Chemistry texts will often show two methods for the calculation of E0 cell:
E0cell = E0oxidation + E0reduction
E0cell = E0cathode E0anode
Either relationship will produce the correct result.
Students may also use the formula E0cell = E0reduction E0oxidation to obtain cell
potential. Then they do not have to flip positive and negative signs before
calculating values.
For a summary of the Standard Reduction Potentials, refer to Chemistry (Chang
825830).

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Part a
Students should be able to answer questions such as the following about the
standard hydrogen electrode.
1. What was the necessity of finding the standard hydrogen electrode?
Answer:
Any given pair of electrodes will give a specific cell potential, but to compare the
relative strengths of the electrodes on cell dynamics, scientists needed to find a
cell to which all others could be compared. Many reference cells were initially
used, but the hydrogen cell conveniently fell in the middle of the table of
Standard Reduction Potentials.
2. What would the table have looked like if chemists had chosen a standard
electrode other than the standard hydrogen electrode?
Answer:
If another cell were used instead of hydrogen, the reactions would still be in the
same order of electron affinity; however, the new reference cell would be given
the value of zero and all the others would then be compared to that cell. On
either side of the new reference, positive and negative numbers would become
larger, moving away from the reference cell.
Part B
Students should be able to find the net (overall) cell potential of a given reaction or
electrochemical cell and predict whether the reaction will be spontaneous, and
explain why or why not.
1. Complete the following reactions based on a Standard Reduction Potentials
table. Calculate the net cell potential and indicate the reason why the reaction
proceeds spontaneously as written.
Answers will vary, depending on the tables used.
a) Zn0(s) + Hg2+(aq)
(Zn2+ + Hg0(l))
Answer:
Ecell = +1.54 V
This cell would run spontaneously. The net cell voltage is positive.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry


potentials.
potentials.
(continued)
b) Cu0(s) + 2Ag+(aq)
(Cu2+ + 2Ag0)
Answer:
Ecell = +0.46 V
This cell would run spontaneously. The net cell voltage is positive.
c) Mn0(s) + 2Cs+(aq)
No reaction
Answer:
Ecell = 1.74 V
This cell would not function. The net cell voltage is negative.
Part C
For each of the following situations, have students write balanced net ionic
reactions, indicate the oxidation and reduction reactions, specify the cell emf, and
predict whether the reaction will be spontaneous, briefly explaining why or why
not.
1. In the Middle Ages, iron was used to make pots and pans. Could a solution of
copper(II) acetate be stored in such an iron container? Explain your answer with
reactions and a discussion of emf.
Answer:
The acetate ion does not occur in the Standard Reduction Potentials table and is,
therefore, a spectator ion. The expected reaction will be
Fe0 + 2Cu+
Fe2+ + 2Cu0
Ecell = +0.59 V
As the net cell potential is positive, a reaction would occur spontaneously. It

would not be a good idea to store the solution in an iron container.
The iron metal is oxidized to Fe2+, and the Cu+ is reduced to elemental copper.

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2. A lead(II) nitrate solution is poured into a container in which a piece of zinc

metal has been placed.
Answer:
The nitrate ion only reacts when it is placed in an acidic solution, so in this
example it will be a spectator ion. The expected reaction will be
Zn0 + Pb2+
Zn2+ + Pb0
Ecell = +0.63 V
As the net cell potential is positive, a reaction will occur between the zinc metal
and the lead solution.
The zinc metal is oxidized to Zn2+, and the Pb2+ ion is reduced to metallic lead.
3. What metal container(s) could be used to hold a 0.20 mol/L solution of copper(I)
acetate safely? Explain your answer.
Answer:
The acetate ion does not appear in the Standard Reduction Potentials table, and
so it will be a spectator ion.
Cu+ appears in the following reduction reaction:
Cu2+ + e
Cu1+
E0 = +0.15 V
For a reaction to occur, the species must be above Cu+ and to the left on the
Standard Reduction Potentials table for the net cell potential to be positive. So,
we must be looking for a metal below Cu+. Possible containers in which a
0.20 mol/L solution of copper(I) acetate could, therefore, be Pb0, Sn0, Ni0, Co0,
Fe0, Cr0, and so on.
Extension/Enrichment
Students have used Le Chteliers principle in their discussion of chemical
equilibria in acid-base chemistry and solubility. Le Chteliers principle applies
equally to electrochemical cells.
Students already know that when a stress is placed on a system at equilibrium, the
reaction shifts so as to offset or ameliorate the stress applied. After studying
Grade 11 and Grade 12 chemistry, students know that as a reaction proceeds, the
reactants decrease and the products increase. Have students consider what could be
done to an electrochemical cell to prolong the voltage, given that the initial emf will
decrease over time.

Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

potentials.
potentials.
(continued)
The following example uses a Daniell cell to explore the effects of adding or
removing substances from a system.
Recall that a Daniell cell is a special case of a voltaic (galvanic) cell having the net
reaction of:
Cu2+(aq) + Zn0(s)
Cu0(s) + Zn2+(aq) + 1.10 V

Cu
+
Electron flow
Salt bridge
Zn
SO42-
SO42Cu
KCl
Zn2+
2+
CuSO4(aq)
ZnSO4(aq)
Facts
n
Immediately after the circuit is connected, the voltage will begin to decrease from
an emf of 1.10 V.
The blue colour in the cathodic (reduction) cell due to the Cu2+(aq) ion will
become less dark as the ions are reduced to solid copper atoms that are
deposited on the copper cathode.
The concentration of Zn2+(aq) ions will increase around the zinc anode.
As a result, the concentration of reactants will continue to decrease and the

concentration of products will increase.

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Effects to consider using Le Chteliers principle include the following:

n
The addition of Cu2+(aq) ions in any form using a soluble salt of Cu2+(aq) will have
a tendency to move the equilibrium in the forward direction.
The removal of Zn2+(aq) ions by the addition of a precipitating anion will
effectively remove soluble Zn2+(aq) to a solid form that will precipitate
(e.g., sulphide ion S), forming solid ZnS (e.g., hydroxide OH ion), forming
solid Zn(OH)2, and so on.
Journal Writing/Process Notes

Students can
n
n
provide reasons for the great attention currently being given to electrochemistry
write the steps for the process of predicting whether any proposed redox
reaction will occur spontaneously (Fisher 287)
explain the difference between positive and negative Ecell values (Fisher 286)

Table 211: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25C, 1 atm, and 1M Ion
Concentration, 667
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change, Science Notebook (Fisher 286, 287)
Table 21.2: Reduction Potentials at 25C with 1M Concentration of
Aqueous Species, 674

Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

C12-6-09: Compare and contrast voltaic (galvanic) and electrolytic
cells.
C12-6-10: explain the operation of an electrolytic cell at the visual,
Include: a molten ionic compound and an aqueous ionic
compound
C12-6-11: Describe practical uses of electrolytic cells.

Examples: electrolysis of water, electrolysis of brine, electroplating,
production and purification of metals . . .
SLO: C12-6-09
SLO: C12-6-10
SLO: C12-6-11
(3.5 hours)

The following study of electrolytic cells complements previous discussions of
electrochemical cells; however, a review and assessment is necessary to secure
students prior knowledge before adding a new layer of related information.
TEachEr NoTEs
Electrolysis is the process in which electrical energy is used to cause a nonspontaneous reaction to occur.
Demonstration:Electrolysis of Water
The electrolysis of water, a method by which hydrogen gas and oxygen gas can be
generated, is an effective demonstration to begin the discussion of electrolytic cells
even though it is generally a slow reaction.
The following schematic diagram shows how a simple apparatus can be used for
the decomposition of water. Many teachers will be familiar with the equipment,
since it is often found in chemistry labs. The Hofmann apparatus was designed by
German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann for the electrolytic decomposition
of water. As water is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, the use of a 0.1
mol/L solution of either hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid will speed up the
reaction.

GLO a5:
GLO B2:
GLO D3:
Recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and continue to be influenced by

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C12-0-R4: Compare diverse perspectives and interpretations in the media and other information
sources.
Oxygen
Hofmann Apparatus
Hydrogen
Copper wire with plastic cover

Beaker
Test tube
Graphite electrode
Water with added sulphuric acid
A
H2
O2
Dil. H2SO4
Cathode
e-
Anode
e-
The addition of universal indicator to the acidic solution will cause a colour change
when the reaction begins. The colour will also help the observer to note the
difference in the volumes of gas produced.
The volume of gas is related to the empirical formula of water and, therefore, twice
as much hydrogen gas is produced as oxygen gas. A glowing splint can be used to
identify whether a gas is oxygen or hydrogen. If the splint glows brighter, the gas is
oxygen, and if there is a popping sound, the gas is hydrogen.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

cells.
compound

(continued)
comparison of Electrochemical and Electrolytic cells

The following table compares electrochemical (voltaic) and electrolytic cells.
comparison of Electrochemical and Electrolytic cells
Electrochemical cell
Electrolytic cell
Reaction spontaneity
Spontaneous
Non-spontaneous
Cell potential
Positive
Negative
Electricity
Produces
Consumes
Electrode charge*
Cathode (+)
Anode ()
Cathode (+)
Anode ()
Cathode
Reduction
Reduction
Anode
Oxidation
Oxidation
Change in energy
Converts chemical energy

to electrical energy
Converts electrical energy

to chemical energy
* The discussion of electrode charge can be confusing to students, and should have a
lower priority than the discussion of chemical processes that occur at each electrode.
The operation of an Electrolytic cell

Students should be able to describe the processes involved in the operation of
electrolytic cells in terms of the various modes of representation (visual, particulate,
and symbolic), just as they were expected to for electrochemical cells. The
particulate nature of matter is just as relevant with electrolytic cells.

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sources.
A labelled diagram of an electrolytic cell is provided below. Note the similarities of

an electrolytic cell to an electrochemical cell. One of the differences in the setup of
the apparatus is that in an electrolytic cell, a source of electricity is required to push
the usually non-spontaneous reaction to occur, whereas in an electrochemical cell,
the cell generates electricity through a spontaneous chemical reaction. Another
difference is that in an electrolytic cell, both reactions occur in the same container,
whereas separate containers are needed for each electrode in an electrochemical cell.
Industrial Electrolytic Cell
Electrolytic Cell
Inert
electrode
e-
Battery
Cl2(g)
Molten
ClAnode
e_
NaCl
Inlet
for NaCl
Inert
electrode
Na(s)
Na+
Cathode
Liquid
Na metal
Na outlet
Molten
NaCl
Iron
screen
Cathode (Anode (+)
The following items should be included in a diagram of an electrolytic cell: a

container, an electrolytic solution (acid, base, or salt), the two electrodes, an external
electron pump (battery), the positive electrode of the battery connected to the
anode, and the negative electrode of the battery connected to the cathode. Half-cell
reactions and the net reaction are still necessary.
There are two different types of electrolytic cells:
n
The more straightforward cell occurs when electricity is applied to a molten

solution. The industrial applications of this particular cell will be discussed later.
The second type of cell occurs when electricity is applied to an aqueous solution.
This cell is complicated by the fact that there are many more species that can be
oxidized and reduced.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

compound

(continued)
Electrolysis of Molten solutions

Molten solutions are melted forms of the pure substance. Obviously, the electrolytic
cell container would be made of material that could withstand the high
temperatures required to maintain the solution in the molten state. A diagram of an
industrial electrolytic cell follows.
Industrial Electrolytic Cell
rolytic Cell
e-
Battery

cells.
NaCl
Na(s)
Na+
Cathode
Inlet
for NaCl
Inert
electrode
Liquid
Na metal
Na outlet
Cl2 outlet
Molten
NaCl
Iron
screen
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
The negative side of the battery is connected to the cathode. In an electrolytic cell,
as in an electrochemical cell, the cations move towards the cathode and the anions
to the anode, according to the following reactions:
Anode (oxidation)
Cathode (reduction)
Net reaction
2Cl(l)
2Na+(l) + 2e
2Na+(l) + 2Cl(l)
Cl20(g) + 2e
2Na0(l)
2Na0(l) + Cl20(g)
This reaction is used to produce pure supplies of sodium and chlorine gas.

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sources.
Electrolysis of aqueous Brine solution

Teachers should carefully review their own knowledge of the following information
before teaching it to students.
The electrolysis of brine (a saturated solution of sodium chloride), produces
chlorine gas, hydrogen gas, and sodium hydroxide. The presence of water adds
species that could either oxidize or be reduced.
An examination of the Standard Reduction Potentials table shows that the following
oxidation reactions could occur at the anode:
1. 2Cl(aq)
Cl20(g) + 2e
2. 2H2O(l)
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
Anode (oxidation)
According to the table, both reactions have been reversed, and must be written as
follows:
3. Cl20(g) + 2e
2Cl(l)
4. O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
E0 = +1.36 V
2H2O(l)
E0 = +1.23 V
The half-cell emf values are close, but still indicate that for the reverse oxidation
reaction, the H2O(l) should be the first to be oxidized. However, it has been found
experimentally that a much higher potential is required to oxidize water, and in fact
Cl20(g) is produced, and not O2(g). The voltage required for the oxidation reaction in
excess of the expected value is called the overvoltage. The causes of overvoltage are
very complex. In simple terms, a greater voltage is caused by difficulties
encountered by the various species transferring electrons to atoms on the
electrode/solution interface. As a result of this anomaly, E0 values must be used
cautiously in predicting the actual order of the oxidation or reduction of species in
aqueous solutions.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

cells.
compound

(continued)
Similarly, the following reduction reactions could occur at the cathode:

5. 2H+(aq) + 2e
H20(g)
E0 = 0.00 V
6. 2H2O(l) + 2e
H20(g) + 2OH(aq)
E0 = 0.83 V
7. Na+(aq) + 1e
Na0(s)
E0 = 2.71 V
Cathode (reduction)
According to the Standard Reduction Potentials table, the species that is most
readily reduced is No. 5; however, in an aqueous salt solution at a pH of 7, the
concentration of H+(aq) would be too low to consider at 1 107 mol/L.
Consequently, the preferred reaction at the cathode would be No. 6.
The reactions for the electrolysis of aqueous brine solution would be as follows:
Anode (oxidation)
Cathode (reduction)
Net reaction:
2Cl(aq)
2H2O(l) + 2e
2H2O(l) + 2Cl(aq)
Cl20(g) + 2e
H20(g) + 2OH(aq)
H20(g) + 2OH(aq) + Cl20(g)
research:applications of Electrolytic cells

Many useful reactions centre on the use of electricity to produce chemical changes.
If time permits, encourage students to research the applications of electrolytic cells.
According to the media, fuel cells appear to be the energy of the future. Chemistry
texts, such as those cited as Learning Resources Links, provide topical discussions
of electrolytic cells.
1. Electrolysis of brine (a saturated solution of sodium chloride) is used for the
purification of water and collection of sodium hydroxide, hydrogen, and
chlorine (also known as the chloro-alkali process).
2. Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride within a Downs cell is used to obtain
elemental sodium and chlorine gas.
3. Aluminum metal is obtained by the electrolysis of aluminum oxide, which is
refined from bauxite ore.

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sources.
4. Extraction is the process by which a metal is obtained from an ore. Reactive

metals, including lithium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, and radium, are
extracted industrially by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
5. Refining/purification of metal occurs following extraction. During this process,
impurities are removed electrolytically to produce pure metals, such copper or
nickel. The result is 99.99% pure metals.
6. Electroplating coats an object with a thin layer of protective/decorative metal,
such as copper or silver.
7. Galvanizing is a process in which iron is covered with a protective layer of zinc.
8. Cathodic protection is a method of preventing rusting in which a more reactive
metal (sacrificial anode) is attached to an object. For example, this method is
used to protect ship hulls, oil and gas pipelines, boat motors, underground iron
pipes, and gasoline storage tanks.
class Discussion
Discuss the environmental impact of mining and extraction procedures and the
implications for sustainability.
Laboratory activity/Demonstration
Construct (or have students construct) an electrolytic cell using a solution of
copper(II) sulphate, a copper metal strip, a nickel or quarter coin, and a 6-V battery.
The copper from the solution plates onto the nickel. Reversing the current removes
the plated copper from the nickel.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

cells.
compound

(continued)

1. Have students demonstrate their ability to calculate the cell potential of
electrolytic cells.
2. Ask students to draw a diagram of an electrolytic cell on which they identify the
positive and negative electrodes, anode, cathode, half-cell reactions, direction of
electron flow, direction of ion flow, solutions used, the net cell reaction, the
electrode that erodes, and the electrode that plates.
3. Have students explain the complete operation of a working electrolytic cell in
terms of the three modes of representation: visual, particulate, and symbolic.
Students can complete a Compare and Contrast think sheet for electrolytic and
electrochemical cells (see SYSTH 10.24).
research Project
Students can research electrolytic processes by conducting an Article Analysis (see
SYSTH 11.30, 11.40, 11.41) or by creating a poster. The projects should emphasize
local applications, where relevant.

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sources.

Section 21.3: Electrolysis, 683
Section 21.3: Electrolytic Cells, 678
investigations
Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change: Laboratory Manual (Dingrando, et al.)
Lab 21.2: Electroplating, 165
Experiment 48: Electrochemistry, 287 (constructing electrolytic cells)

SLO: C12-6-12
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

C12-6-12: Solve problems related to electrolytic cells, using faradays
law.
(2 hours)

In their discussion of electricity in Grade 9 Science, students learned that the
quantity of electric charge is equal of the product of the current and time. Teachers
should help students review prior knowledge before proceeding with new
information.
TEachEr NoTEs
Faradays Law
English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday (17911867) experimented
extensively to determine the stoichiometric relationship between electric charge and
chemical energy. He determined that the amount of substance produced or
consumed in an electrolysis reaction is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity that flows through the circuit.
An ampere is defined as 1 coulomb flowing through a conductor in 1 second.
Amperage = coulombs/second, or rearranged as
Q = It
Q = charge (coulombs)
I = current (amperes)
t = change in time (seconds)

GLO a4:
GLO B1:
GLO D3:
GLO D4:
innovations.
Describe scientific and technological developmentspast and presentand appreciate their impact on
individuals, societies, and the environment, both locally and globally.
understand how stability, motion, forces, and energy transfers and transformations play a role in a wide

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chemistry.
Faradays constant (F) is the quantity of electricity carried by 1 mole of electrons.

1 faraday = Avogadros number the charge on an electron
= 6.02 1023 mol1 1.602192 1019 coulombs electron1
= 96 484 coulombs mole of electrons1
= 96 500 coulombs/mole of electrons (rounded)
By combining electric current and Faradays constant, chemists have a simple way
to calculate how much electricity is required to produce a mole of product at a
given electrode. The solid is usually deposited at the cathode.
Moles of electrons
amp s
96 500
Depending on the problem, we use two different units for 96 500:

96 500 amp s
mole of electrons
or
96 500 coulombs
mole of electrons
We can then use unit analysis to confirm calculations and the correct units.
In class discussions, emphasize the proportionality of ion charge to the grams
liberated (deposited) from a solution (molten or aqueous salt) during the passage of
1 mole of electrons.

law.
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry
(continued)
The following table illustrates the relationship between moles of electrons and the
half-cell reactions.
relationship between Moles of Electrons and half-cell reactions
solution or
Molten salt
Ion
oxidation
Number
Gram Equivalent
Weight
Grams of Element
Produced
NaCl
Na+
+1
23 g 1
23 g Na/faraday
HCl
Cl
35.5 g 1
35.5 g Cl/faraday
MgCl2
MG2+
+2
24.3 g 2
12.2 g Mg/faraday
Al2(SO4)3
Al3+
+3
27 g 3
9 g Al/faraday
Note that with Mg2+, twice as many moles of electrons (electricity) are required to
discharge 1 mole of Mg than to discharge 1 mole of Na. Since there is 1 mole of
electrons in a faraday, only half a mole, or 12.2 g, of Mg metal is deposited. As
shown in the previous table, 1 faraday (96 500 coulombs) is required to discharge 1
mole of Na+ ions, 2 faradays of electricity are needed to discharge 1 mole of Mg2+
ions, and 3 faradays are needed to discharge 1 mole of Al3+ ions.
solving Problems Using Faradays Law
Have students solve problems related to electrolytic cells, using Faradays law.
Some sample problems and solutions follow.
Example 1:
How many coulombs of current would be produced if 12.0 amp flow for 15.0
minutes?
Solution:
Q = It
= amp seconds
= 12.0 amp 15.0 min 60 s/min
= 10 800 coulombs

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chemistry.
Example 2:
If 7.85 amp flow through a molten solution of copper(I) chloride for 45.0 minutes,
how many moles of electrons flow though the cell?
Solution:
Half-reaction: Cu+ + 1e
Moles of electrons
Moles of electrons
Cu0
amp s
96 500
7.85 amp 45 min 60 s
96 500 amp s mole of electrons1 min
0.220 mole of electrons
Example 3:
Calculate the grams of zinc deposited if 5.00 moles of electrons pass through a zinc
sulphate solution.
Solution:
1. Write the reduction half-reaction.
Zn2+ + 2e
Zn
2. Use the mole ratio from the reaction.

2 moles of electrons
5 mol
1 mole of zinc metal
x mol
x = 2.50 mol 65.38 g mol1 or 163.45 g (or 164 g to 3 sig. figs.)
Topic 6:
Electrochemistry

law.
(continued)
Example 4:
If 9.00 amp flow for 10.0 minutes through a molten silver fluoride solution, what
mass of silver metal would be deposited at the cathode?
Solution:
The cathode reaction: Ag+(aq) + 1e1 = Ag0(s)
Therefore, according to the stoichiometry of the reaction, 1 mol of electrons
produces 1 mol of Ag metal.
Moles of electrons
Moles of electrons
amp s
96 500
n 60 s
9.00 amp 10.0 min
96 500 amp s mole of electrons1 min
ns 0.0560 mol of Ag 107.9 g/ mol

0.0560 mole of electron
6.04 g of Ag to 3 sig. figs.
Laboratory activity
Students can perform a lab experiment in
which a potassium iodide solution is
electrolyzed using carbon electrodes.
Note:
Remember to have students
present the redox projects they
began preparing in Topic 1:
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions.

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chemistry.

When solving problems related to electrolytic cells, students should be able to
calculate any specific variable, when given all the other variables.
Examples:
n
n
Find the mass, given the cathode reaction, amperage, and time.
Find the time required to deposit a given mass of metal at the cathode, given the
amperage and the cation.
Find the amperage required to deposit a given mass of metal at the cathode for a
given time period.
Find the volume of gas generated at the anode, given the amperage, the time, the
gas produced, and the temperature and pressure of the gas liberated.
Journal Writing
Ask students to
n
n
write an account of the various industrial uses of electrolytic cells

discuss the environmental effects of using an electrochemical cell to manufacture
pure elements

investigation
Essential Experiments for Chemistry (Morrison and Scodellaro)
Experiment 14E: Electrolytic Cells, 256

Topic 6:
ElEcTrochEmisTry
AppEndicEs
Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab Activity 3
Appendix 6.2: Table of Standard Reduction Potentials 5
Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab Activity

Purpose
In this qualitative lab activity, you will place
drops of solutions onto strips of different metals
and observe any reactions that occur. Each
solution will have an aqueous ion that matches
one of the metal strips.
Materials
n
19 mm 125 mm strips of aluminum (Al),

copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and/or
other metals
Caution:
The chemicals used in this lab
activity are oxidizers and should
be handled carefully.
n
All lab participants must wear
personal safety equipment for
protection of eyes, hands, and
clothes.
n
Refer to the MSDS sheets for
more information on each
chemical you choose to use.
n
0.2 mol/L solutions of Al(NO3)3, Cu(NO3)2,

Fe(NO3)3, Zn(NO3)2, and/or other nitrates with cation species matching any
other metals you may be using (e.g., Pb(s) and Pb(NO3)2)Students will be using
15 to 20 drops of each solution, so 50 to 100 mL should be enough for several
groups.
eyedroppers, dropper bottles, or dropper pipettes
steel wool or sandpaper
pencils
water bottle
paper towels
Procedures
1. Prepare 0.2 mol/L solutions of Al(NO3)3, Cu(NO3)2, Fe(NO3)3, and Zn(NO3)2.
2. Using steel wool or sandpaper, gently scrub approximately two-thirds of one
side of the metal strips to remove oxidation, dirt, and so on. Wipe the dust into a
garbage receptacle.
3. Using a pencil, draw ~7 mm circles in a row on the newly cleaned surfaces of the
metal strips.
4. Place the strips on a paper towel, circles facing upward.
5. Place 2 drops of one solution on one of the circles. Wait a few seconds, and then
record any observations.
6. Rinse off and dry the metal strips.
7. On a separate circle for each solution, perform the same drop test, and record
observations.
Appendix 6.1: Activity Series: Lab Activity (continued)
Observations
On a data table similar to the following, record observations, noting whether there
was a reaction or no reaction.
Reducing
Agent
Oxidizing Agent
Al3+(aq)
Cu2+(aq)
Fe3+(aq)
Zn2+(aq)
Al(s)
Cu(s)
Fe(s)
Zn(s)
Using the observations, complete the following:
n
Write net ionic equations for each reaction that occurred. Identify the oxidizing
agent, the reducing agent, what is being oxidized, and what is being reduced.
Create a list of reduction half-reactions for each of the oxidizing agents, putting
them in order from strongest to weakest oxidizer. Explain why you chose to
order them in this way.
Possible Follow-up Questions

1. Which metal would be most likely to corrode? What leads you to believe this?
2. Zinc is used to coat objects such as nails made of iron in a process called
galvanization. What would this accomplish?
3. Look up the electronegativities for the metals that were used. How do these
electronegativities correlate to the observations? Discuss whether or not they
should correlate.
4. Devise a way in which you could determine, experimentally, the oxidation
numbers for the substances given to you.
Half-Reaction
-
Greatest
Affinity for
Electrons
Most
Easily
Reduced
H 2 O 2(aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e 2H 2 O (l)

MnO 4(aq) +
+
8H (aq)
+ 5e
3+
2+
Mn (aq) + 4H 2 O (l)
3+
Cr2 O 7(aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e 2Cr(aq) + 7H 2 O (l)

-
2+
MnO 2(s) + 4H (aq) + 2e Mn (aq) + 2H 2 O (l)

+
1/2O 2(g) + 2H (aq) + 2e H 2 O (l)

-
Br2(l) + 2e
-
NO 3(aq) + 4H (aq) + 3e NO (g) + 2H 2 O (l)
1/2Hg 2(aq) + e Hg (l)

2+
Hg (aq) + 2e
-
3+
O 2(g) + 2H (aq) + 2e H 2 O 2(aq)
+0.17
2+
+0.15
4+
2+
+0.15
Sn (aq) + 2e Sn (aq)
+
S(s) +2H (aq) + 2e H 2 S(g)
+0.14
0.00
2+
0.13
2+
0.14
2H (aq) + 2e H 2(g)
Pb (aq) + 2e Pb (s)
Sn (aq) + 2e Sn (s)
2+
Ni (aq) + 2e
0.25
Ni (s)
2+
0.28
Co (aq) + 2e Co (s)
+
Se (s) +2H (aq) + 2e H 2 Se (g)

3+
2+
0.44
Fe (aq) + 2e Fe (s)
-
Ag 2 S(s) + 2e 2Ag (s) +

+
Te (s) + 2H (aq)
+ 2e
3+
2+
2S(aq)
H 2 Te (g)
Cr(aq) + 3e Cr(s)
Zn (aq) + 2e Zn (s)
-
0.40
0.41
2+
Cr(aq) + e Cr(aq)
2H 2 O (l) + 2e 2OH (aq) + H 2(g)
0.69
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.83
2+
1.18
3+
1.66
2+
2.37
Mn (aq) + 2e Mn (s)
Al (aq) + 3e Al (s)
Mg (aq) + 2e Mg (s)
+
Na (aq) + e Na (s)
Weakest
Oxidizing
Agent
+0.68
+0.34
Cu (aq) + e Cu (aq)
Least
Easily
Reduced
+0.78
+0.52
SO 4(aq) + 4H (aq) + 2e SO 2(g) + 2H 2 O (l)
Least
Affinity for
Electrons
+0.79
2+
Cu (aq) + 2e Cu (s)
+
+0.96
Cu (aq) + e Cu (s)
2-
+1.00
+0.53
I 2(s) + 2e 2I (aq)
+
+1.23
+0.77
2+
Fe (aq) + e Fe (aq)
+1.28
+0.78
Hg (l)
NO 3(aq) + 2H (aq) + e NO 2(g) + H 2 O (l)
+1.33
2.71
2+
2.87
2+
2.89
2+
2.90
Ca (aq) + 2e Ca (s)
Sr(aq) + 2e Sr(s)
Ba (aq) + 2e Ba (s)
+
2.92
2.92
Cs (aq) + e Cs (s)
K (aq) + e K (s)
+
+
Li (aq)
Rb (aq) + e Rb (s)
+e
Li (s)
Least
Easily
Oxidized
+0.80
Ag (aq) + e Ag (s)
2+
Weakest
Reducing
Agent
+1.06
2Br(aq)
AuCl 4(aq) + 3e Au (s) + 4Cl (aq)

-
+1.52
+1.36
Cl 2(g) + 2e 2Cl (aq)

2-
+1.77
+1.50
Au (aq) + 3e Au (s)
Strongest
Oxidizing
Agent
E (volts)
+2.87
F2(g) + 2e 2F(aq)
2.92
3.00
Most
Easily
Oxidized
Strongest
Reducing
Agent
General appendices
Appendix 7:
Appendix 8:
Appendix 9:
Appendix 10:
Appendix 11:
Appendix 12:
Scientific Communication 3
Research 11
Assessment 17
Developing Assessment Rubrics in Science 23
Assessment Rubrics 29
General and Specific Learning Outcomes 39
GrAde 12 Chemistry General Appendices
Appendix 7: Scientific Communication

One of the primary skill thrusts of Grade 12 Chemistry is that of providing many
opportunities for scientific communication. Some of these instances will mimic the
behaviours, traditions, and organizational aspects of a scientific community. Others
are intended to be more authentic and directly promote student-centred
development of skills related to the unique demands of communicating scientific
ideas and results effectively.
The following strategies can be used in the science classroom to communicate
scientific information. For additional information about the strategies, see the
following teacher resources:
Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook (Manitoba Education and Training),
abbreviated as SYSTH
Senior 3 English Language Arts: A Foundation for Implementation (Manitoba
Education and Training), abbreviated as Senior 3 ELA
Audience (Adaptation for)

Students adapt information, such as a paragraph in a textbook, for a different
audience.
Booklet, Brochure, Pamphlet

Students may present information they have obtained through research or
investigation in the form of a booklet, brochure, or pamphlet. This medium is most
effective if the information to be represented involves a series of individual steps or
points, and includes diagrams or pictures. Students involved in graphic arts may
consider this an effective means of communication.
Cartoons
An individual scientific concept, rule (such as a safety rule), or law may be
effectively communicated by a cartoon, an illustration, or a series of pictures.
Charts
Information or results that show related tendencies or patterns may be presented
best in an organized chart. A flow chart may allow the steps of a process to become
more apparent.
Concept Overview Frame (See SYSTH 11.25, 11.37)

After studying a concept, students may fill out a Concept Overview Frame. This
will allow them to summarize what they have learned.
General Appendices 3
Data Table
Data measured during the course of an investigation are often best organized in a
data table. The data table should have a title, labelled rows and columns, and the
correct units. It may include several trials and the average values, as well as the
equations used (in variable form). The data table should be prepared before the
experiment begins.
Debates (See SYSTH 4.19)

Debates are effective in presenting divergent opinions and attitudes related to STSE
issues. The debate usually draws on students own positions on science-related
social issues. Pro and con formats can be used to illustrate the main points and to
create a dialectic within the debate. While the scenario is often make-believe, the
debate provides a forum for personal commentary. Because students often hold
debated opinions with greater personal conviction, the debate must be structured in
a manner in which sensitivity to various points of view is accepted, if not agreed
upon.
Suggested Organization of Debates

1. Select two small balanced groups of students who support divergent and
opposing views on a science-related social issue.
2. Provide or have students research background information.
3. Students on each side of the issue prepare and coordinate their evidence to avoid
redundant arguments.
4. Select a moderator to monitor time and response to questions.
5. Remind students to listen to and respect divergent points of view. Discourage the
notion that only one viewpoint is correct.
Demonstrations
Demonstration of a technique or a procedure is an effective way to communicate an
understanding of the process.
Diagrams
Visual communication is often more effective than a written description. Labelled
diagrams may be useful for showing equipment set-ups, cycles, and so on.
Dramatic Presentations
Many creative students enjoy dramatizing the information to be presented (such as
the history of science) in the form of a skit, a role-play, a play, or a movie. Students
must be prepared to research appropriate materials before constructing the dramatic
presentation, as this process may be time-consuming. Care must be taken to ensure
that students concentrate on the scientific concepts and knowledge, not solely on the
dramatization.
4 General Appendices
Graphing
Representing data in graphical form helps make the relationship between variables
more obvious.
When planning the graph, students need to consider scale. They determine the
maximum values for both axes and make the scale accordingly.
Students label both the vertical and horizontal axes with the factors being
graphed and indicate the units being used.
If the points indicate a straight line, students may use a straight edge. If a line of
best fit is required and calculated on the calculator, students need to represent
their calculations accurately.
In a sentence or two below the graph or within the analysis, students explain the
implications or main point revealed by the representation.
Historical Perspectives
Students communicate information from the perspective of an individual (scientist,
layperson) in another time period. They may choose to write an article critiquing an
idea that was controversial in its time (such as smallpox vaccination or the Earths
orbit). Students research information and reflect on their response. Variations
include responding from a different age or cultural perspective.
Inquiry or Research Paper Handbook (See Senior 3 ELA 4-270)

Working in groups, students produce a handbook outlining the various stages,
processes, and strategies of the inquiry or research process. This handbook is then
available as a reference during the course of study, and may be adapted or
supplemented as required.
Journals
A scientific journal is an effective way for students to record thoughts and ideas
during the progression of learning. Teachers may ask students to reflect on and
respond to particular questions, such as noting their thoughts on a current issue in
the newspaper. Alternatively, students may record their thoughts and feelings as
they read a certain piece of scientific literature.
Learning Logs
Students keep an inquiry or research log throughout their inquiry or research
project. In this log, students may collect various artifacts representing stages in the
research process, as well as record anecdotes of the experience.
Models
Students may create two- or thee-dimensional models of a particular concept,
theory, or idea. This may involve the use of materials such as papier mch or
modelling clay.
Multimedia Presentations
Students may choose to communicate their understanding through the use of
PowerPoint software, a video, or other types of electronic media.
Newspaper Articles
By writing as reporters from a particular period of a societys history, students may
see different perspectives of a scientific issue or idea.
Oral Presentations
Gaining ease, composure, and a public presence while speaking to an audience are
skills developed over many years of schooling and extracurricular activity. At
certain points in a students experience, some growth is encouraged in the arena of
public oracy. When oral presentations are compulsory for students, teachers are
encouraged to exercise caution and discretion. Focusing on these situations as
celebrations of learning that students have mastered promotes confidence and
success in addressing peers publicly.
Posters
The poster session at scientific meetings has long been a standard in scientific
communication, and provides an alternative venue for the presentation of new
results to the large-scale public lecture that is not able to engage at a personal level.
In a poster presentation, there is ample opportunity to get close to the creators of
the work, ask questions, point out interesting facets of their work, and offer
suggestions for continued efforts.
Presentation Software
Students may use presentation software, such as PowerPoint, to present their
information. Students must determine which sounds and images are suitable, and
enhance communication, as well as learn how to use the programs elements to
unify their presentation.
RAFT (Role-Audience-Format-Topic and Strong Verb) (See SYSTH 13.23

for Format)
The RAFT writing assignment is a portfolio strategy designed to produce creative

and imaginative writing pieces in science. Through these assignments, students can
see alternative perspectives on a science topic or issue
uncover divergent applications of science concepts
make connections between their world of experience and their science learning
(e.g., metaphorical stories)
Recommendation Report (See Senior 3 ELA 4-270)

Students write a short reflection on the implications of their inquiry findings. In
their reflections, students may wish to
identify subsequent inquiry topics that might grow out of the one they have
researched
suggest how the information gathered in the inquiry could be applied
recommend action that should be taken to solve a problem
explore how public awareness could be raised about an issue
describe how they will think or act differently because of the inquiry
Role-Playing (See SYSTH 4.18)

Role-playing scenarios teach selected social processes that govern relations, such as
negotiation, bargaining, compromise, and sensitivity. Ultimately, students would
use these skills as they move from vision to action in dealing with STSE issues.
Role-playing often provides an avenue for presenting biased opinions, which may
or may not agree with the opinions of students. Most importantly, it introduces
divergent points of view and allows students to analyze and respond, thereby
giving them an opportunity to gain an appreciation for why individuals hold
divergent points of view. Ideally, the role-playing scenario fosters critical-thinking
skills while promoting tolerance of other world views. All simulations have rules
that govern human interaction. Regardless of the roles assumed, certain behaviours
should be promoted, while others should not be allowed.
Roundtable
A roundtable discussion should engage all students in open scientific discussion.
The discussion may be initiated by concepts outlined in a scientific article. The
opening question should engage all participants and should be based on the text of
the article. Although it is not necessary, the teacher may ask each student to respond
briefly to the first question to break the ice. (Examples of opening questions are:
What is the most important idea in this text? Why? and Do you think this text is
scientifically valid? Why?) The core question may be changed during the
roundtable discussion to clarify a response or to refocus the group. This question
should be focused more directly on the text. (For example: Why did the scientists
use [this animal, technique, equipment]? or Explain what the author meant by the
word ______ in Paragraph 4.) This question should encourage students to examine
how their thinking has changed during the course of the roundtable discussion. The
teacher may want to ask questions (such as How have your answers to the opening
question changed? or How does the topic relate to your lives? or What could be
done next? or What would you change?). These questions should not solicit
answers to which everyone would agree.
role of teacher: The teachers role is to facilitate, not validate. Try not to make
any response, whether with a facial expression, nod, or frown, that would
indicate a right or wrong answer. Ask questions that provoke and take thought
to a new level. Remind students to back up thoughts with facts from the
document. An idea might be to diagram the seating arrangement, web the
responses, and add a word or phrase beside the name of the speaker. This
strategy can help
identify who speaks and how often
provide cues to additional questions
keep the teacher from physically affirming responses
If one student appears to monopolize the roundtable, each student may be issued
five chips. Each time the student speaks, he or she gives up a chip. Therefore, the
student has five opportunities to speak.
role of student: Student participation (both speaking and listening) is
mandatory. Students need to be courteous and respectful of classmates. They
speak without raising their hands, talk to each other, and address the person they
are speaking to by name. A roundtable is a way for students to communicate
what they think about the document, not what they feel. They should always
refer to the text.
Scientific Paper (See SYSTH 14.13 for Format)

At the Senior Years, exposure to the writing of a technical, scientific paper is of
utmost importance, but it should be treated in an introductory manner. Many
students face the reading (or writing) of the scientific paper rather suddenly at the
post-secondary level of study, and are ill-prepared for it. In reality, particular
scientific journals have their own writing style, format, and so on. No single format
or referencing style should be advocated exclusively, but exposure to a few
examples is helpful (for instance, using an American Psychological Association
[APA] style of referencing versus numerical endnotes).
In the Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook, teachers are offered some standard,
normative samples of the Laboratory Report Format and the Scientific Paper Format
(see SYSTH, Chapter 14: Technical Writing in Science, 14.11 to 14.15). Keep in mind
that one of the chief purposes of the classical scientific paper is to announce the
results of research related to new contributions in a field. Consequently, its role and
purposes are distinct from that of a research or position paper.
Storyboard
Students could create storyboards to show the development of a scientific concept
or theory. Discussion may then centre on the suggestion: What might have
happened if the order of occurrence had been changed? (changing chronology)
Web Page Creation (See Senior 3 ELA 4-168)

Stages of creating a website may include
surveying other websites on the same subject
compiling a list of criteria for an effective website on the chosen subject
writing a proposal for the website, describing its intended audience and purpose
using a flow chart for constructing a personal website or contributing to the
schools website
Word Cycle, Word Glossary (See SYSTH 10.21)

A Word Cycle is considered a Level 1 strategy in building a scientific vocabulary
(for instance, see SYSTH, Chapter 10: Building a Scientific Vocabulary). The value in
using a Word Cycle comes from taking a broad concept such as an ecosystem,
providing a list of terms that could be related to that concept, and then asking
students to link these words coherently. Students then learn how terminologies are
related, broaden meaning of terms, and promote collaboration. Teachers are
encouraged to use Word Cycle activities with their students in a cooperative
manner (e.g., pairings).
A Word Glossary, steadily accumulated over time, is a useful way for students to
organize the large number of terms that science topics bring forth. Pay close
attention to the repetitive use of prefixes (e.g., neuro-) and suffixes (e.g., -logical) in
scientific parlance.
Written Lab Report (See SYSTH 11.38, 11.39, 14.12)

There are a variety of formats for lab reports within a common framework. A lab
report may contain the following information:
Abstract/introduction: A condensed version of the entire paper, placed at the
beginning of the report. The material in the abstract is written in the same order
as it appears within the paper, and should include a sentence or two
summarizing the highlights from each section. The abstract is written once the
paper is complete.
Purpose/Objective/Problem: A brief statement of the purpose or objective of the
experiment.
Background information: Information drawn from research.
Pre-Lab theory: The posing of a theoretical solution to the problem before the
experimental procedure. It may involve a conceptual explanation and
mathematical calculations.
hypothesis: Contrary to the persistent myth, a hypothesis is not an educated
guess about what will happen. A statement such as cigarette smoking causes
cancer is a hypothesis because it is a statement of suggested behaviour in the
material world that is testable by scientific means. A hypothesis intends to make a
contingent claim based on prior accepted models about how the world works. The
claim, then, is subject to testing over and over again. It is the task of the
investigation procedure either to support or to nullify the hypothesis statement.
Variables: For the purposes of this curriculum, anything that comes in different
types or different amounts and could possibly enter into an investigation. The
simplest sort of relationship to examine is that between two variables (e.g., a
persons height and arm span). It is not always a simple task, however, to control
all the variables that may confound a scientific investigation.
materials: A list of the materials to be used in the experiment and a labelled
diagram of equipment set-up, if applicable.
Procedure: Written step-by-step directions for performing the experiment and

regulating the controls, and a summary of the steps taken, so that someone who
has not performed this lab would be able to repeat it. If a mixture is heated, the
temperature should be given. Any modifications to the procedure should be
noted. When following a procedure from a secondary source, reference should be
given for the source.
results: Include drawings, measurements, averages (if applicable), observations,
data tables, calculations, and graphs.
Observations: Qualitative interpretations of what is occurring during the course
of an experiment. Examples include colour changes, odour, formation of a
precipitate, release of gas, temperature differences, pressure changes, or changes
in solubility.
Quantitative data: Measurements taken directly from laboratory instruments.
Data must be collected with care during the experiment, properly identified, and
the correct numerical values and units used. Suspected faulty data must be
presented and explained in the conclusions if not used in the analysis.
sample Problems: Show the conversion of data into results. Calculations should
be properly labelled, with the accuracy and precision of the instruments taken
into consideration, and the correct number of significant figures used.
Analysis: An important part of the report that demonstrates an understanding of
the experiment. It contains an interpretation or explanation of results, indicating
their significance, how accurate the original hypothesis was, sources of error and
their effect on results. The analysis also indicates ways to improve the
experiment, including modifying the procedure, the equipment, the variables,
and so on. The analysis can relate results to the real world and may describe a
follow-up or auxiliary experiment.
Conclusions: A summary of results and whether the purpose of the experiment
has been achieved. Readers often read the conclusion first.
Zines (See Senior 3 ELA 4-166)

Zines (or fanzines, or mini-magazines) usually treat a particular theme. Components
may include
cartoon
collage
editorial
interview
memoir
poem
review
survey results
Appendix 8: Research
Learning through student-directed or student-initiated projects is known to be a
highly effective pathway to promote individualized instruction or to make the best
use of the diversity within the classroom. The inquiry approach advocated in
Grade 12 Chemistry presupposes that students will have ample opportunity to
develop and refine their research skills through gathering, filtering, processing, and
evaluating scientific information.
The following learning strategies can be used in the science classroom to help
students develop research skills and strategies. For additional information about the
strategies, see the following teacher resources:
Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook (Manitoba Education and Training),
abbreviated as SYSTH
Senior 3 English Language Arts: A Foundation for Implementation (Manitoba
Education and Training), abbreviated as Senior 3 ELA
Action Plan (See Senior 3 ELA 4-216 for Whole-Class Inquiry)

Students may submit action plans for group inquiries that include the following
components.
Group Inquiry Action Plan

Objectives
Strategies
Responsibilities
Timelines
Results
Resources
Concept Maps (See SYSTH 9.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.11)

A Concept Map is intended to help students identify key vocabulary for a topic or
identify the relationships between terms in a topic. The teacher may model this
procedure by arranging pieces of paper with key terms to show the relationships or
logical connections between them. Concept Maps may follow a category, a chain, or
a hierarchy as an organizational strategy.
Email
The teacher can arrange links with schools, universities, or other research facilities
in other parts of Canada or the world to have students carry out parallel research
and to share and discuss data through email.
Interviews (See Senior 3 ELA 4-240, 4-226)

Students may analyze models of interviews and practise with peers before
conducting interviews in the community. It may be useful to have a preliminary
interview in which students introduce themselves, describe the topic and purpose,
ask the interviewee what information or experience he or she is able to relate on the
topic, explain how the interview will be conducted and how the information will be
used, and discuss the time, length, and place of the interview.
Literature-Based Research Projects (See SYSTH 4.7)

A literature-based research approach can be applied to many STSE topics. A series
of questions can direct students during their topic research. Students with
competent literature research skills will be able to
locate and analyze the validity of scientific information
reduce unnecessary duplication of laboratory investigations
recognize multiple perspectives from various interest groups
determine how decisions are made at the local, provincial, and federal levels of
government
examine scientific, environmental, technological, societal, and economic sides of
an issue
Teachers should model the five stages of effective research: planning, information
retrieval or gathering, information processing, information sharing, and evaluation.
Plagiarism (Avoidance of) (See Senior 3 ELA 4-260)*

Teachers use direct instruction to teach students the conventions for summarizing,
paraphrasing, and quoting from research materials. To avoid plagiarism, students
need opportunities for supervised practice in using secondary sources appropriately
in their research.
Three Ways to Use Secondary Sources (Student Handout)

Summaries: Summarize general information as you proceed with your research. General
information consists of facts and concepts that are generally known and that appear in
several sources. If you cannot judge whether information is generally known or is the
property of one writer, you need to read several more sources. When you write your own
text, synthesize the facts and concepts from these summaries in your own words. This
information does not need to be referenced.
Paraphrases: Paraphrase ideas and statements that belong to one writer, but that you do
not wish to quote. To paraphrase, restate the ideas in a passage in your own words. You
may need to use common words that appeared in the original, but do not repeat striking
words or unique phrases that can be recognized as the style of the original writer.
Reference the source of this material. It is considered good style to name the original
writer in your paraphrase (e.g., Eldon Craig argues that the hog-nosed snake is a
newcomer to Manitoba prairies.).
Quotations: Quote striking or powerful lines that would lose their impact if they were
paraphrased. Take care to quote lines accurately, and ensure that you do not lose or
change their meaning by taking them out of their original context. Make arguments in your
own words, and support them with a quotation rather than using quotations to make key
arguments. Name the speaker or writer you are quoting, enclose the quoted material in
quotation marks, and reference the source of the quotation.
_______________
p. 260.
A form such as the following can help students distinguish between material cited
directly and their own paraphrases, summaries, and comments.
Form for Recording Information

Authors name: (last) ______________________ (first) _______________________
Title of source:
__________________________________________________
Place of publication:
__________________________________________________
Publisher:
__________________________________________________
Year of publication:
__________________________________________________
Summaries:
Paraphrases:
Briefly note the main ideas of the whole

text.
Write important and supporting

information in your own words.
Record the page number(s).
Comments:
Direct Quotations:
Record your own responses to

questions about what you read.
Record only passages that you are very

likely to quote in your final article.
Record the page number(s).
Proposals (See Senior 3 ELA 4-221)

Students may submit proposals for major group projects. Depending on the project,
the proposal may include the following categories:
Purpose
Audience
Outline
Resources
Team Members and Their Responsibilities
Steps in Research
Risk Factors and Plans for Addressing Them
Form for Reporting
Timelines
Progress Reports
Criteria for Success
Reading Scientific Information (See SYSTH, Chapter 12)

Chapter 12 of SYSTH presents strategies to help students acquire the skills they
need to comprehend science texts and scientific information accessed from
multimedia sources. Students use interactive and collaborative strategies to
understand and learn the content.
Good readers begin by skimming and analyzing a text and providing themselves
with a structural and conceptual framework into which new information might fit.
They then read for detail, with three levels of comprehension: literal understanding,
interpretation, and application.
Students will be able to become better readers if teachers divide reading exercises
into three sections:
Pre-reading: Pre-reading strategies are intended to establish a purpose or focus,
to activate prior knowledge, to emphasize new terms and vocabulary, or to
provide familiarity with text features.
during-reading: During-reading strategies are meant to promote collaboration,
to help students recognize text structure, or to promote questioning and
paraphrasing.
Post-reading: Post-reading strategies are designed to teach students how to
apply content by increasing comprehension and recall, connecting details to the
big picture, making new connections, applying ideas, and transferring
knowledge.
Various strategies are developed in SYSTH.
Surveys and Questionnaires (See Senior 3 ELA 4-226, Appendix C)

Students may submit a proposal for a survey or questionnaire in which they
describe
type of information they wish to gather
type of survey they intend to implement
target group and plan for random sampling
how and when they will pilot the survey
how and when they will administer the survey
how they will analyze, interpret, and report data
Surveys are a useful tool for collecting information, particularly on timely,
community-based inquiry topics. The following should be considered when
designing and conducting a survey:
Purpose
Appropriateness
Practicality
Clarity
Reliability
Target Group
Sample
Random Selection
Types of surveys include fixed-response questions (multiple choice, agree-disagree,
checklists), rating scales (numerical, categorical), open-ended, and
phenomenological (extended interview). Students may choose to pilot their survey
before administering it.
WebQuest
A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or all of the information
used by learners is drawn from the Web. WebQuests are designed to make efficient
use of time, to focus on using information rather than looking for it, and to support
learners thinking at the levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
A basic WebQuest design includes an introduction, a task, a set of information
sources needed to complete the task (not all sources need to be web-based), a
description of the process in clear steps, guidance (such as guiding questions,
timelines, Concept Maps), and a conclusion. WebQuest design information,
templates, and samples may be obtained at WebQuest.org
<http://webquest.org/index.php>.
NOtes
Appendix 9: Assessment
For the purpose of this curriculum, assessment is the systematic process of
gathering information about what a student knows, is able to do, and is currently
learning to do. Science education today, therefore, demands a broad range and
variety of assessment tools to gauge student learning. An inclusive classroom will
encourage, whenever possible, assessment opportunities that provide all students
with the chance to demonstrate what they know most of the time.
This appendix provides an overview of various assessment perspectives intended to
promote fair assessment and evaluation and increase students role and
responsibility in their own ongoing assessment. Some actual assessment
instruments that are proving to be effective in todays classrooms are also included.
Teachers are encouraged to review the Senior Years Science Teachers Handbook (see
SYSTH, Chapter 15: Assessing and Evaluating Science Learning). Further
information is also provided in Senior 3 English Language Arts: A Foundation for
Implementation (Manitoba Education and Training), abbreviated as Senior 3 ELA on
the following pages.
Concept Relationship Frame (See SYSTH 11.20, 11.25, 11.35)

This differentiated instruction technique is designed to help students examine
particular, detailed associations between two concepts (i.e., cause/effect,
problem/solution, either/or, compare/contrast). The aim is to avoid superficial
analysis by probing for deeper associations. Chapter 11: Developing Science
Concepts Using Graphic Displays in SYSTH demonstrates how the Concept
Relationship Frame can be used effectively.
Developing Assessment Rubrics in Science (See Appendix 10)

Appendix 10 outlines various ways in which students can be engaged with their
teachers in the development of assessment rubrics. It addresses questions such as
the following:
What are assessment rubrics?

Why do teachers use assessment rubrics?
How can assessment rubrics enhance instruction?
What are some sources of rubrics? Sources include classroom-developed, teacherdeveloped, and externally developed rubrics.
Journal Writing and Assessment (See SYSTH 13.21)

Journal writing is a writing to learn strategy that engenders mixed feelings among
students. Part of the uncertainty comes from the inability to be passive about
ones learning if one is asked to comment upon it, write carefully about it, or be
reflective about it. Journals should have an informal, familiar tone but should not be
quaint or dismissive. Journal entries can be simple and short, vary in frequency, and
be structured to a particular format or free-form. It is valuable to consider how best
to use journal writing in the science classroom, but experience shows that overuse
defeats the purposes of the journal. For instance, if journal writing has little or no
assessment/evaluation potential toward a students grade, or does not provide a
means of obtaining teacher feedback, it is difficult to sustain a successful experience.
Establishing a dialogue with students is an important element of formative
assessment. Teachers may respond to students journal entries, extending student
thinking through comments and questions. In assessing journal entries, teachers
may look for different interpretations and consideration of different perspectives,
analyses, and growth.
Laboratory Report Assessment (See Appendix 11)

The Lab Report Assessment rubric is designed for both self-assessment and teacher
assessment, and includes criteria such as the following:
Formulates Testable Questions

Formulates a Prediction and/or Hypothesis
Creates a Plan
Conducts a Fair Test and Records Observations
Interprets and Evaluates Results
Draws a Conclusion
Makes Connections
Observation Checklist: Scientific InquiryConducting a Fair Test

(See Appendix 11)
This rubric is designed with five performance criteria, and can be used for an entire
class list. The emphasis is on gathering information over time through observation.
The criteria include the following:
Demonstrating Safe Work Habits

Ensuring Accuracy and Reliability
Observing and Recording
Following a Plan
Showing Evidence of Perseverance and/or Confidence
Peer Assessment (See Senior 3 ELA 4-307)

Peer conferences could be organized to allow peers to act as problem solvers who
offer concrete suggestions. The teacher may choose to provide students with
questions and prompts. For instance, if students are editing a research paper, the
peer assessment may include the following questions:
Does the text contain enough information?
Pose questions that are not answered.
Mark passages that require more information.
Is the text well organized?
Use arrows to show suggested reordering of paragraphs.
Mark places where a transition is required.
Is the text clear?
Mark passages that are clear.
Mark words or phrases that need to be explained or defined.
Mark passages that need charts, graphs, diagrams, or examples.
Is the information communicated in an interesting way?
Mark the least and most interesting sections.
Are the sources referenced?
Mark un-referenced information.
Suggest other sources that may be used.
Performance Assessment
Performance assessment may take the form of
demonstrating a lab technique (e.g., lighting a Bunsen burner, using a balance,
focusing a microscope)
demonstrating a safety procedure
interpreting Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)
labels
identifying an unknown
Portfolios (See Senior 3 ELA 4-180)

Portfolio items that allow students to demonstrate attainment of specific learning
outcomes include
inquiry logs
project proposals
webs and maps
samples of notes
reports on primary research
reflective pieces
Reading Scientific Information (Concept Map Evaluation) (See SYSTH 12.15 to

12.19)
Chapter 12: Reading Scientific Information of SYSTH suggests techniques for

comprehending science texts. It includes examples of how students could take notes
from text in the manner of a detailed Concept Map organizer (see 12.16) and how
this strategy can connect to reading for meaning. Once teachers have effectively
modelled the techniques and students have had ample time to practise with
scientific reading skills and note-taking, some criteria can be established that can be
used in evaluation (see 12.19).
References
Students hand in a preliminary list of references as part of their proposal for a
research paper.
Rubric for Assessment of Class Presentation (See Appendix 11)

This rubric is designed with four performance levels, and includes assessment
criteria such as the following:
Content
Interest and Enthusiasm
Clarity and Organization of Materials
Use of Visual Aids
Rubric for Assessment of Research Project (See Appendix 11)

This rubric is designed with four performance levels, and includes criteria such as
the following:
Source of Information
Information Collected
Organization of Material
Presentation of Material
Rubric for Assessment of Scientific Inquiry (See Appendix 11)

This rubric is designed for guidance of student assessment in relation to the
performance of scientific inquiry tasks. The rubric is not intended to be
comprehensive, but seeks to provide some project-management parameters for
teachers who are observing their students initial attempts at sophisticated
investigation work.
The rubric is designed around four levels of competency, as continua, and includes
criteria in the following areas:
Development of a Position Statement (Proto-Abstract)

Objective/Purpose/Testable Question
Procedure (design of the investigation)
Data Collection
Analysis and Interpretation of Results
Application/Discussion of Scientific Results and Concepts
Independence Factors (measuring degree of reliance upon outside assistance)
Self-Assessment
Self-assessment by students is integral to the overall assessment of learning. To
assess their own work, however, students require some detailed advance
knowledge (e.g., criteria) of what the expectations are. More advanced learners in
this self-reflection process can then participate in setting criteria with their
teacher(s). Teachers are encouraged to model self-assessment before expecting
students to assess themselves.
Word Cycle (See SYSTH 10.6 to 10.8, 10.21)

A Word Cycle is considered a Level 1 strategy in building a scientific vocabulary
(see SYSTH, Chapter 10: Building a Scientific Vocabulary). The value in using a
Word Cycle comes from taking a broad concept such as an ecosystem, providing a
list of terms that could be related to that concept, and then asking students to link
these words coherently. Students then learn how terminologies are related, broaden
the meaning of terms, and promote collaboration. Teachers are encouraged to use
Word Cycle activities with their students in a cooperative manner (e.g., pairings).
NOtes
Appendix 10: Developing Assessment Rubrics in Science*

The Nature, Purposes, and Sources of Assessment Rubrics for Science
What Assessment rubrics Are
Rubrics are assessment tools that identify criteria by which student processes,
performances, or products will be assessed. They also describe the qualities of work
at various levels of proficiency for each criterion.
The following types of assessment rubrics may be used in classroom assessment:
General rubrics provide descriptions of proficiency levels that can be applied to
a range of student processes, performances, or products. Using the same rubric
for similar tasks helps teachers manage marking assignments based on student
choice. It also helps students internalize the common qualities of effective
processes, performances, and products.
task-specific rubrics describe the criteria used in assessing specific forms, such
as using a balance, writing a laboratory report, or calibrating CBL probes.
Complex student projects may require a different rubric for each phase (for
example, a group inquiry project may require a rubric for collaborative work,
information-gathering processes, oral presentations, and written reports).
holistic rubrics are used to assign a single mark to a process, performance, or
product on the basis of its adequacy in meeting identified criteria.
Analytic rubrics are used to assign individual scores to different aspects of a
process, performance, or product, based on their specific strengths and
weaknesses according to identified criteria. See the Rubric for Assessment of
Decision-Making Process Activity in Appendix 11.
Checklists are lists of criteria that do not distinguish levels of performance. They
are used to assess the presence or absence of certain behaviours, and are most
suitable for assessing processes (for example, Did the student perform all the
necessary steps?). Because they require Yes/No judgements from the
assessors, checklists are easy for students to use in peer assessment.
rating scales ask assessors to rate various elements of a process, performance, or
product on a numerical scale. They do not provide complete descriptions of
performance at various levels.
Why teachers Use Assessment rubrics
The best assessment tasks ask students to perform the sorts of scientific literacy
tasks they will be called upon to perform in real-world situations. They allow
students to demonstrate not only the declarative knowledge they have gained, but
also the interplay of attitudes, skills, and strategies that constitute their learning.
______________
Implementation. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 1999. Adapted from Appendices,
pp. 39.
Authentic assessment tasks invite a range of responses and allow students to

express their individuality. For all these reasons, assessing scientific literacy is a
complex matter.
Assessment rubrics
help teachers clarify the qualities they are looking for in student work
ensure that all students are assessed by the same criteria
help teachers communicate the goals of each assignment in specific terms
allow teachers within schools, school divisions, and the province to collaborate in
assessment
play an important part in instruction
how Assessment rubrics enhance instruction
The best assessment tools do not simply sort and score student work; instead, they
describe it in specific terms. This assessment information
helps teachers adjust instruction to meet student learning requirements
tells students what teachers expect and will look for in their work, and helps
them to focus their efforts
allows students to assess their own work using the criteria teachers will use to set
goals and to monitor their progress
aids in the development of metacognition by giving students a vocabulary for
talking about particular aspects of their work
sources of Assessment rubrics
Teachers develop assessment rubrics in collaboration with students, on their own,
and/or with other teachers, or obtain them through published sources.
Classroom development: Developing assessment rubrics in collaboration with
students can be a time-consuming process, but one that has many benefits in
instruction and learning. (Both the benefits and the process are explored on the
following pages.) Although it may not be possible to involve students in the
process in every instance, their experience in developing rubrics will help
students to use ready-made rubrics with more understanding.
teacher-developed: Teachers develop general performance and product rubrics
individually in collaboration within a school or school division. Rubrics must be
adapted regularly to reflect student performance levels accurately. It is important
that teacher-developed rubrics use language that students understand, and that
teachers provide an example of work at each level of proficiency. These examples
(called anchors or exemplars) illustrate for students the descriptive phrases used
in the rubrics.
Published sources: High-quality assessment rubrics are available in various
educational resources. The disadvantage of ready-made rubrics is that they may
not be congruent with the learning outcomes targeted in a particular assignment,
and may not accurately describe Grade 12 performance levels and criteria.
Developing Rubrics in Collaboration with Students

student Benefits
Developing rubrics in collaboration with students requires them to look at work
samples, and to identify the attributes that make some samples successful and
others unsuccessful. Teachers assist students by providing them with the
vocabulary to articulate the various elements they see, and by ensuring that the
criteria are comprehensive and consistent with learning outcomes. This
collaborative process in developing rubrics
requires students to make judgements about the work they see, and to identify
the qualities of effective writing, speaking, and representing of science concepts
results in an assessment tool that students understand and feel they ownthey
see that assessment criteria are not arbitrary or imposed, but rather express their
own observations about what constitutes quality work
the development Process
For their first experience in designing a rubric, ask students to articulate the criteria
they use in making judgements about something in everyday lifethe quality of a
restaurant, for example. The model rubric that they develop for assessing
restaurants may help students grasp how the parts of a rubric work.
Students may also find it helpful to develop rubrics after they have done some
preliminary work on the assessment task, and so are familiar with the demands of
the particular assignment.
The process of developing assessment rubrics in collaboration with students
involves numerous steps.
1. Look at student work samples.
Develop assessment rubrics by analyzing genuine samples of student work that
illustrate the learning outcomes that the assessment task in question addresses.
Samples are usually drawn from student work from previous years, used with
permission and with names removed. Beginning teachers who do not have files
of samples may need to borrow from colleagues.
Select samples that are clear and characteristic of student work at various levels.
Streamline the process by distributing examples at only three levels of
proficiency: excellent, adequate, and inadequate. Provide two or three examples
of each level. Allow students time to read the examples and to talk about them in
groups.
2. Describe the work samples.
Suggest that students focus on the examples of excellent work first. Pose the
question: What makes this piece successful? Then ask students to brainstorm
attributes of, or criteria for, success. Some of the attributes students list will
describe behaviours that are useful in meeting the goals of the work (for
example, the topic is stated at the beginning, there are few spelling errors, a
graph is used to represent statistical findings).
What rubrics must attempt to articulate, beyond identifying these behaviours, is

the essence of a good product or performance. Eye contact may be important in
the delivery of an oral report, but it is possible to give a dreary talk while
maintaining eye contact (Wiggins V15: 6). Together with students, identify the
salient qualities of works related to science that are engaging and effective. These
may be qualities that are harder to define and illustrate (for example, the speaker
has moved beyond a superficial understanding of the subject, the producer of a
video is aware of the audience, the writers voice is discernible in a science
journalism piece).
3. Develop criteria categories.
From the brainstormed list of attributes, select the criteria categories that will
make up the assessment rubric. Most rubrics are limited to three to five criteria
categories. A greater number makes the rubrics difficult for assessors to use,
especially in assessing live performances. Listing too many criteria can also
overwhelm or confuse students who use the rubrics for self-assessment and
setting goals.
Develop criteria categories by combining related attributes and selecting three to
five that are considered most important. Label the criteria categories in general
terms (organization, style, content) and expand them by listing the specific
elements to be examined in assessing quality in these criteria (for example, in the
organization category, the elements may be statement of purpose, topic
sentences, transition words and phrases, paragraph breaks, order of ideas).
Ensure that no essential attribute that defines good performance is left out. This
means including elements considered hard to assess (such as style or creativity).
Ignoring elements such as these signals that they are not important. Addressing
them helps students grasp the things they can do to improve their own work in
these areas. If graphical analysis is identified as one criteria category, for
example, the rubric may list elements that convey the details of such an analysis
(for example, placement of dependent and independent variables, placement of
data points, line of best fit). It may also provide definitions.
As students collaborate to develop criteria categories, monitor whether the
criteria chosen are related to the intended learning outcomes.
4. Decide how many performance levels the rubric will contain.
The first rubric students develop should have three performance levels, based on
identifying student work samples as excellent, adequate, or inadequate. In later
rubrics, students may move to finer distinctions between levels. The number of
levels needed to make meaningful judgements regarding the full range of
proficiency is best decided by the teacher. If the scale is large (seven levels, for
example), finer distinctions can be made, but it may be difficult to differentiate
clearly one level from the next. In science, assessment rubrics designed to be
used by students as well as teachers generally use three, four, or five

performance levels.*
Using the same number of performance levels for various tasks throughout the
curriculum has the advantage of giving students and the teacher a common
vocabulary in talking about ways to improve performance (for example, This
piece does not have the concrete detail of level 4 writing.). Once the number of
criteria categories and performance levels has been determined, a rubric template
such as the following can be used in developing rubrics.
Performance
Levels
Criteria Categories
1
2
3
4
5
5. Describe the performance levels.

In developing the assessment criteria (step 3), students analyze successful pieces
of work. They now fill in descriptions of excellent, adequate, and inadequate
performance in all criteria categories.
There are two ways of describing performance levels:
evaluative rubrics use comparative adjectives (for example, weak
organization).
descriptive rubrics specify the qualities of work at each performance level
with respect to the criteria (for example, unconnected ideas appear in the
same paragraph). The attributes listed may be negative (for example,
subscripts and coefficients are incorrectly applied), for sometimes the most
telling characteristic of certain levels is their failure to do what they should be
doing.
Descriptive rubrics have many advantages over evaluative rubrics. They are
more helpful to students because they spell out the behaviours and qualities
students encounter in assessing their own and others work. They also help
students identify the things they can address in their own work in order to
improve.
_______________________
* Many designers of rubrics advocate a five-level scale. Levels 1, 3, and 5 are developed from an initial sorting
of student work into excellent, adequate, and inadequate samples. Levels 2 and 4 describe work that is
between these anchor points. Other educators argue that an even-point scale (four or six levels) forces more
care in judging than an odd number does; it prevents assessors from overusing a middle category for work
that is difficult to assess.
When beginning to write descriptive rubrics, students may suggest generally

descriptive adjectives (such as interesting, boring), which may not convey
information about what an interesting piece looks like, and how they can
improve their work in this area. The description needs to state the attributes that
make a work interesting, and should be written in an acceptable style for
scientific communication. Classes may need to begin by using comparative
language or general descriptions. As the students and teacher collect examples,
they can fine-tune the rubric with specific descriptions.
By the end of this step, students will have a description of performance at three
levels. If the class has decided to create a rubric with four, five, or six
performance levels, it may be most efficient for the teacher to draft gradations of
quality for the middle levels, and present them to the class for revision. These
middle levels are the most difficult to write, and call on more experience and
expertise in developing a smooth continuum of proficiency.
6. Use the assessment rubric for student self-assessment, for teacher assessment,
and for instruction.
Before using the rubric on an actual assignment, students and the teacher may
want to test it against unsorted samples of work from previous years. Applying
the rubric to student work helps the class determine whether the rubric
accurately describes the qualities of the work they see, and helps students make
meaningful distinctions between work at different levels of proficiency. As
students become more adept at using the rubric, and when they have
internalized the performance levels, the teacher can present them with more
diverse samples and assessment challenges.
Rubrics make it possible for students to assess their own work on the basis of the
criteria that the teacher will use. Any differences in scores between a students
and a teachers assessment can be the subject of profitable and focused discussion
in student conferences.
If numerical scores are required, point values assigned to each level can be
totalled. If the teacher and students decide that certain criteria categories should
be more heavily weighted than others, the points assigned to these categories can
be multiplied by a factor.
A rubric developed collaboratively can also become a valuable instructional tool,
encouraging students to look closely at the specific things they can do to improve
a piece of work. If students decide that a writing sample in science is at level 3,
for example, they can be asked to work together in groups to improve the work
so that it fits the description for level 4.
7. Continue to revise the assessment rubric.
Any assessment rubric can be considered a work in progress, especially if it is
stored on the computer. Both the teacher and students should carefully review
the rubric each time they use it, asking, Do these criteria capture the most
important qualities of excellence in this work? What other words and phrases
can we use to describe work at this level? In keeping with this, the rubrics
appearing in Appendix 11 of this document are intended as templates, open to
situational revisions.
The information was somewhat

organized.
The information collected was

not organized.
The report contained a

bibliography that was not
correctly formatted.
The report was neatly

handwritten.

relevant to the topic but was
not blended into a cohesive
piece of research.

not relevant.
The report was handwritten,

contrary to established
guidelines.
Two sources of information

were used.
Level 2
Only one source of information

was used.
Level 1
Level 3
The report contained a

bibliography that was not
correctly formatted.
The report contained graphics.
The report was typed.
The information was organized

and contained recognizable
sections.

relevant to the topic and was
somewhat organized into a
cohesive piece of research.
A variety of sources was used.
Performance Levels
Note: This rubric would vary, depending on the assignment and the presentation format.
Presentation
of Material
Organization
of Material
Information
Collected
Source of
Information
Criteria
The report contained a complete,

correctly formatted bibliography.
The report contained relevant

graphics.
The report contained a title page.
The report was typed and

appropriately formatted.
The information was organized

and contained recognizable
sections that included an
introduction, a main body with
supporting evidence, and a
conclusion that summarized the
report.

relevant to the topic and was
carefully organized into a
cohesive piece of research.
A wide variety of sources was

used in a unique manner.
Level 4
Student Name(s) ______________________________________________________ Topic/Title ___________________________________________________
Rubric for Assessment of Research Project
Appendix 11: Assessment Rubrics
Formulates Possible
Options
Identifies Projected
Impacts
Evaluates Current
Research on Issue
Identifies
STSE Issue
Criteria
Demonstrates some ability to

recognize the positions taken in
the research data but makes no
clear evaluative statements.
Offers at least one feasible

option that is connected to the
problem.
Is able to access a small

amount of current research but
does not evaluate it.
Is unable to identify the

possible options clearly.
Identifies potential impacts of

decisions taken in a vague or
insubstantial way.
Views most of the feasible
options as having projected
impacts.
Is unable to foresee the

possible consequences of the
options selected.
Appears to have a naive

awareness of consequences.
Offers other options that may

be somewhat related to the
problem.
Shows a basic understanding

that an issue could have STSE
implications, but does not
necessarily differentiate among
the areas.
Cannot identify an STSE issue

without assistance.
Can formulate options that are

not clearly connected to the
problem to be solved.
Level 2
Level 1
Views all the feasible options as

having projected impacts: some
beneficial, some not.
Identifies potential impacts of

decisions taken in an organized
way.
Recognizes that some options

will fail.
(continued)
Constructs an organized report

that clearly outlines the impacts of
each option.
Offers a cost/benefits/risks
analysis of each feasible solution.
Presents choice of options that

demonstrate a reasonable chance
of succeeding.
Displays a sophisticated
understanding of feasible options
that is beyond expectations.
Demonstrates insight into the

stated positions and can frame an
evaluation.
Can offer personal opinions on

issue but not necessarily an
evaluation.
Develops at least two feasible

options that are internally
consistent and directly address
the problem.
Acquires research that is current,

relevant, and from a variety of
perspectives.
Secures an array of research,

narrow in its scope, but clearly
identifies the positions taken.
Demonstrates a level of social

responsibility.
Shows some awareness of the

need for an individual response.
Level 4
Demonstrates excellent depth and
sensitivity in connecting an issue
with its STSE implications.
Level 3
Shows a good understanding of
a connection between an issue
and its STSE applications.
Performance Levels
Rubric for Assessment of Decision-Making Process Activity
Demonstrating
Safe Work Habits
(workspace,
handling
equipment,
goggles, disposal)
Ensuring
Accuracy and
Reliability
(repeating
measurements/
experiments)
Observing and
Recording
(carried out during
experiment)
Following a Plan
Showing Evidence
of Perseverance
and/or Confidence
Comments
Note: A group of students can be selected as a focus for observation on a given day, and/or one or more of the observational areas can be selected as a focus. The emphasis
should be on gathering cumulative information over a period of time.
Names
Demonstrating
Safe Work Habits
(workspace,
handling
equipment,
goggles, disposal)
Ensuring
Accuracy and
Reliability
(repeating
measurements/
experiments)
Observing and
Recording
(carried out during
experiment)
Following a Plan
Showing Evidence
of Perseverance
and/or Confidence
Comments
Note: A group of students can be selected as a focus for observation on a given day, and/or one or more of the observational areas can be selected as a focus. The emphasis
should be on gathering cumulative information over a period of time.
Names
Lab Report Assessment

Project Title _____________________________________________ Date _______________________
Team Members _______________________________________________________________________
Area of Interest
Possible
Points
Self
Teacher
Formulates Testable Questions:

Question is testable and focused, and the cause-and-effect
relationship is identified.
Formulates a Prediction/Hypothesis:
Independent and dependent variables are identified and the
prediction/hypothesis clearly identifies a cause-and-effect
relationship between these two variables.
Creates a Plan:
All steps are included and clearly described in a logical
sequence. All required materials/equipment are identified.
Safety considerations are addressed. Major intervening
variables are controlled.
Conducts a Fair Test and Records Observations:
Evidence of repeated trials is presented and all data are
included. Detailed data are recorded, and appropriate units
are used. Data are recorded in a clear/well-structured/
appropriate format for later reference.
Interprets and Evaluates Results:
Patterns/trends/discrepancies are identified. Strengths and
weaknesses of approach and potential sources of error are
identified. Changes to the original plan are identified and
justified.
Draws a Conclusion:
Conclusion explains cause-and-effect relationship between
dependent and independent variables. Alternative
explanations are identified. Hypothesis is supported or
rejected.
Makes Connections:
Potential applications are identified and/or links to area of
study are made.
Total Points
Content
Language
Format
Delivery
Presentation shows signs of

organization, but some parts do
not seem to fit the topic.
A fair amount of student
preparation is shown.
Some material presented is not

related to the topic.
Some language used is hard to

follow and understand.
Adequate use of aids and

support materials; most support
the topic.
Some words are unclear or

spoken too quickly at times;
voice is somewhat varied; some
pausing for emphasis; voice is
sometimes too low to be heard
easily.
Audience is somewhat involved,
and sometimes interested.
Some student preparation is

shown.
Small amount of material

presented is related to the
topic.
Language used is hard to

Poor use of aids and

support materials (diagrams,
overheads, maps, pictures);
few support the topic.
Many words are unclear or

spoken too quickly or slowly;
voice is monotonous; no
pausing for emphasis; voice
is too low to be heard easily.
Audience is not involved or

interested.
Level 2
Presentation shows poor

organization and lack of
preparation.
Level 1
Level 3
Audience is involved and

interested.
Most words are clear and

generally spoken at the correct
speed; voice is often varied and
interesting; frequent pausing for
emphasis; voice is loud enough
to be heard easily.
Good use of aids and support

materials; almost all support the
topic.
Most language used is easy to

Almost all material presented is

related to the topic.
An adequate amount of student

preparation is shown.
Presentation is organized,
logical, and interesting.
Performance Levels
Audience is very involved and

interested.
Words are clear and generally

spoken at the correct speed;
voice is frequently varied and
interesting; effective pausing for
emphasis; voice is loud enough to
be heard easily.
Excellent use of aids and support

materials; all aids support the
topic.
Language used is well chosen and

is easy to follow and understand.
All material presented is related to

the topic.
A great deal of student preparation

is shown.
Presentation is well organized,

logical, interesting, and lively.
Level 4
Note: The above criteria are suggestions only, and will need to be adapted in collaboration with students according to the purpose of the assignment.
Audience
Preparation
Organization
Criteria
Rubric for Assessment of Student Presentation
Knowledge was thorough and

detailed.
No attempt was made to relate

material presented to students
own experiences.
Visual aids used were

somewhat relevant to the
presentation.
Visual aids were not well done.
A few visual aids were used.
The presentation was well

organized.
The presentation reflected

some organization.
Visual aids were not used.
The information was clearly

presented.
The information presented was

somewhat vague.
The information presented was

confusing.
Visual aids were relevant to the

presentation.
Visual aids were quite well

done.
Visual aids were used.
The class was noticeably

attentive during the
presentation.
The class showed some

attentiveness during the
presentation.
The class conveyed limited

attentiveness during the
presentation.
Presenter(s) clearly showed

interest in and enthusiasm for
the topic.
Presenter(s) showed some

the topic.
Attempt was made to relate

material presented to students
own experiences.
Good understanding of the

topic was evident.
Level 3
Basic understanding of the

topic was evident.
Level 2
Presenter(s) displayed little

the topic of the presentation.
No understanding of the topic

was evident.
Level 1
Performance Levels
Note: This rubric would vary according to the assignment and the presentation format.
Use of Visual Aids
Clarity and
Organization of Material
Interest and
Enthusiasm
Content
Criteria
Visual aids were designed to

emphasize and strengthen the
presentation and were successful.
Visual aids were clear and

exceptionally well done, showing
effective use of colour.
Strong visual aids were used with

care.
Main points were emphasized and

reinforced with appropriate
examples.
The presentation was

exceptionally well organized.
All information was relevant and

clearly presented.
The class was keenly attentive

during the presentation.
Presenter(s) showed exceptional

interest in and enthusiasm for the
topic.
Material presented related to

students own experiences.
Material presented went beyond

what was required. Excellent
research.
Excellent depth of understanding

was evident.
Level 4
Rubric for Assessment of Class Presentation
Shows limited ability
Ability to analyze and

synthesize information
related to identified
problems
Somewhat able to
communicate
Shows some ability
Shows some ability
Somewhat able to locate

and record
Somewhat able to locate
Shows some ability
Level 2
Level 3
Generally able to
communicate
Shows general ability
Generally able to locate

and record
Generally able to locate
Performance Levels
Note: This rubric would vary according to the assignment and the presentation format.
Unable to communicate
Ability to organize
information related to
identified problem(s)
Ability to communicate
results of inquiries using a
variety of appropriate
presentation forms (oral,
media, written, graphic,
pictorial, other)
Unable to locate and

record
Unable to locate
Ability to locate relevant

primary and secondary
sources of information
Ability to locate and record

relevant information from a
variety of sources
Level 1
Ability to formulate
questions to identify
problems for research
purposes
Research
Skills
Always or almost always

able to communicate
Shows consistent and

thorough ability

thorough ability

able to locate and record

able to locate

thorough ability
Level 4
Rubric for Assessment of Research Skills
Data Collection
(Design of the
investigation)
collects some data that

can be traced to the
investigation itself, but
data are inaccurate and
incomplete
shows some use of

methodology, but no
account of experimental
or systematic error
does not outline

reproducible steps in the
procedure
Procedure
(Formulation of
scientific questions
and hypotheses)
provides complete data,

organized in tabular form
(+/ titles)
demonstrates some use of
basic accuracy and precision
techniques (e.g., significant
figures)
gives no indication of use of

basic accuracy and precision
figures)
identifies need for treatment

of specific variables, and
states how this will be
achieved

of variables, but does not
state how this will be
achieved
provides reasonably
complete data, organized in
tabular form (+/ titles)
outlines clear, ordered steps

in the procedure
states a testable question

related to the problem, and
identifies variables to be
investigated
discusses the importance of

the inquiry but not its
relationship to the curriculum
or to the real world
The student
Accomplished
3

in the procedure
states an objective that is not

a hypothesis or a testable
question, but identifies
variables to be investigated
offers some discussion but

no clear explanation of the
importance or goals of the
inquiry
does not discuss the

relevance of the inquiry
omits an objective/
purpose, or states an
objective not relevant to
the problem under
investigation
The student
Developing
2
The student
Beginning
1
Objective/Purpose/
Testable Question
(Not intended to be an
abstract in the style
and purpose of
scientific journals)
Position Statement/
Proto-Abstract
Criteria
Performance Levels
(continued)
demonstrates use of basic

accuracy and precision
figures)
provides complete data with

error analysis, organized in
tabular form (+/ titles)
provides a concise summary

of the procedure

of specific variables, and
states how this will be
achieved

in the procedure
clearly states a testable

hypothesis that addresses
the problem, and clearly
delineates the variables to
be tested
clearly summarizes the

inquiry, highlights relevant
information, and makes
critical connections
The student
Exemplary
4
Rubric for Assessment of Scientific Inquiry
(Reliance on
assistance)
Independence
Factors
Application/
Discussion of
Scientific Results
and Concepts
Analysis and
Interpretation
of Results
Criteria
requires constant teacher

supervision
is able to internalize teacher

intervention, and work
independently afterward
requires little assistance to

complete inquiry tasks
identifies where systematic

error may have caused
problems
makes inaccurate,
improper, or no
conclusions based on
data
requires extensive
assistance from text
sources and classmates
to do inquiry tasks
attempts to connect inquiry

results with model systems
encountered in class
experience
identifies outliers in data

set(s)
identifies outliers in data

set(s)
resists efforts of others to

assist
demonstrates cooperation
with partners
seeks opportunities to
discuss procedures and
results with others
demonstrates cooperation
with partners
requires no assistance to
uses a range of statistical

analyses
makes use of introductory

statistical analyses
requires no assistance to
draws accurate and detailed

comparison between the
system under investigation
and what could occur in an
ideal system
demonstrates understanding
of how variables relate to a
model equation
ensures axes are labelled

correctly and positioned
consistently with identified
variables
shows evidence of mastery

in fitting a non-linear
regression line to data, and
states slope and y-intercept
provides proper graphical

representation of data in a
variety of forms
Exemplary
4
draws accurate and detailed

comparison between the
system under investigation
and what could occur in an
ideal system

variables
shows some evidence of

mastery in fitting a linear
regression line to data, and
states slope and y-intercept
attempts to fit a linear

regression line to data
variables

representation of data
Accomplished
3

Developing
2
attempts to explain
inquiry results in terms of
random error alone
(where I went wrong)
requires abundance of
supervision
attempts no fit for

plotted data
provides improper,
incomplete graphical
Beginning
1
Performance Levels
Rubric for Assessment of Scientific Inquiry (continued)
Appendix 12: General and Specific Learning Outcomes

General Learning Outcomes
General learning outcomes (GLOs) provide connections to the Five Foundations for
Science Literacy that guide all Manitoba science curricula in all science discipline
areas.

A1
Recognize both the power and limitations of science as a way of answering

questions about the world and explaining natural phenomena.
A2
Recognize that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, models, and

explanations, and evolves as new evidence appears and new
conceptualizations develop.
A3
Distinguish critically between science and technology in terms of their

respective contexts, goals, methods, products, and values.
A4
Identify and appreciate contributions made by women and men from many
societies and cultural backgrounds that have increased our understanding of
the world and brought about technological innovations.
A5

B1
Describe scientific and technological developmentspast and presentand

appreciate their impact on individuals, societies, and the environment, both
B2
Recognize that scientific and technological endeavours have been and continue
to be influenced by human needs and the societal context of the time.
B3
Identify the factors that affect health, and explain the relationships among
personal habits, lifestyle choices, and human health, both individual and
social.
B4
Demonstrate knowledge of and personal consideration for a range of possible

science- and technology-related interests, hobbies, and careers.
B5
Identify and demonstrate actions that promote a sustainable environment,

society, and economy, both locally and globally.

C1
Recognize safety symbols and practices related to scientific and technological

activities and to their daily lives, and apply this knowledge in appropriate
situations.
C2
Demonstrate appropriate scientific inquiry skills when seeking answers to

questions.
C3
Demonstrate appropriate problem-solving skills when seeking solutions to

technological challenges.
C4
Demonstrate appropriate critical thinking and decision-making skills when

choosing a course of action based on scientific and technological information.
C5
Demonstrate curiosity, skepticism, creativity, open-mindedness, accuracy,

precision, honesty, and persistence, and appreciate their importance as
C6
Employ effective communication skills and use information technology to

gather and share scientific and technological ideas and data.
C7
Work cooperatively and value the ideas and contributions of others while
carrying out scientific and technological activities.
C8
Evaluate, from a scientific perspective, information and ideas encountered

during investigations and in daily life.

D1
Understand essential life structures and processes pertaining to a wide variety

of organisms, including humans.
D2
Understand various biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems, as well as

their interaction and interdependence within ecosystems and within the
biosphere as a whole.
D3
Understand the properties and structures of matter, as well as various

common manifestations and applications of the actions and interactions of
matter.
D4
Understand how stability, motion, forces, and energy transfers and

transformations play a role in a wide range of natural and constructed
contexts.
D5
Understand the composition of the Earths atmosphere, hydrosphere, and

lithosphere, as well as the processes involved within and among them.
D6
Understand the composition of the universe, the interactions within it, and the
implications of humankinds continued attempts to understand and explore it.
Unifying Concepts
E1
Describe and appreciate the similarity and diversity of forms, functions, and
patterns within the natural and constructed world.
E2
Describe and appreciate how the natural and constructed world is made up of
systems and how interactions take place within and among these systems.
E3
Recognize that characteristics of materials and systems can remain constant or

change over time, and describe the conditions and processes involved.
E4
Recognize that energy, whether transmitted or transformed, is the driving

force of both movement and change, and is inherent within materials and in
the interactions among them.
Cluster 0: Skills and Attitudes

Cluster 0 in Grade 12 Chemistry comprises four categories of specific learning
outcomes that describe the skills and attitudes involved in scientific inquiry and the
decision-making process for science, technology, society, and the environment
(STSE) issues. From Grades 5 to 10, students develop scientific inquiry through the
development of a hypothesis/prediction, the identification and treatment of
variables, and the formation of conclusions. Students begin to make decisions based
on scientific facts and refine their decision-making skills as they progress through
the grades, gradually becoming more independent. Students also develop key
attitudes, an initial awareness of the nature of science, and other skills related to
research, communication, the use of information technology, and cooperative
learning.
In Grade 12 Chemistry, students continue to use scientific inquiry as an important
process in their science learning, but also recognize that STSE issues require a more
sophisticated treatment through the decision-making process.
Teachers should select appropriate contexts to introduce and reinforce scientific
inquiry, the decision-making process, and positive attitudes within the thematic
topics (Topics 1 to 6) throughout the school year. To assist in planning and to
facilitate curricular integration, many specific learning outcomes within the Skills
and Attitudes cluster can link to specific learning outcomes in other subject areas.
Demonstrating Understanding
C12-0-U1 Use appropriate strategies and skills to develop an understanding of
chemical concepts.
Examples: analogies, concept frames, concept maps, manipulatives, particulate
representations, role-plays, simulations, sort-and-predict frames, word cycles . . .
C12-0-U2 Demonstrate an understanding of chemical concepts.

Examples: use accurate scientific vocabulary, explain concepts to others, compare and
contrast concepts, apply knowledge to new situations and/or contexts, create analogies,
use manipulatives . . .
Scientific Inquiry
C12-0-S1 Demonstrate work habits that ensure personal safety and the safety of
others, as well as consideration for the environment.
Include: knowledge and use of relevant safety precautions, Workplace
Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), and emergency equipment
C12-0-S2 State a testable hypothesis or prediction based on background data or on

observed events.
C12-0-S3 Design and implement an investigation to answer a specific scientific
question.
Include: materials, independent and dependent variables, controls, methods,
and safety considerations
C12-0-S4 Select and use scientific equipment appropriately and safely.

C12-0-S5 Collect, record, organize, and display data using an appropriate format.
Examples: labelled diagrams, graphs, multimedia applications, software integration,
probeware . . .
C12-0-S6 Estimate and measure accurately using Systme International (SI) and
other standard units.
Include: SI conversions and significant figures
C12-0-S7 Interpret patterns and trends in data, and infer and explain relationships.
C12-0-S8 Evaluate data and data-collection methods for accuracy and precision.
Include: discrepancies in data, sources of error, and percent error
C12-0-S9 Draw a conclusion based on the analysis and interpretation of data.

Include: cause-and-effect relationships, alternative explanations, and supporting
or rejecting a hypothesis or prediction
Research
C12-0-R1 Synthesize information obtained from a variety of sources.
C12-0-R2 Evaluate information obtained to determine its usefulness for

information needs.
Examples: scientific accuracy, reliability, currency, relevance, balance of perspectives,
bias . . .
C12-0-R3 Quote from or refer to sources as required and reference information

sources according to an accepted practice.
C12-0-R4 Compare diverse perspectives and interpretations in the media and other
information sources.
C12-0-R5 Communicate information in a variety of forms appropriate to the
audience, purpose, and context.
Communication and Teamwork

C12-0-C1 Collaborate with others to achieve group goals and responsibilities.
C12-0-C2 Elicit, clarify, and respond to questions, ideas, and diverse points of view
in discussions.
C12-0-C3 Evaluate individual and group processes.
Nature of Science
C12-0-N1 Explain the roles of theory, evidence, and models in the development of
scientific knowledge.
C12-0-N2 Describe, from a historical perspective, how the observations and
experimental work of many individuals led to modern understandings of
matter.
C12-0-N3 Describe how scientific knowledge changes as new evidence emerges
and/or new ideas and interpretations are advanced.
STSE
C12-0-T1 Describe examples of the relationship between chemical principles and
applications of chemistry.
C12-0-T2 Explain how scientific research and technology interact in the production
and distribution of beneficial materials.
C12-0-T3 Provide examples of how chemical principles are applied in products
and processes, in scientific studies, and in daily life.
Attitudes
C12-0-A1 Demonstrate confidence in their ability to carry out investigations in
chemistry and to address STSE-related issues.
C12-0-A2 Value skepticism, honesty, accuracy, precision, perseverance, and openmindedness as scientific and technological habits of mind.
C12-0-A3 Demonstrate a continuing, increasingly informed interest in chemistry
and chemistry-related careers and issues.
C12-0-A4 Be sensitive and responsible in maintaining a balance between the needs
of humans and a sustainable environment.
Specific Learning Outcomes

The specific learning outcomes (SLOs) identified here constitute the intended
learning to be achieved by the student by the end of Grade 12 Chemistry. These
statements clearly define what students are expected to achieve and/or be able to
perform at the end of course. These SLOs, combined with the Skills and Attitudes
SLOs, constitute the source upon which assessment and instructional design are
based.
Topic 1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions (18 hours)

C12-1-01 Explain examples of solubility and precipitation at the particulate and
symbolic levels.
C12-1-03 Use a table of solubility rules to predict the formation of a precipitate.
C12-1-04 Write balanced neutralization reactions involving strong acids and bases.
C12-1-05 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate the stoichiometry of a
neutralization reaction between a strong base and a strong acid.
C12-1-06 Calculate the concentration or volume of an acid or a base from the
concentration and volume of an acid or a base required for
neutralization.
C12-1-07 Design and test a procedure to determine the identity of a variety of
unknown solutions.
C12-1-08 Outline the development of scientific understanding of oxidation and
reduction reactions.
C12-1-09 Determine the oxidation numbers for atoms in compounds and ions.
Include: oxidizing agent, reducing agent, oxidized substance, and reduced
substance


Examples: rocket fuels, fireworks, household bleach, photography, metal recovery from
ores, steel making, aluminum recycling, fuel cells, batteries, tarnish removal, fruit
clocks, forensic blood detection using luminol, chemiluminescence/bioluminescence,
electrolytic cleaning, electrodeposition, photochemical etching, antioxidants/
preservatives . . .
Topic 2: Atomic Structure (10 hours)

C12-2-02 Recognize, through direct observation, that elements have unique line
spectra.
Include: flame tests or gas discharge tubes and spectroscopes or diffraction
gratings

C12-2-04 Outline the historical development of the quantum mechanical model of

the atom.
C12-2-06 Relate the electron configuration of an element to its valence electron(s)

and its position on the periodic table.
Include: atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energy, and electronegativity
Topic 3: Chemical Kinetics (10 hours)

C12-3-02 Identify variables used to monitor reaction rates (i.e., change per unit of
time, Dx/Dt).
C12-3-03 Perform a laboratory activity to measure the average and instantaneous

rates of a chemical reaction.
C12-3-04 Relate the rate of formation of a product to the rate of disappearance of a

reactant, given experimental rate data and reaction stoichiometry.
C12-3-05 Perform a laboratory activity to identify factors that affect the rate of a
chemical reaction.
Include: nature of reactants, surface area, concentration, pressure, volume,
temperature, and presence of a catalyst
C12-3-06 Use the collision theory to explain the factors that affect the rate of
chemical reactions.

reactions.
Include: relative rates, effect of a catalyst, and heat of reaction (enthalpy change)
C12-3-08 Describe qualitatively the relationship between factors that affect the rate
of chemical reactions and the relative rate of a reaction, using the
collision theory.
experimental data.
Include: zero-, first-, and second-order reactions and reaction rate versus
concentration graphs
Topic 4: Chemical Equilibrium (17 hours)

C12-4-01 Relate the concept of equilibrium to physical and chemical systems.
C12-4-02 Write equilibrium law expressions from balanced chemical equations for
heterogeneous and homogeneous systems.
C12-4-03 Use the value of the equilibrium constant (Keq) to explain how far a
system at equilibrium has gone towards completion.
C12-4-05 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the equilibrium constant of an
equilibrium system.
C12-4-06 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict and explain shifts in equilibrium.
reactant/product concentration, the addition of a catalyst, the addition of an
inert gas, and the effects of various stresses on the equilibrium constant
C12-4-07 Perform a laboratory activity to demonstrate Le Chteliers principle.

Include: temperature changes, concentration changes, and the addition of a
catalyst

Examples: Haber process, hemoglobin production at high altitude, carbonated beverages,
eyes adjusting to light, blood pH, recharging of batteries, turbocharged/supercharged
engines, ester synthesis, weather indicators, arrangement of produce, carbonated
beverages in a hens diet . . .
C12-4-10 Write solubility product (Ksp) expressions from balanced chemical

equations for salts with low solubility.

C12-4-12 Describe examples of the practical applications of salts with low

solubility.
C12-4-13 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the Ksp of a salt with low
solubility.
Topic 5: Acids and Bases (14 hours)


C12-5-03 Describe the relationship between the hydronium and hydroxide ion
concentrations in water.
C12-5-04 Perform a laboratory activity to formulate an operational definition of

pH.
C12-5-05 Describe how an acid-base indicator works in terms of colour shifts and
Le Chteliers principle.
C12-5-08 Write the equilibrium expression (Ka or Kb) from a balanced chemical
equation.
concentration.
C12-5-10 Perform a laboratory activity to determine the concentration of an
unknown acid or base, using a standardized acid or base.
C12-5-11 Predict whether an aqueous solution of a given ionic compound will be
acidic, basic, or neutral, given the formula.
Topic 6: Electrochemistry (14 hours)

C12-6-04 Explain the operation of a voltaic (galvanic) cell at the visual, particulate,
Include: writing half-cell reactions, the overall reaction, and shorthand (line)
notation
C12-6-05 Construct a functioning voltaic (galvanic) cell and measure its potential.
C12-6-07 Calculate standard cell potentials, given standard electrode potentials.

C12-6-08 Predict the spontaneity of reactions using standard electrode potentials.
C12-6-10 Explain the operation of an electrolytic cell at the visual, particulate, and
symbolic levels.

Examples: electrolysis of water, electrolysis of brine, electroplating, production and
purification of metals . . .
C12-6-12 Solve problems related to electrolytic cells, using Faradays law.
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Grade 12 Chemistry

Manitoba Education Cataloguing in Publication Data

Grade 12 Chemistry Contents

Section 1: Manitoba Foundations for Scientific Literacy

Section 4: Document Organization

Contents Grade 12 Chemistry

Grade 12 Chemistry Contents

Contents Grade 12 Chemistry

Grade 12 Chemistry Acknowledgements

Consulting Science Educator

Daniel McIntyre Collegiate

Consulting Science Educator

St. Johns High School

Gimli High School

Balmoral Hall School

Nellie McClung Collegiate

John Taylor Collegiate

Acknowledgements Grade 12 Chemistry

Bureau de lducation franaise

Document Production Services Unit

Instruction, Curriculum and Assessment Branch

Document Production Services Unit

Heather Knight Wells

Document Production Services Unit

Instruction, Curriculum and Assessment Branch

Curriculum Development and Implementation

Curriculum Development and Implementation

Curriculum Development and Implementation

Grade 12 ChemIstry Introduction

Vision for Scientific Literacy

Introduction Grade 12 ChemIstry

The Pan-Canadian Science Framework and Grade 12 Chemistry: A Foundation for

Goals for Canadian Science Education

Beliefs about Learning, Teaching, and Assessing Science

Grade 12 ChemIstry Introduction

Changing Emphases in Science

Changing Emphases in Science Education Content Delivery

Knowing scientific facts and information

Implementing inquiry as a set of

Understanding scientific concepts and

Learning subject matter disciplines in the

Implementing inquiry as instructional

Introduction Grade 12 ChemIstry

Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry

Activities that demonstrate and verify

Activities that investigate and analyze

Investigations confined to one class

Investigations over extended periods of

Process skills out of context

Process skills in context

Individual process skills such as

Using multiple process skills

Using evidence and strategies for

Science as exploration and experiment

Science as argument and explanation

Providing answers to questions about

Communicating science explanations

Individuals and groups of students

Groups of students often analyzing and